Dissenting Opinion of Vice-President Schwebel

Document Number
090-19961212-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
090-19961212-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION
OF VICE-PRESIDENT SCHWEBEL

While there is much with which 1agree in the Court's Judgrnent, 1am
unable to accept its dispositive decision that it has jurisdiction to enter-
tain the claims made by the Islamic Republic of Iran under Article X,
paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights of 1955.
In interpretingthe scope of a compromissory clause of a treaty accord-

ing the Court jurisdiction over any dispute between the parties "as to the
interpretation or application" of that treaty, the Court must, as with any
other treaty, establish the intention of the parties to it. It mustnsider
whether the parties to the treaty intended that claims of the character
advanced in a particular dispute were to be subject to the Court's juris-
diction. It must consider whether the particular claims so advanced fa11
within the terms of any provision of the treaty.

Neither the United States nor Iran, in concluding the Treaty of 1955,
in my viewintended that claims of the character advanced by Iran in this
case would be subject to the Court's jurisdiction. Nor do 1find that the
particular claims advanced by Iran in this case fa11within the terms of
any provision of the Treaty, including Article X, paragraph 1. Neither
the text nor the circumstances of the conclusion of the Treaty sustain
Iran's contentions, even to the limited extent that the Court has found
those contentions to be sustainable.
In 1980,in construing this very Treaty, this Court held that:

"The very purpose of a treaty of amity, and indeed of a treaty of
establishment, is to promote friendly relations between the two
countries concerned, and between their two peoples, more espe-
cially by mutual undertakings to ensure the protection and security
of their nationals in each other's territory."(United States Diplo-
rnatic and ConsularStaff in Tehran, 1. C.J. Reports 1980, p. 28,
para. 54.)

The Court thus drew a distinction between promotion of friendly rela-
tions (apparently a reference to Article 1 of the Treaty) and "mutual
undertakings" to ensure the protection and security of the nationals of
each party in the territory of the other. It is only the latter that is cast in
the teimiiiology of legal obligation. That, in a nutshell, is the substance
of the 1955Treaty, rightly stated and understood. Iran's complaints in this case turn on the attacks upon and destruction
of three offshore oil production complexes, owned by the National
Iranian Oil Company, which were situated on Iran's continental shelf
and within its exclusive economic zone. Iran maintains that the attacks
were carried out by several warships of the United States Navy, during a
period when Iran was the victim of a war imposed upon it by Iraq, whose
forces subjected its oil installations and commercial shipping to eight
years of attacks. The United States acknowledges that the oil platforms
in question were destroyed by forces of the United States Navy, and
claims that they were bombarded to put out of action bases which were
used to support a long series of attacks by Iranian military and paramili-
tary forces on United States and other neutral vesselsengaged in peaceful

commerce in the Persian Gulf. The United States claims that numerous
Iranian helicopter attacks against merchant shipping were launched from
oil platforms, and that small high-speed patrol boats were deployed from
oil platforms to attack shipping and lay naval mines. Those claims are
denied by Iran.

What is not denied, and cannot be denied, is that the attacks by the
United States Navy on the three Iranian oil platforms at issue constituted
a use by the United States of armed force against what it claims to have
seen as military objectives located within the jurisdiction of another
State, Iran.

The threshold question that the Court must resolve is, is a dispute over
attacks by United States Armed Forces against Iranian objectives in the
described circumstances a dispute that arises under the Treaty of Amity,
Economic Relations, and Consular Rights?

The answer to that question as 1 see it is, obviously not. It is obvious
from the title, preamble, and terms of the Treaty. It is obvious from the
circumstances of the conclusion as well as the text of the Treaty when
those circumstances are set out. And what the text and circumstances of
the Treaty demonstrate is sustained by such subsequent interpretation as
the parties have placed upon it.

The preamble of the Treaty provides:

"The United States of America and Iran, desirous of emphasizing
the friendly relations which have long prevailed between their
peoples, of reaffirming the high principles in the regulation ofman
affairs to which they are committed, of encouraging mutually bene-
ficial trade and investments and closer economic intercourse gen-
erally between their peoples, and of regulating consular relations, have resolved to conclude, on the basis of reciprocal equality of
treatment, a Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights . . ."

It is plain that this is a Treaty which is essentiallyconcerned with encour-
aging mutually beneficial trade and investments and closer economic
intercourse on the basis of reciprocal equality of treatment. There is no
suggestion of regulating the use of armed force by one party against the
other.

Article 1 of the Treaty provides that there shall be firm and enduring
peace and sincere friendship between the United States and Iran. The
Court has quite correctlyheld that this provision must merely beregarded
as fixingan objective,in the light of which other Treaty provisions are to
be interpreted and applied; of itself it imposes no obligations, including
obligations governing the use of force in international relations. Those
other Treaty provisions regulate the conditions of residence of nationals

of one party on the territory of the other, particularly for purposes of
trade and investment, and assure the nationals of one party the most con-
stant protection and security in the territory of the other (Art. II); treat
the juridical status of companies and access to courts and arbitration
(Art. III); provide for fair and equitable treatment of the nationals and
companies of the other party and prescribe the most constant protection
and security for the property of nationals and companies of either party
in the territory of the other (Art. IV);rovide for the leasing of real prop-
erty and the acquisition of other property and its disposition by sale or
testament or otherwise, as well as effective protection of intellectual
property (Art. V); govern taxation (Art. VI); regulate financial transfers
(Art. VII); regulate imports, exports and customs duties (Arts. VI11and
IX); treat freedom of commerce and navigation (Art. X) and economic
transactions by government agencies(Art.XI) ;and provide for the rights
and duties of consuls (Arts. XII-XIX). None of these core provisions of
the Treaty suggests that attacks by armed forces of one party against
what it treats as militarv obiectives within the iurisdiction of the other
party are within the reach of the Treaty.

It is significantas well that the Treaty contains none of the treaty pro-
visions which typically do bear on the international use of force. There is
no pledge of non-aggression or alliance. There is no reference to military
assistance by one party in the event of armed attack upon or aggression
against the other. There is no reference to regional securityarrangements,
to the provision of military equipment, to status of forces, to bases on the
territory of one party for the forces of the other. Also significant is the
fact, which the Court's Judgment acknowledges, that the United Statesand Iran concluded other treaty arrangements for such purposes, notably
the Agreement of Co-operation between the Government of the United
States of America and Imperia1 Government of Iran of 5 March 1959.
That Agreement affirms "their right to CO-operatefor their security and
defence in accordance with Article 51 of the Charter of the United
Nations7' and declares that the United States "regards as vital to its
national interest and to world peace the preservation of the independence
and integrity of Iran". It provides that, in case of aggressionagainst Iran,

the United States willtake appropriate action, including the use of armed
forces, in order to assist Iran at its request. It also provides for the con-
tinued furnishing to Iran of military and economic assistance, and for co-
operation with other Governments in mutually agreed defensivearrange-
ments (Treaties and Other International Acts Series 4189).

Moreover, Article XX of the Treaty of 1955 indicates that certain
international uses of armed force, far from being within the compass of
the Treaty, are excluded from it. Article XX - the sole reference in the
Treaty to such matters - provides that:

"1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of
measures :

(d) necessary to fulfill the obligations of a High Contracting Party
for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and
security, or necessary to protect its essential security interests."

Article XX is an exclusionclause. It excludes from the areas regulated

by the obligations of the Treaty the application of specified measures,
including measures of a party "necessary to protect its essential security
interests".Such an exclusion can hardly entitle the Court to assumejuris-
diction over a claim that engages the essential security interests of the
United States if not Iran as well. The object of Iran's claims in this case
is the calculated application of armed force by the United States against
what it has treated as military objectives within the jurisdiction of Iran,
which objectives for its part Iran views as vital to its economic and stra-
tegic interests. It follows that, since the Treaty does not preclude the
application of such measures, they do not fa11within its regulated reach
and hence do not fa11within the scope of the compromissory clause sub-
mitting disputes "as to the interpretation or application of the present

Treaty" to the jurisdiction of the Court. How does the Judgment of the Court affirming its jurisdiction deal
with Article XX?
It asserts that the Treaty of 1955 contains no provision expressly
excluding certain matters from the jurisdiction of the Court. It then
quotes Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), and acknowledges that,
"This text could be interpreted as excluding certain measures from
the actual scope of the Treaty and, consequently, as excluding the

jurisdiction of the Court to test the lawfulness of such measures."
(Para. 20.)
But it continues :

"It could also be understood as affording only a defence on the
merits. The Court, in its Judgment of 27 June 1986 in the case con-
cerning Militavy and Pavamilitary Activities in and against Nicava-
gua (Nicavagua v. United States of America), adopted the latter
interpretation for the application of an identical clause included in
the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation concluded
between the United States and Nicaragua on 21 January 1956(1.C.J.
Reports 1986,p. 116,para. 222, and p. 136,para. 271). Iran argues,
in this case, that the Court should give the same interpretation to
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d). The United States, for its part, in the

most recent presentation of its arguments, stated that 'consideration
of the interpretation and application of Article XX, paragraph 1 (d),
was a merits issue'.The Court seesno reason to Varythe conclusions
it arrived at in 1986.It accordingly takes the view that Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), does not restrict its jurisdiction in the present case,
but is confined to affording the Parties a possible defence on the
merits to be used should the occasion arise." (Ibid.)

It is true that the Court in its 1986Judgment on the merits in Militavy
and Pavamilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua treated the corre-
sponding article of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation
between the United States and Nicaragua as a defence on the merits,
which in the particular circumstances it found to be unpersuasive. The
Court had failed to address the auestion at al1in its 1984Jud~mentuon
jurisdiction, when it should naturally have done so; as a consequence, the
question fell to the merits if it was to be addressed at all. In my view,this
history leaves the Court free in the present proceedings objectively to
apply the terms of Article XX of the Treaty of 1955, unconstrained by
the 1986holding. The reasoning belatedly expressed by the Court on the
matter in 1986was in my view unpersuasive and remains so; and ques-
tion has been rightly raised about the "value as a precedent" of holdings

of the Court in the case (Shabtai Rosenne, The World Court, What It Is
and How It Wovks, 5th ed., rev., 1995,pp. 152-153).

The Court in this Judgment takes the position that Iran argued in theseproceedings that the Court should give the same interpretation to
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), as it did in 1986, and that the United
States concluded that consideration of the interpretation and application
of Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), was an issue for the merits. The Court
declares that it sees no reason to Varythe conclusions arrived at in 1986.
But 1 believe the position of the United States in this case, and the
responsibilities of the Court in this case, to be somewhat different.

In its Preliminary Objection, the United States maintained that :

"Section 4. Article XX Confirms that the 1955 Treaty Is Not
Intended to Address Questions Relating to the Use of Force by
the Parties During Armed Conflict
3.36. Any doubts as to the applicability of the 1955 Treaty to
Iran's claims is dispelled by ArticleXX of the Treaty, paragraph (l),
which provides :

'1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of
measures :
............................
(d) necessary ... to protect its [a party's] essential security
interests.'

3.37. The intended relationship of this provision to the jurisdic-
tion of the Court was expressly addressed during the process of
obtaining ratification of other friendship treaties with the identical
provision. Thus, in connection with the ratification of the treaty with
China the Department of State submitted to the United States Sen-
ate a memorandum on the dispute settlement clause that addressed
the scope of the compromissory clause providing for the submission
of disputes under that treaty to this Court. That Memorandum pro-
vides:

'The compromissory clause ... is limited to questions of inter-
pretation or application of this treaty; i.e., it is a special not a
general compromissory clause.
............................
Furthermore, certain important subjects, notably immigration,
traffic in military supplies, and the "essential interests of the coun-
try in time of national emergency", are specificallyexcepted from
the purview of the treaty. In view of the above, it is difficult to
conceive how Article XXVIII could result in this Government's
being impleaded in a matter in which it might be embarrassed.'

A similar memorandum was later submitted to the Senate in regard
to FCN treaties with Belgium and Viet Nam. That memorandum
points out:
'a number of the features which in its view make this provision
satisfactory ... These include the fact that the provision is limited to differences arising immediately from the specific treaty con-
cerned, that such treaties deal with familiar subject matter and are
thoroughly documented in the records of the negotiation, that an
established body of interpretation already exists for much of the
subject matter of such treaties, and that such purely domestic
matters as immigration policy and military security are placed
outside the scope of such treaties by specificexceptions.'

This history demonstrates that the 1955Treaty was not intended to
reach matters relating to the essential security interests of the parties.

.............................
3.40. In the Nicavaguacase the Court held that US national secu-
rity interests were not threatened by the insurgent attacks against El
Salvador that had formed the basis of the US claim to have acted in
self-defense. In contrast, Iranian attacks on US and other neutral
vessels in the Persian Gulf clearly threatened US national security

interests. In the current case, the United States invokes the com-
parable article in the 1955Treaty for the purpose of supporting its
argument that Articles 1,IV and X of the 1955Treaty relied upon by
Iran were never intended to address the use of force issues presented
by Iran's claims in connection with the events of October 1987
and April 1988."

The United States Preliminary Objection concluded that, in this case,
"Consequently, the Court is presented with exactly the type of situation
the 1955Treaty does not cover." (Pp. 50-53.)
At the stage of the oral proceedings, counsel of the United States
initially submitted:
"Article XX (1) (d) requires that the 1955Treaty

'shall not preclude the application of measures . . .necessary to
fulfillthe obligations of a High Contracting Party for the mainte-
nance or restoration of international peace and security or neces-
sary to protect its essential security interests'.

Our preliminary objection suggested that, as a jurisdictional mat-
ter, this provision helped to show that Articles 1, IV and X, those
invoked by Iran, were not designed or intended to govern Iran's
claims regarding the use of force.This is because Article XX (1) (d)
manifested the parties' intent to keep such matters outside the scope
of the Treaty. We believe that jurisdictional point remains valid.
However, the Islamic Republic of Iran's Observations and Submis-
sions responded to it with several pages of animated arguments essentially addressing how Article XX (1) (d) should be interpreted
and applied to the merits of this dispute.

