Dissenting opinion of President Schwebel

Document Number
088-19980227-JUD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
088-19980227-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF PRESIDENT SCHWEBEL

1regret that 1am unable to agree with the Judgment of the Court. It is
arguable that the challenge of the Respondent to the jurisdiction of the
Court should not carry. But the reasons so terselystated by the Court are
conclusory rather than elucidatory, and, at most, are barely persuasive in
a subsidiary respect. In my view, the Court's conclusions on the admis-
sibilityof Libya'sApplication, and as to whether it has become moot, are
unpersuasive.

The question of whether the Court has jurisdiction over a dispute
between the Parties under the Montreal Convention for the Suppression

of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation depends on the
resolution of antecedent questions. Does the Montreal Convention apply
to the facts at issue in the current case? If its, do the positions of the
Parties in this case giverise to a dispute under the Convention?

The Preamble to the Convention declares its purpose to be that of
"deterring" unlawful acts against the safety of civil aviation and provid-
ing appropriate measures for punishment of offenders. Article 10 pro-
vides that contracting States shall "endeavour to take al1 practicable
measure for the purpose of preventing the offences mentioned in Ar-
ticle1". Article 12provides that any contracting State having reason to
believeone of the offencesmentioned in Article 1will becommitted shall
furnish relevant information to other States concerned. These provisions
may be interpreted to imply that the Convention does not apply to alle-
gationsagainstpersons accused of destroying an aircraft who are claimed,
as in the instant case, to be acting as agents of a contracting State. Or, if
that implication is too extended, those provisions of the Montreal Con-
vention suggest that the Convention would hardly have deterrent effectif

the State accused of having directed the sabotage were the only State
competent to prosecute the persons accused of the act. At the same time,
Article 1 of the Convention capaciously provides that, "Any person"
commits an offence under the Convention if he performs an act there-
after listed. Moreover, Libya has not accepted that the accused were
agents of its Government.
If it be assumed that the Convention does apply to persons allegedly
State agents who are accused of destroyingan aircraft, the question thenarises whether there is a dispute between Libya and the Respondent

under the Convention.
It is difficult to show, and in its Judgment the Court in my view does
not show (as contrasted with concluding), that the Respondent can be in
violation of provisions of the Montreal Convention, with the possible
exception of Article 11 ; the Court does not show that there is a dispute
between the Parties over such alleged violations. The Convention in the
circumstances of the caseimposesmultipleobligations on Libya. None of
the articles of the Convention invoked by Libya in the circumstances of
this case imposes obligations on the Respondent (as demonstrated by
Sir Robert Jennings in his dissenting opinion). At most, it might be
maintained that there is a dispute over breach of an obligation under
Article 11, which provides in paragraph 1 that,

"Contracting States shall afford one another the greatest measure
of assistance in connection with criminal proceedings brought in
respect of the offences.The law of the State requested shall apply in
al1cases."

The Respondent, the State requested,has provided Libya with the indict-
ment, but, in reliance upon the resolutions of the SecurityCounciland its
own law, has not, despite Libyan requests, done more. If in fact Libya
has brought criminal proceedings against the accused, there is arguable
ground for allegingthe existenceof a dispute under Article 11, though in
truth the dispute is over the force of the Security Council's resolutions.

The Court principally relies, in upholdingjurisdiction, on its unexpli-
cated conclusion that, in view of the positions of the Parties, there exists
between them a dispute regarding the interpretation and application of

Article 7. Article 7 provides:
"The Contracting State in the territory of which the alleged
offender is found shall, if it does not extradite him, be obliged, with-
out exception whatsoever and whether or not the offence was com-
mitted on its territory, to submitthe caseto itscompetent authorities
for the purpose of prosecution. Those authorities shall take their
decisionin the samemanner as in the case of any ordinary offenceof

a serious nature under the law of that State."
The Respondent has not disputed Libya's obligation to prosecute the
accused under Article 7 if Libya does not extradite them. It rather main-
tains that Libya is obliged by the superveningresolutions of the Security
Council to surrender the accused for trial in the United States or the
United Kingdom. Libya challenges this reading of the resolutions of the

Security Council and contends that, if it is the right reading, the resolu-
tions of the Security Council are unlawful and ultra vires.That is to say,
there is no dispute between the Parties in this regard under Article 7 of
the Montreal Convention. There is a dispute over the meaning, legalityand effectivenessof the pertinent resolutions of the SecurityCouncil. The
latter dispute may not be equated with the former. Consequentlyit does
not fa11within thejurisdiction of the Court under Article 14of the Mon-

treal Convention, which confinesthe Court's jurisdiction to "Any dispute
between two or more Contracting States concerningthe interpretation or
application of this Convention . . ."Libya's complaint that the Security
Council has acted unlawfully can hardly be a claim under the Montreal
Convention falling within the jurisdiction of the Court pursuant to that
Convention.

The Court holds that there is a further, overarching dispute between
the Parties, because

"the Parties differ on the question whether the destruction of the
Pan Am aircraft over Lockerbie is governed by the Montreal Con-
vention. A dispute thus exists between the Parties as to the legal
régimeapplicable to this event. Such a dispute, in the view of the
Court, concerns the interpretation and application of the Montreal
Convention, and in accordance with Article 14,paragraph 1,of the
Convention, falls to be decided by the Court." (Judgrnent, para. 25.)

That holding is not without forma1 force. But, as in this case, it lends
itselftoundue extension of thejurisdiction of the Court. If two States are
parties to a treaty affordingjurisdiction to the Court in disputes over its
interpretation or application, is there a dispute under the treaty merely
because one party so maintains - or maintains that the treaty constitutes
the governing legal régime - while the other denies it?

It is in any event obvious that the Montreal Convention cannot afford
the Court jurisdiction over Libya's submission that the Respondent

"isunder a legal obligation to respect Libya's right not to have the
Convention set aside by means which would in any case be at vari-
ance with the principles of the United Nations Charter and with the
mandatory rules of general international law prohibiting the use of
force and the violation of the sovereignty, territorial integrity,sov-
ereign equality and political independence of States" (Memorial of
Libya, Submissions, p. 242, para. 8.1 (d)).

Disputes under the Montreal Convention do not import those arising
under the Charter and customary international law. Yet the Court's
holding on this submission is equivocal. While it states that it cannot
uphold the Respondent's objection, at the same time it confines the
Court's jurisdiction to actions alleged to be at variance with the provi-
sions of the Montreal Convention.
Finally, in respect of jurisdiction, the Court observes that SecurityCouncil resolutions 748 (1992) and 883 (1993) were adopted after the
filing of Libya's Application on 3 March 1992.It holds that, in accord-

ancewith its establishedjurisprudence,if the Court had jurisdiction on that
date, it continues to do so; subsequentadoption of the SecurityCouncil's
resolutions cannot affect its jurisdiction once established. That holding
by its terms does not resolve whether, on 3 March 1992,the Court had
jurisdiction. For the reasons set out above, the conclusion that it did is
dubious.
Moreover, the cases on which the Court relies in so holding hardly
seem to apply to the instant situation. The question at issue in the rele-
vant phase of the Nottebohm case was whether, where jurisdiction had
been established at the date of the application by Declarations under the
Optional Clause, it could be disestablished by subsequent lapse of a Dec-
laration by expiry or denunciation. Inevitably the Court held that it
could not. In the caseconcerning Right of Passage overIndian Territory,
the Court concordantly held that,

"It is arule of law generally accepted, as wellas one actedupon in
the past by the Court,that, once the Court has been validlyseisedof
a dispute,unilateral action by the respondent State in terminatingits
Declaration . . cannot divest the Court of jurisdiction." (Right of
Passage over Indian Territory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 142.)

Nothing of the kind at issue in either of those cases is pertinent to the
instant case. There is no question of the Respondent unilaterally taking
action that purports to denounce the Montreal Convention or to excise
Article 14 thereof. Rather the Security Council has taken multilateral
action in pursuance of its Charter powers by adopting resolution 748
(1992) which, as the Court held at the provisional measures stage of this
case, both Libya and the Respondent, "as Members of the United
Nations, are obliged to accept and carry out . . .in accordance with
Article 25 of the Charter" (I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 15). The Court
then held that, "in accordance with Article 103of the Charter, the obli-
gations of the Parties in that respect prevail over their obligationsnder
any other international agreement, including the Montreal Convention"
(ibid.). That is no less true in 1998than it was in 1992.

In its Judgment on jurisdiction and admissibility of 11 July 1996 in
Application of the Conventionon the Prevention andPunishment of the
Crime of Genocide, the Court held that, "It is the case that the jurisdic-
tion of the Court must normally be assessed on the date of the filing of
the act instituting proceedings." (I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 613, para. 26.)
This most recent holding on the question imports that what is normal is
not invariable; there is room for special treatment of the abnormal. The
instant case, in which the Applicant challenges the legality and applica-bility to it of resolutions of the Security Council adopted to deal with
what the Council held to be a threat to international peace, surely is one
to be treated in the exceptional way to which the Court opened the door
in 1996.

The Respondent objects to the admissibility of Libya's claims inreli-
ance upon SecurityCouncilresolutions 748 (1992)and 883(1993),which,
having been adopted under Chapter VI1of the Charter, are binding and
govern the Montreal Convention by virtue of Article 103of the Charter.
It maintained that the Court is not empowered to overturn the decisions
of the Security Council and certainly is not authorized to overturn the
Council'sdetermination under Chapter VI1of the existenceof a threat to
the peace and its choice of measures to deal with the threat. Libya,
among other arguments, invoked the Court's holding in Border and
Transborder Armed Actions that, "The critical date for determining the
admissibility of an application is the date on which it is filed (cf. South
West Africa, Preliminary Objections, 1.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344)"
(Borderand TransborderArmed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Juris-
diction and Admissibility, IC. J. Reports 1988, p. 95).

In its Judgment, the Court upholds this submission of Libya, declaring
that,
"The date, 3 March 1992,on which Libya filed its Application, is
in fact the only relevant date for determiningthe admissibility of the
Application. Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)
cannot be taken into consideration in this regard since they were
adopted at a later date." (Para. 44.)

It is solely on this ground that the Court dismisses the Respondent's
objection to the admissibility of the Application. It is solely on this
ground that the Court finds it right, at this stage of the proceedings, to
put aside resolutions of the Security Council adopted to deal with what
the Council has found to be acts of international terrorism that constitute
threats to international peace and security. ("Acts", ratherhan the atro-
cious act of destroying the aircraft of Pan American flight 103,not only
because Libyanagents are allegedby French authorities to have destroyed

Union de transports aériensflight 772 on 19 September 1989, another
atrocity addressed by the Security Council in resolutions 731 (1992),748
(1992) and 883 (1993). That allegation has led French juge d'instruction
Jean-Louis Bruguière,after extensiveinvestigation completed on 29 Janu-
ary 1998,to cal1for trial of six alleged Libyan secret service or former
secret service agents, including a brother-in-law of Colonel Qaddafi (a
trial which, under French law, can take place in absentia) (Le Monde,
31 January 1998, p. 11). The Security Council also has chosen to actunder Chapter VI1of the Charter in view of its broader determination in
resolution 748 (1992) "that the failure by the Libyan Government to
demonstrate by concrete actions its renunciation of terrorism and in par-
ticular itscontinued failure to respond fullyand effectivelyto the requests
in resolution 731 (1992) constitute a threat to international peace and

security" .)

In my view, the holding of the Court is, on the facts of this case, even
less persuasive in respect of admissibilitythan it is in respect of jurisdic-
tion. It may be recalled that, in customary international law, the admis-
sibility of a claim espoused by a State, under the rule of nationality of
claims, is determined not as of the date of filing but as of the date of
judgment. It may also be observed that the whole basis on which the
Court in 1992proceeded in approving its Order rejecting the provisional
measures sought by Libya was that of the applicability,as of the date of
its Order, of Security Council resolution 748 (1992), adopted after the
date of the filingof Libya'sApplication and Libya'srequest for the indi-
cation of provisional measures.

There is little in the legal literature on the question of whether, in the
jurisprudence of the Court, admissibility must be assessedas of the date
of application, perhaps because the quoted holding of the Court in the
case concerning Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v.

Honduras) is the only such general holding of the Court. In the latest
edition of his magisterialwork, Shabtai Rosenne writes that the date of
the filingof the act instituting the proceedings is the date "by referenceto
which the existence of the dispute and the admissibility of the case are
normally determined . .." (The Law and Practice of the International
Court, 1920-1996, Vol. II, pp. 521-522). That appraisal leaves room for
not necessarilydetermining admissibilityas of the date of the application.

The Court's holding in the Border and Transborder Armed Actions
case referred to its prior holding in the South West Africa cases. In those
cases, as well as in Border and TransborderArmed Actions, the issue was
not generally whether admissibility of an application is determined as of
the date of the application but specificallywhether an alleged impossibil-
ity of settling the dispute by negotiation could only refer to the time when
the applications were filed. (South West Africa, Preliminary Objections,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344; Border and Transborder Armed Actions
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 95. See also to similar effect, Right of Passage

over ZndianTerritory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1957, p. 148.)The utility of determining that question as of the date of
the filingof the application is clear. But whether it follows that, generally
and in al1cases, the admissibility of an application is to be determinedas
of the date of its filing,is not so clear. It may indeed be asked whether the
Court's apparently general holding in Border and Transborder ArmedActions is meant to have the comprehensive force which the Court
assigns to it in this case, in view of the restricted concern of the Court in
that and the other cases cited.

Moreover, the following lines of that Judgment significantly qualify
the sweep of the first sentence of the paragraph. It is instructive touote
the first sentence in the context of the following sentences:

"The critical date for determiningthe admissibility of an applica-
tion is the date on which it is filed (cf. South West Africa, Prelimi-
nary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344). It may however be
necessary, in order to determine with certainty what the situation
was at the date of filing of the Application, to examine the events,
and in particular the relations between the Parties, over a period
prior to that date, and indeed during the subsequent period.
Furthermore, subsequent events may render an application

without object, or even take such a course as to preclude the filing
of a later application in similar tenns." (I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 95,
para. 66.)
In the case before the Court, it is precisely such "subsequent events",
namely adoption by the Security Council of resolutions 748 (1992) and
883 (1993), that render Libya's Application "without object", that is to
say, moot. Accordingly anyjudgment by the Court could have no lawful
effecton the rights and obligations of the Parties in light of the Council's
binding decisions and would thus not be within the proper judicial func-
tion of the Court.

In the case concerning Northern Cameroons,the Court declared:
"The function of the Court is to state the law, but it may pro-
nouncejudgment only in connection with concrete caseswhere there
existsat the time of the adjudication an actual controversy involving
a conflict of legal interests between the parties. The Court's judg-
ment must have some practical consequence in the sense that it can
affect existing legal rights or obligations of the parties, thus remov-
ing uncertainty from their legalrelations. No judgment on the merits
in this case could satisfy these essentials of the judicial function."

(Northern Cameroons, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1963, pp. 33-34.)
The Court concluded :

"The Court must dischargethe duty to which it has already called
attention - the duty to safeguard the judicial function. Whether or
not at the moment the Application was filedthere wasjurisdiction in
the Court to adjudicate upon the dispute submitted to it, circum-
stances that have sincearisen render any adjudication devoid of pur- pose. Under these conditions, for the Court to proceed further in the
case would not, in its opinion, be a proper discharge of its duties."
(1.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 38.)
In the two cases on Nuclear Tests, the Court held:

"The Court, as a court of law, is called upon to resolve existing
disputes between States. Thus the existence of a dispute is the pri-
mary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function; it is
not sufficient for one party to assert that there is a dispute, since
'whether there exists an international dispute is a matter for objec-
tive determination' by the Court ... The dispute brought before it
must therefore continue to exist at the time when the Court makes
its decision. It must not fail to take cognizance of a situation in
which the disputehas disappeared ... al1the necessaryconsequences
must be drawn from this finding.

Thus the Court concludes that, the dispute having disappeared,
the claim advanced ... no longer has any object. It follows that any
further finding would have no raison d'être.

The Court therefore sees no reason to allow the continuance of
proceedings which it knows are bound to be fruitless.

The object of the claim having clearly disappeared, there is
nothing on which to give judgment." (Nuclear Tests (Australia
v. France), I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270-272, paras. 55-56, 58-59.
See also Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Z.C.J. Reports
1974, pp. 476-477,paras. 58-59, 61-62.)

