Dissenting opinion of Vice-President Al-Khasawneh

Document Number
124-20071213-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
124-20071213-JUD-01-00-EN
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878

DISSENTING OPINION OF VICE-PRESIDENT
AL-KHASAWNEH

Colombian preliminary objection not of exclusively preliminary nature —
Where decision on preliminary objection also determinative of important aspect
of the merits of the dispute — Where decision on alleged invalidity of 1928

Treaty requires analysis of complex issues of fact and law — Requirement that
judgments be reasoned — No presumption in favour of party raising preliminary
objection in Article 79, paragraph 9, of the Rules of Court — Limits on Court’s
discretion to define the subject-matter of the dispute — Jurisdiction under Pact
of Bogotá and optional clause declarations distinct and independent bases of the
Court’s jurisdiction.

1. I am unable to concur with the majority view that the 1928 Treaty
between Colombia and Nicaragua is valid (Judgment, para. 81), nor with
the finding, directly flowing from that view, and predicated upon it, that
Colombia’s first preliminary objection to jurisdiction is upheld in so far
as it concerns sovereignty over the Islands of San Andrés, Providencia
and Santa Catalina (Judgment, subparagraph (1)(a) of operative

para. 142).
2. I should, however, hasten to add, before a misunderstanding occurs,
that in saying this I do not imply that the Treaty and Protocol in ques-
tion are necessarily invalid, nor that the Islands referred to above conse-
quently necessarily appertain to Nicaragua. All I say is that I belong to
the party of the “don’t knows” who believe that crucial and intricate

questions, of the nature encountered in this case, can only be determined
definitively after thorough consideration at the merits phase, and not in a
summary, unconvincing and premature manner as was the case in the
present instance, especially since there was no compelling judicial reason
to have done so.

3. I am of course not oblivious to the fact that in order to establish its
jurisdiction and to ascertain the limits thereof, the Court may need, on
occasion, to touch on the merits to better inform itself of facts that help
it achieve that purpose of ascertaining its jurisdiction and which can only
be gleaned by looking at the merits. That such recourse to the merits is

permissible is beyond doubt. It is necessitated by considerations of com-
mon sense and rests on a long chain of precedents. As was rightly
observed by Judge Shahabuddeen in a learned separate opinion,

“[t]he idea that, in determining preliminary objections, the Court’s
enquiry could ‘touch’ on the merits went back to the 1920s” (Oil
Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America),

50879 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , separate
opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, p. 830; see Certain German Inter-

ests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6 , p. 15).

4. At the same time, such permissibility should be balanced against the
well-established principle that the integrity of the merits must be pre-

served and not prejudged or predetermined at the preliminary objections
phase. To be sure, this principle and, indeed, the division of proceedings
into jurisdictional and merits phases are not ends in themselves but they
are indispensable tools for the fair and proper administration of justice

and can be tampered with only at peril to those ideals and to the judicial
function itself.

5. With these considerations in mind, I feel that, in the present case,
the issue of whether the 1928 Treaty and the 1930 Protocol are valid and
in force could have been safely — and should have been — left to the

merits. As indicated above (para. 2), at no point in the Judgment is
a compelling case made as to why it was necessary to dispose of the valid-
ity of the Treaty and Protocol at the preliminary objections stage thereby

effectively deciding the question of sovereignty over the islands of San
Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina with virtually no discussion as is
required in an adversarial system of litigation. Thus for example the
question of the alleged coercion of Nicaragua (which if proven may, sub-

ject to resolving certain questions about the status in customary law of
the rules now codified in Articles 45 and 52 of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties at the material time, produce an ab initio invalid
1
treaty, incurable by the subsequent practice of the Parties ) was not
adequately discussed in the oral proceedings (in complete contrast to the
written proceedings where Nicaragua devoted a substantial part of its

written comments to it) and then mostly to require that it be decided at
the merits phase (Nicaragua) or to oppose that argument (Colombia).
The substance of the issue, however, was not even properly discussed or
subsequently considered by the Court. This is reflected in the summary

1 Cf. paragraph 79 of the Judgment. The fact that acquiescence cannot validate a treaty
obtained by coercion was clearly described in the Commentaries to the Draft Articles on
the Law of Treaties:

“The effects and the implications of coercion in international relations are of such
gravity that the Commission felt that a consent so obtained must be treated as abso-
lutely void in order to ensure that the victim of the coercion should afterwards be in
a position freely to determine its future relations with the State which coerced it. To
admit the application of the present article [the draft Article that became Article 45
of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties on acquiescence] in cases of coer-
cion might, in its view, weaken the protection given by articles 48 and 49 to the vic-
tims of coercion.” (Draft Articles on the Law of Treaties with Commentaries, Year-
book of the International Law Commission , 1966, Vol. II, pp. 239-40).

51880 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE DISS .OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

sentences dealing with the issue of coercion (Judgment, paras. 75-80)
which, arguably, do not even meet the requirement that judgments should
be reasoned. The only motivation proffered by the Judgment for deciding
the issue at the present stage (in effect prejudging the outcome of the

merits phase) is to be found in paragraphs 50 and 51 of the Judgment.
Paragraph 50 reads:

“The Court believes that it is not in the interest of the good
administration of justice for it to limit itself at the present juncture

to stating merely that there is a disagreement between the Parties as
to whether the 1928 Treaty and 1930 Protocol settled the matters
which are the subject of the present controversy within the meaning
of Article VI of the Pact of Bogotá, leaving every aspect thereof to
be resolved on the merits.”

6. With great respect to the majority view — or belief — for the para-
graph starts by stating that “the Court believes”, it can be said that any-
one persuaded by the logic of this paragraph will be persuaded by any
argument. No attempt is made to explain why it is inimical to the inter-
ests of the good administration of justice to leave to the merits stage the

central question of whether the 1928 Treaty and the 1930 Protocol were
valid and hence settled the dispute (referred to in the best traditions of
oratio obligua as “disagreement” or “controversy”). Nor is there any-
thing in the subject matter of the dispute that would suggest irreversibil-
ity or perishability and hence warrant haste. Nor has there been a delay

in justice for “the case became ready for hearing in respect of the pre-
liminary objections” only in 2004 (Judgment, para. 6) — a normal delay
by the standards of other cases before this Court. Nor can justification be
found in the general proposition that preliminary points should be dealt

with and eliminated before moving to the merits for that presupposes
that they have an exclusively preliminary nature.

7. In short, no element in the paragraph, whether expressly stated or

implied therein, comes near an answer to Nicaragua’s contention that
“[it] is difficult to find a better example of an objection that ‘does not
possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary char-
acter’” (Judgment, para. 46).
8. Building on paragraph 50, the subsequent paragraph seeks to adduce

reasons for dealing with the issue of the validity of the Treaty and Pro-
tocol at this stage. It reads:

“In principle, a party raising preliminary objections is entitled to
have these objections answered at the preliminary stage of the pro-

ceedings unless the Court does not have before it all facts necessary

52881 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

to decide the questions raised or if answering the preliminary objec-
tion would determine the dispute, or some elements thereof, on the
merits. The Court finds itself in neither of these situations in the
present case. The determination by the Court of its jurisdiction may

touch upon certain aspects of the merits of the case (Certain German
Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 15). Moreover, the Court has already
found that the question of whether the 1928 Treaty and the 1930
Protocol settled the matters in dispute does not constitute the sub-

ject-matter of the dispute on the merits. It is rather a preliminary
question to be decided in order to ascertain whether the Court has
jurisdiction.” (Judgment, para. 51.)

