Separate Opinion of Judge ad hoc Dugard

Document Number
126-20060203-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
126-20060203-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

86

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC DUGARD

Agreement with Judgment of the Court — Jus cogens has an important role
to play in litigation before the Court — Jus cogens is to be invoked as a guide
to the Court in the exercise of its judicial choice and not to overthrow a norm of
general international law accepted and recognized by the international commu-
nity of States as a whole — The argument that jus cogens confers jurisdiction

on the Court in the present proceedings therefore unfounded — In order to
satisfy requirement of negotiation in a compromissory clause by means of con-
ference diplomacy, Applicant must identify convention and nature of alleged
violation with some degree of precision.

1. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter the DRC) has

failed to show that the Court has jurisdiction to hear the present Applica-
tion, either in terms of the compromissory clauses of several treaties that
it claims have been violated by Rwanda or in terms of a number of other
bases for jurisdiction that it has advanced. In these circumstances I agree
fully with the decision of the Court that it has no jurisdiction to entertain

the Application filed by the DRC on 28 May 2002.

2. There are, however, two issues on which I wish to add some
comments of my own. First, as this is the first occasion on which the

Court has expressly acknowledged the existence of peremptory norms
(jus cogens), I wish to examine, albeit in a tentative manner, the role that
jus cogens may play in international litigation and the limits that must be
placed on its use, with special reference to the present Application.
Secondly, I wish to comment on the subject of negotiations within the

political organs of the United Nations for the purpose of satisfying
the requirement in a compromissory clause for the exercise of jurisdic-
tion that a dispute must be shown to be not capable of settlement
by negotiation.

JUS C OGENS IN INTERNATIONAL LITIGATION

3. The DRC has sought to invoke the jurisdiction of the Court on the
basis of a number of arguments premised on the violation of peremptory
norms (jus cogens) by Rwanda. These arguments, in essence, may be
reduced to two. First, the allegation of the violation of a norm of
jus cogens per se confers jurisdiction on the Court. Secondly, where a vio-

lation of a norm of jus cogens is alleged, the respondent State cannot

8487 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP. DUGARD )

raise a reservation to the Court’s jurisdiction to defeat that jurisdiction.

In such a case, jus cogens in effect trumps the reservation. Aware, no
doubt, of the novelty and far-reaching implications of its argument, the
DRC has urged the Court to act “boldly and creatively”. The Court has
responded boldly by acknowledging the existence of norms of jus cogens
but it has, rightly, declined the DRC’s invitation to go beyond this.

Instead it has, correctly in my judgment, rejected the DRC’s submissions
in holding that the fact that a dispute relates to compliance with a per-
emptory norm, such as genocide, cannot of itself provide a basis for the
Court’s jurisdiction; and that a reservation to the Court’s jurisdiction
cannot be held to be invalid on the ground that it violates a norm of

jus cogens. In so finding the Court has emphasized that its jurisdiction is
based on consent and that no peremptory norm requires States to con-
sent to jurisdiction where the compliance with a peremptory norm is the
issue before the Court.

4. This is the first occasion on which the International Court of Justice
has given its support to the notion of jus cogens. It is strange that the
Court has taken so long to reach this point because it has shown no hesi-
tation in recognizing the notion of obligation erga omnes, which together

with jus cogens affirms the normative hierarchy of international law.
Indeed, the Court itself initiated the notion of obligation erga omnes in
1970 in the Barcelona Traction case (Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 32) and has recently confirmed its adherence to

the notion in its Advisory Opinion in the case concerning Legal Conse-
quences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Terri-
tory (I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 136, para. 155). Until the present Judgment
the Court carefully and deliberately avoided endorsing the notion of
jus cogens despite the many opportunities it had to do so. In 1969 it

refrained from pronouncing “on any question of jus cogens”( North Sea
Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal
Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 ,p.42,
para. 72); in 1986 it acknowledged that the International Law Commis-
sion had found the prohibition on the use of force to have the character

of jus cogens, but declined to align itself with this position (Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , p. 258,
para. 83); and in 2002 it failed to respond to an argument that the grant-
ing of immunity to a Foreign Minister for crimes against humanity vio-

lated a norm of jus cogens (Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic
Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 ,
pp. 23-26). Despite this, jus cogens has been invoked by individual judges
in cases before the Court in separate and dissenting opinions going back
to the 1960s. In 1960, in a dissenting opinion in the Right of Passage

case, Judge ad hoc Fernandes referred to the “rules of ius cogens, over
which no special practice can prevail” (Right of Passage over Indian Ter-

8588 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP. DUGARD )

ritory (Portugal v. India), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1960, p. 135).
Then in 1966, in his dissenting opinion in the South West Africa cases,
Judge Tanaka declared:

“If we can introduce in the international field a category of law,

namely jus cogens examined the International Law Commission, a
kind of imperative law which constitutes the contrast to the jus dis-
positivum, capable of being changed by way of agreement between
States, surely the law concerning the protection of human rights may
be considered to belong to the jus cogens.” (South West Africa

(Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 , p. 298.)

5. The failure of the International Court to endorse or pronounce on
the subject of jus cogens has not gone unnoticed. Its silence has been
aggravated by the fact that both other international tribunals (Al-
Adsani v. United Kingdom, 123 International Law Reports 24 (European

Court of Human Rights); Prosecutor v. Furundzija, IT-95-17/1-T,
paras. 153-156, 121 International Law Reports 214, 260 (International
Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia)) and national courts (see,
for example, R. v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate:
Ex Parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3) [1999] 2 All ER 97 (HL); Ferrini v.

Federal Republic of Germany (Italian Court of Cassation), 11 March
2004; (2005) 99 American Journal of International Law 242) have invoked
the term jus cogens to portray higher norms of international law.

6. The approval given to jus cogens by the Court in the present Judg-

ment is to be welcomed. However, the Judgment stresses that the scope
of jus cogens is not unlimited and that the concept is not to be used as an
instrument to overthrow accepted doctrines of international law.

7. The Court’s endorsement of jus cogens raises the question of the
future role of jus cogens and the legal consequences to be attached to a
violation of jus cogens for, as Ian Brownlie states, “many problems of
application remain” in respect of jus cogens (Principles of Public Inter-
national Law, 6th ed. (2003), p. 490).

8. It is today accepted that a treaty will be void if at the time of its
conclusion, it conflicts with “a peremptory norm of general international
law” (Art. 53 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969);
and that States must deny recognition to a situation created by the seri-

ous breach of a peremptory norm (Arts. 40 and 41 of the Draft Articles
on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, Report
of the International Law Commission, United Nations, Official Records
of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/
10) 29 (2001)). Moreover, it has been suggested that a Security Council

resolution will be void if it conflicts with a norm of jus cogens (see the

8689 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. DUGARD )

separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Sir Elihu Lauterpacht in the case con-

cerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia
(Serbia and Montenegro), Provisional Measures, Order of 13 September
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , p. 440, para. 100). Jus cogens does, however,
have a less spectacular role to play in the judicial process and it is this

role that becomes important now that the Court has finally recognized
the existence of peremptory norms.

