Separate opinion of Judge Elaraby

Document Number
116-20051219-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
116-20051219-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

327

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE ELARABY

Agreement with the findings of the Court — Treatment by the Court of the
prohibition of the use of force — Failure to address the Democratic Republic of
the Congo’s claim of aggression — Centrality of this claim to the Democratic
Republic of the Congo’s case — Prohibition of aggression in international law
— General Assembly resolution 3314 (XXIX) — Authority of the Court to

determine whether there has been a violation of the prohibition of aggression —
Clear instance of aggression in the facts found to be established by the Court —
Relevance of the Court’s dicta in Nicaragua — Importance of consistency in the
Court’s jurisprudence.

1. My vote in favour of the Judgment reflects my support for its con-

clusions. I do however deem it appropriate to place on record certain
considerations which I find absent in the Judgment. While I fully concur
with the Court’s findings that there were grave violations of the principle
of the non-use of force in international relations, I believe the Court
should have explicitly upheld the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s
claim that such unlawful use of force amounted to aggression.

2. The issues arising in this case are manifold and complex, touching
upon some of the most sensitive questions of international law. The
Democratic Republic of the Congo has alleged that Uganda violated
Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter of the United Nations. It claims
that armed activities of Uganda constitute a breach of this general pro-

hibition of the use of force. It alleges furthermore that these armed activi-
ties constitute aggression.
3. At each stage of the current proceedings, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo has emphasized the gravity of the use of force exercised by
Uganda in breach of its obligations under international law. In its Appli-

cation initiating proceedings in the instant case, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo alleges that:

“this Application instituting proceedings against the Government of
the Republic of Uganda, on account of acts of armed aggression per-
petrated by Uganda on the territory of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, [is] in flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter
and of the Charter of the Organization of African Unity.

Such armed aggression by Ugandan troops on Congolese territory
has involved inter alia violation of sovereignty and territorial integ-
rity of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, violations of interna-
tional humanitarian law and massive human rights violations.

163328 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. ELARABY )

By the present Application the Democratic Republic of the Congo
seeks to secure the cessation of the acts of aggression directed
against it, which constitute a serious threat to peace and security
in central Africa in general and in the Great Lakes Region in par-

ticular.” (Application of the DRC, p. 5.)

4. Furthermore, in its Memorial, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo declares:

“Because all direct means of settling the dispute have failed, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo is asking the Court to fulfil its
role as guarantor of law, justice and peace and to condemn Uganda
for the policy of aggression it has conducted against the Democratic

Republic of the Congo since 2 August 1998.” (Memorial of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (MDRC), p. 6, para. 0.10.)

In its Memorial, the Applicant elaborates upon this, declaring that
“the gravity of the violation of the prohibition of the use of force” is
such as to make it “characterizable as aggression” (MDRC, pp. 176-179,
paras. 4.40-4.50). In its submissions, the Democratic Republic of the

Congo asks the Court to find “the principle of non-use of force in inter-
national relations, including the prohibition of aggression” (MDRC,
p. 273, para. 1) amongst the principles of international law violated by
Uganda.
5. In its Reply to the Counter-Memorial of Uganda, the Democratic

Republic of the Congo once again emphasizes its claim of Ugandan
aggression:

“[t]he wording [of the Democratic Republic of Congo’s Application]
shows very clearly what the essential subject-matter of the Applica-
tion is: the principle of Ugandan aggression. The details of that
aggression, including the looting of natural resources and associated

atrocities, are not considered in isolation, as separate acts.” (Reply
of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (RDRC), p. 11, para. 1.16.)

In its presentation of the military intervention of Uganda, the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo states:

“[g]iven the gravity of the Ugandan military intervention, the DRC
concluded that it was faced with real aggression within the meaning

of the definition given to this term by the General Assembly of the
United Nations” (RDRC, p. 60, para. 2.01).

6. In the course of the oral pleadings, the Democratic Republic of
the Congo reiterated its claim and referred to Ugandan military activi-
ties towards the Democratic Republic of the Congo and cited General
Assembly resolution 3314 (XXIX) on the definition of aggression.

7. The activities alleged of Uganda generally — and especially the

164329 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP .ELARABY )

form and nature of its use of force — are extremely serious in nature.

The Court holds that:
“The unlawful military intervention by Uganda was of such

a magnitude and duration that the Court considers it to be a
grave violation of the prohibition on the use of force expressed in
Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter.” (Judgment, para. 165.)

8. Thus while the Court uses exceptionally strong language to empha-
size the gravity of the use of force in this case, it fails to consider the
additional claim of the Democratic Republic of the Congo that such acts,
on account of their very seriousness as well as their specific characteris-

tics, constitute aggression. Aggression is the core and the very essence of
the use of force prohibited under Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter.
As the Preamble of the Definition of Aggression states, “aggression is the
most serious and dangerous form of the illegal use of force”.

9. In view of the submissions of the Applicant, and the gravity of the
violations recognized by the Court, I feel it is incumbent upon the Court
to respond to the serious allegation put forward by the Democratic

Republic of the Congo that the activities of Uganda also constitute
aggression as prohibited under international law.
10. Aggression is not a novel concept in international law. In the after-
math of the Second World War, the Nuremberg Tribunal stated that “to
initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime;

it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes
in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole” (Judg-
ment of 1 October 1946, Trial of the Major War Criminals before the
International Military Tribunal , Nuremberg, 14 November-1 October
1946, Vol. 1, p. 186). The founding of the United Nations was a land-

mark and a turning point in the outlawing of the use of force. The Char-
ter of the United Nations lays down, in Article 2, paragraph 4, a general
prohibition on “the threat and use of force” in States’ international rela-
tions. Article 39 confers upon the Security Council the authority to make
a determination of the “existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the

peace, or act of aggression” in order to make recommendations and take
action under other provisions of Chapter VII for the maintenance of
international peace and security.