It follows that, in the case now before the Court, the Court should
have held Libya's claimsto be inadmissible, or at any rate moot, on the
ground that the issues between it and the Respondent have been deter-
mined by decisions of the Security Council which bind the Parties and
which, pursuant to Article 103of the Charter, prevail over any rights and
obligations that Libya and the Respondent have under the Montreal
Convention. If the Court had done so, it would have removed a pro-
longed challenge to the exercise by the Security Council of its Charter
responsibilities and presumably promoted Libya's compliance with its
obligations, under Article 25 of the Charter, "to accept and carry out the
decisionsof the SecurityCouncil in accordance with the present Charter".

However, the Court's Judgment holds that it may not so determine at
this stage of the proceedings because of the terms of Article 79 of theRules of Court. That article provides that its judgment on preliminary
objections, whether they be to the jurisdiction or to the admissibility of
the application, "or other objection the decision upon which is requested

before any further proceedings on the merits", shall either uphold the
objection, reject it, "ordeclare that the objection does not possess, in the
circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character". The
Court concludes that the objection that Libya's claimsare without object
constitutes in many respects the very subject-matter of any judgment on
the merits and, hence, sinceit does not possess an exclusivelypreliminary
character, must be remitted to the stage of the merits.

In my view, the Court's conclusion in this regard is substantial and,
unlike some of its other conclusions, draws support from the reasoning
and authority set out in the Judgment. But is the Court's conclusion7
however plausible, compelling?
1do not find it so for these reasons. The Court takes an absolute view
of an admittedly absolute term, "exclusively". It holds that the Respon-

dent's objections are not exclusivelypreliminary in character. But it will
be the rare preliminary objection that actually is exclusivelypreliminary
in character. This will especially be so if the wide construction given by
the Court in the current case to the meaning of "exclusively"is followed
in future cases. The fact that a preliminary objection, if upheld, will dis-
pose of the merits of the case in thesenseof preventing a hearing of them
proves nothing; al1preliminary objections, if sustained, have this effect.
More than this, Article 79qualifiesthe conclusion that the objection does
not possess an exclusively preliminary character by specifying that it
"does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypre-
liminary character". In the circumstances of this case, concerned as it is
or should be with jurisdiction under the Montreal Convention - and
there isno other ground for jurisdiction - a plea that the case should not
proceed to a consideration of the merits of rights and obligations under

the Montreal Convention because resolutions of the Security Council
render such consideration without object must be treated as a plea of an
exclusivelypreliminary character.

It may be added that, in the circumstances of this case, the Parties have
extensively argued elements of the case which the Court now remits to
the merits as part of the very subject-matter of the merits (as indeed the
Parties did at the stage of provisional measures). Presumably they did so
by dint of construction of paragraph 6 of Article 79 of the Rules, which
provides that,

"In order to enable the Court to determine its jurisdiction at the

preliminarystage of the proceedings, the Court, whenever necessary,
may request the parties to argue al1questions of law and fact, and to
adduce al1evidence, which bear on the issue."They rnay also have had regard to the first paragraph of Article 79,which
speaks of any other objectionthe decisionupon which isrequested before
any "further" proceedings on the merits. The Court made no effort to
limit the arguments of the Parties embracing elements of what it now
treats as the merits.1do not think that the Court need now require, as it

does require, the Parties to argue these elements once more - actually,
for a third time - before it passes upon them and disposes of these
objections. To have done so at this stage the Court needed neither the
resolution of disputed facts nor the consideration of further evidence.To
have ruled on the question of whether the resolutions of the Security
Council render Libya's invocation of the Montreal Convention moot
would not have entailed adjudicating the merits of the case in so far as it
relates to what rnay be within the jurisdiction of the Court under the
Montreal Convention. Important questions which rnay arise on the mer-
its would in any event remain unaddressed, such as the propriety of the
trial of the suspects in the United States or in the United Kingdom.

The Court's decision in effect to join the preliminary objections to the
merits, a decision based essentiallyupon its literal construction of a word
of a Rule of Court, does not appear consistent with the design of the
Court in amending the Rules of Court in 1972.It has regrettable if un-
intended results, the least of which is requiring the Parties to argue, and
the Court to hear, arguments on those objections, or some of those objec-
tions, for a third time. It will prolong a challenge to the integrity and
authority of the SecurityCouncil. It rnay be taken as providing excusefor
continued defianceof the Council'sbinding resolutions. It rnay be seenas
prejudicing an important contemporary aspect of the Council'sefforts to
maintain international peace and security by combatting State-sponsored
international terrorism. Justice for the victims of an appalling atrocity
rnay be further delayed anddenied. The Court rnay have opened itself,
not only in this but in future cases, to appearing to offer to recalcitrant

Statesa means to parry and frustrate decisions of the Security Council by
way of appeal to the Court.

That last spectre raises the question of whether the Court is em-
poweredto exercisejudicial reviewof the decisionsof the SecurityCouncil,
a question as to which 1 think it right to express my current views. The
Court isnot generallyso empowered, and it isparticularly without power
to overrule or undercut decisions of the Security Council made by it in
pursuance of its authority under Articles 39, 41and 42of the Charter to

determinethe existenceof any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, oract of aggression and to decide upon responsive measures to be taken to
maintain or restore international peace and security.

The Court more than once has disclaimed possessing a power of judi-
cial review. In its Advisory Opinion in the case concerning Certain
Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Char-
ter), the Court declared :

"In the legal systems of States, there is often some procedure for
determining the validity of even a legislative or governmental act,
but no analogous procedure is to be found in the structure of the
United Nations. Proposals made during the drafting of the Charter
to place the ultimate authority to interpret the Charter in the Inter-
national Court of Justice were not accepted; the opinion which the
Court is in course of rendering is anadvisory opinion. As anticipated
in 1945,therefore, each organ must, in the first place at least, deter-

mine its own jurisdiction. If the Security Council, for example,
adopts a resolution purportedly for the maintenance of international
peace and security and if, in accordance with a mandate or authori-
zation in such resolution, the Secretary-General incurs financial obli-
gations, these amounts must be presumed to constitute 'expensesof
the Organization'." (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 168.)

In its Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequencesfor States of the Con-
tinued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) not-
withstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), the Court reiter-
ated that: "Undoubtedly, the Court does not possess powers of judicial
review or appeal in respect of the decisions taken by the United Nations
organs concerned." (I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 45.)
It should be noted that the Court made these holdings in advisory pro-
ceedings, in which the Security Council and the General Assembly are
entitled to request the Court's opinion "on any legal question". The
authority of the Court to respond to such questions, and, in the course of
so doing, to pass upon relevant resolutions of the Security Council and
General Assembly, is not disputed. Nevertheless, if the Court could hold
asit did in advisory proceedings, afortiori in contentious proceedings the
Court can hardly be entitled to invent, assert and apply powers ofjudicial
review.

While the Court so far has not had occasion in contentious proceed-
ingsto pass upon an allegedauthority tojudicially reviewdecisionsof the
Security Council, it may be recalled that in Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and againstNicaragua the Court observed that :

"The Court is not asked to say that the Security Councilwaswrong

in its decision,nor that there wasanything inconsistentwith law inthe
wayin whichthe membersof the Council employedtheir right to vote. The Court is askedto passjudgment oncertain legalaspectsof a situa-
tion which has also been considered by the Security Council, a pro-
cedurewhichisentirelyconsonantwithitspositionasthe principaljudi-
cial organ of the United Nations." (Military and Paramilitary Activi-
ties in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, p. 436.)

The implication of this statement is that, if the Court had been asked by
the Applicant to say that the SecurityCouncilhad been wrong in its deci-
sion, the Court would have reached another conclusion.
The texts of the Charter of the United Nations and of the Statute of
the Court furnish no shred of support for a conclusion that the Court
possesses a power of judicial review in general, or a power to supervene
the decisions of the Security Council in particular. On the contrary, by
the absence of any such provision, and by accordingthe SecurityCouncil
"primary responsibility for t e maintenance of international peace and
security", the Charter and th ! Statute import the contrary. So extraordi-
nary a power as that ofjudicial reviewis not ordinarily to be implied and
never has been on the international plane. If the Court were to generate
such a power, the Security Council would no longer be primary in its
assigned responsibilities, because if the Court could overrule, negate,
modify - or, as in this case, hold as proposed that decisions of the Secu-
rity Council are not "opposable" to the principal object State of those
decisions and to the object of its sanctions - it would be the Court and
not the Council that would exercise, or purport to exercise, the disposi-
tive and hence primary authority.

The drafters of the Charter above al1resolved to accord the Security
Council alone extraordinary powers. They did so in order to further

realization of the firsturpose of the United Nations,
"To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to
take effectivecollectivemeasures for the ~revention and removal of
threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or
other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means,
and in conformity with the principles of justice and international
law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations
which might lead to a breach of the peace."

Article 24 thus provides :
"1. In order to ensure prompt and effectiveaction by the United
Nations, its Members confer on the SecurityCouncilprimary respon-
sibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and
agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the
Security Council acts on their behalf.
2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act in
accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United
Nations . . ." Article 25 provides that: "The Members of the United Nations agree
to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accord-
ance with the present Charter."
These provisions - the veryheart of the Charter's designfor the main-
tenance of international peace - manifest the plenitude of the powers of
the Security Council, which are elaborated by the provisions of Chapters
VI, VII, and VI11of the Charter. They also demonstrate that the Security
Council is subject to the rule of law; it shall act in accordance with the
Purposes and Principles of the United Nations and its decisionsmust be
adopted in accordance with the Charter.At the same time, as Article 103

imports, it may lawfully decideupon measures which may in the interests
of the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security
derogate from the rights of a State under international law. The first Pur-
pose of the United Nations quoted above also so indicates, for the refer-
ence to the principles of justice and international law designedly relates
only to adjustment or settlement by peaceful means, and not to the tak-
ing of effective collectivemeasures for the prevention and removal of
threats to and breaches of the peace. It was deliberately so provided to
ensure that the vital duty of preventing and removing threats to and
breaches of the peace would not be limited by existing law. (See the
Report on the Preamble, Purposes and Principles, United Nations Con-
ference on International Organization (UNCIO), Vol. 6, pp. 453-454,

and the observations of Lord Halifax, p. 25.)

It does not follow from the facts that the decisions of the Security
Council must be in accordance with the Charter and that the Interna-
tional Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, that the Court is empowered to ensure that the Council's deci-
sions do accord with the Charter. To hold that it does so follow is a
monumental non sequitur, which overlooks the truth that, in many legal
systems,national and international, the subjection of the acts of an organ
to law by no means entails subjection of the legality of its actions to judi-
cial review.In many cases, the systemrelies not upon judicial reviewbut

on self-censorshipby the organ concerned or by its members or on review
by another political organ.
Judicialreviewcould havebeen provided for at San Francisco, in full or
lessermeasure, directlyor indirectly,but both directlyand indirectlyit was
not in any measure contemplatedor enacted. Not only was the Court not
authorizedto bethe ultimateinterpreteroftheCharter,as theCourt acknow-
ledgedin the caseconcerningCertainExpensesof the UnitedNations.Pro-
posalswhich inrestricted measurewould haveaccordedthe Court a degree
of authority, by way ofadvisory proceedings,to pass upon the legalityof
proposed resolutionsof the SecurityCouncilin the sphereof peaceful settle-
ment - what cameto be Chapter VI of the Charter - were not accepted.

What was neverproposed, considered,or, so far as the recordsreveal,even
imagined, was that the International Court of Justice wouldbe entrusted
with, or would develop,a power of judicial reviewat large, or a power tosupervene, modify,negate or confinethe applicabilityof resolutionsof the
SecurityCouncilwhether directlyor in the guiseof interpretation.
That this is understandable, indeed obvious, is the clearer in the light of
the conjunction of political circumstancesat the time that the Charter was
conceived, drafted and adopted. The Charter was largely a concept and
draft of the United States, and secondarily of the United Kingdom; the
other most influential State concerned was the USSR. The United States
was cautious about the endowments of the Court. Recalling the rejection
by the Senate of the United States a decade earlier of adherence to the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, the Department
of State was concerned to assure that nothing in the Charter concerning
the Court, and nothing in the Statute which wasto be an integral part of
the Charter, could prejudicethe givingof adviceand consent by the Senate

to the ratification of the Charter. Thus the Report of the Senate Commit-
tee on Foreign Relationson the United Nations Charter of 16July 1945to
the Senate recommendingratification of the Charter specified:
"The Charter does not permit the Security Council or the General

Assembly to force states to bring cases to the Court, nor does it or
the Statute permit the Court to interfere with the functions of the
Security Council or the General Assembly .. .Your committee rec-
ommends that the Senate acceptthe International Court of Justice in
the form and with the authority set forth in chapter XIV of the
Charter and the annexed Statute of the Court." (United States Sen-
ate, 79th Congress, 1stsession, Executive Report No. 8, "The Char-
ter of the United Nations", republished in United States Senate,
83rd Congress, 2nd session, Document No. 87, "Review of the
United Nations Charter:, A Collection of Documents", 1954,p. 67.)

The British Government which, together with the United States, was
the principal proponent of the creation of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice and which had played a large and constructive part in
respect of that Court, was hardly less cautious in its approach to the
powers of the International Court of Justice, as is illustrated by aquota-
tion from the proceedings of the San Francisco Conference set out below.
As for the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics - a
Government which had been ideologically hostile to the Court since its

creation (as a reading of theEastern Careliacase so vividlyillustrates) -
can it be thought that Stalin, whose preoccupation in the days of San
Francisco was giving the veto power the widest possible reach, could
have assented to the establishment of a Court authorized to possess or
develop the authority to review and Varythe application of resolutions
adopted by the Security Council under Chapter VI1 of the Charter?

At San Francisco, Belgium proposed the following amendment:

"Any State, party to a dispute brought before the Security Coun-
cil, shall have the right to ask the Permanent Court of International Justice whether a recommendation or a decision made by the Coun-
cil or proposed in it infringes on its essential rights. If the Court con-
siders that such rights have been disregarded or are threatened, it is
for the Council either to reconsider the question or to refer the dis-
pute to the Assembly for decision." (UNCIO, Vol. 3, p. 336.)

The purpose of the amendment, the Belgian delegate explained, was to
allow the State concerned to seek an advisory opinion from the Court if
that State believed that a Security Council recommendation infringed
upon its essential rights. It was not in any sense the purpose of the

amendment to limit the legitimate powers of the Security Council (ibid.,
Vol. 12,pp. 48-49).
The Belgian proposa1 gave rise to a mixed reaction, support from
States such as Ecuador and Colombia, and opposition from Great Power
Sponsors of the Conference. The delegate of the Soviet Union

"considered that the Belgian Amendment would have the effect of
weakening the authority of the Council to maintain international
peace and security. If it were possible for a state to appeal from the
Council to the International Court of Justice ... the Council would
find itselfhandicapped in carrying out its functions. In such circum-
stances, the Council might even be placed in a position of being a
defendant before the Court." (Ibid., Vol. 12,p. 49.)

The delegate of the United States explained the importance of the
requirement that the action of the Security Council in dealing with a dis-
pute involvinga threat to the peace be taken "in accordance with the pur-
poses and principles of the Organization". One of the purposes is to bring
about peaceful settlement of disputes "with due regard for principles of
justice and international law". He did not interpret the Proposals as pre-
venting any State from appealing to the International Court of Justice at
any time on any matter which might properly go before the Court. On
the whole, he did not consider the acceptance of the BelgianAmendment
advisable, particularly since he believed that "the Security Council was
bound to act in accordance with the principles of justice and interna-
tional law" (ibid.). (It should be noted that this statement of 17 May
1945antedated revision of the draft of the Charter's Purposes and Prin-
ciples in June to provide that "the principles ofjustice and international
law" relate only to the adjustment or settlement of international disputes
by peaceful means and not to measures of collective security.)

The delegate of France declared that, while he viewed with great
sympathy the ideas in the ~lelgian Arnendment, he was doubtful that
"it would be effective in obtaining its desired end, especially since itinvolved a dispersa1 of responsibilities in the Organization" (UNCIO,
Vol. 12, p. 50).

The delegate of the United Kingdom stated that the adoption of the
Belgian Amendment "would be prejudicial to the success of the Organi-
zation". The amendment would

"result in the decisionby the Court ...of political questionsin addi-
tion to legal questions. The performance of this function by the
Court .. .would seriously impair the successof its role as a judicial
body. Further, the procedures proposed by the amendment would
cause delay, at a time when prompt action by the Security Council
was most desirable. A powerful weapon would thus be placed in the
hands of a state contemplating aggression, and the Council would
not be able to play the part in maintaining peace whichwas intended
for it...he considered it necessary that the Council possessthe trust
and confidenceof al1states; its majority would be composed of small
states, and it would be obligated to act in a manner consistent with
the purposes and principles of the Organization." (Ibid., p. 65.)