9. In national law there is a wealth of literature on judicial lawmaking
and the nature of the judicial process. International law, on the other

hand, is characterized by a dearth of literature on this subject. (Cf.
Hersch Lauterpacht, The Development of International Law by the
International Court (1958).) This explains why little attention has been
paid to the place of jus cogens in the judicial process despite the pivotal

role that it could — and should — play.
10. The judicial decision is essentially an exercise in choice. Where
authorities are divided, or different general principles compete for prior-
ity, or different rules of interpretation lead to different conclusions, or
State practices conflict, the judge is required to make a choice. In exer-

cising this choice, the judge will be guided by principles (propositions
that describe rights) and policies (propositions that describe goals) in
order to arrive at a coherent conclusion that most effectively furthers the
integrity of the international legal order.
Norms of jus cogens are a blend of principle and policy. On the one

hand, they affirm the high principles of international law, which recog-
nize the most important rights of the international order — such as the
right to be free from aggression, genocide, torture and slavery and the
right to self-determination; while, on the other hand, they give legal form
to the most fundamental policies or goals of the international commu-

nity — the prohibitions on aggression, genocide, torture and slavery and
the advancement of self-determination. This explains why they enjoy a
hierarchical superiority to other norms in the international legal order.
The fact that norms of jus cogens advance both principle and policy
means that they must inevitably play a dominant role in the process of

judicial choice.

11. Several decisions of the International Court in which the Court
might have invoked norms of jus cogens, but did not, illustrate the type
of case in which norms of jus cogens might be employed. The Judgment

of the Court in the South West Africa cases (South West Africa (Ethio-
pia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 6) is an obvious example of such a case. There the
Court was faced with a choice between the principle that a State must
demonstrate a special, national, interest in the proceedings before the

Court to enjoy legal standing and the “sacred trust of civilization” con-
tained in the Mandate for South West Africa to promote to the utmost

8790 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP.DUGARD )

the well-being of the inhabitants of the territory. In preferring the former

principle it chose not to accede to the higher norm; with serious conse-
quences for the Court. In fairness, it must be added that this decision
largely predated the recognition of norms of jus cogens although
Judge Tanaka in his powerful dissenting opinion did refer to such norms
(see above, para. 4).

Other cases in which norms of jus cogens might possibly have been
invoked were East Timor (Portugal v. Australia) (Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1995, p. 90), and the Arrest Warrant case (Arrest Warrant of

11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 ,p.3).
In the former, the Court declined to apply its decision in the Certain
Phosphate Lands case (Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v.

Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992 ,
pp. 261-262) and instead preferred the controversial precedent of the
Monetary Gold case (Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943
(Italy v. France, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
and United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954) above

the peremptory norm of self-determination, which was described as a
norm of erga omnes rather than jus cogens by the Court in its decision at
page 102. The Court has recently retreated from the Monetary Gold case
and instead relied on the Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru case in the
case concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Demo-

cratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005,
pp. 237-238, para. 203). Although the Court did not indicate that its
choice was influenced by the fact that norms of jus cogens were involved
in this case, it may safely be assumed that the gravity of the issues raised
influenced the Court’s choice.

In the Arrest Warrant case the Court found that a Foreign Minister
enjoyed immunity before a national court in respect of crimes against
humanity on the basis of weak evidence of State practice rather than
allowing the jus cogens character of the crime to prevail over the plea of
immunity (see the dissenting opinions of Judge Al-Khasawneh and

Judge ad hoc van den Wyngaert in the Arrest Warrant case (I.C.J.
Reports 2002, p. 98, para. 7, and p. 155, para. 28, respectively), which
advocate the choice of the jus cogens norm of the prohibition of crimes
against humanity over the unsettled rule of immunity).

12. In the above cases the Court was faced with competing principles,
State practice and precedents and preferred not to choose that solution
which gave effect to a norm of jus cogens. The Court was not asked to
invoke jus cogens to trump an established, accepted rule but instead to
choose a principle of jus cogens or a precedent coinciding with a norm of

jus cogens in preference to a principle, State practice or precedent that
did not enjoy the status of jus cogens. It was simply asked to exercise its

8891 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. DUGARD )

choice within the interstices of the law in a molecular rather than a molar
fashion .

13. In the present case the Court is confronted with a very different
situation. The Court is not asked, in the exercise of its legitimate judicial
function, to exercise its choice between competing sources in a manner

which gives effect to a norm of jus cogens. On the contrary, it is asked to
overthrow an established principle — that the basis of the Court’s juris-
diction is consent — which is founded in its Statute (Art. 36), endorsed

by unqualified State practice and backed by opinio juris. It is, in effect,
asked to invoke a peremptory norm to trump a norm of general interna-
tional law accepted and recognized by the international community of
States as a whole, and which has guided the Court for over 80 years. This

is a bridge too far. The Court cannot be expected to accept the arguments
raised by the DRC for by so doing it would not engage in molecular law-
making, but molar law-making that goes beyond the legitimate judicial

function. Only States can amend Article 36 of the Court’s Statute.

14. For this reason the Court, in the present instance, has rightly held

that although norms of jus cogens are to be recognized by the Court, and
presumably to be invoked by the Court in future in the exercise of its
judicial function, there are limits to be placed on the role of jus cogens.

The request to overthrow the principle of consent as the basis for its juris-
diction goes beyond these limits. This, in effect, is what the Court has
held.

N EGOTIATIONS WITHIN THE U NITED N ATIONS AND
O THER INTERNATIONAL BODIES

15. The DRC claims that the Court has jurisdiction in terms of
Article 29 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discri-
mination against Women in that there is a dispute between it and
Rwanda concerning the interpretation and application of the Conven-

tion, which cannot be settled by negotiation. It argues that it has made
frequent protests about Rwanda’s use of force in the region and its
violation of human rights before the political organs of the United

Nations and other international bodies. In support of its contention that
these protests and complaints about Rwanda’s actions within the
political organs of the United Nations and other international bodies

1
See the statement of Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes:
“I recognize without hesitation that judges do and must legislate, but they can do
so only interstitially, they are confined from molar to molecular motions.” (Southern
Pacific Co. v. Jensen, 244 US 205 at 221 (1916).).

8992 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP.DUGARD )

satisfy the requirement of negotiation, the DRC invokes the ruling of
the Court in 1962 in the South West Africa cases when it stated:

“Moreover, diplomacy by conference or parliamentary diplomacy
has come to be recognized in the past four or five decades as one of

the established modes of international negotiation. In cases where
the disputed questions are of common interest to a group of States
on one side or the other in an organized body, parliamentary or con-
ference diplomacy has often been found to be the most practical
form of negotiation.” (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa;

Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1962, p. 346.)

16. There is an important difference between the South West Africa
cases and the present case. In the former case it was quite clear to all
States participating in the “conference or parliamentary diplomacy”

within the United Nations that the dispute related to the Mandate for
South West Africa, more particularly to the questions whether South
Africa was obliged to account to the United Nations for its administra-
tion of the territory in terms of the Mandate, and whether it had violated
Article 2 of the Mandate requiring it to “promote to the utmost the

material and moral well-being and the social progress of the inhabitants
of the Territory” by applying the policy of apartheid within the Territory.
For ten years or more these issues had constituted the focus of debates
within the United Nations.

