Separate opinion of Judge Ajibola

Document Number
078-19930614-JUD-01-09-EN
Parent Document Number
078-19930614-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AJIBOLA

1havevotedinfavour ofthe Judgment inthis caseinwhich theCourt, in
effect, dismissed the claims of both Denmark and Nonvay. The Court
rejected the submission of Denmark "that Greenland is entitled to a full
200-mile fishery zone and continental shelf area vis-à-vis the Island of
Jan Mayen". It also rejected Nonvay's submission that outright median
lines constitute the boundary for the purpose of delimitation of the rele-
vant areas ofthe continental shelf and fisherieszonesbetween Greenland
andJan Mayen. Furthermore, 1am firmly and stronglysupportive of the

decision ofthe Court asto the applicable lawsbothin terms ofthearea of
the continental shelfand that ofthe fishery zone. Theecision once again
reinforces and confers a seal of approval upon the jurisprudence of the
Court consistentlyenunciated and firmlyestablished sincethe North Sea
Continental Shelfcases in 1969.
Thereason why 1feel 1must writethis separate opinion isthat there are
some areas of the Judgment which 1personally consider are in need of
further elaboration, and which 1now intend to deal with.

There seem to be some procedural problems relating to jurisdiction

which require ameasure ofclarification inthis case,eventhough no preli-
minary objections have been raised by Nonvay. There are sufficient
indications contained both in the written pleadings and, even more so,
in the oral arguments of the Parties, which of necessity enjoin a careful
appraisal.
The initial application of Denmark as presented to the Court is a
request :
"to decide, in accordance with international law, where a single line

of delimitation shall be drawn between Denmark's and Nonvay's
fishing zones and continental shelf areas in the waters between
Greenland and Jan Mayen".
On the other hand, Nonvay's response to the Danish application is a
submission thatthe Court must drawtwo lines. In Nonvay's own words,
the Court is asked:

"toadjudgeanddeclarethat:
(1) The median line constitutes the boundary for the purpose of
delimitation of the relevant areas of the continental shelf between Norway and Denmark inthe region between Jan Mayen and Green-
land ;
(2) The median line constitutes the boundary for the purpose of
delimitation of the relevant areas of the fisheries zones between
Norway and Denmark in the region between Jan Mayen and
Greenland".

In otherwordstherequest of Norway isnot foradual-purpose singleline
as requested by Denmark but rather one line for the continental shelf
boundary and the other oneforthe fisheryzone.
Added to the question of a line or lines is the second contention of
Norway that, in a case of this nature, the actual delimitation cannot be
effected by the Court; that the Court should rather content itself with a
mere declaratoryjudgment. Onthis point Norway asserts that

"the adjudication should result in a judgment which is declaratory
as to the bases of delimitation and which leaves the precisearticula-
tion (or demarcation) of the alignment to negotiation between the
Parties" (CR 93/9, p. 52).

As was observed in the Judgment of the Court, this particular view of
Norway affects the mode of presentation of its case. For example, while
Denmark in al1 its submissions and oral arguments lays claim to a
200-milelimit offthe Coastof Greenland, Norwayrestricts itselfthrough-
out to a claim repeatedlybased on the median line.

The third argument of Norway - stillon procedure - isthat the uni-
lateral application as filed in this case is inappropriate to the matter in
hand. Norway says :

"Delimitation is inherently unsuitable for cases brought by
unilateral application unless there is some form of agreement on
the part of the respondent as to the role and powers of the Court."
(CR 93/9, p. 81.)
Thisassertion of Norway - coupled with othersalreadymentioned -

is sufficientto compel the Court to consider carefully, evenpropriomotu,
whether this is not a case in which the question of its competence and
apparent jurisdiction is not being called into question by Norway. Per-
haps the case is a "unicum" for this reason. Virtually al1the celebrated
casesonmaritimedelimitation weresubmitted tothe Court onthe basis of
a Special Agreement between the parties. Thus (1) the North Sea Conti-
nental Shelf cases (FederalRepublicof Germany/Netherlands;Federal
Republicof Germany/Denmark),(2)the ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya) case, (3) the case concerning Delimitation of the
Maritime Boundaryin the Gulfof MaineArea (Canada/United States of
America) al1fell within the category of cases brought to the Court by
Special Agreement. In this regard, a few questionsneed to be raised and examined :

1sit possible for the Court, in the light of al1the submissions of both "
Parties and of their written pleadings and oral arguments, to draw any
line/lines of delimitationas requested by Denmark? Should the Court in
factdraw a dual-purpose singlelineasrequested by Denmark ortwo lines
asdemanded by Norway? Whatform ofjudgment should the Court have
handed down in this case - should it have given merely a declaratory
judgment or have aimed at a full settlement of the case?
Norway's request for two coincident single lines is not without reason
and quite understandable. Of the two strands of maritime delimitation
involved inthiscase one isthe continental shelfboundary, whichNorway
considers to be governed by the Agreement entered into between it and
Denmark on 8December 1965aswell asthe 1958GenevaConvention on
the Continental Shelf and on the basis of which Norway argues it is
already in place betweenboth Parties.Theseconddelimitation involvedis

that ofthe fisheryzone which Norway contends should alsobe delimited
by the median line - even though it ultimately agrees that customary
international law is applicable in that context. In the light of such state-
ment of fact, it may therefore be quite logical for Norway to advance this
request.
There is also the issue of a special agreement as raised by Norway in
fairlyemphaticterms :

"It seernsto be obliviousof the basic legal principle that the con-
sent ofparties isrequired in order to havethe Court engage in a deli-
mitation of maritime areas - just as the consent of parties would be
required for them to effect the delimitation themselves." (CR 93/9,
p. 50.)

Has Norway any ground to advance this view so strongly? Norway
does not givethe Court itsreasons andno authority is cited to this effect.
Buta carefulexamination ofthe provisions ofsomerelevantConventions
may throw sufficientlight on the way in which Norway has approached
this particular problem.
Article 6, paragraph 1,of the 1958Geneva Convention on the Conti-
nental Shelf States :

"Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of
two or more States whose coasts are oppositeeach other,the bound-
ary ofthecontinental shelfappertaining to such Statesshallbe deter-
mined by agreement between them."(Emphasisadded.)

In factthis isthe Convention that both Partiesagree isbinding onthem
with respect to the delimitation of the continental shelf. Similarly
Article 74 of the 1982United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(which is not yet in force), deals with the delimitation of exclusive econ-
omiczonesbetweenStates with opposite or adjacent coasts and primarily
stipulates thatsuch a delimitation "shall be effected by agreementon thebasis of international law". The same form of words advocating "Agree-
ment" istobefoundin Article83ofthe 1982Conventionwhichdeals with
delimitation ofthe continental shelfbetweenStateswithopposite oradja-
cent coasts.There are similarprovisionsin other Geneva Conventions of
1958especially the Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea and the
ContiguousZone (seeArticle 12).

However,it cannot validlybe argued thatthe absence of an agreement
- be it special or general - can prevent the Court from carrying out its
task ofdecidingany legalmatter referredto itfora decision onthemerits.

That may be the reason why al1Nonvay can urge in the circumstancesis
"judicialrestraint". Hence Nonvay elects to :

"remind the Court of the restraint articulated on the exerciseof its
judicial functions in the case concerning the Northern Cameroons
(Z.C.J.Reports 1963, p. 3) or of the substantial thought that was
devoted to this and to cognate subjectsby the late Judge Sir Hersch

Lauterpacht ...".
It is my considered opinion that Nonvay's appeal for caution in this
regard is misplaced and that the Court is right in rejecting it. Once an
application is properly and validly placed before the Court, it is in duty
bound to deal inaccordance withinternational lawwith al1such disputes
as are submitted to it. To that end, it is required to apply international

conventions,international custom, general principles of law recognized
by civilizednations, judicial decisions, etc. Here it may be desirable to
quote the important provision of Article 38, paragraph 1,of the Statute
which empowers :
"The Court, whosefunction isto decide in accordance with inter-
national law such disputes as are submitted to it, ... [to]apply :

(a) international conventions,whether general or particular, estab-
lishingrulesexpresslyrecognizedbythe contestingStates ;

(b) international custom, as evidenceof a generalpractice accepted
aslaw ;
(c) thegeneralprinciples oflawrecognizedbycivilizednations ;

(d) subjectto the provisions of Article 59,judicial decisions and the
teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various
nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of

law."
In my opinion, there is no doubt that this case clearlyfalls within the
ambit ofparagraphs (a)and (b)above.Therelevanceand the application
of international conventions,whether bilateral or multilateral, are clear
and there aremany ofthem invokedinthis case,notablythe 1958Geneva
Convention on the Continental Shelf and the 1965Treaty between both Parties. Customary international law is also invoked in this case, espe-
ciallywith regard to the fisheryzone.
Therefore, ifthe Court isof the opinion that it should givemore than a
declaratoryjudgment and proceedtodraw alineor lines inthis case,ithas
a sufficientmandate and competence todo so. Ifthe Court considers that
the solutions advocated by either Denmark or Nonvay, or even both of
them, fail to accord with the correct application of the generalprinciples
of international law inorder to settlethis dispute, it is freeto apply what-
everit considers to bejust and proper in accordance with the law.
According to the Danish application, the jurisdiction of the Court is
validlyinvoked sinceboth Partieshaveaccepted, bytheir declarations,its

compulsoryjurisdiction under paragraph 2ofArticle36 ofthe Statute and
the case has also been brought in a manner that accords with the provi-
sions ofArticle40,paragraph 1,ofthe same Statute. Whatever may there-
fore be the objection or hesitation of Nonvay in relation to this case, it
cannot hold waterinthe light of itsdeclaration of acceptance ofthe com-
pulsory jurisdiction of the Court, and the Court is fully empowered to
determine any issue placed before it, inorder to reach an effective deci-
sion on the merits of the dispute in question, whether in relation to the
drawing of one or more lines, and despite the fact that no special agree-
ment hasbeen entered into between the Parties inthis case.
If Nonvay stronglyfelt (as it vigorously contends) that the Court for
whatever reason hasnojurisdiction or isincompetent in any wayto draw
anylinewhatsoever ina matter ofthisnature, itwas freeto raise aprelimi-

nary objection as to jurisdiction and admissibilitybefore the Court. But
this, Nonvay has failed to do.

One may therefore ask why Nonvay did not pursue this line of action.
My hypothesis is that the answer is to be found in Nonvay's oral argu-
ments,when it explains that:
"Nonvay wastherefore faced with a dilemma. On theonehand, it
did not wish to file preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of the
Court, inview oftheoptionalclausedeclarationsofthePartiesandthe

broadscopeofArticle36,paragraph2,oftheStatute."(CR 93/9, p. 50;
emphasisadded.)
So, Nonvay anticipates - perhaps rightly - that if a preliminary
objection had beenraisedinrelationto Denmark's application beforethe
Court, it could wellhavebeenrejected bythe Court asthe final arbiter on
this issue or any issue for thatatter, having regard to the power of the
Court under Article 36,paragraph 6, ofthe Statute.

CONCLUSIO ONN THE ISSUE OF PROCEDURE

Perhaps 1may effectively summarizethis view of mine by referring to
the attitude of the Court in the case concerning theNorthernCameroons
(Cameroon v. UnitedKingdom)(Z.C.J.Reports1963,p. 17)where it dealtwiththeissueofwhatonemayconsider"technicalities" orforma1require-
ments - which to my mind constitute the most serious problem in this
casebeforetheCourt.Theattitude ofthe Court wasclearwhenitdeclared
that itwouldnot allowmereformalitiesto preventitfromdoingjustice on
any substantive matter pertaining to any dispute placed before it. In that
regard,it stated specifically that it was followingthe line of reasoning of
the Permanent Court ofInternational Justice.What the Court ismost con-
cerned with isthatthe matter before it must "revealthe existenceof a dis-
puteinthe senserecognizedbythejurisprudence ofthe Court. ..".

Theclassicalpronouncement ofthe Courton this point was expressed
in the followingterms :

"The Court cannot be indifferentto anyfailure,whether by Appli-
cant or Respondent, to comply with its Rules which have been
framed in accordance with Article30 ofits Statute. The Permanent
Court ofInternational Justicein severalcasesfeltcalledupon to con-
sider whether the forma1requirements of its Rules had been met. In
such matters of form it tended to 'take abroad view'.(The 'Société
Commercialede Belgique',P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 78,p. 173).The
Court agreeswiththe viewexpressedbythe Permanent Court inthe
Mavrommatis PalestineConcessionscase (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2,
p. 34):

'TheCourt, whosejurisdiction is international, is not bound to
attach to matters of form the same degree of importance which
they might possess in municipal law."' (I.C.J. Reports 1963,
pp. 27-28.)

Once the Court is convinced that there is an issue or issues in dispute
(and 1presumethat thisissointhe casebefore us),then itoughttoproceed
to adecision on the merits.
Perhapsitmaybeconsideredjudicially appropriate to referatthisstage
to the final award in the Delimitationof the ContinentalShelfbetweenthe
United Kingdom and France case, where the Court of Arbitration dis-
missed al1the preliminary objections alleging a lack of jurisdiction, in
favour of dispensing substantial justice between both parties, thereby
deciding positively on the dispute as presented to it. Maybe justice is
not doing "something, nothing" (to borrow the words of Shakespeare in
Othello),especially in this Court whose decision is final and binding
without any possibilityof an appealto anyotheror further appellatecourt.

Drawing a line or lines of delimitation in maritime boundary cases is
nothing new for the Court; one may even Saythat it is familiar with the
exercise.For example,sucha requestwasmadeto theCourtinthe Gulfof286 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP.OP. AJIBOLA)

Maine case in 1984when, by specialagreementbetween Canadaand the
United States of Arnerica, the Chamber was requested to describe and
determine the course of the maritimeboundary interms of geodetic lines
connecting geographic CO-ordinates of points between the coasts of the
two Parties. In the present case,asalreadystated,there isnospecialagree-
ment to guide the Court. It is also observedfrom the available evidence
and argumentsbeforethe Court,that while Denmark haspresented some
relevant materials to assist in the drawing of the requested single line of
delimitation,Nonvay wasnotsufficientlyforthcominginthisregard,orat
bestthematerials are scanty.Detailedgeodesicbase lines and basepoints
connecting geographic CO-ordinatesin terms of destinations, longitudes
and latitudes are sufficientlyprovided by Denmark, especiallyin its final
submissions.The issue is even further complicated in that the materials

supplied by Denmark are based on its request and assumptions for a
single line delimitation, and not on two lines. Of course, as has already
been indicated, Nonvay stresses that the Court should reject the sub-
mission of Denmark relating to a singleline, and urges the need for judi-
cial circumspection.

Once one has concluded that the Court can draw any line/lines, the
next issue on which the Court must decide is whether to draw a dual-
purpose singlelineor two coincidental lines.Whateverdecision isreached
on this point must accord with the relevantapplicable lawin this case. It
cannotbe denied thatthe Court isdealing withtwo distinctinstitutions of

maritime delimitation - the continental shelf boundary and the fishery
zone - in response to Denmark's request on which Nonvay joins issue
with it.The present case is not like Libya/Malta where the Court's role
was confined to the delimitation of the continental shelf. Whatever may
be the ultimatedecision in this case,it isonlyprudent,judicially desirable
and evenlegallymandatoryto keep, atleastprima facie, thesetworégimes
distinct,since separate decisions have to be taken on each of them. The
two lines may eventually coincide by operation of the applicable law
(which in effect may amount to a distinction which will not ultimately
make any difference),but the distinction must first be drawn quite inde-
pendently.

1am, therefore, persuaded that separate legal consideration has to be

given to the régimeof the continental shelf area apart from that of the
delimitation of the fisheryzone.
Thiscase willundoubtedly constitute a landmark inthe development of
thejurisprudence of this Courton maritime delimitation. In this respect,
as already mentioned, one can consider it to be unique, and the Court is
now asked, perhapsforthe first time, totacklethisquestionhead-on. In a
number of cases adjudicated upon either by the Court, its Chamber or
arbitral tribunals, parties have invariably, in their compromis,agreed onsinglelinedelimitation. It is also obsewed thatjudges have put questions
to the parties on this particular issue on a number of occasions. For
example, during the oral proceedings in the Tunisia/Libya case, the
question wasput asto whether, in viewofthe identitybetween the provi-
sions ofthe 1982Convention on the delimitation of the continental shelf
boundary and the exclusiveeconomiczone,the delimitation of these two
areas ought or ought not to be different, and whether the circumstances
to be taken into consideration in each area should not be different as
well. The conflicting approach of parties to these two jurisdictions
is better described by Professor Prosper Weil in his book on TheLaw
of Maritime Delimitation - Reflectionswhere he advanced this germane
hypothesis :

"It is obvious what is at stake here. If one of the parties has
obtained, by agreement or through judicial means, a continental
shelf delimitation which seemsto it to be unfavorable, it will quite
naturally seek to obtain a different delimitation for the exclusive
economiczone;the other Party,in contrast,willwantto extendtothe
exclusiveeconomiczone the favorable delimitation it has obtained
forthe continental shelf." (P.118.)