9. The paragraph rests on a number of misconceptions: it posits a
non-existent presumption in favour of the Party making the objections.
Article 79, paragraph 9, of the Rules of Court — recalled in paragraph 48

of the Judgment — states that the Court “shall either uphold the objec-
tion, reject it, or declare that the objection does not possess, in the cir-
cumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character”. It is plain
that the third possibility, i.e., declaring the objection not to be of an

exclusively preliminary nature, carries as much weight, and constitutes as
much an answer to the objection in question as the first two, although it
entails delaying the answer to the objection until the merits phase.

10. In other words, the Party making the preliminary objections is, of

course, entitled to an answer within the meaning of Article 79, para-
graph 9, of the Rules of Court, but it is not entitled to a positive answer
in all circumstances.
11. Paragraph 51 of the Judgment then provided two criteria for

deciding that the objection is not of an exclusively preliminary character,
or effectively joining the objection to the merits:

(a) that the Court is not in possession of all the facts necessary to give
an answer; or,
(b) that by giving an answer it will determine the dispute, or some ele-
ments thereof, on the merits.

In the same paragraph the Court comes to the conclusion that it found

itself in neither situation and therefore goes on to pronounce on the
validity of the Treaty and the Protocol. With respect, nothing is more
debatable. I have already indicated that, in my opinion, the Court did not
appraise itself as it should have of the necessary facts (para. 5). I can only

add, by way of example, that no recourse was made to the negotiating
history of the Pact of Bogotá which would have shed light on the histori-
cal background necessary to come to a reasoned interpretation of what
was meant by the terms “settled” or “governed”; nor was there any con-
sideration of the important and relevant question of inter-temporal law,

namely whether by 1928, the strong body of opinion which held “that

53882 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

treaties brought about by the threat or use of force should no longer be
recognized as legally valid” , had attained the status of customary law.

Such consideration would have been indispensable because Nicaragua
did not contest the factual existence of the Treaty and Protocol nor their
relevance to the Pact of Bogotá; it impinged the very validity of the
Treaty and Protocol themselves.

In other words, it questions the first premise on which Colombia based
its contention that the Treaty and Protocol settled or governed the
present dispute within the meaning of Article VI of the Pact of Bogotá.

12. With regard to the second criterion, i.e. that the answer should not
determine the dispute on the merits, the Judgment sought to avert this
eventuality by resort to the simple device of first defining the subject-mat-
ter of the dispute narrowly so as to exclude the status of the Treaty and

Protocol from its ambit.
13. In doing this, the Judgment relied on precedents supporting the
contention that the Court retains freedom to define the subject-matter of
the dispute on the basis of the submissions of the Parties (see Fisheries

Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 447-449, paras. 29-32; Nuclear Tests (Australia
v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 262, para. 29; Nuclear
Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 466,

para. 30). Such freedom however cannot be unlimited if only because of
considerations of legitimacy and of common sense. In this respect and in
the context of this case, it would have been prudent for the Court to heed
the sentiment expressed by Judge Vereshchetin in his dissenting opinion

in the Fisheries Jurisdiction case, where he stated:

“The point of departure for the Court’s resolution of this dispute
within the dispute should be Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute,
which provides that it is for the applicant State to indicate the sub-
ject of the dispute. Hence, while it is true that ‘[t]he Court’s jurispru-

dence shows that the Court will not confine itself to the formulation
by the Applicant when determining the subject of the dispute’
(para. 30 of the Judgment), it must be equally true that, in charac-
terizing the main dispute between the Parties, the Court cannot with-

out well-founded reasons redefine the subject of the dispute in dis-
regard of the terms of the Application and of other submissions by
the Applicant. Yet this appears to be what the Court has done in its
Judgment..” . ( Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdic-

tion of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , dissenting opinion
of Judge Vereshchetin, p. 571, para. 4.)

2Draft Articles on the Law of Treaties with Commentaries, Yearbook of the Interna-
tional Law Commission, 1966, Vol. II, p. 246.

54883 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

Indeed, in the present case I cannot find any well-founded reasons for the
defining of the subject-matter of the dispute in complete disregard of the
submissions of Nicaragua.
14. Additionally, the Judgment’s approach to this problem is not free

of contradictions. Thus, in paragraph 42 the Judgment acknowledges,
inter alia, that sovereignty over territory (namely the islands and other
maritime features claimed by the Parties) and the course of the maritime
boundary between the Parties are “questions which are in dispute between
the Parties on the merits”. However, the Court had, in paragraph 40,

stated that

“Nicaragua submitted that issues relating to the validity and alleged
termination of the 1928 Treaty as well as the question whether the
Treaty and its 1930 Protocol covered or resolved all the contentious

matters between the Parties, including the geographical scope of the
San Andrés Archipelago, sovereignty over Roncador, Quitasueño
and Serrana and maritime delimitation, all formed part of the dis-
pute before the Court . . .

In the Court’s view, all those issues relate to the single question
whether the 1928 Treaty and 1930 Protocol settled the matters in
dispute between the Parties concerning sovereignty over the islands
and maritime features and the course of the maritime boundary. The

Court considers, however, that this does not form the subject-matter
of the dispute between the Parties and that, in the circumstances of
the present case, the question is a preliminary one . . .”

15. This reasoning gives rise to a fundamental question: can an issue

(the validity of the 1928 Treaty) central to the resolution of a question
acknowledged to be in dispute between the Parties on the merits (sov-
ereignty over the named islands of the San Andrés Archipelago) not be
part of the subject-matter of the dispute? The answer must obviously be

not.
16. With respect to this question, the all too apparent logical absurdity
bears testimony to the artificiality of the distinction. In particular, it
shows that the question of the validity of the Treaty and Protocol is not
a secondary line of argument but a crucial and indispensable logical step

in resolving the dispute on the merits regarding the sovereignty over the
islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. The question is
part and parcel of the dispute and is preliminary only in the sense that it
has an antecedent nature in the logical process of resolving the dispute

but is not a pre-dispute point that can be disposed of separately. In other
words, the preliminary objection in this case is so interwoven with the
merits that to decide the question of the validity of the 1928 Treaty and
the 1930 Protocol either way is to decide the dispute on the merits in
favour of one Party or the other as it relates to the aforementioned

islands and to affect the outcome of any maritime delimitation. Indeed

55884 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

this case is an example par excellence of a circumstance in which the

Court should find
“that the objection is so related to the merits, or to questions of fact

or law touching the merits, that it cannot be considered separately
without going into the merits (which the Court cannot do while pro-
ceedings on the merits stand suspended under Article 62), or without
prejudging the merits before these have been fully argued” (Barce-

lona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v.
Spain), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1964,
p. 43).