17. In the present case, on the other hand, the DRC has failed to indi-
cate with precision the nature of its complaint within the context of the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women. It has made sweeping allegations of Rwanda’s use of force and

violations of human rights in general without, in most instances, indi-
cating which particular human rights convention it alleges has been vio-
lated. Nor has it indicated which of the 15 substantive provisions in the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women Rwanda is alleged to have violated. The substantive provisions

in this Convention oblige States parties to abolish discriminatory meas-
ures against women within their own legal systems by adopting legislation
to ensure gender equality (Arts. 2, 3, 15); by pursuing affirmative
action programmes for women (Art. 4); by eliminating social and cul-

tural discrimination against women (Art. 5); by suppressing traffic in
women (Art. 6); by eliminating discrimination against women in political
life and in participation in government (Arts. 7 and 8); by protecting the
right to nationality of women (Art. 9); by ensuring equal rights
for women in education, employment, health care and economic

life (Arts. 10-13); by promoting the position of women in rural areas

9093 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP. DUGARD )

(Art. 14); and by eliminating discrimination against women in marriage
and family relations (Art. 16). None of these provisions, it seems,
is relevant to the present dispute. Instead the nature of the DRC’s
allegation against Rwanda relates to acts of violence, including sexual

violence, against women, not within the territory of Rwanda but within
the territory of the DRC. Without in any way minimizing the gravity or
seriousness of these allegations, it should be stressed that they raise issues
pertaining to other human rights conventions — such as the Convention
against Torture (to which Rwanda is not a party) and the International

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (which is not claimed as a basis
for jurisdiction in the present proceedings) — and to international humani-
tarian law.

18. The fact that the DRC’s allegations relating to the violation of the
rights and personal integrity of women relate to human rights conven-
tions other than the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Dis-
crimination against Women, probably explains why this Convention was

not the subject of protest and complaint — that is “conference or parlia-
mentary diplomacy” — in the United Nations or other international
bodies. As these Conventions do not provide a basis for the Court’s juris-
diction, the DRC has felt itself compelled to invoke the compromissory
clause in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimina-

tion against Women as a basis for jurisdiction in this matter. However,
this invocation of jurisdiction is misplaced. First, it is doubtful whether
the allegations in question relating to the mistreatment of women fall
within the ambit of the Convention; secondly, even if they do in some
way violate its provisions, it is clear that the DRC’s protests and allega-

tions of violence against women before the United Nations and other
international bodies have not been premised on the violation of this Con-
vention in particular, but on the violation of general human rights law
and other human rights Conventions. This means that there have been no

negotiations in the form of “conference or parliamentary diplomacy”
within the United Nations or other international bodies on the subject
of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women. Accordingly, the DRC has failed to show that any dis-
pute between the Parties relating to this particular Convention has been

the subject of negotiation and that the dispute is one that cannot be
settled by negotiation within the meaning of Article 29 of the Conven-
tion.

19. A party that wishes to rely on “conference or parliamentary diplo-
macy” in the political organs of the United Nations as evidence that it

has engaged in negotiations for the purpose of satisfying the require-

9194 ARMED ACTIVITIES SEP .OP. DUGARD )

ments of a compromissory clause must at least show that it has clearly
identified the Convention in question, and should be able to show that it

has indicated, albeit in broad terms, the nature of the violation it alleges
has occurred.

(Signed) John D UGARD .

92

Bilingual Content

86

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC DUGARD

Agreement with Judgment of the Court — Jus cogens has an important role
to play in litigation before the Court — Jus cogens is to be invoked as a guide
to the Court in the exercise of its judicial choice and not to overthrow a norm of
general international law accepted and recognized by the international commu-
nity of States as a whole — The argument that jus cogens confers jurisdiction

on the Court in the present proceedings therefore unfounded — In order to
satisfy requirement of negotiation in a compromissory clause by means of con-
ference diplomacy, Applicant must identify convention and nature of alleged
violation with some degree of precision.

1. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter the DRC) has

failed to show that the Court has jurisdiction to hear the present Applica-
tion, either in terms of the compromissory clauses of several treaties that
it claims have been violated by Rwanda or in terms of a number of other
bases for jurisdiction that it has advanced. In these circumstances I agree
fully with the decision of the Court that it has no jurisdiction to entertain

the Application filed by the DRC on 28 May 2002.

2. There are, however, two issues on which I wish to add some
comments of my own. First, as this is the first occasion on which the

Court has expressly acknowledged the existence of peremptory norms
(jus cogens), I wish to examine, albeit in a tentative manner, the role that
jus cogens may play in international litigation and the limits that must be
placed on its use, with special reference to the present Application.
Secondly, I wish to comment on the subject of negotiations within the

political organs of the United Nations for the purpose of satisfying
the requirement in a compromissory clause for the exercise of jurisdic-
tion that a dispute must be shown to be not capable of settlement
by negotiation.

JUS C OGENS IN INTERNATIONAL LITIGATION

3. The DRC has sought to invoke the jurisdiction of the Court on the
basis of a number of arguments premised on the violation of peremptory
norms (jus cogens) by Rwanda. These arguments, in essence, may be
reduced to two. First, the allegation of the violation of a norm of
jus cogens per se confers jurisdiction on the Court. Secondly, where a vio-

lation of a norm of jus cogens is alleged, the respondent State cannot

84 86

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC DUGARD

[Traduction]

Accord avec l’arrêt de la Cour — Le jus cogens a un rôle important à jouer

dans les affaires jugées par la Cour — Le jus cogens doit être invoqué par la
Cour, dans l’exercice de son choix judiciaire, comme un guide et non comme un
moyen de faire échec à une norme du droit international général acceptée et
reconnue par la communauté internationale tout entière — L’argument selon
lequel le jus cogens confère compétence à la Cour en l’espèce est, dès lors,
infondé — Pour prouver que la condition de négociation contenue dans une
clause compromissoire est satisfaite par des conférences diplomatiques, le deman-
deur doit indiquer avec un certain degré de précision la convention visée et la
nature des violations alléguées.

1. La République démocratique du Congo (ci-après RDC) n’est pas
parvenue à démontrer que la Cour avait compétence pour connaître de la
présente requête, pas plus sur la base des clauses compromissoires figu-
rant dans divers traités qui, selon la RDC, ont été violés par le Rwanda
que sur les quelques autres bases de compétence qu’elle avait invoquées.
Dès lors, je souscris pleinement à la décision de la Cour selon laquelle elle

n’a pas compétence pour connaître de la requête déposée par la RDC le
28 mai 2002.
2. Il y a cependant deux points sur lesquels je souhaite faire quelques
observations personnelles. Premièrement, puisque c’est la première fois
que la Cour a expressément reconnu l’existence de normes impératives

(jus cogens), je souhaiterais procéder à un examen, certes modeste, du
rôle que pourrait jouer le jus cogens dans le cadre des différends interna-
tionaux et des limites qui doivent encadrer son emploi, en me référant
plus particulièrement à la présente requête. Ensuite, je voudrais formuler
quelques remarques sur la question de savoir si des négociations menées

au sein des organes politiques de l’Organisation des Nations Unies satis-
font à la condition énoncée dans une clause compromissoire selon laquelle
il doit être démontré qu’un différend ne peut pas être résolu par voie de
négociation.

L E JUS COGENS DANS LE RÈGLEMENT DES DIFFÉRENDS INTERNATIONAUX

3. La RDC a tenté d’invoquer la compétence de la Cour sur le fonde-
ment d’un certain nombre d’arguments tirés de la violation de normes
impératives (jus cogens) par le Rwanda. En substance, ces arguments

sont au nombre de deux. Le premier est que la violation alléguée d’une
norme du jus cogens confère, en soi, compétence à la Cour. Le second est
que, lorsque est alléguée la violation d’une norme du jus cogens, l’Etat

8487 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP. DUGARD )

raise a reservation to the Court’s jurisdiction to defeat that jurisdiction.

In such a case, jus cogens in effect trumps the reservation. Aware, no
doubt, of the novelty and far-reaching implications of its argument, the
DRC has urged the Court to act “boldly and creatively”. The Court has
responded boldly by acknowledging the existence of norms of jus cogens
but it has, rightly, declined the DRC’s invitation to go beyond this.