After a fewother statements in this vein, the delegate of Belgiumstated
that, since it was now clearly understood that a recornmendation under
what was to become Chapter VI did not possess obligatory effect, he
wished to withdraw his amendment (ibid., p. 66).

Subsequently, the Conference rejected a proposa1 by Belgium to refer
disagreementsbetween organs of the United Nations on interpretation of
the Charter to the Court. The pertinent report concludes:

"Under unitary forms of national government the final determina-
tion of such a question may be vested in the highest court or in some
other national authority. However, the nature of the Organization
and of its operation would not seemto be such asto invite the inclu-
sion in the Charter of any provision of this nature. If two member
states are at variance concerning the correct interpretation of the
Charter, they are of course free to submit the dispute to the Inter-
national Court of Justice as in the case of any other treaty. Similarly,
it would also be open to the General Assembly or to the Security
Council, in appropriate circumstances,to ask theInternational Court
of Justice for an advisory opinion concerning the meaning of a pro-
vision of the Charter." (Ibid., Vol. 13,pp. 668-669.)

It may finally be recalled that, at San Francisco, it was resolved "to
leave to the Council the entire decision, and also the entire responsibility
for that decision, as to what constitutesa threat to peace, a breach of the
peace, or an act of aggression" (ibid., Vol. 11,p. 17). The conclusions to which the travaux préparatoires and text of the
Charter lead are that the Court was not and was not meant to be invested
with a power ofjudicial reviewof the legalityor effectsof decisionsof the
Security Council. Only the Security Council can determine what is a
threat to or breach of the peace or act of aggression under Article 39, and
under Article 39 only it can "decide what measures shall be taken . . to
maintain or restore international peace and security". Two States at vari-
ance in the interpretation of the Charter may submit a dispute to the

Court, but that facility does not empower the Court to set aside or
second-guessthe determinations of the SecurityCouncil under Article 39.
Contentious cases may come before the Court that cal1for its passing
upon questions of law raised by Council decisions and for interpreting
pertinent Council resolutions. But that power cannot be equated with an
authority to review and confute the decisions of the Security Council.

It may of course be maintained that the Charter is a livinginstrument;
that the present-day interpreters of the Charter are not bound by the
intentions of its drafters of50 years ago; that the Court has interpreted
the powers of the United Nations constructively in other respects, and
could take a constructive view of its own powers in respect of judicial
review or some variation of it. The difficulty with this approach is that
for the Court to engraft upon the Charter régimea power to review,and
revisethe reach of, resolutions of the Security Council would not be evo-
lutionary but revolutionary. It would be not a development but a depar-
ture, and a great and grave departure. It would not be a development

even arguably derived from the terms or structure of the Charter and
Statute. It would not be a developmentarising out of customary interna-
tional law, which has no principle of or provision for judicial review. It
would not be a development drawn from the general principles of law.
Judicial review, in varying forms, is found in a number of democratic
polities, most famously that of the United States, where it was developed
by the Supreme Court itself. But it is by no means a universal or even
general principle of government or law. It is hardly found outside the
democratic world and is not uniformly found in it. Where it exists inter-
nationally, as in the European Union, it is expressly provided for by
treaty in specificterms. The United Nations is far from being a govern-
ment, or an international organization comparable in its integration to
the European Union, and it is not democratic.

The conclusion that the Court cannot judicially review or revise the
resolutions of the Security Council is buttressed by the fact that only

States may be parties in cases before the Court. The Security Council
cannot be a party. For the Court to adjudge the legality of the Council'sdecisions in a proceeding brought by one State against another would be
for the Court to adjudicate the Council'srights without givingthe Coun-
cila hearing, which would run counter to fundamental judicial principles.

It would run counter as wellto thejurisprudence of the Court. (Cf. East
Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1995, pp. 100-
105; Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1954, pp. 32-33.)Any suchjudgment could not bind the Council,
because, by the terms of Article 59 of the Statute, the decision of the
Court has no binding force except between the parties and in respect of
that particular case.
At the same time, a judgment of the Court which held resolutions of
the Security Council adopted under Chapter VI1 of the Charter not to
bind or to be "opposable" to a State, despite the terms of Article 25 of
the Charter, would seriously prejudice the effectivenessof the Council's
resolutions and subvert the integrity of the Charter. Such a holding
would be tantamount to a judgment that the resolutions of the Security

Council were ultra vires,at any rate in relation to that State. That could
set the stage for an extraordinary confrontation between the Court and
the SecurityCouncil. It could giverise to the question, is a holding by the
Court that the Council has acted ultra vires a holding which of itself is
ultra vires?
For some 45 years, the world rightly criticizedstalemate in the Security
Council. With the end of the Cold War, the Security Council has taken
great strides towards performing as it was empowered to perform. That
in turn has given rise to the complaint by some Members of the United
Nations that they lack influence over the Council's decision-making.
However understandable that complaint may be, it cannot furnish the
Court with the legal authority to supervene the resolutions of the Secu-
rity Council. The argument that it does is a purely political argument; the
complaints that give rise to it should be addressed to and by the United

Nations in its consideration of the reform of the Security Council. It is
not an argument that can be heard in a court of law.

(Signed) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF PRESIDENT SCHWEBEL

1regret that 1am unable to agree with the Judgment of the Court. It is
arguable that the challenge of the Respondent to the jurisdiction of the
Court should not carry. But the reasons so terselystated by the Court are
conclusory rather than elucidatory, and, at most, are barely persuasive in
a subsidiary respect. In my view, the Court's conclusions on the admis-
sibilityof Libya'sApplication, and as to whether it has become moot, are
unpersuasive.

The question of whether the Court has jurisdiction over a dispute
between the Parties under the Montreal Convention for the Suppression

of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation depends on the
resolution of antecedent questions. Does the Montreal Convention apply
to the facts at issue in the current case? If its, do the positions of the
Parties in this case giverise to a dispute under the Convention?

The Preamble to the Convention declares its purpose to be that of
"deterring" unlawful acts against the safety of civil aviation and provid-
ing appropriate measures for punishment of offenders. Article 10 pro-
vides that contracting States shall "endeavour to take al1 practicable
measure for the purpose of preventing the offences mentioned in Ar-
ticle1". Article 12provides that any contracting State having reason to
believeone of the offencesmentioned in Article 1will becommitted shall
furnish relevant information to other States concerned. These provisions
may be interpreted to imply that the Convention does not apply to alle-
gationsagainstpersons accused of destroying an aircraft who are claimed,
as in the instant case, to be acting as agents of a contracting State. Or, if
that implication is too extended, those provisions of the Montreal Con-
vention suggest that the Convention would hardly have deterrent effectif

the State accused of having directed the sabotage were the only State
competent to prosecute the persons accused of the act. At the same time,
Article 1 of the Convention capaciously provides that, "Any person"
commits an offence under the Convention if he performs an act there-
after listed. Moreover, Libya has not accepted that the accused were
agents of its Government.
If it be assumed that the Convention does apply to persons allegedly
State agents who are accused of destroyingan aircraft, the question then OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. SCHWEBEL, PRÉSIDENT

Je regrette de ne pas pouvoir souscrire à l'arrêt dela Cour. On peut
estimer que le défendeur n'était pafondé à contester la compétencede la
Cour. Mais les motifs énoncésde manière si concisepar la Cour ont un
caractèreplus conclusif qu'explicatif et ne sont guèreconvaincantspour
le moins à l'égardd'un aspect subsidiaire. A mon avis, les conclusions de
la Cour sur la recevabilitéde la requêtede la Libye et sur la question de

savoir si cette requêteest devenue sans objet n'emportent pas la convic-
tion.

La question de savoir si la Cour est compétentepour connaître d'un
différendentre les Parties en vertu de la convention de Montréal pour la
répression d'actesillicites dirigéscontre la sécuritéde l'aviation civile
dépendde la manière dont il sera répondu aux questions préalables sui-
vantes. La convention de Montréals'applique-t-elle aux faits en litige en
l'espèce?Dans l'affirmative, les positions des Etats en l'affairenent-
ellesnaissance à un différenden vertu de la convention?
Selon le préambulede la convention,cet instrument vise à «prévenir»

les actes illicites dirigéscontre la sécuritéde l'aviation civàlprévoir
des mesures appropriées en vue de la punition de leurs auteurs. Aux
termes de l'article10, les Etats contractants ((s'engagenà s'efforcer de
prendre les mesures raisonnables en vue de prévenir les infractions
viséesà l'article premier)).En vertu de l'article 12, tout Etat contractant
qui a lieu de croire que l'une desinfractions prévuesà l'article premier
sera commise fournit tous renseignements utiles aux autres Etats inté-
ressés.On peut interpréter ces dispositions comme écartant l'application
de la convention aux allégations formuléescontre des personnes accusées
d'avoir détruit unaéronef etqui auraient agi, comme en l'espèce, entant
qu'agents d'un Etat contractant. Mais, si'on donne ainsi une interpréta-
tion trop large de ces dispositions, la convention de Montréal n'aurait
guèred'effet préventifsi1'Etataccuséd'avoir ordonnéle sabotage est le
seul Etat compétentpour poursuivre lespersonnes accuséesde cet acte. Il

y a aussi lieu de relever que, aux termes de l'article premier, «toute per-
sonne)) commet une infraction au titre de la convention si elle accomplit
un des actes qui y sont énumérésQ . uoi qu'il en soit, la Libye n'a pas
admisque les personnes accuséessoient des agentsde son gouvernement.
Si l'on suppose que la convention s'applique à des personnes qui
seraient des agents d'un Etat qui sont accusésd'avoir détruitun aéronef,arises whether there is a dispute between Libya and the Respondent

under the Convention.
It is difficult to show, and in its Judgment the Court in my view does
not show (as contrasted with concluding), that the Respondent can be in
violation of provisions of the Montreal Convention, with the possible
exception of Article 11 ; the Court does not show that there is a dispute
between the Parties over such alleged violations. The Convention in the
circumstances of the caseimposesmultipleobligations on Libya. None of
the articles of the Convention invoked by Libya in the circumstances of
this case imposes obligations on the Respondent (as demonstrated by
Sir Robert Jennings in his dissenting opinion). At most, it might be
maintained that there is a dispute over breach of an obligation under
Article 11, which provides in paragraph 1 that,

"Contracting States shall afford one another the greatest measure
of assistance in connection with criminal proceedings brought in
respect of the offences.The law of the State requested shall apply in
al1cases."

The Respondent, the State requested,has provided Libya with the indict-
ment, but, in reliance upon the resolutions of the SecurityCounciland its
own law, has not, despite Libyan requests, done more. If in fact Libya
has brought criminal proceedings against the accused, there is arguable
ground for allegingthe existenceof a dispute under Article 11, though in
truth the dispute is over the force of the Security Council's resolutions.

The Court principally relies, in upholdingjurisdiction, on its unexpli-
cated conclusion that, in view of the positions of the Parties, there exists
between them a dispute regarding the interpretation and application of

Article 7. Article 7 provides:
"The Contracting State in the territory of which the alleged
offender is found shall, if it does not extradite him, be obliged, with-
out exception whatsoever and whether or not the offence was com-
mitted on its territory, to submitthe caseto itscompetent authorities
for the purpose of prosecution. Those authorities shall take their
decisionin the samemanner as in the case of any ordinary offenceof

a serious nature under the law of that State."
The Respondent has not disputed Libya's obligation to prosecute the
accused under Article 7 if Libya does not extradite them. It rather main-
tains that Libya is obliged by the superveningresolutions of the Security
Council to surrender the accused for trial in the United States or the
United Kingdom. Libya challenges this reading of the resolutions of the

Security Council and contends that, if it is the right reading, the resolu-
tions of the Security Council are unlawful and ultra vires.That is to say,
there is no dispute between the Parties in this regard under Article 7 of
the Montreal Convention. There is a dispute over the meaning, legalityla question sepose alors de savoir s'ilexisteun différendentrela Libye et
le défendeur en vertu de la convention.
Il est difficilede démontrer et, selon moi, la Cour ne le démontrepas
dans son arrêt(qui conclut, ce qui est différent)que le défendeurpourrait
avoir violéles dispositionsde la convention de Montréal, sauf peut-être
en ce qui concerne l'article11; la Cour ne démontre pas qu'il existéun
différendentre les Parties sur ces violations alléguées. ans les circons-
tances de l'espèce,la convention impose de multiples obligations à la
Libye. Aucun des articles de la convention invoquéspar la Libye dans les
circonstances de l'espèce n'imposecependant des obligations au défen-
deur (comme le démontre sir Robert Jennings dans son opinion dissi-
dente). On pourrait tout au plus faire valoir qu'il existe un différendsur
le non-respect d'une obligation au titre de l'article 11 dont le para-

graphe 1 dispose que:
«Les Etats contractants s'accordent l'entraide judiciaire la plus
large possible dans toute procédure pénale relativeaux infractions.
Dans tous les cas, la loi applicable pour l'exécutiond'une demande
d'entraide est celle de'Etatrequis.))

Le défendeur, à savoir 1'Etatrequis, a communiqué à la Libye un acte
d'accusation mais, conformémentaux résolutionsdu Conseil de sécurité
et à sa propre législation,il n'a rien fait d'autre, malgréles demandes de
la Libye. Si la Libye avait effectivement engagé despoursuites pénales
contre les accusés,on pourrait alors invoquer l'existenced'un différend
sur la base de l'article11, bien que le différendporte en réalitésur la
valeur des résolutionsdu Conseil de sécurité.
La Cour se fonde principalement, pour établir sa compétence,sur la
conclusion, qu'elle n'explique pas, que compte tenu des positions des

Parties, il existe entre elles un différendconcernant l'interprétation et
l'application de l'article qui est ainsi conçu:
«L'Etat contractant sur le territoire duquel Sauteur présuméde
l'unedes infractions est découvert,s'iln'extrade pas ce dernier, sou-
met l'affaire, sansaucune exception et que l'infraction ait ou non été
commise sur son territoire,a ses autoritéscompétentespour I'exer-

cice de l'action pénale.Ces autorités prennent leur décisiondans les
mêmesconditions que pour toute infraction de droit commun de
caractère grave conformémentaux lois de cet Etat. »
Le défendeur n'apas contesté l'obligation incombant à la Libye de
poursuivre lesaccusésconformément à l'article7si elle ne lesextradepas.
Il soutient cependant que la Libye est tenue, conformément aux résolu-
tions adoptéespar le Conseil de sécuritéà ce sujet, de remettre lesaccusés

pour qu'ils soient jugésaux Etats-Unis ou au Royaume-Uni. La Libye
contesteune telle interprétation des résolutionsdu Conseil de sécurité et
soutient que, si une telle interprétation étaitexacte, les résolutionsdu
Conseil de sécuritéseraienitlliciteset constitueraientun excès de pouvoir.
Il n'y a donc pas de différendentre les Parties à cet égardau titre deand effectivenessof the pertinent resolutions of the SecurityCouncil. The
latter dispute may not be equated with the former. Consequentlyit does
not fa11within thejurisdiction of the Court under Article 14of the Mon-

treal Convention, which confinesthe Court's jurisdiction to "Any dispute
between two or more Contracting States concerningthe interpretation or
application of this Convention . . ."Libya's complaint that the Security
Council has acted unlawfully can hardly be a claim under the Montreal
Convention falling within the jurisdiction of the Court pursuant to that
Convention.

The Court holds that there is a further, overarching dispute between
the Parties, because

"the Parties differ on the question whether the destruction of the
Pan Am aircraft over Lockerbie is governed by the Montreal Con-
vention. A dispute thus exists between the Parties as to the legal
régimeapplicable to this event. Such a dispute, in the view of the
Court, concerns the interpretation and application of the Montreal
Convention, and in accordance with Article 14,paragraph 1,of the
Convention, falls to be decided by the Court." (Judgrnent, para. 25.)

That holding is not without forma1 force. But, as in this case, it lends
itselftoundue extension of thejurisdiction of the Court. If two States are
parties to a treaty affordingjurisdiction to the Court in disputes over its
interpretation or application, is there a dispute under the treaty merely
because one party so maintains - or maintains that the treaty constitutes
the governing legal régime - while the other denies it?

