Declaration of Judge Tomka

Document Number
124-20071213-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
124-20071213-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

898

DECLARATION OF JUDGE TOMKA

Two bases of jurisdiction of the Court.
Objection to the jurisdiction under the Pact of Bogotá — Was the 1928
Treaty in force when the Pact of Bogotá was concluded? — Alleged manifest
violation of the Constitution as a ground for invalidating the Treaty — Impact
of the subsequent conduct of the Party on its right to invoke the alleged manifest

violation of the Constitution as a ground for invalidating the Treaty.

The alleged lack of international capacity to conclude treaties during the
occupation by the United States — The alleged coercion in the conclusion of the
1928 Treaty — The Court prevented from deciding on alleged coercion by a
State which is not a party to the proceedings.
Sovereignty over the islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina
not to be adjudicated at the merits stage.

*
* *

1. I have voted in favour of the Court’s Judgment. Nevertheless, some
aspects of the case and of the present Judgment call for a few observa-
tions.
2. Nicaragua invoked, in its Application, two bases of jurisdiction of

the Court.
First, it relies on Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute which states,
inter alia, that “[t]he jurisdiction of the Court comprises...all matters
specially provided for...in treaties and conventions in force”. In Nica-
ragua’s view, the American Treaty on Pacific Settlement, officially known

as the Pact of Bogotá, is such a treaty.
Second, Nicaragua further relies on Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute arguing that the jurisdiction of the Court also exists by virtue of
the operation of the declaration of Nicaragua dated 24 September 1929
and the declaration of Colombia dated 30 October 1937 recognizing as
compulsory the jurisdiction of the Court.

3. Colombia denies that the Court has jurisdiction on either of these
two bases.
4. Colombia refers to Article VI of the Pact of Bogotá, which provides
that the procedures of pacific settlement envisaged in the Pact, including
the judicial procedure before the International Court of Justice, “may not

be applied to matters already settled by arrangement between the
parties...or which are governed by agreements or treaties in force on
the date of the conclusion of the present Treaty”; i.e. in 1948 when the
Pact was concluded. It argues that the Treaty concerning Territorial
Questions at Issue between Colombia and Nicaragua of 24 March 1928

70899 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DECL . TOMKA )

(hereinafter “the 1928 Treaty”) has been in force since 1930 and that it

governs the matters submitted by Nicaragua to the Court. Therefore, in
Colombia’s view, Article VI of the Pact of Bogotá prevents the applica-
tion of the judicial procedure before this Court in the present case and

the Court should declare itself to be without jurisdiction.
5. Nicaragua argues that the Treaty was not in force since, in its view,
it was not validly concluded. Nicaragua denies the validity and the entry
into force of the 1928 Treaty, despite the fact that it not only signed a

Protocol of Exchange of Ratifications on 5 May 1930 but also registered
the 1928 Treaty (with the Protocol of Exchange) in 1932 with the League
of Nations.
6. Nicaragua invokes two grounds for the invalidity of the 1928 Treaty.

First, it alleges that the 1928 Treaty was concluded in manifest violation
of the Nicaraguan Constitution then in force . Second, it contends that
the Nicaraguan Government was deprived of its international capacity
during the pertinent period since it could not freely express its consent to

be bound by international treaties (Memorial of Nicaragua, p. 108,
para. 2.102; Written Statement of Nicaragua, p. 15).

7. Nicaragua takes the view that the Court cannot pronounce itself, at
this stage of the proceedings, whether the Treaty was validly concluded
and has been in force, since those issues belong to the merits of the dis-
pute. In Nicaragua’s view, Colombia’s preliminary objection to the juris-

diction of the Court on the basis of the Pact of Bogotá does not possess
an exclusively preliminary character.
8. It would have been all too convenient for the Court to defer its deci-
sion on Colombia’s objection to the Court’s jurisdiction under the Pact

of Bogotá. But in a situation where the issue of the validity of the 1928
Treaty and its entry into force has been determined by the Court as not
constituting the subject-matter of the dispute (which consists of sover-
eignty over the disputed islands and other maritime features, and of mari-

time delimitation), and the Court has at its disposal sound legal grounds
to rule on the objection, the proper administration of justice and pro-
cedural economy justify the Court upholding or rejecting the objection

already at this stage.
9. I concur with the view of the Court that Nicaragua, for an extended
period of more than 50 years, has treated the 1928 Treaty as valid and

1
It may be noted that it is not the first time that Nicaragua has argued the alleged
violation of its Constitution as a ground for invalidating an international treaty it had
concluded. Thus in the arbitration with Costa Rica, Nicaragua invoked, among others,
this argument in support of its claim that the 1858 Treaty of Limits with Costa Rica was
invalid. The arbitrator in his Award of 22 March 1888 found that the 1858 Treaty of Lim-
its was valid. See H. La Fontaine, Pasicrisie internationale 1794-1900 , Histoire documen-
taire des arbitrages internationaux , 1902 (repr. by Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The
Hague 1997, pp. 299-301), J. B. Moore, International Arbitrations To Which the United
States Has Been a Party, Vol. II, 1898, pp. 1964-1967.