Instead it has, correctly in my judgment, rejected the DRC’s submissions
in holding that the fact that a dispute relates to compliance with a per-
emptory norm, such as genocide, cannot of itself provide a basis for the
Court’s jurisdiction; and that a reservation to the Court’s jurisdiction
cannot be held to be invalid on the ground that it violates a norm of

jus cogens. In so finding the Court has emphasized that its jurisdiction is
based on consent and that no peremptory norm requires States to con-
sent to jurisdiction where the compliance with a peremptory norm is the
issue before the Court.

4. This is the first occasion on which the International Court of Justice
has given its support to the notion of jus cogens. It is strange that the
Court has taken so long to reach this point because it has shown no hesi-
tation in recognizing the notion of obligation erga omnes, which together

with jus cogens affirms the normative hierarchy of international law.
Indeed, the Court itself initiated the notion of obligation erga omnes in
1970 in the Barcelona Traction case (Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 32) and has recently confirmed its adherence to

the notion in its Advisory Opinion in the case concerning Legal Conse-
quences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Terri-
tory (I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 136, para. 155). Until the present Judgment
the Court carefully and deliberately avoided endorsing the notion of
jus cogens despite the many opportunities it had to do so. In 1969 it

refrained from pronouncing “on any question of jus cogens”( North Sea
Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal
Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 ,p.42,
para. 72); in 1986 it acknowledged that the International Law Commis-
sion had found the prohibition on the use of force to have the character

of jus cogens, but declined to align itself with this position (Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , p. 258,
para. 83); and in 2002 it failed to respond to an argument that the grant-
ing of immunity to a Foreign Minister for crimes against humanity vio-

lated a norm of jus cogens (Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic
Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 ,
pp. 23-26). Despite this, jus cogens has been invoked by individual judges
in cases before the Court in separate and dissenting opinions going back
to the 1960s. In 1960, in a dissenting opinion in the Right of Passage

case, Judge ad hoc Fernandes referred to the “rules of ius cogens, over
which no special practice can prevail” (Right of Passage over Indian Ter-

85 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP.IND .DUGARD ) 87

défendeur ne peut pas invoquer une réserve à la compétence de la Cour

pour y faire échec. Dans ce cas, le jus cogens prévaut sur la réserve. Mani-
festement consciente du caractère novateur et de l’ampleur des implica-
tions de son argument, la RDC a instamment prié la Cour de faire preuve
«d’audace et de créativité». Et la Cour a de fait manifesté une certaine
audace, en reconnaissant l’existence de normes du jus cogens, mais elle a,

à juste titre, refusé d’aller plus loin comme l’y invitait la RDC. Elle a au
contraire, et à bon droit selon moi, rejeté les demandes de la RDC en
disant que le fait qu’un différend a trait au respect d’une norme impéra-
tive, telle que l’interdiction du génocide, ne saurait en soi servir de fon-
dement à sa compétence et qu’une réserve à sa compétence ne saurait être

considérée comme nulle au motif qu’elle serait contraire à une norme du
jus cogens. Ce faisant, la Cour a souligné que sa compétence est fondée
sur le consentement et qu’aucune norme impérative n’impose aux Etats
de donner ce consentement lorsque la question de la conformité à une

norme impérative est en cause devant la Cour.
4. C’est la première fois que la Cour internationale de Justice exprime
son soutien à la notion de jus cogens. Il est étrange qu’elle ait mis si long-
temps à le faire, puisqu’elle n’a pas du tout hésité à reconnaître la
notion d’obligation erga omnes, laquelle, avec le jus cogens, établit la

hiérarchie des normes en droit international. En fait, c’est la Cour elle-
même qui, en 1970, a été à l’origine de la notion d’obligation erga omnes,
dans l’affaire Barcelona Traction (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power
Company, Limited (Belgique c. Espagne), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1970, p. 32); elle a en outre récemment confirmé son adhésion à

cette notion dans l’avis consultatif qu’elle a rendu dans l’affaire relative
aux Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire
palestinien occupé (C.I.J. Recueil 2004, p. 136, par. 155). Avant le pro-
noncé du présent arrêt, la Cour a soigneusement et délibérément évité de
consacrer la notion de jus cogens, en dépit des nombreuses occasions

qu’elle a eues de le faire. En 1969, elle s’est abstenue de se prononcer sur
«la question du jus cogens »( Plateau continental de la mer du Nord
(République fédérale d’Allemagne/Danemark; République fédérale d’Alle-
magne/Pays-Bas), arrêt , C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 42, par. 72); en 1986,
tout en reconnaissant que la Commission du droit international avait

considéré que l’interdiction de l’emploi de la force revêtait le caractère de
jus cogens, elle a refusé de faire sienne cette idée (Activités militaires et
paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis
d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986 , p. 258, par. 83); enfin, en
2002, elle s’est abstenue de répondre à un argument selon lequel accorder

une immunité à un ministre des affaires étrangères pour des crimes contre
l’humanité constituait une violation d’une norme du jus cogens (Mandat
d’arrêt du 11 avril 2000 (République démocratique du Congo c. Bel-
gique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 23-26). Malgré cela, dès les années
soixante, le jus cogens a été invoqué par certains juges, dans des opinions

individuelles ou dissidentes, à l’occasion d’affaires portées devant la
Cour. En 1960, dans son opinion dissidente en l’affaire du Droit de pas-

8588 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP. DUGARD )

ritory (Portugal v. India), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1960, p. 135).
Then in 1966, in his dissenting opinion in the South West Africa cases,
Judge Tanaka declared:

“If we can introduce in the international field a category of law,

namely jus cogens examined the International Law Commission, a
kind of imperative law which constitutes the contrast to the jus dis-
positivum, capable of being changed by way of agreement between
States, surely the law concerning the protection of human rights may
be considered to belong to the jus cogens.” (South West Africa

(Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 , p. 298.)

5. The failure of the International Court to endorse or pronounce on
the subject of jus cogens has not gone unnoticed. Its silence has been
aggravated by the fact that both other international tribunals (Al-
Adsani v. United Kingdom, 123 International Law Reports 24 (European

Court of Human Rights); Prosecutor v. Furundzija, IT-95-17/1-T,
paras. 153-156, 121 International Law Reports 214, 260 (International
Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia)) and national courts (see,
for example, R. v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate:
Ex Parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3) [1999] 2 All ER 97 (HL); Ferrini v.

Federal Republic of Germany (Italian Court of Cassation), 11 March
2004; (2005) 99 American Journal of International Law 242) have invoked
the term jus cogens to portray higher norms of international law.

6. The approval given to jus cogens by the Court in the present Judg-

ment is to be welcomed. However, the Judgment stresses that the scope
of jus cogens is not unlimited and that the concept is not to be used as an
instrument to overthrow accepted doctrines of international law.

7. The Court’s endorsement of jus cogens raises the question of the
future role of jus cogens and the legal consequences to be attached to a
violation of jus cogens for, as Ian Brownlie states, “many problems of
application remain” in respect of jus cogens (Principles of Public Inter-
national Law, 6th ed. (2003), p. 490).