With respect, 1 think this is not the point on which to join
issue on these particular arguments. We do not now, where the
issue is the Court's lack of jurisdiction, raise Article XX (1) (d)

as a defence against the merits of Iran's claims. The significance of
Article XX (1) (d) is not at the heart of Ourposition concerning this
Court's lack of jurisdiction. It should not be allowed to cloud the
issues that are before the Court. Thus, 1 suggest that it is not
necessary for the Court to address the specificarguments regarding
the construction and application of Article XX (1) (d), unless
there should be a future merits phase." (CR 96/13, p. 33.)

Subsequently, United States counsel stated:

"that consideration of the interpretation and application of Ar-
ticle XX (1) (d) was a merits issue . . The position of the United
States is that the 1955Treaty does not regulate the conduct of mili-
tary hostilities, and therefore, that such conduct should never -
never - be the subject of any merits proceedings in this Court under
the Treaty. Article XX (1) (d) is not inconsistent with this position
. . If the Court should rule that it does havejurisdiction to adjudi-
cate Iran's claims regarding the military events at issue - then, of

course, the United States would demonstrate that its actions did not
violate the Treaty. In this regard, the United States would invoke
Article XX, paragraph 1, and show that the Treaty does not pre-
clude the Parties from taking actions consistent with the law govern-
ing the use of force and the exercise of self-defence.

Thus, the United States certainly does not concede that the 1955
Treaty regulates the conduct of armed conflict.However, should the
Court rule otherwise, there will be a need for the Parties and the
Court to examine with care the exceptions to the reach of the Treaty
that are expressly written into Article XX (1) (d)." (CR 96116,
pp. 35-36.)

Therefore, in the end, as in the beginning, the United States treats
Article XX as specifying exceptions to the reach of the Treaty. As
1understand its position, it maintains that Article XX on its face places

the use of force in protection of a party's essential security interests
beyond the reach of the Treaty, but if nevertheless the Court should
assume jurisdiction in the case, this provision will provide a defence on
the merits.
In my view,for the reasons stated, the Court should have passed upon
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), at this stage of the proceedings and giveneffect to it, whatever the equivocations in the construction of it advanced

in the oral argument.
Apart from Article XX, the Court more generally concludes:
"The Treaty of 1955imposes on each of the Parties various obli-
gations on a variety of matters. Any action by one of the Parties that
is incompatible with those obligations is unlawful, regardless of the
means by which it is brought about. A violation of the rights of one
party under the Treaty by means of the use of force is as unlawful as
would be a violation by administrative decision or by any other

means. Matters relating to the use of force are therefore not peu se
excluded from the reach of the Treaty of 1955."(Para. 21.)

1 agree with this reasoning in a measure. If Iran or the United States
were to expropriate property of a national of the other without compen-
sation and use force in the process, or if Iran or the United States were by
force to maltreat or imprison a consul of the other, the Treaty would be
violated. To this extent, the Court is right to Saythat a violation of the

rights of a party under the Treaty by means of the use of force is as much
a breach as would be a violation by administrative decision or other
means. In this sense, matters relating to the use of force are not as such
excluded from the purview of the Treaty.

But it does not follow that the use by one party to the Treaty of its
armed forces to attack what it treated as military objectives within the
jurisdiction of the other party is within the reach of the Treaty. The
Treaty simply does not deal with that kind of use offorce, which is rather
governed by the Charter of the United Nations and other provisions of
international law relating to armed conflict between States.

This conclusion is sustained by papers submitted by the United States
Government to the United States Senate in connection with the ratifica-
tion of the Treaty of 1955as well as other very similar treaties of friend-
ship, commerce and navigation. Not only did the United States cite and
rely upon these papers in these proceedings; it is significant that Iran

itself did so as well (see the Memorial submitted by the Islamic Republic
of Iran, Exhibit 98, which quotes from a statement on commercial trea-
ties with Iran, Nicaragua and the Netherlands submitted to the United
States Senate on 3 July 1956,and the Observations and Submissions on
the United StatesPreliminary Objection Submitted by the Islamic Repub-
lic of Iran, Exhibit 10, which quotes from a memorandum to the United
States Embassy at Chongqing of 2 February 1945for use in negotiating
the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with China). These
papers may properly be weighed by the Court not as travaux prépara-
toires, but as part of the circumstances of the conclusion of the Treaty,
introduced by both of the Parties to the Treaty and to these proceedings,
as to the admissibility of which no question was raised by the Court.Indeed in its Judgment the Court itself relies on these documents - and
the absence of divergent Iranian documents - to show the meaning
attached to provisions of the Treaty of 1955.

Iran invoked a memorandum concerning negotiation of the Treaty of
Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States and
China. One of the papers of that negotiation is published in the pleadings
in the case concerning United States Diplornatic and Consular Staff in
Tehran,Annex 52,entitled, "Memorandum on Dispute SettlementClause

in Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with China". It says
of a compromissory clause identical to that found in the Treaty of 1955 :

"The compromissory clause (Article XXVIII) of the treaty with
China, however, is limited to questions of the interpretation or
application of this treaty; i.e., it is a special not a general compro-
missory clause. It applies to a treaty on the negotiation of which
there is voluminous documentation indicating the intent of the
parties. This treaty deals with subjects which are common to a large
number of treaties, concluded over a long period of time by nearly
al1nations. Much of the general subject-matter - and in some cases

almost identical language - has been adjudicated in the courts of
this and other countries. The authorities for the interpretation of this
treaty are, therefore, to a considerable extent established and well
known. Furthermore, certain important subjects, notably immigra-
tion, traffic in military supplies, and the 'essential interests of the
country in time of national emergency', are specifically excepted
from the purview of the treaty. In view of the above, it is difficult to
conceive how Article XXVIII could result in this Government's
being impleaded in a matter in which it might be embarrassed."

Annex 53 to the same pleadings refers to the foregoing paper in these
terms :

"This paper indicates that the provision in question is intended to
fil1the need for an agreed method of settling differencesarising out

of treaties of this type, that would be both sound and generally
acceptable. It points out a number of the features which in its view
make the provision satisfactory from this standpoint. These include
the fact that the provision is limited to differences arising immedi-
ately from the specifictreaty concerned, that such treaties deal with
familiar subject-matter and are thoroughly documented in the
records of the negotiation, that an established body of interpretation
already exists for much of the subject-matter of such treaties, and
that such purely domestic matters as immigration policy and mili-
tary security are placed outside the scope of such treaties by specific exceptions. The paper indicates the Department's view not only that
such a treaty provision would not operate in a manner detrimental
to US interests but that itis in the interest of the United States to be
able to have recourse to the International Court of Justice in case of
treaty violation." (I.C.J. Pleadings, United States Diplomatie and
Consular Staff in Tehran, pp. 235, 237.)

These quotations establish not only that treaties of friendship, com-
merce and navigation concluded by the United States, like a large number
of treaties concluded over a long period of time by almost al1nations,
concern familiar commercial matters, as to which there is voluminous
documentation, the authorities for the interpretation of which are estab-
lished and well known and which are the subject of much national adju-
dication (unlike matters concerning the international use of force, which
are not). They establish as wellthat the compromissory clause is meant to
be "limited to differences arising immediately from the specific treaty

concerned". Moreover, they reaffirm that essential security interests "are
specificallyexcepted from the purview of the treaty". Military security "is
placed outside the scope of such treaties by specificexception[s]".

Al1this demonstrates the intention of the United States in concluding
treaties of this content and character. It is significant not only that Iran
has itself introduced evidence of this very kind in these proceedings. It is
no lesssignificantthat Iran has not introduced any evidenceshowing that
its intentions in concluding the Treaty of 1955differed from those of the
United States. By way of contrast, Iran introduced vital evidence of its
legislative intent "filed for the sole purpose of throwing light on a dis-
puted question of fact, namely, the intention of the Government of Iran"
at the time it adhered to the Court's compulsory jurisdiction under the

Optional Clause (Anglo-Zranian Oil Co., I.C.J. Reports 1952, pp. 93,
107).

Finally, in construing the Treaty of 1955before the Iran-United States
Claims Tribunal, that is, in interpreting the Treaty in practice, Iran
argued that the use of military force "was unforeseen by that Treaty and
cannot be regulated by it". In Amoco International Finance Corp. v.
Islamic Republic of Iran, Iran contended :

" 'First, it is totally unrealistic to assume that at the time in ques-
tion, 197911980,the Treaty of Amity was operative in the relations
between the United States and Iran. The situation which existed
(and which included the sending of a US military expedition into
Iranian territory, as wellas the seizure of Iranian assets) was not one
which could be said to be regulated by the terms of the 1955Treaty of Amity. The situation was unforeseen by that Treaty and cannot
be regulated by it.' (Defenceand Counterclairnof theIslamic Repub-
lic of Iran et al., of 24May 1984,as quoted in Preliminary Objection
of the United States of America, Exhibit 54.)

The Court finds that it has jurisdiction, on the basis of Article XXI,
paragraph 2, of the Treaty, "to entertain the claims made by the Islamic
Republic of Iran under Article X, paragraph 1" of the Treaty. In its
Application, Iran maintained that,

"By its actions in assisting the Government of Iraq in its war
efforts, in threatening and provoking the Islamic Republic with the
deployment of US forces in the region, and in attacking and destroy-
ing Iranian entities and the oil installations referred to here, the
United States has gravely interfered with the commerce and naviga-
tion of the Islamic Republic and had thus violated the provisions of
Article X (1) of the Treaty."

In its written and oral pleadings, Iran confined itself to the claim that
violation of Article X, paragraph 1, sprung from the attacks on and
destruction of the oil platforms.
Article X of the Treaty provides:

"1. Between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties
there shall be freedom of commerce and navigation.
2. Vessels under the flag of either High Contracting Party, and
carrying the papers required by its law in proof of nationality, shall
be deemed to be vessels of that High Contracting Party both on the
high seas and within the ports, places and waters of the other High
Contracting Party.

3. Vessels of either High Contracting Party shall have liberty, on
equal terms with vessels of the other High Contracting Party and on
equal terms with vessels ofany third country, to come with their car-
goes to al1ports, places and waters of such other High Contracting
Party open to foreign commerce and navigation. Such vessels and
cargoes shall in al1 respects be accorded national treatment and
most-favored-nation treatment within the ports, places and waters
of such other High Contracting Party; but each High Contracting

Party may reserve exclusive rights and privileges to its own vessels
with respect to the coasting trade, inland navigation and national
fisheries.

4. Vessels of either High Contracting Party shall be accorded
national treatment and most-favored-nation treatment by the other High Contracting Party with respect to the right to carry al1
products that may be carried by vesse1to or from the territories
of such other High Contracting Party; and such products shall be

accorded treatment no lessfavorable than that accorded likeproducts
carried in vessels ofsuch other High Contracting Party, with respect
to: (a) duties and charges of al1kinds, (b) the administration of
the customs, and (c) bounties, drawbacks and other privileges
of this nature.
5. Vessels of either High Contracting Party that are in distress
shall be permitted to take refuge in the nearest port or haven of the
other High Contracting Party, and shall receive friendly treatment
and assistance.
6. The term 'vessels',as used herein, means al1types of vessels,
whether privately owned or operated, or publicly owned or oper-
ated; but this term does not, except with reference to paragraphs 2
and 5 of the present Article, include fishing vessels or vessels of
war."

Since every paragraph of Article X except the first refers expressly to
"vessels" and since stationary oil platforms are not vessels, neither Iran
nor the Court purport to found jurisdiction on paragraphs of Article X

other than paragraph 1,which refers to "freedom of commerce and navi-
gation".
Evidence introduced before the Court treats the whole of Article X as
"a navigation article". A principal United States negotiator of the series
of largely identical treaties of friendship, commerce and navigation
describes the standard article on these matters precisely as "a navigation
article" that

"reaffirms a liberal regime of treatment to be applied to interna-
tional shipping. The rules set forth reflect the practices which have
historically been developed by leading maritime nations . . .(Her-
man Walker, "The Post-War Commercial Treaty Program of the
United States", Political Science Quavterly, Vol. LXXIX, p. 73.)

Other commentators cited to the Court similarly interpret Article X.
Article X as a whole is concerned with shipping,not with commerce gen-
erally. The fact that every paragraph but the first refers to "vessels"
suggests that the purpose of paragraph 1 is not to deal with commerce
generally - for if that were its purpose it would appear as a separate
article of the Treaty - but to introduce and set the objective of the
remainingparagraphs of the article. (In reviewing those paragraphs, it is
worth noting that, in the last, "vessels of war" are excluded from the
reach of the article except in specified respects.) Moreover, specifics of

freedom of commerce are dealt with in detail in Articles VI11and IX of
the Treaty. Accordingly when the Treaty means to address more thanfreedom of maritime commerce, it does so in other articles and in terms
that have no bearing on the dispute before the Court.

The Court nevertheless finds that Article X is not restricted to mari-
time commerce for the reasons set out in the Judgment.
Even if those reasons are thought to be tenable, where in my view the
Court's conclusions are untenable is in its holding that "commerce" is
not restricted to acts of purchase and sale. It interprets "commerce" as
embracing "the ancillary activities related to commerce". It thus appears
to conclude, although it does not state, that "commerce" includes "pro-
duction". It offers quotations from the Oxford English Dictionary

and the Oscar Chinncase and a few other sources in support of this con-
clusion.

