Dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc Kateka

Document Number
116-20051219-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
116-20051219-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC KATEKA
Disagreement with the Judgment on its key findings — Treatment of evidence
not even-handed — Decision on Respondent’s defences of consent and selfdefence
mistaken — Kisangani events — Serious accusations of violations
of human rights and international humanitarian law need higher standard of
proof — Reliance on United Nations reports concerning alleged exploitation
of DRC’s natural resources — Ruling on violation of provisional measures
unnecessary — Unjustified treatment of Uganda’s counter-claims.
1. I find myself in disagreement with the Court’s Judgment on key
aspects on the use of force, violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law and the alleged unlawful exploitation of the DRC’s
natural resources. With regret, I am therefore constrained to vote against
several of the operative clauses of the dispositif. Before explaining my
reasons for disagreeing with parts of the Judgment, I wish to comment
on some evidentiary issues and on the background to the case.
I. EVIDENTIARY ISSUES AND BACKGROUND TO THE CASE
2. The Court enjoys freedom and flexibility with regard to the consideration
of evidence. In this case, as the Court acknowledges, both
Parties have presented it with a vast amount of evidentiary materials. It
has therefore to assess the probative value of the documents and eliminate
from further consideration those it deems unreliable. This is not an easy
task, as it calls for choice. In this exercise of choice, a judge is guided by
an “inner conviction” (inevitably influenced by one’s background and
experience), which should prick the conscience so that one lives up to the
requirement of Article 20 of the Court’s Statute. As judge ad hoc, I am
mindful of the words of Judge Lauterpacht that I am bound to exercise
my function impartially and conscientiously while also discharging the
special obligation to endeavour to ensure, so far as is reasonable, that
argument in favour of the Party that appointed me “is reflected —
though not necessarily accepted — in [this] dissenting opinion” (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of 13 September 1993, I.C.J.
Reports 1993, p. 409, para. 6).
3. In my view, the Court has not been even-handed in its treatment of
361
197
the materials submitted by the two Parties. For example, the Court terms
as “a bundle of news reports of variable reliability” (Judgment, para. 136),
which the Court does not find weighty and convincing. This is evidence
adduced by Uganda to establish the Sudan’s involvement in aiding anti-
Ugandan elements in the DRC. This is a whole set of over 140 documents,
which is published in Volume IV of the DRC’s Reply. Earlier, in
paragraph 68 of the Judgment, the Court regards as “an interested
source” and rejects evidence proffered by the DRC from the same volume
in the context of the Kitona airborne operation. This being the case,
one would expect the Court to regard it as a case of “statement against
interest” and treat favourably the documents from the same volume that
Uganda relies upon.
4. The volume in question is a collection by the Integrated Regional
Information Network (IRIN). The sources for the information include
United Nations agencies, NGOs and other international organizations
and media reports. One would have expected this Office for the Coordination
of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) affiliated network to be given
more credence than it gets, especially when the press information is
“wholly consistent and concordant as to the main facts and circumstances
of the case” (United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in
Tehran, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 10, para. 13).
But the Court excludes this large amount of materials noting that it lacks
corroboration. This is in spite of the fact that the information about the
Sudan, that is in this volume, is from different media from all over the
world.
5. A further illustration of the unequal treatment of the Parties is
depicted when the Court cites an ICG report of August 1998 that the
Court acknowledges as “independent”. The report, according to the
Court, does seem to suggest some Sudanese support for the ADF’s activities
(ADF is a virulent anti-Ugandan rebel group). The Court goes on to
quote the report: “It also implies that this was not a matter of Congolese
policy, but rather a reflection of its inability to control events along its
border.” (Judgment, para. 135.) This theme of the DRC’s inability recurs
throughout the Judgment. The Court does not examine this report any
further to see if the DRC can be held responsible for the unlawful use of
force against Uganda. But the Court holds Uganda internationally
responsible for unlawful exploitation of the DRC’s resources in spite of
the Court’s finding that it was not governmental policy of Uganda to do
so (Judgment, paras. 242 and 250).
6. The Court continues with its tendency to discount evidence in
favour of Uganda when it dismisses a key report as of no relevance to
Uganda’s case. This is in connection with Uganda’s contention of incorporation
into Kabila’s army of thousands of ex-FAR and Interahamwe
362 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
198
génocidaires in May 1998. A United States Department report, which is
also set aside by the Court, condemned the DRC’s recruitment and training
of former perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide. By declaring the
report as irrelevant, the Court seems to be unaware of the fourth objective
of Uganda’s High Command document that states : “To prevent the
genocidal elements, namely, the Interahamwe, and ex-FAR, which have
been launching attacks on the people of Uganda from the DRC, from
continuing to do so.” (Judgment, para. 109.)
7. In short, “the Court has chosen to depreciate [Uganda’s evidence],
to omit any consequential statement of the law”, to paraphrase Judge
Schwebel’s words in his dissenting opinion in the Nicaragua case (Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua
v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986,
p. 272, para. 16). To this end, more examples can be quoted to illustrate
how the Court has dealt unevenly with the Parties. The Court, in one
part of the Judgment (para. 132), is satisfied that the evidence does show
a series of attacks occurring within the relevant time frame against
Uganda. However, the Court observes that these facts are not denied by
the DRC, but its position is that the ADF alone was responsible for the
events.
8. At the start of its substantive consideration of the Parties’ contentions,
the Court expresses its awareness of the complex and tragic situation
which has long prevailed in the Great Lakes region. The Court
notes, however, that its task is to respond, on the basis of international
law, to the particular legal dispute brought before it. The Court concludes,
“[a]s it interprets and applies the law, it will be mindful of context,
but its task cannot go beyond that” (Judgment, para. 26).
9. However, the task of the Court cannot be in a vacuum. The existing
realities must be taken into consideration. In this particular case, the
realities include the genocide that happened in Rwanda in 1994. The
effects of this genocide still reverberate in the region to this day. One of
the root causes of this crisis has been ethnicity, which was exploited by
the colonialists during colonial times. An additional factor is the terrible
history of unscrupulous dictators — all of whom had support from
abroad. In the case of the DRC, it has led to the land of Patrice
Lumumba not to experience peace for most of the time since independence.
It is only now that there is hope for such peace.
II. THE USE OF FORCE
10. I voted against the first paragraph of the dispositif, which finds
that Uganda has violated the principle of non-use of force in international
relations, by engaging in military activities against the DRC, by
363 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
199
occupying Ituri and by actively extending military, logistic, economic and
financial support to irregular forces having operated on the territory of
the DRC.
11. This omnibus clause creates confusion by mixing up jus ad bellum
with jus in bello. A finding on Uganda engaging in military activities
against the DRC should have been separated from that of occupation.
I am of the opinion that the finding on occupation has been invoked by
the Court to justify its findings of violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law.
12. In this regard, it bears recalling that the first of the DRC’s final
submissions requests the Court to adjudge and declare :
“1. That the Republic of Uganda, by engaging in military and
paramilitary activities against the Democratic Republic of the
Congo . . . has violated . . . the principle of non-use of force in international
relations, including the prohibition of aggression . . .”1
(Judgment, para. 25.)
The Court has not found Uganda responsible for aggression against the
DRC. It has reached a finding short of aggression by using the language
of “extending military, logistic, economic and financial support to irregular
forces . . .” (para. 1 of the dispositif). This phraseology evokes the
memory of the dictum in the case of Military and Paramilitary Activities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) (Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 14). The dictum left open the definition
of “armed attack” as applied in the Charter of the United Nations
and under customary international law.
13. In this regard, it has been stated thus “that actions by irregulars
can constitute an armed attack” is not challenged, and
“the controversy centres on the degree of state involvement that is
necessary to make the actions attributable to the state and to justify
action in self-defence in particular cases” (Christine Gray, International
Law and the Use of Force, 2000, p. 97).
Given the controversy that still persists, I am of the view that the Court
should have taken the opportunity to clarify the question of the use of
force in self-defence. This is more so in view of the fact that irregular
forces lie at the heart of the dispute between the Parties in this case.
14. Following the Nicaragua Judgment, the Court was criticized for
stating in its dictum that the provision of weapons and logistical support
to private groups did not amount to an armed attack. The gist of the
1 “Aggression is the use of armed force by a State, against the sovereignty, territorial
integrity or political independence of another State.” (General Assembly resolution 3314
(XXIX), Art. 1.)
364 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
200
Court’s language in the present case has the same effect as that in the
Nicaragua Judgment (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 14). In this respect, some publicists contend that
the use of force below the threshold of an “armed attack” is covered by
the general principle of non-intervention (B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of
the United Nations — A Commentary, 2nd ed., 2002).
15. In the context of irregulars, others such as Sir Robert Jennings
hold the view that the provision of arms and logistical support amount to
armed attack. “Accordingly, it seems to me that to say that the provision
of arms, coupled with ‘logistical or other support’ is not armed attack is
going much too far.” (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 543; dissenting opinion of Judge Sir Robert
Jennings.) This is the meaning I put to the words of the Court in the
first paragraph of the dispositif. However, I apply them — see below —
to the deeds of the DRC in support of anti-Uganda insurgents.
16. In its analysis of the question of the use of force, the Court has not
put much weight to Uganda’s two arguments for circumstances precluding
wrongfulness, namely, consent and self-defence. As a result of this,
the Court has arrived, in my view, at a mistaken conclusion that Uganda
has violated the principle of non-use of force by engaging in military
activities against the DRC. An examination of Uganda’s arguments
below reveals the contrary.
17. Uganda contends that its armed forces were present in the DRC
from May 1997 to August 1998 and from July 1999 to June 2003 with
the consent of the DRC, pursuant to oral agreements with President
Laurent-Désiré Kabila in May and December 1997, the bilateral Protocol
of April 1998, the multilateral Lusaka Agreement of July 1999 and
the bilateral Luanda Agreement of September 2002. For the period not
covered by the DRC’s consent, i.e., from mid-September 1998 to mid-
July 1999, Uganda contends that its military forces in the Congo during
this ten-month period were there pursuant to the lawful exercise of the
right to self-defence.
18. Concerning the defence of consent, I find myself in disagreement
with the Court’s conclusion that the consent of the DRC was withdrawn
at the Victoria Summit of 8 August 1998. The Court, in my view, has
chosen the date of 8 August rather arbitrarily. For there could be several
other dates such as (a) 2 August 1998 when the DRC claims that
Uganda invaded it, beginning with a major operation at Kitona. But the
Court has rightly concluded that it has not been established that Uganda
participated in the attack at Kitona; (b) the date of 28 July 1998, when
President Kabila issued a statement terminating the Rwandan military
presence, “with effect from this Monday, 27 July 1998”. However, the
Court has found that the presence of the Ugandan forces in the DRC
365 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
201
did not become unlawful by virtue of President Kabila’s statement;
(c) 13 August 1998 when the United Nations Permanent Representative
of the DRC told a press conference that Uganda had invaded the DRC;
(d) 11 September 1998 when Uganda invoked the right of self-defence,
following the publication of its High Command document, which
was implemented by operation “Safe Haven”.
19. From the above dates, a reasonable inference can be drawn that
the statements attributed to the various leaders of the DRC merely
expressed complaints concerning the situation in the DRC. They were
not meant to withdraw the consent for the continued presence of Uganda’s
military forces in the Congo. In this regard, it bears stressing that
Uganda took the initiative leading to the Victoria Falls Summits I and II
of August and September 1998, respectively. A communiqué addressed to
the security concerns of the DRC and those of its neighbours was issued.
20. Regrettably, as an indication of the persistent uneven treatment of
the Parties, the Court has not given a correct interpretation to the Lusaka
Ceasefire Agreement of 10 July 1999. For example, there is the Court’s
misleading argument that the arrangements made at Lusaka addressed
certain “realities on the ground” and represented “an agreed modus operandi”
without the DRC consenting to the presence of Ugandan troops
(Judgment, para. 99). This argument would seem to suggest that the
parties to the Lusaka Agreement were merely dealing with a de facto
situation of disarming rebels and withdrawing of foreign troops. However,
as the Court acknowledges, the Agreement shows that it was more
than a ceasefire agreement (Judgment, para. 97). It addresses the key
aspect of the conflict by the parties to the Lusaka Agreement, recognizing
that the root cause of the conflict was the use of Congolese territory by
armed bands, seeking to destabilize or overthrow neighbouring Governments.
21. In order to address the root cause of the conflict, Chapter 12 of
Annex A provides that the Parties agreed
“(a) Not to arm, train, harbour on its territory, or render any form
of support to subversive elements or armed opposition movements
for the purpose of destabilising the others;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(d) To address the problem of armed groups in the Democratic
Republic of Congo in accordance with the terms of the
[Lusaka] Agreement.” (Counter-Memorial of Uganda (CMU),
Vol. II, Ann. 45, Ann. A, Chap. 12.)
Even the Secretary-General of the United Nations recognized the
366 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
202
problem of armed groups as particularly difficult and sensitive when he
stated in a report that “[i]t lies at the core of the conflict in the subregion
and undermines the security of all the States concerned” (CMU, Vol. III,
Ann. 46, para. 21).
22. Thus, while agreeing with the Court that the Lusaka Agreement
did not have a retrospective effect, I do not share the Court’s view that
the calendar for withdrawal (of foreign forces) and its relationship to the
series of major events did not constitute consent by the Congo to the
presence of Ugandan forces for at least 180 days from 10 July 1999 and
beyond that time if the envisaged necessary major events did not occur.
As counsel for Uganda argued during the oral pleadings, there is a linkage
between the disarmament of the armed groups and the subsequent
withdrawal of armed forces of foreign States from the DRC. This is
borne out by paragraph 12 of Annex B to the Ceasefire Agreement,
where the timetable shows that the withdrawal of foreign forces would
not occur until after a successful conclusion of the Congolese national
dialogue (D-Day 2 + 90 days), the disarmament of armed groups
(D-Day+120 days) and the orderly withdrawal of all foreign forces
(D-Day+180 days) (CMU, Vol. II, Ann. 45, Ann. B). Indeed there was a
delay in the implementation of the Agreement because the inter-Congolese
dialogue did not start as envisaged in the timetable.
23. The Court, having reached a wrong interpretation, in my view, of
the Lusaka Agreement, proceeds to state that the Luanda Agreement
of September 2002, a bilateral agreement between the DRC and Uganda,
alters the terms of the multilateral Lusaka Agreement. I am of the view
that the other parties to the Lusaka Agreement (i.e., Angola, Namibia,
Rwanda and Zimbabwe) would have objected if the bilateral alteration
caused problems. The Luanda Agreement gave impetus to the stalled
implementation of the Lusaka Agreement. I differ once again with the
Court’s conclusion that the various treaties involving the DRC and
Uganda did not constitute consent to the presence of Ugandan troops in
the territory of the DRC after July 1999. “Lusaka” and more explicitly
“Luanda” continued the validation in law of Uganda’s military presence
in the DRC.
24. As regards the right of self-defence, the Court has regrettably come
to the conclusion that the legal and factual circumstances for the exercise
of this right by Uganda were not present. Accordingly, it refuses to
respond to the Parties’ contentions as to whether and under what conditions
contemporary international law provides for a right of self-defence
against large-scale attacks by irregular forces. Equally, it holds that the
preconditions for the exercise of self-defence do not exist in the circum-
2 D-Day is the date of the formal signing of the Ceasefire Agreement.
367 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
203
stances of the present case. However, it finds it appropriate to observe in
an obiter dictum that the taking of airports and towns many hundreds of
kilometres from Uganda’s border would not seem proportionate to the
series of transborder attacks Uganda claimed had given rise to the right
of self-defence, nor to be necessary to that end.
25. The refusal by the Court to delve into the question of self-defence
arises from its rejection of the evidence submitted by Uganda. The Court
relies on the Porter Commission Report as the main evidence on this
issue. The role of Brigadier-General James Kazini is central to the
Court’s findings — on when operation “Safe Haven” commenced and on
the question of the occupation of Ituri. Uganda’s argument of the alternative
view concerning the armed bands is set aside.
26. Thus it seems, in the interest of judicial economy, that the Court
has excluded much of the evidence submitted by Uganda on the question
of self-defence. This leads the Court to apply insufficient law to insufficient
facts ; hence the failure by the Court to discharge its judicial function
in this respect. For example on the issue of the Sudan, the Court
recognizes that an ICG independent report of August 1998 (“North Kivu
into the Quagmire”) seems to suggest some Sudanese support for the
ADF’s activities. However, the Court acknowledges that the report also
implies that this was not a matter of Congolese policy, but rather a reflection
of its inability to control events along its border. This is a rather
surprising position of the Court. If the report implies the Sudan’s involvement
with the ADF, the Court should have examined it further and
linked it to other reports for corroboration purposes. Instead the Court
simply quotes the report as stating that the ADF was exploiting the
incapacity of the Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) in controlling areas
of North Kivu with neighbour Uganda.
27. The Court should have been alerted by the ICG report so as to
take into account other corroborating reports of the Sudan’s support for
anti-Uganda rebels. Such similar documents are another ICG report of
1999 (“How Kabila Lost His Way”), which the Court regards as not constituting
reliable evidence. No reason is given as to why the report is not
reliable despite its stating that the DRC had effectively admitted the
threat to Uganda’s security posed by the Sudan. Annex 108 of the DRC’s
Reply quotes reports that indicate that the Sudan had been flying military
supplies from Juba to Kabila forces in Isiro and Dongo. The same
reports refer to 4,000 Sudanese soldiers being engaged in the conflict. It is
worth noting that Isiro is 320 km from Uganda’s borders with the DRC.
28. One could cite more examples about the Sudanese “connection”
368 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
204
with the DRC and its destabilizing effect on Uganda. It suffices for one
to cite the factor of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA). In its Judgment,
the Court refers to a Ugandan military intelligence report, which states
that in August 1998 the Sudan airlifted insurgents from the WNBF and
LRA to fight alongside Congolese forces against RPA and RCD rebels.
The Court observes that, even were that proven, the Congo was entitled
so to have acted. One is led to remark that it would be a strange concept
of self-defence that would allow the airlifting of rebels to the DRC by the
Sudan to murder civilians in either Rwanda or Uganda, which countries
were in conflict with the DRC. And yet, the Court concludes that there
was no tripartite conspiracy between the DRC, the Sudan and the anti-
Uganda rebels.
29. As regards the LRA, I wish to underscore the inter-connectivity of
the events in the Great Lakes region. The Sudan had been sponsoring the
LRA that for nearly 20 years had caused massive and grave violations of
human rights and international humanitarian law in northern Uganda.
This has led the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court to indict
five leaders of the LRA for crimes against humanity. The Sudan
was ferrying the LRA rebels to the DRC in order to create “another
frontier” in its conflict with Uganda. It has also been said that Zaire’s
attempt to evict Congolese Tutsi triggered the Congo crisis. These
examples show that the situation in the DRC has an internal, regional
and international dimension. Another dimension of the inter-connectivity
of events in the region is that the Hima people are to be found in the
DRC, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda. The various pogroms in Rwanda
and Burundi led to massive inflows of refugees into Uganda and Tanzania
in the 1960s. Hence instability in one country creates instability
in another owing to the ethnic composition of the people. In this situation
it is not easy to tell whether a person belongs to this or that ethnic
group.