17. I have no desire to attempt, in this relatively brief opinion, to offer
theoretical formulae which govern which preliminary objections should

be declared not to possess an exclusively preliminary nature, and in any
event, I doubt whether such an attempt would succeed, given that every
case turns on its own facts and circumstances, but I can state with rea-
sonable confidence that where the claim underlying the objection is not

frivolous, and where it is moreover arguable and plausib3e, the Court
should not snuff attempts to argue the merits fully . As was stated by
Judge Read in his dissenting opinion in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case:

“It is impossible to overlook the grave injustice which would be

done to an applicant State, by a judgment upholding an objection to
the jurisdiction and refusing to permit adjudication on the merits,
and which, at the same time, decided an important issue of fact or
law, forming part of the merits, against the applicant State. The

effect of refusal to permit adjudication of the dispute would be to
remit the applicant and respondent States to other measures, legal or
political, for the settlement of the dispute. Neither the applicant nor
the respondent should be prejudiced, in seeking an alternative solu-

tion of the dispute, by the decision of any issue of fact or law that
pertains to the merits.” (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., Preliminary Objec-
tion, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , dissenting opinion of Judge
Read, p. 149.)

18. Lastly, it is obvious to me that the jurisdiction of the Court under
Article 36, paragraph 2 of its Statute is both independent of and wider
than the jurisdictional system erected by the Pact of Bogotá. Neverthe-
less, to establish its jurisdiction in this concrete case, the Court would

have been forced, had it started with the optional clause jurisdiction, to

3For an earlier well-reasoned case in this respect see Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of
Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), separate opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, pp. 824-825.

56885 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

deal with the question of whether there existed a “legal dispute” between
the Parties. As the Court notes in paragraph 138 of its Judgment, the
question of whether the 1928 Treaty settled the dispute brought before

the Court is, thus, equally relevant to determining the Court’s jurisdic-
tion under the optional clause as it is to determining the Court’s jurisdic-
tion under the Pact of Bogotá. For the reasons set out in my opinion
above, however, it is also my view that the decision in paragraph 138 of

the Judgment that there is no “extant legal dispute between the Parties” is
a decision so interwoven with the merits that it should have been left to
be determined at the merits stage.

19. In this context, it is worth emphasizing that in no case decided by
the Permanent Court of International Justice or this Court has the plea
that there is no legal dispute within the meaning of Article 36, para-

graph 2, of the Statute been accepted in limine lit4s. Rather such ques-
tions have always been deferred to the merits . Further, it should be
noted that the citation from the South West Africa case in paragraph 138
of the Judgment on which the Court relies in part to hold that there is no

extant dispute between the Parties is incomplete. The quote omits the
very important statement that a dispute exists if it can be “shown that the
claim of one party is positively opposed by the other” (South West Africa

Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa) Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328). The test of whether there
exists a dispute is thus one of opposability and not of unfettered freedom
for the Court. In this case it seems undeniable that Nicaragua’s claim

that the 1928 Treaty is invalid is positively opposed by Columbia.

(Signed) Awn Shawkat A L-K HASAWNEH .

4See Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court 1920-2005 ,

2006, Vol. II, para. II.195.

57

Bilingual Content

878

DISSENTING OPINION OF VICE-PRESIDENT
AL-KHASAWNEH

Colombian preliminary objection not of exclusively preliminary nature —
Where decision on preliminary objection also determinative of important aspect
of the merits of the dispute — Where decision on alleged invalidity of 1928

Treaty requires analysis of complex issues of fact and law — Requirement that
judgments be reasoned — No presumption in favour of party raising preliminary
objection in Article 79, paragraph 9, of the Rules of Court — Limits on Court’s
discretion to define the subject-matter of the dispute — Jurisdiction under Pact
of Bogotá and optional clause declarations distinct and independent bases of the
Court’s jurisdiction.

1. I am unable to concur with the majority view that the 1928 Treaty
between Colombia and Nicaragua is valid (Judgment, para. 81), nor with
the finding, directly flowing from that view, and predicated upon it, that
Colombia’s first preliminary objection to jurisdiction is upheld in so far
as it concerns sovereignty over the Islands of San Andrés, Providencia
and Santa Catalina (Judgment, subparagraph (1)(a) of operative

para. 142).
2. I should, however, hasten to add, before a misunderstanding occurs,
that in saying this I do not imply that the Treaty and Protocol in ques-
tion are necessarily invalid, nor that the Islands referred to above conse-
quently necessarily appertain to Nicaragua. All I say is that I belong to
the party of the “don’t knows” who believe that crucial and intricate

questions, of the nature encountered in this case, can only be determined
definitively after thorough consideration at the merits phase, and not in a
summary, unconvincing and premature manner as was the case in the
present instance, especially since there was no compelling judicial reason
to have done so.

3. I am of course not oblivious to the fact that in order to establish its
jurisdiction and to ascertain the limits thereof, the Court may need, on
occasion, to touch on the merits to better inform itself of facts that help
it achieve that purpose of ascertaining its jurisdiction and which can only
be gleaned by looking at the merits. That such recourse to the merits is

permissible is beyond doubt. It is necessitated by considerations of com-
mon sense and rests on a long chain of precedents. As was rightly
observed by Judge Shahabuddeen in a learned separate opinion,

“[t]he idea that, in determining preliminary objections, the Court’s
enquiry could ‘touch’ on the merits went back to the 1920s” (Oil
Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America),

50 878

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE AL-KHASAWNEH,
VICE-PRÉSIDENT

[Traduction]

Nature non exclusivement préliminaire de l’exception colombienne — Déci-
sion sur l’exception préliminaire déterminant également un aspect important du
fond du différend — Décision sur la nullité alléguée du traité de 1928 exigeant

une analyse de questions de fait et de droit complexes — Obligation de motiver
les arrêts — Absence de présomption, au paragraphe 9 de l’article 79 du Règle-
ment de la Cour, en faveur de la partie qui soulève l’exception préliminaire
— Limites au pouvoir discrétionnaire de la Cour de définir l’objet du différend
— Pacte de Bogotá et déclarations faites en vertu de la clause facultative: fon-
dements de la compétence de la Cour distincts et indépendants.

1. Je ne puis souscrire à l’opinion majoritaire selon laquelle le traité
de 1928 conclu entre la Colombie et le Nicaragua est valide (arrêt,
par. 81), ni à la conclusion, découlant directement de cette opinion et
se fondant sur celle-ci, que la première exception préliminaire d’incom-
pétence soulevée par la Colombie est retenue en ce qu’elle a trait à la sou-
veraineté sur les îles de San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina (arrêt,

alinéa 1) a) du dispositif (par. 142)).
2. Avant que mes propos ne créent un malentendu, je dois pourtant
m’empresser d’ajouter que je ne veux pas laisser entendre par là que le
traité et le protocole en question sont nécessairement nuls, ni que les îles
susmentionnées appartiennent inévitablement au Nicaragua. Je dis sim-
plement que je me range parmi les «sceptiques» qui estiment que des

questions décisives et complexes, de la nature de celles que pose la pré-
sente affaire, ne peuvent être définitivement tranchées qu’après avoir été
examinées de manière approfondie au stade du fond et non de manière
sommaire, peu convaincante et prématurée comme c’est le cas en l’espèce,
d’autant qu’il n’y avait pas de raison judiciaire impérieuse de procéder

ainsi.
3. Je n’oublie bien évidemment pas que, dans le but d’établir sa com-
pétence et d’en déterminer les limites, la Cour peut, à l’occasion, avoir
besoin d’effleurer le fond pour mieux s’informer des faits qui l’aideront à
atteindre ce but et qu’elle ne peut recueillir sans se livrer à un examen de
questions de fond. Il ne fait aucun doute qu’un tel examen est admis-

sible. Il s’impose pour des raisons de bon sens et il existe en sa faveur une
longue liste de précédents. Ainsi que le juge Shahabuddeen l’a fait obser-
ver à juste titre dans une éminente opinion individuelle:

«L’idée qu’en se prononçant sur des exceptions préliminaires la
Cour pouvait, lors de son examen, «effleurer le fond» remontait aux
années vingt.» (Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique

50879 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , separate
opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, p. 830; see Certain German Inter-

ests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6 , p. 15).

