Separate Opinion of Judge Ranjeva

Document Number
120-20071008-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
120-20071008-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

765

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE RANJEVA

[Translation]

Special circumstances and delimitation of the territorial sea — Rule-making
or corrective function — Geomorphology and course of the provisional equidis-
tance line — Notion of necessity and alternative course of the provisional line —
Bisector and equidistance line — History of Article 15 of the 1982 United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea — Development of jurisprudence —

A largely settled debate — Reversal of jurisprudence — “Particular circum-
stances”.

1. I regret that I am unable to subscribe to the decision of the majority
of the Court with respect to the third paragraph of the operative clause of
the Judgment concerning the azimuth of the boundary segment starting

from the point with the co-ordinates 15°00′52″N and 83°05′58″W,
which follows the azimuth 70°14′25″ until its intersection at point A
(with co-ordinates 15°05′25″N and 82°52′54″W) with the 12-nautical-
mile arc of the territorial sea of Bobel Cay. For this first section of the
single delimitation line the Judgment challenges the law and method of
delimitation of the territorial sea. In a vote on the other sections of the

boundary, I would have voted in favour.
2. My disagreement centres on the way in which the Judgment treats
the special circumstances under Article 15 of the 1982 United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in its construction of the
delimitation line. Contrary to the view of the majority of the Members of
the Court, for delimitation of the territorial sea between States with

adjacent or opposite coastlines, special circumstances possess not a rule-
making but a corrective and adjusting function in respect of the provi-
sional equidistance line. In paragraph 272 of the present Judgment, the
Court justifies its abandonment of the provisional equidistance line in the
following terms:

“However, the equidistance method does not automatically have
priority over other methods of delimitation and, in particular cir-

cumstances, there may be factors which make the application of the
equidistance method inappropriate.”

In support of its decision it invokes arguments of fact — the geomorpho-
logy resulting in the instability of the coastlines of both Parties, particu-
larly at the mouth of the River Coco and around Cape Gracias a Dios —
and arguments of law based on the interpretation of the last sentence of
Article 15 of UNCLOS:

“The above provision does not apply, however, where it is neces-
sary by reason of historic title or other special circumstances to

110 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 766

delimit the territorial seas of the two States in a way which is at vari-

ance therewith.”
The divisive issue concerns the point of law alone, as geomorphological

features can, in certain instances, constitute special circumstances within
the meaning of Article 15.
3. The role of special circumstances in delimitation of the territorial
sea is one of the classic issues of maritime delimitation law. A historical
review of the various stages of that debate is perhaps useful in the present

case, which has challenged the creative action of jurisprudence in settling
maritime delimitation law, inter alia, that of the territorial sea.

4. The literal interpretation of Article 15 of UNCLOS advocates the

equidistance or median line for territorial sea delimitations when the
coasts of the States are adjacent or opposite. Exceptions can be made to
that rule of principle if special circumstances exist and if it is necessary to
delimit the territorial sea in another manner. The use of the adjective
“necessary”, which implies a notion of inescapable constraint, prescribes

a very strict and restrictive interpretation of the conditions which may,
exceptionally, justify abandoning the general rule. Paragraphs 268 and 269
of the present Judgment follow the path laid down by Article 15 of the
Montego Bay Convention, but the difficulty in subscribing to the major-
ity view derives from its conclusion that it is impossible to construct a

provisional equidistance line, and from the normative equipollence attrib-
uted by the majority to the equidistance line and the provisional equidis-
tance line in the second subparagraph of paragraph 280.

5. In paragraph 282, the Judgment notes that the Parties have each

envisaged delimitation methods that did not systematically advocate the
use of the median line; in other words, the conduct of the Parties has
been interpreted as an exception to the general rule. On closer analysis, a
distinction must be drawn between the content of the rule, whether or not
accepted by the two Parties, and the interpretation of that rule, given the

factual situation resulting from the geomorphology. In the present case,
the Parties acknowledge both the unstable nature of the coastline in the
area to be delimited and the difficulties of the exercise itself. Are these
considerations such as to justify in law the “necessary” nature of a dif-
ferent method of territorial sea delimitation? The technical arguments

must not be overlooked, but must, in any event, fall within the scope of
the applicable law.
6. The general scheme of the geometric method adopted in the Judg-
ment in paragraph 281 takes as its foundations the “special circumstances
in which it [the Court] cannot apply the equidistance principle”; those

circumstances are set forth in paragraph 280 in the following terms:
“because of the changing conditions of the area the Court has made

no finding as to sovereignty over these islands (see paragraph 145 [of
the Judgment]). Moreover, whatever base points would be used for

111 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 767

the drawing of an equidistance line, the configuration and unstable

nature of the relevant coasts, including the disputed islands formed
in the mouth of the River Coco, would make these base points
(whether at Cape Gracias a Dios or elsewhere) uncertain within a
short period of time.”

Regardless of the correctness of that technical assertion, it raises a point
of law: is the condition of necessity required by the 1982 Convention ful-

filled?
7. In absolute terms, the notion of necessity involves an absence of
solution such that no alternative can be envisaged. The difficulties encoun-
tered are not of themselves sufficient to justify the necessity of abandon-
ing the general rule. The impossibility must be appraised from a legal

standpoint. In the present case, the Judgment focuses upon the unstable
geomorphological nature of the coastlines. But the restrictive approach
adopted in the Judgment is regrettable, since it takes account of the geo-
morphological element alone. Unlike the Court, the 1982 Convention did

not overlook the potential for extremely unstable coastlines, a possibility
which had not been envisaged by the Convention on the Territorial Sea
and the Contiguous Zone of 29 April 1958. Thus, the objection raised by
the Judgment is irrelevant as to the principles. A very different matter is
that of the applicability of Article 7, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS, which

states the following:

“Where because of the presence of a delta and other natural con-
ditions the coastline is highly unstable, the appropriate points may
be selected along the furthest seaward extent of the low-water line
and, notwithstanding subsequent regression of the low-water line,
the straight baselines shall remain effective until changed by the

coastal State in accordance with this Convention.”

The question is thus whether that provision of the Convention concern-
ing the progressive development of the law relative to customary law is
relevant. The status of the two litigant States with respect to the Conven-
tion renders the question devoid of purpose: the unstable nature of the
coastlines does not, in itself, constitute a situation of impossibility giving

rise to a legal vacuum such as to exclude the application of the general
rule of the equidistance line. The reasoning would have been credible if
this provision of UNCLOS on unstable coasts had been taken into
account.
8. Given the consequences drawn by the Judgment from the impor-

tance it attributes to the geomorphological aspect, application of the pro-
visional median line would result in an impasse and the Judgment justi-
fies its solution by attributing a rule-making function to the special
circumstances referred to in Article 15 of UNCLOS. In so doing, the
Judgment reopens the debate that sank the diplomatic negotiations on

maritime delimitation, whereas a rule-making provision concerning terri-
torial sea delimitation has existed since 1958 in Article 12 of the Conven-

112 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 768

tion on the Territorial Sea, and the jurisprudence of the Court, particu-

larly since the Jan Mayen case, has settled that debate. The current
Judgment represents a reversal of jurisprudence sanctioned by an
obiter dictum :

“[h]owever, the equidistance method does not automatically have

priority over other methods of delimitation and, in particular cir-
cumstances, there may be factors which make the application of the
equidistance method inappropriate”.

9. The geometric figure that the line of delimitation represents is sur-

prising. The text of Article 15 of UNCLOS refers to “the median line
every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points on the base-
lines from which the breadth of the territorial seas of each of the two
States is measured”. (The difference in terminology between equidistance

and median lines relates not to the delimitation method but to the differ-
ent geographic situations to which that method is applied: equidistance
line in reference to adjacent coasts and median line for those opposite
one another (cf. A. L. Shalowitz, Shore and Sea Boundaries , Washing-
ton, D.C., United States Department of Commerce, 1962-1964, Vol. I,

pp. 232-235)). The Judgment, however, uses the bisector line to effect the
delimitation of the territorial sea. Beyond a straightforward question of
terminology, we are confronted with an operation of a completely differ-
ent nature. The bisector is a line segment which divides the angle of a
sector, that is to say a plane or area sector, by isometry and thus equally.