71900 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DECL . TOMKA )

never contended that it was not bound by it (Judgment, para. 79). Nica-

ragua, by its conduct over those years, must be considered as having
acquiesced in the validity of the 1928 Treaty and its maintenance in force.
Therefore it may no longer invoke the alleged manifest violation of its
Constitution of 1911 as a ground for invalidating the 1928 Treaty.

10. The second ground for the invalidity of the 1928 Treaty invoked
by Nicaragua is that its government was deprived of its international
capacity during the pertinent period, since it could not freely express its
consent to be bound by international treaties. Although mentioned in the
Judgment, this argument receives a rather cryptic response from the

Court. It seems that it has been dealt with in the same way as the argu-
ment based on the manifest violation of the Nicaraguan Constitution. In
fact, there is a common response to both of these arguments in the Judg-
ment (paras. 78, 79 and 80). While I have concurred with the view of the

majority as far as the first ground of invalidity is concerned, I consider
that the second ground requires a different response in view of the dif-
ference in nature between the two grounds invoked. The International
Law Commission, in its commentary to what has become Article 45 of
the 1969 Vienna Convention, excluded the case of coercion from the

application of the principle that the State may, on account of its subse-
quent conduct, lose a right to invoke the invalidity of a treaty. It stated
that in the case of coercion “a consent so obtained must be treated as
absolutely void in order to ensure that the victim of the coercion should
afterwards be in a position freely to determine its future relations with the

State which coerced it”( Yearbook of the International Law Commission ,
1966, Vol. II, p. 239; emphasis added).
11. The argument advanced by Nicaragua is not without difficulties. If
it is to be understood broadly, generally, then it would run counter to the
other basis of the Court’s jurisdiction invoked by Nicaragua, i.e., the

optional clause declaration under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
Nicaragua made such a declaration in 1929, exactly in the pertinent
period when its government, as it is now alleged, was deprived of its inter-
national capacity. When in 1984 Nicaragua instituted proceedings in the
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicara-

gua v. United States of America) case, the Court treated its declaration
as valid and in force (see I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 442, para. 113 (1)).

In fact, in all proceedings involving Nicaragua before the Court in the

past, its optional clause declaration of 1929 was relied on as a basis of the
Court’s jurisdiction (see, for example, Arbitral Award Made by the King
of Spain on 23 December 1906 (Honduras v. Nicaragua), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1960, p. 194; Border and Transborder Armed Actions
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 71, para. 1,

p. 82, para. 25; Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and
Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment,

72901 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DECL .TOMKA )

I.C.J. Reports 2007, p. 664, para. 1). Such a broadly construed argument

cannot be accepted, since it is contradicted by the findings made by the
Court in previous cases involving Nicaragua.

12. Nicaragua itself admits that it was not prevented from concluding
international treaties in general (CR 2007/19, p. 11, para. 13). But then it

is difficult to accept its contention that the Nicaraguan Government was
deprived of its international capacity during the relevant period. Nicara-
gua therefore specifies that while it was under occupation by the United
States, it was prevented from concluding treaties that ran against the
interest of the United States and from rejecting the conclusion of treaties

that the United States demanded it to conclude. The interests of a third
State, even its demand to conclude a treaty, do not render such a treaty
null and void ab initio. That could only be a consequence if a State was
coerced to conclude a treaty by the threat or use of force in violation of

the principles of international law. It seems that that is what Nicaragua
suggests when it refers to Article 52 of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties, which provides that “[a] treaty is void if its conclusion
has been procured by the threat or use of force in violation of the prin-
ciples of international law embodied in the Charter of the United