4. At the same time, such permissibility should be balanced against the
well-established principle that the integrity of the merits must be pre-

served and not prejudged or predetermined at the preliminary objections
phase. To be sure, this principle and, indeed, the division of proceedings
into jurisdictional and merits phases are not ends in themselves but they
are indispensable tools for the fair and proper administration of justice

and can be tampered with only at peril to those ideals and to the judicial
function itself.

5. With these considerations in mind, I feel that, in the present case,
the issue of whether the 1928 Treaty and the 1930 Protocol are valid and
in force could have been safely — and should have been — left to the

merits. As indicated above (para. 2), at no point in the Judgment is
a compelling case made as to why it was necessary to dispose of the valid-
ity of the Treaty and Protocol at the preliminary objections stage thereby

effectively deciding the question of sovereignty over the islands of San
Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina with virtually no discussion as is
required in an adversarial system of litigation. Thus for example the
question of the alleged coercion of Nicaragua (which if proven may, sub-

ject to resolving certain questions about the status in customary law of
the rules now codified in Articles 45 and 52 of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties at the material time, produce an ab initio invalid
1
treaty, incurable by the subsequent practice of the Parties ) was not
adequately discussed in the oral proceedings (in complete contrast to the
written proceedings where Nicaragua devoted a substantial part of its

written comments to it) and then mostly to require that it be decided at
the merits phase (Nicaragua) or to oppose that argument (Colombia).
The substance of the issue, however, was not even properly discussed or
subsequently considered by the Court. This is reflected in the summary

1 Cf. paragraph 79 of the Judgment. The fact that acquiescence cannot validate a treaty
obtained by coercion was clearly described in the Commentaries to the Draft Articles on
the Law of Treaties:

“The effects and the implications of coercion in international relations are of such
gravity that the Commission felt that a consent so obtained must be treated as abso-
lutely void in order to ensure that the victim of the coercion should afterwards be in
a position freely to determine its future relations with the State which coerced it. To
admit the application of the present article [the draft Article that became Article 45
of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties on acquiescence] in cases of coer-
cion might, in its view, weaken the protection given by articles 48 and 49 to the vic-
tims of coercion.” (Draft Articles on the Law of Treaties with Commentaries, Year-
book of the International Law Commission , 1966, Vol. II, pp. 239-40).

51 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME OP . DISS.AL -KHASAWNEH ) 879

d’Iran c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), exception préliminaire, arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , opinion individuelle du juge Shahabuddeen,
p. 830. Voir Certains intérêts allemands en Haute-Silésie polonaise,
compétence, arrêt n 6, 1925, C.P.J.I. série A n o 6, p. 15.)

4. Il convient cependant de concilier cette admissibilité d’un examen

de questions de fond avec le principe bien établi selon lequel l’intégrité du
fond doit être préservée et ne pas être préjugée ni prédéterminée au stade
des exceptions préliminaires. Ce principe et, d’ailleurs, la division de la

procédure en une phase sur la compétence et une autre sur le fond ne sont
certainement pas des fins en eux-mêmes mais des outils indispensables à
une bonne administration de la justice, et on ne saurait y toucher sans
risquer de porter préjudice à ces idéaux et à la fonction judiciaire elle-

même.
5. Ces considérations m’incitent à penser qu’en l’espèce la question de
savoir si le traité de 1928 et le protocole de 1930 sont valides et en vigueur

aurait pu — et aurait dû — être réservée sans risque au stade de l’examen
au fond. Comme je l’ai indiqué plus haut (par. 2), on ne trouve nulle part
dans l’arrêt de raison impérieuse expliquant pourquoi il fallait statuer sur

la validité du traité et du protocole au stade des exceptions préliminaires
et trancher ainsi la question de la souveraineté sur les îles de San Andrés,
Providencia et Santa Catalina sans que cela ait donné lieu à un débat

véritable, contrairement à ce qu’exige un système judiciaire contradic-
toire. Ainsi, les Parties n’ont pas suffisamment débattu de la question de
la prétendue contrainte exercée sur le Nicaragua (qui, si elle est démon-

trée, peut, sous réserve du règlement de certaines questions concernant le
statut en droit coutumier, à l’époque des faits, des règles qui sont à pré-
sent codifiées aux articles 45 et 52 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit

des traités, se solder par la nullité ab initi1 du traité, à laquelle la pratique
ultérieure des Parties ne saurait remédier) au cours de la procédure orale
(alors que, tout à fait à l’inverse, le Nicaragua a consacré au cours de la
procédure écrite une partie importante de ses observations à ce sujet),

sinon pour exiger essentiellement qu’elle soit tranchée au stade du fond
(Nicaragua) ou pour s’opposer à cet argument (Colombie). Toutefois, la

1
Voir le paragraphe 79 de l’arrêt. Le fait que l’acquiescement ne saurait valider un
traité conclu par la contrainte a été clairement exposé dans les commentaires au projet
d’articles sur le droit des traités:
«Les effets de la contrainte et ses incidences dans le domaine des relations inter-
nationales sont d’une gravité telle que la Commission a estimé que le consentement
obtenu de cette manière devait être tenu pour absolument nul, afin de garantir à la

victime de la contrainte la possibilité de déterminer librement, par la suite, ses rela-
tions futures avec l’Etat qui l’a exercée. De l’avis de la Commission, si l’on admettait
l’application du présent article [le projet d’article qui devint l’article 45 prévoyant
l’acquiescement de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités] aux cas de
contrainte, cela risquerait d’affaiblir la protection que les articles 48 et 49 assurent
aux Etats qui en sont victimes.» (Projet d’articles sur le droit des traités et commen-
taires y afférents, Annuaire de la Commission du droit international , 1966, vol. II,
p. 268-269.)

51880 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE DISS .OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

sentences dealing with the issue of coercion (Judgment, paras. 75-80)
which, arguably, do not even meet the requirement that judgments should
be reasoned. The only motivation proffered by the Judgment for deciding
the issue at the present stage (in effect prejudging the outcome of the

merits phase) is to be found in paragraphs 50 and 51 of the Judgment.
Paragraph 50 reads:

“The Court believes that it is not in the interest of the good
administration of justice for it to limit itself at the present juncture

to stating merely that there is a disagreement between the Parties as
to whether the 1928 Treaty and 1930 Protocol settled the matters
which are the subject of the present controversy within the meaning
of Article VI of the Pact of Bogotá, leaving every aspect thereof to
be resolved on the merits.”

