Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Weeramantry

Document Number
102-20011023-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
102-20011023-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE WEERAMANTRY

Dcurth of ju~lic.ial uuthority relating to internationul intervention pro-
cedure - Groiving inzportunce (!finterivntion in eru of'increuscd interrelation-
ship qf'internutionul concerns - Necessitj for c.uuminution qf'principles under-
ljing esercisr of Court's )vidediscretion under Article 62 - Iizteruction hetrtwn

procedural and substantiiv luit* - Intrrrelution.skip betitven domrstic urzdinter-
nutional Iuri. rrluting to intervrntior~ - Con1puri.son.sund contrust.s hrtivern
rlonze.~tirund interntrtionul ltr~v - Policj~ considcrrition.~in firvour qf' inter-
vention - Policj considerutions rrguinst intervciztion - Thc problcm of a
jurisdictionul link - Legisluti~~ehistory of' Article' 62 - Interest of' (ilegul

rzuture - 0hjec.t c~f'intrrrentiorz - Luteness of'intervention - Cor~fidetrtiulitj~
of p1eutiing.s.

1. While agreeing with the decision of the Court 1would like to take
this opportunity to examine the much neglected question of intervention
in international law, in the broader context of the objects and range

of the international adjudicatory function. 1 do so because this case
raises some important and unsettled issues relating to intervention, a
subject which must be expected to assume more importance in the inter-

national jurisprudence of the future. The closely interknit global society
of tomorrow will see a more immediate impact upon al1 States of
relations or transactions between any of them, thus enhancing the

practical importance of this branch of procedural law.

This opinion will first consider some of the broader considerations

raised by intervention proceedings, and thereafter examine some particu-
lar legal problems raised by this Application.

2. Unfortunately the decided cases are al1too few to offer any coher-
ent body ofjudicial authority in this important area of procedural law. In
fact it needed around 70 years of exercise of jurisdiction by the Perma-

nent Court of International Justice and the International Court of Justice
before permission to intervene in any case was granted under Article 62.
The only instance where the Permanent Court handed down a decision

upon an application lodged under Article 62 of the Statute was theS.S. "Wimbledon"' but the applicability of that Article was not con-
sidered because the Application was supplemented by the invocation of
Article 63, thus rendering unnecessary a consideration of Article 62'.

3. The case concerning Land, Islurzd and Maritime Frontier Dispute
(El SalvadorlHonduras) (1990) was thus the first case in the history of
the two Courts in which a State was accorded permission to intervene (at
the instance of Nicaragua) under Article 62 of the Statute3. Since then

the body of case law on this topic has continued to be extremely slender,
with no other application having been successfully maintained until 1999
(Lund und Maritime Boundury hetivren Cameroon und Nigeriu (Cum-
eroon v. Nigeria: Equutoriul Guineu intervening). Indeed so thin was the

line ofjudicial authority on this topic at one stage in its history that fears
were expressed at the highest judicial level regarding its very surviva14.
4. This picture is rather different from the high expectations enter-
tained regarding intervention in the early days of international adjudica-

tions, when a magisterial figure in the law of international arbitration,
John Bassett Moore, could write

"The right of intervention given by the Statute may prove to be a
means of inducing governments, be they great or small, to come

before the Court, thus showing their confidence in it and enlarging
its opportunities to perform a service for the ~orld."~

What might well have been expected, at the time the Court's Statute
was adopted, to grow into a substantial branch of international jurispru-

dence, has thus turned out to be extremely limited in its growth. This
reinforces the need to re-examine its contours and potential at a time
when the interlinkages between State activities wherever transacted are

'P.C.I.J., se rie^ C, No. 3 and Serics AIB, N5.
The two other cases where intervention was sought were Enstc~rnGrr~nluntl(P.C 1.J..
Serirs C, No.67. pp. 4081-4082and 4118-4119)where Iceland's request to intervene was
withdrawn, and Acyui.rition of Poli.rl~Nutionulit!. (P.C. I.J.. Srric~sB.71 where
Romania, which had submittcd a request in advisory proceedings to intervene under
Article 62 was advised that Articles 62 and 63 could be invoked only in contentious
proceedings.
' I.C.J. Reports IYYO,pp. 135-137.
Judge Ago in Co~~tinc~ntu Sllrc~lf(Libyun Aruh Jrin~uhiriy~~lMult, pplicution for
Prrrnis.siorito Interi,eni~,Judgnlcv~J.1Rc~port.1984, p. 130observed :

"The decision on the present case may well sound the knell of the institution of
intervention in internationalgal proceedings. at any rate of this institution as it was
intended and defined by the relevant texts. After this experience which, to say the
least, does not suggest a favourable attitude towards this form of incidental pro-
cedure . ..this avenue. which was theoretically still open. towards a wider and
more liberal conception of international judicial proceedings. will probably fall
into oblivion."

John Bassett Moore. "The Organization of the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice". 22 Cokn?~hiuLuit. Rcvic~ii..1922. pp. 497-507.becoming matters of increasing interest and concern to other members of

the community of nations.
Against this background it becomes necessary to examine some of the
general principles applicable to intervention with a view to extracting
guidelines from them which will be of overall utility in the difficult task

devolving upon the Court of assessing the merits of each individual appli-
cation that may come before it.
5. Amidst this paucity of decided cases, even such decisions as there
are do not readily yield sufficient general principles to be of material
assistance to parties contemplating the possibility of intervention, as the

law on the topic has developed thus far on a purely UL~hoc basis. Since
coherent threads of connecting principle are difficult to extract from the
decided cases as they stand, the search for guiding principles within the
overarching framework of the objects and purposes of the Court's inter-
vention procedure is a matter of high priority in this era of increased

interrelatedness of international concerns.

6. Such an examination becomes specially important in view of the
wide discretion the Court enjoys under Article 62 of its Statute, with no
guidelines indicated for the exercise of that discretion. lndeed the subject

of intervention has been described as "perhaps the most difficult of al1
those involved by the RulesW6and the judges when considering the mat-
ter in 1968were able to identify no less than seven substantive as opposed
to procedural points which were left unresolved under Article 62.
7. Some of these points were so contentious that when the judges of

the Permanent Court considered them in 1922" the Court "was com-
pletely divided into two camps" on some of these issues and it was
decided that

"Having regard to these divergent views, there was agreement in
the Court not to prejudge the serious questions raised by the right of
intervention and to avoid interpreting the Statute; concrete ques-
tions could be resolved asand when they presented themselves."

Not much has occurred since then to clarify these issues, the governing
principles of which thus remain as unclear now as they were then.

8. Contrary to the expectations of 1922 many questions involving the
application of Article 62 remain largely unresolved owing to the lack of
decisions upon the subject. Not the least of the areas which subsequent

Rules Revision Committee (1968):Report of the Conimittec (GEN 68123yunttr).
p.306 (hereinafter Rules Revision Committe1968).
' P.C.IJ.,Seric.sD,No.2. pp.86-97.case law has failed to illuminate is that concerning the problems and
principles associated with the exercise of the Court's discretion under
Article 62.
9. As Judge Altamira observed in the 1922 discussions8, when

Article 62 was originally drafted, a régime of universal jurisdiction
for al1 States ipso fucto and for al1 disputes of a legal character was
envisaged. Hence an intervening State would automatically be subject to
the Court's jurisdiction. It was only later that the concept of compul-

sory jurisdiction was abandoned and the optional clause system took its
place, thus leaving the door wide open for different interpretations of
Article 62.

"Hence one school of thought in the Permanent Court felt that a
jurisdictional condition ought to be read into Article 62; but the
other objected that this would involve importing a limitation which
Article 62 did not, on its language, require.""

The present case is one which highlights this lacuna in the Court's juris-

prudence.
10. It is important to our discussion to note however, as Rosenne
points out "',that the retention of Article 62 despite the abandonment of
the principle of compulsory jurisdiction was not due to inadvertence or

carelessness as is sometimes supposed, but was a calculated and deliber-
ate decision as indicated by the report of 27 October 1920by Léon Bour-
geois to the Council of the League". Thus full effect must be given to it,
as it is an integral statutory provision which cannot be whittled away by
interpretation '*.

11. It enhances the importance of this subject to note that although it
may on first impression appear to relate to a merely procedural and inci-
dental matter, it is closely intertwined with substantive law and its devel-

opment. This was well illustrated in the first case to come before the
Court under Article 62, the case of Fiji's attempted intervention in the
case between Australia and France relating to nuclear testing. Doubts

V. C.1.J., Seric~~. No. 2. p. 89.
y Rules Revision Committee 1968, p. 310.
Io Rosenne, 1ntrri.c~nriotirn tllr Intrrnuliot~ulCourt of'Justicc,. 1993. pp. 27-28.
'' Report presented by the French representative, Mr. Léon Bourgeoisand adopted by
the Council of the League of Nations at its meeting atsels on 27October 1920.Docu-
ments concerning the action taken by the Council of the League of Nations under
Article 14of the Covenant and the Adoption by the Assembly of the Statute of the Per-
manent Court, p. 50.
l2 See generally Myres S. McDougal. Harold D. Lasswell and James C. Miller. Tlic~
Iritc,rprc,f(rngIi7trriic1tioAlgrc~c~rnrntsnd World Plrhlic 0rclr.r: Princi(J/Cotl-
rcnl irnd P~~orc~ilnrprp.. 156 ff.were expressed at that time on the question whether atmospheric damage
through nuclear testing constituted an interest of a legal nature. Interna-
tional environmental law has progressed so far since then as to render

incontestable that this is an interest of a legal nature, thus effecting a
change in procedural consequences through a change in substantive law.
Numerous other areas of international activity can develop similarly in
the future.

12. Just as substantive law can thus interact with procedural law, so

also can procedural law affect substantive law, as we increasingly see in
the field ofhuman rights, where procedures such as due process cross the
border between substance and procedure to become substantive rights
themselves. So also, among States such phenomena as transborder data
Aow, international terrorism and environmental protection easily cross

over from the realm of procedure to that of substance and the lack of
clarity on matters of procedure can adversely affect substantial State
rights and their enjoyment.

Indeed intervention affords an example par excellence of the celebrated

observation that substantive law is often secreted in the interstices of pro-
cedure. The subject is therefore one of special importance, not merely in
the sphere of procedure but in the sphere of substantive law as well.

13. In the context of the paucity of international legal decisions on the
subject, any search for governing principles must draw heavily upon

comparisons and contrasts with intervention principles in domestic legal
systems. My contact with the latter leads me to conclude that this process
of comparison and contrast can throw much light on the jurisprudence
relating to international intervention procedures especially as they reveal
some important lacunae in the international arena which need attention
as indeed this case demonstrates. Among the areas where this process

could prove useful are the determination of what constitutes a legal inter-
est, the considerations that operate in favour of permitting intervention,
the object of the intervention and the exercise of the discretionary power
of the Court. It is important to seek out the reasons why a branch of
vigorous activity in domestic law, which has contributed substantially to
the development of domestic jurisprudence, should be so cramped and

ineffectual in international jurisprudence. The process of comparison
may well yield some insights which might reinvigorate this important
procedural mechanism in the field of international adjudication. 14. There is indeed much to be said for the view that intervention

plays an even more significant role in international than in domestic liti-
gation.

"It is obvious that the intervening State has a strong interest in
influencing the outcome of a judicial precedent which would be
likely to have a favourable or unfavourable impact upon its claims.
And it is exactly this strong interest and the particularity of the

I.C.J. as the World Court which give to the institution of interven-
tion in International Law a different and larger dimension than that
in Interna1 Law." ''

One must of course constantly bear in mind the consensual framework
of international litigation, which is a considerable distinguishingfactor so
far as questions of jurisdiction are involved '".

15. There are, as is to be expected, noteworthy differences between
intervention in domestic and international legal procedures but the ration-

ale underlying domestic systems offers some important overarching per-
spectives. In recognition of the importance of this process of comparison,
a comprehensive compilation by Professor Walter J. Habscheid of the
principles of intervention in various domestic systems was tendered to the

Court in the ContinetztulSlfelf' fTuni.siulLihlan Aruh Jumulzirii~o 2 ,i l5case.
That compilation can still be consulted wiih profit, for it surveys inter-
vention procedure in the Romanist, Gerrnanic, Anglo-saxon and social-
ist families of legal systems in a wide variety of national jurisdictions. On
the basis of this survey it draws certain generalconclusions relating to the

philosophy and underlying rationale of intervention procedure which
cannot be without value in international intervention jurisprudence. The
rutio legis of intervention as summarized in this study covers several
aspects, some of which are included in the analyses which follow.

16. These considerations need to be taken into account, t~zutatis
tnutandis, in deciding intervention in international law as well. They are
intensely relevant to the Court's exercise of its discretion in this case and

" Anna Madakou. Intrri~c,ntionhrJore rlrc,IntrrnrrtionrilCourt of Ju.sti<c,,Mémoire
présentéen vue de l'obtention du diplcime, Institut universitaire des hautes études inter-
nationales. Geneva. 1988. p. 14.
l4See Rosenne's note to this effect in Ltrii.rri~lPrrri,tic.cc,!f'tht,Iiil ourtOJioncrC
Ju.sri(~, 964. p. 216.
" See Volume III of the PIc~cr(1inigns that case. pp. 459-484. The compilation is titled
Walter J. Habscheid, Le.sc.ont/itions(leI'intrrirntioii vo1ontuir.cduns irnpro(.+.\(.ii.il(here-
inafter Habscheid). pp. 50-51.to the wide powers the Court enjoys under Article 62 of the Statute and
Article 84 of the Rules of Court.

The observations that follow are limited to intervention under
Article 62 of the Statute. lntervention under Article 63 involves many
other considerations not pertinent to applications under Article 62.

17. lntervention procedure both in domestic and international law is
based, inter ~rliaon the need for the avoidance of repetitive litigation as
well as the need for harmony of principle, for a multiplicity of cases

involving the same subject-matter could result in contradictory determi-
nations which obscure rather than clarify the applicable law.

18. Itis an interesting question whether the principles relating to inter-
vention, mutcrtis rnutundi.~,are part of the general principles imported
into the corpus of international law by Article 38 (i) (c) of the Statute. If

so, those general principles can be invoked for clarifying the terms of
Article 62, which by common agreement is neither a comprehensive nor a
clearlv formulated nrovision. Such considerations constitute an addi-
tional reason for a study of the principles of intervention in domestic law.
International law would disregard the insights obtainable from domestic
law in this sphere only at cost to itself.

19. The various aspects ofcomparison and contrast set out below have
much relevance to the exercise of the Court's discretion in the present
case. They involve, inter ulia,considerations of judicial policy. It is true,
as the Court observed in the caseconcerning the Contincntul She(f(Tuni-
siulLibj~an ArcrhJanic~l~iri~vaA ).pplicution for Penni.s.sio to Intervene
(Judgmrnt, I.C.J. Reports 1981, p. 12, para. 17),that Article 62, para-

graph 2, of the Statute does not confer on the Court "any general discre-
tion to accept or reject a request for permission to intervene for reasons
simply of policy". Yet such factors, when considered along with the par-
ticular circumstances of the case, can still assume relevance and impor-
tance. Indeed, Judge Schwebel indicated that the Court might reach a
certain conclusion for "significant considerations ofjudicial policy" (p. 35)

and Judge Oda likewise referred to "the viewpoint of future judicial
policy" and "the viewpoint of the economy of international justice"
(p. 31) These considerations of matters of policy were viewed by Judge
Jessup in a note in the American Journc~loJ'I/~fcr/iatiorzaL luitas "impor-
tant indications" of a judicial approach to these questionsIh. An exami-
nation of such policy considerations is thus not only legitimate but
necessary for understanding the operation of Article 62, paragraph 2,

of the Statute.

If75 AJIL, 1981.p. 904

65 A. Policy Considcvutions irzFuvour. 01 'nter alcmriun

20. There are several factors which would incline the Court towards
permitting an intervention if a party should be able to demonstrate an
"interest of a legal nature" in terms of Article 62.

(a) Fuctors corilmon to ciomr.stic~ und intcn~utionul litigutiorî

- From the Court's point of view there is economy of justice, enabling
the Court to dispose in one case of disputes that nlight otherwise
require two or more separate cases.

- From the intervener's point of view it is offered an opportunity,
although not already party to the litigation, to protect its rights
within the context of the existing litigation without having to institute
a separate action for this purpose.

- From the community's point of view there is a public interest in dis-
posing of as much controversy as possible in the least time": ir~tcre.st
rci publiccrr ut sit Jnis litiunî.
- In contentious litigation in both domestic and international forums
the court gains its factual information from the material placed

before it by the parties. Parties place before the Court information
pertinent to their respective cases. The Court does not necessarily
have the whole picture of the setting in which the dispute takes place.
It may well be that some circumstances material to the whole pro-

ceeding are consequently left out. Thus it enables the Court to be
possessed of a fuller background of information relating to the
subject-matter of its decision.
- "Third parties furnish elements of law and fact; this insures that the
decision will conform to the truth, and therefore with justice, so that

the authority and credibility of justice do not suffer." ''

- Parties may even act in collusion, against a third party Iy.

- There is an avoidance of a risk of contrary judgments on the same
subject-matter.
- A second judge will take a first decision into con~ideration'~,
especially if the decision introduces changes into the applicable legal
doctrine2'.

l7Atlrrtrrv. CI)~itcvSltui(is. 379 F. 2d 824 cited by Habscheid. p. 480.
l8Habschcid. pp. 479-480.
'"Santiago Torres Bernirdez. "L'intervention dans la procédure de la Cour Interna-
tionale de Justicc".Rcc,irc,ilr/cz.s(.ours (11,I'A<~ciiI~ri(~1i.ct~lroii inLu~rHu!.c~.ne(rIlc,
Vol. 256. 1995.pp. 193-457(hereinafter Torres BernArdez).p. 226.
'" Habschcid, p.480.
" Torrcb Rernirdcz. p. 226.- The same judge would be even more inclined to follow a previous
decision 22.

- There is an avoidance of needless repetitive judgments.
- It enables the Court to deliver a more effective and harmonious judg-
ment, having taken into account the direct and indirect interest of al1

parties concerned.

(b) Fuctor.~peculiur to intcrnutionul lirigution

- The drafting history of Article 62 clearly shows an intention to enable
intervention notwithstandingthe rule that judgments of the Court are
only binding inrer partc.s.

- The role of the International Court of Justice reaches beyond mere
resolution of disputes towards comprehensive conflict prevention.

"The great persuasive authority (as declarations or expositions of the
law) which the decisions of the Court normally possess, with a result-

ing influence, at least de,fac.to, on the legal interest of al1State~."?~

- The International Court plays a dual role as court of first instance

and court of last resort. As court of first instance its findings or
assumptions on questions of fact have a finality which domestic
courts do not enjoy. This makes it doubly important that its findings

of fact be based on as complete a picture as possible.

- In international law, the International Court of Justice tends to use

past decisions as pre~edent~~and, in any event, the Court may not
annul its decisions. As Judge Jennings put it in the Continental Shelf
(Lihyun Aruh JamulziriyulMaltuj case, "the slightest acquaintance

with the jurisprudence of this Court shows that Article 59 does by no
manner of means exclude the force of persuasive pre~edent"~~.

Only parties to a dispute may request interpretation or revision of a
decision by the International Court of Justice (a procedure similar to
the French tierce opposition does not exi~t)~~.

>'Habscheid, p. 480.
"' Fitzmaurice, "The Law and Procedure of the Internatiuiial Court of Justice (1951-
1954): Questions of Jurisdiction. Cornpetence and Procedure". 34 British Yeur Book of'
htc,rnutionnl Lrric. 1958,p. 126.
24 Torres Bernirdez, p. 227, citing Judge Jennings in Contit~cntulShelf'(Lihyun Aruh
JuniuhiriyulMultu), Judgnlrnt, I.C'.. Rtport.~ lYN4.p. 157.
'5 Judgment. I C7.. Ri~ppor.Ys84. p. 157.
'" Torres Bernirdez, p.228.- In international law, a third party rnay not be in a position to sue in
order to protect its rights".

21. Considerations which may operate against intervention being
granted include:

- States rnay tend to avoid referring disputes to the Court if they fear
that third States rnay interfere with the proceedings by intervention.