Nations”.
13. The issues raised by Nicaragua in its argument are complex. They
relate both to facts and law, including the law of treaties applicable at the
time of the conclusion of the 1928 Treaty. Nicaragua acknowledged that,
when it observed that “the 1928 Treaty ‘must be appreciated in the light

of the law contemporary with it’ and that Law as expressed in the 1969
[Vienna] Convention has no retroactive effect” (Memorial of Nicaragua,
p. 116, para. 2.124). Perhaps these issues could have been further eluci-
dated if the Court had decided to join the consideration of the prelimi-
nary objection to the merits stage. But one fundamental problem of

Nicaragua’s contention would still have remained. The Court would not
have been able to reach a decision about the alleged coercion without
examining the lawfulness of the United States conduct, when that State is
not a party to these proceedings. A conclusion by the Court that there
was coercion by the United States would be tantamount to a finding that

this third State, which is not before the Court, had acted unlawfully.
Principles governing the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction prevent the
Court from making such a finding. Even if the Court had jurisdiction, it
would not have been able to exercise it (see East Timor (Portugal v. Aus-
tralia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 105. para. 35).

14. Nicaragua also pursues another line of argument when it contends
that Colombia “took advantage of the US occupation to extort from her
the conclusion of the 1928 Treaty” (Memorial of Nicaragua, p. 98,
para. 2.82; CR 2007/19, pp. 10-11). It is sufficient to observe that the

main principles of that Treaty were already discussed by Colombia with
the Nicaraguan Government which was inaugurated on 1 January 1925,

73902 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DECL. TOMKA )

as Nicaragua admits, after “an election that had not been controlled by

the United States” (Memorial of Nicaragua p. 76, para. 2.41). A draft
Treaty was presented to Nicaragua’s Foreign Minister by Colombia’s
Ambassador in Managua in March 1925. It appears from the case file
that Nicaragua actively participated in the negotiation of that Treaty. It

was Nicaragua which, after the signing of the 1928 Treaty, suggested an
understanding about the geographical scope of the Archipelago of San
Andrés (see paragraph 64 of the Judgment). That agreed understanding
was recorded in the 1930 Protocol of Exchange.

15. Accordingly, I concur with the Court that the issue of sovereignty
over the islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is not to
be adjudicated at the merits stage.

(Signed) Peter T OMKA .

74

Bilingual Content

898

DECLARATION OF JUDGE TOMKA

Two bases of jurisdiction of the Court.
Objection to the jurisdiction under the Pact of Bogotá — Was the 1928
Treaty in force when the Pact of Bogotá was concluded? — Alleged manifest
violation of the Constitution as a ground for invalidating the Treaty — Impact
of the subsequent conduct of the Party on its right to invoke the alleged manifest

violation of the Constitution as a ground for invalidating the Treaty.

The alleged lack of international capacity to conclude treaties during the
occupation by the United States — The alleged coercion in the conclusion of the
1928 Treaty — The Court prevented from deciding on alleged coercion by a
State which is not a party to the proceedings.
Sovereignty over the islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina
not to be adjudicated at the merits stage.

*
* *

1. I have voted in favour of the Court’s Judgment. Nevertheless, some
aspects of the case and of the present Judgment call for a few observa-
tions.
2. Nicaragua invoked, in its Application, two bases of jurisdiction of

the Court.
First, it relies on Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute which states,
inter alia, that “[t]he jurisdiction of the Court comprises...all matters
specially provided for...in treaties and conventions in force”. In Nica-
ragua’s view, the American Treaty on Pacific Settlement, officially known

as the Pact of Bogotá, is such a treaty.
Second, Nicaragua further relies on Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute arguing that the jurisdiction of the Court also exists by virtue of
the operation of the declaration of Nicaragua dated 24 September 1929
and the declaration of Colombia dated 30 October 1937 recognizing as
compulsory the jurisdiction of the Court.

3. Colombia denies that the Court has jurisdiction on either of these
two bases.
4. Colombia refers to Article VI of the Pact of Bogotá, which provides
that the procedures of pacific settlement envisaged in the Pact, including
the judicial procedure before the International Court of Justice, “may not

be applied to matters already settled by arrangement between the
parties...or which are governed by agreements or treaties in force on
the date of the conclusion of the present Treaty”; i.e. in 1948 when the
Pact was concluded. It argues that the Treaty concerning Territorial
Questions at Issue between Colombia and Nicaragua of 24 March 1928

70 898

DÉCLARATION DE M. LE JUGE TOMKA

[Traduction]

Deux bases de compétence de la Cour.
Exception d’incompétence en vertu du pacte de Bogotá — Le traité de 1928
était-il en vigueur lorsque le pacte de Bogotá fut conclu? — Allégation de la
violation flagrante de la Constitution comme motif pour invalider le traité —
Incidence du comportement ultérieur de la Partie sur son droit d’invoquer la pré-

tendue violation flagrante de la Constitution comme motif pour invalider le
traité.
Allégation d’absence de capacité internationale pour conclure des traités pen-
dant l’occupation par les Etats-Unis d’Amérique — Le traité de 1928 aurait été
conclu sous la contrainte — La Cour empêchée de se prononcer sur l’argument
de la contrainte exercée par un Etat qui n’est pas partie à l’instance.
La question de la souveraineté sur les îles de San Andrés, Providencia et
Santa Catalina ne doit pas être tranchée au stade du fond.