6. With great respect to the majority view — or belief — for the para-
graph starts by stating that “the Court believes”, it can be said that any-
one persuaded by the logic of this paragraph will be persuaded by any
argument. No attempt is made to explain why it is inimical to the inter-
ests of the good administration of justice to leave to the merits stage the

central question of whether the 1928 Treaty and the 1930 Protocol were
valid and hence settled the dispute (referred to in the best traditions of
oratio obligua as “disagreement” or “controversy”). Nor is there any-
thing in the subject matter of the dispute that would suggest irreversibil-
ity or perishability and hence warrant haste. Nor has there been a delay

in justice for “the case became ready for hearing in respect of the pre-
liminary objections” only in 2004 (Judgment, para. 6) — a normal delay
by the standards of other cases before this Court. Nor can justification be
found in the general proposition that preliminary points should be dealt

with and eliminated before moving to the merits for that presupposes
that they have an exclusively preliminary nature.

7. In short, no element in the paragraph, whether expressly stated or

implied therein, comes near an answer to Nicaragua’s contention that
“[it] is difficult to find a better example of an objection that ‘does not
possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary char-
acter’” (Judgment, para. 46).
8. Building on paragraph 50, the subsequent paragraph seeks to adduce

reasons for dealing with the issue of the validity of the Treaty and Pro-
tocol at this stage. It reads:

“In principle, a party raising preliminary objections is entitled to
have these objections answered at the preliminary stage of the pro-

ceedings unless the Court does not have before it all facts necessary

52 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP. DISS.AL -KHASAWNEH ) 880

substance de la question n’a même pas été débattue de façon satisfaisante
ni ultérieurement examinée par la Cour. Cela apparaît dans les phrases
sommaires qui traitent du problème de la contrainte (arrêt, par. 75-80),
dont il est permis de penser qu’elles ne satisfont même pas à l’obligation

de motiver les arrêts. Le seul motif que présente la Cour pour trancher la
question au stade actuel (préjugeant en réalité de l’issue d’un examen au
stade du fond) se trouve aux paragraphes 50 et 51 de l’arrêt. Le para-
graphe 50 se lit comme suit:

«La Cour estime qu’il n’est pas dans l’intérêt d’une bonne admi-
nistration de la justice de se contenter à ce stade de faire état d’un

désaccord entre les Parties sur le point de savoir si le traité de 1928 et
le protocole de 1930 ont réglé les questions sur lesquelles porte le
présent différend au sens de l’article VI du pacte de Bogotá, se réser-
vant d’en trancher tous les aspects au stade du fond.»

6. Avec tout le respect que je porte à l’opinion — ou à la conviction,
car le paragraphe commence en indiquant que «[l]a Cour estime» —
majoritaire, on peut dire que quiconque est convaincu par la logique de
ce paragraphe le sera quel que soit l’argument. Aucune tentative n’est
faite pour expliquer pourquoi il est défavorable aux intérêts de la bonne

administration de la justice de laisser au stade du fond la question cen-
trale de savoir si le traité de 1928 et le protocole de 1930 étaient valides et
réglaient par conséquent le différend (qualifié, par euphémisme, de
«désaccord» ou de «controverse»). Il n’y a rien non plus, dans l’objet du
différend, qui suggérerait l’irréversibilité ou un risque de caducité et qui,

par conséquent, justifierait de se hâter. Il n’y a pas non plus de retard
dans l’administration de la justice car «l’affaire s’est trouvée en état pour
ce qui est des exceptions préliminaires» en 2004 seulement (arrêt, par. 6)
— soit un délai normal en regard des autres affaires soumises à la Cour.

Il n’y a pas non plus moyen de trouver une justification dans la proposi-
tion générale selon laquelle il convient de vider les questions préliminaires
avant de passer à l’examen au fond, car il faut pour cela que lesdites ques-
tions soient de nature exclusivement préliminaire.
7. En bref, rien dans ce paragraphe, que ce soit expressément ou par

allusion, ne semble répondre si peu soit-il à l’argument du Nicaragua
selon lequel «on trouvera difficilement meilleur exemple d’exception
n’ayant «pas dans les circonstances de l’espèce un caractère exclusive-
ment préliminaire»» (arrêt, par. 46).
8. Poursuivant l’argumentation entamée au paragraphe 50, la Cour

cherche, dans le paragraphe suivant, à apporter des raisons pour traiter,
à ce stade, de la question de la validité du traité et du protocole. Le para-
graphe 51 se lit comme suit:

«En principe, une partie qui soulève des exceptions préliminaires a
droit à ce qu’il y soit répondu au stade préliminaire de la procédure,

sauf si la Cour ne dispose pas de tous les éléments nécessaires pour

52881 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

to decide the questions raised or if answering the preliminary objec-
tion would determine the dispute, or some elements thereof, on the
merits. The Court finds itself in neither of these situations in the
present case. The determination by the Court of its jurisdiction may

touch upon certain aspects of the merits of the case (Certain German
Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 15). Moreover, the Court has already
found that the question of whether the 1928 Treaty and the 1930
Protocol settled the matters in dispute does not constitute the sub-

ject-matter of the dispute on the merits. It is rather a preliminary
question to be decided in order to ascertain whether the Court has
jurisdiction.” (Judgment, para. 51.)

9. The paragraph rests on a number of misconceptions: it posits a
non-existent presumption in favour of the Party making the objections.
Article 79, paragraph 9, of the Rules of Court — recalled in paragraph 48

of the Judgment — states that the Court “shall either uphold the objec-
tion, reject it, or declare that the objection does not possess, in the cir-
cumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character”. It is plain
that the third possibility, i.e., declaring the objection not to be of an

exclusively preliminary nature, carries as much weight, and constitutes as
much an answer to the objection in question as the first two, although it
entails delaying the answer to the objection until the merits phase.

10. In other words, the Party making the preliminary objections is, of

course, entitled to an answer within the meaning of Article 79, para-
graph 9, of the Rules of Court, but it is not entitled to a positive answer
in all circumstances.
11. Paragraph 51 of the Judgment then provided two criteria for

deciding that the objection is not of an exclusively preliminary character,
or effectively joining the objection to the merits:

(a) that the Court is not in possession of all the facts necessary to give
an answer; or,
(b) that by giving an answer it will determine the dispute, or some ele-
ments thereof, on the merits.

In the same paragraph the Court comes to the conclusion that it found

itself in neither situation and therefore goes on to pronounce on the
validity of the Treaty and the Protocol. With respect, nothing is more
debatable. I have already indicated that, in my opinion, the Court did not
appraise itself as it should have of the necessary facts (para. 5). I can only

add, by way of example, that no recourse was made to the negotiating
history of the Pact of Bogotá which would have shed light on the histori-
cal background necessary to come to a reasoned interpretation of what
was meant by the terms “settled” or “governed”; nor was there any con-
sideration of the important and relevant question of inter-temporal law,

namely whether by 1928, the strong body of opinion which held “that

53 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP. DISS.AL -KHASAWNEH ) 881

se prononcer sur les questions soulevées ou si le fait de répondre à
l’exception préliminaire équivaudrait à trancher le différend, ou cer-
tains de ses éléments, au fond. La Cour ne se trouve en l’espèce dans

aucune de ces deux situations. Rechercher si elle a compétence pour-
rait amener la Cour à effleurer certains aspects du fond de l’affaire
(Certains intérêts allemands en Haute-Silésie polonaise, compétence,
arrêt n 6, 1925, C.P.J.I. série A n 6, p. 15). Par ailleurs, la Cour a
déjà établi que le point de savoir si le traité de 1928 et le protocole

de 1930 ont réglé les questions en litige ne constituait pas l’objet du
différend au fond. Il s’agit en fait d’une question préliminaire qu’elle
doit trancher afin de déterminer si elle a compétence.» (Arrêt,
par. 51.)