11. It does not follow however that the identification of aggression is

solely within the purview of the Security Council. The Court has con-
firmed the principle that the Security Council’s responsibilities relating to
the maintenance of international peace and security are “‘primary’ not
exclusive” (Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, Para-
graph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 163),

it is clear that aggression — as a legal as well as a political concept — can
be of equal concern to other competent organs of the United Nations,

165330 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP .ELARABY )

including the Court as “the principal judicial organ of the United Nations”
(Art. 92, Charter of the United Nations). Although the term’s use in
political and popular discourse is often highly charged, it nevertheless
remains that aggression is a legal concept with legal connotations and

legal consequences, matters which fall clearly within the remit of the
Court, particularly when the circumstances of a case coming before the
Court call for a decision thereon. There is now general recognition that,
as Judge Lachs wrote in the Lockerbie cases,

“the dividing line between political and legal disputes is blurred, as
law becomes ever more frequently an integral part of international
controversies” (Questions of Interpretation and Application of the
1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Locker-
bie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Provisional Meas-

ures, Order of 14 April 1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 27; Questions
of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jama-
hiriya v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of
14 April 1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , p. 139).

12. The General Assembly and its subsidiary organs worked for many
years to achieve an appropriate and effective definition of what consti-
tutes aggression. The culmination of such efforts came with the adoption
of the General Assembly Declaration on the Definition of Aggression

(resolution 3314 (XXIX)). This resolution sets out a general definition of
the term in Article 1, while also citing a non-exhaustive list of situations
which amount to aggression in Article 3. Although this definition is not
without its problems and at the time certain Member States had reserva-

tions about certain aspects thereof, it was nonetheless adopted without a
vote by the General Assembly of the United Nations and marks a note-
worthy success in achieving by consensus a definition of aggression.

13. The definition does not claim to be either completely exhaustive or

authoritative. Yet it does offer an invaluable guide to the scope of aggres-
sion and an elucidation of the meaning of this term in international rela-
tions. As the Preamble of the Declaration emphasizes,

“the adoption of a definition of aggression ought to have the effect

of deterring a potential aggressor, would simplify the determination
of acts of aggression and the implementation of measures to sup-
press them and would also facilitate the protection of the rights and
lawful interests of, and the rendering of assistance to, the victim”.

14. The Preamble to the Definition of Aggression in resolution 3314

(XXIX) also aptly clarifies that aggression “must be considered in the

166331 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP .ELARABY )

light of all the circumstances of each particular case”. It is to this con-
sideration that I now turn. Examining the activities by Uganda against
the Democratic Republic of the Congo found to have taken place in the
current case, it is, in my view, clear that such activities amount to aggres-

sion. They fall clearly within the scope of Article 1 of the definition:

“[a]ggression is the use of armed force by a State against the sov-
ereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another
State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the
United Nations, as set out in this Definition”.

15. In the Nicaragua case, aggression was considered by the Court in the
context of an armed attack possibly giving rise to self-defence under cus-
tomary international law. Although the Court found in that case that no

such armed attack had been proven, the Court held that

“[t]his description contained in Article 3, paragraph (g), of the Defi-
nition of Aggression annexed to General Assembly resolution 3314
(XXIX), may be taken to reflect customary international law” (Mili-
tary and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicara-

gua v. United States of America), Merits , Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1986, p. 103, para. 195).

16. The gravity of the factual circumstances and context of the present
case dwarfs that of the Nicaragua case. The acknowledgment by the
Court of the customary international law status of the definition of
aggression is of considerable importance to the instant case and in par-
ticular to the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s claim that Uganda has

violated the prohibition of aggression in international law. Indeed the
definition of aggression applies a fortiori to the situation at hand: the full
force of the Charter provisions are applicable; the nature and form of the
activities under consideration fall far more clearly within the scope of the

definition; the evidence before the Court is more complete and both
Parties have been present at all stages of the proceedings.

17. These factors, allied with the central position of this claim within

the Application and the pleadings of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, require the Court to adhere to its judicial responsibility to adju-
dicate on a normative basis. The Court’s dicta on this point are of a
broader significance as they establish a normative test which should be

operational across the board. The same yardstick should be used in every
case to gauge the unlawful use of force by any State. Article 38 (b) of the
Statute mandates the Court to apply “international custom, as evidence
of a general practice accepted as law”. By dint of its dicta in the Nicara-
gua case, the Court should, in my view, have embarked on a determina-

tion as to whether the egregious use of force by Uganda falls within the

167332 ARMED ACTIVITIES SEP. OP. ELARABY )

customary rule of international law as embodied in General Assembly
resolution 3314 (XXIX).

18. Thus it was my expectation that the Court’s dicta in the Nicaragua

case, even if construed as obiter would be followed in the instant case by
qualifying the grave use of force by Uganda as amounting to aggression.
Rarely if ever has the Court been asked to pronounce upon a situation
where such grave violations of the prohibition of the use of force have
been committed. This makes it all the more important for the Court to

consider the question carefully and — in the light of its dicta in the Nica-
ragua case — to respond positively to the Democratic Republic of the
Congo’s allegation that Ugandan armed activities against and on its
territory amount to aggression and constitute a breach of its obligations
under international law.