The difficulty with the reasoning of the Court is that production is not
ancillary to commerce. It is anterior to it, just as the existence of terri-
tory, people, rainfall, geological formations, growing of crops, generation
of capital, etc.,is anterior to commerce which exchanges what may be
products of the productive conjunction of such resources. The quotation
from the Oxford English Dictionary defines commerce to include "the
whole of the transactions, arrangements, etc., therein involved", and
"therein" refers to sale and purchase - which hardly implies that com-
merce extends to production. The Court's reference to the Dictionnaire
de la terminoloaie du droit irzternationaland to a few other dis~arate
sources is no more probative; they make no reference to production

whatsoever. Black's Law Dictionary on which Iran and the Court rely
contains no reference to or suggestion that commerce includes produc-
tion; it is confined to "the purchase, sale and exchange of commodities"
and the agencies and means of such exchange. At the same tirne, a review
of the dozen or more dictionaries in the Library of the Court, English
and multilingual, turns up none that define commerce to include produc-
tion. Rather, like David M. Walker's The Oxford Companion to Law
(Oxford University Press, 1980),they defineas "Commerce. The exchange
of commodities and al1 the arrangements involved in effecting such
exchanges." (P. 247.)

The fact of the matter is that commerce in ordinary and in legal usage
is simply not understood to embrace production. Oscar Chinn gives the
Court more, but insufficient support, because the term there under con-
struction was "freedom of trade" not freedom of commerce, and "trade"
is widely interpreted as a broader term than commerce, and one which,
unlike commerce,may include "industry". Moreover, the "trade" at issuein the Oscar Chinn case was not production but river transport; the
"industry" in question was "the transport business". The Court's holding
"that the fluvial transport industry is a branch of commerce" is of no
relevance or assistance to Iran's position in these proceedings (Oscar
Chinn, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 63, pp. 65, 81, 85). In short, the growing
of pistachio nuts in Iran is not commercewithin the meaning of Article X
of the Treaty ;the feeding of sturgeon in the Caspian Sea is not commerce
within the meaning of Article X of the Treaty; and the production of
oil on Iran's continental shelf is llot commerce within the meaning of

Article X of the Treaty.

This being so, the Court's reliance on "freedom" of commerce does not
strengthenits analysis. To be sure, if the wherewithal to exchange is lack-
ing or is destroyed, there can be no exchange;there can be no commerce -
in non-existent goods. But on the Court's reasoning, action that impairs
the life or health of the inhabitants of Iran, or that detracts from its
climate, environment, condition of its natural resources, generation of its
capital, etc., also prejudices its freedom of commerce in that such action
may affect the ability of Iran to produce the goods to exchange. It might
in this vein be argued that if pollution originating in country A wafts

onto the territory of country B, country A, assuming it to be bound to
freedom of commerce with country B, is in violation of its obligation.
1 do not believe that a treaty provision that, "Between the territories of
the two High Contracting Parties there shall be freedom of commerce
and navigation" sustains so far-reaching- if not far-fetched- an inter-
pretation. Nor am 1persuaded that freedom of commerce and navigation
within the meaning of the Treaty could be affected by the fact or allega-
tion that some or al1of the destroyed oil platforms in question were con-
nected by a pipeline network to port facilities.

It may be added that the Court's holdings in Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua are consistent with the conclusion
that Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of 1955 is confined to com-
merce and does not include production or facilities for production. In
that case, the Court found that mining of the approaches to ports and
port installations impaired Nicaragua's right to freedom of communica-
tions and maritime commerce (1C..J. Reports 1986,pp. 111-112, 128-129,
139), as that right was protected by the corresponding article of the
Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Nicaragua and
the United States. It did not hold that attackson oil pipelines and storage
tanks violated that article of the Treaty. On the contrary, while the

Court's Judgment recites that Nicaragua argued that "Since the word 'commerce' in the 1956 Treaty must be under-

stood in its broadest sense, al1of the activities by which the United
States has deliberately inflicted on Nicaragua physicalamage and
economic losses of al1types, violate the principle of freedom of com-
merce which the Treaty establishes in very general terms" (I.C.J.
Reports 1986, p. 139),
the Court did not pass upon that contention (see ibidp .,. 139-140).
There is nothing in the Court's holdings that suggests that that
article protected the production of oil or any other commodity in

Nicaragua.
For these reasons, 1 conclude that the Court's reliance on Article X,
paragraph 1,of the Treaty of 1955to found the jurisdiction of the Court
in this case is unfounded.

(Signed) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION
OF VICE-PRESIDENT SCHWEBEL

While there is much with which 1agree in the Court's Judgrnent, 1am
unable to accept its dispositive decision that it has jurisdiction to enter-
tain the claims made by the Islamic Republic of Iran under Article X,
paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights of 1955.
In interpretingthe scope of a compromissory clause of a treaty accord-

ing the Court jurisdiction over any dispute between the parties "as to the
interpretation or application" of that treaty, the Court must, as with any
other treaty, establish the intention of the parties to it. It mustnsider
whether the parties to the treaty intended that claims of the character
advanced in a particular dispute were to be subject to the Court's juris-
diction. It must consider whether the particular claims so advanced fa11
within the terms of any provision of the treaty.

Neither the United States nor Iran, in concluding the Treaty of 1955,
in my viewintended that claims of the character advanced by Iran in this
case would be subject to the Court's jurisdiction. Nor do 1find that the
particular claims advanced by Iran in this case fa11within the terms of
any provision of the Treaty, including Article X, paragraph 1. Neither
the text nor the circumstances of the conclusion of the Treaty sustain
Iran's contentions, even to the limited extent that the Court has found
those contentions to be sustainable.
In 1980,in construing this very Treaty, this Court held that:

"The very purpose of a treaty of amity, and indeed of a treaty of
establishment, is to promote friendly relations between the two
countries concerned, and between their two peoples, more espe-
cially by mutual undertakings to ensure the protection and security
of their nationals in each other's territory."(United States Diplo-
rnatic and ConsularStaff in Tehran, 1. C.J. Reports 1980, p. 28,
para. 54.)

The Court thus drew a distinction between promotion of friendly rela-
tions (apparently a reference to Article 1 of the Treaty) and "mutual
undertakings" to ensure the protection and security of the nationals of
each party in the territory of the other. It is only the latter that is cast in
the teimiiiology of legal obligation. That, in a nutshell, is the substance
of the 1955Treaty, rightly stated and understood. OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. SCHWEBEL,
VICE-PRÉSIDENT

[Traduction]

L'arrêtde la Cour contient de nombreux points auxquels je souscris,

mais je ne peux pas souscrireà son dispositif qui donne compétence à la
Cour pour connaître des demandes formulées par la République isla-
mique d'Iran au titre de l'article, paragraphe 1, du traitéd'amitié, de
commerce et de droits consulaires de 1955.
Pour interpréter la portée d'uneclause compromissoire figurant dans
un traitéet attribuant compétence àla Cour pour connaître de tout dif-
férends'élevantentre les parties «quant à l'interprétationouà l'applica-
tion» dudit traité,il faut que la Cour, comme pour n'importe quel autre
traité, établissequelle étaitl'intention des parties au traité.La Cour doit
considérersi les parties au traitévoulaient que des demandes revêtantle
caractère qui est propreà un certain différend soientde son ressort. La
Cour doit examiner si les demandes qui sont ainsi présentéesrelèvent
bien d'une disposition quelconque du traité.
Or, ni les Etats-Unis ni l'Iran, en concluant ce traité de 1955, n'en-

tendaient à mon avis que la Cour puisse connaître de demandes revê-
tant le caractère de cellesque l'Iran formule en l'espèce.J'estime que les
demandes de l'Iran ne relèvent pas non plus de l'une quelconque des
dispositions du traité,et qu'ellesne relèventdonc pas du paragraphe 1 de
l'article. Ni le texte du traiténi les circonstances entourant sa conclu-
sion ne confortent les thèsesiraniennes, pas mêmedans la mesure limitée
où la Cour a jugéque ces thèsesétaientdéfendables.
En 1980,interprétant le mêmetraité,la Cour a dit ceci:

«Le but mêmed'un traitéd'amitié, eten particulier d'un traité
d'établissement, est avant tout de promouvoir les relations entre
deux Etats et entre leurs peuples par l'engagement mutuel d'assurer
sur le territoire de chacun la protection et la sécurité des ressortis-
sants de l'autre.)) (Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats-
Unis à Téhéran,C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 28, par. 54.)

La Cour a donc fait une distinction entre promouvoir les relations entre
les deux Etats (ce qui renvoie apparemment àl'article premier du traité),
d'une part, et, de l'autre, l'«engagementmutuel)) d'assurer sur le terri-
toire de chacun la protection et la sécuritédesressortissants del'autre. Ce
n'est que le second terme qui est énoncé commel'est normalement une
obligation juridique. Voilà en raccourci quelle est la substance du traité
de 1955telle qu'il faut l'exprimer et la comprendre. Iran's complaints in this case turn on the attacks upon and destruction
of three offshore oil production complexes, owned by the National
Iranian Oil Company, which were situated on Iran's continental shelf
and within its exclusive economic zone. Iran maintains that the attacks
were carried out by several warships of the United States Navy, during a
period when Iran was the victim of a war imposed upon it by Iraq, whose
forces subjected its oil installations and commercial shipping to eight
years of attacks. The United States acknowledges that the oil platforms
in question were destroyed by forces of the United States Navy, and
claims that they were bombarded to put out of action bases which were
used to support a long series of attacks by Iranian military and paramili-
tary forces on United States and other neutral vesselsengaged in peaceful

commerce in the Persian Gulf. The United States claims that numerous
Iranian helicopter attacks against merchant shipping were launched from
oil platforms, and that small high-speed patrol boats were deployed from
oil platforms to attack shipping and lay naval mines. Those claims are
denied by Iran.

What is not denied, and cannot be denied, is that the attacks by the
United States Navy on the three Iranian oil platforms at issue constituted
a use by the United States of armed force against what it claims to have
seen as military objectives located within the jurisdiction of another
State, Iran.

The threshold question that the Court must resolve is, is a dispute over
attacks by United States Armed Forces against Iranian objectives in the
described circumstances a dispute that arises under the Treaty of Amity,
Economic Relations, and Consular Rights?

The answer to that question as 1 see it is, obviously not. It is obvious
from the title, preamble, and terms of the Treaty. It is obvious from the
circumstances of the conclusion as well as the text of the Treaty when
those circumstances are set out. And what the text and circumstances of
the Treaty demonstrate is sustained by such subsequent interpretation as
the parties have placed upon it.

The preamble of the Treaty provides:

"The United States of America and Iran, desirous of emphasizing
the friendly relations which have long prevailed between their
peoples, of reaffirming the high principles in the regulation ofman
affairs to which they are committed, of encouraging mutually bene-
ficial trade and investments and closer economic intercourse gen-
erally between their peoples, and of regulating consular relations, PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.DISS.SCHWEBEL) 875

L'EMPLO DE LA FORCE ARMÉE SUR LE PLAN INTERNATIONAL

En l'espèce,l'Iran a pour grief les attaques lancéescontre trois instal-
lations de production pétrolière offshore et leurdestruction; ces installa-
tions étaientpropriétéde la compagnie nationale iranienne despétroleset
étaient situéessur le plateau continental iranien, dans les limites de la
zone économiqueexclusiveiranienne. L'Iran dit que les attaques ont été

lancéespar plusieurs navires de guerre des Etats-Unis, à une époqueoù
l'Iran étaitvictime d'une guerre que lui imposait l'Iraq, dont les forces
ont soumis les installations pétrolières etle transport commercial pétro-
lier iranienà huit ans d'attaques. Les Etats-Unis reconnaissent que les
plates-formes pétrolières en questionont étédétruitespar la marine de
guerre des Etats-Unis et disent que ces platesformes ont été bombardées
pour mettre hors d'état de nuire des bases servant aux forcesmilitaires et
paramilitaires iraniennes à lancer une longue séried'attaques sur des
navires neutres, des Etats-Unis notamment, exerçant des activités com-
merciales pacifiques dans le golfe Persique. Les Etats-Unis soutiennent
que l'Iran a souvent lancé, à partir des plates-formes pétrolières,des
attaques par hélicoptèrecontre des navires marchands et déployait, à

partir des mêmesplates-formes, des vedettes rapides qui patrouillaient la
zone pour y attaquer les navires et mouiller des mines. L'Iran nie.
Ce qui n'est pas contesté et nepeut pas êtrecontesté,c'est que les at-
taques lancéespar la marine des Etats-Unis sur les trois plates-formes
pétrolièresen litige revenaient pour les Etats-Unis à utiliser la force
arméecontre ce que les Etats-Unis prétendent êtredes objectifsmilitaires
situésdans des emplacements relevant de la juridiction d'un autre Etat,
l'Iran.
La question que la Cour doit résoudre dèsle départest de savoir si un
différend relatif des attaques lancéespar les forces armées desEtats-
Unis contre des objectifs iraniens dans les circonstances ainsi décritesest
un différend qui relève du traité d'amitié, de commerce et de droits

consulaires.
A mon sens, il faut manifestement répondre à cette question par la
négative.Le «non» s'impose en raison de l'intitulé,du préambule et des
termes mêmesdu traité.Le «non» s'impose enraison des circonstances
de la conclusion du traitéet en raison de son texte mêmeauand ces cir-
constances sont rappelées.Et ce que le texte et les circonstances du traité
démontrent est en outre étayépar l'interprétation que les parties elles-
mêmes enont ultérieurement donnée.
Le préambuledu traités'énonce commesuit:

«Les Etats-Unis d'Amérique et l'Iran,animésdu désir de dévelop-

per les relations amicales qui unissent depuis longtemps leurs deux
peuples, de réaffirmer dans la direction des affaires humaines les
principes supérieurs auxquels ils sont attachés, d'encourager les
échanges etles investissementsmutuellement profitables et l'établis-
sement de relations économiques plus étroitesentre leurs peuples et have resolved to conclude, on the basis of reciprocal equality of
treatment, a Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights . . ."