The bisector is used in apportionment or division of the area concerned,
in the present case the polygon formed by the adjacent maritime front-
ages. A reminder of this technical definition is necessary inasmuch as the
Court was requested to carry out a maritime delimitation and not an
apportionment or division. That consideration explains the omission of

the bisector method in 1953, during the working session of the Interna-
tional Law Commission and the group of experts on the technical impli-
cations of delimitation methods. In its 1956 report, when listing the pos-
sible methods, the International Law Commission also made no mention
of the bisector approach.

10. With the lack of textual support in the applicable Convention for
the bisector technique, the issue next at hand concerns the relegation of
the provisional equidistance line. The Judgment abandons it in view of
the difficulties described in paragraphs 277 to 280. It concludes that

“because of the changing conditions of the area the Court has made
no finding as to sovereignty over these islands (see paragraph 145 [of
the Judgment]). Moreover, whatever base points would be used for
the drawing of an equidistance line, the configuration and unstable

nature of the relevant coasts, including the disputed islands formed
in the mouth of the River Coco, would make these base points

113 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 769

(whether at Cape Gracias a Dios or elsewhere) uncertain within a

short period of time.”
On the legal level, there is no obstacle preventing the identification of

base points from which the pairs of points equidistant from the boundary
point would be fixed. In practice, drawing the equidistance line provides
a reminder of the relationship between nature and law in maritime
delimitation, the pons asinorum of international law: the law inevitably
transcends the natural features to which it attributes particular effects.

The law, like the jurisprudence, aims to prevent outcomes in which “pro-
nounced” configurations are ignored (North Sea Continental Shelf (Fed-
eral Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Neth-
erlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 , p. 51, para. 96), and also an

overly basic interpretation of nature. Gidel mentioned as a possible jus-
tification for abandoning the equidistance line “cases in which it would
involve real drawbacks [and]... lead to serious inequity between the two
coastal States” (G. Gidel, Le droit international de la mer , 3 vols., 1932-
1934, p. 771). The plotting of the provisional line must add to the element

of stability and permanence which characterizes a boundary delimitation
exercise. The Court has not denied itself its discretionary powers to deter-
mine an abstract point from which the required linear geometrical figure
is constructed (see paragraph 280 of the Judgment). Figure 7 (b)
appended to the work by L. Lucchini and M. Voelckel (Droit de la mer,

tome 2, Vol. 1, 1996) could have been of help in drawing such a provi-
sional line. In the present instance, the choice of endpoints for the two
States’ coastal fronts and of the point established by the Mixed Commis-
sion of 1962 has been clearly identified on sketch-map No. 3 on page 750
of the present Judgment. An equidistance line can then be constructed

from pairs of points equidistant from the point determined by the Mixed
Commission in 1962. Those pairs of points will be selected in such a way as
to take account of the salient features of the coastal fronts of each State.
11. The genesis of Article 15 was mentioned in justification of the rule-
making function, even by default, of special circumstances. The median

line rule lies at the heart of the operative provisions of Article 15, the
wording of which was practically settled, at the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea, in the 7 May 1975 draft of the single
negotiating text. In such a situation, on that particular point of the con-
substantial links between equidistance line and special circumstances, the

Third Conference did not challenge the fundamental basis of the general
scheme of Article 12 of the Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea
and the Contiguous Zone. In support of its interpretation, the Judgment
takes refuge behind the commentaries in the Yearbook of the Interna-
tional Law Commission, 1952, Vol. II, p. 38. But the Judgment neglects

to take account of the opinion of the Special Rapporteur in 1956:
“The Yugoslav Government had proposed the deletion of...the

phrase ‘unless another boundary line is justified by special circum-
stances’. He did not believe that the Commission was prepared to

114 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP. OP.RANJEVA ) 770

delete the latter phrase, because it attached considerable weight to it

and its deletion would make the article too rigid.” (United Nations,
Summary Record of the 366th Meeting , doc. A/CN.4/SR.366.)

It was on the basis of that proposed interpretation that a vote was held
the same day on a text combining draft Articles 12 and 14 drawn up by
the Special Rapporteur. The Special Rapporteur’s view was that the role

of special circumstances was to correct the effects of strict application of
a median or equidistance line. At the 61st meeting of the First Committee
of the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (Geneva,
24 February-27 April 1958), “[t]he phrase ‘special circumstances’ in the
second sentence was adopted by 38 votes to 7, with 22 abstentions”

(A/CONF.13/L.28/Rev.1, Plenary Meetings, Vol. II, p. 119). That pre-
scription does not mean that the median line is obligatory, for that would
destroy the consubstantial relationship between the median line and spe-
cial circumstances, and thus the median line has only a provisional status

in the delimitation of the territorial sea.
12. The jurisprudence relied upon by the Judgment to justify the aban-
donment of the provisional equidistance line is not decisive either. Among
arbitral proceedings, the Guinea/Guinea-Bissau case is well known, in
that the Arbitration Tribunal sought an equitable delimitation taking

account of a broader geographic area to avoid prejudicing subsequent
delimitations concerning third States (see case concerning the Delimita-
tion of the Maritime Boundary between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Inter-
national Law Reports, decision of 14 February 1985, para. 109). In that
case, the capricious character of the configuration of the coastal geogra-

phy was decisive for the Tribunal because of the effect of the coastal con-
figuration on the equidistance line. The Tribunal ruled out the equidis-
tance line after assessing whether the delimitation would be of an equitable
nature using the provisional equidistance line. In fact, the adoption of the
equidistance approach would have had the

“drawback of resulting in the middle country [Guinea in that

instance] being enclaved by the other two and thus prevented from
extending its maritime territory as far seaward as international law
permits” (ibid., para. 104).

The short concave coastline was thus left aside in favour of a convex con-
figuration covering the maritime front of West Africa as a whole. The
overall orientation of the coasts constitutes a special circumstance,

account of which had to be taken in adjusting or even ruling out the equi-
distance line. The Judgment effects an amalgamation by taking into con-
sideration only the final outcome and making the provisional line an
intermediate stage.
13. The plotting of a single maritime boundary does not, from the

standpoint of the jurisprudence, call into question the principles govern-
ing special circumstances. The debates at the Third United Nations Con-

115 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP. OP.RANJEVA ) 771

ference on the Law of the Sea highlighted, on the one hand, the general

adherence to a unitary conception of the basis of the law of maritime
delimitation and, on the other, with respect to special circumstances, the
fact that the rule is “consubstantial” with equidistance, in that the two
notions complement and support each other. The evolution of the Court’s
jurisprudence over the period from 1969 to 1985 reflected the often ten-

tative efforts to that end, before the advent of a solution of principle in
1993. The Court recalls in paragraph 271 of the present Judgment its own
findings in the case concerning the Land and Maritime Boundary between
Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea inter-
vening):

“The Court has on various occasions made it clear what the appli-

cable criteria, principles and rules of delimitation are when a line
covering several zones of coincident jurisdictions is to be deter-
mined. They are expressed in the so-called equitable principles/rele-
vant circumstances method. This method, which is very similar to
the equidistance/special circumstances method applicable in delimi-

tation of the territorial sea, involves first drawing an equidistance
line, then considering whether there are factors calling for the adjust-
ment or shifting of that line in order to achieve an ‘equitable result’.”
(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 441, para. 288.)

14. In 1969, the Court established the principle that the pursuit of an
equitable outcome was the objective of all maritime delimitations:

“it is necessary to seek not one method of delimitation but one
goal” (North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/

Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 50, para. 92).

The median line was at the time at the centre of a controversy which, in
retrospect, gives rise to some amusement. The Libya/Malta Judgment
constitutes a significant stage in the development of the law with its dec-
laration that

“[t]he Court is unable to accept that, even as a preliminary and pro-
visional step towards the drawing of a delimitation line, the equidis-
tance method is the one which must be used” (Continental Shelf

(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985 ,
p. 37, para. 43).