- It could give States a facility to achieve indirectly by way of interven-
tion what they cannot achieve directly, unless there is the requirement

of a jurisdictional link.
- "International law in its historical evolution has shown a general
reticence towards third party interference in the judicial (or arbitral)

settlement of bilateral di~putes."'~
- "If an unrestrained right of intervention should be permissible on the
international plane, it would seem that nearly every third State would

be able to identify sonie 'interest' in any international di~pute."'~
- The fact that the rights of third States are protected by the rule that
the decisions of the Court are binding only inrcr partes.

- A State rnay see an advantage to itself which has been described in
the literature30 as a "free ride", namely a chance to submit arguments
while "it would not be submitting its own claims to decision by the
Court nor be exposing itself to counter claims"". In other words it

would be able to enjoy the benefits of entering the proceedings with-
out assuming the obligations of a party to the case within the mean-
ing of the Statute.

- The private suitor has an interest in having no third party meddle
with his suit 32.
- The procedure could in effect be used to prejudge the merits of the

intervener's claim against one of the parties to the case but in relation
to a different dispute which is not before the Court. This was a basis
for the Court's refusal to grant Malta's Application for intervention

in the case first referred to.

- There rnay be room for using the procedure of intervention to obtain

what rnay in effect be a "quasi-advisory opinion" in the sense that the

" Torres Berriirdez. p. 228.
" Shabtai Roxnne, 111to.vr~rrtioin n tlrc Intcrrirrtiorilourt (!f'Ju.sric~r.93, p. 190.
" V. S. Mani. Iwrc~rn(rtioriuA1diircli<,trtion:Procc~r/urrl.spr~ct.s1.980. p. 250.
2'See Anna Madakou. Irîtrri~c,ntion h(:for.tire Int<~rr~citioruolurt of'Jlrsticc,, 1988.
p. 83.
" Contirii,ritulSIr<,(Turii.sirilLih~~Arruh Jcir~icrl~iri~~Ar)p.lic,<rtior,fiiv Pcrrrri.~.\iotror
Int<~r.i~,rici,r,(/gnic,rit.1.CIJ. R1,port.s1981, pp. 19-20.
.'Habscheid, p. 480. citing A11otrfi.rv. Cilitcd Stcitcof Artrc~ric,c3r7.9 2d 824.640 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (SEP.OP.WEERAMANTRY)

intervening State has the opportunity of asking the Court to make
some pronouncement or observation bearing on its rights which,
while not being a judgment on its own claims, in effect expresses an
opinion directly or indirectly concerning them. Whether such an

option was within the intent of the framers of Article 62 is open to
doubt.
- The Court, while being conscious that parties may be discouraged

from litigation by the possibility of an unwanted intrusion of third
parties into the case, would not neglect its responsibilities as custo-
dians of justice for the entire international community.

- Intervention may not be necessary because it would be possible for
the Court, "while replying in a sufficiently substantial way to the
questions raised in the Special Agreement" to take into account the
interests of other States as well, as indeed the Court said it would in

the case concerning the Continentul Shclf' (Lihyun Aruh Jun~uhiriyul
Multa), Applicution /Or Pc~rmissionto Interi~c~ne~~.
- In the Legul Stutus of' Eustern Greenl~nd~~case, the Permanent
Court observed

"Another circumstance which must be taken into account by
any tribunal which has to adjudicate upon a claim to sovereignty
over a particular territory, is the extent to which the sovereignty is
also claimed by some other Power."

This observation, cited with approval by this Court in the case
concerning the Confinrntul Sl~elf'(Lihyurz Arub Jurnul~iriyulMultu),
Applicution ,for. Permission to Intcrvc~ne5, would offer some protec-
tion to third States and lessen the need for intervention. but it does

not, with respect, give much satisfàction to a party who is unable to
place before the Court the material on which it relies in support of its
claim.
The Court does not decide auestions of title "in the absolute" but

"has to determine which of tie Parties has produced the more con-
vincing proof of title"'h. This is a consequence which follows from
the adversarial rather than the inquisitorial nature of the proceedings
before the Court. Its decision does not therefore foreclose the issues

in which the third State is interested.

All of these could in one way or another influence a court against
granting an application for intervention. In varying degrees they may
assume relevance in the particular circumstances of each case, having

" I.CJ. Reports 1984, pp. 25-26.
34P.C.1J..Series AIB.No. 53, p.46.
'5J~d~qment,1.C.J. Reports 1984. p. 26.
jf>Ihid. p. 27, quoting language of the International Court of Justice used in Minq~~ic>r.s
ur~dEcrc,lro.\,Jud,yr~i<,riIt.,C.J. Rvporr.~19.53,p. 52.regard to the wide discretion the Court enjoys on the grant or refusal of
an application for intervention.

C. Differencc~sbeiitven Donlestic und Intern~~tionalIntervention
Procedures

22. The differences between domestic and international procedures
include the following :
- First of al1 it needs to be observed that domestic intervention law

allows of two forms of intervention - compulsory and voluntary.
The former, based as it is on the domestic court's compulsory juris-
diction over its subjects, does not have its counterpart in interna-
tional law.

- International relations are so complex and far-reaching that even
though a particular judgment may not be binding upon a State it may
still have repercussions on its immediate interests, as where nuclear
testing may affect neighbouring States.

- If a requirement of a jurisdictional link be imposed, States which will
obviously be affected would not necessarily have the capacity to
intervene, which would be almost taken for granted in a correspond-

ing domestic situation. Since the question of a jurisdictional link does
not arise in the case of domestic litigation in view of its compulsory
nature, there is here a hiatus in the fabric of international justice. This
can have repercussions of varying degrees of intensity, depending

upon the closeness of another dispute to the issues determined by the
case in hand.
- If a requirement of a jurisdictional link be imposed, numerous situa-
tions could arise where a State would be prevented from asserting its

position on matters important to itself, for example the interpretation
of a treaty to which it is not a Party, which interpretation once given
by the International Court would tend to be followed even in disputes
between other parties.

- The pre-eminent position of the International Court, situated as it is
at the apex of the international judicial structure, attracts special
recognition to its pronouncements, even in matters indirectly related
to the particular dispute before the Court. This situation does not

arise to the same degree in domestic litigation.
- In international litigation, where a certain confidentiality attaches to
the pleadings of the original parties, the prospective intervener is
under a handicap in relation to formulating its intervention. This is a

provision that can operate harshly against such an intervener who to
some extent has to work in the dark. Domestic law does not in gen-
eral impose such a limitation, as the pleadings of both parties would
be easily obtainable.This aspect assumes special importance in a case

such as the present.
- The question of a consensual link does, of course, arise in arbitration642 PULAU LIGITAN AND PlJLAU SIPADAN (SEP.OP. WEERAMANTRY)

proceedings but an important distinction must be made here between
determinations of the International Court and arbitral awards. The

latter are totally without effect upon non-parties while the former,
despite the inter-parties rule, do affect non-parties owing to the
weight and authority attaching to decisions of the Court, especially
on matters of law.

- As already observed, the role of the International Court necessarily
comprises not merely the settlement of the immediate dispute before
it, but also the development and clarification of international law.
This responsibility weighs particularly heavily on the International
Court. This is to some extent offset by the principle that a "legal

interest" under Article 62 does not cover an interest merely in clari-
fying or developing the law. Yet, while resolving the immediate dis-
pute before it, the International Court needs also to take a somewhat
wider perspective than a domestic court.

A possible (though debatable) further difference is that domestic
courts can view the disputes before them through narrow lenses
focused exclusively on the two parties and the immediate dispute,
excluding a vision of the wider Ïandscape beyond. An international

court cannot afford to do this, least of al1the International Court of
Justice. As already observed, the International Court of Justice is
obliged, while adjudicating upon the rights of the two immediate
parties, to have regard to the rights of other States even though they

may not be parties to the dispute. In the Monetary Gold case for
example, a third party's - Albania's - rights needed to be protected
even though that State was not a party and did not request to inter-
vene" in litigation to which several other States - Italy, United

States of America, France, the United Kingdom - were parties. In
such a case in domestic litigation, the court would perhaps have com-
pulsorily joined Albania. In that case, the Court had necessarily to
protect Albania's interests which were the very subject of the litiga-
tion.

- Another important difference is that the International Court does not
merely resolve the immediate dispute in hand but plays a role in pre-
ventive diplomacy and comprehensive conflict resolution. Sir Robert
Jennings as President of the Court stressed this role of the Court in

his report to the General Assembly on 8 November 1991 3X,when he
observed that the procedure of the Court was

"beginning to be seen as a resort to be employed in a closer rela-
tionship with normal diplomatic negotiation. No longer is resort
to the International Court of Justice seen, to use the traditional643 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULA17 SIPADAN (SEP. OP.WEERAMANTRY)

phrase, as a 'last resort' when al1 negotiation has finally failed.

Rather, it is sometimes now to be seen as a recourse that might
usefully be employed at an earlier stage of the dispute." 39

This can well have repercussions on its procedure and the interpre-
tation of its procedural rules, especially in regard to intervention.

23. These are some of the background factors that lie behind the exer-
cise by the Court of its discretion under Article 62. The exercise of this

extremely wide discretion involves the delicate balance of a series of con-
siderations which are not always articulated40 and assumevarying degrees
of importance in the context of each particular case. Their enumeration
could be of assistance both in the evaluation of particular cases and in

the general development of this important branch of law.
1shall now proceed to consider some of the specific issues that arise in
this case.

24. The Court's jurisdiction is consensual. This distinguishes interna-
tional from domestic jurisdictions.

(i) Tension bctivec~nArtic.1~6 . 2of' the Stutute und the Consensual
Principle

25. Despite the consensual basis of theCourt's jurisdiction and despite
the principle that the Court's judgment is binding only between the
parties, the Statute finds a place for Article 62 which States:

"Should a State consider that it has an interest of a legal nature
which may be affected by the decision in the case, it may submit a

request to the Court to be permitted to intervene."
Whether this provision was deliberately retained4' or not, the fact is

that the Statute expressly provides for intervention without any consen-
sual restrictions being imposed upon it.
26. There are no words in Article 62 indicative of an intent to restrict
the right to intervene only to States which have already submitted to the

jurisdiction.

" See also I.C.J. Yeurhook 1991-1992,p. 211. for a previous address by Sir Robert
Jennings to the General Assembly to the effect that resort to the Court should be seen "as
an integral part of the work of preventive diplomacy in the United Nations".

4" The considerable academic literature on the inarticulate premises of judicial reason-
ing becomes relevant here. For a basic reference see Julius Stone, &sstc~rund Luit,-
JPI.S'R~t/.\otzing.964.
-" See vlrprrpara. IO. One way of looking at the matter is to assume that when a party so
seeks to intervene, it is implicitly submitting to the Court's jurisdiction,
thereby becoming subject to any orders the Court may make.
Another approach is to consider Article 62 to be an exception to the

usual jurisdictional rule. The framers of the Court's Statute could well
have laid down a jurisdictional link as a precondition to the right to
intervene, but they chose not to do so. Consent could be viewed as
necessary where the intervener seeks to become a party, but not other-
wise.

(ii)LegiskrtiH vir.sttocfyArticl e2

The legislative history of Article 62 throws some light on whether a

jurisdictional link was integrated into the elements necessary for an inter-
vention.
The concept of intervention in international proceedings was first
addressed in the Draft Regulations for International Arbitral Procedures
of the Institut de droit international of 28 August 1875. Article 16 of

those Regulations provided that "[tlhe voluntary intervention of a third
party is admissible only with the consent of the parties that have con-
cluded the cornpromis".
This draft quite clearly excluded interventions where the jurisdictional
link was lacking and envisaged no departure from the consensual prin-

ciple even in interventions.
It was however a draft intended for use in arbitral proceedings, which
are strictly consensual, as opposed to judicial proceedings by a court
vested with some measure of international authority, which is recognized
by al1nations.
Matters progressed a step away from intervention being confined

only to parties admitted with the consent of the principal litigants, when
Article 56 of the 1899 Hague Convention provided that where there
was a question as to the interpretation of a convention to which Powers
other than those in dispute are parties they should be able to intervene.

The same principle was repeated in the 1907 Convention. These
advances were still confined to the interpretation of a convention - the
situation covered by Article 63 of the Statute of the Court.
The next steps in the history of international intervention occurred
through Article 62 of the Court's Statute which in its terms permitted

intervention for the first time by third parties in cases other than the
interpretation of a convention to which they were parties.

At the meeting of the Advisory Committee of Jurists (Proceedings of
the Committee, 16 June-24 July 1920) in 1920 there was a conscious

effort to widen the circle of possible interveners.
Lord Phillimore suggested a draft under which a third State which con-sidered that a dispute submitted to the Court affected its interests may

request to be allowed to intervene and that the Court shall grant permis-
sion if it thinks fit.
Mr. Fernandes agreed with this proposal but sought to make the
right of intervention dependent upon certain conditions, such as that the
interests affected must be legitimate interests.

The President (Baron Descamps)thought the solution of the question
of intervention should be drawn from the common law, and suggested a
draft enabling a State to intervene if it considered that its rights may be
affected by a dispute.

Mr. Adatci suggested replacing the word "right" by the word
"interest".
Thereafter, a draft of the present Article was submitted by the Presi-
dent and this formula was adopted. Earlier drafts regarding international

proceedings, such as the Institut's draft of 1875 which expressly make
voluntary intervention possible only with the express consent of the
parties to the compromise, were no doubt available as models from
which to make a choice but no such qualification was imposed.
Throughout this discussion there was no reference to the need for a

jurisdictional link.
Hudson has drawn attention4' to the circumstance that, at the time of
the draft, the Committee was near unanimous in recommending compul-
sory jurisdiction. If this were so, there would indeed have been no need

for Article 62 to stipulate a consensual link. Yet, as Rosenne has pointed
out in the reference already cited, the retention of this provision was
deliberate.
The retention of Article 62 despite the abandonment of the principle of
compulsory jurisdiction is thus signifiant. Whether it was an oversight

or deliberate. the fact remains that this statutory provision remained and
as such it needs to be given al1force and efficacy4'. It cannot be neutral-
ized by interpretation or indeed even by Rules which the Court rnay
make in the exercise of its undoubted power to regulate its procedure.

(iii) Statirtory Proilisions to bc Rendcrrd Effctiiv R(it1zertllun
Negutii~c~ tp Intcrpretcition

27. That important provision of the Statute must be given effect as far
as is practicable. If the requirement of a jurisdictional link be postulated,
that could in many cases render nugatory an express provision in the
Statute of the Court.
One must have regard to the general principle that statutory provisions

4' Manley O. Hudson. Tllc Prri~ltrn~rrtC.olof'Iirfc~rnrrriJrlrIsr1920-1942, A
Trrtr/i.sc,.1972.p. 420.
4' See McDougal. Lasswelland Miller.011cil.

74646 PULAU LlGlTAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (SEP.OP.WEERAMANTRY)

are to be given effect asfar as possible and not nullified by contrary inter-
pretation.
The separate opinions rendered in the case concerning the Continental
Shelf' (Tuni.~iulLibpan Arab Jurn~~hiripu),Applic~~tion for Permission to

Intervene" are of interest on this matter. While Judge Morozov was of
the view that the intervener must show a jurisdictional basis for its claim,
Judges Oda and Schwebel were both specific in their view that an inter-
vening State does not need to show a jurisdictional link with the original

litigant State. The inconclusive nature of the Court's decision in relation
to this problem concerning intervention was the subject of adverse com-
ment, among others by Judge Philip C. Jessup4'.

The jurisdictional link was not a basis for the Court's decision in that
case.
The present J~dgment~~goes far towards settling this issue, consoli-
dating the law on this matter along the lines indicated by the decisions in

Land, Island (rnd Maritirne Frontirr Dispute (El SulvadorlHon~lurcrs)~~
and Lund und Mlrritin7r Boundary hetii-ecwCumeroon und 1
agree that a jurisdictional link is required only if the State seeking to
intervene is desirous of "itself becoming a party to the case"4y.

(iv) Article 81 (2) (c) of'tlze 1978 Rules

28. Article 81, paragraph 2, of the 1978 Rules of Court represents

a fundamental departure from the 1972 Rules inasmuch as Article 81,
paragraph 2 (c), requires the application to set out "any basis of jurisdic-
tion which is claimed to exist as between the State applying to intervene
and the parties to the case". There was no reference to this jurisdictional

link in the 1972 Rules which only required a description of the case, a
statement of law and fact justifying intervention and a list of the docu-
ments in sumo...
This reference to ajurisdictional basis, it will be noted, does not specify

it as a necessarv factor for intervention. It is onlv mentioned as a circum-
stance which the applicant needs to set out, a circumstance which would
nodoubt be of assistance to the Court in making its overall decision. The
use of the expression "any basis of jurisdiction" rather than "the basis of

jurisdiction" is also significant.
A Rule of the Court cannot nullify a provision of the Court's Statute
and must always be read in conformity with it. In the Continental Sljeif

44 I.C.J. Ri>pori1981.pp. 22 ff.
45 In an Editorial Comment in the Anlczr-ic,rrJrotui!fIn1~,r-ntrriLuii (75 AJIL,
1981.p. 903 at p. 908).
4h See paragraphs 35 and 36.
47 1.CJ. Rc,pol.tIYYO.p. 135.
.'"I.C.J. Rc,portlY9Y (II). pp. 1034-1035,para. 15.
"Varki. 35case between Tunisia and Libya5" it was Malta's argument that this pro-

vision went in fact beyond the authority given to the Court to regulate its
procedure5'. It argued that the Court's rule-making power could not be
employed to introduce a new substantive condition for the grant of per-

mission to intervene.

(v) Conclusion

29. The legislative history of Article 62, the rules of interpretation,the
need for enhancing the services rendered by the Court to the interna-

tional community and the jurisprudence of the Court thus combine to
point to the conclusion that a jurisdictional link is not a prerequisite to
intervention.

30. This is another important grey area in the field of international
intervention procedure, and attracted the cornment from the first writer

on intervention before the PCIJ that it was "an almost indefinable
monster" 5'.
While it defies definition as to what it is, guidelines are evolving as to

what it is not. It must not be
- a merely general interest but one which may be affected by the deci-

sion in this case;
- a merely political or social interest;

- an interest in the general development of the law:
- "an interest in the Court's pronouncements in the case regarding the
applicable general principles and rules of international la^"^^;

an interest in particular points of law that "concerned it, simply
because they were in issue before the Court in proceedings between

other States" 54.
Further, it need not be

- an interest in the actual subject-matter of the case. While not directly

within the subject-matter it is sufficient if it will be affected by the
decision ;

'"1.C.J. R<,/~orts1981, p. 8. piira. 12.
''Cf. WolSgang W. Fritzemeyer. Iii/i~ri.i~ririorlirl tlrc,lrit<~iauriontrICoirrr (!f Jlr.ctice.
198". p. 75.
W. Farag. L'irlt(,ri.c,rrtiont/c,vtr17Irir Coirr Perm<irictc)rJu.stic,rIr~tc~rriutioncr/<~
iArtii,lcs 62 c.63 (111Strrtlit (/c,Irr Cour)1927. /Tr<irr.vlrrtihi. th(, Rogisri-..]
''Corrlincril(iiS/~<~llfTurli~iirlLihj<(rnAruh Jirrrr(i/~i~~fr)/,~pli<~rlio,tf~i)r P(,rrr~0.(~ior
117ri,ri~c,riJci,i.</grI.C:J. R<port.sIYNI, p. 17, para. 30.
5-See D. W. Greig. "Third Party Rights and the I.C.J.",32 VirgirrirrJorrrirril(?fIrrii,r-
r~citiorrul criipp. 285-299.648 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (SEP.OP. WEERAMANTRY)

an interest which ivill be affected. It is sufficient to show that it is an
interest which muy be affected by the decision.

How does the case of the Philippines fit within these guidelines?
31. At this point it is necessary to observe that the burden of proof of
a legal interest, which always lies on the applicant under Article 62, will
naturally Varyfrom case to case, depending, inter uliu, on the closeness of
the connection of the subject-matter in dispute and the subject-matter of
the interest which the intervenient seeks to protect.