Judges and jurists alike are very much aware of this development,not
only in respect of litigation and arbitrations on the issue of drawing a
single line, but also with regard to State practice which has in fact
favouredasingleline,perhaps because ofthe convenienceitoffers.Opin-
ions are divided too. There are judges whosebeliefs and reasoning sup-
port the unity of delimitation by a singleline, whilethere are others who
believethat there should be a duality of delimitation lines in appropriate
cases.Thecase-lawthus far, asalreadyindicated,has tended to approach
the issuewith caution. One is not very much surprised by this, since the
issuewasleftunresolved during the debate at UNCLOS III onthe nature
of the relationship between these two jurisdictions. However, a careful
studyofArticle74and Article83ofthe 1982Convention onthe Lawofthe
Sea (which, eventhough not yet in force,nonetheless reflect the current

international customary law),maythrow somelightonthis problem.

The régimeofthe exclusiveeconomiczone wastreated independently
under Article74,whilethat ofthe continental shelfjurisdiction was dealt
with under Article83.Thetwo Articlesuseidenticallanguage. Again,it is
also correct to suggestthat whatever the argument might be in favour of
the duality of delimitation lines, it has been whittled down by the provi-
sion of Article56,paragraph 3,of the 1982Conventionwhich Statesthat
"The rights setout inthisarticle [onthe exclusiveeconomiczone]shallbe
exercised in accordance with Part VI" (whichdeals with the continental
shelf).However,thispointwhich seemsto favourtheunityofdelimitation
should not be pressed any further. One should perhaps go back to the
history and background of the continental shelf theory, which attainedundisputed recognition and acceptanceafterthe 1945Truman Proclama-
tion, and which alsoestablished the distinctionbetween the watercolumn
and rights to the sea-bed and the duality of these two maritime jurisdic-
tions.

The differentiation, or perhaps confusion, is even more pronounced
with the current innovation of creating fisheryzones to coexist with the
exclusiveeconomic zone. However, in this particular case of delimitation
involvingGreenland andJan Mayen, the facts are such asto render inevi-
table the concept and even the application of a duality of lines. It is not
denied by both Parties that they are bound in their treaty relations by
Article 6 of the 1958 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf.
Thus it becomes imperative for the Court, in this case, to consider and
adjudge independently on the continental shelf régimeand the fisheries

jurisdiction.

It must be recognized, and accepted, that a singledelimitation linehas
the advantage of convenience and practical utility. That, in fact, must be
the reason why the Statepractice leans heavilytowards this solution.The
issue of vertical superimposition of rights is a problem and complication
that Stateswould prefer to avoid.What is relevanthere, isthe applicable
law and the legal consideration to be given to the problem of a single
delimitationline as claimed by Denmark.

Thepresentsituation isnot tobe compared withthe situationin the case
concerning Delimitation ofthe MaritimeBoundaryin the Gulf ofMaine
Area where the Chamber made the followingobservation:

"With regardtothissecondaspect,the Chamber must observethat
the Parties have simply taken itfor granted that itwouldbe possible,
both legallyand materially, to draw a singleboundaryfor two differ-
entjurisdictions. They have not put forward any arguments in sup-
port of this assumption. The Chamber, for its part, is of the opinion
that there iscertainly noule ofinternational lawtothe contrary, and,
in the present case, there is no material impossibilityin drawing a
boundary ofthiskind. There can thus be no doubtthat the Chamber
can carry out the operation requested of it." (I.C.J,Reports 1984,
p. 267,para. 27.)

Again,the situationin the casein hand isunlike that whichprevailedin
the NorthSea ContinentalShelfcaseswhere the Federal Republic of Ger-
many, though a signatory of the 1958Geneva Convention on the Con-
tinental Shelf, had never ratified that Convention; this fact in effect
excluded the consideration of the 1958 Geneva Convention on the
Continental Shelf,as distinctfromthe current trend in the customaryinter-
national law which is much influenced by the 1982Montego Bay Con-
vention on the Law of the Sea.
It has further beenarguedinsome quarters that the need fora duality ofmaritimedelimitationshasbeen marginalizedconsiderablysincethephy-
sicalcharacteristics ofthe sea-bed,whichused to be a distinctconsidera-

tion, nowseemto be mergingwiththe exclusiveeconomiczone andthat it
can nolongerbemaintained that theequitable criteria forthe tworégimes
of maritime delimitation arejustifiable. Another point advanced is that
the "distance criterion" mustnowapplytothe continental shelfboundary
as it applies to the exclusiveeconomic zone. These points were made in
paragraph 34 oftheJudgmentinthe Libya/Malta case.Relatingthis cur-
rent trend of customary international lawto the case in hand may not be
appropriate, becauseinthepresent casethe Partiesare specificallybound
bythe 1958GenevaConvention onthe Continental Shelfwhichcameinto
force in 1964, was ratified by Denmark in 1963,and also ratified by
Norwayin 1971and whichboth Parties recognizeisbindingupon them. It
maybeappropriateto concludethestatement ofmyviewsonthis particu-
lar questionbyquoting againfromProfessorWeil'sLawofMaritimeDeli-
mitation - Reflectionswhich recognized this problem couched in the
followingterms :

"one cannot excludethe possibilitythat a continental shelfdelimita-
tion agreementconcluded at a time when the theory of natural pro-
longationprevailed, may have been inspired by physical considera-
tions now out of date. Its extensionto the exclusiveeconomiczone
would in that case no longer be convincinglyjustifiable." (P. 135.)

ENTITLEMENT VERSUS DELIMITATION

Initially,the application of Denmark to the Court seemsto present no
problem, as it takes the form of a simple straightforward request to the
Court for a singlelinedelimitation,in accordance with international law,
of the fishery zone and continental shelf area in the waters between
Greenland and Jan Mayen. However, the subsequent submissions of

Denmark presentboth legal and geophysicaldifficulties. In its Replythe
Danish Governmentsubmits that the Court should :

"(1) . ..adjudge and declare that Greenland is entitled to a full
200-milefisheryzoneandcontinentalshelfarea vis-à-visthe Island of
Jan Mayen; and consequently
(2) ...draw a singlelinedelimitation ofthe fisheryzone and con-
tinental shelf area of Greenland in the waters between Greenland
and Jan Mayen at a distance of 200 nautical milesmeasured from
Greenland's baseline, the appropriate point of which is given by

straightlines (geodesics)..."(emphasisadded). This claim of Denmark drew a sharp reaction from Norway and the
claimof200milesby Denmark onbehalf ofGreenland wascharacterized
as "eccentric". In the words of Mr. Haug, which were subsequently sup-
ported and substantially repeated by Professor Brownlie (counsel for
Norway) :
"while the first application was simply for a single line of delimita-
tion,the principal submission was changed to ask for a declaratory

judgment of entitlement to a full 200-mile fishery zone and a full
200-mile continental shelf vis-à-vis the Norwegian island of
Jan Mayen. ..

The question of entitlement is sensitive for States in various
regions of the world. In my respectful submission a decision which
appeared to give some degree of support for the eccentric Danish
thesis would militate against the development of a stable régime of
maritime boundary delimitation in the future." (CR 93/5, pp. 13
and 15 ; emphasis added.)

1sDenmark's claimone of entitlement or delimitation? 1sthe Danish
submission lacking in clarity as argued by Norway? In the Libya/Malta
case, Libya sought to undermine the claim of Malta because of its
(Malta's)sizeand insular nature, but the Court remarked that "the entitle-
ment tothe continental shelf isthe sameforan island aswellasfora main-
land. Theissue ofentitlementemanatesfrom the State's sovereigntyover
the Coastto which such rights attach with regard to its continental shelf
ipsofacto and ab initio.The rules and principles of international law con-
fer on Greenland a basic entitlement relating to the continental shelf, no
less than that which they confer on Jan Mayen; this in effect ensures an
equal entitlement prima facie to both coasts. Therefore, Greenland is
entitled to claim the 200-mile outer limit (where such can be claimed)
just asJan Mayenisequallyentitledto claimthe same.If,therefore,Green-
land is claiming in this case an outer boundary limit line of 200-miles
within the waters between it and Jan Mayen, where the entire distance
between the two of them is 250 miles, then it is not difficult for one to
understand Norway'sargument that this is a claim for entitlement rather
than a request fora delimitation.

The Danish position is clearlystated in its Reply, asfollows :

"The Government of Denmark does not, however, question
Jan Mayen's status as an island under international law, as is evi-
denced by the fact that Denmark did not object tothe establishment
of Jan Mayen's 200-milefishery zone to the east towards the open
sea. ..[The]Danish contention isthat an equitable boundary line in
the waters between Greenland and Jan Mayen 'should be drawn along the outer limit'of Greenland's fishery zone - to borrow the
term used by Norway in describing the delimitation line between
Iceland and Jan Mayen." (Reply, p. 152, para. 414; emphasis
added.)
Having regard to the above statement of the position taken by Den-

mark, one can perhaps understand and evensympathizewith itsreasons
for assertingsuch a claim,whichto mymind ismore of a claimof entitle-
ment than a cal1for a delimitation.Whatamounts to an equitable bound-
ary or an equitablesolutionfor that matter is forthe Court, not Denmark,
to decide. Theprinciple of non-encroachment is bound to take into con-
sideration the whole ofthe relevantarea,including theareain dispute,as
wellasthearea ofoverlappingentitlement and any areas inthe process of
delimitation.
Theposition wasmade clear in 1969inthe NorthSea ContinentalShelf
cases whenthe Court stated :

"More important isthe fact that the doctrine of thejust and equi-
table share appears to be wholly at variance with what the Court
entertains no doubt is the most fundamental of al1the rules of law
relating to the continental shelf, enshrined in Article 2 of the
1958GenevaConvention,though quite independent ofit, - namely
thatthe rights ofthe coastalStatein respectofthearea ofcontinental
shelfthat constitutesa natural prolongation of its land territory into
and under the sea exist ipsofacto and ab initio,by virtue ofits sover-
eigntyoverthe land, and as an extensionofit in an exerciseofsover-
eignrightsforthe purpose ofexploringthe seabed and exploitingits
natural resources.In short,there ishere aninherent right. In order to

exerciseit,no special legalprocesshas to be gone through, nor have
any special legal actstobe performed. Its existence can be declared
(and many States have done this) but does not need to be consti-
tuted." (I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 22,para. 19.)

Thereasons for Denmark'ssubmissionrequesting the 200-milefishery
zone and continental shelf vis-à-visJan Mayen are not far fetched. One
reason may perhaps be found in its argument that Norway must "con-
cede" to Greenland the same 200miles outer limit as it conceded to Ice-
land by virtue of an agreement which it sees as constituting a precedent.
But another reason is the undeniable difference in size (and coastal
lengths) of Greenland and Jan Mayen. Denmark initially considered
Jan Mayen to be a rock (possiblyfallingwithin the scope of Article 121
ofthe 1982Convention onthe Lawofthe Sea),but laterconcededthat itis
anisland; albeitonewhich"sustainsno population. ..and hasneverdone
so" - "thevisualizationofGreenland asa mainland and ofJan Mayenas
asmallislanddetachedfrom its mainland coast"(CR93/l, pp. 25and 23). Overtwo centuries ago, Vattel wrote that "A dwarf is no less of a man
than agiant. AsmallRepublic isno lessof a State than the most powerful
Kingdom." (Dictionnaire de la terminologie du droit international, Paris,
Sirey 1960, under "Egalité", p. 248.) Thus however small the island of

Jan Mayen may beythis cannot affect its rights under international law
with respect to the issue of entitlement and the non-encroachment prin-
ciple.
Finally, on thispoint, 1aminclined to support this viewwhich receives
support from a relevant paragraph of the Judgment in the Aegean Sea
ContinentalShelf case,where the Court again confirmed that :

"The reason is that legally a coastal State's rights over the conti-

nental shelf are both appurtenant to and directly derived from the
State's sovereignty over the territory abutting on that continental
shelf....itissolelybyvirtue ofthe coastal State'ssovereigntyoverthe
land that rights of exploration and exploitation in the continental
shelf can attach to it, ipsojure,under international law. In short, con-
tinental shelf rights are legallyboth an emanation from and an auto-
matic adjunct of the territorial sovereignty of the coastal State."
(Z.C.J.Reports 1978,p. 36,para. 86.)

1have no difficultywhatsoeverinagreeing withtheCourt inthe matter
of the applicable law in this case. After observing that it has never had
occasion to apply the 1958Geneva Convention, the Court proceeds to
state thatsinceboth States are parties to that Convention, and therebeing
no joint request for a singlemaritime boundary as in the Gulfof Maine
case,then the 1958GenevaConvention isapplicableto the delimitation of
the continental shelf boundary between Greenland andJan Mayen.The
Court then goes onto Saythat Article 6,paragraph 1,ofthe Geneva Con-
vention isapplicable to the continental shelf,but that does not mean that
this treaty law is to be interpreted and applied exclusively and without
reference to international customarylaw on the subject or independently

ofthe factthat afisheryzone isalsolocatedin these waters. It isthe role of
customaryinternational lawthat 1wishto amplifyhere inorder to empha-
size its importance and relevance, as well as touching on its genesis in
order to appreciate once again the evolution of the applicability of equi-
table principles and their development over the past four decades.

To begin with, one may ask what is the customary international law
applicable in this case?The Court boldly enunciated it in its 1985 Judg-
ment in the case concerning the Continental Shelf(Libyan Arab Jamahi-
riya/Malta) in the followingterms : "Judicialdecisionsareat one - and the Parties themselves agree
(paragraph 29 above) - in holding that the delimitation of a conti-
nental shelf boundary must be effected by the application of equi-
table principles in al1the relevant circumstancesin order to achieve
an equitableresult."(I.C.J.Reports 1985,p. 38, para. 45; emphasis
added.)

Thus one can Saythat the relevanceof equitableprinciples,asa funda-
mental legalrégimegoverningmaritimeboundary delimitation,has now
been firmly entrenched by thejurisprudence of the Court supported by
international arbitral tribunals. It may therefore be desirable, before
examiningthese mles and principles of international law,to quote a full
statement oftheir content :

"What generalinternational lawprescribesin everymaritime deli-
mitation between neighbouringStatescouldthereforebe defined as
follows :
(1) No maritime delimitation between States with opposite or
adjacent coasts may be effected unilaterally by one of those States.

Suchdelimitation mustbesought and effectedbymeans of anagree-
ment, following negotiations conducted in good faith and with the
genuine intention of achieving a positive result. Where, however,
such agreement cannotbe achieved, delimitationshould be effected
by recoursetoa thirdparty possessingthe necessarycompetence.

(2) In either case,delimitation isto be effectedby the application
of equitablecriteria and by the use of practical methods capableof
ensuring,with regardto the geographicconfiguration of the area and
other relevant circumstances,an equitable result." (I.C.J. Reports
1984,pp. 299-300,para. 112;emphasisadded.)

A careful analysis of this definition will show that it is a very compre-
hensiveand ail-embracingstatement,and that theprinciples itformulates
areessentialto afairandjustjudgment. Butthat isnot to Saythat ithasnot
given rise to certain attendant problems and criticisms. However,before
going into this, it may be necessary to re-examine its historical back-
ground in a nutshell, inorder tojustify and fortifythe Court in itsadher-

ence to this fundamental nom of international law in the field of
maritimeboundary delimitation and alsoto stressitsapparently universal
acceptability.

Equitableprinciples in maritime delimitation as establishedtoday are
notthe "creation" oftheCourt. Perhapsone canregardtheCourt's roleas
that ofa "fosterparent". Theapplicability ofequitableprinciples received
itsfirstauthoritativeformulationin 1945,astheCourt recognizedwhenit
stated that: "Such a review mayappropriately start with the instrument, gen-
erally known as the 'Truman Proclamation', issuedby the Govern-
ment of the United States on 28 September 1945.Although this
instrument wasnotthe firstoronlyoneto haveappeared, it ha; inthe
opinion of the Court a special status." (Z.C.J.Reports 1969,p. 32,
para. 47.)