It is in any event obvious that the Montreal Convention cannot afford
the Court jurisdiction over Libya's submission that the Respondent

"isunder a legal obligation to respect Libya's right not to have the
Convention set aside by means which would in any case be at vari-
ance with the principles of the United Nations Charter and with the
mandatory rules of general international law prohibiting the use of
force and the violation of the sovereignty, territorial integrity,sov-
ereign equality and political independence of States" (Memorial of
Libya, Submissions, p. 242, para. 8.1 (d)).

Disputes under the Montreal Convention do not import those arising
under the Charter and customary international law. Yet the Court's
holding on this submission is equivocal. While it states that it cannot
uphold the Respondent's objection, at the same time it confines the
Court's jurisdiction to actions alleged to be at variance with the provi-
sions of the Montreal Convention.
Finally, in respect of jurisdiction, the Court observes that Securityl'article7 de la convention de Montréal, alors qu'il y aun différendentre
elles sur le sens, la licéet l'effetdes résolutions pertinentes du Conseil
de sécurité.Ce dernier différendnesaurait êtreassimiléau premier et ne
relèvedonc pas de la compétencede la Cour en vertu de l'article 14de la
convention de Montréal, qui limite cette compétence à «tout différend
entre des Etats contractants concernant l'interprétation ou l'application
de la présente convention ..» L'affirmation de la Libye selon laquelle le
Conseil de sécuritéaurait agi illicitement ne peut guèreêtreconsidérée
comme un grief formuléau titre de la convention relevant de la compé-

tence de la Cour conformément à cette convention.
La Cour est d'avis qu'il existeun autre différendessentiel entre les
Parties, car
«les Parties s'opposent sur la question de savoir si la destruction de
l'appareil de la Pan Am au-dessus de Lockerbie est régiepar la

convention de Montréal. Il existe donc un différendentre les Parties
sur le régimejuridique applicable à cet événementU . n tel différend
concerne, de l'avis dela Cour, l'interprétationet l'application de la
convention de Montréal, et, conformémentau paragraphe 1 de
l'article 14de la convention, il appartientàla Cour de le trancher. ))
(Arrêt,par. 25.)

Cetteconclusion nemanque pas formellementdevaleur.Mais, en l'espèce,
elletend àétendre indûment lacompétencede la Cour. Sideux Etats sont
parties àun traité prévoyantla compétence dela Cour pour connaître des
différendsconcernant son interprétation ou son application, y aurait-il
un différend envertu du traitédu fait simplement qu'une partie est de cet
avis - ou est d'avis que letraité constituele seul régimejuridique appli-
cable - alors que l'autre partie le conteste?
Il est cependant manifeste que la convention de Montréal ne saurait
donner à la Cour compétencepour se prononcer sur la conclusion de la
Libye selon laquelle le défendeur

«est juridiquement tenu de respecter le droit de la Libye à ce que
cette convention ne soit pas écartée pardes moyens qui seraient au
demeurant en contradiction avec les principes de la Charte des
Nations Unies et du droit international générad l e caractère impéra-
tif qui prohibent l'utilisation de la force et la violation de la souve-
raineté,de l'intégrité territoriale, del'égalisouveraine des Etats et

de leur indépendance politique))(mémoirede la Libye, conclusions,
p. 242, par.8.1 d)).
Il convient toutefois de ne pas confondre les différendsau titre de la
convention de Montréal avec ceux découlant de la Charte et du droit
international coutumier. L'avis de la Cour sur ce point est cependant
équivoquepuisque,tout en affirmant ne pas pouvoir accueillirl'exception

du défendeur,ellelimite sa compétence à des actes qui seraientcontraires
aux dispositions de la convention de Montréal.
La Cour fait finalement observer, au sujet de sa compétence,que leCouncil resolutions 748 (1992) and 883 (1993) were adopted after the
filing of Libya's Application on 3 March 1992.It holds that, in accord-

ancewith its establishedjurisprudence,if the Court had jurisdiction on that
date, it continues to do so; subsequentadoption of the SecurityCouncil's
resolutions cannot affect its jurisdiction once established. That holding
by its terms does not resolve whether, on 3 March 1992,the Court had
jurisdiction. For the reasons set out above, the conclusion that it did is
dubious.
Moreover, the cases on which the Court relies in so holding hardly
seem to apply to the instant situation. The question at issue in the rele-
vant phase of the Nottebohm case was whether, where jurisdiction had
been established at the date of the application by Declarations under the
Optional Clause, it could be disestablished by subsequent lapse of a Dec-
laration by expiry or denunciation. Inevitably the Court held that it
could not. In the caseconcerning Right of Passage overIndian Territory,
the Court concordantly held that,

"It is arule of law generally accepted, as wellas one actedupon in
the past by the Court,that, once the Court has been validlyseisedof
a dispute,unilateral action by the respondent State in terminatingits
Declaration . . cannot divest the Court of jurisdiction." (Right of
Passage over Indian Territory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 142.)

Nothing of the kind at issue in either of those cases is pertinent to the
instant case. There is no question of the Respondent unilaterally taking
action that purports to denounce the Montreal Convention or to excise
Article 14 thereof. Rather the Security Council has taken multilateral
action in pursuance of its Charter powers by adopting resolution 748
(1992) which, as the Court held at the provisional measures stage of this
case, both Libya and the Respondent, "as Members of the United
Nations, are obliged to accept and carry out . . .in accordance with
Article 25 of the Charter" (I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 15). The Court
then held that, "in accordance with Article 103of the Charter, the obli-
gations of the Parties in that respect prevail over their obligationsnder
any other international agreement, including the Montreal Convention"
(ibid.). That is no less true in 1998than it was in 1992.

In its Judgment on jurisdiction and admissibility of 11 July 1996 in
Application of the Conventionon the Prevention andPunishment of the
Crime of Genocide, the Court held that, "It is the case that the jurisdic-
tion of the Court must normally be assessed on the date of the filing of
the act instituting proceedings." (I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 613, para. 26.)
This most recent holding on the question imports that what is normal is
not invariable; there is room for special treatment of the abnormal. The
instant case, in which the Applicant challenges the legality and applica-Conseil de sécuritéa adoptésesrésolutions748(1992)et 883 (1993)après
le dépôtde la requête de laLibye le 3mars 1992.Elleestime que, confor-
mément àsajurisprudence constante, si la Cour était compétenteà cette
date, ellel'estdemeuréeetl'adoption ultérieuredesrésolutionsduConseil
de sécuriténe saurait avoir d'effetsur sa compétenceune fois qu'ellea été
établie.Telle qu'elleest formulée,cette conclusion ne règlecependantpas
la question de savoir si, le 3 mars 1992,la Cour avait bien compétence.
C'est pourquoi il est discutable que la Cour conclue que tel étaitle cas.
De plus, les précédentes affairessur lesquelles la Cour se fondeà cet
effet ne semblent guère s'appliquerà la situation considérée.l s'agissait
en effet, dans la phase pertinente de l'affaireNottebohm, de savoir si, une
fois la compétenceétablie à la date du dépôt dela requête à la suite de
déclarationsfaitesconformément àla clausefacultative, cette compétence
pouvait êtreensuite écartéedu fait de la caducité ultérieure d'déclara-
tion parce qu'elleest venueà expirationou a été dénoncéL e.a Cour a été

inévitablement d'avisque tel ne saurait êtrelecas.Dans l'affairedu Droit
de passage sur territoire indien,la Cour a étéen conséquence d'avis
que :
«C'est unerèglede droit généralement acceptée et appliquéedans
le passépar la Cour qu'une fois la Cour valablement saisie d'un dif-
férend, l'action unilatérale de1'Etat défendeur, dénonçant ...sa

déclaration, ne peut retirer compétenceà la Cour.» (Droit de pas-
sage sur territoire indien, exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,C.I.J.
Recueil 1957, p. 142.)
Mais aucune des questions soulevéesdans ces affaires n'est pertinente en
l'espèce. Le défendeur n'a pris aucune mesure unilatérale tendant à
dénoncerlaconvention de Montréal ou à en retrancher l'article 14.C'est
plutôt le Conseil de sécuritqui a pris des mesures multilatéralesconfor-

mémentaux pouvoirs qui lui sont conféréspar la Charte en adoptant la
résolution748 (1992) que, comme la Cour l'a estiméau stade de la pré-
sente affaire relatif aux mesures conservatoires, tant la Libye que le
défendeur, «en tant que Membres de l'organisation des Nations Unies,
sont dans l'obligation d'accepter et d'applique...conformément à l'ar-
ticle 25 de la Charte)) (C.I.. Recueil 1992, p. 15.) La Cour a alors
affirmé que ((conformément à l'article 103 de la Charte, les obliga-
tions des Partiesà cet égardprévalentsur leurs obligations en vertu de
tout autre accord international, y compris la convention de Montréal»
(ibid.). Cela n'est pas moins vrai en 1998que cela l'étaiten 1992.
Dans l'arrêtqu'ellea rendu le Il juillet 1996dans la phase relative àla
compétence et à la recevabilitéen l'affaire relatiàel'Application dela
conventionpour lapréventionet la répressiondu crime de génocide, la
Cour avait dit que, certes,la compétencede la Cour doit normalement

s'apprécierà la date du dépôt de l'acte introductif d'instance» (C.I.J.
Recueil 1996, p. 613, par. 26). Cette opinion, la plus récente formuléeen
lamatière,sembleindiquer que ce qui est normal n'est pas invariable; et
qu'il serait possible de réserverun traitement particulier aux situationsbility to it of resolutions of the Security Council adopted to deal with
what the Council held to be a threat to international peace, surely is one
to be treated in the exceptional way to which the Court opened the door
in 1996.

The Respondent objects to the admissibility of Libya's claims inreli-
ance upon SecurityCouncilresolutions 748 (1992)and 883(1993),which,
having been adopted under Chapter VI1of the Charter, are binding and
govern the Montreal Convention by virtue of Article 103of the Charter.
It maintained that the Court is not empowered to overturn the decisions
of the Security Council and certainly is not authorized to overturn the
Council'sdetermination under Chapter VI1of the existenceof a threat to
the peace and its choice of measures to deal with the threat. Libya,
among other arguments, invoked the Court's holding in Border and
Transborder Armed Actions that, "The critical date for determining the
admissibility of an application is the date on which it is filed (cf. South
West Africa, Preliminary Objections, 1.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344)"
(Borderand TransborderArmed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Juris-
diction and Admissibility, IC. J. Reports 1988, p. 95).

In its Judgment, the Court upholds this submission of Libya, declaring
that,
"The date, 3 March 1992,on which Libya filed its Application, is
in fact the only relevant date for determiningthe admissibility of the
Application. Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)
cannot be taken into consideration in this regard since they were
adopted at a later date." (Para. 44.)

It is solely on this ground that the Court dismisses the Respondent's
objection to the admissibility of the Application. It is solely on this
ground that the Court finds it right, at this stage of the proceedings, to
put aside resolutions of the Security Council adopted to deal with what
the Council has found to be acts of international terrorism that constitute
threats to international peace and security. ("Acts", ratherhan the atro-
cious act of destroying the aircraft of Pan American flight 103,not only
because Libyanagents are allegedby French authorities to have destroyed

Union de transports aériensflight 772 on 19 September 1989, another
atrocity addressed by the Security Council in resolutions 731 (1992),748
(1992) and 883 (1993). That allegation has led French juge d'instruction
Jean-Louis Bruguière,after extensiveinvestigation completed on 29 Janu-
ary 1998,to cal1for trial of six alleged Libyan secret service or former
secret service agents, including a brother-in-law of Colonel Qaddafi (a
trial which, under French law, can take place in absentia) (Le Monde,
31 January 1998, p. 11). The Security Council also has chosen to actanormales. La présente affaire, où le demandeur conteste la licéitéet
l'applicabilità son égard de résolutionsdu Conseil de sécurité adoptées
pour traiter une situation que le Conseila estiméecommeconstituant une
menace contre la paix internationale, mérite certainement d'être traitée
de la manière exceptionnelleque la Cour a laissé envisager en1996. -

Le défendeur contestela recevabilitédes demandesde la Libyeen invo-
quant les résolutions748 (1992)et 883(1993)du Conseil de sécurité qui,
ayant étéadoptéesau titre du chapitre VI1 de la Charte, seraient obli-
gatoires et primeraient sur la convention de Montréal en vertu de l'ar-
ticle 103de la Charte. Il soutient que la Cour ne saurait annuler les déci-
sionsdu Conseilde sécuritéet n'est certainemenp tas habilitéeàmettre en

cause la constatation faite par le Conseil, conformémentau chapitre VII,
de l'existenced'une menace contre la paix ni son choix de mesures pour
parer à une telle menace. La Libye a invoquéentre autres arguments,
pour sapart, la conclusion de la Cour dans l'affaire relatiàdes Actions
arméesfrontalièreset transfrontalières,selon laquelle «la date critiquà
retenir pour déterminer la recevabilid'une requête estcellede son dépôt
(voir Sud-Ouest africain, exceptions préliminaires,C.I.J. Recueil 1962,
p. 344))) (Actions armées frontalièreset transfrontalières (Nicaragua
c. Honduras), compétenceet recevabilité,C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 95).
Dans son arrêt,la Cour admet cet argument de la Libye en déclarant
que :

«La date du 3 mars 1992 à laquelle la Libye a déposé sa requête
est en effetla seuledate pertinente aux finsd'apprécier la recevabilité
de celle-ci. Les résolutions748 (1992)et 883 (1993) du Conseil de
sécurité nesauraient êtreprises en considérationàcet égarddès lors
qu'ellesont étéadoptées à une date ultérieure.» (Par. 44.)

C'est seulementpour ce motif que la Cour rejette l'exceptiondu défen-
deur à l'égardde la recevabilitéde la requê. 'est seulementpour cemotif
que la Cour estimepouvoir écarter,au stade actuel de l'instance,les réso-
lutions que leConseilde sécuritéa adoptéespour traiterceque le Conseila
considéré comme desactes de terrorisme international constituant des me-
naces pour la paix et la sécuritinternationales. («Desactes)),et non pas
seulement l'acteatroce de destruction de l'appareil dela Pan Am assurant
levol 103,puisque, selonlesautoritésfrançaises,desagents libyensauraient
détruit,le 19 septembre 1989,l'appareil de l'Union de transports aériens
assurant le vol 772, autre atrocitéviséepar le Conseilde sécuridans ses
résolutions731 (1992),748(1992)et 883(1993).Cette allégation a conduit

le juge d'instruction français,M. Jean-Louis Bruguière,aprèsune longue
enquête quis'estachevéele 29janvier 1998, à demander que six agents ou
anciens agents présumésdes servicesde renseignement libyens,dont un
beau-frèredu colonelKadhafi, soient traduits enjustice (ilspeuvent, selon
le droit français, êtrejugéspar contumace) (Le Monde, 31 janvier 1998,under Chapter VI1of the Charter in view of its broader determination in
resolution 748 (1992) "that the failure by the Libyan Government to
demonstrate by concrete actions its renunciation of terrorism and in par-
ticular itscontinued failure to respond fullyand effectivelyto the requests
in resolution 731 (1992) constitute a threat to international peace and

security" .)

In my view, the holding of the Court is, on the facts of this case, even
less persuasive in respect of admissibilitythan it is in respect of jurisdic-
tion. It may be recalled that, in customary international law, the admis-
sibility of a claim espoused by a State, under the rule of nationality of
claims, is determined not as of the date of filing but as of the date of
judgment. It may also be observed that the whole basis on which the
Court in 1992proceeded in approving its Order rejecting the provisional
measures sought by Libya was that of the applicability,as of the date of
its Order, of Security Council resolution 748 (1992), adopted after the
date of the filingof Libya'sApplication and Libya'srequest for the indi-
cation of provisional measures.

There is little in the legal literature on the question of whether, in the
jurisprudence of the Court, admissibility must be assessedas of the date
of application, perhaps because the quoted holding of the Court in the
case concerning Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v.

Honduras) is the only such general holding of the Court. In the latest
edition of his magisterialwork, Shabtai Rosenne writes that the date of
the filingof the act instituting the proceedings is the date "by referenceto
which the existence of the dispute and the admissibility of the case are
normally determined . .." (The Law and Practice of the International
Court, 1920-1996, Vol. II, pp. 521-522). That appraisal leaves room for
not necessarilydetermining admissibilityas of the date of the application.