It is plain that this is a Treaty which is essentiallyconcerned with encour-
aging mutually beneficial trade and investments and closer economic
intercourse on the basis of reciprocal equality of treatment. There is no
suggestion of regulating the use of armed force by one party against the
other.

Article 1 of the Treaty provides that there shall be firm and enduring
peace and sincere friendship between the United States and Iran. The
Court has quite correctlyheld that this provision must merely beregarded
as fixingan objective,in the light of which other Treaty provisions are to
be interpreted and applied; of itself it imposes no obligations, including
obligations governing the use of force in international relations. Those
other Treaty provisions regulate the conditions of residence of nationals

of one party on the territory of the other, particularly for purposes of
trade and investment, and assure the nationals of one party the most con-
stant protection and security in the territory of the other (Art. II); treat
the juridical status of companies and access to courts and arbitration
(Art. III); provide for fair and equitable treatment of the nationals and
companies of the other party and prescribe the most constant protection
and security for the property of nationals and companies of either party
in the territory of the other (Art. IV);rovide for the leasing of real prop-
erty and the acquisition of other property and its disposition by sale or
testament or otherwise, as well as effective protection of intellectual
property (Art. V); govern taxation (Art. VI); regulate financial transfers
(Art. VII); regulate imports, exports and customs duties (Arts. VI11and
IX); treat freedom of commerce and navigation (Art. X) and economic
transactions by government agencies(Art.XI) ;and provide for the rights
and duties of consuls (Arts. XII-XIX). None of these core provisions of
the Treaty suggests that attacks by armed forces of one party against
what it treats as militarv obiectives within the iurisdiction of the other
party are within the reach of the Treaty.

It is significantas well that the Treaty contains none of the treaty pro-
visions which typically do bear on the international use of force. There is
no pledge of non-aggression or alliance. There is no reference to military
assistance by one party in the event of armed attack upon or aggression
against the other. There is no reference to regional securityarrangements,
to the provision of military equipment, to status of forces, to bases on the
territory of one party for the forces of the other. Also significant is the
fact, which the Court's Judgment acknowledges, that the United States de réglerleurs relations consulaires, ont décidéde conclure, sur la
base de l'égalitréciproque de traitement,un traitéd'amitié, de com-
merce et de droits consulaires...»

Il est patent qu'il s'agitlà d'un traité qui a essentiellement pour objet
d'encourager les échangeset les investissementsmutuellement profitables
ainsi que l'établissementde relations économiques plus étroites sur la
base de l'égalitéréciproque detraitement. Il n'y a rien dans ce traité qui
vise à réglementer, ne fût-cequ'indirectement, l'emploi de la force armée
par l'une desparties contre l'autre.
L'articlepremier dispose qu'ily aura paix stable et durable et amitiésin-
cèreentre les Etats-Unis d'Amérique etl'Iran. La Cour dit très justement
que cette dispositiondoit simplementêtre regardéceommefixant un objectif

à la lumièreduquelles autres dispositionsdu traitédoivent être interprétées
et appliquées;en soi, cetarticlepremiern'impose aucune obligation, notam-
ment pas d'obligation régissanlt'emploide la force dans les relations inter-
nationales. Quant aux autres dispositions du traité qui sontvisées, elles
règlentlesconditions de résidence desressortissants de l'unedes parties sur
le territoire de l'autre, notamment auxfins du commerce et des investisse-
ments et assurentlesressortissantsde chacunedesparties de la protection et
de la sécuritéla plus constante dans les territoires de l'autre partie(art. II);
ellestraitent du statut des sociétésedte l'accèsaux tribunaux àtl'arbitrage
(art. III); elles prévoient que chacunedes parties accordera un traitement
juste et équitable aux ressortissants et auxsociétése l'autre partieet assu-
rent que la protection et la sécurides biensappartenant aux ressortissants
et aux sociétédse chacune des parties seront assuréesde la manière la plus

constante dans les territoires de l'autre partie (art. IV); elles autorisent
prendre à bail des biens immeubles, à acquérirdes biens mobilierset à alié-
ner des biens par voie de vente, de testament ou par tout autre moyen
et prévoienten outre que la propriétéintellectuellesera dûment protégée
(art. V); ellesrèglentla fiscalitéapp!icable (art. VI); ellesrèglentles trans-
ferts (art. VII); ellesrèglentles questions d'importation, d'exportationet de
droits de douane (art.VI11et IX); ellestraitent de la liberté decommerceet
de navigation (art. X) et des transactions économiques,des administrations
et agencespubliques(art. XI), et ellesdéfinissentlesdroits et obligationsdes
consuls (art. XII-XIX). Aucune de ces dispositions de fond du traiténe
donne à entendre que lesattaques lancéespar lesforces armées de l'unedes
parties contrecequ'elle estimeêtredes objectifsmilitairesrelevantde lajuri-
diction de l'autre partie entrentdans les prévisionsdu traité.
Elémentsignificatifaussi, le traiténe contient aucune des dispositions

conventionnellesqui concernent classiquement l'emploi dela force sur le
plan international. Il n'est formulé aucune promesse de non-agression ni
d'alliance.Il n'est pas indiquéque chacune des parties apportera à l'autre
une assistance militairepour le cas où l'une ou l'autre ferait l'objet d'une
attaque arméeou d'une agression. Il n'est pasfait mention d'arrangements
de sécurité à l'échellerégionale, dela fourniture de matériel militaire, du
statut des forces armées, de basesréservées sur le territoire de l'une desand Iran concluded other treaty arrangements for such purposes, notably
the Agreement of Co-operation between the Government of the United
States of America and Imperia1 Government of Iran of 5 March 1959.
That Agreement affirms "their right to CO-operatefor their security and
defence in accordance with Article 51 of the Charter of the United
Nations7' and declares that the United States "regards as vital to its
national interest and to world peace the preservation of the independence
and integrity of Iran". It provides that, in case of aggressionagainst Iran,

the United States willtake appropriate action, including the use of armed
forces, in order to assist Iran at its request. It also provides for the con-
tinued furnishing to Iran of military and economic assistance, and for co-
operation with other Governments in mutually agreed defensivearrange-
ments (Treaties and Other International Acts Series 4189).

Moreover, Article XX of the Treaty of 1955 indicates that certain
international uses of armed force, far from being within the compass of
the Treaty, are excluded from it. Article XX - the sole reference in the
Treaty to such matters - provides that:

"1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of
measures :

(d) necessary to fulfill the obligations of a High Contracting Party
for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and
security, or necessary to protect its essential security interests."

Article XX is an exclusionclause. It excludes from the areas regulated

by the obligations of the Treaty the application of specified measures,
including measures of a party "necessary to protect its essential security
interests".Such an exclusion can hardly entitle the Court to assumejuris-
diction over a claim that engages the essential security interests of the
United States if not Iran as well. The object of Iran's claims in this case
is the calculated application of armed force by the United States against
what it has treated as military objectives within the jurisdiction of Iran,
which objectives for its part Iran views as vital to its economic and stra-
tegic interests. It follows that, since the Treaty does not preclude the
application of such measures, they do not fa11within its regulated reach
and hence do not fa11within the scope of the compromissory clause sub-
mitting disputes "as to the interpretation or application of the present

Treaty" to the jurisdiction of the Court.parties aux forces de l'autre. Etil y a un autre fait significatif,que la Cour
reconnaît dans son arrêt,et qui est que les Etats-Unis et l'Iran ont conclu
d'autres arrangements conventionnels à ces fins-là, en particulier l'accord
de coopération du 5 mars 1959 entre le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis
d'Amérique etle Gouvernement impériald'Iran. Cet accord affirme «le
droit [des deux parties] de coopérerpour leur sécurité et leurdéfense
conformément àl'article51de la Charte desNations Unies))et proclame en
outre que les Etats-Unis tiennent «la sauvegarde de l'indépendance et de
l'intégrité de'Iran pour vitale dans l'intérêdtes Etats-Unis commepour la

paix du monde)). Le mêmeaccord prévoitque, en cas d'agressioncontre
l'Iran, lesEtats-Unis prendront,a la demande du Gouvernement iranien et
pour lui venir en aide, les mesures appropriées,y compris le recours à la
force armée. L'accord prévoit en outre que l'Iran continuera de recevoir
une assistance militaire-et économique,et que la coopérationsera assurée
avec d'autres gouvernements par le biais d'arrangements défensifsdont il
pourra être convenu(Nations Unies, Recueil des traitésv, ol. 327,p. 279).
De surcroît, l'article XX du traitéde 1955indique que, dans certains
cas, l'emploi international de la force armée,bien loin d'entrer dans le
champ d'application du traité, en est exclu. Cet article XX - la seule
disposition du traité qui traite de ces questions dispose:

«1. Le présenttraiténe fera pas obstacle à l'application de me-
sures:

d) ..nécessaires à l'exécution desobligations de l'une ou l'autre
des Hautes Parties contractantes relatives au maintien ou au
rétablissementde la paix et de la sécuritéinternationales ou àla
protection des intérêts vitaux decette Haute Partie contractante
sur le plan de la sécurité.))

L'article XX est une clause d'exclusion. Il exclut des domaines où

s'exercent les obligations découlant du traité l'application de certaines
mesures, dont lesmesures qui sont, pour l'uneou pour l'autre des parties,
((nécessairesà la protection [de ses]intérêts vitauxsur le plan de la sécu-
rité)).Pareille exclusionne saurait conféreà la Cour compétenceau sujet
d'une réclamation quiengage les intérêts vitaux sur le plan de la sécurité
des Etat-Unis, sinon de l'Iran également.En l'espèce, lesdemandes de
l'Iran ont pour objet l'utilisation délibéree la force arméepar lesEtats-
Unis à l'encontre de ce que ces derniers ont considéré êtrd ees objectifs
militaires relevant de la juridiction de l'Iran, objectifs que, pour sa part,
l'Iran considère comme vitaux aux fins de ses intérêts économiquee st
stratégiques.Il s'ensuitque, comme le traiténe fait pas obstacleà l'appli-

cation de telles mesures, celles-ci ne rentrent pas dans les prévisions
expresses dudit traitéet ne relèventdonc pas de la clause compromissoire
attribuant compétence à la Cour pour connaître des différends relatifs((à
l'interprétationou à l'application du présenttraité)). How does the Judgment of the Court affirming its jurisdiction deal
with Article XX?
It asserts that the Treaty of 1955 contains no provision expressly
excluding certain matters from the jurisdiction of the Court. It then
quotes Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), and acknowledges that,
"This text could be interpreted as excluding certain measures from
the actual scope of the Treaty and, consequently, as excluding the

jurisdiction of the Court to test the lawfulness of such measures."
(Para. 20.)
But it continues :

"It could also be understood as affording only a defence on the
merits. The Court, in its Judgment of 27 June 1986 in the case con-
cerning Militavy and Pavamilitary Activities in and against Nicava-
gua (Nicavagua v. United States of America), adopted the latter
interpretation for the application of an identical clause included in
the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation concluded
between the United States and Nicaragua on 21 January 1956(1.C.J.
Reports 1986,p. 116,para. 222, and p. 136,para. 271). Iran argues,
in this case, that the Court should give the same interpretation to
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d). The United States, for its part, in the

most recent presentation of its arguments, stated that 'consideration
of the interpretation and application of Article XX, paragraph 1 (d),
was a merits issue'.The Court seesno reason to Varythe conclusions
it arrived at in 1986.It accordingly takes the view that Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), does not restrict its jurisdiction in the present case,
but is confined to affording the Parties a possible defence on the
merits to be used should the occasion arise." (Ibid.)

It is true that the Court in its 1986Judgment on the merits in Militavy
and Pavamilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua treated the corre-
sponding article of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation
between the United States and Nicaragua as a defence on the merits,
which in the particular circumstances it found to be unpersuasive. The
Court had failed to address the auestion at al1in its 1984Jud~mentuon
jurisdiction, when it should naturally have done so; as a consequence, the
question fell to the merits if it was to be addressed at all. In my view,this
history leaves the Court free in the present proceedings objectively to
apply the terms of Article XX of the Treaty of 1955, unconstrained by
the 1986holding. The reasoning belatedly expressed by the Court on the
matter in 1986was in my view unpersuasive and remains so; and ques-
tion has been rightly raised about the "value as a precedent" of holdings

of the Court in the case (Shabtai Rosenne, The World Court, What It Is
and How It Wovks, 5th ed., rev., 1995,pp. 152-153).

The Court in this Judgment takes the position that Iran argued in these PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.DISSS . CHWEBEL) 878

Comment est-ce que la Cour, dans l'arrêtqui lui donne néanmoins
compétence,traite de l'articleXX?
La Cour affirme d'abord que le traitéde 1955ne contient aucune dis-
position excluant expressément certaines matières de sa compétence. Elle
cite ensuite le paragraphe 1d) de l'article XX, et reconnaît que:

«Ce texte pourrait être interprété comme excluant certaines me-
sures du champ mêmed'application du traité, et,par voie de consé-
quence, comme excluant de la compétence de laCour l'appréciation
de la licéitde telles mesures.)) (Par. 20.)
Mais la Cour poursuit

«Mais il pourrait être compris comme ouvrant seulement une
défenseau fond. La Cour, dans son arrêtdu 27juin 1986en l'affaire
des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique),a adoptéla seconde
interprétation pour l'application d'une clauseidentique figurantdans
le traité d'amitié,de commerce et de navigation conclu entre les

Etats-Unis et le Nicaragua le 21 janvier 1956 (C.I.J. Recueil 1986,
p. 116,par. 222, et p. 136,par. 271). L'Iran soutient en l'espèceque
la Cour devrait donner la mêmeinterprétation au paragraphe 1 d)
de l'articleXX. Quant aux Etats-Unis, ils ont, dans le dernier étatde
leur argumentation, déclaréqu'«aborder la question de l'interpréta-
tion et de l'application du paragraphe 1) de l'articleXX relevait de
l'examen au fond)). La Cour ne voit aucune raison d'aboutir à des
conclusions différentes de celles auxquelles elle était parvenue en
1986.Elleestime, par suite, que leparagraphe 1 d) de l'articleXX ne
restreint pas sa compétencedans la présente affaire, mais offre seu-
lement aux Parties une défenseau fond qu'il leurappartiendra, le cas
échéant, de faire valoirle moment venu.» (Ibid.)