19. The consistency of the Court’s dicta and holdings should be
observed and maintained. It is appropriate to point out that the consist-

ency of the case law practice and jurisprudence of the Court is not con-
fined to the dispositif of the judgments. Shabtai Rosenne noted that there
is “general desire for consistency and stability in the Court’s case-law
when the Court is dealing with legal issues which have been before it in
previous cases” (The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-

1996, Vol. III, Procedure, 1997, p. 1610).
The Court has emphasized this point in the case concerning the
Continental Shelf by noting that

“the justice of which equity is an emanation, is not abstract justice

but justice according to the rule of law; which is to say that its appli-
cation should display consistency and a degree of predictability;
even though it looks with particularity to the peculiar circumstances
of an instant case, it also looks beyond it to principles of more

general application” (Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/
Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985 , p. 39, para. 45).

As a general rule, such consistency has hitherto been maintained. On this

point, Judge Shahabuddeen remarked, the Court’s “jurisprudence has
developed in the direction of a strong tendency to adhere closely to pre-
vious holdings” (Precedent in the World Court , 1996, p. 238).

20. As remarked at the outset, I concur with the Court’s findings in the
present case, including its finding relating to the use of force. I am
unable, however, to appreciate any compelling reason for the Court to
refrain from finding that Uganda’s actions did indeed amount to aggres-
sion. The International Court of Justice has not been conceived as a

penal court, yet its dicta have wide-ranging effects in the international

168333 ARMED ACTIVITIES SEP .OP. ELARABY )

community’s quest to deter potential aggressors and to overcome the cul-
ture of impunity. Given the centrality of the claim of aggression to the
Democratic Republic of the Congo’s Application as well as the serious-

ness of the violation of the use of force in the present case and the
broader importance of repressing aggression in international relations, I
have appended this separate opinion to respond fully to the Democratic

Republic of the Congo’s submission on this point.

(Signed) Nabil E LARABY .

169

Bilingual Content

327

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE ELARABY

Agreement with the findings of the Court — Treatment by the Court of the
prohibition of the use of force — Failure to address the Democratic Republic of
the Congo’s claim of aggression — Centrality of this claim to the Democratic
Republic of the Congo’s case — Prohibition of aggression in international law
— General Assembly resolution 3314 (XXIX) — Authority of the Court to

determine whether there has been a violation of the prohibition of aggression —
Clear instance of aggression in the facts found to be established by the Court —
Relevance of the Court’s dicta in Nicaragua — Importance of consistency in the
Court’s jurisprudence.

1. My vote in favour of the Judgment reflects my support for its con-

clusions. I do however deem it appropriate to place on record certain
considerations which I find absent in the Judgment. While I fully concur
with the Court’s findings that there were grave violations of the principle
of the non-use of force in international relations, I believe the Court
should have explicitly upheld the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s
claim that such unlawful use of force amounted to aggression.

2. The issues arising in this case are manifold and complex, touching
upon some of the most sensitive questions of international law. The
Democratic Republic of the Congo has alleged that Uganda violated
Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter of the United Nations. It claims
that armed activities of Uganda constitute a breach of this general pro-

hibition of the use of force. It alleges furthermore that these armed activi-
ties constitute aggression.
3. At each stage of the current proceedings, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo has emphasized the gravity of the use of force exercised by
Uganda in breach of its obligations under international law. In its Appli-

cation initiating proceedings in the instant case, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo alleges that:

“this Application instituting proceedings against the Government of
the Republic of Uganda, on account of acts of armed aggression per-
petrated by Uganda on the territory of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, [is] in flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter
and of the Charter of the Organization of African Unity.

Such armed aggression by Ugandan troops on Congolese territory
has involved inter alia violation of sovereignty and territorial integ-
rity of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, violations of interna-
tional humanitarian law and massive human rights violations.

163 327

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE ELARABY

[Traduction]

Accord avec les conclusions de la Cour — Traitement par la Cour de l’inter-
diction de l’emploi de la force — Absence d’examen de la thèse de l’agression
formulée par la République démocratique du Congo — Caractère central de
cette thèse dans l’argumentation de la République démocratique du Congo —
Interdiction de l’agression en droit international — Résolution 3314 (XXIX) de

l’Assemblée générale — Autorité de la Cour pour déterminer s’il y a eu violation
de l’interdiction de l’agression — Cas d’agression manifeste dans les faits jugés
établis par la Cour — Pertinence des dicta de la Cour en l’affaire Nicaragua —
Importance d’une cohérence de la jurisprudence de la Cour.

1. Mon vote en faveur de l’arrêt traduit mon accord avec ses conclu-

sions. J’estime toutefois utile de formuler certaines considérations qui, à
mon sens, font défaut dans cet arrêt. Si je souscris pleinement à la conclu-
sion de la Cour selon laquelle de graves violations du principe du non-
emploi de la force dans les relations internationales ont été commises, je
considère que la Cour aurait dû expressément faire droit à la thèse de la
République démocratique du Congo selon laquelle cet emploi illicite de la

force équivalait à une agression.
2. Les questions que soulève cette affaire sont diverses et complexes;
elles ont trait à certains des aspects les plus sensibles du droit internatio-
nal. La République démocratique du Congo a allégué que l’Ouganda
avait violé le paragraphe 4 de l’article 2 de la Charte des Nations Unies.
Elle soutient que les activités armées de l’Ouganda constituent une viola-

tion de cette interdiction générale de l’emploi de la force. Elle allègue en
outre que ces activités armées constituent une agression.
3. A chaque phase de la présente instance, la République démocratique
du Congo a souligné la gravité de l’emploi de la force auquel l’Ouganda
avait recouru, en violation des obligations qui lui incombaient en vertu du

droit international. Dans sa requête introductive d’instance en la présente
affaire, la République démocratique du Congo déclare qu’elle soumet

«la présente requête introductive d’instance contre le Gouvernement
de la République de l’Ouganda, en raison des actes d’agression
armée perpétrés par l’Ouganda sur le territoire de la République
démocratique du Congo en violation flagrante de la Charte des
Nations Unies et de la Charte de l’Organisation de l’unité africaine.