*
* *

1. J’ai voté en faveur de l’arrêt de la Cour. Néanmoins, certains
aspects de l’affaire et de cet arrêt appellent quelques observations.

2. Le Nicaragua a invoqué, dans sa requête, deux bases de compétence

de la Cour.
Premièrement, il s’appuie sur le paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 du Statut,
qui dispose notamment que «[l]a compétence de la Cour s’étend à ... tous
les cas spécialement prévus ... dans les traités et conventions en vigueur».
Selon le Nicaragua, le traité américain de règlement pacifique, connu offi-

ciellement sous le nom de pacte de Bogotá, fait partie desdits traités.
Deuxièmement, le Nicaragua s’appuie en outre sur le paragraphe 2 de
l’article 36 du Statut en faisant valoir que la Cour est également compé-
tente en vertu des déclarations portant reconnaissance de la juridiction
obligatoire de la Cour déposées par le Nicaragua le 24 septembre 1929 et
par la Colombie le 30 octobre 1937.

3. La Colombie rejette la compétence de la Cour sur ces deux bases.

4. La Colombie invoque l’article VI du pacte de Bogotá, qui dispose
que les procédures de règlement pacifique envisagées dans le pacte, dont
la procédure judiciaire devant la Cour internationale de Justice, «ne

pourront ... s’appliquer ni aux questions déjà réglées au moyen d’une
entente entre les parties ... ni à celles régies par des accords ou traités en
vigueur à la date de la signature du présent pacte»; c’est-à-dire en 1948.
La Colombie fait valoir que le traité de règlement territorial entre elle et
le Nicaragua signé le 24 mars 1928 (ci-après «le traité de 1928») est en

70899 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DECL . TOMKA )

(hereinafter “the 1928 Treaty”) has been in force since 1930 and that it

governs the matters submitted by Nicaragua to the Court. Therefore, in
Colombia’s view, Article VI of the Pact of Bogotá prevents the applica-
tion of the judicial procedure before this Court in the present case and

the Court should declare itself to be without jurisdiction.
5. Nicaragua argues that the Treaty was not in force since, in its view,
it was not validly concluded. Nicaragua denies the validity and the entry
into force of the 1928 Treaty, despite the fact that it not only signed a

Protocol of Exchange of Ratifications on 5 May 1930 but also registered
the 1928 Treaty (with the Protocol of Exchange) in 1932 with the League
of Nations.
6. Nicaragua invokes two grounds for the invalidity of the 1928 Treaty.

First, it alleges that the 1928 Treaty was concluded in manifest violation
of the Nicaraguan Constitution then in force . Second, it contends that
the Nicaraguan Government was deprived of its international capacity
during the pertinent period since it could not freely express its consent to

be bound by international treaties (Memorial of Nicaragua, p. 108,
para. 2.102; Written Statement of Nicaragua, p. 15).

7. Nicaragua takes the view that the Court cannot pronounce itself, at
this stage of the proceedings, whether the Treaty was validly concluded
and has been in force, since those issues belong to the merits of the dis-
pute. In Nicaragua’s view, Colombia’s preliminary objection to the juris-

diction of the Court on the basis of the Pact of Bogotá does not possess
an exclusively preliminary character.
8. It would have been all too convenient for the Court to defer its deci-
sion on Colombia’s objection to the Court’s jurisdiction under the Pact

of Bogotá. But in a situation where the issue of the validity of the 1928
Treaty and its entry into force has been determined by the Court as not
constituting the subject-matter of the dispute (which consists of sover-
eignty over the disputed islands and other maritime features, and of mari-

time delimitation), and the Court has at its disposal sound legal grounds
to rule on the objection, the proper administration of justice and pro-
cedural economy justify the Court upholding or rejecting the objection

already at this stage.
9. I concur with the view of the Court that Nicaragua, for an extended
period of more than 50 years, has treated the 1928 Treaty as valid and