30. In this regard, the Court fails to recognize the inter-connectivity of
the conflict when it discounts a United States State Department statement
of October 1998, condemning the DRC’s recruitment and training
of former perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide. This lack of awareness
by the Court displays itself by not reacting to Uganda’s complaints about
the DRC’s conflation of Uganda and Rwanda in this case. Notwithstanding
the fact that Uganda has shown several times in its argument its
rejection of offers by Rwanda to participate in joint operations in the
DRC, the Applicant in its pleadings, and the Court in its treatment of the
evidence, have both unwittingly maintained the impression of not appreciating
that Rwanda and Uganda are two different States.
31. As already stated, insurgent activity is at the heart of the conflict in
369 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
205
the region. Even to this day, MONUC is still struggling in joint operations
with the DRC to disarm the various rebel groups, both local and
foreign (Reuters report of 11 November 2005 on an operation in North
Kivu province). The DRC, in its Reply, acknowledges that anti-Ugandan
armed groups have been operating from this territory for years: “As they
had always done in the past, the forces of the ADF continued to seek
refuge in Congolese territory.” (Reply of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (RDRC), Vol. I, para. 3.15.) As if this was right, the DRC argues
that no one, and certainly not their Ugandan counterparts, have ever
held the Congolese authorities responsible for any of these actions. This
implies acquiescence on Uganda’s part.
32. However, Uganda had protested the massacres at Kichwamba
Technical School of 8 June 1998 in which 33 students were killed and
106 abducted, an attack at Benyangule village on 26 June 1998 in which
11 persons were killed or wounded, the abduction of 19 seminarians
at Kiburara on 5 July 1998 and an attack on Kasese town on 1 August
1998, in which three persons were killed. In spite of all this evidence of
brutal and deadly attacks, the Court merely comments that “[t]he DRC
does not deny that a number of attacks took place, but its position is that
the ADF alone was responsible for them” (Judgment, para. 133). The
Court concludes that there is no satisfactory proof of the involvement in
these attacks, direct or indirect of the Government of the DRC:
“The attacks did not emanate from armed bands or irregulars
sent by the DRC or on behalf of the DRC, within the sense of
Article 3 (g) of General Assembly resolution 3314 (XXIX) on the
definition of aggression . . . The Court is of the view that, on the
evidence before it, even if this series of deplorable attacks could
be regarded as cumulative in character, they still remained nonattributable
to the DRC.” (Judgment, para. 146.)
33. Here the Court seems to reconfirm its 1986 dictum in the Nicaragua
case concerning insurgent activities and what amounts to an “armed
attack”. The DRC, in its Reply already referred to, reasserts that the fact
of simply tolerating or financing irregular forces is not sufficient to establish
a full scale “armed attack”: “For this to be established,” the DRC
argues,
“Uganda must prove that the DRC was ‘substantially involved’ in
the acts of irregular forces and hence that the Congolese Government
had given specific instructions or directions to them or had
actually controlled the performance of such acts” (RRDC, Vol. I,
para. 3.135).
370 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
206
In its 1986 Nicaragua Judgment, the Court stated the following:
“The Court sees no reason to deny that, in customary law, the
prohibition of armed attacks may apply to the sending by a State of
armed bands to the territory of another State, if such an operation,
because of its scale and effects, would have been classified as an
armed attack rather than as a mere frontier incident had it been carried
out by regular armed forces.” (Military and Paramilitary Activities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 103, para. 195.)
34. The Court has thus stuck to its limited interpretation of Article 3 (g)
of General Assembly resolution 3314 (XXIX). By so doing, it is
encouraging that impunity in that proof of the element of “substantial
involvement”, which implies awareness and substantial participation, will
be invoked — as the DRC has done in its pleadings in this case — by
culprits to avoid responsibility for wrongful acts. We have already referred
to the alternative view, which Uganda advanced in the context of selfdefence.
Even if the Court found that Uganda had not established the
legal and factual circumstances for the exercise of a right of self-defence,
it should have found that military support by the DRC for anti-Uganda
insurgents constitutes unlawful intervention. Instead of doing this, the
Court finds that Uganda’s first counter-claim, by which Uganda contends
that, since 1994, it has been the victim of military operations and
other destabilizing activities carried out by hostile armed groups based in
the DRC, cannot be upheld.
35. Thus the effort of Zaire’s President Mobutu (cited in the counterclaim)
to overthrow President Museveni’s Government since 1994 — and
even earlier since 1986 — is subversive activity, which not only constitutes
unlawful intervention in Uganda’s affairs, but also is cumulatively
tantamount to an armed attack upon Uganda. In my view this, along
with incessant rebel attacks in the post “Zaire era”, would entitle Uganda
to exercise the right of self-defence.
36. In this regard, both the Applicant and the Court have advanced
the argument of the DRC’s inability to rein in anti-Uganda rebels. In its
conclusion on the part of Uganda’s first counter-claim, alleging Congolese
responsibility for tolerating the rebel movements prior to May 1997,
the Court states :
“During the period under consideration both anti-Ugandan and
anti-Zairean rebel groups operated in this area. Neither Zaire nor
Uganda were in a position to put an end to their activities.
However . . . the Court cannot conclude that the absence of action
371 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
207
by Zaire’s Government against the rebel groups in the border area is
tantamount to ‘tolerating’ or ‘acquiescing’ in their activities.” (Judgment,
para. 301.)
Here, it bears stating that the inability of the DRC to control anti-
Uganda rebels operating from the Congo is contrary to the first principle
enunciated in the Declaration on Friendly Relations and Co-operation
(General Assembly resolution 2625 (XXV) of 24 October 1970): “Every
State has the duty to refrain from organizing or encouraging the organization
of irregular forces of armed forces of armed bands, including mercenaries,
for incursion into the territory of another State.”
The same principle is found in the Corfu Channel case, where it is
stated that it is “every State’s obligation not to allow knowingly its territory
to be used for acts contrary to the rights of other States” (Corfu
Channel, Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22).
37. From the constant references in the Court’s Judgment to the
DRC’s inability to control anti-Uganda rebels, one may be forgiven for
getting the impression that the DRC was facing problems of controlling
its territory, at least in the eastern part of its territory. Thus reasons of
geography, incapacity or distance have been invoked to avoid attribution
of responsibility to the DRC for violations of its obligations to its neighbours,
in particular Uganda. Here, a quote from the “Commentary” on
the United Nations Charter is apt:
“A special situation arises, if a State is not reluctant but incapable
of impeding acts of terrorism committed by making use of its territory.
Although such terrorist acts are not attributable to the State,
the State victim of the acts is not precluded from reacting by military
means against the terrorists within the territory of the other State.
Otherwise, a so-called failed State would turn out to be a safe haven
for terrorists, certainly not what Articles 2 (4) and 51 of the Charter
are aiming at.” (B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United
Nations— A Commentary, 2nd ed., 2002, Vol. I, p. 802, para. 36.)
38. The Court has concluded that Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter does not allow the use of force to protect perceived security
interests beyond the strict confines there laid down. It adds that other
means are available to a concerned State, in which the role of the Security
Council will be paramount. It has not elaborated as to whether Uganda
was entitled to the use of force on a threshold below “armed attack”.
Uganda had been calling for the United Nations Security Council to send
a peacekeeping force to the DRC. It is not enough for the Court to refer
372 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
208
Uganda to the Security Council. It bears mentioning that many tragic
situations have occurred on the African continent due to inaction by the
Council.
39. Equally, the Court has accused Uganda of not reporting to the
Security Council events that it had regarded as requiring it to react in
self-defence. In this connection, I wish to quote from Judge Schwebel’s
dissenting opinion in the Nicaragua case:
“A State cannot be deprived, and cannot deprive itself, of its
inherent right [nothing in the Charter shall impair that inherent
right, including the requirement of reporting to the Security Council
the measures taken] of individual or collective self-defence because
of its failure to report measures taken in the exercise of that right to
the Security Council.” (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 377, para. 230.)
This reporting requirement has been abused by aggressor States to justify
themselves that by reporting, they had complied with Article 51 of the
Charter concerning self-defence. Hence this requirement should be
handled with caution when it comes to issues of self-defence. In practice,
in some cases, some States are not aware that they are required to
report measures taken. While this is not an excuse, it should be regarded
as an extenuating circumstance.
40. I have voted in favour of the second operative clause of the dispositif
concerning the events in Kisangani. My vote in favour is in respect
of the hostilities between Ugandan and Rwandan military forces in
Kisangani. The mere fighting violated the sovereignty and territorial
integrity of the DRC. I cannot, however, in good conscience, pronounce
myself on the violations of human rights and international humanitarian
law because there were such violations by the many parties to the DRC
conflict, including the DRC. In this regard, my voting in favour of the
fifth and sixth operative paragraphs of the dispositif is only in respect of
the events in Kisangani. As I state below, I disagree with the Court’s
findings on violations of human rights and international humanitarian
law and the unlawful exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources and
thus cannot support a general finding for the making of reparation to the
DRC on these matters.
41. I also agree with the Court on the admissibility of the DRC’s
claims in relation to Uganda’s responsibility for the events in Kisangani.
It is not necessary for Rwanda to be a party to this case in order for the
Court to determine whether Uganda’s conduct violated rules of international
law. While the indispensable third party principle does not apply
373 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
209
here, one must reiterate that the DRC’s conflation of Rwanda and
Uganda is uncalled for.
III. HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW
42. The Court has found that Uganda, by the conduct of its armed
forces, which committed acts of killing, torture and other forms of
abuses, failed to discriminate between civilian and military targets and to
protect the civilian population, trained child soldiers, incited ethnic conflict
and failed to take measures to end such conflict; as well as by its
failure as the occupying Power to take measures to respect and ensure
respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in the
district of Ituri, violated its obligations under international human
rights law and international humanitarian law.
43. I have voted against this over-arching finding which mixes up
several issues. The finding contains serious accusations against Uganda.
As such a higher standard of proof is required: “A charge of such exceptional
gravity against a State would require a degree of certainty that has
not been reached here.” (Corfu Channel, Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1949, p. 17.) It would also seem pertinent to cite the observation by
Judge Higgins in her separate opinion in the Oil Platforms case:
“Beyond a general agreement that the graver the charge the more
confidence must there be in the evidence relied on, there is thus little
to help parties appearing before the Court (who already will know
they bear the burden of proof) as to what is likely to satisfy the
Court.” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 234, para. 33.)
44. At the outset of considering this finding by the Court, it bears
repeating that there were massive and egregious violations of human
rights and international humanitarian law in the DRC. As already
observed, the DRC itself is not absolved from blame. Various reports in
the public domain state that vile crimes have been perpetrated in the
DRC. Four million people have died since the conflict began there. As
counsel for Uganda stated during the oral proceedings
“a . . . balanced picture . . . without angels and without demons. It is
not a picture without victims, however, because both Uganda and
374 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
210
the DRC are victims. Victims yes, but entirely innocent, no, because
there is no one in this picture who is totally without blame.”
(CR 2005/6, p. 58.)
45. As evidence of the serious accusation against Uganda for the violation
of human rights and international humanitarian law, the Court
relies on the sixth MONUC report of February 2001 and the MONUC’s
special report on the events in Ituri, January 2002-December 2003 (doc.
S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004). The Court proceeds to state that the United
Nations documents are corroborated by other credible sources of NGOs,
such as the HRW’s report of July 2003, which is available at http://hrw.
org/reports/2003/ituri0703. For its part, Uganda asserts that the reports
are unreliable and partisan (cites ASADHO, a Congolese NGO as a case
in point). Uganda makes the following arguments that (a) MONUC did
not have a mission (on the ground) appropriate to investigations of a specifically
legal character; (b) the MONUC report makes assumptions
about the causes of the Hema-Lendu conflict, assumptions which have no
historical basis ; (c) Uganda finds it anomalous and open to serious question
the supposition that in Ituri Uganda forces should be associated
with patterns of abuse when this did not occur in other regions. In my
view, these are cogent reasons which the Court should have taken into
serious consideration before reaching its finding that Uganda violated
human rights and international humanitarian law in the DRC.
46. I find it remarkable that the DRC accuses Uganda of carrying out
a deliberate policy of terror. Wisely, the Court did not endorse this rather
excessive charge. On the basis of the “clean hands” theory — the principle
that an unlawful action cannot serve as the basis of an action in
law — the DRC should be debarred from raising such accusations.
47. Having in mind the seriousness of the accusations levelled by the
DRC, the Court should have been more cautious and demanded satisfactory
evidence before concluding that the UPDF killed, tortured, and
committed other forms of inhumane treatment against the Congolese
civilian population. Relying on reports of the Special Rapporteurs and
MONUC reports is not advisable. As is known, on a number of occasions,
reports of the Special Rapporteurs of the Human Rights Commission
have generated controversies of a political and legal nature. Instead
of helping to find a solution to the situation in question, the reports were
ignored by some of the addressees on the grounds that they lacked objectivity.
In some cases, the writers of the United Nations reports have no
access to the countries concerned. In other cases, they are ill-informed
and thus end up writing speculative reports as will be illustrated in the
next section of this opinion.
48. In this regard, I am troubled by the Court’s finding that there is
persuasive evidence that the UPDF incited ethnic conflicts and took no
375 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
211
action to prevent such conflicts in the Ituri region. It is strange that
Uganda, which had its military presence elsewhere in the DRC, should be
accused of such a charge only in Ituri. Allegations against Uganda of
inciting ethnic conflict between the Hema and Lendu are based on a mistaken
view of the area in question where 18 different ethnic groups live
side by side. Uganda acknowledges the long-standing rivalry between the
Hema and Lendu. Such rivalry had led to massacres of civilians. Uganda
stood to gain nothing by inciting ethnic conflict. As explained earlier, the
spread of the different ethnic groups in the Great Lakes region is such
that based on history and recent experience, it would be folly for any
country to try to fan ethnic rivalry. It would boomerang.
49. From the United Nations reports, it seems that the rebel groups in
the DRC are the ones that recruited child soldiers and ferried them to
Uganda. For example, the RCD-ML is said to have halted its military
recruitment campaign due to the growing protest of UNICEF and
MONUC. Indeed, Uganda granted access to UNICEF to the children at
Kyankwanzi (RDRC, Ann. 32, para. 85). Once again, in my view, there
is no evidence to justify the Court’s conclusion that Uganda recruited
child soldiers in the DRC.
IV. THE UNLAWFUL EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
50. I have voted against the fourth operative clause of the dispositif
that finds that Uganda violated obligations owed to the DRC under
international law, by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese
natural resources committed by members of the Ugandan armed
forces in the territory of the DRC and by its failure to comply with its
obligations as occupying Power in the Ituri district to prevent acts of
looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese natural resources.
51. Counsel for the DRC stated during the oral pleadings that
“this is the very first time that the Court has been called upon to
address the responsibilities of a State for the illegal exploitation of
natural resources which are located in the territory of another State
which it occupies” (CR 2005/5, p. 15).
Counsel for Uganda agreed with this observation. Hence given the nature
and the gravity of the charge, a higher standard of proof is required on
the part of the Applicant to prove that the Respondent committed these
acts of plunder and pillage. The DRC cited various sources for its evidence,
including the United Nations Panel reports on the Illegal Exploitation
of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the DRC. It
376 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
212
also cited the Porter Commission, which was set up by the Government
of Uganda to investigate allegations made in United Nations Panel
reports, as confirming the accusation of unlawful exploitation of Congolese
natural resource.
52. There is a lot of doubt concerning the reliability of the United
Nations Panel reports. Even the Porter Commission Report, on which
the DRC and the Court rely for evidence on exploitation, criticized the
methodology followed by the United Nations Panels. It states that “it
would seem that the majority of evidence likely to be obtained by such a
methodology [of flexible data collection] would be either hearsay, biased
or pure gossip, all untested” (Porter Commission Report, p. 7). Thus the
United Nations Panel report of 12 April 2001 cites “some sources” as
saying that the Presidents of Rwanda and Uganda and the late President
Kabila were shareholders in BCDI (Banque de commerce de développement
et d’industrie, located in Kigali). The Panel then concludes in the
same paragraph, “[b]ut this was not the case” (RDRC, Vol. III, Ann. 69,
para. 29). In paragraph 52, the Panel report alleges that some members of
President Museveni’s family were shareholders of DGLI (The Dara
Great Lakes Industries, of which DARA Forest is a subsidiary). Then
the Panel adds “although more investigation is needed” (ibid., Ann. 69,
para. 52).
53. This is the type of gossip that emerges from these United Nations
documents. Thus the Court was forced to rely on the Porter Commission
Report, which according to the Court provides sufficient and convincing
evidence. Here one must caution again over reliance on a single source as
evidence to prove allegations, not only of unlawful exploitation of the
DRC’s natural resources, but also of the use of force. In any case, the
Porter Commission found that there was no Ugandan governmental
policy to exploit the DRC’s natural resources. The Commission also
found that individual soldiers engaged in commercial activities and looting
were acting in a purely private capacity.
54. In this respect, I find myself in disagreement with the Court’s conclusion
that Uganda is internationally responsible for the acts of exploitation
of the DRC’s natural resources and has violated its obligation of
due diligence in regard to these acts, of failing to comply with its obligation
as an occupying Power in Ituri. The Ugandan soldiers, who committed
acts of looting, did so in violation of orders from the highest
Ugandan authorities. In his radio message of 15 December 1998 to COs
and all UPDF units in the DRC, President Museveni said the following:
377 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
213
“1. Ensure that there is no officer or man of our forces in Congo
who engages in business.
2. Also report to me any other public servant whether currently
based in Congo or not who tries to engage in business in
Congo.” (Rejoinder of Uganda (RU), Vol. III, Ann. 31.)
Hence, in my view, individual acts of UPDF soldiers, committed in their
private capacity and in violation of orders, cannot lead to attribution of
wrongful acts. Paragraph 8 of the Commentary to Article 7 of the draft
Articles of the International Law Commission 2001 distinguishes between
unauthorized, but still “official” conduct, on the one hand and “private”
conduct on the other.
55. As noted earlier, the Court reached a finding of occupation in
order to rationalize its finding on human rights and international humanitarian
law. It has done the same in respect of the alleged unlawful exploitation
of the DRC’s natural resources. From this finding, it is easy to
invoke jus in bello in order to engage Uganda’s international responsibility
for acts and omissions of Ugandan troops in the DRC. Uganda
has argued that it did not control the rebel groups that were in charge
of parts of eastern Congo in general and in Ituri in particular. Its limited
military presence could not have made this possible. In any case, the
Respondent just — as I do — does not find the contention of occupation
to be proven.
56. The Court has rightly, in my view, not accepted part of the DRC’s
final submission on the violation of the Congo’s permanent sovereignty
over its natural resources (PSNR) because this has not been proven. The
PSNR concept is embodied in General Assembly resolution 1803 (XVII)
of 1962. The PSNR was adopted in the era of decolonization and the
assertion of the rights of newly independent States. It thus would be
inappropriate to invoke this concept in a case involving two African
countries. This remark is made without prejudice to the right of States to
own and or dispose of their natural resources as they wish.
V. LEGAL CONSEQUENCES
57. In its fourth submission, the DRC requests the Court to adjudge
and declare that Uganda ceases all continuing internationally wrongful
acts, adopt specific guarantees and assurances of non-repetition and
make reparation for all injury caused. In this regard, I agree with the
Court that there is no evidence of continuing illegal acts on the part of
Uganda in the DRC. As such, there is no need for the Court to make any
378 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
214
ruling on cessation. Uganda, as the DRC acknowledges, withdrew its
troops from the DRC on 2 June 2003. There is therefore no need for specific
guarantees and assurances of non-repetition. The Court has taken
judicial notice of the Tripartite Agreement on Regional Security in the
Great Lakes of 26 October 2004. This Agreement between the DRC,
Rwanda and Uganda provides for obligation to respect the sovereignty
and territorial integrity of the countries in the region and cessation of any
support for armed groups or militias.