The use of the emphasized verb “must” reflects, initially, the Court’s
rejection of compulsory and systematic application of the equidistance
line on a preliminary and provisional basis; but, subsequently, such a
line, previously condemned, could be taken into consideration. After all,
the 1985 Judgment applied the equidistance line to the case, proceeding

by stages.
15. In 1993, the entry into force of the Montego Bay Convention was

116 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 772

regarded as probable in the near future, as that instrument was inter-

preted as an expression of positive law and the Court accepted it and
regarded it as such. Thus the Judgment in the Maritime Delimitation in
the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v. Norway) case
put the finishing touches to that development when it adopted the method
of delimitation by stages, but without the reservations still expressed in

the 1985 decision. When the Court straightforwardly applied the delimi-
tation by stages method, it was mindful of coherence and predictability,
two concerns already expressed in the Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya/Malta) case Judgment. Article 6 of the Geneva Convention
on the Continental Shelf, in the Court’s view, provided for an approach

“taking provisionally the median line...and then enquiring whether
‘special circumstances’ require ‘another boundary line’” (Maritime
Delimitation in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Den-
mark v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , pp. 59-60,
para. 49).

Later in the same Judgment, the Court places its judicial policy approach
within a unitary framework by stating that “[j]udicial decisions on the

basis of the customary law governing continental shelf delimitation
between opposite coasts have likewise regarded the median line as a pro-
visional line” (ibid., p. 60, para. 50). Unity of method, if not of régime,
was thenceforth regarded as the rule, whether for territorial seas, the con-
tinental shelf, exclusive economic zones or fishing zones. The pursuit of

an equitable result did not rule out a simple and readily understandable
solution. The traditional and apparently parallel pairs, that is to say, on
the one hand, equidistance/special circumstances and, on the other, rele-
vant circumstances/equitable principles, have since 1993 formed part of
the same dynamic process: both seek to obtain an equitable result in

maritime delimitation. There are two consequences, the first establishing
that the specific terminology relating to areas does not affect the coher-
ence of the rules and the second that the plotting, on a preliminary and
provisional basis, of an equidistance line is indispensable. The Judgments
in the Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar

and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) and the Land and Maritime Boundary
between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea
intervening) cases, in 2001 and 2002 respectively, consolidated the devel-
opment represented by the step-by-step approach based on the provi-
sional median line.

16. In paragraph 272, the present Judgment refers to “particular cir-
cumstances”. The Court thus invents a third category of circumstances
alongside the special circumstances and the relevant circumstances of the
Convention on the Law of the Sea. That new category is thus of an un-

specified nature and corresponds to what the Franco-British arbitral
award called “a wholly different criterion of delimitation” (case concern-

117 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE SEP .OP. RANJEVA ) 773

ing the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between the United King-
dom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the French Republic ,

decision of 30 June 1997, United Nations, RIAA, Vol. XVIII, p. 116,
para. 249). The major problem is that the majority of the Members of the
Court base themselves upon those “particular circumstances” to depart
from the application of the provisional median line rule and justify the

use of a different rule, that of the bisector. Those circumstances, as dis-
tinct from the circumstances known as “special or relevant”, are no
longer assigned the merely corrective function prescribed by the law and
all jurisprudence to date, but instead a rule-making function. The Court
has directly endorsed the analyses concerning the geomorphology of the

coasts in order to construct a bisector line. Contrary to the Court’s juris-
prudence, which excludes from the field of directly applicable rules any
principle other than that of preliminary and provisional equidistance, the
present Judgment challenges the creative exercise progressively under-

taken by the Court. It opens up the way for new uncertainties which may
lead to a direct normativity of equitable principles at the expense of the
rule of positive law.
17. To conclude, the present Judgment, in so far as it concerns the azi-

muth in the area of the territorial sea between the point fixed by the
Mixed Commission in 1962 and the intersection with the outer limit of
Bobel Cay, constitutes a repudiation of the law and the Court’s jurispru-
dence in matters of territorial sea delimitation.

(Signed) Raymond R ANJEVA .

118

Bilingual Content

765

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE RANJEVA

Circonstances spéciales et délimitation de la mer territoriale — Fonction nor-
mative ou fonction correctrice — Géomorphologie et tracé de la ligne provisoire
d’équidistance — Notion de nécessité et tracé alternatif de la ligne provisoire —
Bissectrice et ligne d’équidistance — Historique de l’article 15 de la convention
des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer de 1982 — Evolution de la jurispru-

dence — Apaisement des idées — Revirement de la jurisprudence — «Certaines
circonstances».

1. Je suis au regret de ne pouvoir me joindre à la décision de la majo-
rité de la Cour concernant le troisième alinéa du dispositif de l’arrêt à
propos de l’azimut du segment de la frontière situé à partir du point de

coordonnées 15°00′52″ de latitude nord et 83°05′58″ de longitude ouest
qui longe la ligne d’azimut 70°14′25″ jusqu’à son intersection au point A
(de coordonnées 15°05′25″ et 82°52′54″) avec l’arc formé par la mer ter-
ritoriale de 12 milles nautiques de Bobel Cay. Pour cette première partie
de la ligne unique de délimitation, l’arrêt remet en cause le droit et la
méthode de délimitation de la mer territoriale. Un vote détaché sur les

autres parties de frontière aurait été positif de ma part.
2. Mon désaccord se fonde sur le traitement qu’a réservé l’arrêt aux
circonstances spéciales de l’article 15 de la convention des Nations Unies
sur le droit de la mer de 1982 (CNUDM) pour la construction de la ligne
de délimitation. Contrairement à l’opinion de la majorité des membres de
la Cour, les circonstances spéciales, en matière de délimitation de la mer

territoriale entre Etats dont les côtes sont adjacentes ou se font face,
n’ont pas une fonction normative mais correctrice et d’ajustement de la
ligne d’équidistance provisoire. La Cour justifie au paragraphe 272 du
présent arrêt la renonciation à la ligne provisoire d’équidistance en ces
termes:

«Cela étant, la méthode de l’équidistance n’a pas automatique-
ment la priorité sur les autres méthodes de délimitation et, dans cer-

taines circonstances, des facteurs peuvent rendre son application
inappropriée.»

A l’appui de sa décision sont invoqués des arguments de fait: la géomor-
phologie qui se traduit par l’instabilité de la côte des deux Parties, notam-
ment à l’embouchure du fleuve Coco et autour du cap Gracias a Dios; et
de droit, fondés sur l’interprétation de la dernière phrase de l’article 15 de
la CNUDM:

«Cette disposition ne s’applique cependant pas dans le cas où, en
raison de l’existence de titres historiques ou d’autres circonstances

110 765

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE RANJEVA

[Translation]

Special circumstances and delimitation of the territorial sea — Rule-making
or corrective function — Geomorphology and course of the provisional equidis-
tance line — Notion of necessity and alternative course of the provisional line —
Bisector and equidistance line — History of Article 15 of the 1982 United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea — Development of jurisprudence —

A largely settled debate — Reversal of jurisprudence — “Particular circum-
stances”.

1. I regret that I am unable to subscribe to the decision of the majority
of the Court with respect to the third paragraph of the operative clause of
the Judgment concerning the azimuth of the boundary segment starting

from the point with the co-ordinates 15°00′52″N and 83°05′58″W,
which follows the azimuth 70°14′25″ until its intersection at point A
(with co-ordinates 15°05′25″N and 82°52′54″W) with the 12-nautical-
mile arc of the territorial sea of Bobel Cay. For this first section of the
single delimitation line the Judgment challenges the law and method of
delimitation of the territorial sea. In a vote on the other sections of the

boundary, I would have voted in favour.
2. My disagreement centres on the way in which the Judgment treats
the special circumstances under Article 15 of the 1982 United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in its construction of the
delimitation line. Contrary to the view of the majority of the Members of
the Court, for delimitation of the territorial sea between States with

adjacent or opposite coastlines, special circumstances possess not a rule-
making but a corrective and adjusting function in respect of the provi-
sional equidistance line. In paragraph 272 of the present Judgment, the
Court justifies its abandonment of the provisional equidistance line in the
following terms:

“However, the equidistance method does not automatically have
priority over other methods of delimitation and, in particular cir-

cumstances, there may be factors which make the application of the
equidistance method inappropriate.”