The Court's holding in the Border and Transborder Armed Actions
case referred to its prior holding in the South West Africa cases. In those
cases, as well as in Border and TransborderArmed Actions, the issue was
not generally whether admissibility of an application is determined as of
the date of the application but specificallywhether an alleged impossibil-
ity of settling the dispute by negotiation could only refer to the time when
the applications were filed. (South West Africa, Preliminary Objections,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344; Border and Transborder Armed Actions
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 95. See also to similar effect, Right of Passage

over ZndianTerritory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1957, p. 148.)The utility of determining that question as of the date of
the filingof the application is clear. But whether it follows that, generally
and in al1cases, the admissibility of an application is to be determinedas
of the date of its filing,is not so clear. It may indeed be asked whether the
Court's apparently general holding in Border and Transborder Armedp. 11).Le Conseil de sécurité a également choisid'agir conformémentau
chapitre VI1de la Charte lorsqu'ila constaté,d'unemanière plus générale,
dans sa résolution748(1992),que «le défaut dela part du Gouvernement
libyen de montrer par des actes concrets sa renonciation au terrorisme et,
en particulier, son manquement continu àrépondrede manière complèteet
effectiveaux requêtes contenuesdans la résolution731 (1992)constituent
une menacepour la paix et la sécuritéinternationales)).)
Sur la base des faitsde la présente affaire, la conclusionde la Cour est,
selon moi. encore moins convaincante en ce aui concerne la recevabilité
qu'a l'égardde la compétence. Il convient de rappeler que, en droit inter-

national coutumier, la recevabilitéd'une demande appuyée par un Etat
doit êtredéterminée, conformément à la règle de la nationalité des
demandes, non pas à la date de son dépôt mais à celle du jugement. Il
convient également d'observerque, dans son ordonnance de 1992reje-
tant les mesures conservatoires demandéespar la Libye, la Cour s'est
entièrementfondéesurl'applicabilité, à la date de cette ordonnance, de la
résolution748 (1992),adoptée par le Conseil de sécuritaprèsla date du
dépôt dela requêtedela Libye et de la demande en indicationde mesures
conservatoires de la Libye. ,
La doctrine est peu abondante sur la question de savoir si, selon la
jurisprudence de la Cour, la recevabilitédoit êtredéterminéeàla date de
la requête,peut-êtreen raison du fait quela conclusion susmentionnéede
la Cour dans l'affaire relative des Actions arméesfrontalièreset trans-

frontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras) est la seule opinion de caractère
généralde la Cour sur ce point. Dans la dernièreéditionde son ouvrage
magistral, Shabtai Rosenne dit que la date du dépôt de l'acte introductif
d'instance est la datepar rapport à laquelle l'existencedu différend et la
recevabilitéde la requête sont normalement déterminées...)) (The Law
and Practice of the International Court,1920-1996,vol. II, p. 521-522).
Selon ce point de vue, il n'y a pas nécessairement lieude déterminerla
recevabilitéà la date de la requête.
Dans la conclusion qu'ellea formuléedans l'affaire relativesActions
armées frontalièreset transfrontalières,a Cour s'estréféré àe la conclu-
sion qu'elleavait expriméedans les affaires duSud-Ouest africain.Dans
cesdernièresaffaires,ainsi que dans la première,il s'agissaitde savoir non

pas, d'une manière généralsei,la recevabilité d'unerequêtedoit être déter-
minée à la date de son dépôt, mais si, spécifiquement, uneprétendue
impossibilité deréglerle différendpar la négociationne pouvait avoir trait
qu'au moment où les requêtes avaientété déposées (Sud-Ouest africain,
exceptionspréliminaires,C.I.J. Recueil 1962,p. 344; Actions arméesfron-
talièreset transfrontalières(Nicaragua c. Honduras), compétenceet rece-
vabilité,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 95. Voir, de manière analogue,
l'affairedu Droit depassagesur territoire indien,exceptionspréliminaires,
arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1957,p. 148.)L'intérêdte déterminercette questionà
la date du dépôt de la requêteest évident.Reste cependant à savoir si,
d'une manière générale et dans tous les cas, la recevabilitéd'une requête
doit êtredéterminée à la date de son dépôt,ce qui n'estpas si évident.OnActions is meant to have the comprehensive force which the Court
assigns to it in this case, in view of the restricted concern of the Court in
that and the other cases cited.

Moreover, the following lines of that Judgment significantly qualify
the sweep of the first sentence of the paragraph. It is instructive touote
the first sentence in the context of the following sentences:

"The critical date for determiningthe admissibility of an applica-
tion is the date on which it is filed (cf. South West Africa, Prelimi-
nary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344). It may however be
necessary, in order to determine with certainty what the situation
was at the date of filing of the Application, to examine the events,
and in particular the relations between the Parties, over a period
prior to that date, and indeed during the subsequent period.
Furthermore, subsequent events may render an application

without object, or even take such a course as to preclude the filing
of a later application in similar tenns." (I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 95,
para. 66.)
In the case before the Court, it is precisely such "subsequent events",
namely adoption by the Security Council of resolutions 748 (1992) and
883 (1993), that render Libya's Application "without object", that is to
say, moot. Accordingly anyjudgment by the Court could have no lawful
effecton the rights and obligations of the Parties in light of the Council's
binding decisions and would thus not be within the proper judicial func-
tion of the Court.

In the case concerning Northern Cameroons,the Court declared:
"The function of the Court is to state the law, but it may pro-
nouncejudgment only in connection with concrete caseswhere there
existsat the time of the adjudication an actual controversy involving
a conflict of legal interests between the parties. The Court's judg-
ment must have some practical consequence in the sense that it can
affect existing legal rights or obligations of the parties, thus remov-
ing uncertainty from their legalrelations. No judgment on the merits
in this case could satisfy these essentials of the judicial function."

(Northern Cameroons, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1963, pp. 33-34.)
The Court concluded :

"The Court must dischargethe duty to which it has already called
attention - the duty to safeguard the judicial function. Whether or
not at the moment the Application was filedthere wasjurisdiction in
the Court to adjudicate upon the dispute submitted to it, circum-
stances that have sincearisen render any adjudication devoid of pur-peut en effetsedemander s'il convient dedonner à la conclusion apparem-
ment générale formulép ear la Cour dans l'affaire relative des Actions
arméesfrontalières ettransfrontalières,la valeur très généraleue la Cour
lui attribue en l'espèce,compte tenu del'intérêt restreint que cetteaffaireet
les autres affaires susmentionnéesprésentaientpour la Cour.
Par ailleurs, le passage qui suit de l'arrêt rendu par la Cour en l'affaire
relativeà des Actions arméesfrontalières et transfrontalièrensuance sen-
siblement la portéegénérale du paragraphe concerné. Il est riche d'ensei-
gnements de citer cette première phrase en mêmetemps que celles qui
suivent:

«La date critique à retenir pour déterminer la recevabilité d'une
requêteest cellede son dépôt(cf. Sud-Ouest africain, exceptionspré-
liminaires,C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 344). Il peut toutefois êtrenéces-
saire, pour détermineravec certitude quelle était la situation à la
date du dépôt de la requête,d'examiner les événementse ,t en parti-
culier lesrelationsentre lesparties,pendant une périodeantérieure à
cette date, voire pendant la périodequi a suivi. En outre, il se peut
que des événements privent ensuite la requêtede son objet ou qu'ils
prennent mêmeune tournure telle qu'une nouvelle requêtene pour-
rait par la suite êtredéposéedans des termes analogues (C.I.J.
Recueil 1988, p. 95, par. 66.)

Dans la présenteaffaire, ce sont précisémentde tels ((événementspos-
térieurs))à savoir l'adoption par le Conseil de sécuritéde ses résolu-
tions 748 (1992)et 883 (1993), qui ont rendu la requêtede la Libye sans
objet, autrement dit moot. En conséquence,aucun arrêtde la Cour ne
saurait avoir d'effetjuridique sur les droits et obligations des Parties eu
égard aux décisionsobligatoiresdu Conseilet ne saurait donc entrer dans
le cadre de la fonction judiciaire propreàla Cour.
Dans l'affaire du Cameroun septentrional,la Cour a déclaré:

«La fonction de la Cour est de dire le droit, mais elle ne peut
rendre des arrêts qu'àl'occasion de cas concrets dans lesquels il
existe, au moment du jugement, un litige réelimpliquant un conflit
d'intérêtjsuridiques entre les parties. L'arrêtde la Cour doit avoir
des conséquencespratiques en ce sens qu'ildoit pouvoir affecter les
droits ou obligations juridiques existants des parties, dissipant ainsi
toute incertitude dans leurs relations juridiques. En l'espèce,aucun
arrêtrendu au fond ne pourrait répondre à ces conditions essen-
tiellesde la fonctionjudiciaire.Camerounseptentrional,exceptions
préliminaires,arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 33-34.)

La Cour a conclu:

«La Cour doit s'acquitter du devoir sur lequel elle a déjà appelé
l'attention et qui consistesauvegarder sa fonction judiciaire. Qu'au
moment où la requête aété déposée lC aour ait eu ou non compé-
tence pour trancher le différendqui lui étaitsoumis, il reste que les
circonstances qui sesont produites depuis lorsrendent toute décision pose. Under these conditions, for the Court to proceed further in the
case would not, in its opinion, be a proper discharge of its duties."
(1.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 38.)
In the two cases on Nuclear Tests, the Court held:

"The Court, as a court of law, is called upon to resolve existing
disputes between States. Thus the existence of a dispute is the pri-
mary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function; it is
not sufficient for one party to assert that there is a dispute, since
'whether there exists an international dispute is a matter for objec-
tive determination' by the Court ... The dispute brought before it
must therefore continue to exist at the time when the Court makes
its decision. It must not fail to take cognizance of a situation in
which the disputehas disappeared ... al1the necessaryconsequences
must be drawn from this finding.

Thus the Court concludes that, the dispute having disappeared,
the claim advanced ... no longer has any object. It follows that any
further finding would have no raison d'être.

The Court therefore sees no reason to allow the continuance of
proceedings which it knows are bound to be fruitless.

The object of the claim having clearly disappeared, there is
nothing on which to give judgment." (Nuclear Tests (Australia
v. France), I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270-272, paras. 55-56, 58-59.
See also Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Z.C.J. Reports
1974, pp. 476-477,paras. 58-59, 61-62.)

It follows that, in the case now before the Court, the Court should
have held Libya's claimsto be inadmissible, or at any rate moot, on the
ground that the issues between it and the Respondent have been deter-
mined by decisions of the Security Council which bind the Parties and
which, pursuant to Article 103of the Charter, prevail over any rights and
obligations that Libya and the Respondent have under the Montreal
Convention. If the Court had done so, it would have removed a pro-
longed challenge to the exercise by the Security Council of its Charter
responsibilities and presumably promoted Libya's compliance with its
obligations, under Article 25 of the Charter, "to accept and carry out the
decisionsof the SecurityCouncil in accordance with the present Charter".

However, the Court's Judgment holds that it may not so determine at
this stage of the proceedings because of the terms of Article 79 of the CONVENTION DE MONTRÉAL DE 1971 (OP. DIS. SCHWEBEL) 71

judiciaire sans objet. La Cour estime dans ces conditions que, si elle
examinait l'affaire plus avant, elle ne s'acquitterait pas des devoirs
qui sont lessiens.))(C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 38.)

Dans les deux affaires des Essais nucléaires,la Cour a estimé:
((La Cour, comme organejuridictionnel,a pour tâche de résoudre
des différendsexistants entre Etats. L'existence d'un différend est

donc la condition premièrede l'exercice desa fonctionjudiciaire; on
peut se contenter à cet égard des affirmations d'une partie car
((l'existenced'un différeninternationaldemande à êtreétablieobjec-
tivement))par la Cour ..Le différenddont la Cour a étésaisie doit
donc persister au moment où elle statue. Elle doit tenir compte de
toute situation dans laquelle le différenda disparu..il faut en tirer
les conséquencesqui s'imposent.

.............................
C'estpourquoi la Cour conclut que, le différendayant disparu, la
demande présentée ...ne comporte plus d'objet. Il en résulte
qu'aucune autre constatation n'aurait de raison d'être.
..............................

La Cour ne voit donc pas de raison de laisser se poursuivre une
procédurequ'elle sait condamnée à rester stérile.
.............................
La demande ayant manifestement perdu son objet, il n'y a rien à
juger.» (Essaisnucléaires(Australie c. France), C.I.J. Recueil 1974,
p. 270-272,par. 55-56,58-59;voir égalementEssais nucléaires(Nou-
velle-Zélandec. France), C.I.J. Recueil 1974,p. 476-477,par. 58-59,
61-62.)

Il s'ensuit donc que, dans l'affaire dont elle est actuellement saisie, la
Cour aurait dû considérerles demandes de la Libye comme irrecevables,
ou en tout cas dépourvuesd'objet, étantdonné queles questions qui se
posent entre elle et le défendeuront été tranchéep sar des décisionsdu
Conseil de sécuritéqui s'imposent aux Parties et que, conformément à
l'article 103de la Charte, cesdécisionsprévalentsur tous lesautres droits
et obligations de la Libye et du défendeurau titre de la convention de
Montréal. Si la Cour s'étaitprononcée de la sorte, elle aurait fait cesser
une longue contestation de l'exercice,par le Conseil de sécurité,de ses
responsabilitésen vertu de la Charte, et encouragéprobablementla Libye
à respecter l'obligation qui lui incombe, aux termes de l'article 25 de la
Charte, ((d'accepter et d'appliquer les décisionsdu Conseil de sécurité
conformément à la présenteCharte)).

Cependant,dans son arrêt,la Cour estimene pas pouvoir seprononcer
ainsi au stade actuel de l'instance en raison des termes de l'article 79 deRules of Court. That article provides that its judgment on preliminary
objections, whether they be to the jurisdiction or to the admissibility of
the application, "or other objection the decision upon which is requested

before any further proceedings on the merits", shall either uphold the
objection, reject it, "ordeclare that the objection does not possess, in the
circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character". The
Court concludes that the objection that Libya's claimsare without object
constitutes in many respects the very subject-matter of any judgment on
the merits and, hence, sinceit does not possess an exclusivelypreliminary
character, must be remitted to the stage of the merits.

In my view, the Court's conclusion in this regard is substantial and,
unlike some of its other conclusions, draws support from the reasoning
and authority set out in the Judgment. But is the Court's conclusion7
however plausible, compelling?
1do not find it so for these reasons. The Court takes an absolute view
of an admittedly absolute term, "exclusively". It holds that the Respon-

dent's objections are not exclusivelypreliminary in character. But it will
be the rare preliminary objection that actually is exclusivelypreliminary
in character. This will especially be so if the wide construction given by
the Court in the current case to the meaning of "exclusively"is followed
in future cases. The fact that a preliminary objection, if upheld, will dis-
pose of the merits of the case in thesenseof preventing a hearing of them
proves nothing; al1preliminary objections, if sustained, have this effect.
More than this, Article 79qualifiesthe conclusion that the objection does
not possess an exclusively preliminary character by specifying that it
"does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypre-
liminary character". In the circumstances of this case, concerned as it is
or should be with jurisdiction under the Montreal Convention - and
there isno other ground for jurisdiction - a plea that the case should not
proceed to a consideration of the merits of rights and obligations under

the Montreal Convention because resolutions of the Security Council
render such consideration without object must be treated as a plea of an
exclusivelypreliminary character.