8. It is today accepted that a treaty will be void if at the time of its
conclusion, it conflicts with “a peremptory norm of general international
law” (Art. 53 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969);
and that States must deny recognition to a situation created by the seri-

ous breach of a peremptory norm (Arts. 40 and 41 of the Draft Articles
on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, Report
of the International Law Commission, United Nations, Official Records
of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/
10) 29 (2001)). Moreover, it has been suggested that a Security Council

resolution will be void if it conflicts with a norm of jus cogens (see the

86 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. DUGARD ) 88

sage, le juge ad hoc Fernandes parlait des «règles du ius cogens aux-
quelles il ne saurait être dérogé par une pratique particulière» (Droit de
passage sur territoire indien (Portugal c. Inde), fond, arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 1960, p. 135). En 1966, dans son opinion dissidente dans les
affaires du Sud-Ouest africain, le juge Tanaka déclarait quant à lui:

«Si l’on est fondé à introduire en droit international un jus cogens
(question récemment étudiée par la Commission du droit internatio-
nal), sorte de droit impératif par opposition au jus dispositivum sus-
ceptible de modification par voie d’accord entre les Etats, il n’y a pas

de doute que l’on peut considérer le droit relatif à la protection des
droits de l’homme comme relevant du jus cogens.» ( Sud-Ouest afri-
cain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud),
deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1966, p. 298.)

5. Le fait que la Cour internationale de Justice n’a pas repris à son
compte la notion de jus cogens et ne s’est pas prononcée à son sujet n’est

pas passé inaperçu. Son silence a été aggravé par le fait que d’autres juri-
dictions internationales (Al-Adsani c. Royaume-Uni , 123 International
Law Reports 24 (Cour européenne des droits de l’homme); Le procureur
c. Furundzija, affaire n IT-95-17/1-T, par. 153-156, 121 International
Law Reports 214, 260 (Tribunal pénal international pour l’ex-Yougosla-

vie)) et des juridictions nationales (voir, par exemple, R. c. Bow Street o
Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate: Ex Parte Pinochet Ugarte (n 3)
[1999] 2 All ER 97 (HL); Ferrini c. République fédérale d’Allemagne
(Cour de cassation italienne), 11 mars 2004; (2005) 99 American Journal

of International Law 242) ont employé l’expression de jus cogens pour
qualifier des normes supérieures du droit international.
6. Il faut se féliciter de ce que la Cour consacre le jus cogens dans le
présent arrêt. Cela étant, la Cour souligne aussi que le champ d’applica-
tion du jus cogens n’est pas illimité et que la notion ne doit pas être uti-

lisée comme un moyen de faire échec à des doctrines reconnues du droit
international.
7. Le fait que la Cour entérine la notion de jus cogens pose la question
du rôle futur de cette notion et des conséquences juridiques qu’il faut

attacher à la violation de ces normes car, comme l’indique M. Ian Brown-
lie, «de nombreux problèmes d’application subsistent» s’agissant du jus
cogens (Principles of Public International Law ,6 eéd. (2003), p. 490).
8. Il est aujourd’hui admis qu’un traité sera nul si, au moment de sa

conclusion, il était en conflit avec «une norme impérative du droit inter-
national général» (convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités de 1969,
art. 53) et que les Etats ne doivent pas reconnaître comme licite une situa-
tion créée par une violation grave d’une norme impérative (articles 40 et
41 des projets d’articles sur la responsabilité de l’Etat pour fait interna-

tionalement illicite, rapports de la Commission du droit international,
Nations Unies, Documents officiels de l’Assemblée générale, cinquante-
sixième session, supplément n o 10 (A/56/10) 29 (2001)). L’avis a aussi été
émis qu’une résolution du Conseil de sécurité sera nulle lorsqu’elle est en

8689 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. DUGARD )

separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Sir Elihu Lauterpacht in the case con-

cerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia
(Serbia and Montenegro), Provisional Measures, Order of 13 September
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , p. 440, para. 100). Jus cogens does, however,
have a less spectacular role to play in the judicial process and it is this

role that becomes important now that the Court has finally recognized
the existence of peremptory norms.

9. In national law there is a wealth of literature on judicial lawmaking
and the nature of the judicial process. International law, on the other

hand, is characterized by a dearth of literature on this subject. (Cf.
Hersch Lauterpacht, The Development of International Law by the
International Court (1958).) This explains why little attention has been
paid to the place of jus cogens in the judicial process despite the pivotal

role that it could — and should — play.
10. The judicial decision is essentially an exercise in choice. Where
authorities are divided, or different general principles compete for prior-
ity, or different rules of interpretation lead to different conclusions, or
State practices conflict, the judge is required to make a choice. In exer-

cising this choice, the judge will be guided by principles (propositions
that describe rights) and policies (propositions that describe goals) in
order to arrive at a coherent conclusion that most effectively furthers the
integrity of the international legal order.
Norms of jus cogens are a blend of principle and policy. On the one

hand, they affirm the high principles of international law, which recog-
nize the most important rights of the international order — such as the
right to be free from aggression, genocide, torture and slavery and the
right to self-determination; while, on the other hand, they give legal form
to the most fundamental policies or goals of the international commu-

nity — the prohibitions on aggression, genocide, torture and slavery and
the advancement of self-determination. This explains why they enjoy a
hierarchical superiority to other norms in the international legal order.
The fact that norms of jus cogens advance both principle and policy
means that they must inevitably play a dominant role in the process of

judicial choice.

11. Several decisions of the International Court in which the Court
might have invoked norms of jus cogens, but did not, illustrate the type
of case in which norms of jus cogens might be employed. The Judgment

of the Court in the South West Africa cases (South West Africa (Ethio-
pia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 6) is an obvious example of such a case. There the
Court was faced with a choice between the principle that a State must
demonstrate a special, national, interest in the proceedings before the

Court to enjoy legal standing and the “sacred trust of civilization” con-
tained in the Mandate for South West Africa to promote to the utmost

87 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. DUGARD ) 89

conflit avec une norme du jus cogens (voir l’opinion individuelle du juge

ad hoc sir Elihu Lauterpacht dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro), mesures
provisoires, ordonnance du 13 septembre 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993,
p. 440, par. 100). Le jus cogens a toutefois un rôle moins spectaculaire

à jouer dans le processus judiciaire, et c’est précisément la question de ce
rôle qui prend de l’importance maintenant que la Cour a fini par
reconnaître l’existence de normes impératives.
9. En droit interne, une abondante doctrine est consacrée à la forma-
tion du droit par les juges et à la nature du processus judiciaire. Le droit

international, à l’inverse, se caractérise par la rareté des écrits consacrés à
ce sujet. (Voir Hersch Lauterpacht, The Development of International
Law by the International Court (1958).) Cela explique pourquoi la place
qu’occupe le jus cogens dans le processus judiciaire n’a suscité qu’un

faible intérêt malgré le rôle central qu’il pourrait — et devrait — jouer.
10. Toute décision judiciaire est, pour l’essentiel, une affaire de choix.
Lorsque les auteurs sont divisés, que des principes généraux différents
auraient vocation à s’appliquer, que différentes techniques d’interpréta-
tion mènent à des conclusions différentes ou que les pratiques étatiques

sont en contradiction, il incombe au juge d’opérer un choix. Ce faisant, le
juge sera guidé par des principes (décrivant des droits) et des politiques
(décrivant des objectifs) qui le mèneront à une conclusion cohérente favo-
risant l’intégrité de l’ordre juridique international.
Les normes du jus cogens sont un mélange de principes et de politiques.