1
It may be noted that it is not the first time that Nicaragua has argued the alleged
violation of its Constitution as a ground for invalidating an international treaty it had
concluded. Thus in the arbitration with Costa Rica, Nicaragua invoked, among others,
this argument in support of its claim that the 1858 Treaty of Limits with Costa Rica was
invalid. The arbitrator in his Award of 22 March 1888 found that the 1858 Treaty of Lim-
its was valid. See H. La Fontaine, Pasicrisie internationale 1794-1900 , Histoire documen-
taire des arbitrages internationaux , 1902 (repr. by Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The
Hague 1997, pp. 299-301), J. B. Moore, International Arbitrations To Which the United
States Has Been a Party, Vol. II, 1898, pp. 1964-1967.

71 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (DÉCL . TOMKA ) 899

vigueur depuis 1930 et qu’il régit les questions soumises à la Cour par le
Nicaragua. Par conséquent, selon la Colombie, l’article VI du pacte de
Bogotá fait obstacle à l’application, en l’espèce, de la procédure judiciaire

devant la Cour et celle-ci devrait se déclarer incompétente.

5. Le Nicaragua fait valoir que le traité n’était pas en vigueur car,
selon lui, il n’avait pas été valablement conclu. Il conteste la validité et

l’entrée en vigueur du traité de 1928, bien qu’il ait non seulement signé un
protocole d’échange des ratifications le 5 mai 1930 mais aussi enregistré le
traité de 1928 (avec le protocole d’échange) en 1932 auprès de la Société
des Nations.

6. Le Nicaragua invoque deux motifs de nullité du traité de 1928. Pre-
mièrement, il allègue que le traité fut signé en violation flagrante de la
Constitution du Nicaragua en vigueur à l’époque . Deuxièmement,li

affirme que, pendant la période en question, le Gouvernement du Nica-
ragua était privé de sa capacité internationale puisqu’il ne pouvait pas
exprimer librement son consentement à être lié par des traités internatio-
naux (mémoire du Nicaragua, p. 108, par. 2.102; observations écrites du

Nicaragua, p. 15).
7. Le Nicaragua estime que la Cour ne peut se prononcer à ce stade de
la procédure sur les questions de savoir si le traité fut valablement conclu

et s’il a été en vigueur car elles relèvent du différend au fond. Selon lui,
l’exception préliminaire à la compétence de la Cour sur la base du pacte
de Bogotá que la Colombie a soulevée n’a pas un caractère exclusivement
préliminaire.

8. La Cour aurait très facilement pu remettre à plus tard sa décision
sur l’exception colombienne quant à sa compétence fondée sur le pacte de
Bogotá. Mais, dans une situation où la Cour a statué que la question de

la validité du traité de 1928 et celle de son entrée en vigueur ne consti-
tuaient pas l’objet du différend (lequel porte sur la souveraineté sur les
îles contestées et autres formations maritimes ainsi que sur la délimitation
maritime), et où elle disposait de solides moyens de droit pour se pronon-

cer sur l’exception, la bonne administration de la justice et l’économie
procédurale justifiaient qu’elle la retienne ou la rejette dès ce stade.

9. Je souscris à l’appréciation de la Cour selon laquelle le Nicaragua,

pendant une longue période de plus de cinquante ans, a considéré le traité

1 Il convient de noter que ce n’est pas la première fois que le Nicaragua avance le motif
d’une prétendue violation de sa Constitution pour invalider un traité international qu’il a
conclu. Ainsi, dans l’arbitrage avec le Costa Rica, le Nicaragua invoqua notamment cet
argument à l’appui de sa prétention selon laquelle le traité de frontières signé en 1858 avec
le Costa Rica n’était pas valide. Dans sa sentence du 22 mars 1888, l’arbitre conclut que
le traité de 1858 était valide. Voir H. La Fontaine, Pasicrisie internationale 1794-1900 ,
Histoire documentaire des arbitrages internationaux, 1902 (réimpr. par éd. MartinusNijhoff,
1997, p. 299-301); J. B. Moore, International Arbitrations To Which the United States

Has Been a Party, vol. II, 1898, p. 1964-1967.

71900 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DECL . TOMKA )

never contended that it was not bound by it (Judgment, para. 79). Nica-

ragua, by its conduct over those years, must be considered as having
acquiesced in the validity of the 1928 Treaty and its maintenance in force.
Therefore it may no longer invoke the alleged manifest violation of its
Constitution of 1911 as a ground for invalidating the 1928 Treaty.