It may be added that, in the circumstances of this case, the Parties have
extensively argued elements of the case which the Court now remits to
the merits as part of the very subject-matter of the merits (as indeed the
Parties did at the stage of provisional measures). Presumably they did so
by dint of construction of paragraph 6 of Article 79 of the Rules, which
provides that,

"In order to enable the Court to determine its jurisdiction at the

preliminarystage of the proceedings, the Court, whenever necessary,
may request the parties to argue al1questions of law and fact, and to
adduce al1evidence, which bear on the issue."son Règlement. Selon cet article, la Cour doit, pour statuer sur toute
exception, qu'il s'agissed'une exceptionà la compétence de laCour ou à
la recevabilitéde la requêteou de «toute autre exception sur laquelle le

défendeurdemande une décisionavant que la procédure sur le fond se
poursuive)), soit retenir l'exception, soit la rejeterou déclarerque «cette
exception n'a pas dans les circonstances de l'espèceun caractèreexclusi-
vement préliminaire)).La Cour conclut que l'exception selon laquelleles
demandes de la Libye seraient sans objet constitue à bien des égards
l'objet mêmede toute décisionsur le fond et que, n'ayant pas un carac-
tère exclusivement préliminaire, cette exceptiondoit êtrerenvoyéeau
stade de l'examenau fond .
Selon moi, la conclusion formuléepar la Cour àcet égardest impor-
ta~iteet s'appuie, contrairementà certaines de ses autres conclusions, sur
les motifs et arguments énoncés dans l'arrêt. Maisp, our plausible qu'elle
soit, cette conclusion de la Cour est-elledéterminante?
Je ne le pensepas pour lesraisons suivantes. La Cour donne une valeur
décisiveau terme «exclusivement »dont on reconnaît en généralle carac-

tère absolu. Elle estime que les exceptions du défendeurn'ont pas un
caractère exclusivement préliminaire.Rares peuvent être cependantles
exceptions préliminairesayant vraiment un caractère exclusivementpré-
liminaire.Il en sera particulièrement ainsisi la Cour maintientà l'avenir
le sens large qu'elle donne en la présente affaireau terme «exclusive-
ment)). Le fait qu'une exception préliminaire,si elleétaitretenue, décide-
rait du fond de l'affaire dans la mesure où elle en empêcherait l'examen,
ne prouve rien; toutes les exceptions préliminaires,si elles sont retenues,
ont cemêmeeffet. En outre, l'article79limitel'irrecevabilité d'uneexcep-
tion n'ayant pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaire en précisant
qu'ilviseune exception qui «n'a pas dans lescirconstances de l'espèceun
caractère exclusivementpréliminaire)). Damsles circonstances de la pré-
senteaffaire, qui soulèveou devrait souleverla question de la compétence
au titre de la convention de Montréal - seule base de compétence pos-

sible-, l'argument selon lequel il n'y a pas lieu d'examiner quant au
fond les droits et obligations découlantde cette convention, puisque des
résolutionsdu Conseil de sécurité rendentun tel examen sans objet, doit
êtreconsidéré comme unargument ayant un caractèreexclusivementpré-
liminaire.
On peut ajouter que, dans lescirconstances de l'espèce,les Parties ont,
notamment lors de l'examen des mesures conservatoires, amplementdis-
cuté des élémentsde l'affairq eue la Cour renvoie maintenant au stade du
fond comme faisant partie de l'objet mêmedu fond du différend.Elles
ont sans doute pu le faire sur la base du paragraphe 6 de l'article 79 du
Réglement,aux termes duquel:

«Pour permettre à la Cour de se prononcer sur sa compétenceau
stade préliminaire de la procédure, laCour peut, le cas échéant, invi-

ter lespartiesàdébattre touspoints de fait et de droit, eà produire
tous moyens de preuve, qui ont trait à la question.))They rnay also have had regard to the first paragraph of Article 79,which
speaks of any other objectionthe decisionupon which isrequested before
any "further" proceedings on the merits. The Court made no effort to
limit the arguments of the Parties embracing elements of what it now
treats as the merits.1do not think that the Court need now require, as it

does require, the Parties to argue these elements once more - actually,
for a third time - before it passes upon them and disposes of these
objections. To have done so at this stage the Court needed neither the
resolution of disputed facts nor the consideration of further evidence.To
have ruled on the question of whether the resolutions of the Security
Council render Libya's invocation of the Montreal Convention moot
would not have entailed adjudicating the merits of the case in so far as it
relates to what rnay be within the jurisdiction of the Court under the
Montreal Convention. Important questions which rnay arise on the mer-
its would in any event remain unaddressed, such as the propriety of the
trial of the suspects in the United States or in the United Kingdom.

The Court's decision in effect to join the preliminary objections to the
merits, a decision based essentiallyupon its literal construction of a word
of a Rule of Court, does not appear consistent with the design of the
Court in amending the Rules of Court in 1972.It has regrettable if un-
intended results, the least of which is requiring the Parties to argue, and
the Court to hear, arguments on those objections, or some of those objec-
tions, for a third time. It will prolong a challenge to the integrity and
authority of the SecurityCouncil. It rnay be taken as providing excusefor
continued defianceof the Council'sbinding resolutions. It rnay be seenas
prejudicing an important contemporary aspect of the Council'sefforts to
maintain international peace and security by combatting State-sponsored
international terrorism. Justice for the victims of an appalling atrocity
rnay be further delayed anddenied. The Court rnay have opened itself,
not only in this but in future cases, to appearing to offer to recalcitrant

Statesa means to parry and frustrate decisions of the Security Council by
way of appeal to the Court.

That last spectre raises the question of whether the Court is em-
poweredto exercisejudicial reviewof the decisionsof the SecurityCouncil,
a question as to which 1 think it right to express my current views. The
Court isnot generallyso empowered, and it isparticularly without power
to overrule or undercut decisions of the Security Council made by it in
pursuance of its authority under Articles 39, 41and 42of the Charter to

determinethe existenceof any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, orLes Parties peuvent avoir égalementtenu compte du paragraphe 1 de

l'article 79, visant toute autre exception sur laquelle une décision est
demandéeavant que la procédure surle fond «se poursuive)).La Cour n'a
pas tentéde limiterlesarguments présentés par lesParties sur des éléments
qu'elle considèremaintenant comme touchant au fond. Je ne pense pas
que la Cour ait maintenant besoin de demander, comme ellele fait, que
lesParties reviennent une nouvelle fois pour la troisième fois,en fai-
sur ces éléments pour pouvoir se prononcer en la matière et statuer sur
ces exceptions.Pour se prononcer au stade actuel, la Cour n'avait besoin
ni de trancher certains faits contestésni d'examinerd'autres éléments de
preuve. Une décisionsur la question de savoir si lesrésolutionsdu Conseil
de sécuritérendent sans objet l'invocation par la Libye de la convention
de Montréaln'aurait pas entraînéune décisionsur l'affairequant au fond

dans la mesure où cette dernièreconcerne des questions qui peuvent bien
releverdela compétencedela Cour au titre deladite convention.D'impor-
tantes questions qui peuvent se poser quant au fond n'auraient pas étéen
tout cas traitées,commecelletouchant àl'opportunitéde traduire les sus-
pects en justice aux Etats-Unisou au Royaume-Uni.
La décisionde la Cour à l'effetdejoindre les exceptions préliminaires
au fond, décisionessentiellement fondéesur son interprétation littérale
d'un termede son Règlement,ne semblepas conforme aux desseins dela
Cour lorsqu'elle a réviséson Règlementen 1972.Cette décisiona inévi-
tablement des résultatsregrettables,dont lemoindre est de demanderaux
Partiesde fairevaloir, etàla Cour d'entendre, pour la troisièmefoisleurs
arguments sur ces exceptions ou certaines de ces exceptions. Cette déci-

sion donne de nouvelles possibilitésde remettre en question l'intégrité et
l'autorité du Conseilde sécurité.Onpourrait l'interprétercomme un pré-
texte pour continuer à refuser d'exécuterdes résolutionsobligatoires du
Conseil. On peut y voir aussi une entrave àun important aspect contem-
porain des efforts du Conseil pour maintenir la paix et la sécuritéinter-
nationales en luttant contre le terrorisme international parrainé par des
Etats. La justiceà laquelle ont droit les victimesd'une atrocité épouvan-
table vourrait êtreencore retardéeet déniéeL . a Cour veut ainsi sembler.
non siulement dans cette affaire mais dans de futures affaires également;
offrir aux Etats récalcitrants un moyen de tourner et de contrecarrer les
décisionsdu Conseil de sécuritéen faisant appel à elle.

Cette dernière analyse pose la question de savoir si la Cour a le
pouvoir d'exercer un contrôle judiciaire sur les décisionsdu Conseil de
sécurité,une question sur laquelle j'estime devoir exprimer mon avis
actuel. La Cour ne possèdepas un tel pouvoir de façon généraleet, en
particulier, elle n'est pas habilitéeinfirmer les décisionsprises par le
Conseil de sécuritéou à en réduire laportée dans l'exercicedu pouvoir
qu'il tient des articles 39, 41 et 42 de la Charte de constater l'existenceact of aggression and to decide upon responsive measures to be taken to
maintain or restore international peace and security.

The Court more than once has disclaimed possessing a power of judi-
cial review. In its Advisory Opinion in the case concerning Certain
Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Char-
ter), the Court declared :

"In the legal systems of States, there is often some procedure for
determining the validity of even a legislative or governmental act,
but no analogous procedure is to be found in the structure of the
United Nations. Proposals made during the drafting of the Charter
to place the ultimate authority to interpret the Charter in the Inter-
national Court of Justice were not accepted; the opinion which the
Court is in course of rendering is anadvisory opinion. As anticipated
in 1945,therefore, each organ must, in the first place at least, deter-

mine its own jurisdiction. If the Security Council, for example,
adopts a resolution purportedly for the maintenance of international
peace and security and if, in accordance with a mandate or authori-
zation in such resolution, the Secretary-General incurs financial obli-
gations, these amounts must be presumed to constitute 'expensesof
the Organization'." (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 168.)

In its Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequencesfor States of the Con-
tinued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) not-
withstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), the Court reiter-
ated that: "Undoubtedly, the Court does not possess powers of judicial
review or appeal in respect of the decisions taken by the United Nations
organs concerned." (I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 45.)
It should be noted that the Court made these holdings in advisory pro-
ceedings, in which the Security Council and the General Assembly are
entitled to request the Court's opinion "on any legal question". The
authority of the Court to respond to such questions, and, in the course of
so doing, to pass upon relevant resolutions of the Security Council and
General Assembly, is not disputed. Nevertheless, if the Court could hold
asit did in advisory proceedings, afortiori in contentious proceedings the
Court can hardly be entitled to invent, assert and apply powers ofjudicial
review.

While the Court so far has not had occasion in contentious proceed-
ingsto pass upon an allegedauthority tojudicially reviewdecisionsof the
Security Council, it may be recalled that in Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and againstNicaragua the Court observed that :

"The Court is not asked to say that the Security Councilwaswrong

in its decision,nor that there wasanything inconsistentwith law inthe
wayin whichthe membersof the Council employedtheir right to vote.d'unemenacecontre la paix, d'unerupture dela paix ou d'un acte d'agres-
sion et de déciderdes mesures à prendre face à de telles situations pour
maintenir ou rétablirla paix et la sécurité internationales.
La Cour s'est plus d'une fois défendue de posséderun pouvoir de
contrôle judiciaire. Dans son avis consultatif en l'affaire de Certaines
dépensesdes Nations Unies (article 17, paragraphe 2 de la Charte), la
Cour a déclaré:

«Dans les systèmesjuridiques des Etats, on trouve souvent une
procédurepour déterminer la validitéd'un acte même législatio fu
gouvernemental, mais on ne rencontre dans la structure des Nations
Unies aucune procédure analogue. Certainespropositions présentées
pendant la rédaction dela Charte et qui visaient remettre àla Cour
internationale de Justice l'autorité suprêmde'interpréterla Charte,
n'ont pas étéadoptées;l'avis que la Cour s'apprête à donner ici est
un avis consultatif. Comme il a été prévu en 1945, chaque organe
doit donc, tout au moins en premier lieu, déterminer sapropre com-
pétence.Si le Conseil de sécuritpar exemple adopte une résolution
visant au maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinternationales et si,

conformément àun mandat ou à une autorisation inscrite dans cette
résolution,le Secrétairegénéra clontracte des obligations financières,
il està présumer que les montants en question constituent des
((dépensesdel'organisation. » (C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 168.)

Dans son avis consultatif sur lesonséquencesjuridiques pour lesEtats
de laprésencecontinue de l'Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest afri-
cain) nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970), la cour a répété« :Il est évi-
dent que la Cour n'a pas de pouvoirs de contrôle judiciaire ni d'appel en
ce qui concerne les décisions prisespar les organes des Nations Unies
dont il s'agit.(C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 45.)
Il convient de releverque la Cour a fait ces déclarations lors deprocé-
dures consultatives, dans lesquellesle Conseil de sécurité etl'Assemblée
générale ont ledroit de demanderl'avisdela Cour «sur toute questionjuri-
dique». Le pouvoir de la Cour de répondrea de tellesquestions et, ce fai-
sant, dedonner un avissur lesrésolutionspertinentesdu Conseildesécurité
et de l'Assemblée générale n'est pacsontesté. Cependant,si la Cour a pu
déclarerce qu'ellea déclarédans des procédures consultatives,àplus forte
raison ne saurait-elleguèreavoir le droit d'inventer,d'affirmer et d'exercer
des pouvoirs de contrôlejudiciaire dans une procédure contentieuse.

Si la Cour jusqu'ici n'a pas eu l'occasion de se prononcer, lors d'une
instance contentieuse, sur le pouvoir allégué d'exercer uncontrôle judi-
ciaire des décisionsdu Conseilde sécuritéo,n peut rappeler qu'en l'affaire
des Activitésmilitaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci
elle a fait observer ceci:

«Il n'est pas demandé à la Cour de dire que le Conseil de sécurité
a commis une erreur, ni que la manière de voter des membresdu
Conseil ait été enrien contraire au droit. La Cour est priée dese The Court is askedto passjudgment oncertain legalaspectsof a situa-
tion which has also been considered by the Security Council, a pro-
cedurewhichisentirelyconsonantwithitspositionasthe principaljudi-
cial organ of the United Nations." (Military and Paramilitary Activi-
ties in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, p. 436.)

The implication of this statement is that, if the Court had been asked by
the Applicant to say that the SecurityCouncilhad been wrong in its deci-
sion, the Court would have reached another conclusion.
The texts of the Charter of the United Nations and of the Statute of
the Court furnish no shred of support for a conclusion that the Court
possesses a power of judicial review in general, or a power to supervene
the decisions of the Security Council in particular. On the contrary, by
the absence of any such provision, and by accordingthe SecurityCouncil
"primary responsibility for t e maintenance of international peace and
security", the Charter and th ! Statute import the contrary. So extraordi-
nary a power as that ofjudicial reviewis not ordinarily to be implied and
never has been on the international plane. If the Court were to generate
such a power, the Security Council would no longer be primary in its
assigned responsibilities, because if the Court could overrule, negate,
modify - or, as in this case, hold as proposed that decisions of the Secu-
rity Council are not "opposable" to the principal object State of those
decisions and to the object of its sanctions - it would be the Court and
not the Council that would exercise, or purport to exercise, the disposi-
tive and hence primary authority.

The drafters of the Charter above al1resolved to accord the Security
Council alone extraordinary powers. They did so in order to further

realization of the firsturpose of the United Nations,
"To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to
take effectivecollectivemeasures for the ~revention and removal of
threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or
other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means,
and in conformity with the principles of justice and international
law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations
which might lead to a breach of the peace."

Article 24 thus provides :
"1. In order to ensure prompt and effectiveaction by the United
Nations, its Members confer on the SecurityCouncilprimary respon-
sibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and
agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the
Security Council acts on their behalf.
2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act in
accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United
Nations . . ." prononcer sur certains aspects juridiques d'une question qui a été
aussi examinéepar le Conseil,ce qui est parfaitement conforme à sa
situation d'organe judiciaire principal desNationsUnies.))(Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicara-
gua c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), compétenceet recevabilité,arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 436.)