Cette agression armée de troupes ougandaises en territoire congo-
lais a entraîné entre autres la violation de la souveraineté et de l’inté-
grité territoriale de la République démocratique du Congo, des vio-
lations du droit international humanitaire et des violations massives
des droits de l’homme.

163328 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. ELARABY )

By the present Application the Democratic Republic of the Congo
seeks to secure the cessation of the acts of aggression directed
against it, which constitute a serious threat to peace and security
in central Africa in general and in the Great Lakes Region in par-

ticular.” (Application of the DRC, p. 5.)

4. Furthermore, in its Memorial, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo declares:

“Because all direct means of settling the dispute have failed, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo is asking the Court to fulfil its
role as guarantor of law, justice and peace and to condemn Uganda
for the policy of aggression it has conducted against the Democratic

Republic of the Congo since 2 August 1998.” (Memorial of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (MDRC), p. 6, para. 0.10.)

In its Memorial, the Applicant elaborates upon this, declaring that
“the gravity of the violation of the prohibition of the use of force” is
such as to make it “characterizable as aggression” (MDRC, pp. 176-179,
paras. 4.40-4.50). In its submissions, the Democratic Republic of the

Congo asks the Court to find “the principle of non-use of force in inter-
national relations, including the prohibition of aggression” (MDRC,
p. 273, para. 1) amongst the principles of international law violated by
Uganda.
5. In its Reply to the Counter-Memorial of Uganda, the Democratic

Republic of the Congo once again emphasizes its claim of Ugandan
aggression:

“[t]he wording [of the Democratic Republic of Congo’s Application]
shows very clearly what the essential subject-matter of the Applica-
tion is: the principle of Ugandan aggression. The details of that
aggression, including the looting of natural resources and associated

atrocities, are not considered in isolation, as separate acts.” (Reply
of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (RDRC), p. 11, para. 1.16.)

In its presentation of the military intervention of Uganda, the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo states:

“[g]iven the gravity of the Ugandan military intervention, the DRC
concluded that it was faced with real aggression within the meaning

of the definition given to this term by the General Assembly of the
United Nations” (RDRC, p. 60, para. 2.01).

6. In the course of the oral pleadings, the Democratic Republic of
the Congo reiterated its claim and referred to Ugandan military activi-
ties towards the Democratic Republic of the Congo and cited General
Assembly resolution 3314 (XXIX) on the definition of aggression.

7. The activities alleged of Uganda generally — and especially the

164 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. ELARABY ) 328

Par la présente requête, la République démocratique du Congo

entend qu’il soit mis fin au plus tôt à ces actes d’agression dont elle
est victime et qui constituent une sérieuse menace pour la paix et la
sécurité en Afrique centrale en général et particulièrement dans la
région des Grands Lacs.» (Requête de la République démocratique
du Congo, p. 4.)

4. Dans son mémoire, la République démocratique du Congo indique

en outre que,
«[d]evant l’échec de toutes les voies directes de règlement des diffé-

rends, la République démocratique du Congo demande à la Cour de
remplir son rôle de garante du droit, de la justice et de la paix, et de
condamner l’Ouganda pour la politique d’agression menée à son
détriment depuis le 2 août 1998» (mémoire de la République démo-
cratique du Congo (MRDC), p. 6, par. 0.10).

Le demandeur précise ce point dans son mémoire en affirmant que «la

gravité de la violation de l’interdiction du recours à la force» est telle que
cette violation peut être «qualifi[ée] d’agression» (MRDC, p. 176-179,
par. 4.40-4.50). Dans ses conclusions, la République démocratique du
Congo prie la Cour de dire que «le principe du non-recours à la force
dans les relations internationales, y compris l’interdiction de l’agression»

(MRDC, p. 273, par. 1) figure parmi les principes du droit international
violés par l’Ouganda.
5. Dans sa réplique au contre-mémoire de l’Ouganda, la République
démocratique du Congo formule avec insistance une fois de plus sa thèse
de l’agression ougandaise:

«Le texte [de la requête de la République démocratique du Congo]
montre très clairement quel est l’objet essentiel de la requête: l’agres-

sion ougandaise dans son principe. Les modalités de cette agression,
y compris le pillage des ressources naturelles et les exactions qui l’ont
accompagnée, ne sont pas envisagées de manière isolée et séparée.»
(Réplique de la République démocratique du Congo (RRDC), p. 11,

par. 1.16.)
S’exprimant sur l’intervention militaire de l’Ouganda, la République

démocratique du Congo déclare que,
«[é]tant donné la gravité de l’intervention militaire ougandaise, la

RDC a pu conclure que l’on était en présence d’une véritable agres-
sion au sens de la définition donnée à ce terme par l’Assemblée géné-
rale des Nations Unies» (RRDC, p. 60, par. 2.01).