D’une part, elles énoncent les principes supérieurs du droit international,
qui consacrent les droits les plus importants de l’ordre international
— tels que le droit de ne pas être soumis à l’agression, au génocide, à la
torture et à l’esclavage et le droit à l’autodétermination; d’autre part,
elles donnent une forme juridique aux politiques et objectifs les plus fon-

damentaux de la communauté internationale — la prohibition de l’agres-
sion, du génocide, de la torture et de l’esclavage et la promotion de
l’autodétermination. Cela explique pourquoi ces normes sont, dans l’ordre
juridique international, hiérarchiquement supérieures aux autres. Parce
qu’elles promeuvent à la fois des principes et des politiques, les normes

du jus cogens doivent inévitablement jouer un rôle prépondérant dans le
processus du choix judiciaire.
11. Plusieurs décisions de la Cour internationale de Justice, dans les-
quelles celle-ci aurait pu invoquer des normes du jus cogens mais ne l’a
pas fait, illustrent le type d’affaires dans le cadre desquelles il pourrait

être recouru à ces normes. L’arrêt de la Cour dans les affaires du Sud-
Ouest africain (Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria
c. Afrique du Sud), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1966, p. 6) en
est un exemple manifeste. En l’espèce, la Cour devait choisir entre le prin-
cipe selon lequel un Etat doit démontrer l’existence d’un intérêt particu-

lier, national, dans l’affaire pendante devant la Cour pour pouvoir inter-
venir à l’instance et la «mission sacrée de civilisation» prévue par le

8790 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP.DUGARD )

the well-being of the inhabitants of the territory. In preferring the former

principle it chose not to accede to the higher norm; with serious conse-
quences for the Court. In fairness, it must be added that this decision
largely predated the recognition of norms of jus cogens although
Judge Tanaka in his powerful dissenting opinion did refer to such norms
(see above, para. 4).

Other cases in which norms of jus cogens might possibly have been
invoked were East Timor (Portugal v. Australia) (Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1995, p. 90), and the Arrest Warrant case (Arrest Warrant of

11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 ,p.3).
In the former, the Court declined to apply its decision in the Certain
Phosphate Lands case (Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v.

Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992 ,
pp. 261-262) and instead preferred the controversial precedent of the
Monetary Gold case (Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943
(Italy v. France, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
and United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954) above

the peremptory norm of self-determination, which was described as a
norm of erga omnes rather than jus cogens by the Court in its decision at
page 102. The Court has recently retreated from the Monetary Gold case
and instead relied on the Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru case in the
case concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Demo-

cratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005,
pp. 237-238, para. 203). Although the Court did not indicate that its
choice was influenced by the fact that norms of jus cogens were involved
in this case, it may safely be assumed that the gravity of the issues raised
influenced the Court’s choice.

In the Arrest Warrant case the Court found that a Foreign Minister
enjoyed immunity before a national court in respect of crimes against
humanity on the basis of weak evidence of State practice rather than
allowing the jus cogens character of the crime to prevail over the plea of
immunity (see the dissenting opinions of Judge Al-Khasawneh and

Judge ad hoc van den Wyngaert in the Arrest Warrant case (I.C.J.
Reports 2002, p. 98, para. 7, and p. 155, para. 28, respectively), which
advocate the choice of the jus cogens norm of the prohibition of crimes
against humanity over the unsettled rule of immunity).

12. In the above cases the Court was faced with competing principles,
State practice and precedents and preferred not to choose that solution
which gave effect to a norm of jus cogens. The Court was not asked to
invoke jus cogens to trump an established, accepted rule but instead to
choose a principle of jus cogens or a precedent coinciding with a norm of

jus cogens in preference to a principle, State practice or precedent that
did not enjoy the status of jus cogens. It was simply asked to exercise its

88 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP.IND .DUGARD ) 90

mandat pour le Sud-Ouest africain et visant à accroître, par tous les

moyens, le bien-être des habitants du territoire. En optant pour le pre-
mier principe, la Cour a choisi de ne pas appliquer la norme supérieure,
et cela a eu pour elle des conséquences graves. Par souci d’objectivité, il y
a lieu toutefois de préciser que cette décision était très antérieure à la
reconnaissance des normes du jus cogens, même si le juge Tanaka, dans

sa remarquable opinion dissidente, les avait évoquées (voir ci-dessus,
par. 4).
Les normes du jus cogens auraient également pu être invoquées dans
des affaires comme celles du Timor oriental (Portugal c. Australie)
(arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995 , p. 90), et du Mandat d’arrêt (Mandat d’arrêt

du 11 avril 2000 (République démocratique du Congo c. Belgique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2002,p.3).
Dans la première espèce, la Cour a refusé d’appliquer la solution de
Certaines terres à phosphates (Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru

(Nauru c. Australie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992 ,
p. 261-262) et elle a retenu le précédent fort controversé de l’Or monétaire
(Or monétaire pris à Rome en 1943 (Italie c. France, Royaume-Uni de
Grande-Bretagne et d’Irlande du Nord et Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1954) de préférence à la norme impérative de l’autodéter-

mination que, à la page 102 de son arrêt, elle a qualifiée de norme
erga omnes plutôt que de jus cogens. La Cour a récemment abandonné la
jurisprudence de l’Or monétaire, préférant s’appuyer sur celle de Certai-
nes terres à phosphates à Nauru dans l’affaire relative aux Activités
armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo

c. Ouganda) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005 , p. 237-238, par. 203). Bien que la
Cour n’ait pas précisé que son choix avait été influencé par le fait que des
normes du jus cogens étaient en cause en l’affaire, l’on peut sans risque
supposer que la gravité des questions posées a influencé ce choix.

Et si, dans l’affaire du Mandat d’arrêt, la Cour a jugé qu’un ministre
des affaires étrangères jouissait devant une juridiction nationale de
l’immunité de poursuites pour crimes contre l’humanité, c’était en raison
de l’insuffisance des éléments de preuve relatifs à la pratique étatique et
non au motif que le caractère jus cogens du crime prévaudrait sur l’argu-

ment de l’immunité (voir l’opinion dissidente du juge Al-Khasawneh et
celle du juge ad hoc van den Wyngaert dans l’affaire du Mandat d’arrêt
(C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 98, par. 7, et p. 155, par. 28, respectivement) où
ceux-ci préconisent de préférer la norme du jus cogens prohibant les
crimes contre l’humanité à la règle fluctuante de l’immunité).

12. Dans les affaires susmentionnées, la Cour était confrontée à des
principes concurrents, à savoir la pratique étatique d’une part et les pré-
cédents d’autre part, et elle a préféré ne pas choisir la solution donnant
effet à une norme du jus cogens. Il ne lui était pas demandé d’invoquer le
jus cogens pour faire échec à une règle établie, acceptée, mais de retenir

un principe du jus cogens ou un précédent coïncidant avec une norme du
jus cogens plutôt qu’un principe, une pratique étatique ou un précédent

8891 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. DUGARD )

choice within the interstices of the law in a molecular rather than a molar
fashion .

13. In the present case the Court is confronted with a very different
situation. The Court is not asked, in the exercise of its legitimate judicial
function, to exercise its choice between competing sources in a manner

which gives effect to a norm of jus cogens. On the contrary, it is asked to
overthrow an established principle — that the basis of the Court’s juris-
diction is consent — which is founded in its Statute (Art. 36), endorsed

by unqualified State practice and backed by opinio juris. It is, in effect,
asked to invoke a peremptory norm to trump a norm of general interna-
tional law accepted and recognized by the international community of
States as a whole, and which has guided the Court for over 80 years. This

is a bridge too far. The Court cannot be expected to accept the arguments
raised by the DRC for by so doing it would not engage in molecular law-
making, but molar law-making that goes beyond the legitimate judicial

function. Only States can amend Article 36 of the Court’s Statute.