9. L’argumentation exposée dans ce paragraphe repose sur plusieurs

méprises: elle postule une présomption qui n’existe pas en faveur de la
partie qui soulève les exceptions. Le paragraphe 9 de l’article 79 du
Règlement de la Cour — rappelé au paragraphe 48 de l’arrêt — dispose
que la Cour «retient l’exception, la rejette ou déclare que cette exception

n’a pas dans les circonstances de l’espèce un caractère exclusivement pré-
liminaire». Il est évident que la troisième possibilité, à savoir déclarer que
l’exception n’a pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaire, a tout autant
de poids et constitue tout autant une réponse à l’exception en question
que les deux premières, même si elle implique de retarder la réponse à

l’exception jusqu’à la phase du fond.
10. En d’autres termes, la partie qui soulève les exceptions prélimi-
naires a bien évidemment droit à une réponse au sens du paragraphe 9
de l’article 79 du Règlement de la Cour, mais non à une réponse favorable

dans tous les cas.
11. Le paragraphe 51 de l’arrêt énonce ensuite deux critères à appli-
quer pour décider que l’exception n’a pas un caractère exclusivement pré-
liminaire ou pour joindre effectivement l’exception au fond:

a) la Cour n’est pas en possession de tous les faits nécessaires pour don-

ner une réponse; ou
b) en donnant une réponse, elle tranchera au fond le différend ou cer-
tains des ses éléments.

Dans le même paragraphe, la Cour parvient à la conclusion qu’elle ne se
trouve dans aucune de ces deux situations et poursuit donc en se pronon-

çant sur la validité du traité et du protocole. Avec tout le respect que je
dois à la Cour, rien n’est plus contestable. J’ai déjà indiqué que, selon
moi, la Cour ne s’est pas renseignée comme elle l’aurait dû sur les élé-
ments de fait nécessaires (par. 5). Je ne peux qu’ajouter, à titre d’exemple,
que l’histoire des négociations du pacte de Bogotá n’a pas du tout été

examinée, ce qui pourtant aurait éclairé le contexte historique à considé-
rer pour parvenir à une interprétation réfléchie du sens donné aux termes
«réglé» ou «régi»; la Cour n’a pas non plus considéré la question impor-
tante et pertinente du droit intertemporel, à savoir si, en 1928, la thèse

53882 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

treaties brought about by the threat or use of force should no longer be
recognized as legally valid” , had attained the status of customary law.

Such consideration would have been indispensable because Nicaragua
did not contest the factual existence of the Treaty and Protocol nor their
relevance to the Pact of Bogotá; it impinged the very validity of the
Treaty and Protocol themselves.

In other words, it questions the first premise on which Colombia based
its contention that the Treaty and Protocol settled or governed the
present dispute within the meaning of Article VI of the Pact of Bogotá.

12. With regard to the second criterion, i.e. that the answer should not
determine the dispute on the merits, the Judgment sought to avert this
eventuality by resort to the simple device of first defining the subject-mat-
ter of the dispute narrowly so as to exclude the status of the Treaty and

Protocol from its ambit.
13. In doing this, the Judgment relied on precedents supporting the
contention that the Court retains freedom to define the subject-matter of
the dispute on the basis of the submissions of the Parties (see Fisheries

Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 447-449, paras. 29-32; Nuclear Tests (Australia
v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 262, para. 29; Nuclear
Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 466,

para. 30). Such freedom however cannot be unlimited if only because of
considerations of legitimacy and of common sense. In this respect and in
the context of this case, it would have been prudent for the Court to heed
the sentiment expressed by Judge Vereshchetin in his dissenting opinion

in the Fisheries Jurisdiction case, where he stated:

“The point of departure for the Court’s resolution of this dispute
within the dispute should be Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute,
which provides that it is for the applicant State to indicate the sub-
ject of the dispute. Hence, while it is true that ‘[t]he Court’s jurispru-

dence shows that the Court will not confine itself to the formulation
by the Applicant when determining the subject of the dispute’
(para. 30 of the Judgment), it must be equally true that, in charac-
terizing the main dispute between the Parties, the Court cannot with-

out well-founded reasons redefine the subject of the dispute in dis-
regard of the terms of the Application and of other submissions by
the Applicant. Yet this appears to be what the Court has done in its
Judgment..” . ( Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdic-

tion of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , dissenting opinion
of Judge Vereshchetin, p. 571, para. 4.)

2Draft Articles on the Law of Treaties with Commentaries, Yearbook of the Interna-
tional Law Commission, 1966, Vol. II, p. 246.

54 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP. DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 882

bien établie selon laquelle les traités dont «la conclusion ... avait été obte-
nue par la menace ou l’emploi de la force ... ne devai[en]t plus être recon-
2
nu[s] comme juridiquement valable[s]» avait atteint le statut de droit
coutumier. Pourtant, il aurait été indispensable de le faire car ce ne sont
pas l’existence factuelle du traité et du protocole ni leur pertinence au
regard du pacte de Bogotá que le Nicaragua a contestées, mais leur vali-

dité même.
En d’autres termes, le Nicaragua remet en cause le premier principe sur
lequel la Colombie s’est fondée pour affirmer que le traité et le protocole
ont réglé ou régi le présent différend au sens de l’article 6 du pacte de
Bogotá.

12. En ce qui concerne le second critère, à savoir que la réponse ne
devrait pas déterminer le différend au fond, la Cour a cherché à prévenir
cette éventualité en recourant au simple procédé consistant à définir
d’emblée l’objet du différend de façon étroite, de manière à exclure du

cadre de l’arrêt le statut du traité et du protocole.
13. En procédant ainsi, la Cour s’appuie sur des précédents étayant
l’affirmation selon laquelle la Cour conserve la liberté de définir l’objet
du différend sur la base des conclusions des Parties (voir Compétence en

matière de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 447-449, par. 29-32; Essais nucléaires (Australie
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 262, par. 29; Essais nucléaires
(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 466, par. 30).

Une telle liberté ne saurait toutefois être illimitée, ne serait-ce que pour
des considérations de légitimité et de bon sens. A ce sujet, et dans le
contexte de la présente affaire, il aurait été prudent de tenir compte du
sentiment exprimé par le juge Vereshchetin dans son opinion dissidente

en l’affaire de la Compétence en matière de pêcheries , dans laquelle il a
indiqué:

«Pour régler ce différend apparu à l’intérieur du différend, la
Cour devrait se fonder sur le paragraphe 1 de l’article 40 du Statut,
qui dispose que c’est à l’Etat demandeur d’indiquer l’objet du diffé-
rend. Dès lors, s’il est vrai qu’il «ressort de la jurisprudence de la

Cour que celle-ci ne se contente pas de la formulation employée par
le demandeur, lorsqu’elle détermine l’objet du différend» (paragra-
phe 30 de l’arrêt), il n’en est certainement pas moins vrai que,
lorsqu’elle qualifie ce qui constitue le différend principal entre les

parties, la Cour ne saurait sans motifs dûment étayés redéfinir l’objet
du différend sans tenir compte des termes de la requête et des autres
moyens présentés par le demandeur. C’est pourtant ce qu’elle semble
avoir fait dans son arrêt...» (Compétence en matière de pêcheries

(Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1998, opinion dissidente du juge Vereshchetin, p. 571, par. 4.)