6. A l’audience, la République démocratique du Congo a réaffirmé sa
thèse en se référant aux activités militaires menées contre elle par
l’Ouganda, et a cité la résolution 3314 (XXIX) de l’Assemblée générale

sur la définition de l’agression.
7. D’une manière générale, ces prétendues activités de l’Ouganda — et

164329 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP .ELARABY )

form and nature of its use of force — are extremely serious in nature.

The Court holds that:
“The unlawful military intervention by Uganda was of such

a magnitude and duration that the Court considers it to be a
grave violation of the prohibition on the use of force expressed in
Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter.” (Judgment, para. 165.)

8. Thus while the Court uses exceptionally strong language to empha-
size the gravity of the use of force in this case, it fails to consider the
additional claim of the Democratic Republic of the Congo that such acts,
on account of their very seriousness as well as their specific characteris-

tics, constitute aggression. Aggression is the core and the very essence of
the use of force prohibited under Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter.
As the Preamble of the Definition of Aggression states, “aggression is the
most serious and dangerous form of the illegal use of force”.

9. In view of the submissions of the Applicant, and the gravity of the
violations recognized by the Court, I feel it is incumbent upon the Court
to respond to the serious allegation put forward by the Democratic

Republic of the Congo that the activities of Uganda also constitute
aggression as prohibited under international law.
10. Aggression is not a novel concept in international law. In the after-
math of the Second World War, the Nuremberg Tribunal stated that “to
initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime;

it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes
in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole” (Judg-
ment of 1 October 1946, Trial of the Major War Criminals before the
International Military Tribunal , Nuremberg, 14 November-1 October
1946, Vol. 1, p. 186). The founding of the United Nations was a land-

mark and a turning point in the outlawing of the use of force. The Char-
ter of the United Nations lays down, in Article 2, paragraph 4, a general
prohibition on “the threat and use of force” in States’ international rela-
tions. Article 39 confers upon the Security Council the authority to make
a determination of the “existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the

peace, or act of aggression” in order to make recommendations and take
action under other provisions of Chapter VII for the maintenance of
international peace and security.

11. It does not follow however that the identification of aggression is

solely within the purview of the Security Council. The Court has con-
firmed the principle that the Security Council’s responsibilities relating to
the maintenance of international peace and security are “‘primary’ not
exclusive” (Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, Para-
graph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 163),

it is clear that aggression — as a legal as well as a political concept — can
be of equal concern to other competent organs of the United Nations,

165 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. ELARABY ) 329

en particulier la forme et la nature de l’emploi de la force par l’Ouganda —
revêtent un caractère extrêmement grave. Selon la Cour,

«[l]’intervention militaire illicite de l’Ouganda a été d’une ampleur et
d’une durée telles que la Cour la considère comme une violation
grave de l’interdiction de l’emploi de la force énoncée au para-

graphe 4 de l’article 2 de la Charte des Nations Unies» (arrêt, par. 165).
8. Ainsi, alors même que la Cour emploie des termes particulièrement

vigoureux pour souligner la gravité de l’emploi de la force en l’espèce, elle
s’abstient pourtant d’examiner la demande additionnelle de la Répu-
blique démocratique du Congo selon laquelle de tels faits, en raison de
leur gravité même et de leurs caractéristiques propres, constituent une

agression. L’agression est au cŒur et constitue l’essence même de l’inter-
diction de l’emploi de la force énoncée au paragraphe 4 de l’article 2
de la Charte. Ainsi qu’il est dit dans le préambule de la définition de
l’agression, «l’agression est la forme la plus grave et la plus dange-

reuse de l’emploi illicite de la force».
9. Eu égard aux conclusions du demandeur et à la gravité des viola-
tions reconnues par la Cour, celle-ci se devait, selon moi, de se prononcer
sur la grave allégation de la République démocratique du Congo selon
laquelle les activités de l’Ouganda constituent également une agression,

telle que prohibée par le droit international.
10. L’agression n’est pas un concept nouveau en droit international.
Au lendemain de la seconde guerre mondiale, le Tribunal de Nuremberg
a indiqué que le fait de «[d]éclencher une guerre d’agression n’est ... pas

seulement un crime d’ordre international; c’est le crime international
suprême, ne différant des autres crimes de guerre que du fait qu’il les
contient tous» (Procès des grands criminels de guerre devant le Tribunal
militaire international , jugement, 1 eroctobre 1946, Nuremberg, 14 no-
vembre 1945-1 eroctobre 1946, t. 1, p. 197). La création de l’Organisa-

tion des Nations Unies a marqué un tournant historique dans la mise
hors la loi de l’emploi de la force. La Charte des Nations Unies énonce,
au paragraphe 4 de l’article 2, une interdiction générale de «la menace
ou [de] l’emploi de la force» dans les relations internationales des Etats.