Before that date, ideas had been advanced by jurists, publicists and
technical experts on various theories of how best to approachthe nature
and extentofconflictingrightsexercisable overthe continentalshelf.Two
principles emerge from the Proclamation. The first is that the coastal
Stateshaveoriginal,natural and exclusiveorevenvestedrightsto the con-
tinental shelfoftheir shores,to the exclusionof other coastal States.This
principle is reflected in Article of the 1958Geneva Convention on the
Continental Shelf.The first two paragraphs ofthat Articleareimportant
enoughto mention here :

"1. ThecoastalStateexercisesoverthe continental shelfsovereign
rights for the purpose of exploring it and exploiting its natural
resources.
2. Therightsreferredtoin paragraph 1 ofthisarticleare exclusive

in thesensethat ifthe coastal State does not explore the continental
shelf or exploit its natural resources, no one may undertake these
activities, or make a claim to the continental shelf, without the
expressconsent ofthe coastal State."
The other principle which is more relevant to this opinion relates to
agreementsbased on "equitable principles". It laysdownthat boundaries

"shall be determined by the United States and the State concerned in
accordance with equitable principles". As a part of its assignment of
developing and codifyinginternational law,the International LawCom-
missionofthe United Nations took up this juridical project between 1950
and 1956 but no definite rule was formulated by the Commission,
and the general trend of opinion among its members was still in favour
of agreement or referral to arbitration. However,during this period, the
Commission referred the matter to a Committee of Hydrographical
Experts which eventually produced, in 1953,a report favouring equi-
distance - understandably enough, given its convenience. It should be
noted that equidistance was only one of the four methods suggested to
the experts. Even after the adoption of the Report of the Committee
ofExpertsinfavour ofequidistance,there werestilldoubts and hesitation

inthe minds of some ofthe members ofthe Commission :

"on such grounds for instance as that its strict application would
be open,in certain cases,to the objectionthatthe geographicalcon-
figuration of the Coast would render a boundary drawn on this
basis inequitable" (Z.C.J.Reports1969,p. 35,para. 53).

260 An independent observerin the arena of maritime boundary delimita-
tion would have no difficulty in discerningthe existence of a "running
battle" between the two schools of thought in this field, with those
upholding equitable principles on one side, and those advocating the
"equidistance principle" on the other side, each constantly pointing out
the defects and weaknesses in the arguments of the other. The so-called
"equidistanceprinciple" continues towinthe battle asfaras Statepractice
is concerned, because of its relative convenience (which cannot be
denied), but that is al1that can be said for it, since the method is quite
inadequate to meet al1global situations, especially where the geographi-
cal configuration would render such a method inequitable as in the pres-
ent case. It is because of this patent defect in the method that the Court
rejected it as not forming part of the customary law and deserving the
status of nothing more than one method among others.

Historicallytherefore,as 1have pointed out above, the equitable prin-
ciple, as developed over the years from the time of the Truman Procla-
mation to the period when it received the attention of the International
Law Commission,has now been fully developed and has achieved the
status of an accepted rule of law within the jurisprudence of the Court
andthat of international arbitral tribunals.

In common law,the traditional role ofequityas a systemstanding sepa-
rate from the lawis sharply at variance with its role and meaningininter-
national law, and especially in the field of maritime boundary delimita-
tion. "The classical role of equity" asknownto common law

"is to modifythe rule of law where it might, if strictlyapplied, work
injustice.Thus law and equity working togethershould servetheend
ofjustice by introducing flexibility,adaptability and evenlimitations
upon the application of legal rules." (Sir Robert Jennings in Staat
und Volkerrechtsordnung,pp. 400-401 .)

What then is meant by equity or equitable principles in maritime
boundary delimitation? An answer was given in the 1982 Continental
Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) case, where the Court defined
that concept in the followingterms :

"Equity as a legalconcept is a directemanation of the idea ofjus-
tice. The Court whose task is by definition to administer justice is
bound to apply it. In the course of the history of legal systems the
term 'equity'has been used to define various legal concepts. It was
often contrasted with the rigid rules of positive law, the severity of
which had to be mitigatedin order to dojustice. In general,this con-
trasthasnoparallel inthe development ofinternational law ;the legal concept of equity is a general principle directly applicable as law."
(I.C.J.Reports 1982, p. 60,para. 71.)

The Court shed light on this as far back as 1969,when it defended it as
follows :
"in short, it isnot a question of applyingequitysimplyas a matter of
abstract justice, but of applying arule oflaw which itself requires the
application of equitable principles, in accordance with the ideas

which have always underlain the development of the legal régimeof
thecontinental shelfinthisfield" (I.C.J.Reports 1969, p. 47,para. 85).

Some of the grey areas of equity need to be examined and considered

here. Take for example the maxim that equality is equity, or "equity did
delightin equality". Well, that may be positively so in common law, but
may not necessarilyhold good in the field of international law. Hence in
1969,the Court pronounced that "Equity does not necessarily imply
equality" and went onto state that :

"There can never be any question of completely refashioning
nature, and equity does not require that a Statewithout access to the
sea should be allotted an area of continental shelf, any more than
there couldbe a question ofrendering the situation of a State with an
extensivecoastlinesimilarto that ofa Statewithrestricted coastline."
(Ibid.,pp. 49-50,para. 91 .)

In the GulfofMaine casein 1984,the Chamber was confronted with a
choicebetweenthe criteria applicable, and resolved to favour and apply
onethat was "long held tobeasequitableasit issimple - equal division".
Perhaps,in the absence of any specialcircumstance, the Judgment in the
GulfofMainecase is a good example of equityimplyingequality.In that
case,the Chamber concluded :

"In short, the Chamber seesin the above findings confirmation of
its conviction that in the present casethere are absolutelyno condi-
tions ofan exceptionalkind whichmightjustify anycorrection ofthe
delimitation line it has drawn. The Chamber may therefore confi-
dently conclude thatthe delimitationeffected in compliance withthe
governingprinciples and rules oflaw,applyingequitable criteria and
appropriate methodsaccordingly,hasproduced an equitableoverall
iesult." (I.C.J.Reports 1984, p. 344,para. 241.)

A similarconclusion was reached by another Chamber in 1986in the
FrontierDisputecase where it concluded that although '"Equity does not necessarily imply equality'(NorthSea Continental

ShelJ;I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 49, para. 91), where there are no
special circumstances the latter is generally the best expression of
the former" (I.C.J.Reports1986,p. 633,para. 150).

But al1these concordant declarations do not mean that there are no
inherent problems with the "interpretation and application" of equitable
principles. Even theCourt in one of itsJudgments alluded to these prob-
lems and draw a distinction as well as suggesting an amendment to an

"unsatisfactory terminology" :

"The result ofthe application ofequitableprinciples mustbe equi-
table.Thisterminology, which isgenerallyused, isnot entirely satis-
factory because itemploysthe termequitable to characterizeboth the
resulttobe achieved and the means to be applied to reachthisresult.
It is, however, the result which is predominant; the principles are
subordinate to the goal." (I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 59,para. 70.)

In the present case, the Court has decided to start with a provisional
median line which 1perfectlyagree with. Then it moves on to correct the
line applying the equitable procedure in order to obtain an equitable
result.Whatever may be the method or principle employed, the ultimate
result iswhat isimportant - an equitableresult likewisederivingfrom the
principle.
There isalso the criticismconstantly levelled against the Court regard-
ing its application of equitable principles, i.e., that its decisions are ex
aequo et bono which can only be invoked when requested for under

Article 38,paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court. This contention that
decisions of the Court are an exercise of discretion or conciliation has
been refuted by the Court in many of itsJudgments.

The Court made its position abundantly clear even in the Judgment in
1969in the North Sea ContinentaS l helfcases :

"Nevertheless,whenmention ismade ofa court dispensingjustice
or declaring the law,what ismeant isthatthe decision finds itsobjec-
tive justification in considerations lying not outside but within the
mles, and in this field it is precisely arule of law that calls for the
application of equitable principles. There is consequently no ques-
tion in this case of anydecision ex aequoet bono. .." (I.C.J.Reports
1969,p. 48,para. 88.)
Asimilar viewwas again expressed inthe Tunisia/Libyacase when the
Court said that:

"Application of equitable principles istobe distinguished from a
decision exaequoetbono.. .Whileitisclearthatno rigidmles existas to the exact weight to be attached to each element inthe case,this is
very far from being an exercise of discretion or conciliation; nor is it
an operation of distributive justice." (I.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 60,
para. 71.)
Thisimportant assertion disclaiming the use of equity exaequoetbon0

can also be found in the Judgment of the Chamber in the Gulfof Maine
case and in the Arbitral Award inthe Guinea/Guinea-Bissaucase.

To conclude this discussion of equitable principles, and despite al1of
theiralleged "defects", theyhave worked effectivelyfor overtwodecades,
and have received ovenvhelming support from the entire world commu-
nity asreflectedin the 1982Conventionon the Lawofthe Sea,and al1the
United Nations Conferences on the Law of the Sea. They are now the
fundamental principles which customaryinternational law brings to the
task ofmaritimedelimitation and perhaps constitute thefonsetorigoofits
future development.The judicial process, like the law, is dynamic.It will
continue to develop and be improved upon. The use of equitable prin-
ciples in this field is definitely on course and equity is not floundering in
uncharted seas.There willalwaysbe room for fine-tuning,but there isno

doubtthatthe international customarylaw ofmaritimeboundary delimi-
tation, now solidlybased on equitableprinciples, has come to stay.

SOLVIN GHE EQUATION

Thispresent case isan important onein the history of the development
of customaryinternational law on maritimeboundary delimitation. It isa
delimitation case in which the Court has to resolve the dispute between
the Parties even in the absence of a specialagreement. Itis also the first
case relating to the maritime area of the North-East Atlantic where the
effect of ice on that maritime area was an issuein the dispute. Moreover,
and most importantly, this is the first case before the Court that has
required a definitive interpretation and application of the 1958Geneva
Convention on the Continental Shelf,in particular Article6,paragraph 1,
thereof. In this case, both Parties agree that they arebound by the provi-
sions of the Convention which was signed by Denmark on 29April1958,

and subsequentlyratified on 12June 1963 ;Norway accededto iton 9Sep-
tember 197 1.
Hence, the first directinference isthatthe median linemethod of deli-
mitation isapplicableto any matter ofmaritimedelimitationinrespect of
the continental shelfboundary betweenGreenland and Jan Mayen. Even
the Danish Memorial admits (on p. 59,para. 210)and confirms that the
1958Convention remainsin forceas between both States. Thepoint ofdeparture, however,betweenDenmark and Norwayisthat
while Norway insiststhatthe median line as stipulated in Article6 ofthe
1958Convention applieswithout anycondition or reservation, Denmark
argues that the rule in Article 6 is one of equidistance-special circum-
stances,and that Jan Mayen isa specialcircumstance 'barexcellence".

The crux of the matter is accordingly the question of whether
Jan Mayen is a special circumstance par excellenceU . nfortunately, Den-
mark did not elaborate on what it considered to constitute a special cir-
cumstance of that kind. From the evidence before the Court, it was
established by Denmark and apparently conceded by Norway, that
Jan Mayen is a relatively small, isolated and uninhabited island. As to
population it was common ground between both Parties that there are
about 25persons on the island at any giventime, and that their presence
ismainlyconnected withmeteorologicalactivities.In paragraphs 206and

207 of the Danish Memorial, Jan Mayen was described as a desolate
island without natural resources of anysignificance.Mining and hunting
activitieswere once attempted there, but have since been abandoned. It
hasno harbour (natural orartificial)and evenattemptsto constructa port
there for a fishing base were subsequently given up. The question is
whetherthis geographical,economic, and socialfeature of Jan Mayen is
enough to give it the status of a special circumstance par excellencein
international law. Some of the important considerations that could so
qualifyJan Mayen maynow have to be received.

The first such consideration is whether Jan Mayen is a rock. If it is a
mere rock, then its legal position may have to be related to Article 121,
paragraph 3,ofthe 1982Convention onthe Lawofthe Seainwhicharock
is defined as that "which cannot sustain human habitation or economic
lifeof [its]own" and "shall haveno exclusiveeconomiczone or continen-
talshelr'. So it is clearfrom this definition that if Jan Mayen is a rock, it

may not be entitledto an exclusiveeconomiczone and continental shelf,
unlike an island. But here there can be no doubt, especially after
Denmark'spresentation of its argumentsat the hearings, that Jan Mayen
isnot arockbut an island.Thislegalstatus ofJan Mayenwasacceptedby
Denmark during the oralpresentation ofitscase,andJan Mayenwasalso
referred to as an island in its pleadings. If,therefore, Jan Mayens not a
rockbut anisland,it canbe defined under Article 121,paragraphs 1and 2,
as "a naturally formed area of land surrounded by water, which is above
water at hightide" and :

"theterritorial sea,the contiguouszone,the exclusiveeconomiczone
and the continental shelf of an island are determined in accordance
withthe provisionsofthisConvention,applicable to other land terri-
tory" (United Nations Convention on the Lawofthe Sea,Part VIII,
Art. 121). The conclusion which must inevitably be reached here is that since
Jan Mayen isacknowledgedto be an island,it isentitledto the considera-
tions that would normallybe attached to otherlandterritory.Hence, it is
likeanyterritory entitledtoits owncontinental shelfand fisherieszonein
the same manner as Greenland, and for this purpose cannot constitute a
specialcircumstance.
Another suggestion on special circumstances that may be worthy of
consideration at this point is whether Jan Mayen isan incidental special
feature. If it is, it maythen amount to a special circumstance under
Article 6 of the 1958Geneva Convention. Perhaps it is necessaryto put
in perspectivetheimportant provision of Article 6,paragraph 1,which is
the Articlebeing examinedhere :

"Where the same continental shelfis adjacent to the territories of
two or more States whose coastsare oppositeeach other,the bound-
ary ofthe continental shelfappertaining to such Statesshallbe deter-
mined byagreementbetweenthem. In the absenceofagreement,and
unless another boundary is justified by special circumstances, the
boundary isthe medianline,everypoint ofwhich isequidistant from
the nearestpoints ofthe'baselinesfromwhichthebreadth oftheterri-
torial sea of each Stateis measured." (Emphasis added.)

Here,it isdifficult tosert that Jan Mayen isan incidental special fea-
ture. In this regard, the decision inthe North Sea Continental helf cases
may wellbe veryrelevant, eventhough there is no similaritybetween the
geographical situation in the case between the Federal Republic of
Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands, and this casebefore theCourt.
In the geographical situation of this case, there is no consideration of
"quasi-equalityasbetween States", aswasfound to existin the North Sea
ContinentalShelf cases (Federal Republicof Gennany/Denmark;Federal
Republicof Gennany/Netherlands).

It maytherefore not be correctto statethat Jan Mayen willhave such a
distortingeffectin any sensewhatsoever.Themedian lineissuehere isnot
between mainland Nonvay and Greenland - thedistancebetweenwhich
iswellover700mileswithhigh seasinbetween. Itfollowsthatthe issueof
a smallisland closetothe median lineor located in such a wayasto bring
about a distorting effectdoes not arise inthis case and forthis reason the
issue ofincidental specialfeatures does not arise.
What again is leftto be considered here iswhether, as inthe North Sea
ContinentalShelf cases,there isageographicalsituation whichmaybring
Jan Mayenintothe ambit of provisionsrelating to the "presence of islets,
rocksand minor coastalprojections" (Z.C.J.Reports1969,p. 36,para. 57).
As 1havealreadypointed out, the situationhereisdifferent. Jan Mayen is
neither an islet,nor a rock, nor ainor coastalprojection.
Havingtreated the question of specialcircumstancesas it relatesto the
equidistancemethod under Article6,paragraph 1,ofthe GenevaConven-tion on the Continental Shelf, 1shall now turn my attention to the other
side ofthe equationreferredto inthejurisprudence oftheCourtas "rele-
vant circumstances". While one may venture to Saythat special circum-
stancesrelateto geophysicalpeculiaritiesinrespect ofcoastsofStates,the
term "relevant circumstances" is perhaps wider in scope, but similar in
purpose and content.

However, an examination of the pronouncements by the Court on
"relevant circumstances" as a pertinent consideration in cases of mari-
time boundary delimitationpoints to some ways in which international
lawcontinues to develop.

In the NorthSea ContinentalShelf cases,the Court states :

"In fact,there is no legal limitto the considerations which States
may take account of for the purpose of making sure that they apply
equitableprocedures, and more often than not it isthe balancing-up
of al1such considerations that will produce this result rather than
relianceon onetothe exclusionofal1others.Theproblem ofthe rela-
tiveweighttobeaccorded to differentconsiderationsnaturally varies
with the circumstances of the case." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 50,
para. 93.)

Ontheotherhand,not al1factorsthat comewithinthe categoryof"rele-
vant circumstances"ingeneralare infactrelevantineverycase.Thisagain
was made clear by the Court in the Libya/Malta case when it declared
that althoughthere wasnolegallimittotheconsiderations whichtheState
mighttakeintoaccount yet "only thosethat arepertinent tothe institution
of the continental shelfas it has developed within the law ... willqualify
for such inclusion" (I.C.J. Reports1985,p. 50,para. 48).