There could be a vast range of cases between a total coincidence of the
subject of the case and the interest of the intervenient on the one hand,
and the total absence of any common elements on the other.
The burden of proof in regard to the intervenient's legal interest would
naturally be lighter in the case of the coincidence of the parties' claims
and the intervener's interest and heavier as these two elements diverge.

32. In the present case the intervener clearly disclaims any interest in
the actual subject-matter of the case. On the other hand the interest it
seeks to protect is in a totally different territory and stems from an
entirely different source of title. The burden that lies on the intervener is

thus heavily increased and it is this burden which, in al1the circumstances
of the case, the Philippines has not discharged.

33. It will surely relate to a legalnterest if any of the documents of
title referred to by the Parties have a bearing on the claim that the Philip-
pines alleges it has to North Borneo, for example the documents of

1891, 1900, 1907and 1930. On the contrary, the Philippines does not
claim any right or interest through these documents but relies on a grant
by the Sultan of Sulu in 1878 which does not in fact relate to the two
islands in question in this case. Furthermore, the Philippines expressly
disclaims any territorial claim to the two islands.

34. The Philippine claim is based upon the treaties, agreements or
other documents which have a direct or indirect bearing on the legal
status of North Borneo. The Court needs to know with some degree of
particularity what these are, what bearing if any they have on North
Borneo and how their interpretation has impinged on the claim to a
totally distinct territory. The Judgment of the Court details the lack of

particularity in the pleadings of the Philippines in this regard, and it is
unnecessary to traverse the same ground here.
35. Since it would be incumbent on an intervener claiming an interest
totally different from the subject-matter of the action to state its case
with great particularity, one is left with a sense of inadequacy as to the

particulars of the legal interest which the Philippines wishes to protect.

36. A useful contrast is offered by the C~mic~roon v. Nigeria case,
where the interest asserted by the intervener was specific and clear from
al1 the surrounding circumstances. Likewise in the Continentcil Slielf'( TunisiulLibpun Arab Jar?~trlliriyu j5 case, although the Court did not
actually rule on the matter, the intervener stated with great particularity
how a judgment rendered in the case would affect its interest'", itemizing

five separate elements point by point. To quote the Court these were
spelled out "coast by coast, bay by bay, island by island, sea area by sea
area".

37. That is an index of the extent of particularity sometimes provided

to court in intervention procedures. Tliough such minute detail may not
be necessary, even a lesser degree of particularity is lacking in the Philip-
pine presentation, leaving the Court in a state of vagueness and con-
jecture as to what precisely is the legal interest which the Philippines
claims.

38. In making this observation 1 am conscious that the Philippines
lacked access to the pleadings of the Parties. Yet even within these con-
straints the material publicly available on the conflicting claims of the
Parties would have directed the Philippines to the ways in which these
conventions infringed on whatever claim they had to a totally different

territory. The deeds which the Parties were relying on were al1accessible
to the intervenient and could well have been analysed by the Philippines
from this point of view. The Court would not of course have required
minute and detailed analyses, but some indications of the particular ways
in which the Court's approach to these sources of title could have
impinged on the interests of the Philippines would have been sufficient.

There were suggestions that this might be possible but the degree of par-
ticularity necessary to activate the processes of the Court was lacking.
39. 1am in agreement with the Court that the necessary specificity is
lacking in the Philippine case.

40. The Court has considered the three objects listed by the Philip-
pines in terms of Article 81 (h) of the Rules, and has found at least two
of them to be appropriate. This being so, there has been compliance by
the Philippines with Article 81 (h).

The third reason listed by the Philippines, which the Court has found
does not constitute an "object" within the meaning of the Rules and has
hence rejected, is not properly an object of a party but nevertheless spells
out an important function performed by the Court, as 1have indicated in
the earlier part of this opinion. This is a matter for the Court and is not
an "object" of a party seeking to intervene. 41. It is always desirable for interveners to filetheir application as early
as possible in the proceedings. Thiss essential for the expeditious disposal
of the Court's work and quite apart from any specific provision in the

Rules is a courtesy due from the intervener both to the Court and to the
other parties. Paragraph 1 of Article 81 of the Rules of Court requires an
application for intervention to be filed not later than the closure of written
proceedings. But what is meant by the "closure of written proceedings"?
42. In a case such as this where the special agreement expressly

visualized the possibility of a further round of written pleadings, a third
party could not know that the second round of pleadings was necessarily
the last. Indeed, the parties themselves would not know this until they
had perused each other's second round of pleadings, for then only would

they make up their minds that they would not go for a further round.
The Court does not have a practice of making a forma1 order of
closure of written proceedings. Closure of written proceedings is thus
a de jizcto situation that arises when the written proceedings are for

practicalpurposes understood to be closed.
A third party watching these proceedings from the outside would natu-
rally be anxious, if it is thinking in terms of intervention, to know the
position of the parties as contained in their written replies to the earlier
rounds of pleadings. It would be entitled, having regard to thcon~pvornis

in the present case, to assume that the date of filing of the second round
would not necessarily be the date of "closure of written proceedings".
43. A further circumstance to be taken into account in considering the
third party's position is the unavailability to it of even the pleadings that

had already been filed, and the fact that it had made application to the
Court for the pleadings to be made available to it. The extreme step of
shutting out the application for belatedness is therefore one which the
Court should not take, and 1 agree with the Court in this regard, though

as the Parties rightly point out the Philippines could well have made
application considerably earlier.
The Philippines could well argue that they made their application
before the closure of the written proceedings, and that it would be an
injustice to them, if not a denial of due process, to impose on them the

extreme penalty of refusing their Application for this reason.

5. THEPROBLEM OF THE TENSION BETWEEN THE PRINCIPL EF CONFIDEN-
TIALITY OF PLEADING AND THE PRINCIPL EF INTERVENTION

44. Although, as Rosenne points out5', the Court has so far refrained
from exercising this power, it has the discretion under Article 53,

57S. Rosenne. Thr LLIUN(Prucfic~ofiliIt~fcrncrfiolourt.1920-1996Vol. III.
Pror,rdur<,,1997, p. 1289.

79paragraph 1, of the Rules to make pleadings available to interveners in
appropriate circumstances and an intervener is entitled to explore this
possibility.

There is a tension here between the principle of intervention and the
principle of confidentiality, for the latter may in certain cases shut out a
legitimate intervention by denying the intending intervener the informa-
tion necessarv for it to formulate its intervention. The discretion of the

Court must therefore be very carefully exercised, especially when the lack
of knowledge of the parties' pleadings is offered as an excuse for what
might be a belated intervention. An intervener's actual pleadings could in
certain cases be heavily dependent upon a knowledge of the pleadings of

the parties. The mere publication of the special agreement would not give
the intervenient the full information it might require.

45. As Rosenne observes5X,the tension already referred to between the

principle of intervention and the principle of confidentiality can even
amount to a denial of justice in particular cases, and will perhaps need to
be reviewed in the future. Indeed, he points out in his treatise on inter-
vention that the availability to a prospective intervener of the written

proceedings to date is important both when it is considering whether it
has an interest of a legal nature and even more so after that State has
decided to submit an application5'.

1 believe this procedural aspect needs careful review by the Court, for
there can well be cases where a denial of the documents to a prospective
intervener could for practical purposes defeat that intervener's statutory
right to make an application for intervention. The present is not such a

case but there may well be cases where this is so.

46. For the reasons stated above 1am in agreement with the Court's

decision and 1 hope this separate opinion will be of some assistance in
drawing attention to important aspects relating to intervention which will
need further consideration in the procedural jurisprudence of the future.

(Signed) C. G. WEERAMANTRY.

Proceciur(,.1997, p. 1289.UII~Pru(./i<,I/tli<,Ii~i~riiuti~l'ourf1920-1996. Vol. III,

S. Rosenne. Intrrvc,r~/iorirri flic,I~ir<~~oollrofJu.,ticc,.1993. p. 191.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE WEERAMANTRY

Dcurth of ju~lic.ial uuthority relating to internationul intervention pro-
cedure - Groiving inzportunce (!finterivntion in eru of'increuscd interrelation-
ship qf'internutionul concerns - Necessitj for c.uuminution qf'principles under-
ljing esercisr of Court's )vidediscretion under Article 62 - Iizteruction hetrtwn

procedural and substantiiv luit* - Intrrrelution.skip betitven domrstic urzdinter-
nutional Iuri. rrluting to intervrntior~ - Con1puri.son.sund contrust.s hrtivern
rlonze.~tirund interntrtionul ltr~v - Policj~ considcrrition.~in firvour qf' inter-
vention - Policj considerutions rrguinst intervciztion - Thc problcm of a
jurisdictionul link - Legisluti~~ehistory of' Article' 62 - Interest of' (ilegul

rzuture - 0hjec.t c~f'intrrrentiorz - Luteness of'intervention - Cor~fidetrtiulitj~
of p1eutiing.s.

1. While agreeing with the decision of the Court 1would like to take
this opportunity to examine the much neglected question of intervention
in international law, in the broader context of the objects and range

of the international adjudicatory function. 1 do so because this case
raises some important and unsettled issues relating to intervention, a
subject which must be expected to assume more importance in the inter-

national jurisprudence of the future. The closely interknit global society
of tomorrow will see a more immediate impact upon al1 States of
relations or transactions between any of them, thus enhancing the

practical importance of this branch of procedural law.

This opinion will first consider some of the broader considerations

raised by intervention proceedings, and thereafter examine some particu-
lar legal problems raised by this Application.

2. Unfortunately the decided cases are al1too few to offer any coher-
ent body ofjudicial authority in this important area of procedural law. In
fact it needed around 70 years of exercise of jurisdiction by the Perma-

nent Court of International Justice and the International Court of Justice
before permission to intervene in any case was granted under Article 62.
The only instance where the Permanent Court handed down a decision

upon an application lodged under Article 62 of the Statute was the OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. WEERAMANTRY

[ Truduction]

Puuvreti de lujurisprudence en niatière de procidure d'inter~~entioninterna-
tionule - Dnportunc.e croissante de l'intervention ù une époque où les lien.^

internutioncius se re:iserrent - Nécessitéd'e.uurninerles principes qui sous-
tendent 1'c.r-ercicedu [urgepouvoir discrétionnairede lu Cour en ilertu dc~l'ar-
ticle62 - Il~teructionentre le droit proc~éduruelt le droit tnatériel- Liens entre
10droit intcrtie et le droit internutionul en cc qui concerne I'it~terventio- Cuni-
puraisons et distinctions ù étuhlirenrre le droit interne et le droit intertzutionul

-- Considirutions d'opportunité,jz~~/iciuirm eilitant enjuveur de /'intervention -
Considérationsd'opportlrniti judiciaire niilitant contre I'interretztiot~- Le pro-
hlénic~du lie-njuridictiontle- Gerièsede l'article 62 - Intérêd t'ordrejuridique
- Objet de l'intervc.t~tion- Intervention turdii~c ~ Confidentialité despiéces
de pro(,i.c/urc~.

1. Bien que je sois d'accord avec la décision de la Cour, je souhaite
saisir l'occasion pour examiner la question fort négligéede I'intervention
en droit internation.al, dans le cadre plus large des objets et de la portée

de la fonction juridictionnelle internationale. Sije le fais, c'est que la pré-
sente affaire soulève certaines questions importantes et non résolues
concernant I'intervention, sujet qui assumera sans doute une importance

accrue dans lajurisprudence internationale a venir. Dans la sociétémon-
diale de demain, dont les membres entretiendront entre eux des liens
étroits, l'incidence sur l'ensemble des Etats des relations ou des transac-

tions nouées par certains d'entre eux sera plus immédiate, et l'importance
pratique de cette partie du droit procédural en sera rehaussée.
Après avoir exarninécertaines considérations générales relatives à la

procédure d'intervention, je m'arrêterai ensuite à quelques problèmes
juridiques particuliers soulevéspar la requête.

PAUVRET EE LA JURISPRUDENCE EN MATIERE DE PROCEDURE D'INTERVEN-
TION INTERNATIONALE

2. Malheureusement, les décisionssont trop peu nombreuses pour cons-
tituer un ensemblejurisprudentiel cohérent dans ce domaine important du
droit procédural. De fait, il fallut quelque soixante-dix ans d'exercice de

leur juridiction par la Cour permanente de Justice internationale et la Cour
internationale de Justice pour qu'une requêteà fin d'intervention fût fina-
lement admise pour la première fois en vertu de l'article 62 du Statut. La
seule affaire où la Cour permanente statua sur une requêteà fin d'interven-S.S. "Wimbledon"' but the applicability of that Article was not con-
sidered because the Application was supplemented by the invocation of
Article 63, thus rendering unnecessary a consideration of Article 62'.

3. The case concerning Land, Islurzd and Maritime Frontier Dispute
(El SalvadorlHonduras) (1990) was thus the first case in the history of
the two Courts in which a State was accorded permission to intervene (at
the instance of Nicaragua) under Article 62 of the Statute3. Since then

the body of case law on this topic has continued to be extremely slender,
with no other application having been successfully maintained until 1999
(Lund und Maritime Boundury hetivren Cameroon und Nigeriu (Cum-
eroon v. Nigeria: Equutoriul Guineu intervening). Indeed so thin was the

line ofjudicial authority on this topic at one stage in its history that fears
were expressed at the highest judicial level regarding its very surviva14.
4. This picture is rather different from the high expectations enter-
tained regarding intervention in the early days of international adjudica-

tions, when a magisterial figure in the law of international arbitration,
John Bassett Moore, could write

"The right of intervention given by the Statute may prove to be a
means of inducing governments, be they great or small, to come

before the Court, thus showing their confidence in it and enlarging
its opportunities to perform a service for the ~orld."~

What might well have been expected, at the time the Court's Statute
was adopted, to grow into a substantial branch of international jurispru-

dence, has thus turned out to be extremely limited in its growth. This
reinforces the need to re-examine its contours and potential at a time
when the interlinkages between State activities wherever transacted are

'P.C.I.J., se rie^ C, No. 3 and Serics AIB, N5.
The two other cases where intervention was sought were Enstc~rnGrr~nluntl(P.C 1.J..
Serirs C, No.67. pp. 4081-4082and 4118-4119)where Iceland's request to intervene was
withdrawn, and Acyui.rition of Poli.rl~Nutionulit!. (P.C. I.J.. Srric~sB.71 where
Romania, which had submittcd a request in advisory proceedings to intervene under
Article 62 was advised that Articles 62 and 63 could be invoked only in contentious
proceedings.
' I.C.J. Reports IYYO,pp. 135-137.
Judge Ago in Co~~tinc~ntu Sllrc~lf(Libyun Aruh Jrin~uhiriy~~lMult, pplicution for
Prrrnis.siorito Interi,eni~,Judgnlcv~J.1Rc~port.1984, p. 130observed :

"The decision on the present case may well sound the knell of the institution of
intervention in internationalgal proceedings. at any rate of this institution as it was
intended and defined by the relevant texts. After this experience which, to say the
least, does not suggest a favourable attitude towards this form of incidental pro-
cedure . ..this avenue. which was theoretically still open. towards a wider and
more liberal conception of international judicial proceedings. will probably fall
into oblivion."

John Bassett Moore. "The Organization of the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice". 22 Cokn?~hiuLuit. Rcvic~ii..1922. pp. 497-507.tion introduite en vertu de l'article 62 est I'affairedu Vapeur Wimbledon l,
mais l'applicabilitéde cet article ne fut pas examinée,car la requêtefaisait

également fond sur l'article 63 et ilne fut donc pas nécessairede tenir
compte de l'article 62'.
3. C'est donc daris l'affaire concernant le Différend frontalier terrestre,
insuluire et tnuritime (El SalvudorlHondurus) de 1990que, pour la pre-

mièrefois dans l'histoire des deux cours, un Etat fut autorisé à intervenir
(requêtedu Nicaragua) en vertu de l'article 62 du Statut3. Depuis lors, la
jurisprudence sur cette question a continué d'être extrêmementmince,
aucune autre requêi:en'ayant étéadmise avant 1999 (Frontière terrestre

et marititne entre 1. Cumeroun et le NigPria (Curnrrout? c. Nigériu; Gui-
nCeéquutoriule (intrrrenant)). A une époque, la jurisprudence en la ma-
tière manquait A ce point de consistance que d'éminentes autorités judi-

ciaires exprimèrent des doutes quant à la survie mêmede la procédure4.
4. Cette situation est bien éloignéedes perspectives considérables qui
étaient associéesà l'intervention aux premiers jours du règlement juridic-
tionnel des différends, puisqu'une sommité du droit de l'arbitrage inter-

national, John Bassett Moore, a pu alors écrire:

«Le droit d'intervention accordé par le Statut sera peut-être un
moyen d'inciter les gouvernements, petits et grands, à s'adresser à la

Cour, lui manifestant ainsi leur confiance et lui donnant de plus
nombreuses occasions de rendre service au monde. »5

Ainsi, alors qu'or1aurait fort bien pu s'attendre, au moment de I'adop-

tion du Statut de la Cour, à ce que cette procédure donne naissance à un
rameau important de la jurisprudence internationale, elle n'a en fait
connu qu'un développement fort limité.Il n'en est que plus indispensable
d'en réexaminerla forme et le potentiel, maintenant que les liens entre les

'C.P.J.1. .sc;rirC no .3et skric A11"5.
Les deux autres affaires dans lesquelles une requêteà fin d'intervention fut déposée
sont I'affaire du Stutut juridicluc du GroCnlundoric,nttrl(C.P.J.I. s6rir C67. p. 4081-
4082, 4118-4119).dans laquelle l'Islande retira sa requête,et I'affaire de l'Acquisition (11l,rr
ti/oj~ennc~tcp'olonuisc, (C.P.J.I.'rie B ri"71,dans laquelle la Roumanie. qui avait
présenté une requéteen procédure consultative pour intervenir au titre de l'article fut
informéeque les article:^62 et 63 ne pouvaient ètre invoquésqu'au contentieux.
'C.I.J. R~~cucil1990, p. 135-137.
"ans I'affaire du Plirtc~uontir~entcil(Jiinluhiriju aruhc~lihj'c,rln<,/M~lt~lr,<ci[uc;r
fin d'intrrr.c,r~tio~uzr.rc't,C.I.J. Rei,ue,il1984, p. 130,lejuge Ago faisait l'observation sui-
vante:

<<Ladécision relative à la présente instance pourrait donc sonner le glas de
l'institution de l'iniervention dans les procès internationaux. du moins de cette insti-
tution telle qu'elle avait été entendueet définiepar les textes pertinents. Après cette
expérience.dont le moins qu'on puisse dire est qu'elle n'est pas révélatriced'un esprit
favorable à cette forme de procédure incidente, l'oubli va probablement tomber ...
sur cette voie qui s'ouvrait théoriquement encore sur une conception plus libérale et
plus ample de la juridiction internationale.
John Bassett Moori:. <<TheOrganization of the Permanent Court of InternationalJus-
tice)),Co/~rllhitlLUII.Rc,l.ic," 22. 1922. p. 497-507.becoming matters of increasing interest and concern to other members of

the community of nations.
Against this background it becomes necessary to examine some of the
general principles applicable to intervention with a view to extracting
guidelines from them which will be of overall utility in the difficult task

devolving upon the Court of assessing the merits of each individual appli-
cation that may come before it.
5. Amidst this paucity of decided cases, even such decisions as there
are do not readily yield sufficient general principles to be of material
assistance to parties contemplating the possibility of intervention, as the

law on the topic has developed thus far on a purely UL~hoc basis. Since
coherent threads of connecting principle are difficult to extract from the
decided cases as they stand, the search for guiding principles within the
overarching framework of the objects and purposes of the Court's inter-
vention procedure is a matter of high priority in this era of increased

interrelatedness of international concerns.