58. Concerning reparation, this could follow at a subsequent phase of
the proceedings, if the Parties fail to reach agreement after negotiations.
VI. COMPLIANCE WITH THE COURT’S ORDER
ON PROVISIONAL MEASURES
59. The DRC requests the Court to adjudge and declare that Uganda
has violated the Order of the Court on provisional measures of 1 July
2000 by not complying with the three provisional measures, namely,
(a) refrain from armed action in the DRC; (b) compliance with obligations
under international law, in particular the United Nations and OAU
Charters and Security Council resolution 1304 (2000); and (c) respect
within the zone of conflict for fundamental human rights and for the
applicable provisions of humanitarian law.
60. The Court notes that the DRC put forward no specific evidence
demonstrating that after July 2000 Uganda committed acts in violation
of each of the three provisional measures. However, the Court finds that
Uganda has violated provisional measures concerning human rights and
international humanitarian law through actions of Ugandan troops
during the period of their presence in the DRC, including the period
from 1 July 2000.
61. The Court’s finding that Uganda did not comply with the Order of
the Court on provisional measures of 1 July 2000 shows, as indicated
earlier, lack of concern for the action taken, not in good faith, by the
Applicant to raise this issue against the Respondent when the Applicant
itself has committed grave violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law. Thus, I am constrained not to support the position of
the Court on its finding. The Court, in my view, should not have dealt
with the violation of the provisional measures. I have already referred to
the “clean hands” theory, which I deem to be apt on this issue as well.
379 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
215
VII. COUNTER-CLAIMS
62. Uganda’s first counter-claim relates to acts of aggression allegedly
committed by the DRC. The second relates to attacks on Uganda’s diplomatic
premises and personnel in Kinshasa and on Ugandan nationals.
The third counter-claim was ruled inadmissible by the Order of the Court
of 29 November 2001.
63. I agree with the Court’s reasoning, which rejects Uganda’s claim
that the DRC is not entitled at the merits phase of the proceedings to
raise objections to the admissibility to the counter-claims submitted by
Uganda. In the Oil Platforms case the Court ruled that Iran was entitled
to challenge “the ‘admissibility’ of the [United States’] counter-claim” on
the merits (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 210, para. 105).
64. I have voted in favour of operative clause 8 of the dispositif by
which the Court rejects objections of the DRC to the admissibility of the
first counter-claim submitted by Uganda. Before proceeding with further
consideration of this counter-claim, I wish to make a general comment
on the way the Court has treated this claim of Uganda which is the
Applicant in this context and the DRC is the Respondent. It is a matter
of regret that the Court agrees with the DRC’s division of the first
counter-claim into three periods. The Court invokes the excuse of
“practical purposes” in agreeing to divide the counter-claim into three
periods: (a) the Mobutu era, i.e., before May 1997; (b) the Kabila
period, i.e., May 1997-August 1998; (c) the period after 2 August 1998.
65. This “slicing” technique of the first counter-claim is to the disadvantage
of Uganda because as the Applicant in this respect points out
“the DRC is seeking to limit Uganda’s counter-claim”. Uganda maintains
that Zaire and the DRC are not distinct entities and by virtue of the
State continuity principle, it is precisely the same legal person, which is
responsible for the acts complained of in the first counter-claim. The division
of the counter-claim makes it difficult to follow the reasoning of the
Court. Admissibility issues are mixed with those of merits. It would have
been better if the first counter-claim had been dealt with in its entirety,
without dividing it into three periods.
66. I have voted against paragraph 9 of the dispositif by which the
Court finds that the first counter-claim submitted by Uganda cannot be
upheld. I find myself in disagreement with the Court’s dismissal of the
evidence submitted by Uganda — for the first period of the first counterclaim
— when it argues that evidence is of “limited probative value”
when it is “neither relied on by the other Party nor corroborated by
impartial, neutral sources” (Judgment, para. 298). This observation of
the Court concerns President Museveni’s address to the Ugandan Parlia-
380 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
216
ment on 28 May 2000 entitled “Uganda’s Role in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo”. Evidence by the NGO Human Rights Watch
(HRW) is regarded as “too general to support a claim of Congolese
involvement . . .” (Judgment, p. 298). I do not share the Court’s characterization
and treatment of this evidence.
67. In relation to the second period of the first counter-claim, the
Court finds that Uganda has failed to provide conclusive evidence of
actual support for anti-Ugandan rebel groups by the DRC. The Court
notes, with approval, the improved relations between the two Parties.
The Court should have remembered its earlier observation that “[t]he
political climate between States does not alter their legal rights” (Judgment,
para. 294). The Court comments that this period is marked by
clear action by the DRC against rebels. If it had accepted evidence by
Uganda, it would have noted the “dual role” by the Congolese highest
authorities of seeming to co-operate with Uganda while at the same time
fraternizing with the Sudan and anti-Ugandan rebels.
68. Regarding the second counter-claim, I have voted in favour of
rejecting the DRC’s objection to the admissibility of the part of the claim
relating to the breach of the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic
Relations (paragraph 10 of the dispositif). I agree with the Court’s
reasoning in its interpretation of the Order of 29 November 2001.
69. I have voted against operative paragraph 11 of the dispositif,
which upholds the objection of the DRC to the admissibility of the part
of the second counter-claim relating to the maltreatment of persons other
than Ugandan diplomats at Ndjili Airport on 20 August 1998. The invocation
by Uganda of the international minimum standard relating to the
treatment of foreign nationals is considered by the Court as an exercise of
diplomatic protection. Thus according to the Court, Uganda would need
to meet the conditions necessary for the exercise of diplomatic protection,
namely, the requirement of Ugandan nationality of the claimants and the
prior exhaustion of local remedies. The Court avoids dealing with the
issue of these persons on the grounds that it has not been established that
they were Ugandan nationals. In my view, the Court should have invoked
international humanitarian law to protect the rights of these persons. The
Court would seem not to have given enough weight to violations of the
rights of these persons at Ndjili Airport by the DRC.
70. I voted in favour of operative paragraph 12, which finds that the
DRC has violated obligations owed to Uganda under the 1961 Vienna
Convention on Diplomatic Relations by Congo’s armed forces, maltreating
Ugandan diplomats and other individuals at the embassy premises,
maltreating Ugandan diplomats at Ndjili Airport, as well as its failure to
provide the Ugandan Embassy and Ugandan diplomats with effective
protection and failure to protect archives and property from seizure.
381 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
217
I also agree with the Court that it will only be at a subsequent phase,
failing an agreement between the Parties, that the issue of reparation to
Uganda will be settled by the Court.
(Signed) J. L. KATEKA.
382 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
218

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC KATEKA
Disagreement with the Judgment on its key findings — Treatment of evidence
not even-handed — Decision on Respondent’s defences of consent and selfdefence
mistaken — Kisangani events — Serious accusations of violations
of human rights and international humanitarian law need higher standard of
proof — Reliance on United Nations reports concerning alleged exploitation
of DRC’s natural resources — Ruling on violation of provisional measures
unnecessary — Unjustified treatment of Uganda’s counter-claims.
1. I find myself in disagreement with the Court’s Judgment on key
aspects on the use of force, violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law and the alleged unlawful exploitation of the DRC’s
natural resources. With regret, I am therefore constrained to vote against
several of the operative clauses of the dispositif. Before explaining my
reasons for disagreeing with parts of the Judgment, I wish to comment
on some evidentiary issues and on the background to the case.
I. EVIDENTIARY ISSUES AND BACKGROUND TO THE CASE
2. The Court enjoys freedom and flexibility with regard to the consideration
of evidence. In this case, as the Court acknowledges, both
Parties have presented it with a vast amount of evidentiary materials. It
has therefore to assess the probative value of the documents and eliminate
from further consideration those it deems unreliable. This is not an easy
task, as it calls for choice. In this exercise of choice, a judge is guided by
an “inner conviction” (inevitably influenced by one’s background and
experience), which should prick the conscience so that one lives up to the
requirement of Article 20 of the Court’s Statute. As judge ad hoc, I am
mindful of the words of Judge Lauterpacht that I am bound to exercise
my function impartially and conscientiously while also discharging the
special obligation to endeavour to ensure, so far as is reasonable, that
argument in favour of the Party that appointed me “is reflected —
though not necessarily accepted — in [this] dissenting opinion” (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of 13 September 1993, I.C.J.
Reports 1993, p. 409, para. 6).
3. In my view, the Court has not been even-handed in its treatment of
361
197
OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC KATEKA
[Traduction]
Désaccord avec l’arrêt sur ses principales conclusions — Traitement inéquitable
des preuves — Décision erronée sur les moyens du consentement et de la
légitime défense invoqués par le défendeur — Evénements de Kinsangani —
Gravité des accusations de violation des droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire, requérant un seuil de la preuve plus élevé — Crédit accordé
aux rapports de l’Organisation des Nations Unies sur l’exploitation alléguée des
ressources naturelles de la RDC — Inutilité d’un prononcé sur la question de la
violation des mesures conservatoires — Traitement injustifié des demandes
reconventionnelles de l’Ouganda.
1. Je suis en désaccord avec l’arrêt de la Cour sur des aspects essentiels
relatifs à l’emploi de la force, aux violations des droits de l’homme et du
droit international humanitaire et à la prétendue exploitation illicite des
ressources naturelles de la RDC. Je me vois donc, non sans regret, obligé
de voter contre plusieurs des conclusions formulées dans le dispositif.
Avant d’exposer les raisons qui m’amènent à me dissocier de certaines
parties de l’arrêt, je voudrais revenir sur certaines questions ayant trait à
la preuve, ainsi que sur le contexte dans lequel s’inscrit l’affaire.
I. QUESTIONS DE PREUVE ET CONTEXTE DE L’AFFAIRE
2. La Cour jouit d’une certaine liberté et marge de manoeuvre en
matière d’examen des moyens de preuve. En l’espèce, ainsi que le reconnaît
la Cour, les Parties lui ont toutes deux soumis une quantité considérable
de matériaux. Il lui faut donc apprécier la valeur probante des
différents documents produits, en écartant ceux qu’elle n’aura pas jugés
dignes de foi. Cette tâche n’est pas aisée, puisqu’elle suppose des choix.
Le juge appelé à opérer ces choix est guidé par son «intime conviction»
(inévitablement influencée par son expérience et son histoire propres), sa
conscience devant lui imposer, à cet égard, de se montrer attentif aux exigences
énoncées à l’article 20 du Statut de la Cour. En tant que juge ad
hoc, j’ai à l’esprit les mots du juge Lauterpacht me rappelant que je suis
tenu d’exercer ma fonction impartialement et en conscience tout en
m’acquittant de l’obligation spéciale qui est la mienne de veiller à ce que,
dans toute la mesure possible, l’argumentation de la Partie qui m’a désigné
soit «reflété[e] — à défaut d’être accepté[e] — dans [la présente]
opinion ... dissidente» (Application de la convention pour la prévention et
la répression du crime de génocide, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance
du 13 septembre 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 409, par. 6).
3. La Cour ne s’est pas, selon moi, montrée impartiale dans le traite-
361
197
the materials submitted by the two Parties. For example, the Court terms
as “a bundle of news reports of variable reliability” (Judgment, para. 136),
which the Court does not find weighty and convincing. This is evidence
adduced by Uganda to establish the Sudan’s involvement in aiding anti-
Ugandan elements in the DRC. This is a whole set of over 140 documents,
which is published in Volume IV of the DRC’s Reply. Earlier, in
paragraph 68 of the Judgment, the Court regards as “an interested
source” and rejects evidence proffered by the DRC from the same volume
in the context of the Kitona airborne operation. This being the case,
one would expect the Court to regard it as a case of “statement against
interest” and treat favourably the documents from the same volume that
Uganda relies upon.
4. The volume in question is a collection by the Integrated Regional
Information Network (IRIN). The sources for the information include
United Nations agencies, NGOs and other international organizations
and media reports. One would have expected this Office for the Coordination
of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) affiliated network to be given
more credence than it gets, especially when the press information is
“wholly consistent and concordant as to the main facts and circumstances
of the case” (United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in
Tehran, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 10, para. 13).
But the Court excludes this large amount of materials noting that it lacks
corroboration. This is in spite of the fact that the information about the
Sudan, that is in this volume, is from different media from all over the
world.
5. A further illustration of the unequal treatment of the Parties is
depicted when the Court cites an ICG report of August 1998 that the
Court acknowledges as “independent”. The report, according to the
Court, does seem to suggest some Sudanese support for the ADF’s activities
(ADF is a virulent anti-Ugandan rebel group). The Court goes on to
quote the report: “It also implies that this was not a matter of Congolese
policy, but rather a reflection of its inability to control events along its
border.” (Judgment, para. 135.) This theme of the DRC’s inability recurs
throughout the Judgment. The Court does not examine this report any
further to see if the DRC can be held responsible for the unlawful use of
force against Uganda. But the Court holds Uganda internationally
responsible for unlawful exploitation of the DRC’s resources in spite of
the Court’s finding that it was not governmental policy of Uganda to do
so (Judgment, paras. 242 and 250).
6. The Court continues with its tendency to discount evidence in
favour of Uganda when it dismisses a key report as of no relevance to
Uganda’s case. This is in connection with Uganda’s contention of incorporation
into Kabila’s army of thousands of ex-FAR and Interahamwe
362 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
198
ment des preuves que lui ont soumises les Parties. Ainsi, elle parle d’un
«ensemble d’articles de presse plus ou moins crédibles» (arrêt, par. 136),
qu’elle ne juge pas véritablement convaincants, à propos des moyens produits
par l’Ouganda pour établir l’implication du Soudan dans l’aide
fournie aux éléments antiougandais en RDC. Il s’agit de toute une série
de plus de cent quarante documents, reproduits dans le volume IV de la
réplique de la RDC. Or, précédemment, au paragraphe 68 de l’arrêt, la
Cour a rejeté, comme provenant d’une «source intéressée », des informations
relatives à l’opération aéroportée de Kitona puisées par la RDC
dans le même volume. Aussi pouvait-on s’attendre à ce qu’elle voie là un
cas de «déclaration contre intérêt» et réserve un traitement favorable aux
documents du même volume invoqués par l’Ouganda.
4. Le volume en question rassemble des documents émanant du réseau
d’information régional intégré «IRIN». Les informations qui y figurent
ont pour sources des institutions des Nations Unies, des ONG et d’autres
organisations internationales, ainsi que la presse. L’on aurait pu s’attendre
à ce qu’il soit accordé davantage de crédit à ce réseau, affilié au
bureau pour la coordination des affaires humanitaires (OCHA), surtout
quand les informations puisées dans la presse sont «d’une cohérence et
d’une concordance totales en ce qui concerne les principaux faits et circonstances
de l’affaire» (Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats-
Unis à Téhéran, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 10, par. 13).
Mais la Cour écarte cette quantité considérable de matériaux au motif
qu’ils ne seraient pas corroborés par d’autres éléments — et ce, bien que
les informations concernant le Soudan qui figurent dans le volume proviennent
de différents médias du monde entier.
5. Que la Cour use de deux poids et deux mesures à l’égard des
moyens produits par les Parties trouve une autre illustration dans le traitement
qu’elle réserve au rapport établi en août 1998 par l’ICG. Ce rapport
— dont elle reconnaît le caractère «indépendant» — semble donner
à entendre, indique-t-elle, qu’il y avait un certain soutien soudanais aux
activités des FDA (violent groupe rebelle antiougandais), et la Cour en
cite un passage. Elle ajoute que le rapport «laisse également croire que
cela ne résultait pas d’une politique délibérée de la RDC, mais plutôt de
son incapacité à contrôler les événements se déroulant à ses frontières»
(arrêt, par. 135). Ce thème — l’incapacité de la RDC — revient tout au
long de l’arrêt. La Cour ne pousse pas plus avant l’examen du rapport
aux fins de déterminer si la RDC peut être tenue pour responsable de
l’emploi illicite de la force à l’encontre de l’Ouganda. En revanche, elle
juge la responsabilité internationale de l’Ouganda engagée à raison d’actes
d’exploitation illicite des ressources de la RDC, lors même qu’elle conclut
que ces actes ne s’inscrivaient pas dans le cadre d’une politique gouvernementale
de l’Ouganda (arrêt, par. 242 et 250).
6. Cette tendance à ne pas faire cas d’éléments favorables à l’Ouganda
se manifeste également lorsque la Cour écarte, au motif qu’il serait dénué
de pertinence aux fins de l’argumentation du défendeur, un document
crucial en rapport avec l’incorporation alléguée par l’Ouganda de milliers
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 362
198
génocidaires in May 1998. A United States Department report, which is
also set aside by the Court, condemned the DRC’s recruitment and training
of former perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide. By declaring the
report as irrelevant, the Court seems to be unaware of the fourth objective
of Uganda’s High Command document that states : “To prevent the
genocidal elements, namely, the Interahamwe, and ex-FAR, which have
been launching attacks on the people of Uganda from the DRC, from
continuing to do so.” (Judgment, para. 109.)
7. In short, “the Court has chosen to depreciate [Uganda’s evidence],
to omit any consequential statement of the law”, to paraphrase Judge
Schwebel’s words in his dissenting opinion in the Nicaragua case (Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua
v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986,
p. 272, para. 16). To this end, more examples can be quoted to illustrate
how the Court has dealt unevenly with the Parties. The Court, in one
part of the Judgment (para. 132), is satisfied that the evidence does show
a series of attacks occurring within the relevant time frame against
Uganda. However, the Court observes that these facts are not denied by
the DRC, but its position is that the ADF alone was responsible for the
events.
8. At the start of its substantive consideration of the Parties’ contentions,
the Court expresses its awareness of the complex and tragic situation
which has long prevailed in the Great Lakes region. The Court
notes, however, that its task is to respond, on the basis of international
law, to the particular legal dispute brought before it. The Court concludes,
“[a]s it interprets and applies the law, it will be mindful of context,
but its task cannot go beyond that” (Judgment, para. 26).
9. However, the task of the Court cannot be in a vacuum. The existing
realities must be taken into consideration. In this particular case, the
realities include the genocide that happened in Rwanda in 1994. The
effects of this genocide still reverberate in the region to this day. One of
the root causes of this crisis has been ethnicity, which was exploited by
the colonialists during colonial times. An additional factor is the terrible
history of unscrupulous dictators — all of whom had support from
abroad. In the case of the DRC, it has led to the land of Patrice
Lumumba not to experience peace for most of the time since independence.
It is only now that there is hope for such peace.
II. THE USE OF FORCE
10. I voted against the first paragraph of the dispositif, which finds
that Uganda has violated the principle of non-use of force in international
relations, by engaging in military activities against the DRC, by
363 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
199
de génocidaires provenant des ex-FAR et des Interahamwe dans l’armée
de Kabila en mai 1998. Dans un autre — également écarté par la
Cour —, le département d’Etat des Etats-Unis condamnait le recrutement
et l’entraînement par la RDC d’anciens auteurs du génocide rwandais.