Il est vrai au'en l'affaire des Activités militaires et uaramilitaires au
Nicaragua et contre celui-ci,dans son arrêtde 1986sur le fond, la Cour
a considéré l'articlecorrespondant du traitéd'amitié, de commerce etde
navigation entre les Etats-Unis et le Nicaragua comme une défenseau
fond, qu'en l'occurrence, du reste, elle n'a pas jugé convaincante. La
Cour s'étaitabstenue de traiter la question dans son arrêtde 1984sur la
compétence,au moment où elleaurait normalement dû le faire. Par suite,
c'est au stade du fond qu'il fallait bien traiter la question si, du moins, il

fallait l'examiner. mon avis, ceprécédentdonne en la présente instance
à la Cour toute libertépour appliquer objectivement les dispositions de
l'articleXX du traitéde 1955sans se sentir tenue par la décisionde 1986.
Le raisonnement que la Cour a tardivement exprimé sur la question en
1986 n'était à mon avis pas convaincant et ne l'est toujours pas; des
doutes ont très justement été exprimés d'ailleurssur la ((valeur de précé-
dent» des décisions de laCour en l'espèce(Shabtai Rosenne, The World
Court, What It Is and How It Works, 5" éd.révisée, 1995p ,. 152-153).
Dans le présentarrêt,le point de vue de la Cour est que, selon la thèseproceedings that the Court should give the same interpretation to
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), as it did in 1986, and that the United
States concluded that consideration of the interpretation and application
of Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), was an issue for the merits. The Court
declares that it sees no reason to Varythe conclusions arrived at in 1986.
But 1 believe the position of the United States in this case, and the
responsibilities of the Court in this case, to be somewhat different.

In its Preliminary Objection, the United States maintained that :

"Section 4. Article XX Confirms that the 1955 Treaty Is Not
Intended to Address Questions Relating to the Use of Force by
the Parties During Armed Conflict
3.36. Any doubts as to the applicability of the 1955 Treaty to
Iran's claims is dispelled by ArticleXX of the Treaty, paragraph (l),
which provides :

'1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of
measures :
............................
(d) necessary ... to protect its [a party's] essential security
interests.'

3.37. The intended relationship of this provision to the jurisdic-
tion of the Court was expressly addressed during the process of
obtaining ratification of other friendship treaties with the identical
provision. Thus, in connection with the ratification of the treaty with
China the Department of State submitted to the United States Sen-
ate a memorandum on the dispute settlement clause that addressed
the scope of the compromissory clause providing for the submission
of disputes under that treaty to this Court. That Memorandum pro-
vides:

'The compromissory clause ... is limited to questions of inter-
pretation or application of this treaty; i.e., it is a special not a
general compromissory clause.
............................
Furthermore, certain important subjects, notably immigration,
traffic in military supplies, and the "essential interests of the coun-
try in time of national emergency", are specificallyexcepted from
the purview of the treaty. In view of the above, it is difficult to
conceive how Article XXVIII could result in this Government's
being impleaded in a matter in which it might be embarrassed.'

A similar memorandum was later submitted to the Senate in regard
to FCN treaties with Belgium and Viet Nam. That memorandum
points out:
'a number of the features which in its view make this provision
satisfactory ... These include the fact that the provision is limited PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.DISSS . CHWEBEL) 879

de l'Iran, elle doit donner du paragraphe 1 d) de l'article XX la même
interprétation qu'en 1986,et que les Etats-Unis estiment que l'interpréta-
tion et l'application du paragraphe 1 d) de l'articleXX relèventde l'exa-
men au fond. La Cour déclare ne voir aucune raison d'aboutir à des
conclusions différentes de celles auxquelles elle est parvenue en 1986.
Maisj'estime quant àmoi que la position des Etats-Unis en l'espèceet les
tâches incombant à la Cour en l'espècene sont pas absolument les
mêmes.
Dans son exception préliminaire,les Etats-Unis ont soutenu ceci:

((Section 4. L'article XX conjrme que le traitéde 1955
ne vise pasà régler desquestions relativesà l'emploi delaforce
par lesparties au cours d'un conJiitarmé

3.36. Tout doute quant à l'applicabilitédu traité de 1955 aux
demandes de l'Iran est dissipépar l'articleXX du traité,dont lepara-
graphe 1 dispose:

«1. Le présenttraité ne fera pas obstacle à l'application de me-
sures :
............................
d) ...nécessaires... àla protection des intérêts vitaux [d'unpear-
tie]...sur le plan de la sécurité.)

3.37. Le lienprévuentre cette disposition et la compétence de la
Cour a été spécifiquemenatbordé lors du processus de ratification
d'autres traités d'amitiécontenant une disposition identique. Ainsi,
àl'occasion de la ratification du traitéavec la Chine, le département
d7Etat a soumis au Sénat américain unmémorandum sur la clause
de règlementdes différendsdans lequel étaitexaminéela portée de la
clause compromissoire prévoyant que les différends découlant dece
traitéseraient soumis à la Cour. Il y étaitprécisé:

«La clause compromissoire ...est limitéeaux questions d'inter-
prétation ou d'application de ce traité; c'est-à-dire qu'il s'agit
d'une clause compromissoire spéciale et non générale.
............................
En outre, certains sujets importants, notamment l'immigration,
le commerce de fournitures militaires, et les ((intérêts vitaux du
pays en situation d'urgence nationale)), sont expressémentexclus

du traité. Au vu de ce qui précède,on voit mal comment le gou-
vernement, par le jeu de l'article XXVIII, pouvait être attrait en
justice dans une affaire qui risquerait d'êtreembarrassante. »
Un document analogue a été ultérieurement soumia su Sénat àpro-
pos des traités d'amitié,de commerce et de navigation conclus avec
la Belgique et le Vietnam. Il y est souligné:

«un certain nombre des caractéristiquesqui semblent rendre cette
disposition satisfaisante...Parmi celles-ci, le fait que la disposi- to differences arising immediately from the specific treaty con-
cerned, that such treaties deal with familiar subject matter and are
thoroughly documented in the records of the negotiation, that an
established body of interpretation already exists for much of the
subject matter of such treaties, and that such purely domestic
matters as immigration policy and military security are placed
outside the scope of such treaties by specificexceptions.'

This history demonstrates that the 1955Treaty was not intended to
reach matters relating to the essential security interests of the parties.

.............................
3.40. In the Nicavaguacase the Court held that US national secu-
rity interests were not threatened by the insurgent attacks against El
Salvador that had formed the basis of the US claim to have acted in
self-defense. In contrast, Iranian attacks on US and other neutral
vessels in the Persian Gulf clearly threatened US national security

interests. In the current case, the United States invokes the com-
parable article in the 1955Treaty for the purpose of supporting its
argument that Articles 1,IV and X of the 1955Treaty relied upon by
Iran were never intended to address the use of force issues presented
by Iran's claims in connection with the events of October 1987
and April 1988."

The United States Preliminary Objection concluded that, in this case,
"Consequently, the Court is presented with exactly the type of situation
the 1955Treaty does not cover." (Pp. 50-53.)
At the stage of the oral proceedings, counsel of the United States
initially submitted:
"Article XX (1) (d) requires that the 1955Treaty

'shall not preclude the application of measures . . .necessary to
fulfillthe obligations of a High Contracting Party for the mainte-
nance or restoration of international peace and security or neces-
sary to protect its essential security interests'.

Our preliminary objection suggested that, as a jurisdictional mat-
ter, this provision helped to show that Articles 1, IV and X, those
invoked by Iran, were not designed or intended to govern Iran's
claims regarding the use of force.This is because Article XX (1) (d)
manifested the parties' intent to keep such matters outside the scope
of the Treaty. We believe that jurisdictional point remains valid.
However, the Islamic Republic of Iran's Observations and Submis-
sions responded to it with several pages of animated arguments PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.DISSS . CHWEBEL) 880

tion ne porte que sur des litiges nésdirectement du traité par-
ticulier en cause, que ces traitésportent sur des sujets bien connus
et qu'ils sont solidement documentéspar les dossiers de la négo-
ciation, qu'il existedéjàun corpsd'interprétation de la plupart des
matières couvertes par ces traitéset que des questions purement
nationales comme la politique d'immigration et la sécurité mili-
taire sont expressément excluesde ces traités.))

Cet aperçu historique démontre que le traitéde 1955ne visait pas à
couvrir des questions relatives aux intérêts vitauxdes parties sur le
plan de la sécurité.

.............................
3.40. Dans l'affaire du Nicaragua, la Cour a considéréque les
intérêtsvitaux des Etats-Unis sur le plan de la sécurité n'étaient
pas menacéspar les attaques de rebelles contre El Salvador que les
Etats-Unis invoquaient pour prétendre avoir agi au titre de la 1é-
gitime défense.En revanche, les attaques iraniennes contre les na-
vires des Etats-Unis et d'autres pays neutres dans le golfe Persique
menaçaient clairement les intérêts vitaux de sécurité desEtats-Unis.

Dans la présente affaire,les Etats-Unis invoquent l'article compa-
rable du traité de 1955 pour soutenir que les articles premier, IV
et X du traité de 1955, sur lesquels l'Iran se fonde, n'ont jamais
viséà régir lesquestions d'emploi de la force invoquéesdans les de-
mandes iraniennes en relation avec les événements d'octobre 1987et
avril 1988.))

Et les Etats-Unis concluent leur exception préliminaireen disant qu'en
l'espèce«[il1s'ensuitque la Cour est précisément saisideu genre de situa-
tion que le traitéde 1955ne couvre pas.)) (p. 50-53)
Au stade de la procédure orale,le conseil des Etats-Unis a dit au début
de sa plaidoirie:

«Aux termes du paragraphe 1 d) de l'article XX, le traité de
1955
«ne fera pas obstacleàl'application demesures ..nécessaires àl'exé-
cution des obligations de l'uneou l'autredesHautes Parties contrac-

tantes relativesau maintien ou au rétablissementde la paix et de la
sécuritéinternationales ouà la protection desintérêts vitaux de cette
Haute Partie contractante sur le plan de la sécurit))
Dans notre exception préliminaire,nous donnions à entendre que,
du point de vuejuridictionnel, cette dispositionconforte l'idéeque les

articles,IV et X, ceux-là mêmeq sui sont invoquéspar l'Iran,n'étaient
pas destinésà régirles réclamations iraniennes concernant l'emplodie
la force et n'étaient pasnon plus conçues en ce sens. En effet,lepara-
graphe 1 d) de l'articleXX montrait que lesparties avaient eu l'inten-
tion de laisser ces questions en dehors de la portéedu traité. A notre
avis, cette observation d'ordre juridictionnel garde toute sa valeur. essentially addressing how Article XX (1) (d) should be interpreted
and applied to the merits of this dispute.

With respect, 1 think this is not the point on which to join
issue on these particular arguments. We do not now, where the
issue is the Court's lack of jurisdiction, raise Article XX (1) (d)

as a defence against the merits of Iran's claims. The significance of
Article XX (1) (d) is not at the heart of Ourposition concerning this
Court's lack of jurisdiction. It should not be allowed to cloud the
issues that are before the Court. Thus, 1 suggest that it is not
necessary for the Court to address the specificarguments regarding
the construction and application of Article XX (1) (d), unless
there should be a future merits phase." (CR 96/13, p. 33.)

Subsequently, United States counsel stated:

"that consideration of the interpretation and application of Ar-
ticle XX (1) (d) was a merits issue . . The position of the United
States is that the 1955Treaty does not regulate the conduct of mili-
tary hostilities, and therefore, that such conduct should never -
never - be the subject of any merits proceedings in this Court under
the Treaty. Article XX (1) (d) is not inconsistent with this position
. . If the Court should rule that it does havejurisdiction to adjudi-
cate Iran's claims regarding the military events at issue - then, of

course, the United States would demonstrate that its actions did not
violate the Treaty. In this regard, the United States would invoke
Article XX, paragraph 1, and show that the Treaty does not pre-
clude the Parties from taking actions consistent with the law govern-
ing the use of force and the exercise of self-defence.

Thus, the United States certainly does not concede that the 1955
Treaty regulates the conduct of armed conflict.However, should the
Court rule otherwise, there will be a need for the Parties and the
Court to examine with care the exceptions to the reach of the Treaty
that are expressly written into Article XX (1) (d)." (CR 96116,
pp. 35-36.)

Therefore, in the end, as in the beginning, the United States treats
Article XX as specifying exceptions to the reach of the Treaty. As
1understand its position, it maintains that Article XX on its face places

the use of force in protection of a party's essential security interests
beyond the reach of the Treaty, but if nevertheless the Court should
assume jurisdiction in the case, this provision will provide a defence on
the merits.
In my view,for the reasons stated, the Court should have passed upon
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), at this stage of the proceedings and given Mais la Ré~ubliaueislamiaued'Iran. dans sesobservations et conclu-
sions, a réagiavec plusieurs pages d'argumentation trèsvive visant
démontrer quele paragraphe 1 d) de l'article XX intéressedans son
interprétation et son applicationle fond du différend.
Je me permets de dire qu'il n'y a pas lieu ici d'entamer decontro-
verse sur cet élémenten particulier. Nous n'allons pasà présent,le
point à trancher étant que la Cour n'est pas compétente,nous dé-

fendre au fond contre la demande iranienne par le biais du para-
graphe 1 d) de l'article XX. Nous ne nous fondons pas essentielle-
ment sur cette disposition pour soutenir que la Cour n'est pas
compétente. Il ne faudrait donc pas que cette disposition finissepar
obscurcir l'objet de la procédure.Il n'est pas indispensableà mon
sens, que la Cour se penche sur les thèses relativàsl'interprétation
età l'application du paragraphe 1 d) de cet article XX, sauf s'ildoit
y avoir examen au fond.» (CR 96/16, p. 33.)