In support of its decision it invokes arguments of fact — the geomorpho-
logy resulting in the instability of the coastlines of both Parties, particu-
larly at the mouth of the River Coco and around Cape Gracias a Dios —
and arguments of law based on the interpretation of the last sentence of
Article 15 of UNCLOS:

“The above provision does not apply, however, where it is neces-
sary by reason of historic title or other special circumstances to

110766 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP .IND .RANJEVA )

spéciales, il est nécessaire de délimiter autrement la mer territoriale

des deux Etats.»
La question qui divise porte sur le seul point de droit car les caractères

géomorphologiques peuvent, dans certains cas, constituer des circons-
tances spéciales au sens du même article 15.
3. La fonction des circonstances spéciales dans la délimitation de la
mer territoriale relève des questions classiques du droit de la délimitation
maritime. Rappeler les péripéties de son historique est peut-être utile

pour la présente affaire, à l’occasion de laquelle est remise en cause
l’Œuvre créatrice de la jurisprudence, pour pacifier le droit de la délimita-
tion maritime, notamment celle de la mer territoriale.
4. L’interprétation littérale de l’article 15 de la CNUDM préconise la

ligne d’équidistance ou médiane pour la délimitation de la mer territo-
riale lorsque les côtes des Etats sont adjacentes ou se font face. La règle
de principe peut faire l’objet d’exception si des circonstances spéciales
existent et s’il est nécessaire de délimiter autrement cette mer territoriale.
L’utilisation de l’adjectif «nécessaire», qui comporte une connotation de

contrainte incontournable, prescrit une interprétation très stricte et res-
trictive des conditions qui peuvent justifier, de manière exceptionnelle,
l’abandon de la règle commune. Les paragraphes 268 et 269 du présent
arrêt s’inscrivent dans le sillage de l’article 15 de la convention de Mon-
tego Bay, mais la difficulté à suivre la majorité résulte de ce qu’il convient

de parler de constat d’impuissance à tracer une ligne provisoire d’équi-
distance et de l’équipollence en matière normative, que la majorité établit
au second alinéa du paragraphe 280 entre la ligne d’équidistance et la
ligne provisoire d’équidistance.
5. L’arrêt, au paragraphe 282, oppose les propositions de délimitation

des Parties, qui n’ont pas, de manière systématique, préconisé le recours à
la ligne médiane; en d’autres termes, le comportement des Parties a été
interprété comme un affranchissement à l’égard de la norme commune. A
l’analyse, une distinction doit être établie entre le contenu de la règle,
accepté ou non, par les deux Parties et l’interprétation de la règle, compte

tenu de la situation de fait liée à la géomorphologie. En l’espèce, les
Parties reconnaissent à la fois le caractère instable des côtes dans la partie
à délimiter et les difficultés de l’opération elle-même. Ces données sont-
elles de nature à justifier en droit le caractère «nécessaire» d’une délimi-
tation autre de la mer territoriale? Les arguments techniques ne doivent

pas être négligés, mais doivent en tout état de cause s’inscrire dans la pers-
pective du droit applicable.
6. L’économie générale de la construction géométrique de l’arrêt se
fonde au paragraphe 281 sur «des circonstances spéciales qui ne lui per-
mettent pas d’appliquer le principe de l’équidistance»; ces circonstances

sont énoncées au paragraphe 280 dans les termes suivants:
«[E]n raison des caractéristiques changeantes de cette zone, la

Cour ne s’est pas prononcée sur l’attribution de la souveraineté sur
ces îles (voir paragraphe 145 [de l’arrêt]). En outre, quels que soient

111 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 766

delimit the territorial seas of the two States in a way which is at vari-

ance therewith.”
The divisive issue concerns the point of law alone, as geomorphological

features can, in certain instances, constitute special circumstances within
the meaning of Article 15.
3. The role of special circumstances in delimitation of the territorial
sea is one of the classic issues of maritime delimitation law. A historical
review of the various stages of that debate is perhaps useful in the present

case, which has challenged the creative action of jurisprudence in settling
maritime delimitation law, inter alia, that of the territorial sea.

4. The literal interpretation of Article 15 of UNCLOS advocates the

equidistance or median line for territorial sea delimitations when the
coasts of the States are adjacent or opposite. Exceptions can be made to
that rule of principle if special circumstances exist and if it is necessary to
delimit the territorial sea in another manner. The use of the adjective
“necessary”, which implies a notion of inescapable constraint, prescribes

a very strict and restrictive interpretation of the conditions which may,
exceptionally, justify abandoning the general rule. Paragraphs 268 and 269
of the present Judgment follow the path laid down by Article 15 of the
Montego Bay Convention, but the difficulty in subscribing to the major-
ity view derives from its conclusion that it is impossible to construct a

provisional equidistance line, and from the normative equipollence attrib-
uted by the majority to the equidistance line and the provisional equidis-
tance line in the second subparagraph of paragraph 280.

5. In paragraph 282, the Judgment notes that the Parties have each

envisaged delimitation methods that did not systematically advocate the
use of the median line; in other words, the conduct of the Parties has
been interpreted as an exception to the general rule. On closer analysis, a
distinction must be drawn between the content of the rule, whether or not
accepted by the two Parties, and the interpretation of that rule, given the

factual situation resulting from the geomorphology. In the present case,
the Parties acknowledge both the unstable nature of the coastline in the
area to be delimited and the difficulties of the exercise itself. Are these
considerations such as to justify in law the “necessary” nature of a dif-
ferent method of territorial sea delimitation? The technical arguments

must not be overlooked, but must, in any event, fall within the scope of
the applicable law.
6. The general scheme of the geometric method adopted in the Judg-
ment in paragraph 281 takes as its foundations the “special circumstances
in which it [the Court] cannot apply the equidistance principle”; those

circumstances are set forth in paragraph 280 in the following terms:
“because of the changing conditions of the area the Court has made

no finding as to sovereignty over these islands (see paragraph 145 [of
the Judgment]). Moreover, whatever base points would be used for

111767 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP .IND .RANJEVA )

les points de base qui seraient utilisés pour le tracé d’une ligne

d’équidistance, la configuration et la nature instable des côtes perti-
nentes, y compris les îles en litige qui se sont formées dans l’embou-
chure du fleuve Coco, rendraient en peu de temps incertains ces
points de base (qu’ils soient situés au cap Gracias a Dios ou ailleurs).»

Sans discuter le bien-fondé de ce constat technique, une question se pose
en droit: la condition de nécessité exigée par la convention de 1982 est-

elle satisfaite?
7. Dans l’absolu, l’idée de nécessité implique une absence d’issue telle
qu’aucune voie alternative ne peut être envisagée. Les difficultés rencon-
trées ne sont pas en soi suffisantes pour justifier le caractère nécessaire de
la renonciation à la règle commune. C’est en droit que doit être évaluée

cette impossibilité. En la présente affaire, l’arrêt met en exergue la nature
instable des côtes sur le plan géomorphologique. Mais il convient cepen-
dant de déplorer l’approche restrictive, retenue dans l’arrêt, qui n’envi-
sage que l’aspect géomorphologique. Contrairement à la Cour, la conven-

tion de 1982 n’ignore pas les côtes extrêmement instables, hypothèse non
envisagée par la convention du 29 avril 1958, sur la mer territoriale et la
zone contiguë. Dès lors, sur le plan des principes, l’objection invoquée
par l’arrêt n’est pas pertinente. Tout autre est la question de l’applicabi-
lité de l’alinéa 2 de l’article 7 de la CNUDM, libellé ainsi:

«Là où la côte est extrêmement instable en raison de la présence
d’un delta et d’autres caractéristiques naturelles, les points appro-
priés peuvent être choisis le long de la laisse de basse mer la plus
avancée et, même en cas de recul ultérieur de la laisse de basse mer,
ces lignes de base droites restent en vigueur tant qu’elles n’ont pas

été modifiées par l’Etat côtier conformément à la convention.»

La question est alors de savoir si cette disposition conventionnelle rele-
vant du développement progressif du droit par rapport au droit coutu-
mier est pertinente. Le statut des deux Etats litigants vis-à-vis de la
convention rend sans objet la question: le caractère instable des côtes
n’est pas, en soi, constitutif d’une situation d’impossibilité génératrice

d’un vide juridique de nature à écarter l’application de la règle commune
de la ligne d’équidistance. Le raisonnement aurait été crédible si cette
perspective de la CNUDM sur les côtes instables avait été prise en
compte.
8. Face aux conséquences que l’arrêt tire de l’importance qu’il affecte

à l’aspect géomorphologique, le recours à la ligne médiane provisoire se
heurterait à une impasse et l’arrêt justifie sa solution en reconnaissant une
fonction normative aux circonstances spéciales de l’article 15 de la
CNUDM. Ce faisant, l’arrêt rouvre les débats qui ont plombé les négo-
ciations diplomatiques sur la délimitation maritime, alors que la délimita-

tion de la mer territoriale a fait l’objet de disposition normative depuis
1958, en l’article 12 de la convention sur la mer territoriale, et que la

112 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 767

the drawing of an equidistance line, the configuration and unstable

nature of the relevant coasts, including the disputed islands formed
in the mouth of the River Coco, would make these base points
(whether at Cape Gracias a Dios or elsewhere) uncertain within a
short period of time.”