It is now clear that, apart from geographicalconfiguration, "relevant

circumstances" also accommodate al1other circumstances such aspopu-
lation, socio-economicstructures, security, conduct of the parties, etc.,
where these are relevant. The equitableprinciples of customaryinterna-
tional law which, as already stated, constitutethe applicable law in this
casewithregardtothefisheryzone,equallyrequireaccount to be taken of
proportionality (as in the case of the continental shelf) or what should
better becalledthe disparity ofcoastallengthsofthe Parties,asa relevant
circumstance.Ifwethereforetakea criticallookatthe length ofthe coast-
line of Greenland in comparison withthat ofJan Mayen wemay Saythat
the difference is clear (the length of the coast of Greenland is 524kilo-
metres, while that of Jan Mayen is 54.8kilometres). It is also clear that
under the equitableprinciples of customaryinternational law such a dis-
parity of coastal lengths is a relevant circumstance to be taken into con-
sideration because :302 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP . P.AJIBOLA)

"While every case of maritime delimitation is different in its cir-
cumstancesfrom the next, only a clearbody of equitable principles

can permit such circumstances to be properly weighed, and the
objectiveof an equitable result,as required by generalinternational
law,to be attained."(Z.C. R e.orts1985,p. 55,para. 76.)
A clearpicture has now emerged ofthe possiblelinkbetweenthe con-
cept of "relevantcircumstances" as enshrined in the equitable principles
of customaryinternational law and "special circumstances" as a notice-

able peculiarity in the geographical configuration of the coastlines of
Greenland and Jan Mayen. Thislink(orwhat has beentermed the "foot-
bridge" by one greatjurist) was a component of the decision reached by
the Anglo-French Court of Arbitration, an arbitral tribunal that had the
opportunity of applying the provisions of Article 6,paragraph 1,of the
Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf in 1977.In its Award the
link was effectedthus:

"In short the rôle of the 'specialcircumstances' condition in Ar-
ticle6istoensurean equitabledelimitation; and the combined 'equi-
distance-specialcircumstance rule',ineffect,givesparticular expres-
sionto ageneralnom that, failingagreement,the boundary between
Statesabutting on thesame continental shelf isto be determined on
equitable principles. In addition, Article 6 neitherfines 'special
circumstances' nor lays down the criterion by which it is to be
assessed whether any given circumstances justify a boundary line
otherthan the equidistance line. Consequently, evenunder Article6
the question whether the use of the equidistance principle or some
other method is appropriate for achievingan equitable delimitation
isverymuch a matter of appreciation inthe lightofthe geographical
and other circumstances." (Reportsof InternationalArbitralAwards
(RIA), Vol.XVIII, p. 45,para. 70.)

Wenow have al1the necessarycomponents or ingredients ofthe equa-
tion which has to be resolved in this case andin al1subsequent cases on
maritime boundary delimitation. On the one hand, the provision of Ar-
ticle 6,paragraph 1,of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf

enjoins al1Statesto settleal1their delimitationmatters by agreement and
then goes onto Saythat, if this fails the equidistance method should be
applied unlessthere are "special circumstances".Onthe other hand,gen-
eralinternational lawalsopostulates that al1delimitation mattersshould
be resolved by agreementbetween the parties and that, in the event of a
failure to reach agreement,equitable principles should be applied. Such
an equitable procedure must have regard to "relevant circumstances".

In the first case,the resolving of delimitation matters by agreement is
common to both sets of provisions. There is also a requirement to giveconsideration to geophysical or other peculiarities which are termed
either "special circumstances" or "relevant circumstances" and the

methodadvocated bythe Convention isequidistance,whilegeneralinter-
national lawrequiresthe application ofequitableprinciples. Thustheend
resultofsolvingtheequation isspecial circumstances/equidistance being
equal apparently to relevant circumstances/equitable principles. In
other words agreement/special circumstances/equidistance equals
agreementhelevant circumstances/equitable principles.One however is
encapsulatedin the other as was found bythe Court of Arbitration in the
Anglo-French casewhich declaredthat

"In the view of this Court, therefore,the rules of customary law
area relevantand evenessentialmeansboth forinterpretingand com-
pletingthe provisions of Article6."(RIAA,p. 48,para. 75.)
In my final appraisal, therefore, the supreme contribution of current
customaryinternational law as compared to the special circumstances-
equidistance rule(asinthis casewhereboth theseinstitutions ofmaritime
boundary delimitation have to be considered)is that the ultimate rule of

lawistheapplication ofequitableprinciples;this isthecontemporary law
onthismatter. Inconclusiontothispart ofmyopinion 1should liketogive
a classic example of solving equations similar to the one that presents
itselfin this case.It readshus:

"The Court accordinglyfinds thatthe GenevaConvention of 1958
onthe Continental Shelf isa treaty in force,the provisions of which
are applicable as between the Parties to the present proceedings

under Article2oftheArbitration Agreement.Thisfinding,the Court
wishes at thesametime to emphasise, does not mean that it regards
itself as debarred from taking any account in these proceedings of
recent developments in customary law. On the contrary, the Court
has no doubt that it should take due account of the evolution of the
law of the sea in so far as this may be relevant in the context of the
present case." (Zbid.,p. 37,para. 48.)
This decision is inter-temporal in tone, but there is no doubt that it
reflectsthe current view ofthe lawon maritimeboundary delimitation -

law isdynamic and moveswith the times.

(Signed) BolaAJIBOLA.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AJIBOLA

1havevotedinfavour ofthe Judgment inthis caseinwhich theCourt, in
effect, dismissed the claims of both Denmark and Nonvay. The Court
rejected the submission of Denmark "that Greenland is entitled to a full
200-mile fishery zone and continental shelf area vis-à-vis the Island of
Jan Mayen". It also rejected Nonvay's submission that outright median
lines constitute the boundary for the purpose of delimitation of the rele-
vant areas ofthe continental shelf and fisherieszonesbetween Greenland
andJan Mayen. Furthermore, 1am firmly and stronglysupportive of the

decision ofthe Court asto the applicable lawsbothin terms ofthearea of
the continental shelfand that ofthe fishery zone. Theecision once again
reinforces and confers a seal of approval upon the jurisprudence of the
Court consistentlyenunciated and firmlyestablished sincethe North Sea
Continental Shelfcases in 1969.
Thereason why 1feel 1must writethis separate opinion isthat there are
some areas of the Judgment which 1personally consider are in need of
further elaboration, and which 1now intend to deal with.

There seem to be some procedural problems relating to jurisdiction

which require ameasure ofclarification inthis case,eventhough no preli-
minary objections have been raised by Nonvay. There are sufficient
indications contained both in the written pleadings and, even more so,
in the oral arguments of the Parties, which of necessity enjoin a careful
appraisal.
The initial application of Denmark as presented to the Court is a
request :
"to decide, in accordance with international law, where a single line

of delimitation shall be drawn between Denmark's and Nonvay's
fishing zones and continental shelf areas in the waters between
Greenland and Jan Mayen".
On the other hand, Nonvay's response to the Danish application is a
submission thatthe Court must drawtwo lines. In Nonvay's own words,
the Court is asked:

"toadjudgeanddeclarethat:
(1) The median line constitutes the boundary for the purpose of
delimitation of the relevant areas of the continental shelf between OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. AJIBOLA

[Traduction]

J'ai votéen faveur de l'arrêtpar lequel la Cour a, en fait, rejeté les
demandes tant du Danemark que de la Norvège.La Cour a rejetéla
conclusiondu Danemarkselonlaquelle ((leGroenland a droit àune zone
entièrede pêcheet de plateau continental de 200 milles face à l'île de

Jan Mayen». Elle a aussirejeté la conclusionde la Norvège à l'effetque
les lignes médianes pureset simples constituent la limite aux fins de la
délimitationdesétenduespertinentes deszonesde plateau continental et
de pêche situées entre le Groenland et Jan Mayen. De plus, je soutiens
fermement et énergiquementla décisionde la Courquant au droit appli-
cableencequiconcernetant lazone deplateau continental quelazone de
pêche. L'arrêt renforce encore et consacre la jurisprudence de la Cour
énoncéeavec constance et fermement établie depuis les affaires du
Plateau continentadl e la merduNorden 1969.
La raison pour laquellej'estime devoirprésenter cette opinion indivi-
duelle est qu'ilya quelquespassages de l'arrêt ontj'estime qu'ilsappel-
lent quelque développementet dontje traiterai maintenant.

Il semble exister, en ce qui concerne la compétence, quelques
problèmesdeprocédure quiexigentcertainséclaircissements,bienquela
Norvège n'aitpas soulevé d'exceptions préliminaires. Il y a des indica-
tions suffisantes dans les écritures des Partieset,plus encore, dans leurs
plaidoiries, qui appellent un examen attentif.

Dans sa requête introductive d'instance,le Danemark a demandéàla
Cour :

«de dire, conformémentau droit international, où une ligneunique
de délimitation devra être tracée entre les zones de pêche etdu
plateau continental du,Danemark etdela Norvègedans leseauxqui
séparentle Groenland etJan Mayen)).

Dans sa réponse à la requête danoise, en revanche, la Norvège
demande àla Cour de tracer deux lignes.La Norvègea priélaCour

de dire etjuger:
1) Que la lignemédiane constituelaligne de séparationaux fins
de la délimitation des étendues pertinentesdu plateau continental Norway and Denmark inthe region between Jan Mayen and Green-
land ;
(2) The median line constitutes the boundary for the purpose of
delimitation of the relevant areas of the fisheries zones between
Norway and Denmark in the region between Jan Mayen and
Greenland".

In otherwordstherequest of Norway isnot foradual-purpose singleline
as requested by Denmark but rather one line for the continental shelf
boundary and the other oneforthe fisheryzone.
Added to the question of a line or lines is the second contention of
Norway that, in a case of this nature, the actual delimitation cannot be
effected by the Court; that the Court should rather content itself with a
mere declaratoryjudgment. Onthis point Norway asserts that

"the adjudication should result in a judgment which is declaratory
as to the bases of delimitation and which leaves the precisearticula-
tion (or demarcation) of the alignment to negotiation between the
Parties" (CR 93/9, p. 52).

As was observed in the Judgment of the Court, this particular view of
Norway affects the mode of presentation of its case. For example, while
Denmark in al1 its submissions and oral arguments lays claim to a
200-milelimit offthe Coastof Greenland, Norwayrestricts itselfthrough-
out to a claim repeatedlybased on the median line.

The third argument of Norway - stillon procedure - isthat the uni-
lateral application as filed in this case is inappropriate to the matter in
hand. Norway says :

"Delimitation is inherently unsuitable for cases brought by
unilateral application unless there is some form of agreement on
the part of the respondent as to the role and powers of the Court."
(CR 93/9, p. 81.)
Thisassertion of Norway - coupled with othersalreadymentioned -

is sufficientto compel the Court to consider carefully, evenpropriomotu,
whether this is not a case in which the question of its competence and
apparent jurisdiction is not being called into question by Norway. Per-
haps the case is a "unicum" for this reason. Virtually al1the celebrated
casesonmaritimedelimitation weresubmitted tothe Court onthe basis of
a Special Agreement between the parties. Thus (1) the North Sea Conti-
nental Shelf cases (FederalRepublicof Germany/Netherlands;Federal
Republicof Germany/Denmark),(2)the ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya) case, (3) the case concerning Delimitation of the
Maritime Boundaryin the Gulfof MaineArea (Canada/United States of
America) al1fell within the category of cases brought to the Court by
Special Agreement. entre la Norvège et leDanemark dans la régionsituée entreJan
Mayen et le Groenland;
2) Que la ligne médiane constituela ligne de séparationaux fins
de la délimitationdesétenduespertinentes deszonesde pêcheentre
la NorvègeetleDanemark dans larégionsituéeentreJan Mayen etle
Groenland ».

Autrementdit, la Norvègeademandénon pas une ligneunique à double
fin comme le souhaitait le Danemark mais une ligne pour la limite du
plateau continental etune autrepour la zone de pêche.
En plus de cette question de savoir s'ilfaut une ligne ou plusieurs, la
Norvègea soutenu que, dans une affaire de cettenature, la délimitation
proprement dite nepeut êtreeffectuép ear laCour etquecelle-cidevraitse
contenter d'un simple jugement déclaratoire.A cet égard, laNorvège
affirme que :

«l'acte judiciaire devraitaboutàrun arrêtquiseraitdéclaratoire des
fondements de la délimitation,mais s'enremettrait aux négociations
entre les Parties pour l'articulation (ou la démarcation)précisedu
tracé»(CR 93/9, p. 52).

Comme l'indique l'arrêtde la Cour, cette opinion particulière de la
Norvège n'apas été sans avoir d'effetsur la façon dont ellea présenté sa
cause. Par exemple,alors que dans toutes ses conclusions et sesplaidoi-
ries leDanemark a revendiquéune limitede200millesau large dela côte

duGroeland, la Norvèges'estbornée,d'unbout àl'autredela procédure,
à une revendicationconstammentfondéesur la lignemédiane.
Le troisième argumentde la Norvège - toujours sur la procédure-
était que la requête unilatérale présentéele'espèce neconvenait pas à
l'objetdu litige.La Norvègea déclaré que :

«La délimitationestpar essenceun sujetqui ne seprête pas à une
procédure engagéepar voie de requête unilatérale, à moins qu'il
n'existe une quelconque forme d'accord de la part du défendeur
quant au rôle et auxpouvoirs de la Cour.»(CR 93/9, p. 81.)

Cette affirmation de la Norvège - jointe à celles qui ont déjà été
mentionnées - est suffisante pour que la Cour soit tenue d'examiner
soigneusement, mêmed'office, s'il ne s'agit pas d'une affaire dans
laquelle sa compétenceest miseen question par la Norvège.A cet égard,
l'affaireconstituepeut-êtreun unicum ».Pratiquementtoutes lescauses
célèbres en matièrede délimitation maritimeont été portées devant la
Coursur labase d'uncompromisentre lesparties. Ainsi, 1)lesaffairesdu
Plateau continentalde la merdu Nord(Républiquefédérad lilllemagne/
Pays-Bas; République fédéraled'Allemagne/Danemark),2) l'affaire du
Plateaucontinenta( lTunisie/Jamahiriyaarabelibyenne)et3)l'affaire rela-

tiveà la Délimitationde lafrontièremaritimedans la régiondu golfedu
Maine (Canada/Etats-Unisd'Amériqueo )nt toutes étportées devant la
Courpar un compromis. In this regard, a few questionsneed to be raised and examined :

1sit possible for the Court, in the light of al1the submissions of both "
Parties and of their written pleadings and oral arguments, to draw any
line/lines of delimitationas requested by Denmark? Should the Court in
factdraw a dual-purpose singlelineasrequested by Denmark ortwo lines
asdemanded by Norway? Whatform ofjudgment should the Court have
handed down in this case - should it have given merely a declaratory
judgment or have aimed at a full settlement of the case?
Norway's request for two coincident single lines is not without reason
and quite understandable. Of the two strands of maritime delimitation
involved inthiscase one isthe continental shelfboundary, whichNorway
considers to be governed by the Agreement entered into between it and
Denmark on 8December 1965aswell asthe 1958GenevaConvention on
the Continental Shelf and on the basis of which Norway argues it is
already in place betweenboth Parties.Theseconddelimitation involvedis

that ofthe fisheryzone which Norway contends should alsobe delimited
by the median line - even though it ultimately agrees that customary
international law is applicable in that context. In the light of such state-
ment of fact, it may therefore be quite logical for Norway to advance this
request.
There is also the issue of a special agreement as raised by Norway in
fairlyemphaticterms :

"It seernsto be obliviousof the basic legal principle that the con-
sent ofparties isrequired in order to havethe Court engage in a deli-
mitation of maritime areas - just as the consent of parties would be
required for them to effect the delimitation themselves." (CR 93/9,
p. 50.)

Has Norway any ground to advance this view so strongly? Norway
does not givethe Court itsreasons andno authority is cited to this effect.
Buta carefulexamination ofthe provisions ofsomerelevantConventions
may throw sufficientlight on the way in which Norway has approached
this particular problem.
Article 6, paragraph 1,of the 1958Geneva Convention on the Conti-
nental Shelf States :

"Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of
two or more States whose coasts are oppositeeach other,the bound-
ary ofthecontinental shelfappertaining to such Statesshallbe deter-
mined by agreement between them."(Emphasisadded.)