6. Such an examination becomes specially important in view of the
wide discretion the Court enjoys under Article 62 of its Statute, with no
guidelines indicated for the exercise of that discretion. lndeed the subject

of intervention has been described as "perhaps the most difficult of al1
those involved by the RulesW6and the judges when considering the mat-
ter in 1968were able to identify no less than seven substantive as opposed
to procedural points which were left unresolved under Article 62.
7. Some of these points were so contentious that when the judges of

the Permanent Court considered them in 1922" the Court "was com-
pletely divided into two camps" on some of these issues and it was
decided that

"Having regard to these divergent views, there was agreement in
the Court not to prejudge the serious questions raised by the right of
intervention and to avoid interpreting the Statute; concrete ques-
tions could be resolved asand when they presented themselves."

Not much has occurred since then to clarify these issues, the governing
principles of which thus remain as unclear now as they were then.

8. Contrary to the expectations of 1922 many questions involving the
application of Article 62 remain largely unresolved owing to the lack of
decisions upon the subject. Not the least of the areas which subsequent

Rules Revision Committee (1968):Report of the Conimittec (GEN 68123yunttr).
p.306 (hereinafter Rules Revision Committe1968).
' P.C.IJ.,Seric.sD,No.2. pp.86-97.activitésdes Etats, (oùque ce soit, font l'objet de l'attention et de la pré-
occupation croissarites des autres membres de la Sociétédes Nations.
Compte tenu de cette toile de fond, il devient nécessairede nous arrêter
à certains des principes généraux applicablesà l'intervention afin d'en
extraire des principes directeurs qui, dans leur ensemble, pourront facili-

ter A la Cour la dificile tâche qui lui incombe d'apprécier la valeur de
chaque requêtedont elle sera saisie.
5. Mêmeles rares décisionsque recèlent les maigres sources jurispru-
dentielles ne fournissent pas sans mal des principes générauxqui puissent
aider beaucoup les parties qui envisagent la possibilitéd'une intervention,

étant donné que, jusqu'à présent. le droit relatif à cette question ne s'est
constitué que dans des circonstances très précises. Puisqu'il est difficile
d'extraire de la jurisprudence actuelle des principes communs cohérents,
il est impératif,à une époque où les intérêtsde la communauté interna-
tionale sont davantage liésentre eux, de rechercher des principes direc-

teurs dans le cadre global des objets et des buts de la procédure de la
Cour en matière d'intervention.

LE LARGE POLWOIR DISCRETIONNAIRE DE LA COUR AUX TERMES

DE L'ARTICLE 62

6. Cet examen revêtune importance particulière en raison du large
pouvoir discrétionnaire qui est conféré à la Cour par l'article 62 du Sta-
tut, sans que soit encadrél'exercicede ce pouvoir. L'intervention a même
étéjugée((peut-êtrela plus difficile de [toutes les questions] que soulèvele

Réglement))"et lesjuges, lorsqu'ils ont examinéla question en 1968, ont
étéen mesure d'identifier pas moins de sept points, de fond et non de
procédure. restés non résolusdans le cadre de l'article 62.
7. Certains de ces points étaient si litigieux que, lorsque lesjuges de la

Cour permanente 11:sont étudiésen 19227,la Cour ((s'est complètement
partagée en deux camps)) sur certains d'entre eux et la décisionci-après
fut adoptée:

«En vue de ces opinions divergentes, la Cour fut d'accord pour ne
pas préjuger leisgravesquestions soulevéespar le droit d'intervention
et pour éviterd'interpréter le Statut; des questions concrètes pour-
raient êtrerésoluesau fur et à mesure qu'elles se présenteraient.))

Depuis lors, peu de lumièrenouvelle a été jetéesur ces questions, et les
principes qui les régissentdemeurent aussi obscurs aujourd'hui qu'hier.
8. Contrairement aux attentes de 1922, un grand nombre de questions

concernant l'application de l'article 62 restent pour l'essentiel non réso-
lues, n'ayant pas fa.itl'objet de décisions.Parmi les questions demeurées

Comitépour la revision du Règlement de la Cour (1968): rapport du comité(GEN
68/23y~i(rtc,. 306 (ci--après((comitédu Règlement n).8
(:P.J. .s<;D,cn"2. p.86-97.case law has failed to illuminate is that concerning the problems and
principles associated with the exercise of the Court's discretion under
Article 62.
9. As Judge Altamira observed in the 1922 discussions8, when

Article 62 was originally drafted, a régime of universal jurisdiction
for al1 States ipso fucto and for al1 disputes of a legal character was
envisaged. Hence an intervening State would automatically be subject to
the Court's jurisdiction. It was only later that the concept of compul-

sory jurisdiction was abandoned and the optional clause system took its
place, thus leaving the door wide open for different interpretations of
Article 62.

"Hence one school of thought in the Permanent Court felt that a
jurisdictional condition ought to be read into Article 62; but the
other objected that this would involve importing a limitation which
Article 62 did not, on its language, require.""

The present case is one which highlights this lacuna in the Court's juris-

prudence.
10. It is important to our discussion to note however, as Rosenne
points out "',that the retention of Article 62 despite the abandonment of
the principle of compulsory jurisdiction was not due to inadvertence or

carelessness as is sometimes supposed, but was a calculated and deliber-
ate decision as indicated by the report of 27 October 1920by Léon Bour-
geois to the Council of the League". Thus full effect must be given to it,
as it is an integral statutory provision which cannot be whittled away by
interpretation '*.

11. It enhances the importance of this subject to note that although it
may on first impression appear to relate to a merely procedural and inci-
dental matter, it is closely intertwined with substantive law and its devel-

opment. This was well illustrated in the first case to come before the
Court under Article 62, the case of Fiji's attempted intervention in the
case between Australia and France relating to nuclear testing. Doubts

V. C.1.J., Seric~~. No. 2. p. 89.
y Rules Revision Committee 1968, p. 310.
Io Rosenne, 1ntrri.c~nriotirn tllr Intrrnuliot~ulCourt of'Justicc,. 1993. pp. 27-28.
'' Report presented by the French representative, Mr. Léon Bourgeoisand adopted by
the Council of the League of Nations at its meeting atsels on 27October 1920.Docu-
ments concerning the action taken by the Council of the League of Nations under
Article 14of the Covenant and the Adoption by the Assembly of the Statute of the Per-
manent Court, p. 50.
l2 See generally Myres S. McDougal. Harold D. Lasswell and James C. Miller. Tlic~
Iritc,rprc,f(rngIi7trriic1tioAlgrc~c~rnrntsnd World Plrhlic 0rclr.r: Princi(J/Cotl-
rcnl irnd P~~orc~ilnrprp.. 156 ff.obscures en raison de la pauvreté de la jurisprudence figure l'important
domaine des problètnes et principes associésà l'exercice du pouvoir dis-
crétionnaire de la Cour en vertu de l'article 62.
9. Comnie l'avait fait observer le juge Altamira au cours des discus-

sions de 1922X,les rlidacteurs de l'article 62 avaient d'abord envisagéun
régimede juridiction universelle de tous les Etats ipso jircto à l'égardde
tous les différends de nature juridique. Ainsi, 1'Etat intervenant serait
automatiqueinent assujetti à la juridiction de la Cour. Ce n'est qu'ulté-
rieurement que le concept de juridiction obligatoire fut abandonné et que

le système de clause facultative y fut substitué, laissant ainsi la porte
grande ouverte à de:$interprétations divergentes de l'article 62.

((C'est pourquoi certains soutenaient, à la Cour permanente, que
l'on devait interpréter I'article 62 comme assorti d'une condition
juridictionnelle, tandis que d'autres objectaient que cela impliquerait
une restriction que, d'après son texte, l'article 62 ne comportait

pas. )>"
La présente espèce fait ressortir cette lacune de la jurisprudence de la

Cour.
10. 11importe cependant pour notre examen de noter, comme le rap-
pelle RosenneIu, qur: le maintien de l'article 62 en dépitde l'abandon du
principe de juridiction obligatoire ne fut pas le résultatd'une omission ou

de la négligencecorrime on le suppose parfois, mais une décision calculée
et délibérée, ainsique le montre le rapport présentéle 27 octobre 1920
par Léon Bourgeoisau Conseil de la Sociétédes Nations ". Cette disposi-
tion doit donc déployer tous ses effets, puisqu'elle fait partie intégrante
du Statut et qu'aucune interprétation ne saurait en éroder la portée".

11. On comprendra mieux l'importance de la question si l'on note que,
bien qu'à première vueelle puisse paraître ne concerner qu'un aspect pro-
cédural et incident, elle est intimement liéeau droit matériel et à son

développement. Ce fait ressort clairement de la première affaire dont ait
étésaisie la Cour en vertu de l'article 62, à savoir la tentative d'interven-
tion des Fidji dans l'affaire opposant l'Australie et la France à propos des

C.P.J.1. .sirDclri2.p. 89.
" Comitédu Règlement 1968. p. 310.
'" Rosenne, Ir~trri'airioniri !lie,Intc~rtiutionolCourt of'J1993, p. 27-18.
'' Rapport présentépar le représentant français. M. Léon Bourgeois. et adopté par le
Conseil de la Société desNationà sa réunion tenueà Bruxelles le 27 octobre 1920. Docu-
ments au sujet de mesures prises par le Conseil de la Sociétédes Nations aux termes de
l'article 14 di1 pacte et tle l'adoption par l'Assembléedu Statut de la Cour permanente.
p. 50.
l2 Voir de Iàçon généraleMyres S. McDougal. Harold D. Lasswell et James C. Miller.
Tl?<.Irrtc~rpr<,terf' Iti/<~riicitiotirrAlgrc,c,rlic,nt.e~rrlcllfirltl Pirhlic Orclc,r: Prin(,~pl<~(!sf
('or~t<~rrrrrtlProc.i~cp..156et suiv.were expressed at that time on the question whether atmospheric damage
through nuclear testing constituted an interest of a legal nature. Interna-
tional environmental law has progressed so far since then as to render

incontestable that this is an interest of a legal nature, thus effecting a
change in procedural consequences through a change in substantive law.
Numerous other areas of international activity can develop similarly in
the future.

12. Just as substantive law can thus interact with procedural law, so

also can procedural law affect substantive law, as we increasingly see in
the field ofhuman rights, where procedures such as due process cross the
border between substance and procedure to become substantive rights
themselves. So also, among States such phenomena as transborder data
Aow, international terrorism and environmental protection easily cross

over from the realm of procedure to that of substance and the lack of
clarity on matters of procedure can adversely affect substantial State
rights and their enjoyment.

Indeed intervention affords an example par excellence of the celebrated

observation that substantive law is often secreted in the interstices of pro-
cedure. The subject is therefore one of special importance, not merely in
the sphere of procedure but in the sphere of substantive law as well.

13. In the context of the paucity of international legal decisions on the
subject, any search for governing principles must draw heavily upon

comparisons and contrasts with intervention principles in domestic legal
systems. My contact with the latter leads me to conclude that this process
of comparison and contrast can throw much light on the jurisprudence
relating to international intervention procedures especially as they reveal
some important lacunae in the international arena which need attention
as indeed this case demonstrates. Among the areas where this process

could prove useful are the determination of what constitutes a legal inter-
est, the considerations that operate in favour of permitting intervention,
the object of the intervention and the exercise of the discretionary power
of the Court. It is important to seek out the reasons why a branch of
vigorous activity in domestic law, which has contributed substantially to
the development of domestic jurisprudence, should be so cramped and

ineffectual in international jurisprudence. The process of comparison
may well yield some insights which might reinvigorate this important
procedural mechanism in the field of international adjudication.essais nucléaires. A l'époque,des doutes avaient étéexpriméssur la ques-
tion de savoir si des dommages atmosphériques causés par les essais
nucléairesconstituaient un intérêtd'ordre juridique. Le droit internatio-
nal relatifA l'environnement a fait de tels progrès depuis lors qu'il est

devenu incontestable qu'il s'agitbien d'un intérêdt'ordre juridique; ainsi,
un changement dans le droit matériel entraîne des conséquences dans le
droit procédural. Une évolution semblable peut se produire à l'avenir
dans un grand nombre d'autres domaines de l'activitéinternationale.
12. Tout comme le droit matérielpeut avoir une incidence sur le droit
procédural, le droit procédural peut influencer le droit matériel. C'est ce

que nous observons de plus en plus dans le domaine des droits de
l'homme, où des procédures comme la procédure régulière (due procrss)
franchissent la frontière qui sépare le fond et la procédure pour devenir
eux-mêmesdes droits matériels. De mêmeentre les Etats, des phéno-
mènescomme les échangesde donnéestransfrontières, le terrorisme inter-
national et la protection de l'environnement quittent aisémentle royaume
de la procédure pouir entrer dans celui du fond et le manque de clartéen

matière de procédure peut compromettre les droits substantiels des Etats
et la jouissance par eux de ces droits.
En réalité,l'intervention est un exemple par excellence de l'adage cé-
lèbre selon lequel le droit matériel naît souvent dans les interstices de la
procédure. La question revêtdonc une importance particulière non seu-
lement dans le domaine de la procédure, mais également dans celui du

droit matériel.

13. Etant donné la rareté des décisionsinternationales sur la question,

la recherche de principes directeursdoit s'appuyer dans une grande mesure
sur l'établissementde comparaisons et de distinctions avec les principes
d'intervention appliqués en droit interne. Mon expériencede ce dernier
me mène a conclure que ce processus de comparaison peut considérable-
ment éclairerla jurisprudence relative à la procédure d'intervention inter-
nationale, car il révèledans ce domaine des lacunes importantes qui

exigent notre attention. comme le montre la présenteespèce.Au nombre
des points qui pourraient bénéficier'un tel examen,je mentionnerai la défi-
nition de ce qui constitue un intéret d'ordre juridique, les éléments qui
militent en faveur de l'admission d'une intervention, l'objet de I'interven-
tion et l'exercice du pouvoir discrétionnaire de la Cour. Il importe de
comprendre les raisons pour lesquelles une branche vigoureuse du droit
interne qui a apporté une contribution substantielle au développement de

la jurisprudence des Etats a connu si peu de développement et d'efficacité
sur le plan international. La comparaison livrera peut-êtredes éléments
de réflexionsusceptibles de redonner vigueur Ace mécanismede procédure
important dans le domaine de la justice internationale. 14. There is indeed much to be said for the view that intervention

plays an even more significant role in international than in domestic liti-
gation.

"It is obvious that the intervening State has a strong interest in
influencing the outcome of a judicial precedent which would be
likely to have a favourable or unfavourable impact upon its claims.
And it is exactly this strong interest and the particularity of the

I.C.J. as the World Court which give to the institution of interven-
tion in International Law a different and larger dimension than that
in Interna1 Law." ''

One must of course constantly bear in mind the consensual framework
of international litigation, which is a considerable distinguishingfactor so
far as questions of jurisdiction are involved '".

15. There are, as is to be expected, noteworthy differences between
intervention in domestic and international legal procedures but the ration-

ale underlying domestic systems offers some important overarching per-
spectives. In recognition of the importance of this process of comparison,
a comprehensive compilation by Professor Walter J. Habscheid of the
principles of intervention in various domestic systems was tendered to the

Court in the ContinetztulSlfelf' fTuni.siulLihlan Aruh Jumulzirii~o 2 ,i l5case.
That compilation can still be consulted wiih profit, for it surveys inter-
vention procedure in the Romanist, Gerrnanic, Anglo-saxon and social-
ist families of legal systems in a wide variety of national jurisdictions. On
the basis of this survey it draws certain generalconclusions relating to the

philosophy and underlying rationale of intervention procedure which
cannot be without value in international intervention jurisprudence. The
rutio legis of intervention as summarized in this study covers several
aspects, some of which are included in the analyses which follow.

16. These considerations need to be taken into account, t~zutatis
tnutandis, in deciding intervention in international law as well. They are
intensely relevant to the Court's exercise of its discretion in this case and

" Anna Madakou. Intrri~c,ntionhrJore rlrc,IntrrnrrtionrilCourt of Ju.sti<c,,Mémoire
présentéen vue de l'obtention du diplcime, Institut universitaire des hautes études inter-
nationales. Geneva. 1988. p. 14.
l4See Rosenne's note to this effect in Ltrii.rri~lPrrri,tic.cc,!f'tht,Iiil ourtOJioncrC
Ju.sri(~, 964. p. 216.
" See Volume III of the PIc~cr(1inigns that case. pp. 459-484. The compilation is titled
Walter J. Habscheid, Le.sc.ont/itions(leI'intrrirntioii vo1ontuir.cduns irnpro(.+.\(.ii.il(here-
inafter Habscheid). pp. 50-51. PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (OP. IND. WEERAMANTRY) 635

14. A vrai dire, l'idéeselon laquelle l'intervention joue un rôle encore

plus important dans le règlement des différends internationaux que dans
le droit interne n'est pas sans s'appuyer sur des arguments solides.

(<A l'évidence,I'Etat intervenant a fortement intérêtà influer sur
l'issue d'un précédentjudiciaire qui aura probablement une inci-
dence favorable ou défavorable sur ses prétentions. C'est précisé-
ment ce grand intérêe tt la place spécialequ'occupe la Cour interna-

tionale de Justice en tant que cour mondiale qui confèrent à
l'institution de l'intervention une dimension différente et plus large
en droit international qu'en droit interne.)) l3

II ne faut bien entendu jamais oublier le cadre consensuel du processus
international, ce qui constitue un facteur distinctif considérable lorsque
des questions de juridiction sont en jeu'j.

COMPARAISON ES DIÇTINC.TIONS À ÉTABLIR ENTRE INTERVENTION AU PLAN
NATIONAL ET INTERVENTION AU PLAN INTERNATIONAL

15. On constate sans étonnement qu'il existe des différencesnotables
entre les procédures d'intervention, selonqu'elles relèventdu droit national

ou du droit international, mais les fondements sur lesquels reposent les sys-
tèmes nationaux fournissent des élémentsimportants pour envisager la
question dans une perspective globale. C'est enraison de l'utilitéd'une telle
comparaison qu'une riche compilation des principes relatifs à l'intervention
dans différents systèmes nationaux, réaliséepar le professeur Walter

J.Habscheid, a été présentée i la Cour lors de l'affairedu Plut~uu~~otitit~entul
(Tunisic~lJur~z (crraheiihjyc.nnc 5. Ce document peut encore être
consultéavec profit, car il contient une description de la procédure d'inter-
vention dans les systèmesde droit des famillesjuridiques romaine, germa-

nique. anglo-saxonne et socialiste, et ce dans un grand nombre de pays
différents.Y sont forrnulées desconclusions généralessur la philosophie et
les fondements rationnels de la procédure d'intervention quine peuvent être
sans valeur pour la jurisprudence internationale. La ratio legis de I'inter-
vention, telle qu'elle est exposée dans cette étude, comprend plusieurs

aspects, dont quelques-uns sont abordés dans l'analyse qui suit.
16. Ces considérations doivent égalementêtreprises en compte, muta-
tis nlutunclis, lorsque les instances internationales sont appeléesà se pro-
noncer sur une intervention. Elles sont des plus pertinentes en ce qui

''Anna Madakou. Intl,ri.cwtion hc:/i~r.rtlic~Intc~rl ourtof'Jllsticc~,mémoire
présenteen vue de l'obtention du diplôme. Institut universitaire des hautes études inter-
nationales. Genève. 198p.14.
'-Voir la note de Rosennàcet effet dans L<rrlPruc.tic~f'tlrc,/~~t<~rticiollrrt
ojJu.stic.e.1964. p. 216.
''Voir le volume III dea plaidoiries dans cette affaire. p. 459-484. Walter J. Habscheid.
Les c,on</ition.s1/e,I'ir~fc~r.onloi~r<rirtc/,rrn.cun proc,?.\ civil (ci-après Habscheid),
p. 50-51.to the wide powers the Court enjoys under Article 62 of the Statute and
Article 84 of the Rules of Court.

The observations that follow are limited to intervention under
Article 62 of the Statute. lntervention under Article 63 involves many
other considerations not pertinent to applications under Article 62.

17. lntervention procedure both in domestic and international law is
based, inter ~rliaon the need for the avoidance of repetitive litigation as
well as the need for harmony of principle, for a multiplicity of cases

involving the same subject-matter could result in contradictory determi-
nations which obscure rather than clarify the applicable law.