Par la suite, le conseil des Etats-Unis a dit aussi:

«à notre sens, aborder la question de l'interprétation et de l'appli-
cation du paragraphe 1 d) de l'article XX relèv[e]de l'examen au
fond ..Pour lesEtats-Unis, le traité de1955ne réglementepas lacon-
duite deshostilitésmilitaires,d'où il suit que ce sujetne devraitjamais,
au grand jamais, faire l'objet d'un examen au fond par la Cour dans
le cadre du traité. Le paragraphe 1 d) de l'article XX n'est pas in-
compatible avec cette position...Si la Cour venaità décider qu'elle
a compétencepour se prononcer sur les demandes de l'Iran relati-
vement aux événements militairesen cause, il va sans dire que les
Etats-Unis démontreraient que leurs actes ne sont pas des violations

du traité.Les Etats-Unis invoqueraient à cet égardle paragraphe 1
de l'article XX pour montrer que le traitén'empêchepas les parties
de prendre des mesures compatibles avec les règlesde droit régissant
l'emploi de la force et de l'exercicede la légitimedéfense.
Ainsi, les Etats-Unis ne reconnaissent certainement pas que le
traitéde 1955régit la conduite des conflits armés.Si la Cour venait
toutefoisà se prononcer dans un autre sens, les Parties et la Cour
seraient alors tenues d'examiner attentivement les exceptions que le
paragraphe 1 d) de l'article XX apporte expressément à la sphère
d'application du traité. (CR 96/16, p. 35-36.)

En somme,du début à la fin,les Etats-Unis considèrent que l'article XX
définitdes exceptions à l'application du traité. Pourles Etats-Unis, leur
position telle que je l'entends estque l'article XX exclut du champ d'ap-
plication du traité l'emploi de la force, lequel répond chez l'une ou
l'autre des parties au souci de protégersesintérêts vitasur le plan de la

sécurité, maisau cas où, néanmoins, laCour devrait exercer sa compé-
tence en l'espèce,cette disposition offre un moyen de défenseau fond.
A mon sens,pour les raisons indiquées,la Cour aurait dû se prononcer
sur le paragraphe 1d) de l'article XXà ce stade de la procédure etauraiteffect to it, whatever the equivocations in the construction of it advanced

in the oral argument.
Apart from Article XX, the Court more generally concludes:
"The Treaty of 1955imposes on each of the Parties various obli-
gations on a variety of matters. Any action by one of the Parties that
is incompatible with those obligations is unlawful, regardless of the
means by which it is brought about. A violation of the rights of one
party under the Treaty by means of the use of force is as unlawful as
would be a violation by administrative decision or by any other

means. Matters relating to the use of force are therefore not peu se
excluded from the reach of the Treaty of 1955."(Para. 21.)

1 agree with this reasoning in a measure. If Iran or the United States
were to expropriate property of a national of the other without compen-
sation and use force in the process, or if Iran or the United States were by
force to maltreat or imprison a consul of the other, the Treaty would be
violated. To this extent, the Court is right to Saythat a violation of the

rights of a party under the Treaty by means of the use of force is as much
a breach as would be a violation by administrative decision or other
means. In this sense, matters relating to the use of force are not as such
excluded from the purview of the Treaty.

But it does not follow that the use by one party to the Treaty of its
armed forces to attack what it treated as military objectives within the
jurisdiction of the other party is within the reach of the Treaty. The
Treaty simply does not deal with that kind of use offorce, which is rather
governed by the Charter of the United Nations and other provisions of
international law relating to armed conflict between States.

This conclusion is sustained by papers submitted by the United States
Government to the United States Senate in connection with the ratifica-
tion of the Treaty of 1955as well as other very similar treaties of friend-
ship, commerce and navigation. Not only did the United States cite and
rely upon these papers in these proceedings; it is significant that Iran

itself did so as well (see the Memorial submitted by the Islamic Republic
of Iran, Exhibit 98, which quotes from a statement on commercial trea-
ties with Iran, Nicaragua and the Netherlands submitted to the United
States Senate on 3 July 1956,and the Observations and Submissions on
the United StatesPreliminary Objection Submitted by the Islamic Repub-
lic of Iran, Exhibit 10, which quotes from a memorandum to the United
States Embassy at Chongqing of 2 February 1945for use in negotiating
the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with China). These
papers may properly be weighed by the Court not as travaux prépara-
toires, but as part of the circumstances of the conclusion of the Treaty,
introduced by both of the Parties to the Treaty and to these proceedings,
as to the admissibility of which no question was raised by the Court. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.DISSS . CHWEBEL) 882

dû lui donner effet indépendamment des équivoques auxquelles l'inter-
prétation decette disposition a pu donner lieu au cours des plaidoiries.
L'article XX mis àpart, la Cour conclut que, plus généralement:

«Le traité de1955met à la charge de chacune des Parties des obli-
gations diverses dans des domaines variés.Toute action de l'une des
Parties incompatible avec ces obligations est illicite,quels que soient
les moyens utilisés cette fin. La violation, par l'emploi de la force,
d'un droit qu'une partie tient du traité,est tout aussi illicite que le
serait sa violation par la voie d'une décisionadministrative ou par
tout autre moyen. Les questions relativesà l'emploi de la force ne
sont donc pas exclues en tant que telles du champ d'application du
traitéde 1955.~(Para. 21.)

Je souscrisà ce raisonnement jusqu'à un certain point. Si l'Iran ou les
Etats-Unis expropriaient les biens d'un ressortissantde l'autre partie sans
l'indemniseret cefaisant recourraitla force, ou bien sil'Iran ou lesEtats-
Unis devaientrecourir à la force pour maltraiter ou emprisonner un consul
del'autre partie,ily aurait violationdu traité. Danscette mesure-là,la Cour
a raison de dire que la violation par l'emploide la force d'un droit qu'une
partie tient du traité correspond une violation du traité aumêmetitre
qu'uneviolation opéréepar la voied'unedécisionadministrativeou par tout

autre moyen. En ce sens-là,les questions relativàsl'emploi dela force ne
sont pas en tant que telles excluesdu champ d'applicationdu traité.
Mais il ne s'ensuitpas que l'utilisation par l'une des parties au traitéde
ses forces arméespour attaquer ce qu'elle a considéré comme des objec-
tifs militaires relevant de la juridiction de l'autre partie entre dans lespré-
visions du traité. Celui-ci ne vise tout simplement pas cette sorte de
recours à la force qui relèveplutôt de la Charte des Nations Unies et
d'autres dispositions du droit international concernant les conflits armés
entre Etats.
Cette conclusion est confortéepar les documents que le Gouvernement
des Etats-Unis a soumis au Sénatdes Etats-Unis à l'occasion de la rati-
fication du traitéde 1955comme il l'a fait pour d'autres traités trèsvoi-

sins d'amitié,de commerce et de navigation. Et ce ne sont pas seulement
les Etats-Unis qui citent ces documents en la présenteinstance pour s'en
prévaloir;il est significatifde constater queran en a fait autant (voir le
mémoire déposé par la République islamique d'Iran, pièce 98, qui cite
une déclaration surles traitéscommerciaux passés avecl'Iran, le Nicara-
gua et les Pays-Bas faite au Sénatdes Etats-Unis le 3 juillet 1956,ainsi
que les observations et conclusions présentéespar la République isla-
mique d'Iran sur l'exception préliminaire desEtats-Unis, pièce 10, dans
laquelle l'Iran citeun mémorandumadressé àl'ambassade des Etats-Unis
à Chongqing le 2 février1945aux fins de la négociationdu traité d'ami-
tié,de commerce et de navigation avec la Chine). La Cour est fondée à
voir dans ces documents non pas des travaux préparatoires, mais un élé-

ment des circonstances entourant la conclusion du traité, que les deux
Parties au traitéet la présenteinstance ont invoqué etdont la Cour n'aIndeed in its Judgment the Court itself relies on these documents - and
the absence of divergent Iranian documents - to show the meaning
attached to provisions of the Treaty of 1955.

Iran invoked a memorandum concerning negotiation of the Treaty of
Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States and
China. One of the papers of that negotiation is published in the pleadings
in the case concerning United States Diplornatic and Consular Staff in
Tehran,Annex 52,entitled, "Memorandum on Dispute SettlementClause

in Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with China". It says
of a compromissory clause identical to that found in the Treaty of 1955 :

"The compromissory clause (Article XXVIII) of the treaty with
China, however, is limited to questions of the interpretation or
application of this treaty; i.e., it is a special not a general compro-
missory clause. It applies to a treaty on the negotiation of which
there is voluminous documentation indicating the intent of the
parties. This treaty deals with subjects which are common to a large
number of treaties, concluded over a long period of time by nearly
al1nations. Much of the general subject-matter - and in some cases

almost identical language - has been adjudicated in the courts of
this and other countries. The authorities for the interpretation of this
treaty are, therefore, to a considerable extent established and well
known. Furthermore, certain important subjects, notably immigra-
tion, traffic in military supplies, and the 'essential interests of the
country in time of national emergency', are specifically excepted
from the purview of the treaty. In view of the above, it is difficult to
conceive how Article XXVIII could result in this Government's
being impleaded in a matter in which it might be embarrassed."

Annex 53 to the same pleadings refers to the foregoing paper in these
terms :

"This paper indicates that the provision in question is intended to
fil1the need for an agreed method of settling differencesarising out

of treaties of this type, that would be both sound and generally
acceptable. It points out a number of the features which in its view
make the provision satisfactory from this standpoint. These include
the fact that the provision is limited to differences arising immedi-
ately from the specifictreaty concerned, that such treaties deal with
familiar subject-matter and are thoroughly documented in the
records of the negotiation, that an established body of interpretation
already exists for much of the subject-matter of such treaties, and
that such purely domestic matters as immigration policy and mili-
tary security are placed outside the scope of such treaties by specificpas du tout mis en question la recevabilité. D'ailleurs,dans son arrêt,la
Cour elle-même invoque ces documents ainsi que l'absencede documents
iraniens en sens contraire pour montrer quel est le sens des dispositions
du traitéde 1955.
L'Iran a donc invoqué unmémorandum concernant la négociationdu
traitéd'amitié, de commerce et de navigation concluentre les Etats-Unis

et la Chine. L'un des documents de ladite négociation est publiédans le
volume dela série des Mémoires,plaidoirieset documentsconcernant l'af-
faire relativeauPersonneldiplomatiqueet consulaire des Etats-Unis à Téhé-
ran, àl'annexe52,sous l'intitulé: ((Mémorandumsur la clausede règlement
des différendsfigurant dans le traité d'amitié,de commerce et dena-
vigation avec la Chine)).Au sujet d'une clause compromissoire identique
à celle qui est énoncéedans le traitéde 1955,ce mémorandum dit ceci:

«La clause compromissoire (art. XXVIII) du traitéavec la Chine,
toutefois, est limitéeaux questions d'interprétation ou d'application
de ce traité;c'est-à-dire qu'il s'agitd'une clause compromissoire spé-
ciale et non générale. Elle s'appliqueà un traité sur la négociation
duquel il existe une documentation volumineuse indiquant quelle est
l'intention des parties. Ce traité porte surdes sujets qui seretrouvent
dans un grand nombre des traités quela quasi-totalité des paysont
conclus tout au long d'une vériode considérable.Pour une bonne
"
part les questions généralesqui y sont traitées - sous une forme
parfois quasi identique- ont fait l'objet de décisionsjudiciaires ren-
dues par les tribunaux de ce pays-ci entre autres. Il est donc possible
d'invoquer très largement desautorités incontestables quand il y a
lieud'interpréterle traité. En outre, certainssujetsimportants, notam-
ment l'immigration,le commercede fournitures militaires et les «inté-
rêts vitauxdu pays en situation d'urgence nationale)) sont expressé-
ment exclusdu traité. Auvu de ce qui précède,on voit mal comment
le gouvernement, par lejeu de l'article XXVIII, pourrait êtreattrait
en justice dans une affaire qui risquerait d'êtreembarrassante.»

Et l'annexe 53 aux mêmespièces évoquele mémorandum ci-dessus
dans les termes suivants:

«Ce document indique que la disposition en question doit ré-
pondre au besoin de disposer d'une méthodeconvenue de règlement
des différends qui peuvent découler detraités de ce type, une mé-
thode qui soit à la fois rationnelle et généralement acceptable. Le
mémorandum souligne un certain nombre des caractéristiques qui
semblent rendre cette disposition à son avis satisfaisante de ce point

de vue. Parmi ces caractéristiques,le fait que la disposition ne porte
que sur des litigesnés directementdu traitéparticulier en cause, que
ces traités portent sur des sujets bien connus et qu'ils sont solide-
ment documentéspar les dossiers de la négociation,qu'il existedéjà
un corps d'interprétation de laplupart desmatières couvertespar ces
traités,et que des questions purement nationales comme la politique exceptions. The paper indicates the Department's view not only that
such a treaty provision would not operate in a manner detrimental
to US interests but that itis in the interest of the United States to be
able to have recourse to the International Court of Justice in case of
treaty violation." (I.C.J. Pleadings, United States Diplomatie and
Consular Staff in Tehran, pp. 235, 237.)