En concluant à l’absence de pertinence de ces éléments, la Cour
semble perdre de vue le quatrième objectif énoncé dans le document du
haut commandement ougandais: «empêcher que les éléments génocidaires,
c’est-à-dire les milices Interahamwe et les ex-FAR, qui lançaient
des attaques à partir de la RDC sur le peuple ougandais ne continuent
de le faire» (arrêt, par. 109).
7. Bref, pour paraphraser la formule employée par le juge Schwebel
dans son opinion dissidente en l’affaire Nicaragua (Activités militaires et
paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis
d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 273, par. 16), «la Cour
a choisi de déprécier [les moyens produits par l’Ouganda], de ne pas en
tirer de conséquences juridiques ». D’autres exemples illustreront le traitement
inéquitable réservé aux moyens des Parties. La Cour se déclare,
au paragraphe 132 de l’arrêt, convaincue que les éléments de preuve produits
établissent l’existence d’une série d’attaques ayant eu lieu contre
l’Ouganda au cours de la période considérée, mais ajoute que, sans nier la
réalité de ces attaques, la RDC soutient que les FDA en sont seules responsables.
8. Au début de l’examen qu’elle consacre aux arguments des Parties
sur le fond, la Cour se déclare consciente de la situation complexe et tragique
qui prévaut depuis longtemps dans la région des Grands Lacs. Elle
note toutefois que sa mission est de trancher, sur la base du droit international,
le différend juridique précis qui lui est soumis, et conclut: «En
interprétant et en appliquant le droit, elle gardera ce contexte présent à
l’esprit, mais ne saurait aller au-delà.» (Arrêt, par. 26.)
9. La mission de la Cour ne s’inscrit toutefois pas dans un cadre abstrait.
Les réalités existantes doivent être prises en considération — et en
l’espèce, notamment, le génocide perpétré au Rwanda en 1994, dont les
effets continuent, à ce jour, de se faire sentir dans la région. L’ethnicité,
qu’ont su exploiter en leur temps les colons, est l’une des causes profondes
de cette crise. Celle-ci est aussi le fruit de l’histoire tragique de
pays livrés aux mains de dictateurs sans scrupules — qui tous bénéficiaient
du soutien de pays étrangers. Avec pour conséquence, s’agissant de
la RDC, que la patrie de Patrice Lumumba n’a presque jamais connu
la paix, depuis son accession à l’indépendance. C’est aujourd’hui seulement
qu’un espoir de paix est permis.
II. L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE
10. J’ai voté contre le premier paragraphe du dispositif, où il est dit
que l’Ouganda a violé le principe du non-recours à la force dans les relations
internationales en se livrant à des actions militaires à l’encontre de
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 363
199
occupying Ituri and by actively extending military, logistic, economic and
financial support to irregular forces having operated on the territory of
the DRC.
11. This omnibus clause creates confusion by mixing up jus ad bellum
with jus in bello. A finding on Uganda engaging in military activities
against the DRC should have been separated from that of occupation.
I am of the opinion that the finding on occupation has been invoked by
the Court to justify its findings of violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law.
12. In this regard, it bears recalling that the first of the DRC’s final
submissions requests the Court to adjudge and declare :
“1. That the Republic of Uganda, by engaging in military and
paramilitary activities against the Democratic Republic of the
Congo . . . has violated . . . the principle of non-use of force in international
relations, including the prohibition of aggression . . .” 1
(Judgment, para. 25.)
The Court has not found Uganda responsible for aggression against the
DRC. It has reached a finding short of aggression by using the language
of “extending military, logistic, economic and financial support to irregular
forces . . .” (para. 1 of the dispositif). This phraseology evokes the
memory of the dictum in the case of Military and Paramilitary Activities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) (Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 14). The dictum left open the definition
of “armed attack” as applied in the Charter of the United Nations
and under customary international law.
13. In this regard, it has been stated thus “that actions by irregulars
can constitute an armed attack” is not challenged, and
“the controversy centres on the degree of state involvement that is
necessary to make the actions attributable to the state and to justify
action in self-defence in particular cases” (Christine Gray, International
Law and the Use of Force, 2000, p. 97).
Given the controversy that still persists, I am of the view that the Court
should have taken the opportunity to clarify the question of the use of
force in self-defence. This is more so in view of the fact that irregular
forces lie at the heart of the dispute between the Parties in this case.
14. Following the Nicaragua Judgment, the Court was criticized for
stating in its dictum that the provision of weapons and logistical support
to private groups did not amount to an armed attack. The gist of the
1 “Aggression is the use of armed force by a State, against the sovereignty, territorial
integrity or political independence of another State.” (General Assembly resolution 3314
(XXIX), Art. 1.)
364 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
200
la RDC, en occupant l’Ituri et en soutenant activement, sur les plans militaire,
logistique, économique et financier, des forces irrégulières qui opéraient
sur le territoire congolais.
11. Cette disposition fourre-tout est source de confusion en ce qu’elle
mélange jus ad bellum et jus in bello. La conclusion relative aux activités
militaires ougandaises contre la RDC aurait dû être distincte de celle
concernant l’occupation. C’est, selon moi, pour étayer ses conclusions sur
l’existence de violations des droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire que la Cour a invoqué cette dernière.
12. Rappelons à cet égard que, dans son premier chef de conclusions
finales, la RDC prie la Cour de dire et juger
«1. Que la République de l’Ouganda, en se livrant à des actions
militaires et paramilitaires à l’encontre de la République démocratique
du Congo ... a violé ... le principe du non-recours à la
force dans les relations internationales, y compris l’interdiction de
l’agression...»1 (Arrêt, par. 25.)
La Cour n’a pas jugé l’Ouganda responsable d’une agression à l’encontre
de la RDC. Elle s’est gardée de conclure à l’agression, en parlant de
«sout[ien] acti[f] sur les plans militaire, logistique, économique et financier
[aux] forces irrégulières...» (dispositif, par. 1). Cette phraséologie
convoque le souvenir du dictum énoncé en l’affaire des Activités militaires
et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c.
Etats-Unis d’Amérique) (fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 14), qui
laissait ouverte la question de la définition de l’«agression armée» telle
qu’appliquée dans la Charte des Nations Unies et en droit international
coutumier.
13. L’on a écrit, à ce propos, qu’il n’est pas contesté que «les actes
commis par des forces irrégulières puissent être constitutifs d’une agression
armée» et que
«le coeur de la controverse réside dans le degré d’implication d’un
Etat qui est requis pour que les actes puissent être attribués à cet
Etat et pour que l’usage de la légitime défense soit justifié dans des
cas particuliers» (Christine Gray, International Law and the Use of
Force, 2000, p. 97).
La controverse n’ayant pas été tranchée, la Cour aurait, selon moi, dû
saisir cette occasion pour éclaircir la question de l’emploi de la force en
état de légitime défense — d’autant qu’en l’espèce les activités de forces
irrégulières sont au coeur du différend opposant les Parties.
14. A la suite de son arrêt en l’affaire Nicaragua, la Cour s’est vu
reprocher d’avoir déclaré que la fourniture d’armements ou d’assistance
logistique à des groupes privés n’était pas constitutive d’agression armée.
1 « L’agression est l’emploi de la force armée par un Etat contre la souveraineté,
l’intégrité territoriale ou l’indépendance politique d’un autre Etat. » (Résolution 3314
(XXIX) de l’Assemblée générale, art. 1.)
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 364
200
Court’s language in the present case has the same effect as that in the
Nicaragua Judgment (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 14). In this respect, some publicists contend that
the use of force below the threshold of an “armed attack” is covered by
the general principle of non-intervention (B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of
the United Nations — A Commentary, 2nd ed., 2002).
15. In the context of irregulars, others such as Sir Robert Jennings
hold the view that the provision of arms and logistical support amount to
armed attack. “Accordingly, it seems to me that to say that the provision
of arms, coupled with ‘logistical or other support’ is not armed attack is
going much too far.” (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 543; dissenting opinion of Judge Sir Robert
Jennings.) This is the meaning I put to the words of the Court in the
first paragraph of the dispositif. However, I apply them — see below —
to the deeds of the DRC in support of anti-Uganda insurgents.
16. In its analysis of the question of the use of force, the Court has not
put much weight to Uganda’s two arguments for circumstances precluding
wrongfulness, namely, consent and self-defence. As a result of this,
the Court has arrived, in my view, at a mistaken conclusion that Uganda
has violated the principle of non-use of force by engaging in military
activities against the DRC. An examination of Uganda’s arguments
below reveals the contrary.
17. Uganda contends that its armed forces were present in the DRC
from May 1997 to August 1998 and from July 1999 to June 2003 with
the consent of the DRC, pursuant to oral agreements with President
Laurent-Désiré Kabila in May and December 1997, the bilateral Protocol
of April 1998, the multilateral Lusaka Agreement of July 1999 and
the bilateral Luanda Agreement of September 2002. For the period not
covered by the DRC’s consent, i.e., from mid-September 1998 to mid-
July 1999, Uganda contends that its military forces in the Congo during
this ten-month period were there pursuant to the lawful exercise of the
right to self-defence.
18. Concerning the defence of consent, I find myself in disagreement
with the Court’s conclusion that the consent of the DRC was withdrawn
at the Victoria Summit of 8 August 1998. The Court, in my view, has
chosen the date of 8 August rather arbitrarily. For there could be several
other dates such as (a) 2 August 1998 when the DRC claims that
Uganda invaded it, beginning with a major operation at Kitona. But the
Court has rightly concluded that it has not been established that Uganda
participated in the attack at Kitona; (b) the date of 28 July 1998, when
President Kabila issued a statement terminating the Rwandan military
presence, “with effect from this Monday, 27 July 1998”. However, the
Court has found that the presence of the Ugandan forces in the DRC
365 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
201
Fondamentalement, le langage de la Cour en la présente affaire va dans
le même sens que celui de l’arrêt Nicaragua (Activités militaires et paramilitaires
au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 14). Certains publicistes estiment
à cet égard que, en deçà du seuil de l’«agression armée», l’emploi
de la force est régi par le principe général de non-intervention (B. Simma
(dir. publ.), The Charter of the United Nations — A Commentary (2e éd.,
2002)).
15. S’agissant des forces irrégulières, d’autres considèrent que la fourniture
d’armements et d’assistance logistique est constitutive d’agression
armée. Sir Robert Jennings écrivait ainsi : «Il me semble donc qu’en
disant que la fourniture d’armes accompagnée d’une «assistance logistique
ou autre» n’est pas une agression armée, on va beaucoup trop
loin.» (Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1986, p. 543; opinion dissidente de sir Robert Jennings.) C’est ainsi que
j’interprète la formulation employée par la Cour au premier paragraphe
du dispositif. Toutefois, c’est aux actes commis par la RDC en soutien
aux insurgés antiougandais que je l’applique (voir ci-dessous).
16. En analysant la question de l’emploi de la force, la Cour n’a guère
accordé de poids aux deux circonstances excluant l’illicéité dont a excipé
l’Ouganda, à savoir le consentement et la légitime défense, ce qui l’a amenée
à conclure — selon moi à tort — que l’Ouganda avait violé le principe
du non-recours à la force en se livrant à des actions militaires à
l’encontre de la RDC. L’examen des arguments avancés par l’Ouganda
auquel je procéderai maintenant révèle qu’il n’en est rien.
17. L’Ouganda soutient que, de mai 1997 à août 1998 et de juillet 1999
à juin 2003, ses forces armées étaient présentes en RDC avec le consentement
de la RDC, par l’effet d’accords oraux passés avec le président
Laurent-Désiré Kabila en mai et décembre 1997, du protocole bilatéral
d’avril 1998, de l’accord multilatéral de Lusaka de juillet 1999 et de
l’accord bilatéral de Luanda de septembre 2002. Pour ce qui est de la
période non couverte par le consentement de la RDC — de la miseptembre
1998 à la mi-juillet 1999 —, l’Ouganda soutient que, pendant
ces dix mois, la présence de ses forces militaires au Congo résultait de
l’exercice justifié de son droit de légitime défense.
18. Sur le moyen du consentement qu’a invoqué le défendeur, je me
trouve en désaccord avec la Cour lorsqu’elle conclut que le consentement
de la RDC avait été retiré lors du sommet de Victoria Falls, le 8 août
1998. La Cour a, d’après moi, choisi cette date de façon quelque peu
arbitraire. Aussi bien eût-elle pu en choisir d’autres : a) le 2 août 1998,
date à laquelle la RDC fait remonter l’invasion alléguée de son territoire
par l’Ouganda, laquelle aurait débuté par une opération de grande
ampleur à Kitona: mais la Cour conclut à juste titre qu’elle ne peut tenir
pour établie la participation de l’Ouganda à l’attaque contre Kitona;
b) le 28 juillet 1998, date de la publication de la déclaration du président
Kabila mettant fin à la présence militaire rwandaise «à dater de [ce] lundi
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 365
201
did not become unlawful by virtue of President Kabila’s statement;
(c) 13 August 1998 when the United Nations Permanent Representative
of the DRC told a press conference that Uganda had invaded the DRC;
(d) 11 September 1998 when Uganda invoked the right of self-defence,
following the publication of its High Command document, which
was implemented by operation “Safe Haven”.
19. From the above dates, a reasonable inference can be drawn that
the statements attributed to the various leaders of the DRC merely
expressed complaints concerning the situation in the DRC. They were
not meant to withdraw the consent for the continued presence of Uganda’s
military forces in the Congo. In this regard, it bears stressing that
Uganda took the initiative leading to the Victoria Falls Summits I and II
of August and September 1998, respectively. A communiqué addressed to
the security concerns of the DRC and those of its neighbours was issued.
20. Regrettably, as an indication of the persistent uneven treatment of
the Parties, the Court has not given a correct interpretation to the Lusaka
Ceasefire Agreement of 10 July 1999. For example, there is the Court’s
misleading argument that the arrangements made at Lusaka addressed
certain “realities on the ground” and represented “an agreed modus operandi”
without the DRC consenting to the presence of Ugandan troops
(Judgment, para. 99). This argument would seem to suggest that the
parties to the Lusaka Agreement were merely dealing with a de facto
situation of disarming rebels and withdrawing of foreign troops. However,
as the Court acknowledges, the Agreement shows that it was more
than a ceasefire agreement (Judgment, para. 97). It addresses the key
aspect of the conflict by the parties to the Lusaka Agreement, recognizing
that the root cause of the conflict was the use of Congolese territory by
armed bands, seeking to destabilize or overthrow neighbouring Governments.
21. In order to address the root cause of the conflict, Chapter 12 of
Annex A provides that the Parties agreed
“(a) Not to arm, train, harbour on its territory, or render any form
of support to subversive elements or armed opposition movements
for the purpose of destabilising the others;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(d) To address the problem of armed groups in the Democratic
Republic of Congo in accordance with the terms of the
[Lusaka] Agreement.” (Counter-Memorial of Uganda (CMU),
Vol. II, Ann. 45, Ann. A, Chap. 12.)
Even the Secretary-General of the United Nations recognized the
366 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
202
27 juillet 1998»: la Cour a toutefois estimé que cette déclaration n’avait
pas rendu illicite la présence des forces ougandaises en RDC; c) le
13 août 1998, date à laquelle le représentant permanent de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies en RDC a déclaré, à l’occasion d’une conférence
de presse, que l’Ouganda avait envahi le territoire congolais; d) le 11 septembre
1998, date à laquelle l’Ouganda, suite à la publication du document
de son haut commandement, s’est prévalu de son droit de légitime
défense, qu’il a exercé en menant l’opération Safe Haven.
19. De l’examen des dates indiquées ci-dessus, il est raisonnable d’inférer
que les déclarations attribuées aux divers dirigeants de la RDC
n’exprimaient rien d’autre que des griefs relatifs à la situation sur le territoire
congolais. Elles n’étaient pas censées emporter retrait du consentement
au maintien des forces militaires ougandaises au Congo. A cet
égard, il convient de souligner que c’est l’Ouganda qui a pris l’initiative
menant à la tenue, respectivement en août et septembre 1998, des sommets
I et II de Victoria Falls, en publiant un communiqué sur les préoccupations
de la RDC et de ses voisins en matière de sécurité.
20. Malheureusement — nouvelle illustration de son manque d’impartialité
dans le traitement qu’elle réserve tout du long aux arguments des
Parties —, la Cour n’a pas interprété correctement l’accord de cessez-lefeu
de Lusaka du 10 juillet 1999. Ainsi, l’affirmation selon laquelle les
arrangements conclus à Lusaka, tenant compte de certaines «réalités du
terrain », établissaient pour les Parties à l’accord un «modus operandi»,
sans impliquer un consentement de la RDC à la présence des troupes
ougandaises (arrêt, par. 99), risque d’induire en erreur. Elle donne à
entendre que l’accord de Lusaka visait simplement à régler de facto la
question du désarmement des rebelles et du retrait des troupes étrangères.
Or, comme l’admet d’ailleurs la Cour et ainsi qu’il ressort de la teneur de
l’accord de Lusaka, celui-ci était plus qu’un simple accord de cessez-lefeu
(arrêt, par. 97). Il vise à résoudre le principal aspect du conflit, reconnaissant
que la cause essentielle de celui-ci réside dans l’utilisation du
territoire congolais par des bandes armées cherchant à déstabiliser ou à
renverser les gouvernements de pays voisins.
21. Pour traiter cette cause essentielle du conflit, l’accord indique, au
chapitre 12 de son annexe A, que les parties sont convenues
«a) [d]e ne pas armer, entraîner, héberger sur [leur] territoire ou
apporter une forme quelconque d’aide aux éléments subversifs
et aux mouvements d’opposition armés, dans le but de déstabiliser
les autres pays;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) [d]e résoudre le problème des groupes armés en République
démocratique du Congo conformément [à l’a]ccord» (contremémoire
de l’Ouganda, vol. II, annexe 45, annexe A, chap. 12).
Le Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies lui-même a
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 366
202
problem of armed groups as particularly difficult and sensitive when he
stated in a report that “[i]t lies at the core of the conflict in the subregion
and undermines the security of all the States concerned” (CMU, Vol. III,
Ann. 46, para. 21).
22. Thus, while agreeing with the Court that the Lusaka Agreement
did not have a retrospective effect, I do not share the Court’s view that
the calendar for withdrawal (of foreign forces) and its relationship to the
series of major events did not constitute consent by the Congo to the
presence of Ugandan forces for at least 180 days from 10 July 1999 and
beyond that time if the envisaged necessary major events did not occur.
As counsel for Uganda argued during the oral pleadings, there is a linkage
between the disarmament of the armed groups and the subsequent
withdrawal of armed forces of foreign States from the DRC. This is
borne out by paragraph 12 of Annex B to the Ceasefire Agreement,
where the timetable shows that the withdrawal of foreign forces would
not occur until after a successful conclusion of the Congolese national
dialogue (D-Day 2 + 90 days), the disarmament of armed groups
(D-Day+120 days) and the orderly withdrawal of all foreign forces
(D-Day+180 days) (CMU, Vol. II, Ann. 45, Ann. B). Indeed there was a
delay in the implementation of the Agreement because the inter-Congolese
dialogue did not start as envisaged in the timetable.
23. The Court, having reached a wrong interpretation, in my view, of
the Lusaka Agreement, proceeds to state that the Luanda Agreement
of September 2002, a bilateral agreement between the DRC and Uganda,
alters the terms of the multilateral Lusaka Agreement. I am of the view
that the other parties to the Lusaka Agreement (i.e., Angola, Namibia,
Rwanda and Zimbabwe) would have objected if the bilateral alteration
caused problems. The Luanda Agreement gave impetus to the stalled
implementation of the Lusaka Agreement. I differ once again with the
Court’s conclusion that the various treaties involving the DRC and
Uganda did not constitute consent to the presence of Ugandan troops in
the territory of the DRC after July 1999. “Lusaka” and more explicitly
“Luanda” continued the validation in law of Uganda’s military presence
in the DRC.