In factthis isthe Convention that both Partiesagree isbinding onthem
with respect to the delimitation of the continental shelf. Similarly
Article 74 of the 1982United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(which is not yet in force), deals with the delimitation of exclusive econ-
omiczonesbetweenStates with opposite or adjacent coasts and primarily
stipulates thatsuch a delimitation "shall be effected by agreementon the A cet égard, quelques questions doivent être soulevéeset examinées :

A la lumièrede toutes les conclusions des deux Parties, de leurs écri-
tures et de leurs plaidoiries, la Cour peut-elle tracer une ou plusieurs
lignes de délimitation comme le demande le Danemark? La Cour doit-
elle en fait tracer une ligne uniqueà double fin comme le demande le
Danemark, ou deux lignes comme le voudrait la Norvège? Quel type
d'arrêt laCour aurait-elle dû rendreen l'espèce- aurait-elle dû seborner
à un jugement déclaratoireou tenter de réglercomplètementl'affaire?
La demandede la Norvègeen faveur de deux lignes coïncidentes n'est

pas déraisonnableet elle est toutàfaitcompréhensible.Des deux aspects
de la délimitationmaritime qui se trouvent en cause,l'un a traitàla déli-
mitation du plateau continental, dont la Norvège considère qu'elle est
régiepar l'accord conclu entre elle et le Danemark le 8 décembre 1965
ainsiquepar laconvention deGenèvede 1958surleplateau continental et
sur lesquelsla Norvège sefondepour dire que la ligne de délimitationest
déjàenplace. Lesecondconcernelazone depêche,pour laquelle,selonla
Norvège,la délimitation devrait aussi être opérée par la ligne médiane,
bien qu'elleconviennefinalement que ledroitinternational coutumier est
applicable en l'espèce. A la lumière de ces considérations factuelles, la
position de la Norvègene manque donc pas de logique.
La Norvège a soulevé aussi, non sans insistance, le problème du
compromis :

«On sembleoublier leprincipejuridique de base que le consente-
ment desparties est nécessairepour que la Cour procède àune déli-
mitation de zones maritimes - tout comme le consentement des
parties seraitnécessairepour qu'elleseffectuent la délimitationelles-

mêmes. »(CR93/9, p. 50.)
La Norvège est-ellefondéeàavancercette opinion avec autant d'assu-
rance? Elle n'expose pas ses motifs àla Cour et ne s'appuie sur aucune
autorité.Mais un examen attentif des dispositions de certaines conven-
tions pertinentes aidera peut-être à mieux saisir la manière dont la

Norvègea abordéceproblème particulier.
Leparagraphe 1de l'article 6de laconvention de Genèvede 1958sur le
plateau continental contient la disposition suivant:
«Dans le cas où un mêmeplateau continental est adjacent aux

territoires de deux ou plusieurs Etats dont les côtes se font face, la
délimitationdu plateau continentalentre cesEtats estdéterminée par
accordentrecesEtats ..»(Les italiquessont de moi.)
Il s'agit en fait de la convention que les deux Parties s'accordent à
reconnaîtrecontraignante pour ellesen cequiconcerneladélimitationdu

plateau continental. De même,l'article 74 de la convention des Nations
Unies sur le droit delamer de 1982,qui n'estpas encore en vigueur, traite
de la délimitation deszones économiquesexclusives entre Etats dont les
côtes sont adjacentes ou se font face et stipule principalement que cettebasis of international law". The same form of words advocating "Agree-
ment" istobefoundin Article83ofthe 1982Conventionwhichdeals with
delimitation ofthe continental shelfbetweenStateswithopposite oradja-
cent coasts.There are similarprovisionsin other Geneva Conventions of
1958especially the Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea and the
ContiguousZone (seeArticle 12).

However,it cannot validlybe argued thatthe absence of an agreement
- be it special or general - can prevent the Court from carrying out its
task ofdecidingany legalmatter referredto itfora decision onthemerits.

That may be the reason why al1Nonvay can urge in the circumstancesis
"judicialrestraint". Hence Nonvay elects to :

"remind the Court of the restraint articulated on the exerciseof its
judicial functions in the case concerning the Northern Cameroons
(Z.C.J.Reports 1963, p. 3) or of the substantial thought that was
devoted to this and to cognate subjectsby the late Judge Sir Hersch

Lauterpacht ...".
It is my considered opinion that Nonvay's appeal for caution in this
regard is misplaced and that the Court is right in rejecting it. Once an
application is properly and validly placed before the Court, it is in duty
bound to deal inaccordance withinternational lawwith al1such disputes
as are submitted to it. To that end, it is required to apply international

conventions,international custom, general principles of law recognized
by civilizednations, judicial decisions, etc. Here it may be desirable to
quote the important provision of Article 38, paragraph 1,of the Statute
which empowers :
"The Court, whosefunction isto decide in accordance with inter-
national law such disputes as are submitted to it, ... [to]apply :

(a) international conventions,whether general or particular, estab-
lishingrulesexpresslyrecognizedbythe contestingStates ;

(b) international custom, as evidenceof a generalpractice accepted
aslaw ;
(c) thegeneralprinciples oflawrecognizedbycivilizednations ;

(d) subjectto the provisions of Article 59,judicial decisions and the
teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various
nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of

law."
In my opinion, there is no doubt that this case clearlyfalls within the
ambit ofparagraphs (a)and (b)above.Therelevanceand the application
of international conventions,whether bilateral or multilateral, are clear
and there aremany ofthem invokedinthis case,notablythe 1958Geneva
Convention on the Continental Shelf and the 1965Treaty between both D~LIMITATION MARITIME (OP.IND. AJIBOLA) 283

délimitation «est effectuée par voie d'accord conformément au droit
international». Le mêmelibellé préconisantun «accord » se retrouve à
l'article 83 de la mêmeconvention, qui porte sur la délimitation du
plateau continental entre Etats dont les côtes sont adjacentes ou se font
face.Il existe desdispositionsanaloguesdans d'autres conventions adop-
tées àGenèveen 1958,notamment la convention sur la mer territoriale et
la zonecontiguë (voirl'article 12).
Cependant, il ne serait pas correct de soutenir que l'absence d'un
accord - compromis ou accord général - puisse empêcherla Cour
d'accomplir sa mission, qui consisteàstatuer surtoute questionjuridique

qu'elle est appelée à examiner au fond. C'est peut-êtrepourquoi la
Norvège n'a, en l'occurrence, pas d'autre ressource que d'invoquer la
«réservejudiciaire »et pourquoi elle a choisi de
((rappeler à la Cour la réserveattachée à l'exercice de sa fonction
judiciaire dans l'affaire du Cameroun septentrional (C.I.J. Recueil
1963,p. 3)ou lesréflexionsdefondque leregrettésirHersch Lauter-

pacht a consacré à ceproblème et à d'autres sujets connexes..»

Je considère,aprèsmûr examen, que l'appel àla prudence exprimépar
la Norvège à cet égardest hors de propos et que la Cour a raison de le
rejeter. Dèslorsqu'une requêteenbonne etdue forme estportéedevant la

Cour, celle-ciesttenue detraiter selon le droitinternational tous lesdiffé-
rends qui lui sont ainsi soumis. Pour ce faire, elle doit appliquer les
conventions internationales, la coutume internationale, les principes
générauxde droit reconnus par les nations civilisées,lesdécisionsjudi-
ciaires,etc.On peut citeràce sujet les importantes dispositions du para-
graphe 1de l'article 38du Statut qui donnemandat à

«[l]aCour, dont la mission est de réglerconformémentau droitinter-
national les différendsqui lui sont soumis,d']applique[r:
a) les conventions internationales, soit générales, soit spéciales,
établissant des règlesexpressément reconnues par les Etats en
litige;
b) la coutume internationale comme preuve d'une pratique géné-
raleacceptéecommeétantledroit;

c) les principes générauxde droit reconnus par les nations civili-
sées ;
d) sous réservede la disposition de l'article 59, les décisionsjudi-
ciaires et la doctrine des publicistes les plus qualifiés des diffé-
rentes nations, comme moyen auxiliaire de détermination des
règlesdedroit ».
A mon avis,ilne fait pas de douteque cetteaffaire entre manifestement

dans lechamp d'application desalinéas a)et b)ci-dessus. Lapertinence et
l'applicabilité des conventions internationales, bilatérales ou multilaté-
rales,sont évidentesetbeaucoup sont invoquéesen l'espèce, notamment
la convention de Genèvede 1958sur le plateau continental et le traitéde Parties. Customary international law is also invoked in this case, espe-
ciallywith regard to the fisheryzone.
Therefore, ifthe Court isof the opinion that it should givemore than a
declaratoryjudgment and proceedtodraw alineor lines inthis case,ithas
a sufficientmandate and competence todo so. Ifthe Court considers that
the solutions advocated by either Denmark or Nonvay, or even both of
them, fail to accord with the correct application of the generalprinciples
of international law inorder to settlethis dispute, it is freeto apply what-
everit considers to bejust and proper in accordance with the law.
According to the Danish application, the jurisdiction of the Court is
validlyinvoked sinceboth Partieshaveaccepted, bytheir declarations,its

compulsoryjurisdiction under paragraph 2ofArticle36 ofthe Statute and
the case has also been brought in a manner that accords with the provi-
sions ofArticle40,paragraph 1,ofthe same Statute. Whatever may there-
fore be the objection or hesitation of Nonvay in relation to this case, it
cannot hold waterinthe light of itsdeclaration of acceptance ofthe com-
pulsory jurisdiction of the Court, and the Court is fully empowered to
determine any issue placed before it, inorder to reach an effective deci-
sion on the merits of the dispute in question, whether in relation to the
drawing of one or more lines, and despite the fact that no special agree-
ment hasbeen entered into between the Parties inthis case.
If Nonvay stronglyfelt (as it vigorously contends) that the Court for
whatever reason hasnojurisdiction or isincompetent in any wayto draw
anylinewhatsoever ina matter ofthisnature, itwas freeto raise aprelimi-

nary objection as to jurisdiction and admissibilitybefore the Court. But
this, Nonvay has failed to do.

One may therefore ask why Nonvay did not pursue this line of action.
My hypothesis is that the answer is to be found in Nonvay's oral argu-
ments,when it explains that:
"Nonvay wastherefore faced with a dilemma. On theonehand, it
did not wish to file preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of the
Court, inview oftheoptionalclausedeclarationsofthePartiesandthe

broadscopeofArticle36,paragraph2,oftheStatute."(CR 93/9, p. 50;
emphasisadded.)
So, Nonvay anticipates - perhaps rightly - that if a preliminary
objection had beenraisedinrelationto Denmark's application beforethe
Court, it could wellhavebeenrejected bythe Court asthe final arbiter on
this issue or any issue for thatatter, having regard to the power of the
Court under Article 36,paragraph 6, ofthe Statute.

CONCLUSIO ONN THE ISSUE OF PROCEDURE

Perhaps 1may effectively summarizethis view of mine by referring to
the attitude of the Court in the case concerning theNorthernCameroons
(Cameroon v. UnitedKingdom)(Z.C.J.Reports1963,p. 17)where it dealt 1965entre les deux Parties. Le droit international coutumier est invoqué
aussi,spécialement à propos de la zone de pêche.
Par conséquent,si la Cour estime qu'elle doit rendre plus qu'un juge-
ment déclaratoireettracer uneligneou deslignes,elle aun mandat etune
compétence suffisants pour le faire. Si elle considère que les solutions
préconiséespar le Danemark ou la Norvège,ou mêmepar l'un etl'autre,
ne sont pas en harmonie avec l'application correcte des principes géné-
raux dedroitinternational afin deréglercedifférend,elleestlibred'appli-
quer cequ'elleconsidèrecommejuste et appropriéconformémentau droit.

D'après la requêtedu Danemark, la compétence de la Cour est invo-
quée à juste titre puisque les deux Parties ont, par leurs déclarations,
acceptésajuridiction obligatoireconformément au paragraphe 2 de l'ar-
ticle 36du Statut etque l'affairea étéintroduite conformémentauxdispo-
sitions du paragraphe 1 de l'article 40 du Statut. Quelle que soit par
conséquent l'objection ou l'hésitationde la Norvègeen l'espèce, ellene
saurait l'emporter sur sa déclaration d'acceptation de lajuridiction obli-
gatoire de la Cour, et la Cour est pleinement habilitéestatuer sur toute
question dont elle est saisie, afin d'aboutire décisioneffective sur le
fond du différend, qu'il s'agissedu tracé d'une ligne ou de plusieurs
lignes,etmalgrélefait qu'il n'existepas decompromisprésentéconjointe-

ment par les Parties.
Si la Norvège était convaincue (comme elle l'affirme énergiquement)
que pour une raison quelconque la Cour n'a pas compétencepour tracer
quelque ligne que ce soit dans une affaire de ce genre ou qu'elle n'a pas
qualitépour lefaire, illui étaitloisiblede soulever une exceptionprélimi-
naireà lacompétencedelaCour et àlarecevabilitédelarequête.Maiselle
ne l'apas fait.
On peut donc se demander pourquoi la Norvègen'a pas choisi cette
voie. Mon hypothèse est que la réponse figure dans les plaidoiries de la
Norvège,lorsqu'elle explique que :

La Norvègesetrouvait donc devant un dilemme. D'une part elle
ne voulait pas souleverd'exception prélimitaireàla compétencede
la Cour,comptetenudesdéclarationfs aitespar lesPartiesenvertudela
clausefacultative etde la largeportéede l'articleparagraphe2,du
Statut.(CR 93/9, p. 50; les italiquessont de moi.)

Ainsi, la Norvège prévoyait - peut-êtreavec raison - que si une
exception préliminaire avait été soulevée àl'encontre de la requêtedu
Danemark, cette exception aurait fort bien pu être rejetépar la Cour,à
qui revient le dernier mot à cet égard comme d'ailleurs à tout autre,
comptetenu despouvoirs qu'elle tient du paragraphe 6 de l'article 36 du
Statut.

CONCLUSION SUR LA QUESTION DE LA PROCBDURE

Pour résumermon point de vue, le mieux est peut-êtrede me référer à
l'attitude de la Courdans l'affaire du Camerounseptentrional (Cameroun
c. Royaume-Uni)(C.I.J.Recueil 1963,p. 17),dans laquelle elle a traité lawiththeissueofwhatonemayconsider"technicalities" orforma1require-
ments - which to my mind constitute the most serious problem in this
casebeforetheCourt.Theattitude ofthe Court wasclearwhenitdeclared
that itwouldnot allowmereformalitiesto preventitfromdoingjustice on
any substantive matter pertaining to any dispute placed before it. In that
regard,it stated specifically that it was followingthe line of reasoning of
the Permanent Court ofInternational Justice.What the Court ismost con-
cerned with isthatthe matter before it must "revealthe existenceof a dis-
puteinthe senserecognizedbythejurisprudence ofthe Court. ..".

Theclassicalpronouncement ofthe Courton this point was expressed
in the followingterms :

"The Court cannot be indifferentto anyfailure,whether by Appli-
cant or Respondent, to comply with its Rules which have been
framed in accordance with Article30 ofits Statute. The Permanent
Court ofInternational Justicein severalcasesfeltcalledupon to con-
sider whether the forma1requirements of its Rules had been met. In
such matters of form it tended to 'take abroad view'.(The 'Société
Commercialede Belgique',P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 78,p. 173).The
Court agreeswiththe viewexpressedbythe Permanent Court inthe
Mavrommatis PalestineConcessionscase (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2,
p. 34):

'TheCourt, whosejurisdiction is international, is not bound to
attach to matters of form the same degree of importance which
they might possess in municipal law."' (I.C.J. Reports 1963,
pp. 27-28.)

Once the Court is convinced that there is an issue or issues in dispute
(and 1presumethat thisissointhe casebefore us),then itoughttoproceed
to adecision on the merits.
Perhapsitmaybeconsideredjudicially appropriate to referatthisstage
to the final award in the Delimitationof the ContinentalShelfbetweenthe
United Kingdom and France case, where the Court of Arbitration dis-
missed al1the preliminary objections alleging a lack of jurisdiction, in
favour of dispensing substantial justice between both parties, thereby
deciding positively on the dispute as presented to it. Maybe justice is
not doing "something, nothing" (to borrow the words of Shakespeare in
Othello),especially in this Court whose decision is final and binding
without any possibilityof an appealto anyotheror further appellatecourt.

Drawing a line or lines of delimitation in maritime boundary cases is
nothing new for the Court; one may even Saythat it is familiar with the
exercise.For example,sucha requestwasmadeto theCourtinthe Gulfofquestion de ce que l'onpeut considérercommedes «détailstechniques »

ou des conditions de forme, question qui, à mon sens, constitue le
problèmeleplussérieuxdans l'affairedont laCour étaitsaisie.LaCour a
pris position clairement lorsqu'elle a déclaré qu'elle ne laisserait pasde
simplesformalités l'empêched re rendre justice sur aucune question de
fond relevant d'un différend quelconqueportédevant elle. A cet égard,
elleadéclaréexpressémentqu'ellse'entenait auraisonnement dela Cour
permanente de Justice internationale. Ce qui préoccupe le plus la Cour,
c'estquelaquestion dont elleestsaisiedoit«révélerl'existenced'undiffé-
rend au sensreconnu par lajurisprudence de laCour ..>)
Le prononcé classiquede la Cour sur ce point est exprimédans les

termessuivants :
«La Cour ne saurait être indifférente à l'inobservation, par le
demandeur ou par le défendeur, des dispositions du Règlement
élaboré conformément àl'article30du Statut. La Cour permanente
de Justiceinternationale a cru devoirrechercher plusieursreprises

silesprescriptions deformedeson Règlementavaientétérespectées.
Dans ces questions de forme, elle avait tendance à «adopter une
interprétation large (affaire de la Sociécommercialede Belgique,
C.P.J.I.érieA/Bno78,p. 173).LaCour faitsiennel'opinion suivante
expriméepar la Cour permanente dans l'affaire des Concessions
MavrommatisenPalestine(C.P.J.I.série A no2,p. 34):
«La Cour, exerçant une juridiction internationale, n'est pas
tenue d'attacher à des considérationsde forme la mêmeimpor-

tance qu'elles pourraient avoir dans le droit interne.)) (C.I.J.
Recueil1963,p.27-28.)
Dèslors que la Cour est convaincue qu'ilexisteune ou plusieurs ques-
tions en litige(etje présumequ'ilen estainsien l'espèce), elledoit statuer
sur le fond.