2Projet d’articles sur le droit des traités et commentaires y afférents, Annuaire de la
Commission du droit international , 1966, vol. II, p. 246.

54883 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

Indeed, in the present case I cannot find any well-founded reasons for the
defining of the subject-matter of the dispute in complete disregard of the
submissions of Nicaragua.
14. Additionally, the Judgment’s approach to this problem is not free

of contradictions. Thus, in paragraph 42 the Judgment acknowledges,
inter alia, that sovereignty over territory (namely the islands and other
maritime features claimed by the Parties) and the course of the maritime
boundary between the Parties are “questions which are in dispute between
the Parties on the merits”. However, the Court had, in paragraph 40,

stated that

“Nicaragua submitted that issues relating to the validity and alleged
termination of the 1928 Treaty as well as the question whether the
Treaty and its 1930 Protocol covered or resolved all the contentious

matters between the Parties, including the geographical scope of the
San Andrés Archipelago, sovereignty over Roncador, Quitasueño
and Serrana and maritime delimitation, all formed part of the dis-
pute before the Court . . .

In the Court’s view, all those issues relate to the single question
whether the 1928 Treaty and 1930 Protocol settled the matters in
dispute between the Parties concerning sovereignty over the islands
and maritime features and the course of the maritime boundary. The

Court considers, however, that this does not form the subject-matter
of the dispute between the Parties and that, in the circumstances of
the present case, the question is a preliminary one . . .”

15. This reasoning gives rise to a fundamental question: can an issue

(the validity of the 1928 Treaty) central to the resolution of a question
acknowledged to be in dispute between the Parties on the merits (sov-
ereignty over the named islands of the San Andrés Archipelago) not be
part of the subject-matter of the dispute? The answer must obviously be

not.
16. With respect to this question, the all too apparent logical absurdity
bears testimony to the artificiality of the distinction. In particular, it
shows that the question of the validity of the Treaty and Protocol is not
a secondary line of argument but a crucial and indispensable logical step

in resolving the dispute on the merits regarding the sovereignty over the
islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. The question is
part and parcel of the dispute and is preliminary only in the sense that it
has an antecedent nature in the logical process of resolving the dispute

but is not a pre-dispute point that can be disposed of separately. In other
words, the preliminary objection in this case is so interwoven with the
merits that to decide the question of the validity of the 1928 Treaty and
the 1930 Protocol either way is to decide the dispute on the merits in
favour of one Party or the other as it relates to the aforementioned

islands and to affect the outcome of any maritime delimitation. Indeed

55 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME OP .DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 883

En effet, je ne puis trouver, en l’espèce, de motif dûment étayé pour défi-
nir l’objet du différend sans tenir aucun compte des conclusions du Nica-
ragua.
14. En outre, la manière dont ce problème est abordé dans l’arrêt n’est

pas sans contradictions. Ainsi, au paragraphe 42 de l’arrêt, la Cour
reconnaît notamment que la souveraineté sur le territoire (c’est-à-dire sur
les îles et autres formations maritimes que les Parties revendiquent) et le
tracé de la frontière maritime entre les Parties sont les questions qui
opposent celles-ci au fond. Or, la Cour a indiqué au paragraphe 40:

«La Cour note que le Nicaragua a soutenu que les considérations
relatives à la validité et à la terminaison alléguée du traité de 1928
ainsi qu’à la question de savoir si le traité et son protocole de 1930

couvraient ou réglaient l’ensemble des points en litige entre les
Parties, notamment l’étendue géographique de l’archipel de San
Andrés, la souveraineté sur Roncador, Quitasueño et Serrana et la
délimitation maritime, s’inscrivaient toutes dans le cadre du diffé-

rend dont elle est saisie...
De l’avis de la Cour, tous ces aspects se rattachent au seul point de
savoir si le traité de 1928 et le protocole de 1930 ont réglé les ques-
tions en litige entre les Parties au sujet de la souveraineté sur les îles
et autres formations maritimes et du tracé de la frontière maritime.

La Cour considère toutefois que tel n’est pas l’objet du différend
entre les Parties et que, dans les circonstances de la présente espèce,
il s’agit d’une question préliminaire...»

15. Ce raisonnement soulève une interrogation fondamentale: un

aspect (la validité du traité de 1928) essentiel pour le règlement d’une
question reconnue comme opposant les Parties au fond (la souveraineté
sur les îles nommément désignées de l’archipel de San Andrés) peut-il ne
pas faire partie de l’objet du différend? La réponse doit évidemment être

négative.
16. A cet égard, l’absurdité flagrante du raisonnement montre bien
que la distinction est artificielle. Elle montre en particulier que la question
de la validité du traité et du protocole ne relève pas d’une argumentation
secondaire mais constitue une étape logique, cruciale et indispensable, du

règlement au fond du différend en ce qui a trait à la souveraineté sur les
îles de San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina. La question fait partie
intégrante du différend et n’est préliminaire qu’en raison de son antério-
rité dans le processus logique du règlement du différend, mais ce n’est pas

un point préalable au litige sur lequel on peut statuer séparément. En
d’autres termes, l’exception préliminaire est, dans cette affaire, si indisso-
ciable du fond que trancher dans un sens ou dans l’autre la question de la
validité du traité de 1928 et du protocole de 1930 équivaut à régler le dif-
férend au fond en faveur de l’une ou l’autre des Parties en ce qui concerne

les îles susmentionnées et à influer sur l’issue de toute délimitation mari-

55884 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

this case is an example par excellence of a circumstance in which the

Court should find
“that the objection is so related to the merits, or to questions of fact

or law touching the merits, that it cannot be considered separately
without going into the merits (which the Court cannot do while pro-
ceedings on the merits stand suspended under Article 62), or without
prejudging the merits before these have been fully argued” (Barce-

lona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v.
Spain), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1964,
p. 43).

17. I have no desire to attempt, in this relatively brief opinion, to offer
theoretical formulae which govern which preliminary objections should

be declared not to possess an exclusively preliminary nature, and in any
event, I doubt whether such an attempt would succeed, given that every
case turns on its own facts and circumstances, but I can state with rea-
sonable confidence that where the claim underlying the objection is not

frivolous, and where it is moreover arguable and plausib3e, the Court
should not snuff attempts to argue the merits fully . As was stated by
Judge Read in his dissenting opinion in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case:

“It is impossible to overlook the grave injustice which would be

done to an applicant State, by a judgment upholding an objection to
the jurisdiction and refusing to permit adjudication on the merits,
and which, at the same time, decided an important issue of fact or
law, forming part of the merits, against the applicant State. The

effect of refusal to permit adjudication of the dispute would be to
remit the applicant and respondent States to other measures, legal or
political, for the settlement of the dispute. Neither the applicant nor
the respondent should be prejudiced, in seeking an alternative solu-

tion of the dispute, by the decision of any issue of fact or law that
pertains to the merits.” (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., Preliminary Objec-
tion, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , dissenting opinion of Judge
Read, p. 149.)