L’article 39 confère au Conseil de sécurité le pouvoir de constater «l’exis-
tence d’une menace contre la paix, d’une rupture de la paix ou d’un
acte d’agression» en vue de faire des recommandations et de prendre
des mesures conformément à d’autres dispositions du chapitre VII visant

le maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales.
11. Il n’en résulte cependant pas que la constatation d’une agression
soit du seul ressort du Conseil de sécurité. La Cour ayant confirmé le prin-
cipe selon lequel les responsabilités du Conseil de sécurité en matière de
maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales étaient ««princi-

pale[s]» et non exclusive[s]» (Certaines dépenses des Nations Unies (ar-
ticle 17, paragraphe 2, de la Charte), avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1962,
p. 163), il est clair que l’agression — en tant que concept aussi bien juri-
dique que politique — peut être tout autant du ressort d’autres organes

165330 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP .ELARABY )

including the Court as “the principal judicial organ of the United Nations”
(Art. 92, Charter of the United Nations). Although the term’s use in
political and popular discourse is often highly charged, it nevertheless
remains that aggression is a legal concept with legal connotations and

legal consequences, matters which fall clearly within the remit of the
Court, particularly when the circumstances of a case coming before the
Court call for a decision thereon. There is now general recognition that,
as Judge Lachs wrote in the Lockerbie cases,

“the dividing line between political and legal disputes is blurred, as
law becomes ever more frequently an integral part of international
controversies” (Questions of Interpretation and Application of the
1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Locker-
bie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Provisional Meas-

ures, Order of 14 April 1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 27; Questions
of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jama-
hiriya v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of
14 April 1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , p. 139).

12. The General Assembly and its subsidiary organs worked for many
years to achieve an appropriate and effective definition of what consti-
tutes aggression. The culmination of such efforts came with the adoption
of the General Assembly Declaration on the Definition of Aggression

(resolution 3314 (XXIX)). This resolution sets out a general definition of
the term in Article 1, while also citing a non-exhaustive list of situations
which amount to aggression in Article 3. Although this definition is not
without its problems and at the time certain Member States had reserva-

tions about certain aspects thereof, it was nonetheless adopted without a
vote by the General Assembly of the United Nations and marks a note-
worthy success in achieving by consensus a definition of aggression.

13. The definition does not claim to be either completely exhaustive or

authoritative. Yet it does offer an invaluable guide to the scope of aggres-
sion and an elucidation of the meaning of this term in international rela-
tions. As the Preamble of the Declaration emphasizes,

“the adoption of a definition of aggression ought to have the effect

of deterring a potential aggressor, would simplify the determination
of acts of aggression and the implementation of measures to sup-
press them and would also facilitate the protection of the rights and
lawful interests of, and the rendering of assistance to, the victim”.

14. The Preamble to the Definition of Aggression in resolution 3314

(XXIX) also aptly clarifies that aggression “must be considered in the

166 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. ELARABY ) 330

compétents de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, dont la Cour en sa qua-

lité d’«organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies» (Charte des Nations
Unies, art. 92). Quoique l’emploi du terme dans le discours politique et le
langage courant ait une connotation chargée, il n’en demeure pas moins
que l’agression est un concept juridique ayant un contenu et des consé-
quences juridiques, lesquels relèvent clairement de la compétence de la

Cour, notamment lorsque les circonstances d’une affaire portée devant
elle appellent une décision sur ce concept. Il est désormais généralement
admis, ainsi que le juge Lachs l’a écrit dans les affairesLockerbie, que

«la ligne de démarcation entre les différends politiques et juridiques
s’est estompée, le droit devenant de plus en plus fréquemment un élé-

ment indissociable des litiges internationaux» (Questions d’interpré-
tation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résul-
tant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne
c. Royaume-Uni), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 14 avril
1992, C.I.J. Recueil 1992 ,p.27; Questions d’interprétation et d’appli-

cation de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident
aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amé-
rique), merures conservatoires, ordonnance du 14 avril 1992, C.I.J.
Recueil 1992, p. 139).

12. L’Assemblée générale et ses organes subsidiaires ont Œuvré de

nombreuses années durant pour parvenir à une définition appropriée et
utile de ce qu’est l’agression. Ces efforts ont été couronnés par l’adoption
de la déclaration de l’Assemblée générale sur la définition de l’agression
(résolution 3314 (XXIX)). Dans son article 1, cette résolution énonce une
définition générale du terme, tout en dressant, en son article 3, une liste

non exhaustive des situations qui équivalent à une agression. Bien que
cette définition n’aille pas sans poser de problèmes, et qu’à l’époque des
Etats Membres aient émis des réserves sur certains de ses aspects, elle a
néanmoins été adoptée sans vote par l’Assemblée générale des
Nations Unies, ce consensus sur la définition de l’agression représentant

un succès notable.
13. La définition ne prétend ni être totalement exhaustive ni faire auto-
rité. Elle offre cependant des indications très précieuses sur le champ
d’application de l’agression et élucide le sens que revêt ce terme dans les
relations internationales. Ainsi qu’il est souligné dans le préambule de la

déclaration,

«l’adoption d’une définition de l’agression devrait avoir pour effet
de décourager un agresseur éventuel, faciliterait la constatation des
actes d’agression et l’exécution des mesures propres à les réprimer et
permettrait de sauvegarder les droits et intérêts légitimes de la vic-
time et de venir à son aide».

14. Le préambule de la définition de l’agression figurant dans la réso-
lution 3314 (XXIX) précise en outre à juste titre que l’agression «doi[t]

166331 ARMED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP .ELARABY )

light of all the circumstances of each particular case”. It is to this con-
sideration that I now turn. Examining the activities by Uganda against
the Democratic Republic of the Congo found to have taken place in the
current case, it is, in my view, clear that such activities amount to aggres-

sion. They fall clearly within the scope of Article 1 of the definition:

“[a]ggression is the use of armed force by a State against the sov-
ereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another
State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the
United Nations, as set out in this Definition”.