Ce que donne à entendre cette déclaration,c'est que, si le demandeur
avait priéla Cour de dire que le Conseil sécuritéavait commis une
erreur, la Cour aurait abouti à une conclusion différente.
Les textes de la Charte des Nations Unies et du Statut ne contiennent
pas le moindre élémenq tui permettrait de'conclure que la Cour possède
un pouvoir de contrôle judiciaire de façon générale,ou un pouvoir de
supplanter le Conseil de sécuritédans ses décisionsen particulier. Au
contraire, en l'absencede toute disposition cet effet et comptetenu dela
((responsabilitéprincipale du maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinter-
nationales)),qui incombe au Conseil de sécuritél,a Charte et le Statut
laissent entendre le contraire. Un pouvoir aussi extraordinaire que celui
du contrôle judiciaire ne peut normalementêtreimplicite et ne l'ajamais
étédans l'ordre international. Si la Cour devait créerun tel pouvoir, le

Conseil de sécurité n'exercerait plulsa fonction principale dans les res-
ponsabilitésqui lui sont confiées:en effet, si la Cour pouvait annuler,
infirmer, modifier les décisionsdu Conseil de sécurité,ou, comme en
l'espèce,jugerainsi qu'on lepropose que lesdécisionsdu Conseilde sécu-
riténe sontpas «opposables» au principal Etat objetde tellesdécisionset
objet de ses sanctions, ce serait la Cour et non pas le Conseil qui exerce-
rait ou serait censéexercerl'autorité déterminante,et, artant, principale.
Les rédacteursde la Charte ont voulu par-dessus tout attribuer au seul
Conseil de sécuritédes pouvoirs extraordinaires. Ils l'ont fait afin de
favoriser la réalisationdu premier but des Nations Unies:

((Maintenir la paix et la sécuritéinternationales et à cette fin:
prendre des mesures collectivesefficacesen vuede prévenir et d'écar-
ter lesmenaces à la paix et de réprimertout acte d'agressionou autre
rupture de la paix, et réaliser, pardes moyens pacifiques,conformé-
ment aux principes de la justice et du droit international, l'ajuste-
ment ou le règlement de différendsou de situations, de caractère
international, susceptiblesde mener à une rupture de la paix.))
Ainsi l'article24 dispose-t-i:

«1. Afin d'assurer l'action rapide et efficacede l'organisation, ses
Membres confèrentau Conseil de sécurité la responsabilité principale
du maintien de la paix et de la sécuritinternationales et reconnaissent
qu'en s'acquittant des devoirs que lui impose cette responsabilité le
Conseil de sécurité agit en leur nom.
2. Dans l'accomplissement desesdevoirs, le Conseil de sécurité agit
conformémentaux buts et principes des Nations Unies ..» Article 25 provides that: "The Members of the United Nations agree
to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accord-
ance with the present Charter."
These provisions - the veryheart of the Charter's designfor the main-
tenance of international peace - manifest the plenitude of the powers of
the Security Council, which are elaborated by the provisions of Chapters
VI, VII, and VI11of the Charter. They also demonstrate that the Security
Council is subject to the rule of law; it shall act in accordance with the
Purposes and Principles of the United Nations and its decisionsmust be
adopted in accordance with the Charter.At the same time, as Article 103

imports, it may lawfully decideupon measures which may in the interests
of the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security
derogate from the rights of a State under international law. The first Pur-
pose of the United Nations quoted above also so indicates, for the refer-
ence to the principles of justice and international law designedly relates
only to adjustment or settlement by peaceful means, and not to the tak-
ing of effective collectivemeasures for the prevention and removal of
threats to and breaches of the peace. It was deliberately so provided to
ensure that the vital duty of preventing and removing threats to and
breaches of the peace would not be limited by existing law. (See the
Report on the Preamble, Purposes and Principles, United Nations Con-
ference on International Organization (UNCIO), Vol. 6, pp. 453-454,

and the observations of Lord Halifax, p. 25.)

It does not follow from the facts that the decisions of the Security
Council must be in accordance with the Charter and that the Interna-
tional Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, that the Court is empowered to ensure that the Council's deci-
sions do accord with the Charter. To hold that it does so follow is a
monumental non sequitur, which overlooks the truth that, in many legal
systems,national and international, the subjection of the acts of an organ
to law by no means entails subjection of the legality of its actions to judi-
cial review.In many cases, the systemrelies not upon judicial reviewbut

on self-censorshipby the organ concerned or by its members or on review
by another political organ.
Judicialreviewcould havebeen provided for at San Francisco, in full or
lessermeasure, directlyor indirectly,but both directlyand indirectlyit was
not in any measure contemplatedor enacted. Not only was the Court not
authorizedto bethe ultimateinterpreteroftheCharter,as theCourt acknow-
ledgedin the caseconcerningCertainExpensesof the UnitedNations.Pro-
posalswhich inrestricted measurewould haveaccordedthe Court a degree
of authority, by way ofadvisory proceedings,to pass upon the legalityof
proposed resolutionsof the SecurityCouncilin the sphereof peaceful settle-
ment - what cameto be Chapter VI of the Charter - were not accepted.

What was neverproposed, considered,or, so far as the recordsreveal,even
imagined, was that the International Court of Justice wouldbe entrusted
with, or would develop,a power of judicial reviewat large, or a power to CONVENTION DE MONTRÉAL DE 1971(OP.DISSS . CHWEBEL) 76

L'article 25 dispose :«Les Membres de l'organisation conviennent
d'accepter et d'appliquer les décisionsdu Conseil de sécurité conformé-
ment à la présenteCharte. ))
Ces dispositions - qui sont le cŒur mêmede la conception de la
Charte du maintien de la paix internationale - expriment la plénitude
des pouvoirs du Conseil de sécuritéq , ui sont développéspar les disposi-
tions des chapitres VI, VI1 et VI11de la Charte. Elles démontrent aussi
que le Conseil de sécurité est soumisà 1'Etatde droit; il doit agir confor-

mémentaux buts et principes des Nations Unies et ses décisions doivent
être adoptées d'unemanière conforme à la Charte. En mêmetemps,
comme l'indique l'article 103,il peut légitimementdéciderdes mesures,
qui, dans l'intérêd tu maintien ou du rétablissementde la paix et de la
sécurité internationales, limitent laportéedes droits qu'un Etat tient du
droit international. Le premier but des Nations Unies cité ci-dessus
donne la mêmeindication, car la mention des principes dela justice et du
droit international ne se rapporte délibérémenqtu'à l'ajustement ou au
règlementpar des moyens pacifiques et non pas à l'adoption de mesures
collectives effectivesen vuede prévenirou d'écarter des menaces àla paix
et des ruptures de la paix. Ces dispositions ont étéadoptéesdélibérément
pour garantir que l'obligation vitale de prévenir et d'écartelres menaces

contre la paix et les ruptures de la paix ne seraient pas limitéespar le
droit en vigueur (voir le rapport sur le préambule,les buts et les prin-
cipes, Conférencedes Nations Unies sur l'organisation internationale,
vol. 6, p. 471-473,avec les observations de lord Halifax, p. 54).
Les décisionsdu Conseil de sécurité doivenê t treconformes à la Charte
et la Cour internationale de Justice est l'organe judiciaire principal des
Nations Unies, mais il ne s'ensuitpas que la Cour a le pouvoir de garan-
tir la conformité des décisions du Conseil àla Charte. Statuer en tirant
une telleconséquenceestun non sequiturmonumental, et méconnaît cette
vérité:dans nombre de systèmesjuridiques, dans l'ordre national et inter-
national, soumettre au droit les actes d'un organe ne signifienullement
soumettre la légalitéde ses actes à un contrôle judiciaire. Dans bien des

cas, le systèmen'a paspour appui le contrôle judiciaire, mais soit la cen-
sure que l'organe dont il s'agit exercesur lui-même,ou qu'exercent ses
membres, soit le contrôle par un autre organe politique.
Le contrôle judiciaire aurait pu êtreprévuà San Francisco, totalement
ou en partie, directement ou indirectement, mais il n'a été envisagé n,i
adopté, d'aucunemanière, directeou indirecte.Ce n'estpas seulementque
la Cour n'aitpas été habilitée être l'interprèteltimede la Charte, comme
elle l'a reconnu en l'affairede Certaines dépenses deNs ations Unies.Les
propositions qui, dans une mesurerestreinte, lui auraient accordéune cer-
taine autorité pour statuer, pardes avis consultatifs, sur la légade pro-
jets de résolutiondu Conseil de sécuritédans le domaine du règlement

pacifique - ce qui est devenu lechapitre VI de la Charte - n'ont pasété
acceptées.II est une chose qui n'ajamais étéproposée,examinée,ni même
imaginée,pour autant que les documents le révèlent: que l'onconfie à la
Cour internationale de Justice,ou qu'elle développeu,n pouvoir d'annuler,supervene, modify,negate or confinethe applicabilityof resolutionsof the
SecurityCouncilwhether directlyor in the guiseof interpretation.
That this is understandable, indeed obvious, is the clearer in the light of
the conjunction of political circumstancesat the time that the Charter was
conceived, drafted and adopted. The Charter was largely a concept and
draft of the United States, and secondarily of the United Kingdom; the
other most influential State concerned was the USSR. The United States
was cautious about the endowments of the Court. Recalling the rejection
by the Senate of the United States a decade earlier of adherence to the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, the Department
of State was concerned to assure that nothing in the Charter concerning
the Court, and nothing in the Statute which wasto be an integral part of
the Charter, could prejudicethe givingof adviceand consent by the Senate

to the ratification of the Charter. Thus the Report of the Senate Commit-
tee on Foreign Relationson the United Nations Charter of 16July 1945to
the Senate recommendingratification of the Charter specified:
"The Charter does not permit the Security Council or the General

Assembly to force states to bring cases to the Court, nor does it or
the Statute permit the Court to interfere with the functions of the
Security Council or the General Assembly .. .Your committee rec-
ommends that the Senate acceptthe International Court of Justice in
the form and with the authority set forth in chapter XIV of the
Charter and the annexed Statute of the Court." (United States Sen-
ate, 79th Congress, 1stsession, Executive Report No. 8, "The Char-
ter of the United Nations", republished in United States Senate,
83rd Congress, 2nd session, Document No. 87, "Review of the
United Nations Charter:, A Collection of Documents", 1954,p. 67.)

The British Government which, together with the United States, was
the principal proponent of the creation of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice and which had played a large and constructive part in
respect of that Court, was hardly less cautious in its approach to the
powers of the International Court of Justice, as is illustrated by aquota-
tion from the proceedings of the San Francisco Conference set out below.
As for the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics - a
Government which had been ideologically hostile to the Court since its

creation (as a reading of theEastern Careliacase so vividlyillustrates) -
can it be thought that Stalin, whose preoccupation in the days of San
Francisco was giving the veto power the widest possible reach, could
have assented to the establishment of a Court authorized to possess or
develop the authority to review and Varythe application of resolutions
adopted by the Security Council under Chapter VI1 of the Charter?

At San Francisco, Belgium proposed the following amendment:

"Any State, party to a dispute brought before the Security Coun-
cil, shall have the right to ask the Permanent Court of Internationalde modifier, de contester, ou de limiter I'applicabilitédes résolutionsdu
Conseil de sécurité, directemen otu sous couvert d'interprétation.
Que ce soit intelligibleet mêmeévident,celaressort de façon plus claire
encore de l'ensemble de la situation politique à l'époquea laquelle la
Charte a été conçue, rédigée ea tdoptée.La Charte a été en grande partie
conçue et rédigéepar les Etats-Unis et, de façon secondaire, par le
Royaume-Uni; l'autre Etat intéresséle plus influent était l'URSS. Les
Etats-Unisont envisagé avec prudencelesattributions dela Cour. Serappe-
lant que le Sénatdes Etats-Unis avait rejeté,dix ans plus tôt, l'adhésion
au Statut de la Cour permanente de Justiceinternationale, le département
d'Etat s'estpréoccupé d'éviter qu'aucunélément de la Charte relatifà la
Cour et qu'aucunélémend tu Statut, qui devaitfaire partie intégrantede la
Charte, ne risque decompromettre l'avis etle consentementdu Sénatcon-
cernant la ratificationde la Charte. Ainsilerapport de la commissionséna-

toriale des relations étrangèressur la Charte des Nations Unies, adressé
au Sénatle 16juillet 1945et qui recommandait la ratification, précisait-il:
«La Charte n'autorise pas le Conseil de sécuritéou l'Assemblée
générale a contraindre les Etats àporter des affaires devant la Cour

et ni la Charte ni le Statut ne permettent la Cour de s'ingérerdans
les fonctions du Conseil de sécuritéou de l'Assembléegénérale ...
Votre commission recommande que le Sénat acceptela Cour inter-
nationale de Justice sous la forme et avec lespouvoirs indiquésau
chapitre XIV de la Charte et le Statut joint de laour.)) (Sénat des
Etats-Unis,79"congrès, première sessionr,apport exécutifno8,«The
Charter of the United Nations)),reproduit dans UnitedStates Senate,
83" congrès, deuxième session, document no 87, ((Review of the
United Nations Charter: A Collection of Documents)), 1954,p. 67.)

Le Gouvernement britannique, qui avait été, avec les Etats-Unis, le
principal promoteur de la création de la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale et qui avait jouéun rôle important et constructifa l'égard
de cette Cour, n'étaitguèremoins prudent dans son attitude envers les
pouvoirsde la Cour internationale de Justice, comme le montre une cita-
tion des travaux de la conférencede San Francisco donnée ci-dessous.
Quant au Gouvernementde l'Union des Républiquessocialistessovié-
tiques - un gouvernement qui avait été idéologiquement hostile à la
Cour depuis sa création(comme l'indique de façon si évidente lalecture
de l'affaire de laCarélieorientale) - comment pourrait-on croire que

Staline, qui se préoccupait,à l'époque de San Francisco,de donner au
pouvoir de veto la plus grande portéepossible, aurait pu accepter I'ins-
tauration d'une cour habilitée à exercer ou a développerle pouvoir de
contrôler et de modifier l'application des résolutions adoptées par le
Conseil de sécurité en vertu du chapitre VI1de la Charte?
A San Francisco, la Belgiquea proposé l'amendementsuivant:

«Tout Etat partie a un différenddont est saisile Conseil de sécu-
ritéest en droit de demander a la CPJI un avis consultatif sur le Justice whether a recommendation or a decision made by the Coun-
cil or proposed in it infringes on its essential rights. If the Court con-
siders that such rights have been disregarded or are threatened, it is
for the Council either to reconsider the question or to refer the dis-
pute to the Assembly for decision." (UNCIO, Vol. 3, p. 336.)

The purpose of the amendment, the Belgian delegate explained, was to
allow the State concerned to seek an advisory opinion from the Court if
that State believed that a Security Council recommendation infringed
upon its essential rights. It was not in any sense the purpose of the

amendment to limit the legitimate powers of the Security Council (ibid.,
Vol. 12,pp. 48-49).
The Belgian proposa1 gave rise to a mixed reaction, support from
States such as Ecuador and Colombia, and opposition from Great Power
Sponsors of the Conference. The delegate of the Soviet Union

"considered that the Belgian Amendment would have the effect of
weakening the authority of the Council to maintain international
peace and security. If it were possible for a state to appeal from the
Council to the International Court of Justice ... the Council would
find itselfhandicapped in carrying out its functions. In such circum-
stances, the Council might even be placed in a position of being a
defendant before the Court." (Ibid., Vol. 12,p. 49.)

The delegate of the United States explained the importance of the
requirement that the action of the Security Council in dealing with a dis-
pute involvinga threat to the peace be taken "in accordance with the pur-
poses and principles of the Organization". One of the purposes is to bring
about peaceful settlement of disputes "with due regard for principles of
justice and international law". He did not interpret the Proposals as pre-
venting any State from appealing to the International Court of Justice at
any time on any matter which might properly go before the Court. On
the whole, he did not consider the acceptance of the BelgianAmendment
advisable, particularly since he believed that "the Security Council was
bound to act in accordance with the principles of justice and interna-
tional law" (ibid.). (It should be noted that this statement of 17 May
1945antedated revision of the draft of the Charter's Purposes and Prin-
ciples in June to provide that "the principles ofjustice and international
law" relate only to the adjustment or settlement of international disputes
by peaceful means and not to measures of collective security.)

The delegate of France declared that, while he viewed with great
sympathy the ideas in the ~lelgian Arnendment, he was doubtful that
"it would be effective in obtaining its desired end, especially since it point de savoir si une recommandation faite ou une décision prise
par le Conseil ou qui y sont proposéesportent atteinte à ses droits
essentiels.Sila Cour estime que ces droits ont été méconnusou sont

menacés,il appartient au Conseil, soit de reconsidérerla question,
soit de renvoyer le différendpour décisiondevant l'Assemblée.»
(Conférence des Nations Unies sur I'organisation internationale,
vol. 4, p. 477.)

Le but de cet amendement, a expliquéle délégué de la Belgique, était
d'accorder à 1'Etatintéressé la faculté de demander un avis consultatifà
la Cour, s'il estimait qu'une résolution du Conseil de sécuritéportait
atteinte à ses droits essentiels. L'amendement n'avait en aucune façon
pour but de restreindre les pouvoirs légitimesdu Conseil de sécurité
(ibid., vol. 12,p. 53).
La proposition belge a suscité desréactionsde toutes sortes, l'appui
d'Etats tels que 1'Equateur et la Colombie et l'opposition des grandes
puissances sous les auspices desquellesse tenait la conférence.Le délégué
de l'Union soviétique

«est d'avis que l'amendement belge aurait pour effet d'affaiblir le
pouvoir du Conseil de maintenir la paix et la sécuritéinternatio-
nales. S'il étaitpossible pour un Etat d'en appeler du Conseil à la
Cour internationale de Justice ..le Conseil se trouverait handicapé
dans l'exercice de ses fonctions. ~a&s ces conditions, le Conseil
pourrait mêmese trouver placédans la position d'un défendeurvis-
à-vis de laCour)). (Ibid., vol. 12,p. 53.)