24. As regards the right of self-defence, the Court has regrettably come
to the conclusion that the legal and factual circumstances for the exercise
of this right by Uganda were not present. Accordingly, it refuses to
respond to the Parties’ contentions as to whether and under what conditions
contemporary international law provides for a right of self-defence
against large-scale attacks by irregular forces. Equally, it holds that the
preconditions for the exercise of self-defence do not exist in the circum-
2 D-Day is the date of the formal signing of the Ceasefire Agreement.
367 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
203
reconnu le caractère particulièrement sérieux et délicat du problème des
groupes armés, lequel se trouve, indique-t-il dans un rapport, «au coeur
des conflits dans la sous-région, ces groupes menaçant la sécurité de tous
les Etats concernés» (contre-mémoire de l’Ouganda, vol. III, annexe 46,
par. 21).
22. Si donc je conviens avec la Cour que l’accord de Lusaka n’a pas eu
d’effet rétroactif, je me dissocie d’elle lorsqu’elle affirme que le calendrier
du retrait (des forces étrangères) et le lien institué entre celui-ci et la série
d’événements majeurs mentionnés ne valaient pas consentement du Congo
à la présence des forces ougandaises pendant 180 jours au moins à compter
du 10 juillet 1999, et après cette date si les événements majeurs nécessaires
envisagés ne se produisaient pas. Comme l’a fait valoir le conseil de
l’Ouganda à l’audience, il existe un lien de consécution entre le désarmement
des groupes armés et le retrait des forces étrangères de la RDC.
C’est ce que confirme le paragraphe 12 du calendrier figurant à l’annexe B
de l’accord de cessez-le-feu, lequel indique que le retrait des forces étrangères
n’interviendra qu’après l’aboutissement du dialogue national congolais
(jour J2 + 90 jours), le désarmement des groupes armés (jour J +
120 jours) et le retrait ordonné de l’ensemble des forces étrangères
(jour J + 180 jours) (contre-mémoire de l’Ouganda, vol. II, annexe 45,
annexe B). De fait, la mise en oeuvre de l’accord s’est trouvée retardée
parce que le dialogue intercongolais n’avait pas commencé à la date
prévue dans le calendrier.
23. Ayant donné de l’accord multilatéral de Lusaka une interprétation
que je tiens pour erronée, la Cour poursuit en déclarant que l’accord de
Luanda de septembre 2002 — accord bilatéral conclu entre la RDC et
l’Ouganda — modifie les conditions qui s’y trouvaient énoncées. Selon
moi, les autres parties à l’accord de Lusaka (à savoir l’Angola, la Namibie,
le Rwanda et le Zimbabwe) auraient émis des objections si pareille
modification bilatérale avait posé problème. L’accord de Luanda a donné
une impulsion à la mise en oeuvre de l’accord de Lusaka, alors au point
mort. Une fois de plus, je suis en désaccord avec la conclusion de la Cour
selon laquelle les divers traités impliquant la RDC et l’Ouganda ne
valaient pas consentement à la présence des troupes ougandaises sur le
territoire congolais après juillet 1999. «Lusaka» et, plus explicitement,
«Luanda» perpétuaient la validation en droit de la présence militaire
ougandaise en RDC.
24. S’agissant du droit de légitime défense, étant—ce que je regrette—
parvenue à la conclusion que les conditions de droit et de fait justifiant
son exercice par l’Ouganda n’étaient pas réunies, la Cour se refuse à statuer
sur les arguments des Parties relatifs à la question de savoir si et à
quelles conditions le droit international contemporain prévoit un droit de
légitime défense pour riposter à des attaques d’envergure menées par des
forces irrégulières. Par ailleurs, lors même qu’elle a conclu que les condi-
2 Le jour J correspond à la date de la signature officielle de l’accord de cessez-le-feu.
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 367
203
stances of the present case. However, it finds it appropriate to observe in
an obiter dictum that the taking of airports and towns many hundreds of
kilometres from Uganda’s border would not seem proportionate to the
series of transborder attacks Uganda claimed had given rise to the right
of self-defence, nor to be necessary to that end.
25. The refusal by the Court to delve into the question of self-defence
arises from its rejection of the evidence submitted by Uganda. The Court
relies on the Porter Commission Report as the main evidence on this
issue. The role of Brigadier-General James Kazini is central to the
Court’s findings — on when operation “Safe Haven” commenced and on
the question of the occupation of Ituri. Uganda’s argument of the alternative
view concerning the armed bands is set aside.
26. Thus it seems, in the interest of judicial economy, that the Court
has excluded much of the evidence submitted by Uganda on the question
of self-defence. This leads the Court to apply insufficient law to insufficient
facts ; hence the failure by the Court to discharge its judicial function
in this respect. For example on the issue of the Sudan, the Court
recognizes that an ICG independent report of August 1998 (“North Kivu
into the Quagmire”) seems to suggest some Sudanese support for the
ADF’s activities. However, the Court acknowledges that the report also
implies that this was not a matter of Congolese policy, but rather a reflection
of its inability to control events along its border. This is a rather
surprising position of the Court. If the report implies the Sudan’s involvement
with the ADF, the Court should have examined it further and
linked it to other reports for corroboration purposes. Instead the Court
simply quotes the report as stating that the ADF was exploiting the
incapacity of the Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) in controlling areas
of North Kivu with neighbour Uganda.
27. The Court should have been alerted by the ICG report so as to
take into account other corroborating reports of the Sudan’s support for
anti-Uganda rebels. Such similar documents are another ICG report of
1999 (“How Kabila Lost His Way”), which the Court regards as not constituting
reliable evidence. No reason is given as to why the report is not
reliable despite its stating that the DRC had effectively admitted the
threat to Uganda’s security posed by the Sudan. Annex 108 of the DRC’s
Reply quotes reports that indicate that the Sudan had been flying military
supplies from Juba to Kabila forces in Isiro and Dongo. The same
reports refer to 4,000 Sudanese soldiers being engaged in the conflict. It is
worth noting that Isiro is 320 km from Uganda’s borders with the DRC.
28. One could cite more examples about the Sudanese “connection”
368 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
204
tions préalables à l’exercice du droit de légitime défense n’étaient pas réunies
dans les circonstances de l’espèce, la Cour trouve opportun de relever,
dans un obiter dictum, que la prise d’aéroports et de villes situés à
plusieurs centaines de kilomètres de la frontière ougandaise ne semble
guère proportionnée aux diverses attaques transfrontalières dont
l’Ouganda se prévaut pour justifier l’exercice de son droit de légitime
défense, ni nécessaire pour l’exercice de ce droit.
25. Ce refus, de la part de la Cour, d’approfondir la question de la
légitime défense découle du choix qu’elle a fait d’écarter les éléments de
preuve soumis par l’Ouganda. La Cour se fonde essentiellement sur le
rapport de la commission Porter, et c’est en particulier le rôle joué par le
général de brigade James Kazini qui motive ses conclusions — concernant
la date du début de l’opération «Safe Haven» et la question de
l’occupation de l’Ituri. La Cour rejette l’argument avancé par l’Ouganda
quant à la possibilité d’une autre approche à l’égard des bandes armées.
26. Il semble donc que, dans un souci d’économie judiciaire, la Cour
ait écarté nombre des éléments de preuve produits par l’Ouganda sur la
question de la légitime défense. Elle est, en conséquence, amenée à appliquer
à des faits insuffisants un droit insuffisant et, partant, manque à
s’acquitter à cet égard de sa fonction judiciaire. Ainsi, la Cour reconnaît,
sur la question du Soudan, qu’un rapport indépendant de l’ICG daté
d’août 1998 («North Kivu into the Quagmire» [Le Nord-Kivu dans
l’impasse]) semble donner à entendre qu’il y avait un certain soutien soudanais
aux activités des FDA. Elle ajoute toutefois que ce document
laisse également croire que cette situation ne résultait pas d’une politique
délibérée de la RDC, mais plutôt de son incapacité à contrôler les événements
se déroulant à ses frontières. Cette position de la Cour ne laisse pas
de surprendre. S’il ressort du rapport que le Soudan était mêlé aux activités
des FDA, la Cour aurait dû examiner ce document plus avant et le
rapprocher d’autres sources susceptibles de corroborer ces informations.
Au lieu de quoi elle n’en cite qu’un passage indiquant que les FDA
tiraient profit de l’incapacité dans laquelle se trouvaient les forces armées
congolaises de contrôler des zones du Nord-Kivu voisines de l’Ouganda.
27. Le rapport de l’ICG aurait dû alerter la Cour et l’amener à prendre
en considération d’autres sources attestant également le soutien apporté
par le Soudan aux rebelles antiougandais. Ainsi en est-il d’un autre rapport
de l’ICG de 1999 («How Kabila Lost His Way» [Comment Kabila
s’est égaré]), que la Cour ne tient pas pour un élément de preuve fiable.
La Cour ne motive nullement cette conclusion, lors même qu’elle reconnaît
que la RDC avait effectivement admis la menace que le Soudan faisait
peser sur la sécurité de l’Ouganda. A l’annexe 108 de sa réplique, la
RDC cite des informations indiquant que le Soudan livrait des fournitures
militaires par avion, depuis Juba, aux forces de Kabila à Isiro et
Dongo. Cette même source fait état de quatre mille soldats soudanais
impliqués dans le conflit. Il convient de relever qu’Isiro se trouve à
320 kilomètres de la frontière entre l’Ouganda et la RDC.
28. L’on pourrait citer d’autres exemples encore du «lien» entre le
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 368
204
with the DRC and its destabilizing effect on Uganda. It suffices for one
to cite the factor of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA). In its Judgment,
the Court refers to a Ugandan military intelligence report, which states
that in August 1998 the Sudan airlifted insurgents from the WNBF and
LRA to fight alongside Congolese forces against RPA and RCD rebels.
The Court observes that, even were that proven, the Congo was entitled
so to have acted. One is led to remark that it would be a strange concept
of self-defence that would allow the airlifting of rebels to the DRC by the
Sudan to murder civilians in either Rwanda or Uganda, which countries
were in conflict with the DRC. And yet, the Court concludes that there
was no tripartite conspiracy between the DRC, the Sudan and the anti-
Uganda rebels.
29. As regards the LRA, I wish to underscore the inter-connectivity of
the events in the Great Lakes region. The Sudan had been sponsoring the
LRA that for nearly 20 years had caused massive and grave violations of
human rights and international humanitarian law in northern Uganda.
This has led the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court to indict
five leaders of the LRA for crimes against humanity. The Sudan
was ferrying the LRA rebels to the DRC in order to create “another
frontier” in its conflict with Uganda. It has also been said that Zaire’s
attempt to evict Congolese Tutsi triggered the Congo crisis. These
examples show that the situation in the DRC has an internal, regional
and international dimension. Another dimension of the inter-connectivity
of events in the region is that the Hima people are to be found in the
DRC, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda. The various pogroms in Rwanda
and Burundi led to massive inflows of refugees into Uganda and Tanzania
in the 1960s. Hence instability in one country creates instability
in another owing to the ethnic composition of the people. In this situation
it is not easy to tell whether a person belongs to this or that ethnic
group.
30. In this regard, the Court fails to recognize the inter-connectivity of
the conflict when it discounts a United States State Department statement
of October 1998, condemning the DRC’s recruitment and training
of former perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide. This lack of awareness
by the Court displays itself by not reacting to Uganda’s complaints about
the DRC’s conflation of Uganda and Rwanda in this case. Notwithstanding
the fact that Uganda has shown several times in its argument its
rejection of offers by Rwanda to participate in joint operations in the
DRC, the Applicant in its pleadings, and the Court in its treatment of the
evidence, have both unwittingly maintained the impression of not appreciating
that Rwanda and Uganda are two different States.
31. As already stated, insurgent activity is at the heart of the conflict in
369 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
205
Soudan et la RDC, et de son effet déstabilisateur sur l’Ouganda. Nous
nous contenterons d’évoquer le cas de l’armée de résistance du Seigneur
(Lord’s Resistance Army, LRA). Dans son arrêt, la Cour se réfère à un
rapport des services de renseignement militaire ougandais indiquant que
le Soudan a, en août 1998, transporté par voie aérienne des insurgés du
WNBF et de la LRA pour qu’ils aillent combattre l’APR et les rebelles
du RCD aux côtés de forces congolaises. La Cour estime que, même à
supposer les faits établis, la RDC avait le droit d’agir ainsi. L’on observera
que ce serait là une bien étrange conception de la légitime défense
que celle qui autoriserait le Soudan à transporter par avion des rebelles
jusqu’en RDC aux fins de tuer des civils au Rwanda ou en Ouganda,
pays en conflit avec la RDC. Pour autant, la Cour conclut qu’il n’existait
pas de conspiration tripartite entre la RDC, le Soudan et les rebelles
antiougandais.
29. En ce qui concerne la LRA, je voudrais insister sur l’imbrication
des événements dans la région des Grands Lacs. Le Soudan parrainait la
LRA, groupe qui était, depuis près de vingt ans, à l’origine de violations
graves et massives des droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire
dans le nord de l’Ouganda, situation qui a d’ailleurs conduit le
procureur de la Cour pénale internationale à inculper de crimes contre
l’humanité cinq de ses dirigeants. Le Soudan acheminait des rebelles de la
LRA en RDC en vue de créer «une autre frontière» dans le conflit
l’opposant à l’Ouganda. D’aucuns ont par ailleurs avancé que c’était
l’initiative prise par le Zaïre d’évincer les Tutsis congolais qui avait
déclenché la crise au Congo. Ces exemples montrent que la situation en
RDC revêt une triple dimension, interne, régionale et internationale.
Autre aspect de l’interpénétration des événements dans la région, les
Hema sont disséminés en RDC, au Rwanda, au Burundi et en Ouganda.
Les divers pogromes menés au Rwanda et au Burundi ont conduit à
un afflux massif de réfugiés en Ouganda et en Tanzanie dans les
années soixante. Ainsi, l’instabilité sévissant dans un pays se répercute
chez son voisin, du fait de la composition ethnique de la population.
Dans ce contexte, il n’est guère aisé de déterminer l’appartenance
ethnique de telle ou telle personne.
30. Or, la Cour méconnaît ce paramètre lorsqu’elle écarte une déclaration
du département d’Etat des Etats-Unis en date d’octobre 1998
condamnant le recrutement et l’entraînement par la RDC d’anciens
auteurs du génocide rwandais. Elle s’abstient en conséquence de répondre
aux griefs exprimés par l’Ouganda au sujet de l’amalgame opéré par le
demandeur entre lui-même et le Rwanda. Bien que l’Ouganda ait montré
à plusieurs reprises dans son argumentation qu’il avait repoussé les offres
du Rwanda l’invitant à prendre part, à ses côtés, à des opérations en
RDC, la Partie demanderesse, dans ses écritures et à l’audience, et la
Cour, dans son traitement des preuves, ont l’une et l’autre donné involontairement
l’impression de ne pas bien saisir que le Rwanda et
l’Ouganda sont deux Etats distincts.
31. Ainsi que je l’ai déjà indiqué, les activités menées par les rebelles
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 369
205
the region. Even to this day, MONUC is still struggling in joint operations
with the DRC to disarm the various rebel groups, both local and
foreign (Reuters report of 11 November 2005 on an operation in North
Kivu province). The DRC, in its Reply, acknowledges that anti-Ugandan
armed groups have been operating from this territory for years: “As they
had always done in the past, the forces of the ADF continued to seek
refuge in Congolese territory.” (Reply of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (RDRC), Vol. I, para. 3.15.) As if this was right, the DRC argues
that no one, and certainly not their Ugandan counterparts, have ever
held the Congolese authorities responsible for any of these actions. This
implies acquiescence on Uganda’s part.
32. However, Uganda had protested the massacres at Kichwamba
Technical School of 8 June 1998 in which 33 students were killed and
106 abducted, an attack at Benyangule village on 26 June 1998 in which
11 persons were killed or wounded, the abduction of 19 seminarians
at Kiburara on 5 July 1998 and an attack on Kasese town on 1 August
1998, in which three persons were killed. In spite of all this evidence of
brutal and deadly attacks, the Court merely comments that “[t]he DRC
does not deny that a number of attacks took place, but its position is that
the ADF alone was responsible for them” (Judgment, para. 133). The
Court concludes that there is no satisfactory proof of the involvement in
these attacks, direct or indirect of the Government of the DRC:
“The attacks did not emanate from armed bands or irregulars
sent by the DRC or on behalf of the DRC, within the sense of
Article 3 (g) of General Assembly resolution 3314 (XXIX) on the
definition of aggression . . . The Court is of the view that, on the
evidence before it, even if this series of deplorable attacks could
be regarded as cumulative in character, they still remained nonattributable
to the DRC.” (Judgment, para. 146.)
33. Here the Court seems to reconfirm its 1986 dictum in the Nicaragua
case concerning insurgent activities and what amounts to an “armed
attack”. The DRC, in its Reply already referred to, reasserts that the fact
of simply tolerating or financing irregular forces is not sufficient to establish
a full scale “armed attack”: “For this to be established,” the DRC
argues,
“Uganda must prove that the DRC was ‘substantially involved’ in
the acts of irregular forces and hence that the Congolese Government
had given specific instructions or directions to them or had
actually controlled the performance of such acts” (RRDC, Vol. I,
para. 3.135).
370 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
206
sont au coeur du conflit dans la région. A ce jour encore, la MONUC
continue de s’évertuer, dans le cadre d’opérations conjointes avec la
RDC, à désarmer les divers groupes rebelles, tant locaux qu’étrangers
(voir la dépêche de l’agence Reuters du 11 novembre 2005 concernant
une opération menée dans la province du Nord-Kivu). Dans sa réplique,
la RDC reconnaît que les groupes armés antiougandais opèrent depuis des
années à partir du territoire congolais: «Comme elles l’ont toujours fait
dans le passé, les forces de l’ADF ont continué de se réfugier en territoire
congolais.» (Réplique de la RDC, vol. I, par. 3.15.) Au mépris de la
vérité, la RDC allègue que nul, et certainement pas les autorités ougandaises,
n’a jamais tenu les autorités congolaises pour responsables de l’un
quelconque de ces agissements, donnant à entendre que l’Ouganda y
acquiesçait.
32. Or, l’Ouganda avait élevé des protestations au sujet de l’attaque
contre l’école technique de Kichwamba, le 8 juin 1998, au cours de
laquelle trente-trois élèves avaient été tués et cent six enlevés, de même
que d’une attaque contre le village de Benyangule le 26 juin 1998, au
cours de laquelle onze personnes avaient été tuées ou blessées, de l’enlèvement
de dix-neuf séminaristes à Kiburara le 5 juillet 1998 et d’une
attaque contre la ville de Kasese le 1er août 1998, lors de laquelle trois
personnes avaient été tuées. En dépit de toutes ces preuves d’attaques
brutales et meurtrières, la Cour se contente d’observer que «[l]a RDC ne
nie pas la réalité de certaines de ces attaques, mais soutient que les FDA
en sont seules responsables» (arrêt, par. 133). Elle conclut qu’il n’existe
pas de preuve satisfaisante d’une implication directe ou indirecte du Gouvernement
de la RDC dans ces attaques:
«Celles-ci n’étaient pas le fait de bandes armées ou de forces irrégulières
envoyées par la RDC ou en son nom, au sens de l’article
3 g) de la résolution 3314 (XXIX) de l’Assemblée générale sur
la définition de l’agression... La Cour est d’avis, au vu des éléments de
preuve dont elle dispose, que ces attaques répétées et déplorables,
même si elles pouvaient être considérées comme présentant un caractère
cumulatif, ne sont pas attribuables à la RDC.» (Arrêt, par. 146.)