Regardless of the correctness of that technical assertion, it raises a point
of law: is the condition of necessity required by the 1982 Convention ful-

filled?
7. In absolute terms, the notion of necessity involves an absence of
solution such that no alternative can be envisaged. The difficulties encoun-
tered are not of themselves sufficient to justify the necessity of abandon-
ing the general rule. The impossibility must be appraised from a legal

standpoint. In the present case, the Judgment focuses upon the unstable
geomorphological nature of the coastlines. But the restrictive approach
adopted in the Judgment is regrettable, since it takes account of the geo-
morphological element alone. Unlike the Court, the 1982 Convention did

not overlook the potential for extremely unstable coastlines, a possibility
which had not been envisaged by the Convention on the Territorial Sea
and the Contiguous Zone of 29 April 1958. Thus, the objection raised by
the Judgment is irrelevant as to the principles. A very different matter is
that of the applicability of Article 7, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS, which

states the following:

“Where because of the presence of a delta and other natural con-
ditions the coastline is highly unstable, the appropriate points may
be selected along the furthest seaward extent of the low-water line
and, notwithstanding subsequent regression of the low-water line,
the straight baselines shall remain effective until changed by the

coastal State in accordance with this Convention.”

The question is thus whether that provision of the Convention concern-
ing the progressive development of the law relative to customary law is
relevant. The status of the two litigant States with respect to the Conven-
tion renders the question devoid of purpose: the unstable nature of the
coastlines does not, in itself, constitute a situation of impossibility giving

rise to a legal vacuum such as to exclude the application of the general
rule of the equidistance line. The reasoning would have been credible if
this provision of UNCLOS on unstable coasts had been taken into
account.
8. Given the consequences drawn by the Judgment from the impor-

tance it attributes to the geomorphological aspect, application of the pro-
visional median line would result in an impasse and the Judgment justi-
fies its solution by attributing a rule-making function to the special
circumstances referred to in Article 15 of UNCLOS. In so doing, the
Judgment reopens the debate that sank the diplomatic negotiations on

maritime delimitation, whereas a rule-making provision concerning terri-
torial sea delimitation has existed since 1958 in Article 12 of the Conven-

112768 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP. IND. RANJEVA )

jurisprudence de la Cour, depuis en particulier l’arrêtJan Mayen, a pacifié

le débat. Le présent arrêt représente un revirement de jurisprudence
consacré par un obiter dictum :

«[c]ela étant, la méthode de l’équidistance n’a pas automatiquement

la priorité sur les autres méthodes de délimitation et, dans certaines
circonstances, des facteurs peuvent rendre son application inappro-
priée».

9. La figure géométrique qui représente la ligne de délimitation sur-

prend. Le texte de l’article 15 de la CNUDM renvoie à la «ligne médiane
dont tous les points sont équidistants des points les plus proches des
lignes de base à partir desquelles est mesurée la largeur de la mer territo-
riale de chacun des deux Etats». (La différence de terminologie entre

ligne d’équidistance et ligne médiane a trait non pas à la méthode de déli-
mitation mais aux différentes situations géographiques auxquelles cette
méthode est appliquée: équidistance pour parler de côtes adjacentes et
médiane pour celles qui se font face (cf. A. L. Shalowitz, Shore and Sea
Boundaries, Washington, D.C., US Department of Commerce, 1962-

1964, vol. I, p. 232-235).) L’arrêt, de son côté, a recours à la bissectrice
pour assurer la délimitation de la mer territoriale. Par-delà une simple
question de terminologie, on se trouve face à une opération de nature dif-
férente. La bissectrice est un segment de droite qui partage un secteur
d’angle, c’est-à-dire un secteur de plan ou d’espace, de façon isométrique,

donc égale. La bissectrice s’inscrit dans une perspective de partage ou de
division de l’espace considéré qui, en l’espèce, est le polygone formé à
partir des façades maritimes adjacentes. Le rappel de cette définition
technique s’impose dans la mesure où c’est à une délimitation maritime et
non à un partage ou à une division que la Cour a été invitée. Cette consi-

dération explique l’omission de la bissectrice en 1953, à l’occasion de la
séance de travail de la Commission du droit international avec le comité
d’experts, sur les implications techniques des méthodes de délimitation.
Dans son rapport de 1956, la Commission du droit international, en fai-
sant l’énumération des méthodes envisageables, n’a pas non plus men-

tionné la bissectrice.
10. La technique de la bissectrice manquant de base textuelle au
regard de la convention applicable, la question porte dès lors sur l’abais-
sement de la ligne provisoire d’équidistance. L’arrêt y renonce compte
tenu des difficultés exposées aux paragraphes 277 à 280. En conclusion,

«en raison des caractéristiques changeantes de cette zone, la Cour ne
s’est pas prononcée sur l’attribution de la souveraineté sur ces îles
(voir paragraphe 145 [de l’arrêt]). En outre, quels que soient les
points de base qui seraient utilisés pour le tracé d’une ligne d’équi-

distance, la configuration et la nature instable des côtes pertinentes,
y compris les îles en litige qui se sont formées dans l’embouchure du

113 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 768

tion on the Territorial Sea, and the jurisprudence of the Court, particu-

larly since the Jan Mayen case, has settled that debate. The current
Judgment represents a reversal of jurisprudence sanctioned by an
obiter dictum :

“[h]owever, the equidistance method does not automatically have

priority over other methods of delimitation and, in particular cir-
cumstances, there may be factors which make the application of the
equidistance method inappropriate”.

9. The geometric figure that the line of delimitation represents is sur-

prising. The text of Article 15 of UNCLOS refers to “the median line
every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points on the base-
lines from which the breadth of the territorial seas of each of the two
States is measured”. (The difference in terminology between equidistance

and median lines relates not to the delimitation method but to the differ-
ent geographic situations to which that method is applied: equidistance
line in reference to adjacent coasts and median line for those opposite
one another (cf. A. L. Shalowitz, Shore and Sea Boundaries , Washing-
ton, D.C., United States Department of Commerce, 1962-1964, Vol. I,

pp. 232-235)). The Judgment, however, uses the bisector line to effect the
delimitation of the territorial sea. Beyond a straightforward question of
terminology, we are confronted with an operation of a completely differ-
ent nature. The bisector is a line segment which divides the angle of a
sector, that is to say a plane or area sector, by isometry and thus equally.

The bisector is used in apportionment or division of the area concerned,
in the present case the polygon formed by the adjacent maritime front-
ages. A reminder of this technical definition is necessary inasmuch as the
Court was requested to carry out a maritime delimitation and not an
apportionment or division. That consideration explains the omission of

the bisector method in 1953, during the working session of the Interna-
tional Law Commission and the group of experts on the technical impli-
cations of delimitation methods. In its 1956 report, when listing the pos-
sible methods, the International Law Commission also made no mention
of the bisector approach.