These quotations establish not only that treaties of friendship, com-
merce and navigation concluded by the United States, like a large number
of treaties concluded over a long period of time by almost al1nations,
concern familiar commercial matters, as to which there is voluminous
documentation, the authorities for the interpretation of which are estab-
lished and well known and which are the subject of much national adju-
dication (unlike matters concerning the international use of force, which
are not). They establish as wellthat the compromissory clause is meant to
be "limited to differences arising immediately from the specific treaty

concerned". Moreover, they reaffirm that essential security interests "are
specificallyexcepted from the purview of the treaty". Military security "is
placed outside the scope of such treaties by specificexception[s]".

Al1this demonstrates the intention of the United States in concluding
treaties of this content and character. It is significant not only that Iran
has itself introduced evidence of this very kind in these proceedings. It is
no lesssignificantthat Iran has not introduced any evidenceshowing that
its intentions in concluding the Treaty of 1955differed from those of the
United States. By way of contrast, Iran introduced vital evidence of its
legislative intent "filed for the sole purpose of throwing light on a dis-
puted question of fact, namely, the intention of the Government of Iran"
at the time it adhered to the Court's compulsory jurisdiction under the

Optional Clause (Anglo-Zranian Oil Co., I.C.J. Reports 1952, pp. 93,
107).

Finally, in construing the Treaty of 1955before the Iran-United States
Claims Tribunal, that is, in interpreting the Treaty in practice, Iran
argued that the use of military force "was unforeseen by that Treaty and
cannot be regulated by it". In Amoco International Finance Corp. v.
Islamic Republic of Iran, Iran contended :

" 'First, it is totally unrealistic to assume that at the time in ques-
tion, 197911980,the Treaty of Amity was operative in the relations
between the United States and Iran. The situation which existed
(and which included the sending of a US military expedition into
Iranian territory, as wellas the seizure of Iranian assets) was not one
which could be said to be regulated by the terms of the 1955Treaty PLATES-FORM PESROLIÈRES (OP.DISSS . CHWEBEL) 884

d'immigration et la sécurité militairesont expressémentexclues de

ces traités.Le document indique en outre que, pour le département
d'Etat, non seulementpareille disposition conventionnelle ne s'appli-
querait pas au détriment desintérêtsdes Etats-Unis, mais encore
serait-il de l'intért ême desEtats-Unis de pouvoir recourir à la
Cour internationale de Justice au cas où letraitéserait violé..I.J.
Mémoires, Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats-Unis à
Téhéranp ,. 235, 237)

Les extraits cités ci-dessus établissentnon seulement que les traités
d'amitié, decommerce et de navigation conclus par les Etats-Unis, tout
comme un grand nombre de traités conclus pratiquement par la totalité
des pays pendant une très longue période, concernent des questions
d'ordre commercial bien connues, au sujet desquelles la documentation
est considérable,dont l'interprétation émane d'autorités incontestables
et qui font l'objetde nombreuses causesdevant lesjuridictions national(à
la différencedes questions relativesà l'emploi international de la force,
pour lesquelles tel n'est pas le cas). Ces citations établissentégalement
que la clause compromissoire est censée «ne porte[r] que sur des litiges
nésdirectement du traité particulier en cause)). En outre, ces citations
réaffirmentque les intérêts vitaux surle plan de la sécuritésont expres-

sémentexclusdu traité.La sécuritémilitaire est ((expressémeenxtclue...de
ces traités)).
Tout cela montre bien quelle étaitl'intention des Etats-Unis quand ils
concluaient des traitésde cette teneur et de ce caractère. Il est significatif
de constater non seulement que l'Iran a lui-mêmeinvoqué des éléments
de preuve exactement du mêmeordre en la présente instance, mais aussi
que l'Iran n'a pas apportélemoindre élémend te preuve montrant que ses
intentions, lors de la conclusion du traitéde 1955,n'étaientpas lesmêmes
que cellesdes Etats-Unis. Tout au contraire, l'Iran a invoqué un élément
de preuve capital pour établir sonintention sur le plan législatif,eta pro-
duit cet élément ((simplementpour apporter la lumière sur un point de
fait contestéàsavoir: l'intention du Gouvernement de l'Iran» au moment
où ce dernier a accepté la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour au titre de la
clause facultative (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., C.I.J. Recueil 1952, p. 107).

En dernier lieu, interprétant le traité de 1955 devant le Tribunal des
réclamations Etats-UnidIran, c'est-à-dire eninterprétant le traitédans sa
pratique, l'Iran a soutenu que l'emploi de la force ((n'était pasprévupar
ce traitéet ne relèvepas de son application)). Dans l'affaire Amoco Inter-
national Finance Corp. c. République islamiqued'Iran, l'Iran a soutenu
ceci:

((Tout d'abord, c'estmanquer totalement de réalisme que de poser
par hypothèsequ'à l'époque, c'est-à-diren 1979-1980,letraité d'ami-
tiéétaiten vigueur entre les Etats-Unis etIran. La situation qui pré-
valait (y compris l'envoid'une expédition militairedes Etats-Unis en
territoire iranien et la saisiede biens iraniens) n'étaitpas censéeêtre
régléepar les dispositions du traitéd'amitiéde 1955.Cette situation of Amity. The situation was unforeseen by that Treaty and cannot
be regulated by it.' (Defenceand Counterclairnof theIslamic Repub-
lic of Iran et al., of 24May 1984,as quoted in Preliminary Objection
of the United States of America, Exhibit 54.)

The Court finds that it has jurisdiction, on the basis of Article XXI,
paragraph 2, of the Treaty, "to entertain the claims made by the Islamic
Republic of Iran under Article X, paragraph 1" of the Treaty. In its
Application, Iran maintained that,

"By its actions in assisting the Government of Iraq in its war
efforts, in threatening and provoking the Islamic Republic with the
deployment of US forces in the region, and in attacking and destroy-
ing Iranian entities and the oil installations referred to here, the
United States has gravely interfered with the commerce and naviga-
tion of the Islamic Republic and had thus violated the provisions of
Article X (1) of the Treaty."

In its written and oral pleadings, Iran confined itself to the claim that
violation of Article X, paragraph 1, sprung from the attacks on and
destruction of the oil platforms.
Article X of the Treaty provides:

"1. Between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties
there shall be freedom of commerce and navigation.
2. Vessels under the flag of either High Contracting Party, and
carrying the papers required by its law in proof of nationality, shall
be deemed to be vessels of that High Contracting Party both on the
high seas and within the ports, places and waters of the other High
Contracting Party.

3. Vessels of either High Contracting Party shall have liberty, on
equal terms with vessels of the other High Contracting Party and on
equal terms with vessels ofany third country, to come with their car-
goes to al1ports, places and waters of such other High Contracting
Party open to foreign commerce and navigation. Such vessels and
cargoes shall in al1 respects be accorded national treatment and
most-favored-nation treatment within the ports, places and waters
of such other High Contracting Party; but each High Contracting

Party may reserve exclusive rights and privileges to its own vessels
with respect to the coasting trade, inland navigation and national
fisheries.

4. Vessels of either High Contracting Party shall be accorded
national treatment and most-favored-nation treatment by the other PLATES-FORM ÉTROLIÈRES (OP.DISS.SCHWEBEL) 885

n'étaitpas prévuepar ce traitéet ne relèvepas de son application.))

(«Conclusions en défense et demande reconventionnelle de la
Républiqueislamique d'Iran et consorts)) du 24 mai 1984,extrait cité
dans l'exception préliminaire deEtats-Unis d'Amérique,pièce 54.)

La Cour dit qu'elle a compétence, sur la base du paragraphe 2 de
l'article XXI du traité de 1955, «pour connaître des demandes formu-

léespar la Républiqueislamique d'Iran au titre du paragraphe 1 de l'ar-
ticleX» du traité.Dans sa requête,l'Iran dit ceci:
«Par ses actes venant en aide au Gouvernement de l'Iraq dans ses
efforts de guerre, en menaçant et provoquant la République isla-
mique par le déploiementde forces américainesdans la région, et en
attaquant et détruisant des entreprisesiraniennes et les installations

pétrolières susmentionnées,les Etats-Unis ont gravement porté
atteinte au commerce et à la navigation de la République islamique
et ont ainsi violéles dispositions du paragraphe 1 de l'article X du
traité.

Dans ses piècesécriteset ses plaidoiries, l'Iran s'estcontentéde soute-
nir que la violation du paragraphe 1 de l'article X résultaitdes attaques
menéescontre les plates-formes pétrolières etde leur destruction.
L'article X du traité dispose:

«1. Il y aura liberté decommerce et de navigation entre les terri-
toires des deux Hautes Parties contractantes.
2. Lesnavires battant pavillon de l'unedesHautes Partiescontrac-
tantes et munis des documents que leur législation exige comme
preuve de leur nationalité seront considéréscomme étantdes navires
de cette Haute Partie contractante, en haute mer aussi bien que dans
les ports, les mouillages et les eaux de l'autre Haute Partie contrac-
tante.
3. Les navires de l'une des deux Hautes Parties contractantes

pourront librement, dans les mêmesconditions que les navires de
l'autre Haute Partie contractante et les navires de tout pays tiers, se
rendre avec leur cargaison dans tous les ports, mouillages et eaux de
cette autre Haute Partie contractante, qui sont ouverts au commerce
international età la navigation internationale. Lesdits navires ainsi
que leur cargaison bénéficieront à tous égards, dans les ports, les
mouillages et les eaux de cette autre Haute Partie contractante, du
traitement national et du traitement de la nation la plus favorisée;
mais chacune des Hautes Parties contractantes pourra réserver à ses
propres navires des droits et desprivilèges exclusifsen cequiconcerne
le cabotage, la navigation fluviale et les pêcheriesnationales.

4. Chacune des Hautes Parties contractantes accordera aux na-
vires de l'autre Haute Partie contractante le traitement national et le High Contracting Party with respect to the right to carry al1
products that may be carried by vesse1to or from the territories
of such other High Contracting Party; and such products shall be

accorded treatment no lessfavorable than that accorded likeproducts
carried in vessels ofsuch other High Contracting Party, with respect
to: (a) duties and charges of al1kinds, (b) the administration of
the customs, and (c) bounties, drawbacks and other privileges
of this nature.
5. Vessels of either High Contracting Party that are in distress
shall be permitted to take refuge in the nearest port or haven of the
other High Contracting Party, and shall receive friendly treatment
and assistance.
6. The term 'vessels',as used herein, means al1types of vessels,
whether privately owned or operated, or publicly owned or oper-
ated; but this term does not, except with reference to paragraphs 2
and 5 of the present Article, include fishing vessels or vessels of
war."

Since every paragraph of Article X except the first refers expressly to
"vessels" and since stationary oil platforms are not vessels, neither Iran
nor the Court purport to found jurisdiction on paragraphs of Article X

other than paragraph 1,which refers to "freedom of commerce and navi-
gation".
Evidence introduced before the Court treats the whole of Article X as
"a navigation article". A principal United States negotiator of the series
of largely identical treaties of friendship, commerce and navigation
describes the standard article on these matters precisely as "a navigation
article" that

"reaffirms a liberal regime of treatment to be applied to interna-
tional shipping. The rules set forth reflect the practices which have
historically been developed by leading maritime nations . . .(Her-
man Walker, "The Post-War Commercial Treaty Program of the
United States", Political Science Quavterly, Vol. LXXIX, p. 73.)

Other commentators cited to the Court similarly interpret Article X.
Article X as a whole is concerned with shipping,not with commerce gen-
erally. The fact that every paragraph but the first refers to "vessels"
suggests that the purpose of paragraph 1 is not to deal with commerce
generally - for if that were its purpose it would appear as a separate
article of the Treaty - but to introduce and set the objective of the
remainingparagraphs of the article. (In reviewing those paragraphs, it is
worth noting that, in the last, "vessels of war" are excluded from the
reach of the article except in specified respects.) Moreover, specifics of

freedom of commerce are dealt with in detail in Articles VI11and IX of
the Treaty. Accordingly when the Treaty means to address more than PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.DISS.SCHWEBEL) 886

traitement de la nation la plus favoriséeen ce qui concerne le droit
de transporter, à destination ou en provenance de ses territoires,
tous les produits qui peuvent êtreacheminéspar bateau; lesdits pro-
duits bénéficierontd'un traitement non moins favorable que celui
qui est accordé aux produits similaires transportésbord de navires
de la première Haute Partie contractante en ce qui concerne: a) les
droits et taxes de toutes natures, b) les formalités douanières; et
c) les primes, drawbacks et autres avantages de mêmeordre.
5. Les navires en détresse de l'une desHautes Parties contrac-
tantes pourront chercher refuge dans le port ou havre le plus proche

de l'autre Haute Partie contractante; ils y bénéficierontd'un traite-
ment amical et y recevront assistance.
6. Au sens du présent traité,le terme «navires» doit s'entendre
des navires de tous genres, qu'ils soientpropriétéprivéeou publique
ou que leur exploitation soit privéeou publique; ce terme ne vise
cependant pas, sauf en ce qui concerne l'application des para-
graphes 2 et 5 du présentarticle, les bateaux de pêcheou les bâti-
ments de guerre.»