10. The second ground for the invalidity of the 1928 Treaty invoked
by Nicaragua is that its government was deprived of its international
capacity during the pertinent period, since it could not freely express its
consent to be bound by international treaties. Although mentioned in the
Judgment, this argument receives a rather cryptic response from the

Court. It seems that it has been dealt with in the same way as the argu-
ment based on the manifest violation of the Nicaraguan Constitution. In
fact, there is a common response to both of these arguments in the Judg-
ment (paras. 78, 79 and 80). While I have concurred with the view of the

majority as far as the first ground of invalidity is concerned, I consider
that the second ground requires a different response in view of the dif-
ference in nature between the two grounds invoked. The International
Law Commission, in its commentary to what has become Article 45 of
the 1969 Vienna Convention, excluded the case of coercion from the

application of the principle that the State may, on account of its subse-
quent conduct, lose a right to invoke the invalidity of a treaty. It stated
that in the case of coercion “a consent so obtained must be treated as
absolutely void in order to ensure that the victim of the coercion should
afterwards be in a position freely to determine its future relations with the

State which coerced it”( Yearbook of the International Law Commission ,
1966, Vol. II, p. 239; emphasis added).
11. The argument advanced by Nicaragua is not without difficulties. If
it is to be understood broadly, generally, then it would run counter to the
other basis of the Court’s jurisdiction invoked by Nicaragua, i.e., the

optional clause declaration under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
Nicaragua made such a declaration in 1929, exactly in the pertinent
period when its government, as it is now alleged, was deprived of its inter-
national capacity. When in 1984 Nicaragua instituted proceedings in the
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicara-

gua v. United States of America) case, the Court treated its declaration
as valid and in force (see I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 442, para. 113 (1)).

In fact, in all proceedings involving Nicaragua before the Court in the

past, its optional clause declaration of 1929 was relied on as a basis of the
Court’s jurisdiction (see, for example, Arbitral Award Made by the King
of Spain on 23 December 1906 (Honduras v. Nicaragua), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1960, p. 194; Border and Transborder Armed Actions
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 71, para. 1,

p. 82, para. 25; Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and
Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment,

72 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (DÉCL .TOMKA ) 900

de 1928 comme valide et n’a jamais prétendu ne pas être lié par celui-ci

(paragraphe 79 de l’arrêt). Il faut considérer que le Nicaragua, par la
manière dont il s’est comporté pendant ces années, a acquiescé à la vali-
dité du traité de 1928 et à son maintien en vigueur. Il ne peut donc plus
invoquer la prétendue violation flagrante de sa Constitution de 1911
comme motif pour invalider le traité de 1928.

10. Le Nicaragua avance, comme second motif de nullité du traité
de 1928, que son gouvernement était privé de la capacité internationale
pendant la période considérée puisqu’il ne pouvait pas exprimer libre-
ment son consentement à être lié par des traités internationaux. Bien
qu’elle le mentionne dans l’arrêt, la Cour donne à cet argument une

réponse assez sibylline. Il semble qu’elle l’ait traité de la même manière
que celui qui était fondé sur la violation flagrante de la Constitution nica-
raguayenne. En fait, on trouve, dans l’arrêt, une réponse commune à ces
deux arguments (par. 78, 79 et 80). Si je partage l’opinion de la majorité

des membres de la Cour s’agissant du premier, j’estime toutefois que le
second appelle une réponse distincte compte tenu de la différence de na-
ture entre ces deux motifs de nullité invoqués. La Commission du droit
international, dans son commentaire de ce qui est devenu l’article 45
de la convention de Vienne de 1969, a exclu le cas où la contrainte a été

exercée de l’application du principe selon lequel un Etat peut, à cause
de son comportement ultérieur, perdre le droit d’invoquer la nullité d’un
traité. Elle a indiqué que «le consentement obtenu de cette manière
devait être tenu pour absolument nul, afin de garantir à la victime de la
contrainte la possibilité de déterminer librement, par la suite, ses relations

futures avec l’Etat qui l’a exercée »( Annuaire de la Commission du droit
international, 1966, vol. II, p. 261; les italiques sont de moi).
11. L’argument avancé par le Nicaragua n’est pas sans soulever des
difficultés. S’il devait être interprété au sens large ou de façon générale, il
irait alors à l’encontre de l’autre base qu’invoque le Nicaragua pour fon-

der la compétence de la Cour, à savoir la déclaration faite en vertu de la
clause facultative visée au paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut. Le Nica-
ragua a fait cette déclaration en 1929, précisément pendant la période
pertinente au cours de laquelle, ainsi qu’il l’allègue à présent, son gouver-
nement aurait été privé de la capacité internationale. Lorsque, en 1984, le