18. Itis an interesting question whether the principles relating to inter-
vention, mutcrtis rnutundi.~,are part of the general principles imported
into the corpus of international law by Article 38 (i) (c) of the Statute. If

so, those general principles can be invoked for clarifying the terms of
Article 62, which by common agreement is neither a comprehensive nor a
clearlv formulated nrovision. Such considerations constitute an addi-
tional reason for a study of the principles of intervention in domestic law.
International law would disregard the insights obtainable from domestic
law in this sphere only at cost to itself.

19. The various aspects ofcomparison and contrast set out below have
much relevance to the exercise of the Court's discretion in the present
case. They involve, inter ulia,considerations of judicial policy. It is true,
as the Court observed in the caseconcerning the Contincntul She(f(Tuni-
siulLibj~an ArcrhJanic~l~iri~vaA ).pplicution for Penni.s.sio to Intervene
(Judgmrnt, I.C.J. Reports 1981, p. 12, para. 17),that Article 62, para-

graph 2, of the Statute does not confer on the Court "any general discre-
tion to accept or reject a request for permission to intervene for reasons
simply of policy". Yet such factors, when considered along with the par-
ticular circumstances of the case, can still assume relevance and impor-
tance. Indeed, Judge Schwebel indicated that the Court might reach a
certain conclusion for "significant considerations ofjudicial policy" (p. 35)

and Judge Oda likewise referred to "the viewpoint of future judicial
policy" and "the viewpoint of the economy of international justice"
(p. 31) These considerations of matters of policy were viewed by Judge
Jessup in a note in the American Journc~loJ'I/~fcr/iatiorzaL luitas "impor-
tant indications" of a judicial approach to these questionsIh. An exami-
nation of such policy considerations is thus not only legitimate but
necessary for understanding the operation of Article 62, paragraph 2,

of the Statute.

If75 AJIL, 1981.p. 904

65 PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (OP. IND. WEERAMANTRY) 636

concerne l'exercice par la Cour de son pouvoir discrétionnaire dans la
présente espèce etles vastes pouvoirs qui lui sont conféréspar I'article 62

du Statut et l'article 84 du Règlement de la Cour.
Les observations qui suivent ne concernent que l'intervention en vertu
de I'article 62 du Statut. L'intervention aux termes de I'article 63 fait
appel à beaucoup d'autres considérations qui ne sont pas pertinentes à
l'égard des requêtes présentée asu titre de I'article 62.

17. Tant dans le droit interne que dans le droit international, la pro-
cédure d'intervention répond. entre autres, à la nécessité d'éviterles li-
tiges répétitifs etd'assurer une harmonie de principe, car de multiples
affaires portant sur la mêmequestion pourraient donner lieu à des juge-
ments contradictoires qui obscurciraient le droit applicable plutôt que de

l'éclairer.
18. 11est intéressant de se demander si les principes relatifs à I'inter-
vention font partie. .mutatis rnutundis,des principes générauxintroduits
dans le droit international aux termes de l'alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de
I'article38 du Statut. Si tel est le cas, ces principes peuvent êtreinvoqués

pour préciserle sens de I'article 62, dont tous conviennent qu'il n'est ni
complet ni formuléavec clarté. C'est là une raison supplémentaire d'étu-
dier les principes régissant l'intervention en droit interne. Négliger les
enseignements des systèmes nationaux à cet égard ne pourrait qu'être
préjudiciable au droit international.

19. Les différents aspects des comparaisons et distinctions qui seront
établies plus loin sont très pertinentsà l'égardde l'utilisation par la Cour
de son pouvoir discrétionnaire dans la présente espèce.Ils font notam-
ment appel à des considérations d'opportunité judiciaire. 11 est vrai,
comme la Cour l'a rappelédans l'affaire concernant le Pluteuu conlinen-

tri1 ( Tunisic~l./utnnhiriy~1rcrbc1libyenne), requête N ,fin d'intervention
(C. IJ. Recueil 1981, urrêt, p. 12, par. 17). que le paragraphe 2 de l'ar-
ticle 62 du Statut ne c-onfere Dasà la Cour «une sorte de v ou voirdiscré-
tionnaire lui permettant d'accepter ou de rejeter une requêteà fin d'inter-
vention pour de simples raisons d'opportunité)). Pourtant, de tels facteurs,

lorsqu'ils sont examinés en parallèle avec les circonstances particulières
de I'espéce,peuvent néanmoins avoir leur pertinence et leur importance.
D'ailleurs, M. Schwebel a dit que la Cour pouvait formuler certaines
conclusions en raison «[d]'importantes considérations d'opportunité judi-
ciaire)) (p.35) et M. Oda a, de son côté, parlédu ((point de vue de la

politique judiciaire future)) et du ((point de vue de la bonne administra-
tion de la justice internationale)) (p. 31). Dans une note publiée dans
I'Amcricrrn Journcil O,"Inrc~rnationcrl Lait,le juge Jessup voyait dans ces
considératioi-isd'opportunité d'«importantes indications)) pour l'examen
de ces questions dans le cadre judiciaire '".Il est donc non seulement Iégi-

time, mais aussi indispensable, d'examiner ces aspects si l'on veut com-
prendre le fonctionnement du paragraphe 2 de l'article 62 du Statut.

"'AJIL. vol. 751981,p. 904.

6 5 A. Policy Considcvutions irzFuvour. 01 'nter alcmriun

20. There are several factors which would incline the Court towards
permitting an intervention if a party should be able to demonstrate an
"interest of a legal nature" in terms of Article 62.

(a) Fuctors corilmon to ciomr.stic~ und intcn~utionul litigutiorî

- From the Court's point of view there is economy of justice, enabling
the Court to dispose in one case of disputes that nlight otherwise
require two or more separate cases.

- From the intervener's point of view it is offered an opportunity,
although not already party to the litigation, to protect its rights
within the context of the existing litigation without having to institute
a separate action for this purpose.

- From the community's point of view there is a public interest in dis-
posing of as much controversy as possible in the least time": ir~tcre.st
rci publiccrr ut sit Jnis litiunî.
- In contentious litigation in both domestic and international forums
the court gains its factual information from the material placed

before it by the parties. Parties place before the Court information
pertinent to their respective cases. The Court does not necessarily
have the whole picture of the setting in which the dispute takes place.
It may well be that some circumstances material to the whole pro-

ceeding are consequently left out. Thus it enables the Court to be
possessed of a fuller background of information relating to the
subject-matter of its decision.
- "Third parties furnish elements of law and fact; this insures that the
decision will conform to the truth, and therefore with justice, so that

the authority and credibility of justice do not suffer." ''

- Parties may even act in collusion, against a third party Iy.

- There is an avoidance of a risk of contrary judgments on the same
subject-matter.
- A second judge will take a first decision into con~ideration'~,
especially if the decision introduces changes into the applicable legal
doctrine2'.

l7Atlrrtrrv. CI)~itcvSltui(is. 379 F. 2d 824 cited by Habscheid. p. 480.
l8Habschcid. pp. 479-480.
'"Santiago Torres Bernirdez. "L'intervention dans la procédure de la Cour Interna-
tionale de Justicc".Rcc,irc,ilr/cz.s(.ours (11,I'A<~ciiI~ri(~1i.ct~lroii inLu~rHu!.c~.ne(rIlc,
Vol. 256. 1995.pp. 193-457(hereinafter Torres BernArdez).p. 226.
'" Habschcid, p.480.
" Torrcb Rernirdcz. p. 226.A. Consid6rrition.s cïopportunité judiciuire militanf en ,fuvrur de l'inter-
vention

20. Plusieurs facteurs pourront amener la Cour à admettre une inter-
vention si la partie cherchant à intervenir est en mesure de démontrer
qu'elle a un ((intérêtd'ordrejuridique)) au sens de l'article 62.

a) Fcrcteurs cornniuns LIU.Y ordres n~rtionul rt ititc~rncitionrrl

- La Cour estime que l'intervention servira l'économieprocédurale, car
elle lui permettra de trancher en une seule affaire des différends qui

exigeraient autrement deux ou plusieurs affaires distinctes.
- L'intervenant se voit offrir la possibilité,bien qu'il ne soit pas partie
à l'affaire, de protéger ses droits dans le cadre d'une instance déjà
engagée,sans devoir en introduire une nouvelle.

II est de l'intérêd te la collectivitéque le plus grand nombre de litiges
possible soit résoludans les délaisles plus courts " :interest rei publi-

car ut sit ,finis litizmi.
En matière contentieuse, dans lesjuridictions tant nationales qu'inter-
nationales, le tribunal tire l'information factuelle des pièces qui lui
sont présentéespar les parties. Chaque partie communique au tribu-

nal l'information pertinente à l'égardde ses propres thèses. Le tribu-
nal ne connaît donc pas nécessairement l'ensemble des éléments qui
entourent I'affaire. Par conséquent, il est très possible que certaines

circonstances intéressant l'espècesoient passéessous silence. Le tri-
bunal peut ainsi être en possession d'une information de base plus
complète sur la question qu'il doit trancher.
Les tiers fournissent à la Cour «des élémentsde droit et de fait)); ce

qui assure (tune décision conforme à la vérité,car seul un tel juge-
ment peut être une décisionjuste)) et évitedes décisions «qui nui-
raient à l'autorité et i la crédibilitéde la justice)) lx.

II peut mêmearriver qu'il y ait collusion entre les parties contre un
tierslY.
On évitele risque que desjugements contraires soient rendus sur une

même question.
Un deuxièmejuge prendra en considération un premier jugement2",
s~irtout dans le cas où cejugement introduit des changements dans la
doctrine".

" Atlunri.1..Etuts-Uni.c379 F. 2d. p. 824, citépar Habscheid. p.480.
lx Habscheid. p. 479-480.
"'Santiago Torres Bernirdez. ((L'interverition dans la procédure de la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice»,Rcc,ucilc/c~.cs~ot/cI'/l(~ut/c;tizi(e/. ttroit inrc,rnutioncrl(/c,Lu Hcij.c,.
vol. 256. 1995.p. 193-457(ci-aprèsTorres Bernardez). p. 226.
"' Habscheid. p. 480.
'' Torres Bernirdez, p. 226.- The same judge would be even more inclined to follow a previous
decision 22.

- There is an avoidance of needless repetitive judgments.
- It enables the Court to deliver a more effective and harmonious judg-
ment, having taken into account the direct and indirect interest of al1

parties concerned.

(b) Fuctor.~peculiur to intcrnutionul lirigution

- The drafting history of Article 62 clearly shows an intention to enable
intervention notwithstandingthe rule that judgments of the Court are
only binding inrer partc.s.

- The role of the International Court of Justice reaches beyond mere
resolution of disputes towards comprehensive conflict prevention.

"The great persuasive authority (as declarations or expositions of the
law) which the decisions of the Court normally possess, with a result-

ing influence, at least de,fac.to, on the legal interest of al1State~."?~

- The International Court plays a dual role as court of first instance

and court of last resort. As court of first instance its findings or
assumptions on questions of fact have a finality which domestic
courts do not enjoy. This makes it doubly important that its findings

of fact be based on as complete a picture as possible.

- In international law, the International Court of Justice tends to use

past decisions as pre~edent~~and, in any event, the Court may not
annul its decisions. As Judge Jennings put it in the Continental Shelf
(Lihyun Aruh JamulziriyulMaltuj case, "the slightest acquaintance

with the jurisprudence of this Court shows that Article 59 does by no
manner of means exclude the force of persuasive pre~edent"~~.

Only parties to a dispute may request interpretation or revision of a
decision by the International Court of Justice (a procedure similar to
the French tierce opposition does not exi~t)~~.

>'Habscheid, p. 480.
"' Fitzmaurice, "The Law and Procedure of the Internatiuiial Court of Justice (1951-
1954): Questions of Jurisdiction. Cornpetence and Procedure". 34 British Yeur Book of'
htc,rnutionnl Lrric. 1958,p. 126.
24 Torres Bernirdez, p. 227, citing Judge Jennings in Contit~cntulShelf'(Lihyun Aruh
JuniuhiriyulMultu), Judgnlrnt, I.C'.. Rtport.~ lYN4.p. 157.
'5 Judgment. I C7.. Ri~ppor.Ys84. p. 157.
'" Torres Bernirdez, p.228. PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (OP. IND. WEERAMANTRY) 638

- Le même juge serait encore plus enclin a suivre sa première sen-
tence "".
- On évitelesjugements répétitifs inutiles.
- La cour peut rendre un jugement plus efficace et plus harmonieux,

puisqu'elle aura pris en compte l'intérêt direct et indirectde toutes les
parties concernées.

b) Fucteurs purticuliers à l'ordre international

L'histoire de la rédaction de l'article 62 montre de façon non équi-
voque que les rédacteurs souhaitaient permettre l'intervention en
dépit de la règleselon laquelle les décisionsde la Cour ne sont obliga-

toires que pour les parties.
Le rôle de la Cour internationale de Justice ne se limite pas au seul
règlement des différends, mais s'étendà la prévention généraliséd ees
conflits.

«Le grand pouvoir de persuasion (en tant que déclarations ou énon-
césde droit) que possèdent normalement les décisionsde la Cour et
l'influence qu'elles ont par conséquent, au moins de fait, sur l'intéret
d'ordre juridique de tous les Etats.~'~

La Cour internationale joue le double rôle de tribunal de première
instance et de tribunal de dernière instance. A titre de vremière ins-
tance, ses conclusions ou hypothèses relatives a des questions de fait
revêtentun caractère final dont sont dévourvues celles des tribunaux

nationaux. Ilest donc doublement important que ses conclusions sur
les faits soient fondées sur le tableau le plus complet possible de la
situation.
En droit international, la Cour internationale de Justice tend à uti-

liser ses décisions passéescomme des précédents24et en tout état
de cause la Cour ne peut casser ses sentences. Ainsi que l'a dit
M. Jennings dans l'affaire du Plntruu continental (Jamuhiriya uruhr
IihyenneIMalte), ((ilsuffit d'étudier tant soit peu la jurisprudence de

la Cour pour constater que l'article 59 n'exclut en aucune façon
l'autorité du précident n2'.
Seules les parties ;i un différend peuvent demander une interprétation
ou la revision d'une décision de la Cour internationale de Justice

(il n'existe pas de procédure analogue à la ticrcr opposition fran-
çaise) '".

" Habscheid. p. 480.
'< Fitzmaurice, <<TheLaw and Procedure of the International Court of Justice (1951-
1954) :Questions of Jurisdiction. Competence and Procedure ». Brifish Your Book oJ'
I~itc~rntrtionuLltric,,vol. 34, 1958. p. 126.
'4 Torres BernBrdez. p.227, citant M. Jennings dans Pluterru confinenfol (Jufl7u/lirij~u
rrruhclih~~nnc~IMultc~c)i,rr.f,.1.J. Recuc1984. p. 157.
C'.J. Rri,uril1984,c~rrPt.p. 157.
", Torres Bernirdez, p. 228.- In international law, a third party rnay not be in a position to sue in
order to protect its rights".

21. Considerations which may operate against intervention being
granted include:

- States rnay tend to avoid referring disputes to the Court if they fear
that third States rnay interfere with the proceedings by intervention.

- It could give States a facility to achieve indirectly by way of interven-
tion what they cannot achieve directly, unless there is the requirement

of a jurisdictional link.
- "International law in its historical evolution has shown a general
reticence towards third party interference in the judicial (or arbitral)

settlement of bilateral di~putes."'~
- "If an unrestrained right of intervention should be permissible on the
international plane, it would seem that nearly every third State would

be able to identify sonie 'interest' in any international di~pute."'~
- The fact that the rights of third States are protected by the rule that
the decisions of the Court are binding only inrcr partes.

- A State rnay see an advantage to itself which has been described in
the literature30 as a "free ride", namely a chance to submit arguments
while "it would not be submitting its own claims to decision by the
Court nor be exposing itself to counter claims"". In other words it

would be able to enjoy the benefits of entering the proceedings with-
out assuming the obligations of a party to the case within the mean-
ing of the Statute.

- The private suitor has an interest in having no third party meddle
with his suit 32.
- The procedure could in effect be used to prejudge the merits of the

intervener's claim against one of the parties to the case but in relation
to a different dispute which is not before the Court. This was a basis
for the Court's refusal to grant Malta's Application for intervention

in the case first referred to.

- There rnay be room for using the procedure of intervention to obtain

what rnay in effect be a "quasi-advisory opinion" in the sense that the

" Torres Berriirdez. p. 228.
" Shabtai Roxnne, 111to.vr~rrtioin n tlrc Intcrrirrtiorilourt (!f'Ju.sric~r.93, p. 190.
" V. S. Mani. Iwrc~rn(rtioriuA1diircli<,trtion:Procc~r/urrl.spr~ct.s1.980. p. 250.
2'See Anna Madakou. Irîtrri~c,ntion h(:for.tire Int<~rr~citioruolurt of'Jlrsticc,, 1988.
p. 83.
" Contirii,ritulSIr<,(Turii.sirilLih~~Arruh Jcir~icrl~iri~~Ar)p.lic,<rtior,fiiv Pcrrrri.~.\iotror
Int<~r.i~,rici,r,(/gnic,rit.1.CIJ. R1,port.s1981, pp. 19-20.
.'Habscheid, p. 480. citing A11otrfi.rv. Cilitcd Stcitcof Artrc~ric,c3r7.9 2d 824. En droit international, une tierce partie peut ne pas être enmesure
d'intenter une action pour protéger ses droits27.

B. Considc5r~1tiond.r 'opportunitéjurliciczirrmilitunt contre l'intervention

21. Les élémentsqui peuvent militer contre l'admission d'une interven-
tion sont notammeni les suivants:

- Les Etats pourraient s'abstenir de renvoyer leurs différends devant la
Cour s'ilscraignent que des Etats tiers puissent s'immiscer dans l'ins-

tance par le biais de I'intervention.
- La voie de l'intervention pourrait être empruntée par les Etats pour
obtenir indirecternent ce qu'ils n'ont pu obtenir directement, sauf si le

lien juridictionnel est obligatoire.
- «Au cours de son évolution, le droit international a généralement
répugné i accorder à des tiers le droit d'intervenir dans le règlement

judiciaire (ou arbitral) des différends bilatéraux. ))28
- (<Siun droit illimitéd'intervenir était reconnu sur le plan internatio-
nal, presque tous les Etats tiers pourraient sans doute trouver dans
tout différend international un ((intérêt)q )uelconque.»29

- Les droits des Etats tiers sont protégéspar la règleselon laquelle les
décisionsde la Cour ne sont obligatoires que pour les parties.
- Un Etat peut êtreincitéà intervenir par la possibilitéde profiter de ce

que d'aucun~'~ont qualifiéde «billet de faveur)), a savoir l'occasion
de développer des arguments alors qu'il ((ne soumettrait pas ses
propres prétentions à la décision de la Cour et ne s'exposerait à

aucune demande reconventionnelle»". En d'autres termes, cet Etat
pourrait bénéficierdes avantages de la participation à l'instance, sans
les obligations qui incombent aux parties aux termes du Statut.
- Le demandeur privén'a pas intérêtà ce qu'une tierce partie s'ingère

dans sa po~rsuite'~.
- La procédure d'intervention pourrait en définitiveêtreutiliséepour
préjuger au fond une prétention que fait valoir l'intervenant i l'en-

contre de l'une des parties i l'instance, mais dans un autre différend
dont la Cour n'a pas à connaître. Ce fut l'un des motifs invoqués
par la Cour pour refuser d'admettre la requête d'intervention de

Malte dans l'affaire mentionnée plus haut.
- Il est possible de se servir de la procédure d'intervention pour obtenir
à toutes fins pratiques un ((quasi-avisconsultatif)), I'Etat intervenant

" Torres Bernirdez, p. 228.
'H Shi~btaiRosenne. Intt~rvc,tzriin tlir Infei.nrrtionu1Co~tf.Justice. 1993. p. 190.
" V. S. Mani. ItitorntrtioriuiAtijirriic,utioti:Procc,durulAspc~cts,1980. p. 250.
"' Voir Anna Madakou. ltitc~ri~rniiorhiqfi)rc.III<I,titcrtiuti~trulCO/'Jusric.e, 1988.
p. 83.
Plutc,rrucontinc~nttil(TunisirlJ(rmuIiirii.(iuruhr lih~cnrir~.ràqfin ti'intc~rrention.
trrrc'i.C.I.J. Rrc,lr1981,p. 20.
j' Habscheid. p. 480, oii il cite l'affaire Alluntis c. Etuts-Unis ti'Ari16.79 F. 2d.
p. 874.640 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (SEP.OP.WEERAMANTRY)

intervening State has the opportunity of asking the Court to make
some pronouncement or observation bearing on its rights which,
while not being a judgment on its own claims, in effect expresses an
opinion directly or indirectly concerning them. Whether such an

option was within the intent of the framers of Article 62 is open to
doubt.
- The Court, while being conscious that parties may be discouraged

from litigation by the possibility of an unwanted intrusion of third
parties into the case, would not neglect its responsibilities as custo-
dians of justice for the entire international community.