33. La Cour semble ici confirmer le dictum énoncé dans son arrêt
de 1986 en l’affaire Nicaragua quant aux activités menées par des rebelles
et aux éléments constitutifs d’une «agression armée». La RDC, dans sa
réplique déjà mentionnée, réaffirme que le simple fait de tolérer ou de
financer des forces irrégulières ne suffit pas à établir l’existence d’une
véritable «agression armée»:
«[p]our que celle-ci soit établie », soutient-elle, «l’Ouganda doit prouver
que la RDC s’est engagée «de manière substantielle» dans les
actions des forces irrégulières, et donc que le Gouvernement congolais
a donné des instructions ou des directives spécifiques, ou encore
a véritablement contrôlé la mise en oeuvre de telles actions» (Réplique
de la RDC, vol. I, par. 3.135).
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 370
206
In its 1986 Nicaragua Judgment, the Court stated the following:
“The Court sees no reason to deny that, in customary law, the
prohibition of armed attacks may apply to the sending by a State of
armed bands to the territory of another State, if such an operation,
because of its scale and effects, would have been classified as an
armed attack rather than as a mere frontier incident had it been carried
out by regular armed forces.” (Military and Paramilitary Activities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 103, para. 195.)
34. The Court has thus stuck to its limited interpretation of Article 3 (g)
of General Assembly resolution 3314 (XXIX). By so doing, it is
encouraging that impunity in that proof of the element of “substantial
involvement”, which implies awareness and substantial participation, will
be invoked — as the DRC has done in its pleadings in this case — by
culprits to avoid responsibility for wrongful acts. We have already referred
to the alternative view, which Uganda advanced in the context of selfdefence.
Even if the Court found that Uganda had not established the
legal and factual circumstances for the exercise of a right of self-defence,
it should have found that military support by the DRC for anti-Uganda
insurgents constitutes unlawful intervention. Instead of doing this, the
Court finds that Uganda’s first counter-claim, by which Uganda contends
that, since 1994, it has been the victim of military operations and
other destabilizing activities carried out by hostile armed groups based in
the DRC, cannot be upheld.
35. Thus the effort of Zaire’s President Mobutu (cited in the counterclaim)
to overthrow President Museveni’s Government since 1994 — and
even earlier since 1986 — is subversive activity, which not only constitutes
unlawful intervention in Uganda’s affairs, but also is cumulatively
tantamount to an armed attack upon Uganda. In my view this, along
with incessant rebel attacks in the post “Zaire era”, would entitle Uganda
to exercise the right of self-defence.
36. In this regard, both the Applicant and the Court have advanced
the argument of the DRC’s inability to rein in anti-Uganda rebels. In its
conclusion on the part of Uganda’s first counter-claim, alleging Congolese
responsibility for tolerating the rebel movements prior to May 1997,
the Court states :
“During the period under consideration both anti-Ugandan and
anti-Zairean rebel groups operated in this area. Neither Zaire nor
Uganda were in a position to put an end to their activities.
However . . . the Court cannot conclude that the absence of action
371 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
207
Dans son arrêt de 1986 en l’affaire Nicaragua, la Cour a dit ceci :
«La Cour ne voit pas de raison de refuser d’admettre qu’en droit
international coutumier la prohibition de l’agression armée puisse
s’appliquer à l’envoi par un Etat de bandes armées sur le territoire
d’un autre Etat si cette opération est telle, par ses dimensions et ses
effets, qu’elle aurait été qualifiée d’agression armée et non de simple
incident de frontière si elle avait été le fait de forces armées régulières.
» (Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 103-104, par. 195.)
34. La Cour s’en tient ainsi à son interprétation restreinte de l’article 3,
alinéa g), de la résolution 3314 (XXIX) de l’Assemblée générale. Ce faisant,
elle favorise l’impunité puisque les Etats qui se sont rendus coupables
de faits illicites requerront — à l’instar de la RDC dans ses écritures
en l’espèce — que soit établi l’élément d’«engagement substantiel »,
lequel implique une conscience et une participation active, pour se soustraire
à la responsabilité qu’ils encourent. Nous avons déjà évoqué
l’autre interprétation possible, avancée par l’Ouganda dans le contexte
de la légitime défense. Même si elle jugeait que l’Ouganda n’avait pas
établi que les conditions de droit et de fait justifiant l’exercice d’un
droit de légitime défense fussent réunies, la Cour aurait dû conclure
que le soutien militaire apporté par la RDC aux rebelles antiougandais
constituait une intervention illicite. Au lieu de quoi elle conclut que la
première demande reconventionnelle de l’Ouganda, dans laquelle celui-ci
affirme avoir été, depuis 1994, la cible d’opérations militaires et d’autres
activités déstabilisatrices menées par des groupes armés hostiles basés
en RDC, doit être rejetée.
35. Les efforts (évoqués dans la demande reconventionnelle) que
déployait le président zaïrois Mobutu depuis 1994 — et même avant,
depuis 1986 — en vue de renverser le gouvernement du président Museveni
relèvent ainsi d’une activité subversive, laquelle est non seulement
constitutive d’une intervention illicite dans les affaires ougandaises mais
équivaut en outre, cumulativement, à une agression armée contre
l’Ouganda. De ce fait, et du fait des attaques incessantes menées par les
rebelles dans l’« ère post-Zaïre», l’exercice par l’Ouganda de son droit de
légitime défense se trouvait selon moi justifié.
36. A cet égard, tant le demandeur que la Cour ont argué de l’incapacité
de la RDC à maîtriser les rebelles antiougandais. Dans sa conclusion
sur le volet de la première demande reconventionnelle de l’Ouganda mettant
en cause la responsabilité de la RDC pour avoir toléré les mouvements
rebelles avant le mois de mai 1997, la Cour dit :
«Durant la période considérée, tant des groupes rebelles antiougandais
que des groupes rebelles antizaïrois opéraient dans ce
secteur. Ni le Zaïre ni l’Ouganda n’ont été en mesure de mettre fin
à leurs activités. La Cour ne saurait néanmoins ... conclure que
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 371
207
by Zaire’s Government against the rebel groups in the border area is
tantamount to ‘tolerating’ or ‘acquiescing’ in their activities.” (Judgment,
para. 301.)
Here, it bears stating that the inability of the DRC to control anti-
Uganda rebels operating from the Congo is contrary to the first principle
enunciated in the Declaration on Friendly Relations and Co-operation
(General Assembly resolution 2625 (XXV) of 24 October 1970): “Every
State has the duty to refrain from organizing or encouraging the organization
of irregular forces of armed forces of armed bands, including mercenaries,
for incursion into the territory of another State.”
The same principle is found in the Corfu Channel case, where it is
stated that it is “every State’s obligation not to allow knowingly its territory
to be used for acts contrary to the rights of other States” (Corfu
Channel, Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22).
37. From the constant references in the Court’s Judgment to the
DRC’s inability to control anti-Uganda rebels, one may be forgiven for
getting the impression that the DRC was facing problems of controlling
its territory, at least in the eastern part of its territory. Thus reasons of
geography, incapacity or distance have been invoked to avoid attribution
of responsibility to the DRC for violations of its obligations to its neighbours,
in particular Uganda. Here, a quote from the “Commentary” on
the United Nations Charter is apt:
“A special situation arises, if a State is not reluctant but incapable
of impeding acts of terrorism committed by making use of its territory.
Although such terrorist acts are not attributable to the State,
the State victim of the acts is not precluded from reacting by military
means against the terrorists within the territory of the other State.
Otherwise, a so-called failed State would turn out to be a safe haven
for terrorists, certainly not what Articles 2 (4) and 51 of the Charter
are aiming at.” (B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United
Nations— A Commentary, 2nd ed., 2002, Vol. I, p. 802, para. 36.)
38. The Court has concluded that Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter does not allow the use of force to protect perceived security
interests beyond the strict confines there laid down. It adds that other
means are available to a concerned State, in which the role of the Security
Council will be paramount. It has not elaborated as to whether Uganda
was entitled to the use of force on a threshold below “armed attack”.
Uganda had been calling for the United Nations Security Council to send
a peacekeeping force to the DRC. It is not enough for the Court to refer
372 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
208
l’absence d’action du Gouvernement du Zaïre à l’encontre des
groupes rebelles dans la région frontalière correspond à une «tolérance
» de ces activités ou à un «acquiescement» à celles-ci.»
(Arrêt, par. 301.)
Ici, il convient d’indiquer que l’incapacité de la RDC à contrôler les
rebelles antiougandais opérant à partir de son territoire va à l’encontre
du premier principe énoncé dans la déclaration sur les relations amicales
et la coopération (résolution 2625 (XXV) de l’Assemblée générale en date
du 24 octobre 1970), qui se lit comme suit : «Chaque Etat a le devoir de
s’abstenir d’organiser ou d’encourager l’organisation de forces irrégulières
ou de bandes armées, notamment de bandes de mercenaires, en
vue d’incursions sur le territoire d’un autre Etat.»
On retrouve le même principe dans l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire du Détroit
de Corfou, qui énonce «l’obligation, pour tout Etat, de ne pas laisser utiliser
son territoire aux fins d’actes contraires aux droits d’autres Etats»
(Détroit de Corfou, fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 22).
37. Au vu de la mention constante que fait l’arrêt de la Cour de l’incapacité
dans laquelle se trouvait la RDC de maîtriser les rebelles antiougandais,
l’on nous pardonnera d’avoir acquis l’impression que celle-ci
éprouvait des difficultés à contrôler son territoire, à tout le moins sa partie
orientale. La géographie, l’incapacité ou la distance ont ainsi été invoquées
pour exonérer la RDC de sa responsabilité, s’agissant de la violation
des obligations lui incombant à l’égard de ses voisins, et notamment
de l’Ouganda. Un passage du «commentaire» de la Charte des
Nations Unies est ici pertinent :
«Une situation particulière se présente lorsque ce n’est pas par
manque de volonté, mais par manque de moyens, qu’un Etat n’empêche
pas des actes de terrorisme comportant l’utilisation de son
territoire. Bien que de tels actes de terrorisme ne soient pas attribuables
à cet Etat, il n’est pas interdit à l’Etat qui en est victime de
réagir militairement contre les terroristes sur le territoire du premier
Etat — faute de quoi un Etat «en déliquescence» se révélerait un
refuge sûr pour les terroristes, ce qui n’est certainement pas le but des
articles 2, paragraphe 4, et 51 de la Charte.» (B. Simma (dir. publ.),
The Charter of the United Nations — A Commentary (2e éd., 2002),
vol. I, p. 802, par. 36.)
38. La Cour déclare que l’article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies
n’autorise pas le recours à la force, pour protéger des intérêts perçus
comme relevant de la sécurité, au-delà des limites qui y sont strictement
définies. Elle ajoute que d’autres moyens sont à la disposition de l’Etat
concerné, le Conseil de sécurité jouant en la matière un rôle clé. Elle
n’approfondit pas le point de savoir si l’Ouganda était en droit d’utiliser
la force, en deçà du seuil de l’«agression armée». Or, l’Ouganda avait
exhorté le Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies à dépêcher en RDC une
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 372
208
Uganda to the Security Council. It bears mentioning that many tragic
situations have occurred on the African continent due to inaction by the
Council.
39. Equally, the Court has accused Uganda of not reporting to the
Security Council events that it had regarded as requiring it to react in
self-defence. In this connection, I wish to quote from Judge Schwebel’s
dissenting opinion in the Nicaragua case:
“A State cannot be deprived, and cannot deprive itself, of its
inherent right [nothing in the Charter shall impair that inherent
right, including the requirement of reporting to the Security Council
the measures taken] of individual or collective self-defence because
of its failure to report measures taken in the exercise of that right to
the Security Council.” (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 377, para. 230.)
This reporting requirement has been abused by aggressor States to justify
themselves that by reporting, they had complied with Article 51 of the
Charter concerning self-defence. Hence this requirement should be
handled with caution when it comes to issues of self-defence. In practice,
in some cases, some States are not aware that they are required to
report measures taken. While this is not an excuse, it should be regarded
as an extenuating circumstance.
40. I have voted in favour of the second operative clause of the dispositif
concerning the events in Kisangani. My vote in favour is in respect
of the hostilities between Ugandan and Rwandan military forces in
Kisangani. The mere fighting violated the sovereignty and territorial
integrity of the DRC. I cannot, however, in good conscience, pronounce
myself on the violations of human rights and international humanitarian
law because there were such violations by the many parties to the DRC
conflict, including the DRC. In this regard, my voting in favour of the
fifth and sixth operative paragraphs of the dispositif is only in respect of
the events in Kisangani. As I state below, I disagree with the Court’s
findings on violations of human rights and international humanitarian
law and the unlawful exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources and
thus cannot support a general finding for the making of reparation to the
DRC on these matters.
41. I also agree with the Court on the admissibility of the DRC’s
claims in relation to Uganda’s responsibility for the events in Kisangani.
It is not necessary for Rwanda to be a party to this case in order for the
Court to determine whether Uganda’s conduct violated rules of international
law. While the indispensable third party principle does not apply
373 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
209
force de maintien de la paix. Il ne suffit pas, pour la Cour, de renvoyer
l’Ouganda au Conseil de sécurité. Rappelons que nombre de tragédies
qui se sont jouées sur le continent africain sont à mettre sur le compte de
l’inaction ce celui-ci.
39. La Cour reproche également à l’Ouganda de ne pas avoir porté à
la connaissance du Conseil de sécurité les événements qui, à ses yeux, lui
avaient imposé d’exercer son droit de légitime défense. Je voudrais à ce
sujet citer un passage de l’opinion dissidente jointe par le juge Schwebel à
l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire Nicaragua :
«Un Etat ne peut être privé ou se priver lui-même de son droit
naturel [aucune disposition de la Charte ne porte atteinte à ce droit
naturel, pas même l’obligation de notification du Conseil de sécurité]
de légitime défense, individuelle ou collective, pour n’avoir pas porté
à la connaissance du Conseil de sécurité les mesures qu’il a prises
dans l’exercice de ce droit.» (Activités militaires et paramilitaires au
Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 377, par. 230.)
Des Etats agresseurs ont fait un usage abusif de cette obligation de notification
pour s’exonérer de leur responsabilité, au motif que, en portant à
la connaissance du Conseil de sécurité les mesures qu’ils avaient prises, ils
s’étaient conformés aux dispositions de l’article 51 de la Charte relatives
à la légitime défense. Aussi convient-il d’en user avec circonspection
lorsque l’on se pose la question de la légitime défense. Il peut advenir en
effet que, dans certains cas, des Etats n’aient pas conscience d’avoir à
rendre compte des mesures qu’ils ont prises. Sans que cela les excuse,
il faut néanmoins y voir une circonstance atténuante.
40. J’ai voté en faveur de la deuxième conclusion du dispositif relative
aux événements de Kisangani, et ce, eu égard aux hostilités qui opposaient
les forces militaires ougandaises et rwandaises à Kisangani. Les
combats emportaient en soi violation de la souveraineté et de l’intégrité
territoriales de la RDC. Je ne saurais néanmoins, en toute conscience, me
prononcer sur les violations des droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire, car les nombreuses parties au conflit en RDC, y compris
la RDC elle-même, en ont commis. A cet égard, si j’ai voté en faveur des
cinquième et sixième conclusions du dispositif, c’est uniquement en ce qui
a trait aux événements de Kisangani. Comme je l’expliquerai maintenant,
je suis en désaccord avec les conclusions de la Cour sur les violations des
droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire ainsi que sur
l’exploitation illicite des ressources naturelles de la RDC, et ne peux en
conséquence m’associer à une conclusion générale tendant à ce que la
RDC obtienne à ce titre réparation.
41. Je suis aussi d’accord avec la Cour en ce qui a trait à la recevabilité
des demandes de la RDC concernant la responsabilité de l’Ouganda à
l’égard des événements survenus à Kisangani. Il n’est pas nécessaire que
le Rwanda soit partie à la présente instance pour que la Cour puisse
déterminer si le comportement de l’Ouganda constituait une violation de
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 373
209
here, one must reiterate that the DRC’s conflation of Rwanda and
Uganda is uncalled for.
III. HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW
42. The Court has found that Uganda, by the conduct of its armed
forces, which committed acts of killing, torture and other forms of
abuses, failed to discriminate between civilian and military targets and to
protect the civilian population, trained child soldiers, incited ethnic conflict
and failed to take measures to end such conflict; as well as by its
failure as the occupying Power to take measures to respect and ensure
respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in the
district of Ituri, violated its obligations under international human
rights law and international humanitarian law.
43. I have voted against this over-arching finding which mixes up
several issues. The finding contains serious accusations against Uganda.
As such a higher standard of proof is required: “A charge of such exceptional
gravity against a State would require a degree of certainty that has
not been reached here.” (Corfu Channel, Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1949, p. 17.) It would also seem pertinent to cite the observation by
Judge Higgins in her separate opinion in the Oil Platforms case:
“Beyond a general agreement that the graver the charge the more
confidence must there be in the evidence relied on, there is thus little
to help parties appearing before the Court (who already will know
they bear the burden of proof) as to what is likely to satisfy the
Court.” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 234, para. 33.)
44. At the outset of considering this finding by the Court, it bears
repeating that there were massive and egregious violations of human
rights and international humanitarian law in the DRC. As already
observed, the DRC itself is not absolved from blame. Various reports in
the public domain state that vile crimes have been perpetrated in the
DRC. Four million people have died since the conflict began there. As
counsel for Uganda stated during the oral proceedings
“a . . . balanced picture . . . without angels and without demons. It is
not a picture without victims, however, because both Uganda and
374 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
210
règles du droit international. Toutefois, même si le principe de la tierce
partie indispensable ne s’applique pas en l’espèce, il n’en convient pas
moins de redire que l’amalgame opéré par la RDC entre le Rwanda et
l’Ouganda n’a pas lieu d’être.
III. DROITS DE L’HOMME ET DROIT INTERNATIONAL HUMANITAIRE
42. La Cour a conclu que l’Ouganda, par le comportement de ses
forces armées, qui ont commis des meurtres et des actes de torture et
autres formes d’abus, ont manqué d’établir une distinction entre cibles
civiles et cibles militaires et de protéger la population civile, ont entraîné
des enfants-soldats, ont incité au conflit ethnique et ont manqué
de prendre des mesures visant à y mettre un terme, et pour n’avoir pas,
en tant que puissance occupante, pris de mesures visant à respecter et à
faire respecter les droits de l’homme et le droit international humanitaire
dans le district de l’Ituri, a violé les obligations lui incombant en vertu
du droit international relatif aux droits de l’homme et du droit
international humanitaire.