10. With the lack of textual support in the applicable Convention for
the bisector technique, the issue next at hand concerns the relegation of
the provisional equidistance line. The Judgment abandons it in view of
the difficulties described in paragraphs 277 to 280. It concludes that

“because of the changing conditions of the area the Court has made
no finding as to sovereignty over these islands (see paragraph 145 [of
the Judgment]). Moreover, whatever base points would be used for
the drawing of an equidistance line, the configuration and unstable

nature of the relevant coasts, including the disputed islands formed
in the mouth of the River Coco, would make these base points

113769 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP. IND. RANJEVA )

fleuve Coco, rendraient en peu de temps incertains ces points de base

(qu’ils soient situés au cap Gracias a Dios ou ailleurs).»
Sur le plan juridique, aucun obstacle n’empêche l’identification des points

de base à partir desquels seraient fixés les couples de points équidistants
du point frontière. En pratique, le tracé de la ligne d’équidistance rap-
pelle les relations entre nature et droit dans la délimitation maritime, le
pont aux ânes du droit international: le droit transcende inévitablement
les réalités naturelles auxquelles il attache certains effets. Le droit, comme

la jurisprudence, vise à écarter aussi bien les résultats «excentriques»
(Plateau continental de la mer du Nord (République fédérale d’Alle-
magne/Danemark; République fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays-Bas), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 51, par. 96) que l’interprétation fondamentaliste de

la nature. Gidel a évoqué comme justification possible de la renonciation à
la ligne d’équidistance «des cas où elle comporterait de réels inconvé-
nients [et] ... entraînerait une grave inégalité entre les deux riverains»
(G. Gidel, Le droit international de la mer , 3 vol., 1932-1934, p. 771). Le
tracé de la ligne provisoire doit contribuer à l’élément de stabilité et de

permanence qui caractérise une opération de délimitation de frontière. La
Cour ne s’est pas privée de sa compétence discrétionnaire pour détermi-
ner un point abstrait à partir duquel est construite la figure linéaire géo-
métrique requise (cf. arrêt, par. 280). La figure 7b, hors-texte de l’ouvrage
de L. Lucchini et M. Voelckel (Droit de la mer, t. 2, vo1. 1, 1996), aurait

pu aider à tracer cette ligne provisoire. En l’espèce, le choix des points
extrêmes des façades côtières des deux Etats et du point établi par la
commission mixte de 1962 a été clairement établi dans le croquis n° 3
(voir p. 750 du présent arrêt). Une ligne d’équidistance peut alors être
construite à partir de couples de points équidistants du point déterminé

par la commission mixte en 1962. Ces couples de points seront choisis de
manière à inclure les points saillants caractéristiques des façades côtières
de chaque Etat.
11. La genèse de l’article 15 a été évoquée pour justifier la fonction
normative, même par défaut, des circonstances spéciales. La règle de la

ligne médiane est au cŒur même du dispositif de l’article 15 dont la for-
mulation était pratiquement stabilisée, lors de la troisième Conférence
des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, dès la version du texte unique de
négociation du 7 mai 1975. Dans ces conditions, sur ce point particulier
des liens consubstantiels ligne d’équidistance/circonstances spéciales, la

troisième Conférence n’a pas remis en cause les bases mêmes de l’écono-
mie générale de l’article 12 de la convention de Genève sur la mer terri-
toriale et la zone contiguë. A l’appui de son interprétation, l’arrêt se
retranche derrière les commentaires de l’Annuaire de la Commission du
droit international, 1952, vol. II, p. 38. Mais l’arrêt omet de tenir compte

de l’opinion du rapporteur en 1956:
«[L]e Gouvernement yougoslave a proposé de supprimer les

mots ... «et à moins que des circonstances spéciales ne justifient une
autre délimitation». Le rapporteur spécial ne croit pas que la Com-

114 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 769

(whether at Cape Gracias a Dios or elsewhere) uncertain within a

short period of time.”
On the legal level, there is no obstacle preventing the identification of

base points from which the pairs of points equidistant from the boundary
point would be fixed. In practice, drawing the equidistance line provides
a reminder of the relationship between nature and law in maritime
delimitation, the pons asinorum of international law: the law inevitably
transcends the natural features to which it attributes particular effects.

The law, like the jurisprudence, aims to prevent outcomes in which “pro-
nounced” configurations are ignored (North Sea Continental Shelf (Fed-
eral Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Neth-
erlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 , p. 51, para. 96), and also an

overly basic interpretation of nature. Gidel mentioned as a possible jus-
tification for abandoning the equidistance line “cases in which it would
involve real drawbacks [and]... lead to serious inequity between the two
coastal States” (G. Gidel, Le droit international de la mer , 3 vols., 1932-
1934, p. 771). The plotting of the provisional line must add to the element

of stability and permanence which characterizes a boundary delimitation
exercise. The Court has not denied itself its discretionary powers to deter-
mine an abstract point from which the required linear geometrical figure
is constructed (see paragraph 280 of the Judgment). Figure 7 (b)
appended to the work by L. Lucchini and M. Voelckel (Droit de la mer,

tome 2, Vol. 1, 1996) could have been of help in drawing such a provi-
sional line. In the present instance, the choice of endpoints for the two
States’ coastal fronts and of the point established by the Mixed Commis-
sion of 1962 has been clearly identified on sketch-map No. 3 on page 750
of the present Judgment. An equidistance line can then be constructed

from pairs of points equidistant from the point determined by the Mixed
Commission in 1962. Those pairs of points will be selected in such a way as
to take account of the salient features of the coastal fronts of each State.
11. The genesis of Article 15 was mentioned in justification of the rule-
making function, even by default, of special circumstances. The median

line rule lies at the heart of the operative provisions of Article 15, the
wording of which was practically settled, at the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea, in the 7 May 1975 draft of the single
negotiating text. In such a situation, on that particular point of the con-
substantial links between equidistance line and special circumstances, the

Third Conference did not challenge the fundamental basis of the general
scheme of Article 12 of the Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea
and the Contiguous Zone. In support of its interpretation, the Judgment
takes refuge behind the commentaries in the Yearbook of the Interna-
tional Law Commission, 1952, Vol. II, p. 38. But the Judgment neglects

to take account of the opinion of the Special Rapporteur in 1956:
“The Yugoslav Government had proposed the deletion of...the

phrase ‘unless another boundary line is justified by special circum-
stances’. He did not believe that the Commission was prepared to

114770 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME (OP. IND. RANJEVA )

mission soit disposée à éliminer ces derniers mots, parce qu’elle leur
attache une grande importance et qu’en les faisant disparaître on
rendrait cet article trop rigide.» (Nations Unies, Compte rendu ana-
e
lytique de la 366 séance, doc. A/CN.4/SR.366.)

Ce fut sur la base de cette proposition d’interprétation qu’intervint le
même jour le vote du projet combinant les articles 12 et 14 élaborés par le
rapporteur spécial. Pour le rapporteur spécial, les circonstances spéciales
avaient pour rôle de corriger les effets rigides de la ligne médiane ou
e
d’équidistance. A la 61 séance de la première commission de la Confé-
rence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer (Genève, 24 février-
27 avril 1958), «le membre de phrase «circonstances spéciales» de la
deuxième phrase a été adopté par 38 voix contre 7 avec 22 abstentions»
(A/CONF.13/L.28, séances plénières, vol. II, p. 135). Cette prescription

ne signifie pas que la ligne médiane soit obligatoire, sinon ce serait
détruire la consubstantialité ligne médiane/circonstances spéciales, aussi
la ligne médiane n’a-t-elle qu’un caractère provisoire pour la délimitation
de la mer territoriale.

12. La jurisprudence que l’arrêt invoque pour justifier la renonciation
à la ligne provisoire d’équidistance n’est pas non plus déterminante. Dans
la procédure arbitrale, l’affaire Guinée/Guinée-Bissau est connue, dans la
mesure où les arbitres ont voulu une délimitation équitable en tenant
compte d’un ensemble géographique élargi pour éviter de porter préju-

dice aux délimitations ultérieures intéressant les Etats tiers (cf. Délimita-
tion de la frontière maritime entre la Guinée et la Guinée-Bissau , senten-
ces arbitrales du 14 février 1985, par. 109). Dans cette affaire, le caractère
capricieux de la configuration de la géographie côtière a été déterminant

pour le tribunal arbitral, en raison de l’effet produit par la configuration
côtière sur la ligne d’équidistance. Le tribunal a écarté la ligne d’équidis-
tance après l’évaluation du caractère équitable ou non de la délimitation
selon la ligne provisoire d’équidistance. En effet, le recours à la méthode

de l’équidistance aurait eu pour conséquence

«[l]inconvénient ... que le pays situé au centre [en l’occurrence la Gui-
née] [aurait été] enclavé par les deux autres et se trouve[rait] empêché
de projeter son territoire maritime aussi loin vers le large que le lui
permettrait le droit international» (ibid., par. 104).