14. For this reason the Court, in the present instance, has rightly held

that although norms of jus cogens are to be recognized by the Court, and
presumably to be invoked by the Court in future in the exercise of its
judicial function, there are limits to be placed on the role of jus cogens.

The request to overthrow the principle of consent as the basis for its juris-
diction goes beyond these limits. This, in effect, is what the Court has
held.

N EGOTIATIONS WITHIN THE U NITED N ATIONS AND
O THER INTERNATIONAL BODIES

15. The DRC claims that the Court has jurisdiction in terms of
Article 29 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discri-
mination against Women in that there is a dispute between it and
Rwanda concerning the interpretation and application of the Conven-

tion, which cannot be settled by negotiation. It argues that it has made
frequent protests about Rwanda’s use of force in the region and its
violation of human rights before the political organs of the United

Nations and other international bodies. In support of its contention that
these protests and complaints about Rwanda’s actions within the
political organs of the United Nations and other international bodies

1
See the statement of Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes:
“I recognize without hesitation that judges do and must legislate, but they can do
so only interstitially, they are confined from molar to molecular motions.” (Southern
Pacific Co. v. Jensen, 244 US 205 at 221 (1916).).

89 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES OP .IND. DUGARD ) 91

n’ayant pas le statut de jus cogens. Il était simplement demandé à la Cour

de choisir dans les interstices du droit, et ce à un niveau moléculaire plus
que molaire .
13. En la présente affaire, la Cour se trouve face à une situation très

différente. Il ne lui est pas demandé, dans l’exercice de ses fonctions judi-
ciaires légitimes, d’opérer un choix entre des sources concurrentes de
manière à donner effet à une norme du jus cogens. Au contraire, il lui est

demandé d’abandonner un principe établi — le principe selon lequel le
consentement fonde la compétence de la Cour — qui est inscrit dans son
Statut (art. 36), qui est reconnu par une pratique étatique constante et
confirmé par l’opinio juris. En fait, il est demandé à la Cour d’invoquer

une norme impérative pour faire échec à une norme du droit internatio-
nal général reconnue et acceptée par la communauté internationale tout
entière, et qui a guidé la Cour pendant plus de quatre-vingts ans. C’est

aller un peu trop loin. L’on ne peut pas attendre de la Cour qu’elle
accepte les arguments avancés par la RDC puisque, si elle le faisait, elle
créerait du droit à un niveau moléculaire et non pas molaire et outre-

passerait ce faisant sa fonction juridictionnelle légitime. Seuls les Etats
peuvent modifier l’article 36 du Statut de la Cour.
14. C’est pourquoi la Cour, en la présente affaire, a retenu à bon droit

que, bien qu’elle doive reconnaître les normes du jus cogens et sans doute
les invoquer à l’avenir dans l’exercice de sa fonction judiciaire, des limites
doivent être posées au rôle du jus cogens. Vouloir renverser le principe du

consentement comme fondement de la compétence de la Cour, c’est fran-
chir ces limites. Et c’est bien ce que la Cour a dit.

N ÉGOCIATIONS AU SEIN DE L’O RGANISATION DES N ATIONS U NIES ET
D’AUTRES ORGANES INTERNATIONAUX

15. La RDC soutient que la Cour est compétente aux termes de l’ar-
ticle 29 de la convention sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discri-
mination à l’égard des femmes, car il existe entre la RDC et le Rwanda,

relativement à l’interprétation et à l’application de cette convention, un
différend qui ne peut être réglé par voie de négociation. La RDC affirme
avoir fréquemment protesté auprès des organes politiques de l’Organisa-

tion des Nations Unies et d’autres organes internationaux contre le
recours à la force par le Rwanda dans la région et les violations des droits
de l’homme commises par lui. A l’appui de sa thèse selon laquelle les pro-

testations et réclamations qu’elle a formulées auprès des organes poli-

1 Voir la déclaration du juge Oliver Wendell Holmes:

«Je reconnais sans hésiter que les juges peuvent et doivent créer du droit, mais ils
ne peuvent le faire qu’à un niveau interstitiel, ne pouvant intervenir au niveau molaire
et étant confinés au niveau moléculaire.» (Southern Pacific Co. v. Jensen, 244 US
205-221 (1916).)

8992 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP.DUGARD )

satisfy the requirement of negotiation, the DRC invokes the ruling of
the Court in 1962 in the South West Africa cases when it stated:

“Moreover, diplomacy by conference or parliamentary diplomacy
has come to be recognized in the past four or five decades as one of

the established modes of international negotiation. In cases where
the disputed questions are of common interest to a group of States
on one side or the other in an organized body, parliamentary or con-
ference diplomacy has often been found to be the most practical
form of negotiation.” (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa;

Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1962, p. 346.)

16. There is an important difference between the South West Africa
cases and the present case. In the former case it was quite clear to all
States participating in the “conference or parliamentary diplomacy”

within the United Nations that the dispute related to the Mandate for
South West Africa, more particularly to the questions whether South
Africa was obliged to account to the United Nations for its administra-
tion of the territory in terms of the Mandate, and whether it had violated
Article 2 of the Mandate requiring it to “promote to the utmost the

material and moral well-being and the social progress of the inhabitants
of the Territory” by applying the policy of apartheid within the Territory.
For ten years or more these issues had constituted the focus of debates
within the United Nations.

17. In the present case, on the other hand, the DRC has failed to indi-
cate with precision the nature of its complaint within the context of the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women. It has made sweeping allegations of Rwanda’s use of force and

violations of human rights in general without, in most instances, indi-
cating which particular human rights convention it alleges has been vio-
lated. Nor has it indicated which of the 15 substantive provisions in the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women Rwanda is alleged to have violated. The substantive provisions

in this Convention oblige States parties to abolish discriminatory meas-
ures against women within their own legal systems by adopting legislation
to ensure gender equality (Arts. 2, 3, 15); by pursuing affirmative
action programmes for women (Art. 4); by eliminating social and cul-

tural discrimination against women (Art. 5); by suppressing traffic in
women (Art. 6); by eliminating discrimination against women in political
life and in participation in government (Arts. 7 and 8); by protecting the
right to nationality of women (Art. 9); by ensuring equal rights
for women in education, employment, health care and economic

life (Arts. 10-13); by promoting the position of women in rural areas

90 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. DUGARD ) 92

tiques de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et d’autres organes interna-

tionaux au sujet des agissements du Rwanda satisfont à l’exigence
de négociation préalable, la RDC invoque ce qu’a dit la Cour en 1962
dans la décision rendue dans les affaires du Sud-Ouest africain :

«D’autre part, depuis quarante ou cinquante ans, la diplomatie
pratiquée au sein des conférences ou diplomatie parlementaire s’est
fait reconnaître comme l’un des moyens établis de conduire des
négociations internationales. Lorsque des questions en litige inté-

ressent à la fois un groupe d’Etats, de part ou d’autre, au sein d’un
corps organisé, la diplomatie parlementaire ou diplomatie par confé-
rences s’est souvent avérée la voie de négociation la plus pratique.»
(Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria c. Afrique

du Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 ,
p. 346.)