Le déléguédeE stats-Unis a expliquél'importance de la prescription en
vertu de laquelle l'action du Conseil de sécurit,n cas de différend cons-
tituant une menace pour la paix, aurait lieu«en conformitéavec les buts
et principes del'Organisation». L'un desbuts était d'assurerle règlement

des différendspar des moyens pacifiques «en tenant dûment compte des
principes de la justice et du droit international)). Il n'interprétait pasles
propositions comme empêchantun Etat quelconque de faire appel en
tout temps à la Cour internationale de Justice pour toute question qui
pourrait normalement êtresoumise à cette dernière. Dans l'ensemble,il
ne pensait pas qu'il y eût intérêt accepter l'amendement belge, notam-
ment parce qu'il était convaincu que «le Conseil de sécuritéest tenu
d'agirconformémentauxprincipes de lajustice et du droitinternational))
(ibid.). (Il convient de relever que cette déclaration du 17mai 1945pré-
cédait larevision du projet concernant les buts et principes de la Charte,
qui a étéeffectuéeenjuinpour faire en sorte que ((lesprincipes de la jus-
tice et du droit international)) ne s'appliquent qu'à l'ajustement ou au
règlement des différendsinternationaux par des moyens pacifiqueset non

pas aux mesures de sécurité collective.)
Le délégué de la France a déclaréque,tout en considérantavec la plus
grande sympathie lesidéescontenuesdans l'amendement belge,il ne pen-
sait pas que cet amendement ((obtiendrait le résultatdésirét,out spécia-involved a dispersa1 of responsibilities in the Organization" (UNCIO,
Vol. 12, p. 50).

The delegate of the United Kingdom stated that the adoption of the
Belgian Amendment "would be prejudicial to the success of the Organi-
zation". The amendment would

"result in the decisionby the Court ...of political questionsin addi-
tion to legal questions. The performance of this function by the
Court .. .would seriously impair the successof its role as a judicial
body. Further, the procedures proposed by the amendment would
cause delay, at a time when prompt action by the Security Council
was most desirable. A powerful weapon would thus be placed in the
hands of a state contemplating aggression, and the Council would
not be able to play the part in maintaining peace whichwas intended
for it...he considered it necessary that the Council possessthe trust
and confidenceof al1states; its majority would be composed of small
states, and it would be obligated to act in a manner consistent with
the purposes and principles of the Organization." (Ibid., p. 65.)

After a fewother statements in this vein, the delegate of Belgiumstated
that, since it was now clearly understood that a recornmendation under
what was to become Chapter VI did not possess obligatory effect, he
wished to withdraw his amendment (ibid., p. 66).

Subsequently, the Conference rejected a proposa1 by Belgium to refer
disagreementsbetween organs of the United Nations on interpretation of
the Charter to the Court. The pertinent report concludes:

"Under unitary forms of national government the final determina-
tion of such a question may be vested in the highest court or in some
other national authority. However, the nature of the Organization
and of its operation would not seemto be such asto invite the inclu-
sion in the Charter of any provision of this nature. If two member
states are at variance concerning the correct interpretation of the
Charter, they are of course free to submit the dispute to the Inter-
national Court of Justice as in the case of any other treaty. Similarly,
it would also be open to the General Assembly or to the Security
Council, in appropriate circumstances,to ask theInternational Court
of Justice for an advisory opinion concerning the meaning of a pro-
vision of the Charter." (Ibid., Vol. 13,pp. 668-669.)

It may finally be recalled that, at San Francisco, it was resolved "to
leave to the Council the entire decision, and also the entire responsibility
for that decision, as to what constitutesa threat to peace, a breach of the
peace, or an act of aggression" (ibid., Vol. 11,p. 17).lement parce qu'il entraînerait une dispersion des responsabilitésau sein

de l'Organisation» (ConférencedesNations Uniessur l'organisationinter-
nationale, vol. 12,p.50).
Ledélégué du Royaume-Unia déclaré quel'adoption del'amendement
belge ((nuirait aux chances de succèsde l'Organisation». Il résulterait de
l'amendement :
«que la Cour ..aura i décidernon seulement des questions juridi-
ques, mais encore des questions politiques. Le fait que la Cour assu-
merait cette fonction serait extrêmement préjudiciablau succèsde

son rôle judiciaire. En outre, la procédure proposée par l'amende-
ment entraînerait un retard dans lescirconstances où la promptitude
d'action du Conseilde sécuritéest extrêmemes ntuhaitable. On pla-
cerait ainsi une arme redoutable entre lesmains d'un Etat qui médi-
terait un acte d'agression et le Conseil ne pourrait pas remplir, en
vue du maintien de la paix, la fonction pour laquelle il est spéciale-
ment désigné ...il semble nécessaireque le Conseil ait l'entière
confiance de tous les Etats; il sera en majoritécomposéde petits
Etats et il sera tenu d'agir en conformitéaveclesbuts et lesprincipes
de l'Organisation)).(Zbid.,p. 68.)

Après quelques autres déclarationsdu mêmegenre, le délégué de la
Belgique a déclaréqu'étant donnéqu'il était maintenant clairement
entendu qu'une recommandation faite par le Conseil en vertu de ce qui
est devenu depuis le chapitre VI n'entraînait aucun effet obligatoire, il
acceptait de retirer son amendement (ibid.,. 69).
Par la suite la conférencea rejetéune proposition de la Belgique de
porter devant la Cour les désaccordsentre les organes de l'organisation
des Nations Unies relatifs l'interprétation de la Charte.Le rapport per-
tinent conclut:

«Sous un régimeunitaire de gouvernement national, le soin de
déterminerune tellequestion d'une manière définitivepeu êt trelaissé
àl'instance judiciairela plushaute ou àtoute autre autoriténationale.
Toutefois le caractèrede l'organisation et de son fonctionnementne
semblepas êtrede nature àfavoriserl'incorporationdans la Charte de
dispositionssemblables.Si deux Etats Membresne parviennent pas à
se mettre d'accord en ce qui concerne l'interprétationexacte de la
Charte, ils ont naturellement toute libertéde soumettre leurs diffé-
rendsà la Cour internationalede Justice,commes'il s'agissait tout

autre traité.De mêmel'Assembléegénérale ou le Conseil de sécurité
auront toujours la faculté,en temps et lieu utiles, de demander la
Courinternationale deJusticeun avisconsultatifsur lesensd'une dis-
position quelconquede la Charte. »(Zbid.,vol. 13,p. 677-678.)
On peut enfinrappelerqu'à San Francisco il a étédécidé «de laisser au

Conseil l'entièreappréciation dece qui constitue une menace à la paix,
une atteinteà la paix, ou un acte d'agression)) (ibid., vol. 11,p. 33). The conclusions to which the travaux préparatoires and text of the
Charter lead are that the Court was not and was not meant to be invested
with a power ofjudicial reviewof the legalityor effectsof decisionsof the
Security Council. Only the Security Council can determine what is a
threat to or breach of the peace or act of aggression under Article 39, and
under Article 39 only it can "decide what measures shall be taken . . to
maintain or restore international peace and security". Two States at vari-
ance in the interpretation of the Charter may submit a dispute to the

Court, but that facility does not empower the Court to set aside or
second-guessthe determinations of the SecurityCouncil under Article 39.
Contentious cases may come before the Court that cal1for its passing
upon questions of law raised by Council decisions and for interpreting
pertinent Council resolutions. But that power cannot be equated with an
authority to review and confute the decisions of the Security Council.

It may of course be maintained that the Charter is a livinginstrument;
that the present-day interpreters of the Charter are not bound by the
intentions of its drafters of50 years ago; that the Court has interpreted
the powers of the United Nations constructively in other respects, and
could take a constructive view of its own powers in respect of judicial
review or some variation of it. The difficulty with this approach is that
for the Court to engraft upon the Charter régimea power to review,and
revisethe reach of, resolutions of the Security Council would not be evo-
lutionary but revolutionary. It would be not a development but a depar-
ture, and a great and grave departure. It would not be a development

even arguably derived from the terms or structure of the Charter and
Statute. It would not be a developmentarising out of customary interna-
tional law, which has no principle of or provision for judicial review. It
would not be a development drawn from the general principles of law.
Judicial review, in varying forms, is found in a number of democratic
polities, most famously that of the United States, where it was developed
by the Supreme Court itself. But it is by no means a universal or even
general principle of government or law. It is hardly found outside the
democratic world and is not uniformly found in it. Where it exists inter-
nationally, as in the European Union, it is expressly provided for by
treaty in specificterms. The United Nations is far from being a govern-
ment, or an international organization comparable in its integration to
the European Union, and it is not democratic.

The conclusion that the Court cannot judicially review or revise the
resolutions of the Security Council is buttressed by the fact that only

States may be parties in cases before the Court. The Security Council
cannot be a party. For the Court to adjudge the legality of the Council's Les conclusions auxquelles ont abouti les travaux préparatoires et le
texte de la Charte sont que la Cour n'avait pas reçu, ni n'étaitcensée
recevoir, le pouvoir d'exercer un contrôle judiciaire de la légalitéou des
effetsdes décisionsdu Conseil de sécuritéS. eulle Conseil de sécuritpeut
déterminerce qui constitue une menace contre la paix, une rupture de la
paix ou un acte d'agression en vertu de l'article 39 et, en vertu de l'ar-
ticle 39,lui seulpeut ((déciderquellesmesures seront prises..pour main-
tenir ou rétablir la paix et la sécuritéinternationales*. Deux Etats en
désaccord sur l'interprétationde la Charte peuvent soumettre un diffé-
rend à la Cour, mais cette possibiliténe confèrepas à la Cour le pouvoir
d'écarter ou réinterprételresdécisions prisespar le Conseil de sécurité en
vertu de l'article 39. La Cour peut êtresaisie d'affaires contentieuses qui
l'amènent àstatuer sur des questions de droit poséespar des décisionsdu

Conseilet àinterpréter desrésolutionspertinentesduConseil. Cependant
ce pouvoir ne peut pas êtreassimilé à celui de réformer etde réfuterles
décisionsdu Conseil de sécurité.
Certes, on peut soutenir que la Charte est un instrument vivant; que
ceux qui interprètent la Charte aujourd'hui ne sont pas liéspar les inten-
tions de ceux qui l'ont rédigéeil y a cinquante ans; que la Cour a donné
une interprétation constructivedespouvoirsdel'Organisation desNations
Unies à d'autres égards etpourrait adopter une vue constructive de ses
propres pouvoirs alors qu'il s'agit du contrôle judiciaire, ou de quelque
variante de celui-ci.La difficultéque suscite cettefaçon d'aborder le pro-
blème c'estque, en greffant sur le régimede la Charte un pouvoir de
contrôler et dereviser la portéedes résolutions duConseil de sécuritél,a
Cour ne ferait pas acte d'évolution, maisde révolution.Ce ne serait pas
une évolution, mais un changement de direction, un changement impor-

tant et grave. On ne pourrait pas mêmesoutenir que ce soit une évolution
découlantdes termes ou de la structure de la Charte et du Statut. Ce ne
serait pas une évolutionissue du droit international coutumier, qui ne
comporte aucun principe ni aucune disposition prévoyant le contrôle
judiciaire. Ce ne serait pas une évolution fondée surles principes géné-
raux de droit. On trouve le contrôle judiciaire, sous diversesformes,dans
un certain nombre de systèmesde gouvernement démocratiques, plus
particulièrement aux Etats-Unis, où il a été développp éar la Cour su-
prêmeelle-même.Ce n'est pourtant d'aucune manière un principe uni-
versel, ni mêmeun principe généralde gouvernement ou de droit. On ne
le trouve guèreen dehors du monde démocratique,ni uniformémentdans
ce monde. Là où il existe sur le plan international, comme dans l'Union
européenne,il est prévu expressémenp tar un traitéen des termes précis.
Il s'en faut de beaucoup que l'Organisation des Nations Unies soit un

gouvernement, ou une organisation internationale comparable, par son
intégration,à l'Union européenne, etelle n'est pas démocratique.
La conclusion selon laquelle la Cour ne peut pas exercer un contrôle
judiciaire des résolutionsdu Conseil de sécuritén,i les reviser, est étayée
par le fait que seulslesEtats ont qualitépour être parties dans une affaire
devant la Cour. Le Conseil de sécurité ne peut pas être partie.Si la Courdecisions in a proceeding brought by one State against another would be
for the Court to adjudicate the Council'srights without givingthe Coun-
cila hearing, which would run counter to fundamental judicial principles.

It would run counter as wellto thejurisprudence of the Court. (Cf. East
Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1995, pp. 100-
105; Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1954, pp. 32-33.)Any suchjudgment could not bind the Council,
because, by the terms of Article 59 of the Statute, the decision of the
Court has no binding force except between the parties and in respect of
that particular case.
At the same time, a judgment of the Court which held resolutions of
the Security Council adopted under Chapter VI1 of the Charter not to
bind or to be "opposable" to a State, despite the terms of Article 25 of
the Charter, would seriously prejudice the effectivenessof the Council's
resolutions and subvert the integrity of the Charter. Such a holding
would be tantamount to a judgment that the resolutions of the Security

Council were ultra vires,at any rate in relation to that State. That could
set the stage for an extraordinary confrontation between the Court and
the SecurityCouncil. It could giverise to the question, is a holding by the
Court that the Council has acted ultra vires a holding which of itself is
ultra vires?
For some 45 years, the world rightly criticizedstalemate in the Security
Council. With the end of the Cold War, the Security Council has taken
great strides towards performing as it was empowered to perform. That
in turn has given rise to the complaint by some Members of the United
Nations that they lack influence over the Council's decision-making.
However understandable that complaint may be, it cannot furnish the
Court with the legal authority to supervene the resolutions of the Secu-
rity Council. The argument that it does is a purely political argument; the
complaints that give rise to it should be addressed to and by the United

Nations in its consideration of the reform of the Security Council. It is
not an argument that can be heard in a court of law.

(Signed) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.statuait sur la légalitédes décisiondsu Conseil dans une affaireintroduite
par un Etat contre un autre, elle statuerait sur les droits du Conseil sans
donner au Conseil l'occasion d'êtreentendu, ce qui enfreindrait les prin-
cipes judiciaires fondamentaux. Cela irait aussià l'encontre de la juris-
prudence de la Cour (voir Timor oriental (Portugal c.Australie), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1995,p. 100-105;Or monétairepris à Rome en 1943, arrêt,
(2.1.. Recueil 1954,p. 32-33).Un arrêtde ce genre ne peut pas s'imposer
au Conseil, car aux termes de l'article 59du Statut la décisionde la Cour
n'est obligatoire que pour les parties en litige et dans le cas qui a été
décidé.

Au demeurant, un arrêtde la Cour qui décideraitque des résolutions
du Conseil de sécurité adoptéesen vertu du chapitre VI1de la Charte ne
s'imposent pas à un Etat, ou ne lui sont pas «opposables», malgréles
termes de l'article25 de la Charte, compromettrait gravement l'effectivité
des résolutionsdu Conseil et porterait atteinteà l'intégritde la Charte.
Statuer en ce sens reviendrait àjuger que les résolutionsdu Conseil de
sécuritéconstituaientun excèsde pouvoir, au moins vis-à-visde cet Etat.
Cela pourrait préparer le terrain une confrontation extraordinaireentre
la Cour et le Conseil de sécurit. ela pourrait poser la question de savoir
si la Cour, en décidant quele Conseil a commis une excèsde pouvoir, n'a
pas elle-mêmestatué par excèsde pouvoir.

Pendant prèsde quarante-cinq ans, le monde a critiqué à juste titre la
paralysie du Conseil de sécurité. vecla fin de la guerre froide, le Conseil
de sécuritéa progressé à grands pas sur la voie qui lui permet de fonc-
tionner comme il en a le pouvoir. De ce fait, certains Membres de l'Or-
ganisation des Nations Unies se sont plaints de manquer d'influence
sur l'adoption des décisionsdu Conseil. Quelque compréhensible que
puisse êtrecette plainte, elle nesaurait donnerla Cour, en droit, le pou-
voir de supplanter le Conseil de sécuritdans sesrésolutions.L'argument
selon lequel une telle plainte produit cet effet est purement politique; les
plaintes sur lesquelles se fonde cet argument devraient être adressées à
l'Organisation des Nations Unies et examinéespar elle avec la réforme
du Conseil de sécuritéC. e n'est pas un argument susceptible d'êtreinvo-

qué devant un tribunal.

(Signé) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of President Schwebel

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