43. J’ai voté contre cette conclusion trop générale, qui mélange plusieurs
questions. Elle contient de graves accusations à l’encontre de
l’Ouganda, et impose, de ce fait, un seuil de la preuve plus élevé : «Une
imputation d’une gravité aussi exceptionnelle articulée contre un Etat exigerait
un degré de certitude qui n’est pas atteint ici.» (Détroit de Corfou,
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 17.) Il semble également pertinent de
citer l’observation formulée par le juge Higgins dans son opinion individuelle
en l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières :
«Par conséquent, mis à part le principe généralement admis que,
plus l’accusation est lourde, plus les éléments de preuve produits
doivent être fiables, il n’y a pas grand-chose qui puisse aider les
parties appelées à comparaître devant la Cour (lesquelles savent déjà
qu’elles portent le fardeau de la preuve) à savoir comment elles
peuvent s’acquitter de cette charge à la satisfaction de la Cour.»
(Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. Etats-
Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 234, par. 33.)
44. En préalable à la discussion de cette conclusion de la Cour, il
convient de rappeler que la RDC a été le théâtre de violations massives et
flagrantes des droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire.
Comme je l’ai déjà observé, la RDC elle-même n’est pas exempte de tout
reproche. Diverses informations relevant du domaine public font état de
crimes abjects perpétrés en RDC. Quatre millions de personnes ont
trouvé la mort depuis le début du conflit. Comme le notait le conseil de
l’Ouganda à l’audience
«[dans] un tableau ... équilibré ... il n’y aura ... ni anges ni démons.
Mais ce ne sera pas un tableau sans victimes car l’Ouganda comme-
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 374
210
the DRC are victims. Victims yes, but entirely innocent, no, because
there is no one in this picture who is totally without blame.”
(CR 2005/6, p. 58.)
45. As evidence of the serious accusation against Uganda for the violation
of human rights and international humanitarian law, the Court
relies on the sixth MONUC report of February 2001 and the MONUC’s
special report on the events in Ituri, January 2002-December 2003 (doc.
S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004). The Court proceeds to state that the United
Nations documents are corroborated by other credible sources of NGOs,
such as the HRW’s report of July 2003, which is available at http://hrw.
org/reports/2003/ituri0703. For its part, Uganda asserts that the reports
are unreliable and partisan (cites ASADHO, a Congolese NGO as a case
in point). Uganda makes the following arguments that (a) MONUC did
not have a mission (on the ground) appropriate to investigations of a specifically
legal character; (b) the MONUC report makes assumptions
about the causes of the Hema-Lendu conflict, assumptions which have no
historical basis ; (c) Uganda finds it anomalous and open to serious question
the supposition that in Ituri Uganda forces should be associated
with patterns of abuse when this did not occur in other regions. In my
view, these are cogent reasons which the Court should have taken into
serious consideration before reaching its finding that Uganda violated
human rights and international humanitarian law in the DRC.
46. I find it remarkable that the DRC accuses Uganda of carrying out
a deliberate policy of terror. Wisely, the Court did not endorse this rather
excessive charge. On the basis of the “clean hands” theory — the principle
that an unlawful action cannot serve as the basis of an action in
law — the DRC should be debarred from raising such accusations.
47. Having in mind the seriousness of the accusations levelled by the
DRC, the Court should have been more cautious and demanded satisfactory
evidence before concluding that the UPDF killed, tortured, and
committed other forms of inhumane treatment against the Congolese
civilian population. Relying on reports of the Special Rapporteurs and
MONUC reports is not advisable. As is known, on a number of occasions,
reports of the Special Rapporteurs of the Human Rights Commission
have generated controversies of a political and legal nature. Instead
of helping to find a solution to the situation in question, the reports were
ignored by some of the addressees on the grounds that they lacked objectivity.
In some cases, the writers of the United Nations reports have no
access to the countries concerned. In other cases, they are ill-informed
and thus end up writing speculative reports as will be illustrated in the
next section of this opinion.
48. In this regard, I am troubled by the Court’s finding that there is
persuasive evidence that the UPDF incited ethnic conflicts and took no
375 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
211
la RDC sont des victimes. Des victimes, mais non des victimes entièrement
innocentes: les torts sont partagés.» (CR 2005/6, p. 58.)
45. Pour étayer la grave accusation de violation des droits de l’homme
et du droit international humanitaire portée contre l’Ouganda, la Cour
s’appuie sur le sixième rapport de la MONUC, en date de février 2001, et
sur le rapport spécial consacré par cette même mission aux événements
survenus en Ituri entre janvier 2002 et décembre 2003 (doc. S/2004/573 du
16 juillet 2004). La Cour ajoute que les documents de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies sont corroborés par d’autres rapports crédibles d’ONG,
tels que celui de HRW en date de juillet 2003 (disponible sur le site http:
//hrw.org/reports/2003/ituri0703/). L’Ouganda, quant à lui, affirme que
ces sources ne sont pas dignes de foi et sont partisanes (il cite l’ASADHO,
une ONG congolaise, à titre d’exemple caractéristique). L’Ouganda
avance les arguments suivants : a) la mission de la MONUC n’était pas
équipée (sur le terrain) pour faire des enquêtes de nature spécifiquement
juridique ; b) la MONUC émet dans son rapport des hypothèses dépourvues
de fondement historique quant aux causes du conflit entre les Hema
et les Lendu; c) il est singulier et hautement contestable de supposer que
les forces ougandaises ont été associées, en Ituri, à des exactions systématiques,
alors que rien de tel ne s’est produit dans d’autres régions. Il
s’agit là à mon sens d’éléments convaincants, auxquels la Cour aurait dû
prêter l’attention qu’ils méritaient avant de conclure que l’Ouganda avait
violé les droits de l’homme et le droit international humanitaire en RDC.
46. Je trouve remarquable que la RDC ait accusé l’Ouganda de mener
une politique délibérée de terreur. Dans sa sagesse, la Cour n’a pas cautionné
cette accusation pour le moins excessive. En vertu de la théorie des
«mains propres» — le principe selon lequel un comportement illicite ne
saurait servir à fonder une action en justice —, la RDC ne devrait pas
être admise à formuler de telles accusations.
47. Eu égard à la gravité des accusations portées par la RDC, la Cour
aurait dû se montrer plus circonspecte, et exiger des preuves convaincantes
avant de conclure que les UPDF s’étaient rendues coupables de
meurtres, d’actes de torture et d’autres traitements inhumains à l’encontre
de la population civile congolaise. S’appuyer sur les rapports des rapporteurs
spéciaux et de la MONUC est peu indiqué: nul n’ignore que les rapports
des rapporteurs spéciaux de la Commission des droits de l’homme
ont donné lieu à des controverses de nature politique et juridique. Au lieu
de contribuer à résoudre le problème en cause, ces rapports ont été ignorés
par certains de leurs destinataires, qui leur reprochaient leur manque
d’objectivité. Il arrive que les rédacteurs des rapports de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies ne puissent se rendre dans les pays concernés. Il arrive
aussi qu’ils soient mal informés et que leurs rapports reposent en définitive
sur des conjectures, ainsi que je le montrerai dans la section suivante.
48. A cet égard, je suis déconcerté par la conclusion de la Cour selon
laquelle il existerait des éléments de preuve crédibles établissant que les
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 375
211
action to prevent such conflicts in the Ituri region. It is strange that
Uganda, which had its military presence elsewhere in the DRC, should be
accused of such a charge only in Ituri. Allegations against Uganda of
inciting ethnic conflict between the Hema and Lendu are based on a mistaken
view of the area in question where 18 different ethnic groups live
side by side. Uganda acknowledges the long-standing rivalry between the
Hema and Lendu. Such rivalry had led to massacres of civilians. Uganda
stood to gain nothing by inciting ethnic conflict. As explained earlier, the
spread of the different ethnic groups in the Great Lakes region is such
that based on history and recent experience, it would be folly for any
country to try to fan ethnic rivalry. It would boomerang.
49. From the United Nations reports, it seems that the rebel groups in
the DRC are the ones that recruited child soldiers and ferried them to
Uganda. For example, the RCD-ML is said to have halted its military
recruitment campaign due to the growing protest of UNICEF and
MONUC. Indeed, Uganda granted access to UNICEF to the children at
Kyankwanzi (RDRC, Ann. 32, para. 85). Once again, in my view, there
is no evidence to justify the Court’s conclusion that Uganda recruited
child soldiers in the DRC.
IV. THE UNLAWFUL EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
50. I have voted against the fourth operative clause of the dispositif
that finds that Uganda violated obligations owed to the DRC under
international law, by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese
natural resources committed by members of the Ugandan armed
forces in the territory of the DRC and by its failure to comply with its
obligations as occupying Power in the Ituri district to prevent acts of
looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese natural resources.
51. Counsel for the DRC stated during the oral pleadings that
“this is the very first time that the Court has been called upon to
address the responsibilities of a State for the illegal exploitation of
natural resources which are located in the territory of another State
which it occupies” (CR 2005/5, p. 15).
Counsel for Uganda agreed with this observation. Hence given the nature
and the gravity of the charge, a higher standard of proof is required on
the part of the Applicant to prove that the Respondent committed these
acts of plunder and pillage. The DRC cited various sources for its evidence,
including the United Nations Panel reports on the Illegal Exploitation
of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the DRC. It
376 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
212
UPDF avaient incité à des conflits ethniques et n’avaient pris aucune
mesure pour prévenir de tels conflits dans la région de l’Ituri. Il est surprenant
que l’Ouganda, qui était présent militairement dans d’autres
parties de la RDC, ne soit accusé de tels actes que dans le cas de l’Ituri.
Les allégations d’incitation au conflit ethnique entre Hema et Lendu formulées
à l’encontre de l’Ouganda reposent sur une idée erronée de la
région en question, où cohabitent dix-huit groupes ethniques différents.
L’Ouganda reconnaît qu’il existe de longue date une rivalité entre les
Hema et les Lendu, rivalité qui a conduit à des massacres de civils.
L’Ouganda n’avait rien à gagner à inciter au conflit ethnique. Comme je
l’ai relevé plus haut, la dissémination des différents groupes ethniques
dans la région des Grands Lacs est telle — et l’histoire, ancienne ou
récente, nous l’enseigne — que ce serait folie pour n’importe quel pays
d’essayer d’attiser les rivalités ethniques. Une telle initiative ne manquerait
pas de se retourner contre lui.
49. Des rapports de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, il ressort que ce
sont les groupes rebelles présents en RDC qui ont recruté des enfantssoldats
et les ont conduits en Ouganda. On lit ainsi, dans ces documents,
que le RDC-ML a arrêté sa campagne de recrutement militaire en raison
des protestations croissantes de l’UNICEF et de la MONUC. L’Ouganda
a d’ailleurs autorisé l’UNICEF à visiter ces enfants à Kyankwanzi (Réplique
de la RDC, annexe 32, par. 85). Une fois de plus, il n’existe selon
moi aucun élément justifiant la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle l’Ouganda
aurait recruté des enfants-soldats en RDC.
IV. EXPLOITATION ILLICITE DES RESSOURCES NATURELLES
50. J’ai voté contre la quatrième conclusion du dispositif indiquant
que, par les actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles
congolaises commis par des membres des forces armées ougandaises sur le
territoire de la RDC, et par son manquement à l’obligation qui lui incombait,
en tant que puissance occupante dans le district de l’Ituri, d’empêcher
les actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles congolaises,
l’Ouganda a violé les obligations qui sont les siennes, en vertu du
droit international, envers la République démocratique du Congo.
51. Le conseil de la RDC a affirmé à l’audience que
«c’[était] ... la première fois que la Cour [était] appelée à connaître de
la responsabilité d’un Etat du fait de l’exploitation illégale des ressources
naturelles situées sur le territoire d’un Etat tiers qu’il occup[
ait]» (CR 2005/5, p. 15).
Le conseil de l’Ouganda en a convenu. La nature et la gravité de l’accusation
imposent donc au demandeur de satisfaire à un critère de la preuve
plus strict pour établir que le défendeur a commis ces actes de pillage. La
RDC a cité diverses sources à l’appui de sa thèse, parmi lesquelles les rapports
du groupe d’experts des Nations Unies sur l’exploitation illégale des
ressources naturelles et autres formes de richesses de la République
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 376
212
also cited the Porter Commission, which was set up by the Government
of Uganda to investigate allegations made in United Nations Panel
reports, as confirming the accusation of unlawful exploitation of Congolese
natural resource.
52. There is a lot of doubt concerning the reliability of the United
Nations Panel reports. Even the Porter Commission Report, on which
the DRC and the Court rely for evidence on exploitation, criticized the
methodology followed by the United Nations Panels. It states that “it
would seem that the majority of evidence likely to be obtained by such a
methodology [of flexible data collection] would be either hearsay, biased
or pure gossip, all untested” (Porter Commission Report, p. 7). Thus the
United Nations Panel report of 12 April 2001 cites “some sources” as
saying that the Presidents of Rwanda and Uganda and the late President
Kabila were shareholders in BCDI (Banque de commerce de développement
et d’industrie, located in Kigali). The Panel then concludes in the
same paragraph, “[b]ut this was not the case” (RDRC, Vol. III, Ann. 69,
para. 29). In paragraph 52, the Panel report alleges that some members of
President Museveni’s family were shareholders of DGLI (The Dara
Great Lakes Industries, of which DARA Forest is a subsidiary). Then
the Panel adds “although more investigation is needed” (ibid., Ann. 69,
para. 52).
53. This is the type of gossip that emerges from these United Nations
documents. Thus the Court was forced to rely on the Porter Commission
Report, which according to the Court provides sufficient and convincing
evidence. Here one must caution again over reliance on a single source as
evidence to prove allegations, not only of unlawful exploitation of the
DRC’s natural resources, but also of the use of force. In any case, the
Porter Commission found that there was no Ugandan governmental
policy to exploit the DRC’s natural resources. The Commission also
found that individual soldiers engaged in commercial activities and looting
were acting in a purely private capacity.
54. In this respect, I find myself in disagreement with the Court’s conclusion
that Uganda is internationally responsible for the acts of exploitation
of the DRC’s natural resources and has violated its obligation of
due diligence in regard to these acts, of failing to comply with its obligation
as an occupying Power in Ituri. The Ugandan soldiers, who committed
acts of looting, did so in violation of orders from the highest
Ugandan authorities. In his radio message of 15 December 1998 to COs
and all UPDF units in the DRC, President Museveni said the following:
377 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
213
démocratique du Congo. Elle a également cité la commission Porter, établie
par le Gouvernement ougandais pour enquêter sur les allégations
formulées dans les rapports du groupe d’experts des Nations Unies, dont
les constatations étayeraient selon elle l’accusation d’exploitation illicite
des ressources naturelles congolaises.
52. La fiabilité des rapports du groupe d’experts des Nations Unies est
fortement sujette à caution. La commission Porter elle-même a, dans le
rapport sur lequel la RDC et la Cour se fondent pour étayer la thèse de
l’exploitation, critiqué la méthodologie suivie par les experts de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies, précisant qu’«il semblerait que la majeure partie
des preuves susceptibles d’être obtenues par une telle méthode [celle
consistant à procéder avec souplesse pour rassembler les données nécessaires]
seraient des preuves par ouï-dire, des témoignages partiaux, voire
de simples racontars, les uns comme les autres n’ayant pas été vérifiés»
(rapport de la commission Porter, p. 7). On lit ainsi dans le rapport du
groupe d’experts des Nations Unies du 12 avril 2001 que «certaines
sources» ont donné les présidents du Rwanda et de l’Ouganda, ainsi
que le défunt président Kabila, pour actionnaires de la BCDI (Banque
de commerce, de développement et d’industrie, sise à Kigali) — «ce
qui n’était pas le cas», est-il toutefois précisé au même paragraphe (Réplique
de la RDC, vol. III, annexe 69, par. 29). Au paragraphe 52, le
groupe d’experts indique que certains membres de la famille du président
Museveni étaient actionnaires de DGLI (Dara Great Lakes Industries,
dont DARA-Forest est une filiale), «encore qu’un supplément d’enquête
soit nécessaire pour le vérifier », ajoute-t-il (ibid., par. 52).
53. Tels sont les on-dit que véhiculent ces documents de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies. Aussi la Cour a-t-elle été contrainte de s’appuyer sur
le rapport de la commission Porter, qui fournit, estime-t-elle, des éléments
de preuve suffisants et convaincants. Il convient ici de rappeler
qu’il n’est guère prudent de s’appuyer sur une source unique pour établir
le bien-fondé d’allégations non seulement d’exploitation illicite des ressources
naturelles de la RDC, mais aussi d’emploi de la force. En tout
état de cause, la commission Porter a conclu à l’absence de politique gouvernementale
ougandaise tendant à l’exploitation des ressources naturelles
de la RDC. Elle a aussi déterminé que les soldats qui s’étaient individuellement
livrés à des activités commerciales et au pillage avaient
agi à titre exclusivement privé.
54. Je suis à cet égard en désaccord avec la conclusion de la Cour selon
laquelle l’Ouganda aurait engagé sa responsabilité internationale à raison
des actes d’exploitation des ressources naturelles de la RDC, failli à son
devoir de diligence s’agissant de ces actes et manqué aux obligations lui
incombant en tant que puissance occupante en Ituri. Les soldats ougandais
qui se sont livrés à des actes de pillage ont agi en violation des ordres
qui leur avaient été donnés par les plus hautes autorités ougandaises.
Dans son allocution radiophonique du 15 décembre 1998 adressée à
l’état-major et à l’ensemble des unités des UPDF en RDC, le président
Museveni a donné pour consigne de:
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 377
213
“1. Ensure that there is no officer or man of our forces in Congo
who engages in business.
2. Also report to me any other public servant whether currently
based in Congo or not who tries to engage in business in
Congo.” (Rejoinder of Uganda (RU), Vol. III, Ann. 31.)
Hence, in my view, individual acts of UPDF soldiers, committed in their
private capacity and in violation of orders, cannot lead to attribution of
wrongful acts. Paragraph 8 of the Commentary to Article 7 of the draft
Articles of the International Law Commission 2001 distinguishes between
unauthorized, but still “official” conduct, on the one hand and “private”
conduct on the other.
55. As noted earlier, the Court reached a finding of occupation in
order to rationalize its finding on human rights and international humanitarian
law. It has done the same in respect of the alleged unlawful exploitation
of the DRC’s natural resources. From this finding, it is easy to
invoke jus in bello in order to engage Uganda’s international responsibility
for acts and omissions of Ugandan troops in the DRC. Uganda
has argued that it did not control the rebel groups that were in charge
of parts of eastern Congo in general and in Ituri in particular. Its limited
military presence could not have made this possible. In any case, the
Respondent just — as I do — does not find the contention of occupation
to be proven.
56. The Court has rightly, in my view, not accepted part of the DRC’s
final submission on the violation of the Congo’s permanent sovereignty
over its natural resources (PSNR) because this has not been proven. The
PSNR concept is embodied in General Assembly resolution 1803 (XVII)
of 1962. The PSNR was adopted in the era of decolonization and the
assertion of the rights of newly independent States. It thus would be
inappropriate to invoke this concept in a case involving two African
countries. This remark is made without prejudice to the right of States to
own and or dispose of their natural resources as they wish.
V. LEGAL CONSEQUENCES
57. In its fourth submission, the DRC requests the Court to adjudge
and declare that Uganda ceases all continuing internationally wrongful
acts, adopt specific guarantees and assurances of non-repetition and
make reparation for all injury caused. In this regard, I agree with the
Court that there is no evidence of continuing illegal acts on the part of
Uganda in the DRC. As such, there is no need for the Court to make any
378 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
214
«1. [v]eiller à ce qu’il n’y ait aucun officier ou soldat de[s] forces
[ougandaises] se trouvant au Congo qui se livre à des activités
commerciales;
2. [lui] signaler en outre tout autre fonctionnaire ougandais
se trouvant au Congo ou non qui tente[rait] de se livrer à des
activités commerciales» (duplique de l’Ouganda, vol. III,
annexe 31).