Comme tous les paragraphes de cet article X sauf le premier visent
expressémentles «navires» et comme les plates-formespétrolièresfixes ne
sont pas des navires, ni'Iran ni la Cour ne cherchentà fonder la compé-
tence sur ces paragraphes de l'articleX et ils la fondent exclusivement sur
le paragraphe 1, lequel vise la ((libertéde commerce et de navigation)).
Les moyens de preuve présentés à la Cour traitent l'ensemble de cet
article X comme «un article consacré à la navigation)).L'un des princi-
paux négociateurs des Etats-Unis à s'êtreoccupé dela sériede traités à
peu près identiques dits traités d'amitié,de commerce et de navigation,

décrit l'article type consacréces questions précisément comme«un ar-
ticle consacréà la navigation))qui
((réaffirme qu'il faut appliquerà la navigation internationale un
régimelibéral.Les règlesénoncées témoignentde pratiques adoptées
de longue date par les grandes nations maritimes..» (Herman Wal-

ker, «The Post-War Commercial Treaty Program of the United
States»,Political Science Quarterly, vol. LXXIX, p. 73.)
D'autres commentateurs citésdevant la Cour donnent une interpréta-

tion similaire de l'article X. Celui-ci, dans son ensemble, a àrla navi-
gation maritime et non pas au commerce en général.Le fait que tous les
paragraphes de cet article à l'exception du premier visent les «navires»
donne à penser que ce paragraphe 1n'a pas pour objet de réglementerle
commerce en généralcar, si c'étaitlà son objet, cette disposition consti-
tuerait un article distinct du traité.La disposition a pour objet de servir
d'introduction aux autres paragraphes de l'article et d'indiquer quel en
est l'objectif.l convient de noter que, dans les derniersparagraphes, les
((navires de guerre)) sont exclus des prévisionsde l'article sàucertains
égards qui sont précisés.)En outre, les élémentsparticuliers de la libertéfreedom of maritime commerce, it does so in other articles and in terms
that have no bearing on the dispute before the Court.

The Court nevertheless finds that Article X is not restricted to mari-
time commerce for the reasons set out in the Judgment.
Even if those reasons are thought to be tenable, where in my view the
Court's conclusions are untenable is in its holding that "commerce" is
not restricted to acts of purchase and sale. It interprets "commerce" as
embracing "the ancillary activities related to commerce". It thus appears
to conclude, although it does not state, that "commerce" includes "pro-
duction". It offers quotations from the Oxford English Dictionary

and the Oscar Chinncase and a few other sources in support of this con-
clusion.

The difficulty with the reasoning of the Court is that production is not
ancillary to commerce. It is anterior to it, just as the existence of terri-
tory, people, rainfall, geological formations, growing of crops, generation
of capital, etc.,is anterior to commerce which exchanges what may be
products of the productive conjunction of such resources. The quotation
from the Oxford English Dictionary defines commerce to include "the
whole of the transactions, arrangements, etc., therein involved", and
"therein" refers to sale and purchase - which hardly implies that com-
merce extends to production. The Court's reference to the Dictionnaire
de la terminoloaie du droit irzternationaland to a few other dis~arate
sources is no more probative; they make no reference to production

whatsoever. Black's Law Dictionary on which Iran and the Court rely
contains no reference to or suggestion that commerce includes produc-
tion; it is confined to "the purchase, sale and exchange of commodities"
and the agencies and means of such exchange. At the same tirne, a review
of the dozen or more dictionaries in the Library of the Court, English
and multilingual, turns up none that define commerce to include produc-
tion. Rather, like David M. Walker's The Oxford Companion to Law
(Oxford University Press, 1980),they defineas "Commerce. The exchange
of commodities and al1 the arrangements involved in effecting such
exchanges." (P. 247.)

The fact of the matter is that commerce in ordinary and in legal usage
is simply not understood to embrace production. Oscar Chinn gives the
Court more, but insufficient support, because the term there under con-
struction was "freedom of trade" not freedom of commerce, and "trade"
is widely interpreted as a broader term than commerce, and one which,
unlike commerce,may include "industry". Moreover, the "trade" at issue PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. DISSS. CHWEBEL) 887

de commerce sont traitésen détailaux articles VI11et IX du traité. Autre-
ment dit, quand le traité veut aller au-delà de la libertédu commerce
maritime, il y consacre d'autres articles, en des termes qui sont sans rap-
port avec le différendportédevant la Cour.
La Cour n'en estime pas moins, pour les motifs qu'elle expose dans
l'arrêt,que l'article X n'est pas limitéau commerce maritime.
Mêmesi l'on peut estimer que ces motifs sont défendables,il y a un
point sur lequel les conclusions de la Cour ne sont pas défendables:elles

ne le sont pas quand la Cour dit que le «commerce» ne se limite pas aux
seules activitésd'achat et de vente. La Cour interprète le «commerce»
comme englobant «les questions accessoires liéesau commerce)). La
Cour semble donc conclure, bien qu'ellene le dise pas expressément, que
le «commerce» englobe la «production». Et la Cour cite des extraits de
l'Oxford English Dictionavy, de l'affaire Oscar Chinn et puiàequelques
autres sources pour étayer cette conclusion.
La difficultéqu'on éprouve à adhérerau raisonnement dela Cour tient
à ce que la production n'est pas une activité accessoiredu commerce.
C'est une activitéd'amont, tout comme la présenced'un certain terri-
toire, d'une certaine population, d'une certaine pluviosité,de certaines

formations géologiques, de certaines cultures, de la constitution d'un
capital, etc., précèdentle commerce, lequel va consister à échangerles
produits issus de la production résultant de l'ensemblede ces ressources.
La citation extraite de'Oxford English Dictionavy dit du commerce qu'il
comprend «l'ensemble destransactions, arrangements, etc., nécessaires à
cette fin», l'expressi«à cette fin» visant les activitésd'achat et de vente
- et cette citation n'évoque guèrel'idéeque le commerce s'étend à la
production. La Cour cite égalementle Dictionnaire de la terminologie du
droit intevnational et quelques autres sources disparates qui n'ont pas
davantage valeur probante; ces sources ne font aucune allusionà la pro-
duction. De même,leBlack S Law Dictionavy, sur lequel l'Iran et la Cour
s'appuient, ne dit nullement quele commerce englobe ou pourrait englo-

ber la production; selon cette source, le commerce se limiàe((l'achat, la
vente ou les échanges de marchandises)), ainsi qu'aux agents et aux
moyens par lesquelsl'échange s'effectue.De même,aprèsavoir examiné à
la bibliothèque de la Cour une bonne douzaine de dictionnaires, anglais
et multilingues, il n'a trouvéaucune définitionautorisant à dire que le
commerce s'étend à la production. Au contraire, toutes les définitions
s'apparentent à celle de David M. Walker dans The Oxford Companion
to Law (Oxford University Press, 1980)qui est celle-ci: ((Commerce. Les
échanges de marchandises ettous les arrangements nécessairespour réa-
liser ces échanges. (P. 247.)
Le fait est que le commerce, dans son acception habituelle comme dans
son acceptionjuridique, ne s'entendtout simplementpas commeenglobant

la production. L'affaireOscav Chinnconforte davantage mais insuffisam-
ment la position de la Cour parce que l'expressionà interpréter était(en
anglais)((freedomof trade» [libertédes échanges]et non pas ((freedomof
commerce))[libertéde commerce], et le terme anglais «trade» passe trèsin the Oscar Chinn case was not production but river transport; the
"industry" in question was "the transport business". The Court's holding
"that the fluvial transport industry is a branch of commerce" is of no
relevance or assistance to Iran's position in these proceedings (Oscar
Chinn, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 63, pp. 65, 81, 85). In short, the growing
of pistachio nuts in Iran is not commercewithin the meaning of Article X
of the Treaty ;the feeding of sturgeon in the Caspian Sea is not commerce
within the meaning of Article X of the Treaty; and the production of
oil on Iran's continental shelf is llot commerce within the meaning of

Article X of the Treaty.

This being so, the Court's reliance on "freedom" of commerce does not
strengthenits analysis. To be sure, if the wherewithal to exchange is lack-
ing or is destroyed, there can be no exchange;there can be no commerce -
in non-existent goods. But on the Court's reasoning, action that impairs
the life or health of the inhabitants of Iran, or that detracts from its
climate, environment, condition of its natural resources, generation of its
capital, etc., also prejudices its freedom of commerce in that such action
may affect the ability of Iran to produce the goods to exchange. It might
in this vein be argued that if pollution originating in country A wafts

onto the territory of country B, country A, assuming it to be bound to
freedom of commerce with country B, is in violation of its obligation.
1 do not believe that a treaty provision that, "Between the territories of
the two High Contracting Parties there shall be freedom of commerce
and navigation" sustains so far-reaching- if not far-fetched- an inter-
pretation. Nor am 1persuaded that freedom of commerce and navigation
within the meaning of the Treaty could be affected by the fact or allega-
tion that some or al1of the destroyed oil platforms in question were con-
nected by a pipeline network to port facilities.

It may be added that the Court's holdings in Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua are consistent with the conclusion
that Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of 1955 is confined to com-
merce and does not include production or facilities for production. In
that case, the Court found that mining of the approaches to ports and
port installations impaired Nicaragua's right to freedom of communica-
tions and maritime commerce (1C..J. Reports 1986,pp. 111-112, 128-129,
139), as that right was protected by the corresponding article of the
Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Nicaragua and
the United States. It did not hold that attackson oil pipelines and storage
tanks violated that article of the Treaty. On the contrary, while the

Court's Judgment recites that Nicaragua argued thatlargement pour êtreplus vaste que le terme «commerce» et à la différence
du terme «commerce» son acception peut s'étendre à l'«industrie». En
outre, leséchangesen causedans l'affaire Oscar Chinnne relevaientpas de
la production mais du transport fluvial;l'«industrie» en question étaitdonc

celle des «transports». Que la Cour ait déclaréalors que ((l'industriedes
transports fluviaux ... rentre dans l'activité commerciale))est sans perti-
nence pour la thèse iranienne en la présente instance et ne lui est d'aucun
secours (OscarChinn,C.P.J.I. sérieA/B no63,p. 65, 81, 85).Bref,la culture
des pistaches en Iran ne constitue pas du commerce au sens de l'article X
du traité;élever desesturgeons dans la mer Caspienne n'est pas du com-
merce au sens de l'article X du traité, et extraire du pétroledu plateau
continental iranien n'est pas du commerce au sens de l'articleX du traité.
Cela étant,le fait pour la Cour de s'appuyer sur la «liberté» decom-
mercene renforcepas son analyse. Certes, sil'objet même des échange fsit

défautou bien est détruit,il ne saurait y avoir d'échanges;il n'estpas pos-
siblede faire le commerce de biens qui n'existentpas. Mais, à suivrele rai-
sonnement de la Cour. toute action L~rdiudiciableà la vieou àla santédela
population iranienne, toute action nocivepour le climat du pays, son envi-
ronnement, l'état deses ressources naturelles, la constitution de capital,
etc., porte égalementatteinte à la liberté de commercede l'Iran en cesens
que cette action risque d'entamer la capacité del'Iran à produire les biens
destinésaux échanges.Onpourrait, dans la mêmeveine,soutenir qu'au cas
où une pollution prenant sa sourcedans le pays A sepropage jusque sur le
territoire du pays B, le pays A, à supposer qu'il soit tenu de préserver la

liberté de commerce avecle pays B, violerait alors l'obligation lui incom-
bant à cet égard.Je ne crois pas qu'une disposition conventionnelle qui
s'énonce: «Il y aura libertéde commerce et de navigation entre les terri-
toires des deux Hautes Parties contractantes)), confirme une interprétation
allant aussi loin, pour ne pas dire qu'elle vatrop loin. Et je ne suispas non
plus convaincu qu'il puisse y avoir atteinteà la liberté de commerce et de
navigation au sens du traitéparce que, en partie ou en totalité,les plates-
formes pétrolières détruites qui sont en cause étaieretliéesou auraient été
reliéesà des installations portuaires par un réseau d'oléoducs.

On peut ajouter que, dans l'affaire des Activitésmilitaires et paramili-
taires au Niearapua et contre celui-ci. les constatations de la Cour sont
compatibles ave; la conclusion que le paragraphe 1 de l'article X du
traitéde 1955se limite au commerce et ne s'étendpas à la production ni
aux installations de production. Dans cette affaire, la Cour a dit en effet
que le mouillage de mines à proximitédes ports et des installations por-
tuaires du Nicaragua portait atteinte au droit du Nicaragua àjouir de la
liberté descommunications et du commerce maritime (C.I.J. Recueil
1986, p. 111-112, 128-129,139),car ce droit étaitprotégépar l'articlecor-
respondant du traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de navigation conclu entre

le Nicaragua et les Etats-Unis. Mais la Cour n'en a pas conclu pour
autant que les attaques dirigéescontre les oléoducset les installations de
stockage du pétrole violaientle mêmearticle du traité.Au contraire, si
elle rappelle dans son arrêtque le Nicaragua a soutenu que: "Since the word 'commerce' in the 1956 Treaty must be under-

stood in its broadest sense, al1of the activities by which the United
States has deliberately inflicted on Nicaragua physicalamage and
economic losses of al1types, violate the principle of freedom of com-
merce which the Treaty establishes in very general terms" (I.C.J.
Reports 1986, p. 139),
the Court did not pass upon that contention (see ibidp .,. 139-140).
There is nothing in the Court's holdings that suggests that that
article protected the production of oil or any other commodity in

Nicaragua.
For these reasons, 1 conclude that the Court's reliance on Article X,
paragraph 1,of the Treaty of 1955to found the jurisdiction of the Court
in this case is unfounded.

(Signed) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.DISSS. CHWEBEL) 889

«Le mot «commerce» qui figure dans le traitéde 1956devant être
entendu dans son sens le plus large, toutes les activitéspar lesquelles
les Etats-Unis ont délibérémenitnfligéau Nicaragua des dommages
matériels oudes pertes économiquesde toutes sortes violent le prin-
cipe de libertédu commerce que ce traité établiten termes trèsgéné-
raux» (C.Z.J. Recueil 1986, p. 139),

la Cour ne s'est pas prononcéesur cette thèse (voir ibid., p. 139-140).Il
n'ya rien dans lesconclusions énoncéesdans cette affaire par la Cour qui
donne à penser que l'article en question protégeait la production pétro-
lièreni la production de quelque autre marchandise au Nicaragua.
Voilà les motifs pour lesquels je conclus que la Cour ne peut pas

s'appuyer surle paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traitéde 1955pour fonder
sa compétenceen la présente instance.

(Signé) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Vice-President Schwebel

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