15. In the Nicaragua case, aggression was considered by the Court in the
context of an armed attack possibly giving rise to self-defence under cus-
tomary international law. Although the Court found in that case that no

such armed attack had been proven, the Court held that

“[t]his description contained in Article 3, paragraph (g), of the Defi-
nition of Aggression annexed to General Assembly resolution 3314
(XXIX), may be taken to reflect customary international law” (Mili-
tary and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicara-

gua v. United States of America), Merits , Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1986, p. 103, para. 195).

16. The gravity of the factual circumstances and context of the present
case dwarfs that of the Nicaragua case. The acknowledgment by the
Court of the customary international law status of the definition of
aggression is of considerable importance to the instant case and in par-
ticular to the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s claim that Uganda has

violated the prohibition of aggression in international law. Indeed the
definition of aggression applies a fortiori to the situation at hand: the full
force of the Charter provisions are applicable; the nature and form of the
activities under consideration fall far more clearly within the scope of the

definition; the evidence before the Court is more complete and both
Parties have been present at all stages of the proceedings.

17. These factors, allied with the central position of this claim within

the Application and the pleadings of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, require the Court to adhere to its judicial responsibility to adju-
dicate on a normative basis. The Court’s dicta on this point are of a
broader significance as they establish a normative test which should be

operational across the board. The same yardstick should be used in every
case to gauge the unlawful use of force by any State. Article 38 (b) of the
Statute mandates the Court to apply “international custom, as evidence
of a general practice accepted as law”. By dint of its dicta in the Nicara-
gua case, the Court should, in my view, have embarked on a determina-

tion as to whether the egregious use of force by Uganda falls within the

167 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. ELARABY ) 331

être examinée compte tenu de toutes les circonstances propres à chaque

cas». C’est à cet examen que j’en viens maintenant. Au vu des activités
menées par l’Ouganda contre la République démocratique du Congo,
dont il a été établi qu’elles avaient bien eu lieu en l’espèce, il est, selon
moi, clair que ces activités équivalent à une agression. Elles entrent clai-
rement dans les prévisions de l’article 1 de la définition:

«L’agression est l’emploi de la force armée par un Etat contre la
souveraineté, l’intégrité territoriale ou l’indépendance politique d’un

autre Etat, ou de toute autre manière incompatible avec la Charte
des Nations Unies, ainsi qu’il ressort de la présente définition.»

15. En l’affaire Nicaragua, la question de l’agression a été examinée
par la Cour dans le cadre d’une agression armée susceptible d’ouvrir un
droit de légitime défense en vertu du droit international coutumier. Bien
que la Cour ait, dans cette affaire, conclu que l’existence d’une telle agres-

sion armée n’avait pas été prouvée, elle a jugé que
«[c]ette description, qui figure à l’article 3, alinéa g), de la définition

de l’agression annexée à la résolution 3314 (XXIX) de l’Assemblée
générale, p[ouvait] être considérée comme l’expression du droit inter-
national coutumier» (Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nica-
ragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986 , p. 103, par. 195).

16. La gravité des circonstances de fait et du contexte de l’espèce est de
loin supérieure à celle de l’affaire Nicaragua. La reconnaissance par la

Cour du fait que la définition de l’agression relève du droit international
coutumier est d’une importance considérable pour la présente affaire,
notamment en ce qui concerne la thèse de la République démocratique
du Congo selon laquelle l’Ouganda aurait violé l’interdiction de l’agres-
sion en droit international. En effet, la définition de l’agression s’applique

effectivement à la situation qui nous occupe : les dispositions de la
Charte sont pleinement applicables; la nature et la forme des activités
examinées entrent encore plus clairement dans le champ d’application
de la définition; les éléments de preuve présentés à la Cour sont plus
complets et les deux Parties ont été présentes à tous les stades de la procé-

dure.
17. Ces facteurs, conjugués à la position centrale qu’occupe cette thèse
dans la requête et les écritures et plaidoiries de la République démocra-
tique du Congo, imposent à la Cour de se conformer à sa responsabilité
judiciaire et de statuer sur une base normative. Ses dicta sur ce point ont

une portée plus large en ce qu’ils établissent un critère normatif qui
devrait être applicable en toute circonstance. Ce même critère devrait être
utilisé dans chaque affaire aux fins d’apprécier tout emploi illicite de la
force par un Etat. En vertu de l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 38
du Statut, la Cour applique «la coutume internationale comme preuve

d’une pratique générale, acceptée comme étant le droit». Forte de ses
dicta en l’affaire Nicaragua, la Cour aurait dû, à mon sens, s’attacher à

167332 ARMED ACTIVITIES SEP. OP. ELARABY )

customary rule of international law as embodied in General Assembly
resolution 3314 (XXIX).

18. Thus it was my expectation that the Court’s dicta in the Nicaragua

case, even if construed as obiter would be followed in the instant case by
qualifying the grave use of force by Uganda as amounting to aggression.
Rarely if ever has the Court been asked to pronounce upon a situation
where such grave violations of the prohibition of the use of force have
been committed. This makes it all the more important for the Court to

consider the question carefully and — in the light of its dicta in the Nica-
ragua case — to respond positively to the Democratic Republic of the
Congo’s allegation that Ugandan armed activities against and on its
territory amount to aggression and constitute a breach of its obligations
under international law.