18. Lastly, it is obvious to me that the jurisdiction of the Court under
Article 36, paragraph 2 of its Statute is both independent of and wider
than the jurisdictional system erected by the Pact of Bogotá. Neverthe-
less, to establish its jurisdiction in this concrete case, the Court would

have been forced, had it started with the optional clause jurisdiction, to

3For an earlier well-reasoned case in this respect see Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of
Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), separate opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, pp. 824-825.

56 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP. DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 884

time. En effet, la présente affaire est l’exemple par excellence d’un cas

dans lequel la Cour devrait juger que:
«l’exception est tellement liée au fond ou à des points de fait ou de

droit touchant au fond qu’on ne saurait l’examiner séparément sans
aborder le fond, ce que la Cour ne saurait faire tant que la procédure
sur le fond est suspendue aux termes de l’article 62, ou sans préjuger
le fond avant que celui-ci ait fait l’objet d’une discussion exhaustive»

(Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (nouvelle
requête: 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1964 , p. 43).

17. Je ne cherche aucunement, dans cette assez brève opinion, à pro-
poser des formules théoriques permettant d’établir quelles exceptions pré-

liminaires devraient être déclarées comme ne revêtant pas un caractère
exclusivement préliminaire et, quoi qu’il en soit, je doute qu’une telle ten-
tative aboutisse étant donné que chaque affaire dépend de ses propres
faits et circonstances. Mais je puis indiquer avec suffisamment d’assu-

rance que, lorsque la prétention à l’origine de l’exception n’est pas sans
fondement et qu’en outre elle est défendable et plausible, la Cour ne
devrait pas couper court aux tentatives de faire pleinement valoir les
arguments au fond . Comme l’a indiqué le juge Read dans son opinion

dissidente en l’affaire de l’Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. :
«Il m’est impossible de méconnaître la grave injustice que cause-

rait à un Etat demandeur un arrêt qui admettrait une exception
d’incompétence et refuserait d’autoriser un prononcé sur le fond,
tout en tranchant en même temps, à l’encontre de l’Etat demandeur,
un important point de fait ou de droit faisant partie du fond. Le

refus d’autoriser un jugement du différend aurait pour effet de ren-
voyer l’Etat demandeur et l’Etat défendeur à d’autres mesures juri-
diques ou politiques, en vue de régler le différend. Au moment de
rechercher une autre solution au différend, ni le demandeur ni le

défendeur ne devraient être placés dans un état d’infériorité à la suite
d’une décision sur un point de fait ou de droit touchant le fond.»
(Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (Royaume-Uni c. Iran), exception prélimi-
naire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1952 , opinion dissidente du juge Read,

p. 149.)

18. Enfin, il me paraît évident que la compétence de la Cour en vertu
du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 de son Statut est à la fois indépendante du
système juridictionnel établi par le pacte de Bogotá et plus vaste que celle
qui découle du pacte. Néanmoins, pour établir sa compétence dans ce cas

précis, si la Cour avait commencé par se placer dans l’optique de la clause

3Pour une autre affaire, antérieure, dans laquelle ce point a été mûrement réfléchi, voir
celle des Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique),
exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , opinion dissidente du juge Sha-
habuddeen, p. 824-825.

56885 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

deal with the question of whether there existed a “legal dispute” between
the Parties. As the Court notes in paragraph 138 of its Judgment, the
question of whether the 1928 Treaty settled the dispute brought before

the Court is, thus, equally relevant to determining the Court’s jurisdic-
tion under the optional clause as it is to determining the Court’s jurisdic-
tion under the Pact of Bogotá. For the reasons set out in my opinion
above, however, it is also my view that the decision in paragraph 138 of

the Judgment that there is no “extant legal dispute between the Parties” is
a decision so interwoven with the merits that it should have been left to
be determined at the merits stage.

19. In this context, it is worth emphasizing that in no case decided by
the Permanent Court of International Justice or this Court has the plea
that there is no legal dispute within the meaning of Article 36, para-

graph 2, of the Statute been accepted in limine lit4s. Rather such ques-
tions have always been deferred to the merits . Further, it should be
noted that the citation from the South West Africa case in paragraph 138
of the Judgment on which the Court relies in part to hold that there is no

extant dispute between the Parties is incomplete. The quote omits the
very important statement that a dispute exists if it can be “shown that the
claim of one party is positively opposed by the other” (South West Africa

Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa) Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328). The test of whether there
exists a dispute is thus one of opposability and not of unfettered freedom
for the Court. In this case it seems undeniable that Nicaragua’s claim

that the 1928 Treaty is invalid is positively opposed by Columbia.

(Signed) Awn Shawkat A L-K HASAWNEH .

4See Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court 1920-2005 ,

2006, Vol. II, para. II.195.

57 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP. DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 885

facultative de juridiction obligatoire, elle aurait été tenue de traiter la
question de savoir s’il existait un «différend d’ordre juridique» entre les
Parties. Comme le note la Cour au paragraphe 138 de l’arrêt, la question

de savoir si le traité de 1928 a réglé le différend qui lui a été soumis est
donc tout aussi importante pour déterminer sa compétence en vertu de la
clause facultative qu’elle l’est pour établir celle-ci aux termes du pacte de
Bogotá. Cependant, pour les raisons que je viens d’exposer dans mon

opinion, j’estime aussi que le point tranché par la Cour au paragra-
phe 138 de l’arrêt, à savoir qu’il ne «subsistait pas de différend juridique
entre les Parties», est si indissociable du fond que sa détermination aurait
dû être renvoyée au stade de la procédure consacré à celui-ci.

19. Il est intéressant de souligner à cet égard que, dans aucune des
affaires qu’elle a jugées, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale n’a
accepté in limine litis l’argument selon lequel il n’existait pas de différend

d’ordre juridique au sens du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 4u Statut. Ces
questions furent toujours renvoyées au stade du fond . Il faut noter en
outre que la citation tirée de l’affaire du Sud-Ouest africain qui figure au
paragraphe 138 de l’arrêt, et sur laquelle la Cour s’appuie en partie pour

juger qu’il ne subsiste pas de différend entre les Parties, est incomplète.
L’arrêt omet de citer la déclaration très importante selon laquelle un dif-
férend existe s’il peut être «démontr[é] que la réclamation de l’une des

parties se heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre» (Sud-Ouest africain
(Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions pré-
liminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 328). L’existence d’un différend
s’établit ainsi sur un critère d’opposabilité et non sur celui d’une liberté

sans entrave de la Cour. En l’espèce, il semble indéniable que la préten-
tion du Nicaragua selon laquelle le traité de 1928 est nul se heurte à
l’opposition manifeste de la Colombie.

(Signé) Awn Shawkat A L -KHASAWNEH .

4Voir Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court 1920-2005 ,

2006, vol. II, par. II.195.

57

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Dissenting opinion of Vice-President Al-Khasawneh

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