Du point de vue du juge, il n'est peut-êtrepas hors de propos de
mentionner ici la sentence finale dans l'affaire de la Délimitation du
plateau continentalentreleRoyaume-Unietla Francepar laquellele tribu-
nal arbitralaécartétouteslesexceptionspréliminaires à sacompétenceet
a cherché surtout à rendre matériellement la justice,ce qui l'a amenéà
résoudredefaçonpositiveledifférend quiluiavaitété soumis.Lajustice,
il me semble,consisteà faire autre choseque ((something,nothing))(pour
citerlesparoles de Shakespearedans Othello),surtout s'agissantde cette
Cour dont la décisionest finale et obligatoire sans aucune possibilité
d'appel devantunejuridiction différenteou supérieure.

UNE LIGNE OU DES LIGNES

Tracerune ligneoudes lignesdeséparationdansune affaire dedélimi-
tation maritime n'arien de nouveau pour laCour;on peut même direque
cettepratique lui estfamilière.Parexemple,unedemandeen cesensluia286 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP.OP. AJIBOLA)

Maine case in 1984when, by specialagreementbetween Canadaand the
United States of Arnerica, the Chamber was requested to describe and
determine the course of the maritimeboundary interms of geodetic lines
connecting geographic CO-ordinates of points between the coasts of the
two Parties. In the present case,asalreadystated,there isnospecialagree-
ment to guide the Court. It is also observedfrom the available evidence
and argumentsbeforethe Court,that while Denmark haspresented some
relevant materials to assist in the drawing of the requested single line of
delimitation,Nonvay wasnotsufficientlyforthcominginthisregard,orat
bestthematerials are scanty.Detailedgeodesicbase lines and basepoints
connecting geographic CO-ordinatesin terms of destinations, longitudes
and latitudes are sufficientlyprovided by Denmark, especiallyin its final
submissions.The issue is even further complicated in that the materials

supplied by Denmark are based on its request and assumptions for a
single line delimitation, and not on two lines. Of course, as has already
been indicated, Nonvay stresses that the Court should reject the sub-
mission of Denmark relating to a singleline, and urges the need for judi-
cial circumspection.

Once one has concluded that the Court can draw any line/lines, the
next issue on which the Court must decide is whether to draw a dual-
purpose singlelineor two coincidental lines.Whateverdecision isreached
on this point must accord with the relevantapplicable lawin this case. It
cannotbe denied thatthe Court isdealing withtwo distinctinstitutions of

maritime delimitation - the continental shelf boundary and the fishery
zone - in response to Denmark's request on which Nonvay joins issue
with it.The present case is not like Libya/Malta where the Court's role
was confined to the delimitation of the continental shelf. Whatever may
be the ultimatedecision in this case,it isonlyprudent,judicially desirable
and evenlegallymandatoryto keep, atleastprima facie, thesetworégimes
distinct,since separate decisions have to be taken on each of them. The
two lines may eventually coincide by operation of the applicable law
(which in effect may amount to a distinction which will not ultimately
make any difference),but the distinction must first be drawn quite inde-
pendently.

1am, therefore, persuaded that separate legal consideration has to be

given to the régimeof the continental shelf area apart from that of the
delimitation of the fisheryzone.
Thiscase willundoubtedly constitute a landmark inthe development of
thejurisprudence of this Courton maritime delimitation. In this respect,
as already mentioned, one can consider it to be unique, and the Court is
now asked, perhapsforthe first time, totacklethisquestionhead-on. In a
number of cases adjudicated upon either by the Court, its Chamber or
arbitral tribunals, parties have invariably, in their compromis,agreed onété adressée dans l'affairedu Golfedu Maine en 1984lorsque, par un

compromis entre le Canada et les Etats-Unis d'Amérique, il a été
demandé àune Chambre dela Courde décrireetde déterminerletracéde
la limitemaritimeentermes delignesgéodésiquesreliantlescoordonnées
géographiquesde points situés entre les côtes des deux Parties. Dans la
présenteaffaire,nousl'avons vu,iln'existepas de compromis pour guider
la Cour. Surlabase desfaits et argumentsportés devantla Cour, on peut
observeraussi que, si le Danemark a produit quelques documents perti-
nents pour aiderà tracerlaligneunique de délimitationqu'ila demandée,
la Norvègen'apasfournisuffisammentd'éléments à cetégardou, dans le
meilleur des cas, les élémentsdisponiblessont fragmentaires.Des lignes
de base géodésiquesdétailléee st despoints de base reliant des coordon-
néesgéographiquesentermesd'azimut, delongitudeet de latitude ontété
fournis en quantités suffisantes par le Danemark, notamment dans ses

conclusionsfinales. La question estrendue encoreplus compliquée par le
fait que les données fournies par le Danemark sont fondées sur sa
demande et sur deshypothèsesqui postulent une ligne uniquede délimi-
tation, et non pas deux. Bien entendu, commenous l'avons déjà indiqué,
la Norvègeaffirme que laCour devraitrejeterlaconclusion du Danemark
relativeàune ligneunique,et ellesoulignelanécessitépour la Cour d'agir
avec circonspection.
Une fois établique la Cour peut tracerla ligne ou leslignesqu'elle juge
appropriées, il lui faut décider ensuite s'il y a lieu de tracer une ligne
unique à double fin ou deux lignes coïncidentes. La décision, quelle
qu'elle soit, doit êtreen accord avec le droit pertinent applicable en
l'espèce.Indéniablement, la Cour est en présencede deux institutions
distinctes de la délimitationmaritime- le plateau continental et la zone
de pêche - puisqu'elle doit prendre position sur la demande du Dane-

mark, dont les termes sont contestéspar la Norvège. L'affaire Libye/
Maltedifféraitdelaprésenteinstancepuisque lerôle dela Cour sebornait
àdélimiterleplateau continental.Quellequepuisseêtreladécisionfinale
dans laprésente affaire, il est sage,souhaitable du point de vuejudiciaire
et mêmeobligatoire au regard du droit de traiter, au moins de prime
abord, ces deux régimesséparément, puisqu'ilfaudra prendre des déci-
sionsdistinctes sur chacun d'eux.Il sepeut qu'en fin de compte les deux
lignes coïncident par l'effet du droit applicable (la distinction alors
n'aurait en fait pas d'application pratique), mais cette distinction doit
d'abord être faitede manièretout à fait indépendante.
Je suis donc persuadéque l'examenjuridique doit porter séparément
sur le régimede lazone de plateau continental indépendamment de celui
qui s'applique àla délimitationde la zone de pêche.

La présente affaireconstituera certainement un jalon dans le dévelop-
pement de lajuridisprudence de la Cour enmatièrede délimitationmari-
time.Acetégard,nousl'avonsdit, onpeut considérerqu'elle estunique, et
il est demandé à la Cour, peut-êtrepour la première fois,d'aborder cette
question en face. Dans un certain nombre d'affaires sur lesquelles la
Cour, une chambre de la Cour ou un tribunal arbitral ont statué,lessinglelinedelimitation. It is also obsewed thatjudges have put questions
to the parties on this particular issue on a number of occasions. For
example, during the oral proceedings in the Tunisia/Libya case, the
question wasput asto whether, in viewofthe identitybetween the provi-
sions ofthe 1982Convention on the delimitation of the continental shelf
boundary and the exclusiveeconomiczone,the delimitation of these two
areas ought or ought not to be different, and whether the circumstances
to be taken into consideration in each area should not be different as
well. The conflicting approach of parties to these two jurisdictions
is better described by Professor Prosper Weil in his book on TheLaw
of Maritime Delimitation - Reflectionswhere he advanced this germane
hypothesis :

"It is obvious what is at stake here. If one of the parties has
obtained, by agreement or through judicial means, a continental
shelf delimitation which seemsto it to be unfavorable, it will quite
naturally seek to obtain a different delimitation for the exclusive
economiczone;the other Party,in contrast,willwantto extendtothe
exclusiveeconomiczone the favorable delimitation it has obtained
forthe continental shelf." (P.118.)

Judges and jurists alike are very much aware of this development,not
only in respect of litigation and arbitrations on the issue of drawing a
single line, but also with regard to State practice which has in fact
favouredasingleline,perhaps because ofthe convenienceitoffers.Opin-
ions are divided too. There are judges whosebeliefs and reasoning sup-
port the unity of delimitation by a singleline, whilethere are others who
believethat there should be a duality of delimitation lines in appropriate
cases.Thecase-lawthus far, asalreadyindicated,has tended to approach
the issuewith caution. One is not very much surprised by this, since the
issuewasleftunresolved during the debate at UNCLOS III onthe nature
of the relationship between these two jurisdictions. However, a careful
studyofArticle74and Article83ofthe 1982Convention onthe Lawofthe
Sea (which, eventhough not yet in force,nonetheless reflect the current

international customary law),maythrow somelightonthis problem.

The régimeofthe exclusiveeconomiczone wastreated independently
under Article74,whilethat ofthe continental shelfjurisdiction was dealt
with under Article83.Thetwo Articlesuseidenticallanguage. Again,it is
also correct to suggestthat whatever the argument might be in favour of
the duality of delimitation lines, it has been whittled down by the provi-
sion of Article56,paragraph 3,of the 1982Conventionwhich Statesthat
"The rights setout inthisarticle [onthe exclusiveeconomiczone]shallbe
exercised in accordance with Part VI" (whichdeals with the continental
shelf).However,thispointwhich seemsto favourtheunityofdelimitation
should not be pressed any further. One should perhaps go back to the
history and background of the continental shelf theory, which attained D~LIMITATION MARITIME (OP.IND. MIBOLA) 287

parties se sont toujours, dans leur compromis, mises d'accord sur une
ligne de délimitation unique.Il convient d'observer aussi qu'à diverses
reprises des juges ont posé des questions aux parties sur ce point. Par
exemple, lors de la procédure oraleen l'affaire Tunisie/Libye,il a été
demandési,étantdonnél'identitéentre les dispositions de la convention
de 1982relatives à la délimitationdu plateau continental et de la zone
économiqueexclusive,la délimitationde ces deux zones devait ou non
être différentee,t si les circonstances prendre en considérationdans
chaque zone ne devaient pas être différentes aussiL. a manière conflic-
tuelle dont lesparties, engénéra,bordent cesdeux domaines dejuridic-
tion est bien décrite parM. Prosper Weil dans son ouvrage sur les Pers-
pectivesdu droit de la délimitation maritime,dans lequel il avance cette
hypothèsequiva dans le mêmesens :

({L'enjeudu débatsauteaux yeux.Pour peu que l'une desparties
ait obtenu, par accord ou par voie judiciaire, une délimitationdu
plateau continental qui lui paraît défavorable, elle cherchera tout
naturellement à obtenir une délimitation différentepour la zone
économiqueexclusive;l'autre partie, enrevanche,aspirera à étendre
àlazoneladélimitationfavorablequ'elleaobtenue pour leplateau. »

(P. 129.)
Lesjuges commelesjuristes connaissent fort biencetaspectdeschoses,
dans le contexte non seulement des actions judiciaires et arbitrales re-
latives au tracé d'une ligne uniquemais aussi de la pratique des Etats,
quienfaits'estmontréefavorable à laligneunique,peut-êtrepour desrai-
sons de commodité. Il y a des juges qui, par convi~tio~et par raisonne-

ment, sont favorables a la délimitationpar une ligneunique, tandis que
d'autres estimentqu'ildoit y avoir, le cas échéant, deuxlignes de délimi-
tation. Jusqu'à présent, commeon l'avu,lajurisprudence tend àaborder
la questionavecprudence. Cela n'estguèreétonnant puisqueledébatqui
a eu lieu dans le cadre de la troisième conférencesur le droit de la mer
est resté sans conclusion.Cependant, un examen attentif des articles 74
et 83 de la convention sur le droit de la mer de 1982(qui, bien qu'elle
ne soit pas encore en vigueur, reflètenéanmoins le droit international
coutumieractuel),permettrapeut-êtredejeter quelquelumièresurcepro-
blème.
Lerégimedelazoneéconomiqueexclusivea été traité séparémen dtans
lecadre del'article74,tandisque celuidu plateau continentalafaitl'objet
de l'article 83.Le libellédes deux articlesest identique. Il n'estpas faux

non plus de dire que, quel qu'ait pu êtrele bien-fondéde l'argument en
faveurdeladualité deslignesdedélimitation,ilaétéaffaiblp iar ladispo-
sition du paragraphe 3 de l'articlede la convention de 1982aux termes
de laquelle«les droitsrelatifs auxfonds marins eàleursous-solénoncés
dans le présent article[relatifa zone économiqueexclusive]s'exercent
conformément àla partie VI» (qui a trait au plateau continental). Il ne
fauttoutefoispaspousser trop loin ceraisonnement qui semblefavorable
à l'unitéde délimitation.Il conviendraitpeut-êtrederevenià lagenèse etundisputed recognition and acceptanceafterthe 1945Truman Proclama-
tion, and which alsoestablished the distinctionbetween the watercolumn
and rights to the sea-bed and the duality of these two maritime jurisdic-
tions.

The differentiation, or perhaps confusion, is even more pronounced
with the current innovation of creating fisheryzones to coexist with the
exclusiveeconomic zone. However, in this particular case of delimitation
involvingGreenland andJan Mayen, the facts are such asto render inevi-
table the concept and even the application of a duality of lines. It is not
denied by both Parties that they are bound in their treaty relations by
Article 6 of the 1958 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf.
Thus it becomes imperative for the Court, in this case, to consider and
adjudge independently on the continental shelf régimeand the fisheries

jurisdiction.

It must be recognized, and accepted, that a singledelimitation linehas
the advantage of convenience and practical utility. That, in fact, must be
the reason why the Statepractice leans heavilytowards this solution.The
issue of vertical superimposition of rights is a problem and complication
that Stateswould prefer to avoid.What is relevanthere, isthe applicable
law and the legal consideration to be given to the problem of a single
delimitationline as claimed by Denmark.

Thepresentsituation isnot tobe compared withthe situationin the case
concerning Delimitation ofthe MaritimeBoundaryin the Gulf ofMaine
Area where the Chamber made the followingobservation:

"With regardtothissecondaspect,the Chamber must observethat
the Parties have simply taken itfor granted that itwouldbe possible,
both legallyand materially, to draw a singleboundaryfor two differ-
entjurisdictions. They have not put forward any arguments in sup-
port of this assumption. The Chamber, for its part, is of the opinion
that there iscertainly noule ofinternational lawtothe contrary, and,
in the present case, there is no material impossibilityin drawing a
boundary ofthiskind. There can thus be no doubtthat the Chamber
can carry out the operation requested of it." (I.C.J,Reports 1984,
p. 267,para. 27.)