19. The consistency of the Court’s dicta and holdings should be
observed and maintained. It is appropriate to point out that the consist-

ency of the case law practice and jurisprudence of the Court is not con-
fined to the dispositif of the judgments. Shabtai Rosenne noted that there
is “general desire for consistency and stability in the Court’s case-law
when the Court is dealing with legal issues which have been before it in
previous cases” (The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-

1996, Vol. III, Procedure, 1997, p. 1610).
The Court has emphasized this point in the case concerning the
Continental Shelf by noting that

“the justice of which equity is an emanation, is not abstract justice

but justice according to the rule of law; which is to say that its appli-
cation should display consistency and a degree of predictability;
even though it looks with particularity to the peculiar circumstances
of an instant case, it also looks beyond it to principles of more

general application” (Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/
Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985 , p. 39, para. 45).

As a general rule, such consistency has hitherto been maintained. On this

point, Judge Shahabuddeen remarked, the Court’s “jurisprudence has
developed in the direction of a strong tendency to adhere closely to pre-
vious holdings” (Precedent in the World Court , 1996, p. 238).

20. As remarked at the outset, I concur with the Court’s findings in the
present case, including its finding relating to the use of force. I am
unable, however, to appreciate any compelling reason for the Court to
refrain from finding that Uganda’s actions did indeed amount to aggres-
sion. The International Court of Justice has not been conceived as a

penal court, yet its dicta have wide-ranging effects in the international

168 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. ELARABY ) 332

déterminer si l’emploi à outrance de la force par l’Ouganda tombait sous

le coup de la règle coutumière de droit international consacrée par la
résolution 3314 (XXIX) de l’Assemblée générale.
18. Je m’attendais dès lors à ce que les dicta de la Cour en l’affaire
Nicaragua, même s’ils s’interprètent comme des déclarations incidentes
(obiter), aient pour conséquence qu’en l’espèce le grave emploi de la

force par l’Ouganda soit considéré comme équivalant à une agression. La
Cour a rarement, sinon jamais, eu à se prononcer sur une situation où des
violations de l’interdiction de l’emploi de la force d’une telle gravité ont
été commises. Aussi était-il d’autant plus important qu’elle examinât la
question avec soin et — à la lumière de ses dicta en l’affaire Nicaragua —

fît droit à l’allégation de la République démocratique du Congo selon
laquelle les activités armées de l’Ouganda sur son territoire et contre
celui-ci équivalent à une agression et, partant, constituent un manque-
ment par l’Ouganda aux obligations qui lui incombent en vertu du droit

international.
19. La cohérence des dicta et des décisions de la Cour devrait être res-
pectée et préservée. Il convient de souligner que la cohérence dans les
décisions précédentes et la jurisprudence de la Cour ne se limite pas au
dispositif des arrêts. Shabtai Rosenne a relevé qu’il existait un «souhait

général qu’il y ait cohérence et continuité dans la jurisprudence de la
Cour lorsque celle-ci examine des questions juridiques dont elle a eu à
connaître dans des affaires antérieures» (The Law and Practice of the
International Court, 1920-1996 , vol. III, Procedure, 1997, p. 1610).
La Cour a insisté sur ce point dans l’affaire du Plateau Continental en

indiquant que

«la justice, dont l’équité est une émanation, n’est pas la justice abs-
traite, mais la justice selon la règle de droit; autrement dit son appli-
cation doit être marquée par la cohérence et une certaine prévisibi-

lité; bien qu’elle s’attache plus particulièrement aux circonstances
d’une affaire donnée, elle envisage aussi, au-delà de cette affaire, des
principes d’une application plus générale» (Plateau continental
(Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1985 ,p.39,
par. 45).

D’une façon générale, cette cohérence a jusqu’à présent été préservée. Sur
ce point, le juge Shahabuddeen a fait observer que «la jurisprudence
a[vait] clairement évolué vers une tendance très marquée d’un respect
strict des décisions antérieures» (Precedent in the World Court , 1996,

p. 238).
20. Ainsi que je l’ai précisé au début de la présente opinion, je souscris
aux conclusions de la Cour en l’espèce, y compris à celle relative à
l’emploi de la force. Je ne parviens néanmoins pas à comprendre pour
quelle raison péremptoire la Cour s’est abstenue de dire que les actions de

l’Ouganda équivalaient bel et bien à une agression. Quoique la Cour
internationale de Justice n’ait pas été conçue comme une cour pénale, ses

168333 ARMED ACTIVITIES SEP .OP. ELARABY )

community’s quest to deter potential aggressors and to overcome the cul-
ture of impunity. Given the centrality of the claim of aggression to the
Democratic Republic of the Congo’s Application as well as the serious-

ness of the violation of the use of force in the present case and the
broader importance of repressing aggression in international relations, I
have appended this separate opinion to respond fully to the Democratic

Republic of the Congo’s submission on this point.

(Signed) Nabil E LARABY .

169 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. ELARABY ) 333

dicta n’en ont pas moins une portée considérable sur les efforts de la

communauté internationale visant à dissuader de potentiels agresseurs et
à mettre fin à la culture de l’impunité. Compte tenu du caractère central
qu’occupe la thèse de l’agression dans la requête de la République démo-

cratique du Congo, de la gravité de la violation de l’interdiction de
l’emploi de la force commise en la présente affaire ainsi que, plus géné-
ralement, de l’importance qu’il y a à réprimer les actes d’agression dans
les relations internationales, j’ai joint la présente opinion individuelle à

l’arrêt afin de répondre pleinement à la conclusion soumise par la Répu-
blique démocratique du Congo sur ce point.

(Signé) Nabil E LARABY .

169

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Separate opinion of Judge Elaraby

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