L’Ouganda ne saurait donc, selon moi, se voir imputer des faits illicites à
raison d’actes individuels commis à titre privé par des soldats des UPDF
en violation des ordres reçus. La Commission du droit international établit,
au paragraphe 8 du commentaire de l’article 7 de son projet d’articles
de 2001, une distinction entre un comportement non autorisé
mais cependant «public», d’une part, et un comportement «privé »,
d’autre part.
55. Ainsi qu’indiqué plus haut, la Cour a conclu à l’occupation pour
rationaliser sa conclusion relative aux droits de l’homme et au droit international
humanitaire. Elle a fait de même en ce qui concerne la prétendue
exploitation illicite des ressources naturelles de la RDC. Il lui est dès lors
aisé d’invoquer le jus in bello pour mettre en cause la responsabilité internationale
de l’Ouganda à raison d’actes et d’omissions des forces ougandaises
en RDC. L’Ouganda a fait valoir qu’il ne contrôlait pas les
groupes rebelles qui administraient certaines parties du Congo oriental
en général, et l’Ituri en particulier : le caractère restreint de sa présence
militaire ne l’eût pas permis. En tout état de cause, le défendeur, pas
plus que moi, n’estime prouvée l’allégation d’occupation.
56. La Cour a, selon moi à bon droit, rejeté une partie du chef de
conclusions de la RDC relatif à la violation de la souveraineté permanente
du Congo sur ses ressources naturelles, au motif que cette violation
n’a pas été établie. La notion de souveraineté permanente sur les ressources
naturelles a été formulée dans la résolution 1803 (XVII) de
l’Assemblée générale en date de 1962. Elle a été adoptée à l’époque de
la décolonisation, marquée par l’affirmation des droits des Etats nouvellement
indépendants. Il serait donc malvenu de l’appliquer à une affaire
opposant deux Etats africains. Cette observation est sans préjudice
du droit des Etats à la propriété de leurs ressources naturelles et/ou
de leur droit d’en disposer comme ils l’entendent.
V. CONSÉQUENCES JURIDIQUES
57. Dans son quatrième chef de conclusions, la RDC prie la Cour de
dire et juger que l’Ouganda est tenu de cesser tout fait internationalement
illicite qui se poursuit de façon continue, de fournir des garanties et assurances
spécifiques de non-répétition et de réparer tout préjudice causé. A
cet égard, j’estime comme la Cour qu’il n’est pas établi que l’Ouganda
continue de commettre en RDC les actes illicites allégués. Dès lors, point
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 378
214
ruling on cessation. Uganda, as the DRC acknowledges, withdrew its
troops from the DRC on 2 June 2003. There is therefore no need for specific
guarantees and assurances of non-repetition. The Court has taken
judicial notice of the Tripartite Agreement on Regional Security in the
Great Lakes of 26 October 2004. This Agreement between the DRC,
Rwanda and Uganda provides for obligation to respect the sovereignty
and territorial integrity of the countries in the region and cessation of any
support for armed groups or militias.
58. Concerning reparation, this could follow at a subsequent phase of
the proceedings, if the Parties fail to reach agreement after negotiations.
VI. COMPLIANCE WITH THE COURT’S ORDER
ON PROVISIONAL MEASURES
59. The DRC requests the Court to adjudge and declare that Uganda
has violated the Order of the Court on provisional measures of 1 July
2000 by not complying with the three provisional measures, namely,
(a) refrain from armed action in the DRC; (b) compliance with obligations
under international law, in particular the United Nations and OAU
Charters and Security Council resolution 1304 (2000); and (c) respect
within the zone of conflict for fundamental human rights and for the
applicable provisions of humanitarian law.
60. The Court notes that the DRC put forward no specific evidence
demonstrating that after July 2000 Uganda committed acts in violation
of each of the three provisional measures. However, the Court finds that
Uganda has violated provisional measures concerning human rights and
international humanitarian law through actions of Ugandan troops
during the period of their presence in the DRC, including the period
from 1 July 2000.
61. The Court’s finding that Uganda did not comply with the Order of
the Court on provisional measures of 1 July 2000 shows, as indicated
earlier, lack of concern for the action taken, not in good faith, by the
Applicant to raise this issue against the Respondent when the Applicant
itself has committed grave violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law. Thus, I am constrained not to support the position of
the Court on its finding. The Court, in my view, should not have dealt
with the violation of the provisional measures. I have already referred to
the “clean hands” theory, which I deem to be apt on this issue as well.
379 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
215
n’est besoin pour la Cour de se prononcer sur la question de la cessation.
L’Ouganda, comme le reconnaît la RDC, a retiré ses troupes du territoire
congolais le 2 juin 2003. Il n’est donc pas besoin de garanties ni d’assurances
spécifiques de non-répétition. La Cour a pris acte, judiciairement,
de l’accord tripartite du 26 octobre 2004 relatif à la sécurité dans la
région des Grands Lacs. Cet accord entre la RDC, le Rwanda et
l’Ouganda prévoit l’obligation de respecter la souveraineté et l’intégrité
territoriale des pays de la région ainsi que la cessation de tout soutien à
des groupes armés ou à des milices.
58. Quant à la question de la réparation, elle pourrait être réglée lors
d’une phase ultérieure de la procédure, si, après négociations, les Parties
ne parviennent pas à se mettre d’accord.
VI. RESPECT DE L’ORDONNANCE DE LA COUR EN INDICATION
DE MESURES CONSERVATOIRES
59. La RDC prie la Cour de dire et juger que l’Ouganda a violé son
ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires en date du
1er juillet 2000 en ce qu’elle n’a pas observé trois mesures conservatoires
consistant à: a) s’abstenir de toute action armée en RDC; b) se conformer
aux obligations lui incombant en vertu du droit international, et en
particulier en vertu de la Charte des Nations Unies et de la Charte de
l’Organisation de l’unité africaine, ainsi qu’à la résolution 1304 (2000) du
Conseil de sécurité ; et c) assurer, dans la zone de conflit, le respect des
droits de l’homme fondamentaux ainsi que des règles du droit international
humanitaire applicables.
60. La Cour relève que la RDC n’a produit aucun élément précis
démontrant que l’Ouganda ait, après juillet 2000, commis des actes
en violation de chacune des trois mesures conservatoires. Elle conclut
néanmoins que l’Ouganda a violé les mesures conservatoires relatives
aux droits de l’homme et au droit international humanitaire de par
les actes commis par ses troupes pendant la période où celles-ci étaient
présentes en RDC, y compris la période commençant au 1er juillet
2000.
61. La conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle l’Ouganda ne s’est pas
conformé à l’ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires du
1er juillet 2000 revient, comme indiqué plus haut, à ne pas faire cas de ce
que le demandeur ait entrepris — et ne l’ait pas fait de bonne foi — de
soulever cette question à l’encontre du défendeur quand lui-même a été
l’auteur de graves violations des droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire. Je me vois donc contraint de m’écarter de la position
de la Cour sur ce chef de conclusions. La Cour n’aurait pas dû, selon
moi, se pencher sur la question de la violation des mesures conservatoires.
J’ai déjà évoqué la théorie des «mains propres», que j’estime
pertinente ici aussi.
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 379
215
VII. COUNTER-CLAIMS
62. Uganda’s first counter-claim relates to acts of aggression allegedly
committed by the DRC. The second relates to attacks on Uganda’s diplomatic
premises and personnel in Kinshasa and on Ugandan nationals.
The third counter-claim was ruled inadmissible by the Order of the Court
of 29 November 2001.
63. I agree with the Court’s reasoning, which rejects Uganda’s claim
that the DRC is not entitled at the merits phase of the proceedings to
raise objections to the admissibility to the counter-claims submitted by
Uganda. In the Oil Platforms case the Court ruled that Iran was entitled
to challenge “the ‘admissibility’ of the [United States’] counter-claim” on
the merits (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 210, para. 105).
64. I have voted in favour of operative clause 8 of the dispositif by
which the Court rejects objections of the DRC to the admissibility of the
first counter-claim submitted by Uganda. Before proceeding with further
consideration of this counter-claim, I wish to make a general comment
on the way the Court has treated this claim of Uganda which is the
Applicant in this context and the DRC is the Respondent. It is a matter
of regret that the Court agrees with the DRC’s division of the first
counter-claim into three periods. The Court invokes the excuse of
“practical purposes” in agreeing to divide the counter-claim into three
periods: (a) the Mobutu era, i.e., before May 1997; (b) the Kabila
period, i.e., May 1997-August 1998; (c) the period after 2 August 1998.
65. This “slicing” technique of the first counter-claim is to the disadvantage
of Uganda because as the Applicant in this respect points out
“the DRC is seeking to limit Uganda’s counter-claim”. Uganda maintains
that Zaire and the DRC are not distinct entities and by virtue of the
State continuity principle, it is precisely the same legal person, which is
responsible for the acts complained of in the first counter-claim. The division
of the counter-claim makes it difficult to follow the reasoning of the
Court. Admissibility issues are mixed with those of merits. It would have
been better if the first counter-claim had been dealt with in its entirety,
without dividing it into three periods.
66. I have voted against paragraph 9 of the dispositif by which the
Court finds that the first counter-claim submitted by Uganda cannot be
upheld. I find myself in disagreement with the Court’s dismissal of the
evidence submitted by Uganda — for the first period of the first counterclaim
— when it argues that evidence is of “limited probative value”
when it is “neither relied on by the other Party nor corroborated by
impartial, neutral sources” (Judgment, para. 298). This observation of
the Court concerns President Museveni’s address to the Ugandan Parlia-
380 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
216
VII. DEMANDES RECONVENTIONNELLES
62. La première demande reconventionnelle de l’Ouganda concerne
des actes d’agression qu’il allègue avoir été commis par la RDC. La
deuxième concerne des attaques menées contre les locaux et le personnel
diplomatiques de l’Ouganda à Kinshasa et contre des ressortissants
ougandais. Quant à la troisième demande reconventionnelle, la Cour l’a
déclarée irrecevable par son ordonnance du 29 novembre 2001.
63. Je fais mien le raisonnement de la Cour, qui rejette l’argument de
l’Ouganda selon lequel la RDC ne serait pas fondée, au stade du fond, à
soulever des exceptions à la recevabilité des demandes reconventionnelles
qu’il a présentées. Dans l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières, la Cour a
conclu que l’Iran était en droit de contester «la «recevabilité» de la
demande reconventionnelle » des Etats-Unis sur le fond (Plates-formes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 210, par. 105).
64. J’ai voté en faveur de la huitième conclusion du dispositif, par
laquelle la Cour rejette les exceptions de la RDC à la recevabilité de la
première demande reconventionnelle présentée par l’Ouganda. Avant
d’examiner plus avant cette demande reconventionnelle, je voudrais formuler
une observation d’ordre général sur la manière dont la Cour a
traité cette demande de l’Ouganda — lequel devient en l’occurrence le
demandeur, le défendeur étant la RDC. Je déplore qu’elle ait souscrit au
découpage de la première demande reconventionnelle en trois périodes
proposé par la RDC. Invoquant des «raisons pratiques», la Cour a ainsi
accepté de distinguer les phrases suivantes: a) le régime Mobutu, avant
mai 1997; b) le régime de Kabila de mai 1997 à août 1998; c) la période
postérieure au 2 août 1998.
65. Cette technique consistant à «saucissonner» la première demande
reconventionnelle est au désavantage de l’Ouganda, la RDC cherchant,
comme l’a relevé le demandeur, à limiter la portée de la demande reconventionnelle
de l’Ouganda. Ce dernier soutient que le Zaïre et la RDC ne
sont pas des entités distinctes et qu’en vertu du principe de continuité des
Etats, c’est exactement la même personne morale qui est responsable des
actes visés dans sa première demande reconventionnelle. Du fait du
découpage de celle-ci, il est malaisé de suivre le raisonnement de la Cour,
qui mêle questions de recevabilité et questions de fond. Il eût été préférable
d’examiner la première demande reconventionnelle dans son intégralité,
sans la scinder ainsi en trois périodes.
66. J’ai voté contre le paragraphe 9 du dispositif, dans lequel la Cour
dit que la première demande reconventionnelle présentée par l’Ouganda
ne peut être retenue. Je me dissocie de la Cour lorsqu’elle écarte les éléments
de preuve soumis par l’Ouganda — s’agissant de la première
période — au motif qu’ils seraient d’une «valeur probante réduite» parce
qu’«ils n’ont pas été invoqués par l’autre Partie ni corroborés par des
sources impartiales et neutres» (arrêt, par. 298). Cette observation de la
Cour concerne l’allocution prononcée par le président Museveni devant
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 380
216
ment on 28 May 2000 entitled “Uganda’s Role in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo”. Evidence by the NGO Human Rights Watch
(HRW) is regarded as “too general to support a claim of Congolese
involvement . . .” (Judgment, p. 298). I do not share the Court’s characterization
and treatment of this evidence.
67. In relation to the second period of the first counter-claim, the
Court finds that Uganda has failed to provide conclusive evidence of
actual support for anti-Ugandan rebel groups by the DRC. The Court
notes, with approval, the improved relations between the two Parties.
The Court should have remembered its earlier observation that “[t]he
political climate between States does not alter their legal rights” (Judgment,
para. 294). The Court comments that this period is marked by
clear action by the DRC against rebels. If it had accepted evidence by
Uganda, it would have noted the “dual role” by the Congolese highest
authorities of seeming to co-operate with Uganda while at the same time
fraternizing with the Sudan and anti-Ugandan rebels.
68. Regarding the second counter-claim, I have voted in favour of
rejecting the DRC’s objection to the admissibility of the part of the claim
relating to the breach of the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic
Relations (paragraph 10 of the dispositif). I agree with the Court’s
reasoning in its interpretation of the Order of 29 November 2001.
69. I have voted against operative paragraph 11 of the dispositif,
which upholds the objection of the DRC to the admissibility of the part
of the second counter-claim relating to the maltreatment of persons other
than Ugandan diplomats at Ndjili Airport on 20 August 1998. The invocation
by Uganda of the international minimum standard relating to the
treatment of foreign nationals is considered by the Court as an exercise of
diplomatic protection. Thus according to the Court, Uganda would need
to meet the conditions necessary for the exercise of diplomatic protection,
namely, the requirement of Ugandan nationality of the claimants and the
prior exhaustion of local remedies. The Court avoids dealing with the
issue of these persons on the grounds that it has not been established that
they were Ugandan nationals. In my view, the Court should have invoked
international humanitarian law to protect the rights of these persons. The
Court would seem not to have given enough weight to violations of the
rights of these persons at Ndjili Airport by the DRC.
70. I voted in favour of operative paragraph 12, which finds that the
DRC has violated obligations owed to Uganda under the 1961 Vienna
Convention on Diplomatic Relations by Congo’s armed forces, maltreating
Ugandan diplomats and other individuals at the embassy premises,
maltreating Ugandan diplomats at Ndjili Airport, as well as its failure to
provide the Ugandan Embassy and Ugandan diplomats with effective
protection and failure to protect archives and property from seizure.
381 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
217
le Parlement ougandais le 28 mai 2000, intitulée «Le rôle de l’Ouganda
en République démocratique du Congo». Les informations émanant de
l’ONG Human Rights Watch (HRW) sont considérées comme «de caractère
trop général pour étayer l’allégation d’une implication congolaise...»
(arrêt, par. 298). Je ne souscris pas à cette caractérisation des éléments de
preuve, ni au traitement qu’en fait la Cour.
67. En ce qui concerne la deuxième période, la Cour estime que
l’Ouganda n’a pas fourni de preuves convaincantes d’un réel soutien de la
RDC aux groupes rebelles antiougandais durant cette période. La Cour
prend acte, et se félicite, de l’amélioration des relations entre les deux
Parties. Elle aurait dû garder à l’esprit l’observation qu’elle a formulée
dans un précédent passage, à savoir que «[l]e climat politique entre des
Etats ne porte pas atteinte à leurs droits» (arrêt, par. 294). La Cour note
que cette période est marquée par une action manifeste de la RDC contre
les rebelles. Eût-elle admis les éléments de preuve produits par l’Ouganda,
elle aurait noté l’«ambivalence» des plus hautes autorités congolaises,
qui donnaient l’impression de coopérer avec l’Ouganda, tout en fraternisant
avec le Soudan et les rebelles antiougandais.
68. S’agissant de la deuxième demande reconventionnelle, j’ai voté en
faveur du rejet de l’exception de la RDC à la recevabilité du volet de cette
demande concernant la violation de la convention de Vienne de 1961 sur
les relations diplomatiques (dispositif, par. 10). Je souscris au raisonnement
de la Cour en ce qui concerne l’interprétation de l’ordonnance du
29 novembre 2001.
69. J’ai voté contre la onzième conclusion du dispositif, aux termes de
laquelle l’exception de la RDC à la recevabilité du volet de la deuxième
demande reconventionnelle concernant les mauvais traitements infligés le
20 août 1998 à des personnes autres que des diplomates ougandais à
l’aéroport de Ndjili doit être retenue. Pour la Cour, l’invocation par
l’Ouganda du standard minimum de justice en matière de traitement des
étrangers relève de l’exercice de la protection diplomatique. Aussi la Cour
estime-t-elle que l’Ouganda devrait satisfaire aux conditions requises
pour l’exercice de cette protection, et notamment à l’exigence selon
laquelle les demandeurs doivent être de nationalité ougandaise ainsi qu’à
celle de l’épuisement préalable des voies de recours internes. La Cour
s’abstient d’examiner le cas des intéressés au motif qu’il n’a pas été établi
qu’il s’agissait de ressortissants ougandais. Selon moi, elle aurait dû invoquer
le droit international humanitaire pour protéger leurs droits. Elle
n’a pas, semble-t-il, accordé suffisamment de poids aux violations des
droits de ces personnes commises par la RDC à l’aéroport de Ndjili.
70. J’ai voté en faveur de la douzième conclusion du dispositif, dans
laquelle la Cour dit que, par le comportement de ses forces armées, qui
ont soumis à de mauvais traitements des diplomates ougandais et d’autres
personnes dans les locaux de l’ambassade, ainsi que des diplomates
ougandais à l’aéroport de Ndjili, et pour n’avoir pas assuré à l’ambassade
de l’Ouganda et aux diplomates ougandais une protection efficace ni
empêché la saisie d’archives et de biens ougandais, la RDC a violé les
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 381
217
I also agree with the Court that it will only be at a subsequent phase,
failing an agreement between the Parties, that the issue of reparation to
Uganda will be settled by the Court.
(Signed) J. L. KATEKA.
382 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. KATEKA)
218
obligations qui lui incombaient, en vertu de la convention de Vienne sur
les relations diplomatiques de 1961, envers l’Ouganda. Je suis également
d’accord avec la Cour pour dire que c’est seulement lors d’une phase ultérieure
de la procédure que, à défaut d’accord entre les Parties à ce sujet,
la question de la réparation due à l’Ouganda sera réglée par la Cour.
(Signé) J. L. KATEKA.
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS. KATEKA) 382
218

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc Kateka

Links