Again,the situationin the casein hand isunlike that whichprevailedin
the NorthSea ContinentalShelfcaseswhere the Federal Republic of Ger-
many, though a signatory of the 1958Geneva Convention on the Con-
tinental Shelf, had never ratified that Convention; this fact in effect
excluded the consideration of the 1958 Geneva Convention on the
Continental Shelf,as distinctfromthe current trend in the customaryinter-
national law which is much influenced by the 1982Montego Bay Con-
vention on the Law of the Sea.
It has further beenarguedinsome quarters that the need fora duality ofà l'origine de la théorie du plateau continental, qui a été reconnueet
acceptée sans contestation après la proclamation faite par le prési-

dent Truman en 1945,et qui a aussi établila distinction entre la colonne
d'eau et les droits sur les fonds marins ainsi que la dualitéde ces deux
domaines dejuridiction maritime.
La différenciation,ou peut-être la confusion,est encore plus marquée
avec l'innovation actuelle qui consisteàcréer des zones de pêche desti-
nées à coexister avec la zone économique exclusive. Toutefois, dans la
présenteaffairede délimitationentreleGroenland etJan Mayen, les faits
sonttels qu'ilsrendent inévitablel'idéed'une dualitéde lignes,etmêmele
recours à une dualitéde lignes. Aucune des deux Parties ne nie êtreliée,
dans ses relations conventionnelles, par l'article de la convention de
Genève de 1958sur le plateau continental. Aussi, devient-il impérieux
pour la Cour, dans la présente affaire,d'examiner et de statuer indépen-

damment sur le régimedu plateau continental et sur la juridiction en
matièrede ~êcheries.
Il faut a6solument reconnaître, et admettre, qu'une ligne de délimita-
tion unique a l'avantage de la commoditéet de l'utilité pratique. Cela,en
fait, doit être la raisonpour laquelle la pratique des Etats penche forte-
ment en faveur de cettesolution. Le problème de la superposition verti-
caledesdroits estunproblèmeetunélémend te complication que lesEtats
préfèrentéviter.Cequi estpertinent ici,c'estledroitapplicable etlaconsi-
dération qu'ilfaut accorder en droit au problèmed'une ligne de délimita-
tion unique comme le demande le Danemark.
La situation actuelle n'est pascomparer àla situation dans l'affaire
concernant la Délimitationde lafrontière maritimedans la régiondu golfe
du Maine,dans laquellela Chambre a formulél'observation ci-après :

«S'agissantde cedeuxièmeaspect,la Chambre doit constater que
les Parties sesont bornées tenir pour admiselapossibilité tant juri-
dique que matériellede tracer une ligne unique pour deuxjuridic-
tions différentes. Elles n'ont pas proposé d'arguments à l'appui.
La Chambre quant à elle est d'avis que le droit international ne
comporte certespas de règlesqui s'yopposent. D'autre part, dans le
cas d'espèce,il n'existe pas d'impossibilité matériellede tracer une

ligne de cettenature.Il est donc hors de doute que la Chambre peut
accomplir l'opération qui lui est demandée. » (C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 267,par. 27.)
De plus, la situation dans l'affaire considéréeici est différentede celle
quicaractérisaitlesaffaires du Plateaucontinentalde lamerdu Nord,dans
lesquelles la République fédéraled'Allemagne, bien qu'ayant signéla

convention de Genèvede 1958surleplateau continental,ne l'avaitjamais
ratifiée.Cefait,enréalitée,xcluait la prise en compte de la convention de
Genèvede 1958surle plateau continental, à la différencede la tendance
actuelle du droit international coutumier,qui est fortement marquée par
la convention sur le droit de la mer signéeen 1982Montego Bay.
Enoutre,certains milieux ont soutenu quela nécessité d'une dualitédemaritimedelimitationshasbeen marginalizedconsiderablysincethephy-
sicalcharacteristics ofthe sea-bed,whichused to be a distinctconsidera-

tion, nowseemto be mergingwiththe exclusiveeconomiczone andthat it
can nolongerbemaintained that theequitable criteria forthe tworégimes
of maritime delimitation arejustifiable. Another point advanced is that
the "distance criterion" mustnowapplytothe continental shelfboundary
as it applies to the exclusiveeconomic zone. These points were made in
paragraph 34 oftheJudgmentinthe Libya/Malta case.Relatingthis cur-
rent trend of customary international lawto the case in hand may not be
appropriate, becauseinthepresent casethe Partiesare specificallybound
bythe 1958GenevaConvention onthe Continental Shelfwhichcameinto
force in 1964, was ratified by Denmark in 1963,and also ratified by
Norwayin 1971and whichboth Parties recognizeisbindingupon them. It
maybeappropriateto concludethestatement ofmyviewsonthis particu-
lar questionbyquoting againfromProfessorWeil'sLawofMaritimeDeli-
mitation - Reflectionswhich recognized this problem couched in the
followingterms :

"one cannot excludethe possibilitythat a continental shelfdelimita-
tion agreementconcluded at a time when the theory of natural pro-
longationprevailed, may have been inspired by physical considera-
tions now out of date. Its extensionto the exclusiveeconomiczone
would in that case no longer be convincinglyjustifiable." (P. 135.)

ENTITLEMENT VERSUS DELIMITATION

Initially,the application of Denmark to the Court seemsto present no
problem, as it takes the form of a simple straightforward request to the
Court for a singlelinedelimitation,in accordance with international law,
of the fishery zone and continental shelf area in the waters between
Greenland and Jan Mayen. However, the subsequent submissions of

Denmark presentboth legal and geophysicaldifficulties. In its Replythe
Danish Governmentsubmits that the Court should :

"(1) . ..adjudge and declare that Greenland is entitled to a full
200-milefisheryzoneandcontinentalshelfarea vis-à-visthe Island of
Jan Mayen; and consequently
(2) ...draw a singlelinedelimitation ofthe fisheryzone and con-
tinental shelf area of Greenland in the waters between Greenland
and Jan Mayen at a distance of 200 nautical milesmeasured from
Greenland's baseline, the appropriate point of which is given by

straightlines (geodesics)..."(emphasisadded). D~LIMITATION MARITIME (OP. IND.AJIBOLA) 289

délimitationsmaritimesaétéconsidérablementamoindrieca lrscaracté-
ristiquesphysiques des fonds marins, qui représentaientauparavantune
considération distincte, semblent maintenant se confondre avec la zone
économiqueexclusiveetl'onnepeut plusaffirmer qu'ilestjustifié d'avoir
des critères équitablespour les deux régimesde délimitation maritime.
Un autre argument avancéest que le ((critèrede distance » doit mainte-
nant s'appliquer àla limite du plateau continental comme il s'appliquà
la zone économiqueexclusive. Ces arguments sont invoquésau para-
graphe 34 de l'arrêt concernantl'affaire Libye/Malte. Peut-êtren'est-il
pas appropriéd'établirun rapport entre cettetendance actuelle du droit
international coutumier etl'affaire considéréieci,cardanscetteaffaire les
Partie sontexpressémentliées par la conventionde Genèvede 1958surle
plateau continental,qui estentréeenvigueuren 1964,quiaétératifiép ear

le Danemark en 1963et par la Norvègeen 1971,et que l'une et l'autre
Partie reconnaissent comme ayant pour elles force obligatoire. Il est
peut-êtreapproprié deconclure cetexposédemesvuessur cettequestion
particulièreencitantune foisdeplusl'ouvragedeM.Weil,Perspectivesdu
droitdela délimitationmaritime,où l'existencedeceproblèmeétaitrecon-
nue et où l'onpouvait lirel'observation suivante
«On nesaurait cependant exclurequ'un accordsurladélimitation

duplateau continentalconclu àun momentoùprévalaitlathéoriedu
prolongementnaturel ait pu êtreinspirédeconsidérationsphysiques
aujourd'hui dépassées; son extension à la zone économiqueexclu-
sive des deux pays ne sejustifierait plus alors de manière convain-
cante.»(P. 146.)

Initialement,larequêtequeleDanemark asoumiseàlaCour semblene
poser aucun problème car elle revêt laforme d'une demande simple et
directeenvued'une délimitationpar une ligneunique, conformémentau
droitinternational, deszones depêcheetdeszonesdeplateau continental

dans les eaux situéesentre le Groenland et Jan Mayen. En revanche, les
conclusions ultérieuresdu Danemark soulèvent des difficultésà la fois
juridiques et géophysiques.Dans sa réplique, le Gouvernementdanois
conclut que la Cour devrait:
1) ..dire etjuger que le Groenland a droià une zoneentièrede
pêcheed teplateau continentalde200millesfaceàl'îledeJan Mayen;
et en conséquence

2) ..tracerune ligneunique dedélimitationdelazone depêcheet
du plateau continental du Groenland dans les eaux situées entrele
Groenland etJan Mayen àune distancede 200millesmarinsmesurés
àpartir de la lignede base du Groenland,dont letronçon approprié
est représentépar des lignes droites (géodésiques)joignant..» (les
italiques sont de moi). This claim of Denmark drew a sharp reaction from Norway and the
claimof200milesby Denmark onbehalf ofGreenland wascharacterized
as "eccentric". In the words of Mr. Haug, which were subsequently sup-
ported and substantially repeated by Professor Brownlie (counsel for
Norway) :
"while the first application was simply for a single line of delimita-
tion,the principal submission was changed to ask for a declaratory

judgment of entitlement to a full 200-mile fishery zone and a full
200-mile continental shelf vis-à-vis the Norwegian island of
Jan Mayen. ..

The question of entitlement is sensitive for States in various
regions of the world. In my respectful submission a decision which
appeared to give some degree of support for the eccentric Danish
thesis would militate against the development of a stable régime of
maritime boundary delimitation in the future." (CR 93/5, pp. 13
and 15 ; emphasis added.)

1sDenmark's claimone of entitlement or delimitation? 1sthe Danish
submission lacking in clarity as argued by Norway? In the Libya/Malta
case, Libya sought to undermine the claim of Malta because of its
(Malta's)sizeand insular nature, but the Court remarked that "the entitle-
ment tothe continental shelf isthe sameforan island aswellasfora main-
land. Theissue ofentitlementemanatesfrom the State's sovereigntyover
the Coastto which such rights attach with regard to its continental shelf
ipsofacto and ab initio.The rules and principles of international law con-
fer on Greenland a basic entitlement relating to the continental shelf, no
less than that which they confer on Jan Mayen; this in effect ensures an
equal entitlement prima facie to both coasts. Therefore, Greenland is
entitled to claim the 200-mile outer limit (where such can be claimed)
just asJan Mayenisequallyentitledto claimthe same.If,therefore,Green-
land is claiming in this case an outer boundary limit line of 200-miles
within the waters between it and Jan Mayen, where the entire distance
between the two of them is 250 miles, then it is not difficult for one to
understand Norway'sargument that this is a claim for entitlement rather
than a request fora delimitation.

The Danish position is clearlystated in its Reply, asfollows :

"The Government of Denmark does not, however, question
Jan Mayen's status as an island under international law, as is evi-
denced by the fact that Denmark did not object tothe establishment
of Jan Mayen's 200-milefishery zone to the east towards the open
sea. ..[The]Danish contention isthat an equitable boundary line in
the waters between Greenland and Jan Mayen 'should be drawn D~LIMITATIONMARITIME(OP. IND. AJIBOLA) 290

Cette demandedu Danemarkasuscitéune viveréactiondelapart de la
Norvège et la revendication d'une zone de 200 milles formuléepar le
Danemark au nom du Groenland a étéqualifiéed'«extravagante ».Pour
reprendre les propos de M. Haug, qui ont étépar la suite corroborés et
répétép sour l'essentielpar M. Brownlie,conseil de la Norvège:

«tandis que la requête initiale demandait simplement une ligne
unique de délimitation,la conclusion principale fut modifiée de
manière à demander un jugement qui déclare l'existenced'undroit à
une zone entière de pêchede 200milles ainsi qu'à un plateau conti-
nental entier de 200 milles vis-à-vis de l'île norvégienne de Jan
Mayen ...
La question du titre juridique est une question délicate pour les
Etatsdesdifférentesrégionsdu monde. Je feraiobserverrespectueu-
sement à la Cour qu'une décision qui semblerait donner quelque
appui à l'extravagante thèsedanoise militerait contre le développe-
ment à l'avenir d'un régimestable de délimitation des frontières
maritimes. »(CR93/5, p. 13et 15;les italiquessont de moi).

La demandedu Danemark concerne-t-elle le titrejuridique ou la déli-
mitation? Laconclusion du Danemarkmanque-t-elle de clarté,commel'a
soutenu la Norvège? Dans l'affaire Libye/Malte, la Libye a attaqué le
bien-fondéde la demande de Malte en invoquant la taille et le caractère

insulaire de cedernierpays,mais la Cour afaitobserver que «le titrejuri-
dique sur le plateau continental est le mêmepour une île que pour un
continent ».La question du titre émanede la souverainetéde 1'Etatsur la
côte à laquelle ces droits se rattachent en ce qui concerne son plateau
continental ipsofacto et ab initio.Les règles etprincipes de droit interna-
tional confèrent auGroenlandun titre debase relatif au plateau continen-
tal non moindre que celui qu'ils confèrent à Jan Mayen; cela, en fait,
assure un titre égal,primafacie, l'une et l'autre côte. Par conséquent,le
Groenland estendroit derevendiquerla limiteextérieurede200milles (là
où ellepeut êtrerevendiquée)etJan Mayen estelle aussi, et également,en
droit de revendiquer la même chose.Si, donc, le Groenland demande
dans la présente affaire une limite extérieurede 200milles dans les eaux
situéesentrelui-mêmeet Jan Mayen, où la distance entreles deux est de

250 milles, il n'est alors pas difficile de comprendre l'argument de la
Norvègeselonlequel ils'agitlà de larevendicationd'un titre etnon d'une
demandede délimitation.
La position du Danemark est clairement énoncéedans sa réplique,
commesuit :

«Toutefois, le Gouvernement danois ne conteste pas que Jan
Mayen a le statut d'île au regard du droit international, comme en
témoignelefaitque le Danemark n'apas objecté à l'établissementde
lazone depêchede200millesdeJan Mayenversl'est,endirection de
la haute mer...Lathèsedu Danemark estqu'une lignede délimitation
équitabledans les eaux situées entre le Groenland et Jan Mayen along the outer limit'of Greenland's fishery zone - to borrow the
term used by Norway in describing the delimitation line between
Iceland and Jan Mayen." (Reply, p. 152, para. 414; emphasis
added.)
Having regard to the above statement of the position taken by Den-

mark, one can perhaps understand and evensympathizewith itsreasons
for assertingsuch a claim,whichto mymind ismore of a claimof entitle-
ment than a cal1for a delimitation.Whatamounts to an equitable bound-
ary or an equitablesolutionfor that matter is forthe Court, not Denmark,
to decide. Theprinciple of non-encroachment is bound to take into con-
sideration the whole ofthe relevantarea,including theareain dispute,as
wellasthearea ofoverlappingentitlement and any areas inthe process of
delimitation.
Theposition wasmade clear in 1969inthe NorthSea ContinentalShelf
cases whenthe Court stated :

"More important isthe fact that the doctrine of thejust and equi-
table share appears to be wholly at variance with what the Court
entertains no doubt is the most fundamental of al1the rules of law
relating to the continental shelf, enshrined in Article 2 of the
1958GenevaConvention,though quite independent ofit, - namely
thatthe rights ofthe coastalStatein respectofthearea ofcontinental
shelfthat constitutesa natural prolongation of its land territory into
and under the sea exist ipsofacto and ab initio,by virtue ofits sover-
eigntyoverthe land, and as an extensionofit in an exerciseofsover-
eignrightsforthe purpose ofexploringthe seabed and exploitingits
natural resources.In short,there ishere aninherent right. In order to

exerciseit,no special legalprocesshas to be gone through, nor have
any special legal actstobe performed. Its existence can be declared
(and many States have done this) but does not need to be consti-
tuted." (I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 22,para. 19.)

Thereasons for Denmark'ssubmissionrequesting the 200-milefishery
zone and continental shelf vis-à-visJan Mayen are not far fetched. One
reason may perhaps be found in its argument that Norway must "con-
cede" to Greenland the same 200miles outer limit as it conceded to Ice-
land by virtue of an agreement which it sees as constituting a precedent.
But another reason is the undeniable difference in size (and coastal
lengths) of Greenland and Jan Mayen. Denmark initially considered
Jan Mayen to be a rock (possiblyfallingwithin the scope of Article 121
ofthe 1982Convention onthe Lawofthe Sea),but laterconcededthat itis
anisland; albeitonewhich"sustainsno population. ..and hasneverdone
so" - "thevisualizationofGreenland asa mainland and ofJan Mayenas
asmallislanddetachedfrom its mainland coast"(CR93/l, pp. 25and 23). «devrait suivre letracéde la limite extérieure» de la zone de pêche

du Groenland, pour emprunter les termes utiliséspar la Norvège
pour décrire la lignede délimitation entre l'Islandeet Jan Mayen.
(Réplique,p.152,par. 414;lesitaliquessont de moi.)
Eu égard à cet énoncéde la position du Danemark, on peut peut-être
comprendre et mêmeenvisageravec sympathie les raisons qu'a ce pays

d'insister sur une telle demande, qui selon moi tient davantage d'une
revendication de titre que d'une demande de délimitation.Ce qui consti-
tue une délimitation équitable, ou d'ailleursune solution équitable,il
appartient à la Cour, etnon pas au Danemark, de le décider.Leprincipe
denon-empiétementdoitinévitablements'appliquer àlatotalitédeiazone
pertinente, y compris la zone en litige, ainsi que la zone de chevauche-
ment de titres et toute autre zone au cours du processus de délimitation.
Laposition a étééclaircieen1969dans lesaffaires du Plateaucontinen-
taldela merduNord, quand la Cour a déclaré :

«Ce qui estplus important encore, c'estque la doctrinede lapart
juste etéquitablesembles'écarter totalemendtelarèglequiconstitue
sans aucun doute possible pour la Cour la plus fondamentale de
toutes les règlesde droit relatives au plateau continental et qui est
consacréepar l'article 2de la convention de Genève de 1958,bien
qu'elleen soit toutàfait indépendante: les droits de 1'Etatriverain
concernantlazone deplateau continentalquiconstitue un prolonge-
ipsofactoet abinitio
mentnaturel desonterritoire sousla merexistent
envertu delasouverainetéde 1'Etatsurceterritoire etpar une exten-
siondecettesouverainetésouslaformedel'exercicede droitssouve-
rains aux fins de l'exploration du lit de la mer et de l'exploitation
de sesressourcesnaturelles. Ilya làun droitinhérent. Pointn'estbe-
soin pour l'exercer de suivre un processus juridique particulier ni
d'accomplir des actesjuridiques spéciaux. Son existencepeut être
constatée,commecelaa étéfaiptar de nombreux Etats,mais ellene
suppose aucun acte constitutif.»(C.I.J. Recueil1969,p. 22,par. 19.)