16. Il existe une importante différence entre les affaires du Sud-Ouest
africain et la présente espèce. Dans les premières, il était clair pour tous
les Etats participant aux «conférences ou [à la] diplomatie parlemen-
taire» au sein de l’Organisation des Nations Unies que le différend por-
tait sur le mandat pour le Sud-Ouest africain, et plus particulièrement sur

la question de savoir si l’Afrique du Sud, aux termes de ce mandat, devait
rendre compte aux Nations Unies de son administration du territoire et
si, en appliquant la politique d’apartheid dans ce territoire, elle avait
violé l’article 2 du mandat aux termes duquel elle devait «accroîtr[e], par
tous les moyens en son pouvoir, le bien-être matériel et moral ainsi que le

progrès social des habitants du territoire». Pendant dix ans ou plus, ces
questions ont été au cŒur des débats au sein de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies.
17. Toutefois, en la présente affaire, la RDC n’a pas indiqué avec pré-
cision la nature de ses griefs au regard de la convention sur l’élimination

de toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes. Elle a for-
mulé des allégations très générales sur l’emploi de la force par le Rwanda
et sur les violations des droits de l’homme commises par lui, le plus sou-
vent sans préciser quelle convention relative aux droits de l’homme avait,
selon elle, été violée. Elle n’a pas non plus indiqué laquelle des quinze

dispositions de fond de la convention sur l’élimination de toutes les
formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes aurait été violée. Les dispo-
sitions de fond de cette convention imposent aux Etats parties d’abolir les
mesures discriminatoires à l’encontre des femmes au sein de leur propre
système juridique, par l’adoption de lois assurant l’égalité entre les hom-

mes et les femmes (art. 2, 3, 15), en mettant en Œuvre des programmes
favorisant les femmes (art. 4), en éliminant les discriminations sociales et
culturelles à l’égard des femmes (art. 5), en réprimant le trafic des femmes
(art. 6), en éliminant les discriminations à l’égard des femmes dans la vie
politique et s’agissant de leur participation au gouvernement (art. 7-8), en

protégeant le droit des femmes à la nationalité (art. 9), en assurant des
droits égaux aux femmes en matière d’éducation, d’emploi, de santé et de

9093 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP. DUGARD )

(Art. 14); and by eliminating discrimination against women in marriage
and family relations (Art. 16). None of these provisions, it seems,
is relevant to the present dispute. Instead the nature of the DRC’s
allegation against Rwanda relates to acts of violence, including sexual

violence, against women, not within the territory of Rwanda but within
the territory of the DRC. Without in any way minimizing the gravity or
seriousness of these allegations, it should be stressed that they raise issues
pertaining to other human rights conventions — such as the Convention
against Torture (to which Rwanda is not a party) and the International

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (which is not claimed as a basis
for jurisdiction in the present proceedings) — and to international humani-
tarian law.

18. The fact that the DRC’s allegations relating to the violation of the
rights and personal integrity of women relate to human rights conven-
tions other than the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Dis-
crimination against Women, probably explains why this Convention was

not the subject of protest and complaint — that is “conference or parlia-
mentary diplomacy” — in the United Nations or other international
bodies. As these Conventions do not provide a basis for the Court’s juris-
diction, the DRC has felt itself compelled to invoke the compromissory
clause in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimina-

tion against Women as a basis for jurisdiction in this matter. However,
this invocation of jurisdiction is misplaced. First, it is doubtful whether
the allegations in question relating to the mistreatment of women fall
within the ambit of the Convention; secondly, even if they do in some
way violate its provisions, it is clear that the DRC’s protests and allega-

tions of violence against women before the United Nations and other
international bodies have not been premised on the violation of this Con-
vention in particular, but on the violation of general human rights law
and other human rights Conventions. This means that there have been no

negotiations in the form of “conference or parliamentary diplomacy”
within the United Nations or other international bodies on the subject
of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women. Accordingly, the DRC has failed to show that any dis-
pute between the Parties relating to this particular Convention has been

the subject of negotiation and that the dispute is one that cannot be
settled by negotiation within the meaning of Article 29 of the Conven-
tion.

19. A party that wishes to rely on “conference or parliamentary diplo-
macy” in the political organs of the United Nations as evidence that it

has engaged in negotiations for the purpose of satisfying the require-

91 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. DUGARD ) 93

vie économique (art. 10-13), en améliorant la situation des femmes dans

les zones rurales (art. 14) et en éliminant les discriminations à l’égard des
femmes dans le mariage et la famille (art. 16). Aucune de ces dispositions
n’est, semble-t-il, pertinente en la présente affaire. Les allégations formu-
lées par la RDC à l’encontre du Rwanda concernent des actes de vio-
lence, y compris de violence sexuelle, commis contre des femmes, non pas

sur le territoire du Rwanda mais sur celui de la RDC. Sans minimiser
d’aucune manière la gravité et le sérieux de ces allégations, il faut souli-
gner qu’elles soulèvent des questions relevant d’autres conventions rela-
tives aux droits de l’homme — comme la convention contre la torture
(à laquelle le Rwanda n’est pas partie) et le pacte international relatif

aux droits civils et politiques (qui n’est pas invoqué comme base de
compétence en la présente affaire) — et au droit international humani-
taire.
18. Le fait que les allégations de la RDC relatives à la violation des

droits et de l’intégrité physique de certaines femmes ont trait à d’autres
instruments relatifs aux droits de l’homme que la convention sur l’élimina-
tion de toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes explique
sans doute pourquoi les protestations et les plaintes formulées au sein
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies ou d’autres organes internationaux

— c’est-à-dire dans le cadre de «conférences ou [de la] diplomatie parle-
mentaire» — ne visaient pas cette convention. Ces instruments ne four-
nissant pas de base de compétence à la Cour, la RDC s’est sentie obligée
d’invoquer la clause compromissoire de la convention sur l’élimination de
toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes comme base de

compétence en l’espèce, ce en quoi elle a eu tort. Cette invocation est tou-
tefois infondée. Premièrement, il est douteux que les allégations en ques-
tion, qui ont trait aux mauvais traitements infligés à des femmes, entrent
dans le champ d’application de la convention; deuxièmement, même si
ces actes sont, d’une quelconque manière, contraires à ses dispositions, il

est patent que les protestations et allégations relatives à des actes de vio-
lence à l’encontre de femmes émises par la RDC devant l’Organisation
des Nations Unies et d’autres organes internationaux ne reposaient pas
sur la violation de cette convention en particulier, mais sur la violation
du droit général relatif aux droits de l’homme et d’autres instruments

relatifs aux droits de l’homme. Cela signifie qu’il n’y a pas de négociation
sous la forme de «conférences ou [de] diplomatie parlementaire» au sein
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies ou d’autres organes internationaux
au sujet de la convention sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discri-
mination à l’égard des femmes. Par conséquent, la RDC n’a pas prouvé

qu’un différend né entre les Parties spécifiquement dans le cadre de cette
convention ait été l’objet de négociations et que ce différend n’est pas sus-
ceptible d’être résolu par voie de négociation au sens de l’article 29 de la
convention.
19. Une partie qui souhaite invoquer les «conférences ou [la] diploma-

tie parlementaire» menées au sein des organes politiques de l’Organisa-
tion des Nations Unies comme preuve du fait qu’elle a engagé des négo-

9194 ARMED ACTIVITIES SEP .OP. DUGARD )

ments of a compromissory clause must at least show that it has clearly
identified the Convention in question, and should be able to show that it

has indicated, albeit in broad terms, the nature of the violation it alleges
has occurred.

(Signed) John D UGARD .

92 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. DUGARD ) 94

ciations afin de satisfaire aux exigences d’une clause compromissoire doit,
au moins, montrer qu’elle a clairement identifié la convention en cause;

elle devrait également être en mesure de montrer qu’elle a indiqué, ne
serait-ce qu’en termes généraux, la nature de la violation qu’elle allègue.

(Signé) John D UGARD .

92

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Separate Opinion of Judge ad hoc Dugard

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