Nicaragua a déposé sa requête dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et
paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis
d’Amérique), la Cour a considéré que sa déclaration était valide et en
vigueur (voir C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 442, par. 113, point 1).
En fait, dans toutes les procédures devant la Cour auxquelles le Nica-

ragua a autrefois été partie, sa déclaration de 1929 en vertu de la clause
facultative a servi à fonder la compétence de la Cour (voir, par exemple,
Sentence arbitrale rendue par le roi d’Espagne le 23 décembre 1906
(Honduras c. Nicaragua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1960 , p. 194; Actions
armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), com-

pétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988 , p. 71, par. 1, p. 82,
par. 25; Différend territorial et maritime entre le Nicaragua et le Hon-

72901 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DECL .TOMKA )

I.C.J. Reports 2007, p. 664, para. 1). Such a broadly construed argument

cannot be accepted, since it is contradicted by the findings made by the
Court in previous cases involving Nicaragua.

12. Nicaragua itself admits that it was not prevented from concluding
international treaties in general (CR 2007/19, p. 11, para. 13). But then it

is difficult to accept its contention that the Nicaraguan Government was
deprived of its international capacity during the relevant period. Nicara-
gua therefore specifies that while it was under occupation by the United
States, it was prevented from concluding treaties that ran against the
interest of the United States and from rejecting the conclusion of treaties

that the United States demanded it to conclude. The interests of a third
State, even its demand to conclude a treaty, do not render such a treaty
null and void ab initio. That could only be a consequence if a State was
coerced to conclude a treaty by the threat or use of force in violation of

the principles of international law. It seems that that is what Nicaragua
suggests when it refers to Article 52 of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties, which provides that “[a] treaty is void if its conclusion
has been procured by the threat or use of force in violation of the prin-
ciples of international law embodied in the Charter of the United

Nations”.
13. The issues raised by Nicaragua in its argument are complex. They
relate both to facts and law, including the law of treaties applicable at the
time of the conclusion of the 1928 Treaty. Nicaragua acknowledged that,
when it observed that “the 1928 Treaty ‘must be appreciated in the light

of the law contemporary with it’ and that Law as expressed in the 1969
[Vienna] Convention has no retroactive effect” (Memorial of Nicaragua,
p. 116, para. 2.124). Perhaps these issues could have been further eluci-
dated if the Court had decided to join the consideration of the prelimi-
nary objection to the merits stage. But one fundamental problem of

Nicaragua’s contention would still have remained. The Court would not
have been able to reach a decision about the alleged coercion without
examining the lawfulness of the United States conduct, when that State is
not a party to these proceedings. A conclusion by the Court that there
was coercion by the United States would be tantamount to a finding that

this third State, which is not before the Court, had acted unlawfully.
Principles governing the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction prevent the
Court from making such a finding. Even if the Court had jurisdiction, it
would not have been able to exercise it (see East Timor (Portugal v. Aus-
tralia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 105. para. 35).

14. Nicaragua also pursues another line of argument when it contends
that Colombia “took advantage of the US occupation to extort from her
the conclusion of the 1928 Treaty” (Memorial of Nicaragua, p. 98,
para. 2.82; CR 2007/19, pp. 10-11). It is sufficient to observe that the

main principles of that Treaty were already discussed by Colombia with
the Nicaraguan Government which was inaugurated on 1 January 1925,

73 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME DÉCL . TOMKA ) 901

duras dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras) , arrêt, C.I.J.

Recueil 2007, p. 664, par. 1). On ne saurait accepter cet argument
interprété au sens large, puisqu’il est contredit par les conclusions de la
Cour dans de précédentes affaires auxquelles a pris part le Nicaragua.
12. Le Nicaragua admet lui-même qu’il n’a pas été empêché de conclure
des traités internationaux de manière générale (CR 2007/19, p. 11, par. 13).