- Intervention may not be necessary because it would be possible for
the Court, "while replying in a sufficiently substantial way to the
questions raised in the Special Agreement" to take into account the
interests of other States as well, as indeed the Court said it would in

the case concerning the Continentul Shclf' (Lihyun Aruh Jun~uhiriyul
Multa), Applicution /Or Pc~rmissionto Interi~c~ne~~.
- In the Legul Stutus of' Eustern Greenl~nd~~case, the Permanent
Court observed

"Another circumstance which must be taken into account by
any tribunal which has to adjudicate upon a claim to sovereignty
over a particular territory, is the extent to which the sovereignty is
also claimed by some other Power."

This observation, cited with approval by this Court in the case
concerning the Confinrntul Sl~elf'(Lihyurz Arub Jurnul~iriyulMultu),
Applicution ,for. Permission to Intcrvc~ne5, would offer some protec-
tion to third States and lessen the need for intervention. but it does

not, with respect, give much satisfàction to a party who is unable to
place before the Court the material on which it relies in support of its
claim.
The Court does not decide auestions of title "in the absolute" but

"has to determine which of tie Parties has produced the more con-
vincing proof of title"'h. This is a consequence which follows from
the adversarial rather than the inquisitorial nature of the proceedings
before the Court. Its decision does not therefore foreclose the issues

in which the third State is interested.

All of these could in one way or another influence a court against
granting an application for intervention. In varying degrees they may
assume relevance in the particular circumstances of each case, having

" I.CJ. Reports 1984, pp. 25-26.
34P.C.1J..Series AIB.No. 53, p.46.
'5J~d~qment,1.C.J. Reports 1984. p. 26.
jf>Ihid. p. 27, quoting language of the International Court of Justice used in Minq~~ic>r.s
ur~dEcrc,lro.\,Jud,yr~i<,riIt.,C.J. Rvporr.~19.53,p. 52. PUI.AU LICIT.4N ET PULAU SIPADAN (OP. IND. WEERAMANTRY) 640

y trouvant l'occasion de demander à la Cour un prononcé ou une
observation ayant une portée sur ses propres droits qui, sans consti-
tuer un jugement sur ses prétentions, est l'expression directe ou indi-

recte d'une opillion s'y rapportant. 11est permis de se demander si
telle était l'interition des rédacteurs de l'article 62.

La Cour, tout en comprenant que les parties pourraient hésiterà lui

soumettre leurs différendssachant que des tiers pourraient s'immiscer
contre leur grédans l'affaire, ne négligerait pas son devoir à titre de
gardienne de la justice pour l'ensemble de la communauté internatio-
nale.

L'intervention peut ne pas êtrenécessaire, puisque la Cour pourrait
«tout en répondant de manière suffisamment substantielle aux ques-
tions posées par le compromis)) prendre en compte les intérêtsdes
autres Etats également,comme la Cour a d'ailleurs dit qu'elle le ferait

dans l'affaire du Pluteuu continrntul (Jurnuhiriyu uruhr lihj~ennel
Multe), royuFt~ùjin (I'intcrvcntion".
Dans l'affaire du Srcitut juridiyue du GroCnland la Cour
permanente fit cibserver:

«Une autre circonstance, dont doit tenir compte tout tribunal
ayant à trancher une question de souveraineté sur un territoire
particulier, est la mesure dans laquelle la souveraineté est égale-
ment revendiquée par une autre Puissance. ))

Cette observation, que la Cour actuelle a reprise iison compte dans
I'affaire du Plutcuu continental (Jumuhiriyu urrihr IibyrnneIMulte),
requFtcù,fin d'intervention ji,assure une certaine protection aux Etats
tiers et réduit la nécessitéde l'intervention, mais il me sera permis de

constater qu'elle n'est pas de nature ii satisfaire une partie qui est
dans l'incapacitéde faire valoir devant la Cour les arguments sur les-
quels elle fonde :sesthèses.
- La Cour ne statue pas «dans l'absolu)) sur les questions de titre, mais

elle «doit rechercher laquelle des Parties a produit la preuve la plus
convaincante d'un titre»?('. C'est la une conséquence du caractère
contradictoire et non inquisitoire de la procédure de la Cour. La déci-
sion de la Cour n'exclut donc pas les questions qui intéressent 1'Etat

tiers.

Tous ces éléments peuvent motiver, d'une manière ou d'une autre, le
rejet par la Cour d'une demande d'intervention. Ils peuvent, à des degrés
divers, se révélerpertinents selon les circonstances de l'affaire, compte

" C.I.J. Recu~il984.p. 25-26.
2VC.P.J.I. .si.rirAIB no53. p. 46.
IF C.I.J.Rvc~irl984, [irr<:f.p. 26.
'hIhid., p. 27. citation de I'arrètde la Cour internationale de Justice dans Mriquicjrs
Ec.r<;hou.s..1.J. Rrcuclil 195.3.p. 52.regard to the wide discretion the Court enjoys on the grant or refusal of
an application for intervention.

C. Differencc~sbeiitven Donlestic und Intern~~tionalIntervention
Procedures

22. The differences between domestic and international procedures
include the following :
- First of al1 it needs to be observed that domestic intervention law

allows of two forms of intervention - compulsory and voluntary.
The former, based as it is on the domestic court's compulsory juris-
diction over its subjects, does not have its counterpart in interna-
tional law.

- International relations are so complex and far-reaching that even
though a particular judgment may not be binding upon a State it may
still have repercussions on its immediate interests, as where nuclear
testing may affect neighbouring States.

- If a requirement of a jurisdictional link be imposed, States which will
obviously be affected would not necessarily have the capacity to
intervene, which would be almost taken for granted in a correspond-

ing domestic situation. Since the question of a jurisdictional link does
not arise in the case of domestic litigation in view of its compulsory
nature, there is here a hiatus in the fabric of international justice. This
can have repercussions of varying degrees of intensity, depending

upon the closeness of another dispute to the issues determined by the
case in hand.
- If a requirement of a jurisdictional link be imposed, numerous situa-
tions could arise where a State would be prevented from asserting its

position on matters important to itself, for example the interpretation
of a treaty to which it is not a Party, which interpretation once given
by the International Court would tend to be followed even in disputes
between other parties.

- The pre-eminent position of the International Court, situated as it is
at the apex of the international judicial structure, attracts special
recognition to its pronouncements, even in matters indirectly related
to the particular dispute before the Court. This situation does not

arise to the same degree in domestic litigation.
- In international litigation, where a certain confidentiality attaches to
the pleadings of the original parties, the prospective intervener is
under a handicap in relation to formulating its intervention. This is a

provision that can operate harshly against such an intervener who to
some extent has to work in the dark. Domestic law does not in gen-
eral impose such a limitation, as the pleadings of both parties would
be easily obtainable.This aspect assumes special importance in a case

such as the present.
- The question of a consensual link does, of course, arise in arbitration PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (OP. IND. WEERAMANTRY) 641

tenu du large pouvoir discrétionnaire dont jouit la Cour pour admettre
ou rejeter de telles requêtes.

C. Di[)2rences entre les proci.durc.r d'intervention cn droit intrrnc et cn

droit international

22. Les différences entre le droit interne et le droit international en
matière d'intervention sont notamment les suivantes:

- Rappelons tout d'abord que le droit interne distingue deux formes
d'intervention: l'intervention obligatoire et l'intervention volontaire.
La première, fondéesur lajuridiction obligatoire du tribunal national
sur ses sujets, n'a pas d'équivalent en droit international.

- La complexité et les ramifications des relations internationales sont
telles que, mêmesi un jugement n'est pas obligatoire pour un Etat, il

peut quand mêrneavoir des répercussions sur ses intérêts immédiats,
par exemple lorsque des essais nucléaires peuvent toucher les Etats
voisins.
- Si le lien juridictionnel est obligatoire, certains Etats touchésde façon

évidenten'auront pas nécessairement la possibilitéd'intervenir, alors
que cette possibilité est quasiment garantie en droit interne. Etant
donné que la question du lien juridictionnel ne se pose pas dans les
litiges internes en raison du caractère obligatoire de la procédure, il y

a un hiatus dans le tissu de lajustice internationale. Ce fait peut avoir
des conséquences plus ou moins marquées, selon que les questions en
cause dans une affaire sont plus ou moins liées à un autre différend.

- Si le lien juridictionnel est obligatoire, les Etats pourront, dans de
nombreux cas, êtreempêchésde faire valoir leur position sur des
questions importantes pour eux, par exemple l'interprétation d'un

traité auquel ils ne sont pas parties, interprétation qui, une fois énon-
céepar la Cour internationale de Justice, aura tendance à s'imposer
mêmedans les différendsentre d'autres parties.
- La position éminente de la Cour internationale de Justice, qui occupe

le sommet de l'édificejudiciaire international, confère à ses dires une
résonance particulière, mêmesur des questions n'ayant qu'un rapport
indirect avec l'affaire sur laquelle elle se prononce. La situation ne se
pose pas dans la mêmemesure dans les litiges nationaux.

- Dans les différends internationaux. le caractère relativement confi-
dentiel des écritures et plaidoiries des parties originelles désavantage
l'intervenant potentiel lorsqu'il veut formuler sa requête. Obligé dans
une certaine mesure de travailler dans le noir, l'intervenant peut en

être fortement handicapé. Le droit interne n'impose habituellement
pas une telle ri:striction, car les écritures et plaidoiries des deux
parties sont facilement accessibles. Cet aspect revêtune importance
particulière dans une espècecomme celle-ci.

- Certes, la question du lien consensuel intervient dans les procédures642 PULAU LIGITAN AND PlJLAU SIPADAN (SEP.OP. WEERAMANTRY)

proceedings but an important distinction must be made here between
determinations of the International Court and arbitral awards. The

latter are totally without effect upon non-parties while the former,
despite the inter-parties rule, do affect non-parties owing to the
weight and authority attaching to decisions of the Court, especially
on matters of law.

- As already observed, the role of the International Court necessarily
comprises not merely the settlement of the immediate dispute before
it, but also the development and clarification of international law.
This responsibility weighs particularly heavily on the International
Court. This is to some extent offset by the principle that a "legal

interest" under Article 62 does not cover an interest merely in clari-
fying or developing the law. Yet, while resolving the immediate dis-
pute before it, the International Court needs also to take a somewhat
wider perspective than a domestic court.

A possible (though debatable) further difference is that domestic
courts can view the disputes before them through narrow lenses
focused exclusively on the two parties and the immediate dispute,
excluding a vision of the wider Ïandscape beyond. An international

court cannot afford to do this, least of al1the International Court of
Justice. As already observed, the International Court of Justice is
obliged, while adjudicating upon the rights of the two immediate
parties, to have regard to the rights of other States even though they

may not be parties to the dispute. In the Monetary Gold case for
example, a third party's - Albania's - rights needed to be protected
even though that State was not a party and did not request to inter-
vene" in litigation to which several other States - Italy, United

States of America, France, the United Kingdom - were parties. In
such a case in domestic litigation, the court would perhaps have com-
pulsorily joined Albania. In that case, the Court had necessarily to
protect Albania's interests which were the very subject of the litiga-
tion.

- Another important difference is that the International Court does not
merely resolve the immediate dispute in hand but plays a role in pre-
ventive diplomacy and comprehensive conflict resolution. Sir Robert
Jennings as President of the Court stressed this role of the Court in

his report to the General Assembly on 8 November 1991 3X,when he
observed that the procedure of the Court was

"beginning to be seen as a resort to be employed in a closer rela-
tionship with normal diplomatic negotiation. No longer is resort
to the International Court of Justice seen, to use the traditionalarbitrales, mais il convient d'établir une distinction importante entre
les décisionsde la Cour internationale et les sentences arbitrales. Ces
dernières sont absolument sans effet sur les non-parties alors que les

premières, en dépit de la règle ir?tcrpurtes, ont-vraiment des-effets
pour les non-parties en raison du poids et de l'autorité rattachés aux
décisionsde la Cour, en particulier sur les questions de droit.
Comme je l'ai déjà dit, le rôle de la Cour internationale de Justice
englobe nécessairement, au-delà du simple règlement du différend

dont elle est saisie dans l'immédiat,le développement et I'éclaircisse-
ment du droit international. C'est la une responsabilité particulière-
ment lourde pour la Cour. Dans une certaine mesure, cette responsa-
bilité est allégédeu fait que l'«intérêtd'ordre juridique)) au sens de
l'article62 ne peut êtreun simple intérêtau regard de I'éclaircisse-
ment ou du développement du droit. Pourtant, lorsqu'elle tranche le

différenddont elle est saisie, la Cour internationaledoit aussi adopter
une perspective un peu plus large qu'un tribunal national.
Une autre diffkrence possible (quoique moins certaine) est que les tri-
bunaux nationaux peuvent regarder les litiges par le petit bout de la
lorgnette et centrer leur attention de façon exclusive sur les deux

parties et sur le différend immédiat, en écartant de leur champ de
vision le paysage environnant. Un tribunal international ne peut se
permettre de faire cela, et encore moins la Cour internationale de Jus-
tice. Rappelons-le, la Cour internationale de Justice est obligée,
lorsqu'elle statue sur les droits des deux parties immédiates, de tenir

compte desdroits des autres Etats. mêmenon parties à I'affaire. Dans
I'affaire del'Or nlonétuire,par exemple, les droits d'une tierce partie
(l'Albanie) devaient êtreprotégésmêmesi cet Etat n'était pas partie
et n'avait pas demandé à intervenir3' dans un litige auquel plusieurs
autres Etats -- l'Italie, les Etats-Unis d'Amérique, la France, le

Royaume-Uni - étaient parties. Si une telle affaire s'était présentée
devant un tribunal national, le tribunal y aurait peut-êtrejoint 1'Alba-
nie d'office. En l'espèce,la Cour devait nécessairement protéger les
intérêtsde l'Albanie, qui étaient au cŒur mêmedu litige.
L'autre différence importante est que la Cour internationale ne se
borne pas à réglerles différends dont elle connaît, mais joue un rôle

en matière de diplomatie préventive et de solution généraliséedes
conflits. Sir Robert Jennings a soulignéce rôle de la Cour lorsqu'il a
présenté,en tant que président, le rapport de la Cour à l'Assemblée
généralele 15octobre 19933XI .I a fait observer à cette occasion que la
procédure de la Cour

«commence à êtreconsidéréecomme un recours qui doit être uti-
liséen relation plus étroite avec les négociations diplomatiques

normales. L,erecours à la Cour internationale de Justice n'est plus643 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULA17 SIPADAN (SEP. OP.WEERAMANTRY)

phrase, as a 'last resort' when al1 negotiation has finally failed.

Rather, it is sometimes now to be seen as a recourse that might
usefully be employed at an earlier stage of the dispute." 39

This can well have repercussions on its procedure and the interpre-
tation of its procedural rules, especially in regard to intervention.

23. These are some of the background factors that lie behind the exer-
cise by the Court of its discretion under Article 62. The exercise of this

extremely wide discretion involves the delicate balance of a series of con-
siderations which are not always articulated40 and assumevarying degrees
of importance in the context of each particular case. Their enumeration
could be of assistance both in the evaluation of particular cases and in

the general development of this important branch of law.
1shall now proceed to consider some of the specific issues that arise in
this case.

24. The Court's jurisdiction is consensual. This distinguishes interna-
tional from domestic jurisdictions.

(i) Tension bctivec~nArtic.1~6 . 2of' the Stutute und the Consensual
Principle

25. Despite the consensual basis of theCourt's jurisdiction and despite
the principle that the Court's judgment is binding only between the
parties, the Statute finds a place for Article 62 which States:

"Should a State consider that it has an interest of a legal nature
which may be affected by the decision in the case, it may submit a

request to the Court to be permitted to intervene."
Whether this provision was deliberately retained4' or not, the fact is

that the Statute expressly provides for intervention without any consen-
sual restrictions being imposed upon it.
26. There are no words in Article 62 indicative of an intent to restrict
the right to intervene only to States which have already submitted to the

jurisdiction.

" See also I.C.J. Yeurhook 1991-1992,p. 211. for a previous address by Sir Robert
Jennings to the General Assembly to the effect that resort to the Court should be seen "as
an integral part of the work of preventive diplomacy in the United Nations".

4" The considerable academic literature on the inarticulate premises of judicial reason-
ing becomes relevant here. For a basic reference see Julius Stone, &sstc~rund Luit,-
JPI.S'R~t/.\otzing.964.
-" See vlrprrpara. IO. considéré,pour utiliser l'expression traditionnelle, en tant que
«dernier recours», quand toutes les autres négociations ont
échoué. Au contraire, il est parfois considérécomme un recours
pouvant êtrejudicieusement utiliséau début du différend. »jY

Cette évolution pourrait bien avoirdes répercussions sur la procédure
de la Cour et sur l'interprétation de ses règlesde procédure, en par-

ticulier en ce qui concerne I'intervention.
23. Ce sont là quelques-uns des facteurs sous-jacents à l'exercice du

pouvoir cliscrétionnaireconféréà la Courpar l'article 62. L'exercice de ce
pouvoir discrétionnaire extrêmementlarge exige de trouver un équilibre
délicat entre de niultiples élémentsqui ne sont pas toujours clairs4" et
dont l'importance peut varier selon les circonstances de chaque espèce.

Leur énumération peut étreutile tant pour l'évaluation d'une affaire que
pour le développement généralde cette importante branche du droit.
J'examinerai maintenant certains points spécifiquesà la présenteespèce.

24. La juridiction de la Cour est consensuelle. C'est ce qui distingue les
juridictions internationales des nationales.

i) Ten~ioncntrc.I'l~rtic~l6 e2 du Statut et le principe consen.ruc1

25. Malgré la base consensuelle de la juridiction de la Cour et le prin-
cipe selon lequel les décisionsde la Cour ne sont obligatoires quepour les
parties, le Statut contient un article 62 qui stipule:

((Lorsqu'uri Etat estime que, dans un différend, un intérêd t 'ordre
juridique est pour lui en cause. il peut adresser à la Cour une
requête. à fin d'intervention. ))

Que cette disposition ait été inséréedélibérémentou non4', le fait est
que le Statut perniet expressément I'intervention, sans imposer quelque

restriction conseiisuelle que ce soit.
26. Rien dans le libelléde l'article 62 n'indique que l'on ait souhaité
limiter le droit d'intervenir aux seuls Etats qui ont déjà acceptéla juridic-
tion de la Cour.

'"Voir aussi C.I.J. Aililirrrirr 1441-199p. 226. pour une allocution pronoiicée
;intérieurement par sir Robert Jennings devant l'Assembléegénérale.dans Iaquclle il dit
que le recoursà la Cour devrait étre bu ((comme faihant partie intégrante LI traviiil de
diplomatie préventivemené aux Natioiis Unies)).
41'II convientà cet égard de se reporter aux riombreux ouvrages savaiits sur le pro-
blémedc la clartédu r;iisonnement judiciaire. Pour un ouvrage de base. voir Julius Stone.
Lq(r1 Sj.vtc,irrorid Lcrit.j,c,rs'R<~u..s9.64.g1
Voir plus haut. par. 10. One way of looking at the matter is to assume that when a party so
seeks to intervene, it is implicitly submitting to the Court's jurisdiction,
thereby becoming subject to any orders the Court may make.
Another approach is to consider Article 62 to be an exception to the

usual jurisdictional rule. The framers of the Court's Statute could well
have laid down a jurisdictional link as a precondition to the right to
intervene, but they chose not to do so. Consent could be viewed as
necessary where the intervener seeks to become a party, but not other-
wise.