Le littoral court de forme concave fait alors place à une configuration

convexe qui couvre l’ensemble de la façade maritime de l’Afrique de
l’Ouest. La direction générale des côtes y représente une circonstance spé-
ciale dont il y avait à tenir compte pour l’ajustement, voire la mise à
l’écart, de la ligne d’équidistance. L’arrêt commet un amalgame en ne pre-
nant en considération que le résultat final et en faisant l’étape intermé-

diaire de la ligne provisoire.
13. Le tracé d’une frontière maritime unique ne remet pas en cause, au
regard de la jurisprudence, les principes régissant les circonstances spé-
ciales. Les débats à la troisième Conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit

115 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP. OP.RANJEVA ) 770

delete the latter phrase, because it attached considerable weight to it

and its deletion would make the article too rigid.” (United Nations,
Summary Record of the 366th Meeting , doc. A/CN.4/SR.366.)

It was on the basis of that proposed interpretation that a vote was held
the same day on a text combining draft Articles 12 and 14 drawn up by
the Special Rapporteur. The Special Rapporteur’s view was that the role

of special circumstances was to correct the effects of strict application of
a median or equidistance line. At the 61st meeting of the First Committee
of the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (Geneva,
24 February-27 April 1958), “[t]he phrase ‘special circumstances’ in the
second sentence was adopted by 38 votes to 7, with 22 abstentions”

(A/CONF.13/L.28/Rev.1, Plenary Meetings, Vol. II, p. 119). That pre-
scription does not mean that the median line is obligatory, for that would
destroy the consubstantial relationship between the median line and spe-
cial circumstances, and thus the median line has only a provisional status

in the delimitation of the territorial sea.
12. The jurisprudence relied upon by the Judgment to justify the aban-
donment of the provisional equidistance line is not decisive either. Among
arbitral proceedings, the Guinea/Guinea-Bissau case is well known, in
that the Arbitration Tribunal sought an equitable delimitation taking

account of a broader geographic area to avoid prejudicing subsequent
delimitations concerning third States (see case concerning the Delimita-
tion of the Maritime Boundary between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Inter-
national Law Reports, decision of 14 February 1985, para. 109). In that
case, the capricious character of the configuration of the coastal geogra-

phy was decisive for the Tribunal because of the effect of the coastal con-
figuration on the equidistance line. The Tribunal ruled out the equidis-
tance line after assessing whether the delimitation would be of an equitable
nature using the provisional equidistance line. In fact, the adoption of the
equidistance approach would have had the

“drawback of resulting in the middle country [Guinea in that

instance] being enclaved by the other two and thus prevented from
extending its maritime territory as far seaward as international law
permits” (ibid., para. 104).

The short concave coastline was thus left aside in favour of a convex con-
figuration covering the maritime front of West Africa as a whole. The
overall orientation of the coasts constitutes a special circumstance,

account of which had to be taken in adjusting or even ruling out the equi-
distance line. The Judgment effects an amalgamation by taking into con-
sideration only the final outcome and making the provisional line an
intermediate stage.
13. The plotting of a single maritime boundary does not, from the

standpoint of the jurisprudence, call into question the principles govern-
ing special circumstances. The debates at the Third United Nations Con-

115771 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME OP .IND .RANJEVA )

de la mer ont mis en évidence, d’une part, l’adhésion générale à une

conception unitaire du fondement du droit de la délimitation maritime et,
d’autre part, à propos des circonstances spéciales, le fait qu’on ait affaire
à une norme «cosubstantielle» à l’équidistance, en ce sens que les deux
notions se complètent en se renforçant réciproquement. L’évolution de la
jurisprudence de la Cour a reflété ces recherches ou tâtonnements

au cours d’une période allant de 1969 à 1985, avant l’avènement de la
solution de principe en 1993. La Cour rappelle au paragraphe 271 du pré-
sent arrêt ses propres conclusions dans l’affaire de la Frontière terrestre
et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria; Gui-
née équatoriale (intervenant)) :

«La Cour a eu l’occasion de préciser à diverses reprises quels sont

les critères, principes et règles de délimitation applicables à la déter-
mination d’une ligne unique couvrant plusieurs zones de juridiction
qui coïncident. Ils trouvent leur expression dans la méthode dite des
principes équitables/circonstances pertinentes. Cette méthode, très
proche de celle de l’équidistance/circonstances spéciales applicable

en matière de délimitation de la mer territoriale, consiste à tracer
d’abord une ligne d’équidistance puis à examiner s’il existe des fac-
teurs appelant un ajustement ou un déplacement de cette ligne afin
de parvenir à un «résultat équitable».» (Arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 ,
p. 441, par. 288.)

14. En 1969, la Cour a posé le principe selon lequel la recherche de
l’équité du résultat était l’objectif de toute délimitation maritime:

«[O]n doit rechercher non pas une méthode unique de délimita-
tion mais un but unique.» (Plateau continental de la mer du Nord

(République fédérale d’Allemagne/Danemark; République fédérale
d’Allemagne/Pays-Bas), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1969 , p. 50, par. 92.)

La ligne médiane était alors au cŒur d’une polémique qui, avec le recul
du temps, fait sourire. L’arrêt Libye/Malte représente une étape impor-
tante dans l’évolution du droit lorsqu’il affirme que

«[l]a Cour ne saurait admettre que, même comme étape préliminaire
et provisoire du tracé d’une ligne de délimitation, la méthode de
l’équidistance doive forcément être utilisée» (Plateau continental

(Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1985 ,p.37,
par. 43).

L’utilisation de l’adverbe «forcément» indique, dans un premier temps,
le refus opposé par la Cour à la mise en Œuvre obligatoire et systématique
d’une ligne d’équidistance à titre préliminaire et provisoire; mais, dans un
second temps, ce tracé, auparavant condamné, peut être pris en considé-
ration. La décision de 1985 en fait, malgré tout, application dans le cas

d’espèce en procédant par étapes.
15. En 1993, l’entrée en vigueur de la convention de Montego Bay

116 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP. OP.RANJEVA ) 771

ference on the Law of the Sea highlighted, on the one hand, the general

adherence to a unitary conception of the basis of the law of maritime
delimitation and, on the other, with respect to special circumstances, the
fact that the rule is “consubstantial” with equidistance, in that the two
notions complement and support each other. The evolution of the Court’s
jurisprudence over the period from 1969 to 1985 reflected the often ten-

tative efforts to that end, before the advent of a solution of principle in
1993. The Court recalls in paragraph 271 of the present Judgment its own
findings in the case concerning the Land and Maritime Boundary between
Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea inter-
vening):

“The Court has on various occasions made it clear what the appli-

cable criteria, principles and rules of delimitation are when a line
covering several zones of coincident jurisdictions is to be deter-
mined. They are expressed in the so-called equitable principles/rele-
vant circumstances method. This method, which is very similar to
the equidistance/special circumstances method applicable in delimi-

tation of the territorial sea, involves first drawing an equidistance
line, then considering whether there are factors calling for the adjust-
ment or shifting of that line in order to achieve an ‘equitable result’.”
(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 441, para. 288.)

14. In 1969, the Court established the principle that the pursuit of an
equitable outcome was the objective of all maritime delimitations:

“it is necessary to seek not one method of delimitation but one
goal” (North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/

Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 50, para. 92).

The median line was at the time at the centre of a controversy which, in
retrospect, gives rise to some amusement. The Libya/Malta Judgment
constitutes a significant stage in the development of the law with its dec-
laration that

“[t]he Court is unable to accept that, even as a preliminary and pro-
visional step towards the drawing of a delimitation line, the equidis-
tance method is the one which must be used” (Continental Shelf

(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985 ,
p. 37, para. 43).