Mais il est alors difficile d’admettre sa thèse selon laquelle le Gouverne-
ment du Nicaragua aurait été privé de sa capacité internationale au cours
de la période pertinente. C’est pourquoi le Nicaragua précise que, lorsqu’il
était sous l’occupation des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, il était empêché de
conclure des traités qui allaient à l’encontre de l’intérêt de ce pays et de

refuser de conclure des traités que celui-ci lui demandait de signer. Les
intérêts d’un Etat tiers, même ses exigences visant à la conclusion d’un
traité, ne rendent pas celui-ci nul et non avenu ab initio. Telle ne peut être
la conséquence que si un Etat était contraint de conclure un traité par la

menace ou par l’emploi de la force en violation des principes du droit
international. Il semble que c’est ce que le Nicaragua laisse entendre
lorsqu’il mentionne l’article 52 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des
traités, lequel dispose que: «[e]st nul tout traité dont la conclusion a été
obtenue par la menace ou l’emploi de la force en violation des principes

du droit international incorporés dans la Charte des Nations Unies».
13. Les questions soulevées par le Nicaragua dans son argumentation
sont complexes. Elles portent à la fois sur les faits et sur le droit, notam-
ment sur le droit des traités applicable au moment de la conclusion du
traité de 1928. Le Nicaragua l’a admis, lorsqu’il a fait observer que «le

traité de 1928 «doit être apprécié à la lumière du droit de l’époque» et ce
droit, comme l’indique la convention [de Vienne] de 1969 n’a pas d’effet
rétroactif» (mémoire du Nicaragua, p. 116, par. 2.124). Peut-être ces
questions auraient-elles pu être davantage élucidées si la Cour avait
décidé de joindre au stade du fond l’examen de l’exception préliminaire.

Mais l’affirmation du Nicaragua aurait encore présenté un problème fon-
damental. La Cour n’aurait pas été en mesure de rendre une décision sur
la contrainte alléguée sans examiner la licéité du comportement des
Etats-Unis d’Amérique, alors que cet Etat n’est pas partie à la procédure.
Si la Cour avait conclu que les Etats-Unis avaient exercé une contrainte,

elle aurait ainsi statué que cet Etat tiers, qui n’apparaît pas devant la
Cour, avait agi de manière illicite. Or, les principes régissant l’exercice de
la compétence par la Cour empêchent celle-ci de conclure ainsi. Même si
la Cour était compétente, elle n’aurait pas été en mesure d’exercer sa
compétence (voir l’affaire relative au Timor oriental (Portugal c. Austra-

lie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995 , p. 105, par. 35).
14. Par ailleurs, le Nicaragua engage son argumentation sur une autre
voie lorsqu’il affirme que la Colombie «a profité de l’occupation du Nica-
ragua par les Etats-Unis pour lui extorquer la signature du traité de 1928»
(mémoire du Nicaragua, p. 98, par. 2.82; CR 2007/19, p. 10-11). Il suffit

de faire observer que la Colombie avait déjà procédé à un échange de
vues au sujet des principes essentiels de ce traité avec le Gouvernement

73902 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DECL. TOMKA )

as Nicaragua admits, after “an election that had not been controlled by

the United States” (Memorial of Nicaragua p. 76, para. 2.41). A draft
Treaty was presented to Nicaragua’s Foreign Minister by Colombia’s
Ambassador in Managua in March 1925. It appears from the case file
that Nicaragua actively participated in the negotiation of that Treaty. It

was Nicaragua which, after the signing of the 1928 Treaty, suggested an
understanding about the geographical scope of the Archipelago of San
Andrés (see paragraph 64 of the Judgment). That agreed understanding
was recorded in the 1930 Protocol of Exchange.

15. Accordingly, I concur with the Court that the issue of sovereignty
over the islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is not to
be adjudicated at the merits stage.

(Signed) Peter T OMKA .

74 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME DÉCL . TOMKA ) 902

nicaraguayen constitué le 1 er janvier 1925, après des «élections qui

n’avaient pas été supervisées par les Etats-Unis», comme le reconnaît le
Nicaragua (mémoire du Nicaragua, p. 76, par. 2.41). Un projet de traité
fut présenté au ministre des affaires étrangères du Nicaragua par l’ambas-

sadeur de la Colombie à Managua en mars 1925. Il ressort du dossier de
l’affaire que le Nicaragua participa activement à la négociation de ce
traité. C’est lui qui, après la signature du traité de 1928, proposa un
accord concernant la portée géographique de l’archipel de San Andrés

(voir le paragraphe 64 de l’arrêt). Cet accord fut consigné dans le proto-
cole d’échange de 1930.
15. En conséquence, je souscris aux conclusions de la Cour selon les-
quelles la question de la souveraineté sur les îles de San Andrés, Provi-

dencia et Santa Catalina ne doit pas être tranchée au stade du fond.

(Signé) Peter T OMKA .

74

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Declaration of Judge Tomka

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