(ii)LegiskrtiH vir.sttocfyArticl e2

The legislative history of Article 62 throws some light on whether a

jurisdictional link was integrated into the elements necessary for an inter-
vention.
The concept of intervention in international proceedings was first
addressed in the Draft Regulations for International Arbitral Procedures
of the Institut de droit international of 28 August 1875. Article 16 of

those Regulations provided that "[tlhe voluntary intervention of a third
party is admissible only with the consent of the parties that have con-
cluded the cornpromis".
This draft quite clearly excluded interventions where the jurisdictional
link was lacking and envisaged no departure from the consensual prin-

ciple even in interventions.
It was however a draft intended for use in arbitral proceedings, which
are strictly consensual, as opposed to judicial proceedings by a court
vested with some measure of international authority, which is recognized
by al1nations.
Matters progressed a step away from intervention being confined

only to parties admitted with the consent of the principal litigants, when
Article 56 of the 1899 Hague Convention provided that where there
was a question as to the interpretation of a convention to which Powers
other than those in dispute are parties they should be able to intervene.

The same principle was repeated in the 1907 Convention. These
advances were still confined to the interpretation of a convention - the
situation covered by Article 63 of the Statute of the Court.
The next steps in the history of international intervention occurred
through Article 62 of the Court's Statute which in its terms permitted

intervention for the first time by third parties in cases other than the
interpretation of a convention to which they were parties.

At the meeting of the Advisory Committee of Jurists (Proceedings of
the Committee, 16 June-24 July 1920) in 1920 there was a conscious

effort to widen the circle of possible interveners.
Lord Phillimore suggested a draft under which a third State which con- On peut supposer par exemple que, lorsqu'une partie cherche à inter-
venir de cette manière, elle accepte implicitement lajuridiction de la Cour
et reconnaît ainsi l'effet obligatoire de ses injonctions.
Une autre interprétation possible est de considérer l'article 62 comme
une exception à la règle de compétence habituelle. Les rédacteurs du

Statut de la Cour auraient fort bien pu imposer comme condition du
droit d'intervenir la démonstration d'un lien juridictionnel, mais ils ont
choisi de ne pas le faire. Le consentement peut êtreconsidérécomme
nécessaire lorsque l'intervenant souhaite devenir partie, mais pas dans les
autres cas.

ii)Get~ise de l'article 62

La genèsede l'article 62 nous éclaireun peu sur la question de savoir si
le lien juridictionnel faisait partie des élémentsqui devaient êtreréunis
pour qu'une intervention soit admise.
Le concept d'intervention dans une instance internationale est évoqué

pour la première fois dans le projet de règlement d'arbitrage international
de l'Institut de droit international datédu 28 août 1875. L'article 16de ce
règlement dispose que «[ll'intervention spontanée d'un tiers n'est admis-
sible qu'avec le consentement des parties qui ont conclu le compromis)).

Ce projet excluait, sans ambiguïté l'intervention en l'absence d'un lien

juridictionnel et ne prévoyait aucune dérogation au principe consensuel,
même pourl'intervention.
Le texte devait cependant s'appliquer à la procédure d'arbitrage, qui
est strictement consensuelle, par opposition à la procédure d'une cour
dotée d'une certairie autorité internationale reconnue par toutes les
nations.

On s'éloignaun peu de I'intervention comprise comme une procédure
ouverte seulement aux parties admises avec le consentement des princi-
paux plaideurs, lorsque fut adopté l'article 56 de la convention de La
Haye de 1899,qui dispose que, lorsque est en cause l'interprétation d'une
convention à laquelle sont parties d'autres puissances que les parties en
litige, ces puissances doivent êtreautorisées à intervenir.

Le mêmeprincipe fut repris dans la Convention de 1907. Ces progrès
se limitaient encore à l'interprétation d'une convention, la situation visée
par I'article 63 du Statut de la Cour.
L'étape suivantede l'histoire de l'intervention dans le cadre internatio-
nal fut franchie lors de l'adoption de l'article 62du Statut de la Cour, qui
autorisait pour la première fois I'intervention de tierces parties dans
d'autres instances que celles concernant l'interprétation d'une convention

à laquelle elles étaient parties.
A la réunion du comitéconsultatif de juristes de 1920(procès-verbaux
du comité, 16juin-24 juillet 1920),un effort conscient fut fait pour élargir
le cercle des intervenants possibles.
Lord Phillimore suggéra un texte prévoyant qu'un Etat tiers qui esti-sidered that a dispute submitted to the Court affected its interests may

request to be allowed to intervene and that the Court shall grant permis-
sion if it thinks fit.
Mr. Fernandes agreed with this proposal but sought to make the
right of intervention dependent upon certain conditions, such as that the
interests affected must be legitimate interests.

The President (Baron Descamps)thought the solution of the question
of intervention should be drawn from the common law, and suggested a
draft enabling a State to intervene if it considered that its rights may be
affected by a dispute.

Mr. Adatci suggested replacing the word "right" by the word
"interest".
Thereafter, a draft of the present Article was submitted by the Presi-
dent and this formula was adopted. Earlier drafts regarding international

proceedings, such as the Institut's draft of 1875 which expressly make
voluntary intervention possible only with the express consent of the
parties to the compromise, were no doubt available as models from
which to make a choice but no such qualification was imposed.
Throughout this discussion there was no reference to the need for a

jurisdictional link.
Hudson has drawn attention4' to the circumstance that, at the time of
the draft, the Committee was near unanimous in recommending compul-
sory jurisdiction. If this were so, there would indeed have been no need

for Article 62 to stipulate a consensual link. Yet, as Rosenne has pointed
out in the reference already cited, the retention of this provision was
deliberate.
The retention of Article 62 despite the abandonment of the principle of
compulsory jurisdiction is thus signifiant. Whether it was an oversight

or deliberate. the fact remains that this statutory provision remained and
as such it needs to be given al1force and efficacy4'. It cannot be neutral-
ized by interpretation or indeed even by Rules which the Court rnay
make in the exercise of its undoubted power to regulate its procedure.

(iii) Statirtory Proilisions to bc Rendcrrd Effctiiv R(it1zertllun
Negutii~c~ tp Intcrpretcition

27. That important provision of the Statute must be given effect as far
as is practicable. If the requirement of a jurisdictional link be postulated,
that could in many cases render nugatory an express provision in the
Statute of the Court.
One must have regard to the general principle that statutory provisions

4' Manley O. Hudson. Tllc Prri~ltrn~rrtC.olof'Iirfc~rnrrriJrlrIsr1920-1942, A
Trrtr/i.sc,.1972.p. 420.
4' See McDougal. Lasswelland Miller.011cil.

74mait que ses intérêts étaiene tn cause dans un différend soumis à la Cour
puisse demander à intervenir et que la Cour l'y autorise si elle le jugeait
bon.

M. Fernandes, tout en appuyant cette proposition, souhaita assujettir
le droit d'intervenir à certaines conditions, notamment que les intérêts en
cause soient légitimes.
Le président (lebaron Descamps), estimant que la solution de la ques-
tion de l'intervention devait venir de la cornmon luii,, proposa un texte
selon lequel un Etat pouvait intervenir s'il estimait que ses droits pcu-

vaient êtreen cause dans un différend.
M. Adatci suggéra de remplacer le mot «droit» par le mot ((intérèt)).

Par la suite, un projet de l'article actuel fut présentépar le présidentet
cette formule fut adoptée. D'autres textes concernant les instances inter-
nationales, comme le projet de 1875 de I'lnstitut, qui subordonnait expres-

sémentla possibilité:de l'intervention volontaire au consentement exprès
des parties au compromis, auraient pu sans doute servir de modèles, mais
aucune condition de ce genre ne fut imposée.
IIne fut jamais question au cours des débats de la nécessitéd'un lien
juridictionnel.

Hudson riappelé I'attenti~n~~sur le fait que, lors de la rédaction, le
comité était presque unanime i recommander la juridiction obligatoire.
Dans ce cas, iln'aurait certainement pas éténécessaire d'exiger un lien
consensuel à l'article 62. Pourtant, ainsi que Rosenne le précisedans le
passage déjàcité, l'insertion de cette disposition a été délibérée.

Le fait que l'on ait conservé l'article 62alors qu'on avait écartéle prin-
cipe de la juridiction obligatoire est donc significatif. Que ce soit par
inadvertance ou de propos délibéré,cette dispositionest demeuréedans le
Statut et de ce fait il faut lui donner toute sa force et toute son effica-
cité43.Elle ne peut êtreneutralisée par l'interprétation ni mêmepar les
règlesque la Cour peut élaborer lorsqu'elle exerce le pouvoir qui est sans

contredit le sien de faire ses règlesde procédure.

iii) LSintrrpr$tution doit viser I'c~~cucitédes di.spnsitions du St~ltut et
non /es infirn~c'r

27. Cette importante disposition du Statut doit êtreappliquée dans la
mesure du possible. L'imposition du lien juridictionnel pourrait dans de
nombreux cas rendre inopérante une importante disposition du Statut de
la Cour.
IIconvient de tenir compte du principe généralselon lequel les dispo-

Manley O. Hudson. Tlir PcrnimicwtColrrt01lrifrrnationul Ju.~fii,c'1920-1942. A
Tvcufisc. 1972, p. 420.
4' Voir McDougal. Lasswell et Miller. op. <,if.646 PULAU LlGlTAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (SEP.OP.WEERAMANTRY)

are to be given effect asfar as possible and not nullified by contrary inter-
pretation.
The separate opinions rendered in the case concerning the Continental
Shelf' (Tuni.~iulLibpan Arab Jurn~~hiripu),Applic~~tion for Permission to

Intervene" are of interest on this matter. While Judge Morozov was of
the view that the intervener must show a jurisdictional basis for its claim,
Judges Oda and Schwebel were both specific in their view that an inter-
vening State does not need to show a jurisdictional link with the original

litigant State. The inconclusive nature of the Court's decision in relation
to this problem concerning intervention was the subject of adverse com-
ment, among others by Judge Philip C. Jessup4'.

The jurisdictional link was not a basis for the Court's decision in that
case.
The present J~dgment~~goes far towards settling this issue, consoli-
dating the law on this matter along the lines indicated by the decisions in

Land, Island (rnd Maritirne Frontirr Dispute (El SulvadorlHon~lurcrs)~~
and Lund und Mlrritin7r Boundary hetii-ecwCumeroon und 1
agree that a jurisdictional link is required only if the State seeking to
intervene is desirous of "itself becoming a party to the case"4y.

(iv) Article 81 (2) (c) of'tlze 1978 Rules

28. Article 81, paragraph 2, of the 1978 Rules of Court represents

a fundamental departure from the 1972 Rules inasmuch as Article 81,
paragraph 2 (c), requires the application to set out "any basis of jurisdic-
tion which is claimed to exist as between the State applying to intervene
and the parties to the case". There was no reference to this jurisdictional

link in the 1972 Rules which only required a description of the case, a
statement of law and fact justifying intervention and a list of the docu-
ments in sumo...
This reference to ajurisdictional basis, it will be noted, does not specify

it as a necessarv factor for intervention. It is onlv mentioned as a circum-
stance which the applicant needs to set out, a circumstance which would
nodoubt be of assistance to the Court in making its overall decision. The
use of the expression "any basis of jurisdiction" rather than "the basis of

jurisdiction" is also significant.
A Rule of the Court cannot nullify a provision of the Court's Statute
and must always be read in conformity with it. In the Continental Sljeif

44 I.C.J. Ri>pori1981.pp. 22 ff.
45 In an Editorial Comment in the Anlczr-ic,rrJrotui!fIn1~,r-ntrriLuii (75 AJIL,
1981.p. 903 at p. 908).
4h See paragraphs 35 and 36.
47 1.CJ. Rc,pol.tIYYO.p. 135.
.'"I.C.J. Rc,portlY9Y (II). pp. 1034-1035,para. 15.
"Varki. 35 PULA0 LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (OP. IND. WEERAMANTRY) 646

sitions du Statut doivent êtreappliquéesdans la mesure du possible et ne
doivent pas êtrerendues inopérantes par une interprétation contraire.
Les opinions individuelles exposéesdans l'affaire concernant le Pluteau
(~ontinetzt~~( lTunisielJunzuhiri~~uarabe libyenne). requêteÙJind'interven-

méritent de retenir notre attention sur ce point. Tandis que
M. Morozov était d'avis que l'intervenant devait démontrer la base de
compétence sur laquelle il fondait sa prétention, MM. Oda et Schwebel
émettaient expressément l'opinion qu'un Etat intervenant n'avait pas

besoin de prouver qu'il entretenait avec I'Etat plaideur originel un lien
juridictionnel. Le caractère peu concluant de la décision de la Cour Li
l'égardde ce problème concernant l'intervention fit l'objet de commen-
taires négatifs,notamment de la part du juge Philip C. Jes~up~~.

Le lien juridictionnel ne faisait pas partie de la motivation de la déci-
sion de la Cour dans cette affaire.
Le présent arrêt" fait beaucoup pour réglercette question, en renfor-
çant le droit dans le sens indiqué par les décisions datîs les affaires du

D$fi.rend.fj.ont~llier terrrstrc, insuluire c.tmuritime (El SulvudorlHondu-
rr~s)~'et de la FrontiPrc~tc)rrp.street nluritime entre le Cutncroun et le
Nig4ria4! Je pense moi aussi qu'un lien juridictionnel n'est requis que si
I'Etat qui cherche ii intervenir entend «devenir lui-mêmepartie au pro-

cès >>4".

iv) L'ulinka 2 c) I'urticle HI du Réglenient de 1978

28. Le paragraphe 2 de l'article 81 du Règlement de la Cour de 1978
représente un changement fondamental par rapport au Règlement de
1972 en ce qu'il exige, A l'alinéa cl, que soit spécifiéedans la requête
((toute base de compétence qui, selon 1'Etatdemandant Liintervenir, exis-

terait entre lui et les parties)). Le Règlement de 1972 ne faisait pas men-
tion de ce lien juridictionnel, il exigeait seulement une description de
l'affaire, un exposédu droit et des faitsjustifiant l'intervention et une liste
des documents à l'appui.

Faisons remarquer que ce passage relatif à la base de compétence ne
précisepas qu'il s'agit d'un facteur indispensable pour l'intervention. Il
s'agit simplement d'un élémentque le demandeur doit spécifier,élément
qui aidera sans aucun doute la Cour à se prononcer sur l'ensemble de la

question. 1,'emploides termes ((toute base de compétence))plut6t que «la
base de compétenct:» est aussi significatif.
Un article du Règlement de la Cour ne peut rendre sans effet une dis-
position du Stat~itde la Cour et doit toujours êtrelu en conformité avec

I-'('.I.J. R(wri,il IYp. 22 et suic.
4' Dans Urienote de la ridaction dI'Ai~~<,ri<.Jlronlrr.riul(!f'Iirrerntrrionul Luii i AJILi.
vol. 75, 1981p. 908.
4('Voir par. 35-36.
" C.1.J. Rc(,II~990. p. 135.
4X C.I.J. Rc(.iri,il 1p. 1034-1035.par. 15.
4.1p.-.35.case between Tunisia and Libya5" it was Malta's argument that this pro-

vision went in fact beyond the authority given to the Court to regulate its
procedure5'. It argued that the Court's rule-making power could not be
employed to introduce a new substantive condition for the grant of per-

mission to intervene.

(v) Conclusion

29. The legislative history of Article 62, the rules of interpretation,the
need for enhancing the services rendered by the Court to the interna-

tional community and the jurisprudence of the Court thus combine to
point to the conclusion that a jurisdictional link is not a prerequisite to
intervention.

30. This is another important grey area in the field of international
intervention procedure, and attracted the cornment from the first writer

on intervention before the PCIJ that it was "an almost indefinable
monster" 5'.
While it defies definition as to what it is, guidelines are evolving as to

what it is not. It must not be
- a merely general interest but one which may be affected by the deci-

sion in this case;
- a merely political or social interest;

- an interest in the general development of the law:
- "an interest in the Court's pronouncements in the case regarding the
applicable general principles and rules of international la^"^^;

an interest in particular points of law that "concerned it, simply
because they were in issue before the Court in proceedings between

other States" 54.
Further, it need not be

- an interest in the actual subject-matter of the case. While not directly

within the subject-matter it is sufficient if it will be affected by the
decision ;

'"1.C.J. R<,/~orts1981, p. 8. piira. 12.
''Cf. WolSgang W. Fritzemeyer. Iii/i~ri.i~ririorlirl tlrc,lrit<~iauriontrICoirrr (!f Jlr.ctice.
198". p. 75.
W. Farag. L'irlt(,ri.c,rrtiont/c,vtr17Irir Coirr Perm<irictc)rJu.stic,rIr~tc~rriutioncr/<~
iArtii,lcs 62 c.63 (111Strrtlit (/c,Irr Cour)1927. /Tr<irr.vlrrtihi. th(, Rogisri-..]
''Corrlincril(iiS/~<~llfTurli~iirlLihj<(rnAruh Jirrrr(i/~i~~fr)/,~pli<~rlio,tf~i)r P(,rrr~0.(~ior
117ri,ri~c,riJci,i.</grI.C:J. R<port.sIYNI, p. 17, para. 30.
5-See D. W. Greig. "Third Party Rights and the I.C.J.",32 VirgirrirrJorrrirril(?fIrrii,r-
r~citiorrul criipp. 285-299. I>ClLAULICI1.AN ET IWLAIJ SIPADAN (OP. IND. WEEKAMANTRY) 647

lui. Dans l'affaire du Pluteuu contir~entulopposant la Tunisie et la Libye5(',
Malte avait soutenu que cet article outrepassait en fait le pouvoir conféré
itla Cour d'adopter ses propres règlesde procédure5'. Selon elle, la Cour

ne pouvait utiliser son pouvoir de faire des règles pour introduire une
nouvelle condition de fond concernant l'admission d'une requête à fin
d'intervention.

29. La genèse de l'article 62. les règles d'interprétation, la nécessité

d'améliorer les services rendus par la Cour à la communauté internatio-
nale et la jurisprudence de la Cour convergent donc vers la conclusion
selon laquelle un lien juridictionnel n'est pas une condition préalable à
l'admission d'une intervention.

30. Cet aspect, qui constitue une autre zone grise de la procédure
d'intervention internationale, a étéqualifiéde ((monstre presque indéfi-
nis~able))~'par le premier auteur à se pencher sur l'intervention à la

C.P.J.I.
S'il est difficilede dire ce qu'est cet intérêt,nous commençons à avoir
des indications sur ce qu'il n'estpas. Cet intérêt ne doit pas être:

un simple intérêtgénéral,mais un intérêtqui peut êtremis en cause
par la décisionen l'espèce:
un simple intérêtd'ordre politique ou social;

un intérêt à l'égarddu développement généraldu droit;
«un simple intkrêtà l'égarddes prononcés de la Cour concernant les
principes et regles de droit international applicables a titre géné-
ral>)i';

un intérêà t l'égardde certains points de droit <<qui... concernent [un
Etat], simplement parce qu'ils sont en cause dans une instance entre
d'autres Etats cdo~itla Cour est saisie))".

Par ailleurs, cet intérêt nedoit pas nécessairement être:

- un intérêt A l'égardde la question faisant l'objet de l'affaire. Même
s'il ne concerne pas directement cette question, il suffit qu'il soit mis
en cause par la décision;

"' Voir Wolfgang W. Fritzemeyer. Iiirc,ri'cv~rioi rlic,Inrc~rritrtilolrrro/'Jirsti<.c~.

19''. p. 75.
W. Farag. L'in!c~ri.c,iiriont~iernItrConr pcwiitriic,ilrc,t/e Jir.stic,c,intc,riitriioncrlr
it"rt62 1.163 e/iSfiifri't(11'leiConi.), Paris. 1927.
Pltrtc,ci~cr.oiitirrrlTiriii.rit~lJti rrurhe/hji>c~itc,)c,,(luF,fin (I'Oilc~ri.c~i~-
ri54. Voirc1).W. Greig, «Third Party Rights and the 1.C.J.n. VirginioJorrrnrrlc!f'Inter-

titrtioirrrlLirii..vol. 32. p. 285-299.648 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (SEP.OP. WEERAMANTRY)

an interest which ivill be affected. It is sufficient to show that it is an
interest which muy be affected by the decision.