The use of the emphasized verb “must” reflects, initially, the Court’s
rejection of compulsory and systematic application of the equidistance
line on a preliminary and provisional basis; but, subsequently, such a
line, previously condemned, could be taken into consideration. After all,
the 1985 Judgment applied the equidistance line to the case, proceeding

by stages.
15. In 1993, the entry into force of the Montego Bay Convention was

116772 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME OP .IND .RANJEVA )

était considérée comme probable dans un avenir proche tandis que cet

instrument était interprété comme l’expression du droit positif et la Cour
l’a reçue et traitée comme telle. Aussi l’arrêt dans l’affaire de la Délimita-
tion maritime dans la région située entre le Groenland et Jan Mayen
(Danemark c. Norvège) a-t-il parachevé cette évolution lorsqu’il adopte
la méthode du processus par étapes, en excluant les réserves encore

formulées dans le texte de 1985. Lorsque la Cour a appliqué de manière
simple la méthode de délimitation par étapes, elle a eu en vue le souci
de cohérence et de prévisibilité, déjà évoqué dans l’arrêt de l’affaire du
Plateau continental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte) . L’article 6 de
la convention de Genève sur le plateau continental, de l’avis de la Cour,

prescrit de

«prendre la ligne médiane ... comme ligne tracée à titre provisoire
pour rechercher ensuite si des «circonstances spéciales» nécessitent
«une autre délimitation»» (Délimitation maritime dans la région
située entre le Groenland et Jan Mayen (Danemark c. Norvège),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1993 , p. 60, par. 49).

Plus loin, dans la même décision, la Cour inscrit sa démarche de poli-
tique judiciaire dans une perspective unitaire lorsqu’elle affirme que «[l]es

décisions judiciaires fondées sur le droit coutumier applicable à la délimi-
tation du plateau continental entre des côtes qui se font face ont de même
considéré la ligne médiane comme une ligne provisoire» (ibid.,p .,
par. 50). L’unité de méthode, sinon de régime, était dorénavant consi-
dérée comme la règle, s’agissant de la mer territoriale, du plateau conti-

nental, de la zone économique exclusive ou de la zone de pêche. La
recherche de résultat équitable n’excluait pas une solution simple et facile
à comprendre. Les couples traditionnels, c’est-à-dire, d’une part, équidis-
tance/circonstances spéciales et, d’autre part, circonstances pertinentes/
principes équitables, apparemment parallèles, s’inscrivent directement

depuis 1993 dans une dynamique unitaire; ils convergent vers l’obtention
de résultat équitable dans la délimitation maritime. Il en résulte deux
conséquences: la première selon laquelle la spécialité terminologique
visant les espaces n’affecte pas l’unité normative, et la seconde selon
laquelle le tracé à titre provisoire et préalable d’une ligne d’équidistance

est incontournable. Les arrêts dans l’affaire de la Délimitation mari-
time et des questions territoriales entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar
c. Bahreïn) et celle de la Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Came-
roun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria; Guinée équatoriale (interve-
nant)) ont, respectivement en 2001 et 2002, consolidé cet acquis que

représente la démarche par étapes à partir de la ligne médiane provisoire.
16. Au paragraphe 272, le présent arrêt parle de «certaines circons-
tances». La Cour invente alors une troisième catégorie de circonstances,
à côté des circonstances spéciales et des circonstances pertinentes de la
convention sur le droit de la mer. Cette nouvelle catégorie a alors un

caractère innommé et correspond à ce que la sentence arbitrale franco-
britannique appelle «un critère de délimitation tout à fait différent»

117 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE (SEP.OP .RANJEVA ) 772

regarded as probable in the near future, as that instrument was inter-

preted as an expression of positive law and the Court accepted it and
regarded it as such. Thus the Judgment in the Maritime Delimitation in
the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v. Norway) case
put the finishing touches to that development when it adopted the method
of delimitation by stages, but without the reservations still expressed in

the 1985 decision. When the Court straightforwardly applied the delimi-
tation by stages method, it was mindful of coherence and predictability,
two concerns already expressed in the Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya/Malta) case Judgment. Article 6 of the Geneva Convention
on the Continental Shelf, in the Court’s view, provided for an approach

“taking provisionally the median line...and then enquiring whether
‘special circumstances’ require ‘another boundary line’” (Maritime
Delimitation in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Den-
mark v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , pp. 59-60,
para. 49).

Later in the same Judgment, the Court places its judicial policy approach
within a unitary framework by stating that “[j]udicial decisions on the

basis of the customary law governing continental shelf delimitation
between opposite coasts have likewise regarded the median line as a pro-
visional line” (ibid., p. 60, para. 50). Unity of method, if not of régime,
was thenceforth regarded as the rule, whether for territorial seas, the con-
tinental shelf, exclusive economic zones or fishing zones. The pursuit of

an equitable result did not rule out a simple and readily understandable
solution. The traditional and apparently parallel pairs, that is to say, on
the one hand, equidistance/special circumstances and, on the other, rele-
vant circumstances/equitable principles, have since 1993 formed part of
the same dynamic process: both seek to obtain an equitable result in

maritime delimitation. There are two consequences, the first establishing
that the specific terminology relating to areas does not affect the coher-
ence of the rules and the second that the plotting, on a preliminary and
provisional basis, of an equidistance line is indispensable. The Judgments
in the Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar

and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) and the Land and Maritime Boundary
between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea
intervening) cases, in 2001 and 2002 respectively, consolidated the devel-
opment represented by the step-by-step approach based on the provi-
sional median line.

16. In paragraph 272, the present Judgment refers to “particular cir-
cumstances”. The Court thus invents a third category of circumstances
alongside the special circumstances and the relevant circumstances of the
Convention on the Law of the Sea. That new category is thus of an un-

specified nature and corresponds to what the Franco-British arbitral
award called “a wholly different criterion of delimitation” (case concern-

117773 DIFFÉREND TERRITORIAL ET MARITIME OP .IND .RANJEVA )

(Délimitation du plateau continental entre le Royaume-Uni de Grande-
Bretagne et d’Irlande du Nord et la République française , décision du

30 juin 1977, Recueil des sentences arbitrales , vol. XVIII, p. 254, par. 249).
Le problème principal est que la majorité des membres de la Cour se
fonde sur ces «certaines circonstances» pour écarter l’application de la
règle de la ligne médiane provisoire et justifier l’application d’une règle

différente, qui est celle de la bissectrice. Ces circonstances, distinctes des
circonstances dites «spéciales ou pertinentes», se voient conférer une
fonction non plus correctrice, comme le prescrivent le droit et toute la
jurisprudence, mais une fonction normative. La Cour a, en effet, directe-
ment validé les analyses portant sur la géomorphologie des côtes pour

construire une bissectrice. Contrairement à la jurisprudence de la Cour,
qui exclut de la sphère des normes directement applicables les principes
autres que celui de l’équidistance provisoire et préalable, le présent arrêt
remet en cause l’Œuvre créatrice que la Cour a progressivement élaborée.

Il ouvre la voie à de nouvelles incertitudes qui risquent d’aboutir à une
normativité directe des principes équitables au mépris de la règle de droit
positif.
17. En conclusion, le présent arrêt, en tant qu’il concerne l’azimut de

la partie de mer territoriale entre le point fixé par la commission mixte de
1962 et l’intersection avec la limite extérieure de Bobel Cay, représente
une répudiation du droit et de la jurisprudence de la Cour en matière de
délimitation de la mer territoriale.

(Signé) Raymond R ANJEVA .

118 TERRITORIAL AND MARITIME DISPUTE SEP .OP. RANJEVA ) 773

ing the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between the United King-
dom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the French Republic ,

decision of 30 June 1997, United Nations, RIAA, Vol. XVIII, p. 116,
para. 249). The major problem is that the majority of the Members of the
Court base themselves upon those “particular circumstances” to depart
from the application of the provisional median line rule and justify the

use of a different rule, that of the bisector. Those circumstances, as dis-
tinct from the circumstances known as “special or relevant”, are no
longer assigned the merely corrective function prescribed by the law and
all jurisprudence to date, but instead a rule-making function. The Court
has directly endorsed the analyses concerning the geomorphology of the

coasts in order to construct a bisector line. Contrary to the Court’s juris-
prudence, which excludes from the field of directly applicable rules any
principle other than that of preliminary and provisional equidistance, the
present Judgment challenges the creative exercise progressively under-

taken by the Court. It opens up the way for new uncertainties which may
lead to a direct normativity of equitable principles at the expense of the
rule of positive law.
17. To conclude, the present Judgment, in so far as it concerns the azi-

muth in the area of the territorial sea between the point fixed by the
Mixed Commission in 1962 and the intersection with the outer limit of
Bobel Cay, constitutes a repudiation of the law and the Court’s jurispru-
dence in matters of territorial sea delimitation.

(Signed) Raymond R ANJEVA .

118

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Separate Opinion of Judge Ranjeva

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