How does the case of the Philippines fit within these guidelines?
31. At this point it is necessary to observe that the burden of proof of
a legal interest, which always lies on the applicant under Article 62, will
naturally Varyfrom case to case, depending, inter uliu, on the closeness of
the connection of the subject-matter in dispute and the subject-matter of
the interest which the intervenient seeks to protect.

There could be a vast range of cases between a total coincidence of the
subject of the case and the interest of the intervenient on the one hand,
and the total absence of any common elements on the other.
The burden of proof in regard to the intervenient's legal interest would
naturally be lighter in the case of the coincidence of the parties' claims
and the intervener's interest and heavier as these two elements diverge.

32. In the present case the intervener clearly disclaims any interest in
the actual subject-matter of the case. On the other hand the interest it
seeks to protect is in a totally different territory and stems from an
entirely different source of title. The burden that lies on the intervener is

thus heavily increased and it is this burden which, in al1the circumstances
of the case, the Philippines has not discharged.

33. It will surely relate to a legalnterest if any of the documents of
title referred to by the Parties have a bearing on the claim that the Philip-
pines alleges it has to North Borneo, for example the documents of

1891, 1900, 1907and 1930. On the contrary, the Philippines does not
claim any right or interest through these documents but relies on a grant
by the Sultan of Sulu in 1878 which does not in fact relate to the two
islands in question in this case. Furthermore, the Philippines expressly
disclaims any territorial claim to the two islands.

34. The Philippine claim is based upon the treaties, agreements or
other documents which have a direct or indirect bearing on the legal
status of North Borneo. The Court needs to know with some degree of
particularity what these are, what bearing if any they have on North
Borneo and how their interpretation has impinged on the claim to a
totally distinct territory. The Judgment of the Court details the lack of

particularity in the pleadings of the Philippines in this regard, and it is
unnecessary to traverse the same ground here.
35. Since it would be incumbent on an intervener claiming an interest
totally different from the subject-matter of the action to state its case
with great particularity, one is left with a sense of inadequacy as to the

particulars of the legal interest which the Philippines wishes to protect.

36. A useful contrast is offered by the C~mic~roon v. Nigeria case,
where the interest asserted by the intervener was specific and clear from
al1 the surrounding circumstances. Likewise in the Continentcil Slielf' un intérêtqui sera effectivement mis en cause. Il est suffisant de
démontrer que cet intérêtpeut êtremis en cause par la décision.

Que nous enseignent ces principes directeurs sur l'affaire des Philippines?
31. A ce stade, ilfaut signaler que la charge de la preuve d'un intérêt

d'ordre juridique, qui incombe toujours au demandeur aux termes de
l'article 62, varie naturellement selon les affaires, en fonction notamment
de l'étroitessedu rapport qui existe entre l'objet du différend et I'intérêt
que I'intervenant veut protéger.
Les cas possibles couvrent un large spectre, de la coïncidence complète
entre l'objet de I'affaire et I'intérêtde I'intervenant a une extrémité,à

l'absence totale d'déments communs a l'autre.
La charge de la preuve qui pèse sur I'intervenant en ce qui concerne
son intérêtd'ordre:juridique est évidemment d'autant plus légèresi son
intérêtet les prétentions des parties coïncident et d'autant plus lourde
s'ils divergent.
32. En l'espèce, I'intervenant se défend nettement d'avoir un quel-
conque intérêt à l'égard de l'objet du différend. En revanche, l'intérêt

qu'il cherche à protéger relèved'un tout autre domaine et découle d'une
source de titre entièrement différente. La charge de la preuve qui lui
incombe est donc considérablement plus lourde et c'est cette preuve que,
dans toutes les circonstances de l'espèce,les Philippines n'ont pas pu pro-
duire.
33. Il y aurait certainement un intérêtd'ordre juridique si l'un ou

l'autre des documents de titre présentéspar les parties avait une portée
sur la revendication des Philippines à l'égard du Nord-Bornéo, par
exemple les documents de 1891, 1900, 1907et 1930.Au contraire, les Phi-
lippines ne revendiquent aucun droit ni aucun intérêf tondésur ces docu-
ments, mais se réclament d'une concession du sultan de Sulu, faite en
1878, qui ne concerne pas les deux îles en litige. De plus, les Philippines

nient expressément toute prétention territoriale sur ces deux îles.
34. La prétention des Philippines se fonde sur les traités, accords ou
autres documents qui ont une portée directe ou indirecte sur le statut juri-
dique du Nord-Bornéo. La Cour a besoin de savoir avec une certaine pré-
cision ce que sont ces documents, quelle est leur portée, s'il en est, sur le
Nord-Bornéo et quel effet leur interprétation a eu sur le titre qui est
revendiquésur un territoire totalement distinct. La Cour expose de façon

détaillée,dans son arrêt, le manque de spécificitédes plaidoiries et écri-
tures des Philippines a ce chapitre et point n'est besoin d'y revenir ici.
35. Etant donnt5 qu'il incombe à l'intervenant, lorsque I'intérêq t u'il
allègue est entièrement différent de l'objet du procès, de faire valoir
ses thèses avec une grande précision, on a le sentiment que l'intérêq t ue
veulent protéger les Philippines n'a pas étéexpliqué de façon assez

détaillée.
36. La situation étaittout autredans I'affaire Cunleroun c. Nipgriu. ou
I'intérêrtevendique par I'intervenant était préciset ressortait clairement
des circonstances entourant I'affaire. De même,dans I'affaire du Platruu( TunisiulLibpun Arab Jar?~trlliriyu j5 case, although the Court did not
actually rule on the matter, the intervener stated with great particularity
how a judgment rendered in the case would affect its interest'", itemizing

five separate elements point by point. To quote the Court these were
spelled out "coast by coast, bay by bay, island by island, sea area by sea
area".

37. That is an index of the extent of particularity sometimes provided

to court in intervention procedures. Tliough such minute detail may not
be necessary, even a lesser degree of particularity is lacking in the Philip-
pine presentation, leaving the Court in a state of vagueness and con-
jecture as to what precisely is the legal interest which the Philippines
claims.

38. In making this observation 1 am conscious that the Philippines
lacked access to the pleadings of the Parties. Yet even within these con-
straints the material publicly available on the conflicting claims of the
Parties would have directed the Philippines to the ways in which these
conventions infringed on whatever claim they had to a totally different

territory. The deeds which the Parties were relying on were al1accessible
to the intervenient and could well have been analysed by the Philippines
from this point of view. The Court would not of course have required
minute and detailed analyses, but some indications of the particular ways
in which the Court's approach to these sources of title could have
impinged on the interests of the Philippines would have been sufficient.

There were suggestions that this might be possible but the degree of par-
ticularity necessary to activate the processes of the Court was lacking.
39. 1am in agreement with the Court that the necessary specificity is
lacking in the Philippine case.

40. The Court has considered the three objects listed by the Philip-
pines in terms of Article 81 (h) of the Rules, and has found at least two
of them to be appropriate. This being so, there has been compliance by
the Philippines with Article 81 (h).

The third reason listed by the Philippines, which the Court has found
does not constitute an "object" within the meaning of the Rules and has
hence rejected, is not properly an object of a party but nevertheless spells
out an important function performed by the Court, as 1have indicated in
the earlier part of this opinion. This is a matter for the Court and is not
an "object" of a party seeking to intervene. PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (OP. IND. WEERAMANTRY) 649

c.ontinoltul( Tuni.sirlJurnuhiri~vuruhe libyenne) 5sencore que la Cour ne

se soit pas à proprement parler prononcée sur la question, I'intervenant a
indiquéde façon très précisecomment un arrêtrendu en l'espècemettrait
en cause son intérêt 5h,en relevant point par point cinq éléments distincts.
Ces éléments,pour reprendre les termes utiliséspar la Cour, ont étéana-
lysés«côte après côte, baie après baie, île après île, zone maritime après
zone maritime)).

37. On voit que les exposés présentésaux juges dans les procédures
d'intervention peuvent être fortdétaillés.Bien qu'une telle minutie ne soit
peut-être pas nécessaire, l'exposédes Philippines, faute d'avoir éténe
serait-ce qu'un peu précis, a laissé la Cour dans le vague et dans les
conjectures en ce qui concerne la nature exacte de l'intérêt qu'elles reven-

diquent.
38. En faisant cette observation. je suis conscient du fait que les Phi-
lippines n'ont pas eu accèsaux piècesdéposéespar les Parties. Pourtant,
nonobstant ces contraintes, les matériaux publics sur les prétentions
conflictuelles des Parties auraient indiqué aux Philippines les obstacles
que ces conventions posaient en travers de leur prétention sur un terri-

toire tout à fait différent. Les actes invoqués par les Parties étaient tous
accessibles à I'intervenant et auraient fort bien pu êtreanalysés par les
Philippines de ce point de vue. Bien entendu, la Cour n'aurait pas exigé
des analyses minutieuses et détaillées,mais elle se serait contentée de
quelques indications sur la manière précisedont l'attitude adoptée par la

Cour à l'égardde ces sources de titre aurait pu empiéter sur les intérêts
des Philippines. On a laisséentendre que cela serait possible, mais la pré-
cision nécessaireà la Cour pour agir n'était pas présente.
39. Je pense comme la Cour que les thèsesdes Philippines manquaient
de la précision nécessaire.

40. La Cour a examinéles trois objets énuméréspar les Philippines au
titre de l'alinéa 2 h) de l'article 81 du Règlement et a jugé que deux
d'entre eux au moins étaient appropriés. Cela étant, les Philippines ont
ététrouvées en conformité avec I'alinéa 2 h) de l'article 81.
La troisième raison avancéepar les Philippines, qui de l'avis de la Cour

ne constituepas uri ((objet)) au sens du Règlement et a par conséquent été
rejetée, n'estpas à proprement parler un objet que peut faire valoir une
partie, mais elle n'en correspond pas moins à une fonction importante de
la Cour, comme je l'ai dit dans la première partie de mon opinion. C'est
une question qui relève de la Cour et non pas un «objet» pouvant être

visépar une partie: cherchant à intervenir. 41. It is always desirable for interveners to filetheir application as early
as possible in the proceedings. Thiss essential for the expeditious disposal
of the Court's work and quite apart from any specific provision in the

Rules is a courtesy due from the intervener both to the Court and to the
other parties. Paragraph 1 of Article 81 of the Rules of Court requires an
application for intervention to be filed not later than the closure of written
proceedings. But what is meant by the "closure of written proceedings"?
42. In a case such as this where the special agreement expressly

visualized the possibility of a further round of written pleadings, a third
party could not know that the second round of pleadings was necessarily
the last. Indeed, the parties themselves would not know this until they
had perused each other's second round of pleadings, for then only would

they make up their minds that they would not go for a further round.
The Court does not have a practice of making a forma1 order of
closure of written proceedings. Closure of written proceedings is thus
a de jizcto situation that arises when the written proceedings are for

practicalpurposes understood to be closed.
A third party watching these proceedings from the outside would natu-
rally be anxious, if it is thinking in terms of intervention, to know the
position of the parties as contained in their written replies to the earlier
rounds of pleadings. It would be entitled, having regard to thcon~pvornis

in the present case, to assume that the date of filing of the second round
would not necessarily be the date of "closure of written proceedings".
43. A further circumstance to be taken into account in considering the
third party's position is the unavailability to it of even the pleadings that

had already been filed, and the fact that it had made application to the
Court for the pleadings to be made available to it. The extreme step of
shutting out the application for belatedness is therefore one which the
Court should not take, and 1 agree with the Court in this regard, though

as the Parties rightly point out the Philippines could well have made
application considerably earlier.
The Philippines could well argue that they made their application
before the closure of the written proceedings, and that it would be an
injustice to them, if not a denial of due process, to impose on them the

extreme penalty of refusing their Application for this reason.

5. THEPROBLEM OF THE TENSION BETWEEN THE PRINCIPL EF CONFIDEN-
TIALITY OF PLEADING AND THE PRINCIPL EF INTERVENTION

44. Although, as Rosenne points out5', the Court has so far refrained
from exercising this power, it has the discretion under Article 53,

57S. Rosenne. Thr LLIUN(Prucfic~ofiliIt~fcrncrfiolourt.1920-1996Vol. III.
Pror,rdur<,,1997, p. 1289.

79 4. LE PROBLÈME DU CARACTÈRE TARDIF DE L'INTERVENTION

41. Il est toujours souhaitable que les intervenants déposent leur requête
le plus tôt possible au cours de la procédure. Celaest essentiel pour la dili-
gence des travaux de la Cour et, indépendamment de toute disposition du

règlement, relèvede la courtoisie due par l'intervenant à la Cour et aux
autres parties. Le paragraphe Ide l'article 81 du Règlement de la Cour
dispose que la requête à fin d'intervention est déposéeavant la clôture de la
procédureécrite.Mais qu'entend-on par ((clôture de la procédure écrite))?

42. Dans une affaire comme celle-cioù le compromis envisageait expres-
sémentla possibilittSd'une autre séried'écritures,une tiercepartie ne pouvait
savoir que la deuxièmesériede piècesserait nécessairementla dernière. De
fait. les parties elles-mêmes npouvaient le savoir tant qu'elles n'avaientpas

pris connaissance de leurs deuxièmes exposés écritsrespectifs, car ce n'est
qu'alors qu'ellespouvaient déciderde ne pas déposerde nouveaux exposés.
La Cour n'a pas l'habitude d'annoncer officiellement la clôture de la
procédure écrite. L,aclôture est donc une situation de fait qui se produit

lorsque tout indique que, à toutes fins pratiques, la procédure écrite a
atteint son terme.
Il est naturel qu'un tiers observant la procédure de l'extérieur, s'il
cherche à intervenir, souhaiteconnaître la position des parties telle qu'elle

est exposéedans leurs répliques écritesaux écrituresprécédentes.Ce tiers
aurait le droit de supposer, au vu du compromis conclu en l'espèce,que
la datede dépôtde la deuxième sériene serait pas nécessairement la date
de ctclôture de la nrocédure écrite)).

43. Une autre circonstance a prendre en compte pour apprécier la
position de la tierce partie est le fait qu'elle n'ait pas eu accès mêmeaux
piècesécritesqui avaient déjà étédéposées,et le fait qu'elle ait demandé
à la Courde mettre les piècesà sa disposition. Par conséquent, la mesure

extrêmequi consisterait à rejeter la requêtepour cause de dépôt tardif ne
devrait pas êtreprise par la Cour, et je suis d'accord avec la Cour à cet
égard, bien que, comme les Parties l'ont souligné àjuste titre, les Philip-
pines auraient pu :présenterleur requêtebien plus tôt.

Les Philippines seraient en droit de soutenir qu'elles avaient déposé
leur requêteavant la clôture de la procédure écriteet que ce serait com-
mettre une injustice à leur égard, sinon les priver de la protection judi-
ciaire qui leur est d.ue.que de leur imposer la sanction extrêmeen rejetant

leur requêtepour ce motif.

5. LA TENSION ENTRE LE PRINCIPE DE CONFIDENTIALITE DES ECRITURES ET

PLAIDOIRIES ET LE PRINCIPE DE L'INTERVENTION
44. Bien que, comme le signale RosenneS7, la Cour se soit abstenue

jusqu'à présent d'exercer ce pouvoir, elle peut, en vertu du paragraphe 1

" S. Rosenne, The Luit. und Pructiofrh~Ititcrntrtionul Cou1920-1996.vol. III,
Proc,(,rl~1997. p. 1289.paragraph 1, of the Rules to make pleadings available to interveners in
appropriate circumstances and an intervener is entitled to explore this
possibility.

There is a tension here between the principle of intervention and the
principle of confidentiality, for the latter may in certain cases shut out a
legitimate intervention by denying the intending intervener the informa-
tion necessarv for it to formulate its intervention. The discretion of the

Court must therefore be very carefully exercised, especially when the lack
of knowledge of the parties' pleadings is offered as an excuse for what
might be a belated intervention. An intervener's actual pleadings could in
certain cases be heavily dependent upon a knowledge of the pleadings of

the parties. The mere publication of the special agreement would not give
the intervenient the full information it might require.

45. As Rosenne observes5X,the tension already referred to between the

principle of intervention and the principle of confidentiality can even
amount to a denial of justice in particular cases, and will perhaps need to
be reviewed in the future. Indeed, he points out in his treatise on inter-
vention that the availability to a prospective intervener of the written

proceedings to date is important both when it is considering whether it
has an interest of a legal nature and even more so after that State has
decided to submit an application5'.

1 believe this procedural aspect needs careful review by the Court, for
there can well be cases where a denial of the documents to a prospective
intervener could for practical purposes defeat that intervener's statutory
right to make an application for intervention. The present is not such a

case but there may well be cases where this is so.

46. For the reasons stated above 1am in agreement with the Court's

decision and 1 hope this separate opinion will be of some assistance in
drawing attention to important aspects relating to intervention which will
need further consideration in the procedural jurisprudence of the future.

(Signed) C. G. WEERAMANTRY.

Proceciur(,.1997, p. 1289.UII~Pru(./i<,I/tli<,Ii~i~riiuti~l'ourf1920-1996. Vol. III,

S. Rosenne. Intrrvc,r~/iorirri flic,I~ir<~~oollrofJu.,ticc,.1993. p. 191.de l'article53 du Règlement, tenir les piècesde procédure à la disposition

des intervenants dans des circonstances appropriées et les intervenants
ont le droit de s'enquérirde cette possibilité.
Ily a à cet égard une tension entre le principe de I'intervention et celui
de la confidentialii.é,car ce dernier peut dans certains cas empêcher une
intervention Iégitirneen privant celui qui cherche à intervenir de I'infor-

mation nécessaire pour formuler son intervention. La Cour doit donc
exercer son pouvoir discrétionnaire avec grande prudence, surtout lorsque
l'ignorance des pièces déposéespar les parties est donnée comme excuse
pour déposer une requête peut-ètre tardive. II peut arriver que la teneur

de l'exposéde I'intervenant soit dans une trèsgrande mesure tributaire de
l'accès qu'ila eu aux pièces déposéespar les parties. La publication du
compromis ne peut à elle seule fournir à l'intervenant toute l'information
dont il peut avoir besoin.
45. Ainsi que le fait observer Rosennes8, la tension déjàévoquéeentre

le principe de I'intervention et celui de la confidentialité peut mêmedans
certains cas constituer un dénide justice, et devra peut-être fairel'objet
d'un examen à l'avenir. L'auteur déclaremêmedans son traité sur I'inter-
vention que l'accèsaux piècesécritesdéposéesjusqu'alors est important

pour 1'Etat qui cherche à intervenir lorsqu'il veut déterminer si un intérêt
d'ordre juridique est pour lui en cause dans une affaire, mais encore
davantage après qu'il a décidéde déposer une requête5".

Selon moi, cet aspect de la procédure doit êtreexaminé attentivement

par la Cour, car il peut fort bien y avoir des cas où refuser à un interve-
nant éventuel l'accès aux documents pourrait à toutes fins pratiques
empêchercelui-ci de jouir du droit de demander à intervenir qui lui est
garanti par le Statut. Ce n'est pas le cas en l'espèce,mais cette éventualité

est réelle.
46. Pour les raisons expliquées plushaut, je suis d'accord avec la déci-
sion de la Cour et j'espère que mon opinion individuelle aura étéutile en
appelant l'attention sur des aspects importants de I'intervention qui exi-
geront un examen plus pousséà I'avenir dans la jurisprudence relative à

la procédure.

(Signé) C. G. WEERAMANTRY

Pro~~rtiirr,.997p.1289.ir und Pr(rc.f, f'thc Intc~r.rlutrlurt, 1920-lY26. vol. III.
ivS. Rosenne. Int<vr~entioni1/2Intrrnutionul Court of'Jusfi(.e, 1993. p. 191.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Weeramantry

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