Lesraisonspour lesquellesleDanemark demandeune zone depêcheet
un plateau continental de 200 milles faceà Jan Mayen n'ont pas à être
cherchéestrèsloin.L'une d'entre ellesrésidepeut-êtrdeansson argument
selon lequella Norvègedoit ((reconnaître»au Groenland la même limite
extérieurede 200 milles qu'elle a reconnue à l'Islande en vertu d'un
accord dans lequelilvoitun précédentC . ependant,uneautre raison estla
différenceindéniable detaille(etdelongueur decôtes)entreleGroenland
et Jan Mayen. Le Danemark a initialementconsidéréJan Mayen comme
étantun rocher (relevantéventuellementde l'article 121de la convention

de 1982surledroit delamer),maisultérieurementila concédé qu'il s'agit
d'uneîle,maisd'uneîlequi «n'a pas depopulation ..etn'enajamais eu»,
ou encore «considéréle Groenland comme un continent et Jan Mayen
commeune petite îledétachée de sescôtescontinentales »(CR93/l, p. 25
et p. 23). Overtwo centuries ago, Vattel wrote that "A dwarf is no less of a man
than agiant. AsmallRepublic isno lessof a State than the most powerful
Kingdom." (Dictionnaire de la terminologie du droit international, Paris,
Sirey 1960, under "Egalité", p. 248.) Thus however small the island of

Jan Mayen may beythis cannot affect its rights under international law
with respect to the issue of entitlement and the non-encroachment prin-
ciple.
Finally, on thispoint, 1aminclined to support this viewwhich receives
support from a relevant paragraph of the Judgment in the Aegean Sea
ContinentalShelf case,where the Court again confirmed that :

"The reason is that legally a coastal State's rights over the conti-

nental shelf are both appurtenant to and directly derived from the
State's sovereignty over the territory abutting on that continental
shelf....itissolelybyvirtue ofthe coastal State'ssovereigntyoverthe
land that rights of exploration and exploitation in the continental
shelf can attach to it, ipsojure,under international law. In short, con-
tinental shelf rights are legallyboth an emanation from and an auto-
matic adjunct of the territorial sovereignty of the coastal State."
(Z.C.J.Reports 1978,p. 36,para. 86.)

1have no difficultywhatsoeverinagreeing withtheCourt inthe matter
of the applicable law in this case. After observing that it has never had
occasion to apply the 1958Geneva Convention, the Court proceeds to
state thatsinceboth States are parties to that Convention, and therebeing
no joint request for a singlemaritime boundary as in the Gulfof Maine
case,then the 1958GenevaConvention isapplicableto the delimitation of
the continental shelf boundary between Greenland andJan Mayen.The
Court then goes onto Saythat Article 6,paragraph 1,ofthe Geneva Con-
vention isapplicable to the continental shelf,but that does not mean that
this treaty law is to be interpreted and applied exclusively and without
reference to international customarylaw on the subject or independently

ofthe factthat afisheryzone isalsolocatedin these waters. It isthe role of
customaryinternational lawthat 1wishto amplifyhere inorder to empha-
size its importance and relevance, as well as touching on its genesis in
order to appreciate once again the evolution of the applicability of equi-
table principles and their development over the past four decades.

To begin with, one may ask what is the customary international law
applicable in this case?The Court boldly enunciated it in its 1985 Judg-
ment in the case concerning the Continental Shelf(Libyan Arab Jamahi-
riya/Malta) in the followingterms : Voiciplus de deux siècles, Vattelécrivait:«Un nain est aussi bien un
hommequ'ungéant.Unepetiterépubliquen'estpas moinsun Etatsouve-

rain que le plus puissant royaume. » (Dictionnairede la terminologiedu
droitinternational,Paris,Sirey,1960,souslemot«Egalité»,p.248.)Donc,
si petite que puisse êtrel'île de Jan Mayen, cela ne peut influer sur les
droitsquisont lessiensauregard du droitinternational en cequiconcerne
la question du titre et leprincipe de non-empiétement.
Enfin, sur cepoint,je suis enclànappuyer cettefaçon de voir, qui est
corroboréepar un paragraphe pertinent de l'arrêt en l'affaidu Plateau
continentalde la mer Egéed, ans laquelle, là encore, la Cour a formulé la
confirmation suivante :

«Ilenestainsiparce que, du point devuejuridique, lesdroitsd'un
Etat riverainsur leplateau continental relèventdela souverainetéde
1'Etatsur le territoire qui jouxte ce plateau continen...ce n'est
qu'en raisonde la souverainetéde 1'Etatriverain sur la terre que des
droits d'exploration et d'exploitation sur le plateau continental
peuvent s'attacheràcelui-ciipsojure envertu du droit international.
Breflesdroits surle plateau continental sont, du point de vuejuridi-
que,à la foisune émanationde la souverainetéterritorialede 1'Etat
riverain et un accessoire automatique de celle-ci.»(C.Z. RJe.ueil
1978,p. 36,par. 86.)

Je n'ai pas la moindre difficulté m'accorder avec la Cour en ce qui
concerne le droit applicable dans la présente affaire. Après avoir fait
observer qu'elle n'a jamais eu l'occasion d'appliquer la convention de
Genèvede 1958,laCour déclareque,puisquelesdeux Etatssontparties à
cetteconvention etqu'iln'ya pas de démarcheconjointedemandantune
ligne de délimitation maritimeunique comme dans l'affaire du Golfedu
Maine,laconvention signée àGenèveen 1958estapplicable àladélimita-
tion du plateau continental entre le Groenland et Jan Mayen. Le para-
graphe 1del'article 6delaconvention deGenève,déclareensuitelaCour,
estapplicableauplateau continental, maiscelanesignifiepas quecedroit
conventionneldoiveêtreinterpréte étappliquéexclusivementetsansréfé-
rence au droit international coutumier sur le sujet ou indépendamment
du fait qu'une zone de pêcheest également situéedans ces eaux. C'est

sur le rôle du droit international coutumier que je voudrais m'étendre
ici afin de soulignerson importance et sa pertinence et aussi de dire un
mot de sagenèse,pour pouvoir porter une appréciation,une foisde plus,
sur l'évolutionde l'applicabilité desprincipes équitabet leur dévelop-
pement pendant la quarantaine d'années écoulées.
Pour commencer, on peut se demander quel est le droit international
coutumier applicable dans cette affaire. La Cour l'a hardiment énoncé
dans l'arrêt qu'elle a renen 1985dans l'affaire du Plateau continental
(Libye/Malte),et ellel'afait dans lestermessuivant: "Judicialdecisionsareat one - and the Parties themselves agree
(paragraph 29 above) - in holding that the delimitation of a conti-
nental shelf boundary must be effected by the application of equi-
table principles in al1the relevant circumstancesin order to achieve
an equitableresult."(I.C.J.Reports 1985,p. 38, para. 45; emphasis
added.)

Thus one can Saythat the relevanceof equitableprinciples,asa funda-
mental legalrégimegoverningmaritimeboundary delimitation,has now
been firmly entrenched by thejurisprudence of the Court supported by
international arbitral tribunals. It may therefore be desirable, before
examiningthese mles and principles of international law,to quote a full
statement oftheir content :

"What generalinternational lawprescribesin everymaritime deli-
mitation between neighbouringStatescouldthereforebe defined as
follows :
(1) No maritime delimitation between States with opposite or
adjacent coasts may be effected unilaterally by one of those States.

Suchdelimitation mustbesought and effectedbymeans of anagree-
ment, following negotiations conducted in good faith and with the
genuine intention of achieving a positive result. Where, however,
such agreement cannotbe achieved, delimitationshould be effected
by recoursetoa thirdparty possessingthe necessarycompetence.

(2) In either case,delimitation isto be effectedby the application
of equitablecriteria and by the use of practical methods capableof
ensuring,with regardto the geographicconfiguration of the area and
other relevant circumstances,an equitable result." (I.C.J. Reports
1984,pp. 299-300,para. 112;emphasisadded.)

A careful analysis of this definition will show that it is a very compre-
hensiveand ail-embracingstatement,and that theprinciples itformulates
areessentialto afairandjustjudgment. Butthat isnot to Saythat ithasnot
given rise to certain attendant problems and criticisms. However,before
going into this, it may be necessary to re-examine its historical back-
ground in a nutshell, inorder tojustify and fortifythe Court in itsadher-

ence to this fundamental nom of international law in the field of
maritimeboundary delimitation and alsoto stressitsapparently universal
acceptability.

Equitableprinciples in maritime delimitation as establishedtoday are
notthe "creation" oftheCourt. Perhapsone canregardtheCourt's roleas
that ofa "fosterparent". Theapplicability ofequitableprinciples received
itsfirstauthoritativeformulationin 1945,astheCourt recognizedwhenit
stated that: «Les décisionsjudiciaires sont unanimp esur direque la délimita-

tion du plateau continental doit s'effectuerpar application de prin-
cipes équitablesen tenant compte de toutes les circonstancesperti-
nentesafin d'aboutirà un résultatéquitableet,lesParties elles-mêmes
sont d'accord à ce sujet (paragraphe 29 ci-dessus).» (C.I.J. Recueil
1985,p. 38,par. 45; Lesitaliques sontde moi.)

Ainsi peut-on dire que la pertinence des principes équitables, entant
que régimejuridique fondamental applicable à la délimitation maritime,
estdésormaissolidementenracinée dans lajurisprudence delaCour,sou-
tenue par des tribunaux d'arbitrage internationaux. Il est donc peut-être
souhaitable, avant d'examiner ces règleset principes de droit internatio-
nal, de citerun passagequi représenteun énoncécompled t e leurteneur:

«L'on pourrait donc donner la définition suivantede ce que le
droit international généralprescritdanstoute délimitation maritime
entre Etats voisins
1) Aucune délimitation maritime entre Etats dont les côtes sont
adjacentes ou sefont face ne peut êtreeffectuéeunilatéralemen ptar
l'undecesEtats.Cettedélimitationdoitêtrerecherchéeetréalisa éue
moyen d'unaccordfaisant suite àune négociation menéede bonne
foiet dans l'intention réelled'aboutirun résultatpositif.Au casoù,

néanmoins,un telaccord ne seraitpas réalisable,ladélimitation doit
être effectuée enrecourant à uneinstance tiercedotée dela compé-
tence nécessairepour cefaire.
2) Dans lepremiercas commedans lesecond,la délimitationdoit
êtreréaliséepar l'application decritères équitablestpar l'utilisation
de méthodespratiquea sptesà assurer,comptetenudelaconjïguration
géographique de la région et des autrescirconstancespertinentesde
l'espèce,un résultat équitable.))(C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 299-300,
par. 112;lesitaliques sont de moi.)

Uneanalyseapprofondie de cettedéfinition montrera qu'elle constitue
un énoncé très completet très exhaustif et que les principes qu'elle
contient sontessentielspour unjugement équitableetjuste. Mais cen'est
pas à dire qu'elle n'a pas suscité certains problèmesou critiques. Quoi
qu'il en soit, avant de s'intéresseà cela, il est peut-être nécessairde
réexaminer très brièvement l'historiquede cette définitionafin de justi-
fier etde conforterla Cour dans sonrespect de cettenorme fondamentale
de droit international dans le domaine de la délimitation maritime,et
aussi desoulignerque ladite définition estapparemment universellement
acceptable.

Lesprincipes équitablesenmatièrede délimitationmaritimetels qu'ils
sont établisaujourd'hui ne sont pas la «création» de la Cour. Peut-être
pourrait-t-on considérer le rôle de la Cour comme celui d'un ((parent
nourricier ». L'applicabilité des principes équitables areçu sa première
formulation autoriséeen 1945,comme la Cour l'a reconnu lorsqu'ellea
déclaré : "Such a review mayappropriately start with the instrument, gen-
erally known as the 'Truman Proclamation', issuedby the Govern-
ment of the United States on 28 September 1945.Although this
instrument wasnotthe firstoronlyoneto haveappeared, it ha; inthe
opinion of the Court a special status." (Z.C.J.Reports 1969,p. 32,
para. 47.)

Before that date, ideas had been advanced by jurists, publicists and
technical experts on various theories of how best to approachthe nature
and extentofconflictingrightsexercisable overthe continentalshelf.Two
principles emerge from the Proclamation. The first is that the coastal
Stateshaveoriginal,natural and exclusiveorevenvestedrightsto the con-
tinental shelfoftheir shores,to the exclusionof other coastal States.This
principle is reflected in Article of the 1958Geneva Convention on the
Continental Shelf.The first two paragraphs ofthat Articleareimportant
enoughto mention here :

"1. ThecoastalStateexercisesoverthe continental shelfsovereign
rights for the purpose of exploring it and exploiting its natural
resources.
2. Therightsreferredtoin paragraph 1 ofthisarticleare exclusive

in thesensethat ifthe coastal State does not explore the continental
shelf or exploit its natural resources, no one may undertake these
activities, or make a claim to the continental shelf, without the
expressconsent ofthe coastal State."
The other principle which is more relevant to this opinion relates to
agreementsbased on "equitable principles". It laysdownthat boundaries

"shall be determined by the United States and the State concerned in
accordance with equitable principles". As a part of its assignment of
developing and codifyinginternational law,the International LawCom-
missionofthe United Nations took up this juridical project between 1950
and 1956 but no definite rule was formulated by the Commission,
and the general trend of opinion among its members was still in favour
of agreement or referral to arbitration. However,during this period, the
Commission referred the matter to a Committee of Hydrographical
Experts which eventually produced, in 1953,a report favouring equi-
distance - understandably enough, given its convenience. It should be
noted that equidistance was only one of the four methods suggested to
the experts. Even after the adoption of the Report of the Committee
ofExpertsinfavour ofequidistance,there werestilldoubts and hesitation

inthe minds of some ofthe members ofthe Commission :

"on such grounds for instance as that its strict application would
be open,in certain cases,to the objectionthatthe geographicalcon-
figuration of the Coast would render a boundary drawn on this
basis inequitable" (Z.C.J.Reports1969,p. 35,para. 53).

260 Il convient de rappeler tout d'abord l'acte,généralement connu

sous le nom de proclamation Truman, que le Gouvernement des
Etats-Unisapubliéle28septembre 1945.Bienquecetacten'aitéténi
lepremiernileseul,ila,selonlaCour, uneimportance particulière. »
(C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 32,par. 47.)

Avant cette date, juristes, publicistes et experts techniques avaient

avancéun certain nombre d'idées surdiverses théories concernant la
meilleure façon d'aborder la question de la nature et de l'étendue des
droits concurrents pouvant êtreexercéssur le plateau continental. Deux
principes ressortent de laproclamation. Lepremier estque les Etatsrive-
rains ont desdroits originels,naturels et exclusifs,voiredesdroitsacquis,
sur le plateau continental au large de leurs côtàsl'exclusion des autres
Etats riverains. Ce principe est reflété l'article 2 de la convention de
Genèvede 1958surleplateau continental. Lesdeuxpremiersparagraphes
de cet article sont suffisamment importants pour qu'ils soient citésici:

«1. L'Etat riverain exerce des droits souverains sur le plateau
continental aux fins de l'exploration de celui-ciet de l'exploitation
de sesressourcesnaturelles.
2. Lesdroitsvisésauparagraphe 1duprésentarticlesontexclusifs
en ce sensque, si1'Etatriverain n'explore pas leplateau continental
ou n'exploite passesressourcesnaturelles,nul ne peut entreprendre
de telles activitésni revendiquer de droits sur le plateau continental
sans le consentementexprèsde 1'Etatriverain.»

L'autre principe, quiestpluspertinent pour laprésente opinion,a trait
aux accordsfondéssur des ((principes équitables ».Il stipule que la ligne
de délimitationest ((déterminéeparles Etats-Unis et 1'Etatintéressé
conformémentauxprincipes équitables ».Dans lecadre de samissionde
développementet de codification du droit international, la Commission
du droit international de l'Organisation des Nations Unies a examinéle
projet de cettedisposition au cours de lapériode1950-1956,maisaucune
règledéfinien'a été formulép ear elle, etla tendance générale,parmises

membres,étaitencorefavorableàlaméthodedesaccordsoudu recours à
l'arbitrage.Toutefois,au coursde cettepériode, la Commissionarenvoyé
la question à un comité d'experts en hydrographie qui a finalement
présenté,en1953,un rapport favorable à l'équidistance- cequi estassez
compréhensible,étantdonnéla commoditéde cetteformule.Il ya lieu de
noter que l'équidistance n'était qul'unedes quatre méthodesproposées
auxexperts. Même aprèsl'adoption durapport du comitéd'experts favo-
rable à l'équidistance, desdoutes et des hésitationsont persisté dans
l'espritde certains desmembres de la Commission :

((motifpris par exemplede ceque [l']applicationstricte[duprincipe
de l'équidistance]pourrait prêteà critique dans des casoù la confi-
guration géographique de la côte rendrait inéquitable une limite
tracéesur cettebase»(C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 35,par. 53). An independent observerin the arena of maritime boundary delimita-
tion would have no difficulty in discerningthe existence of a "running
battle" between the two schools of thought in this field, with those
upholding equitable principles on one side, and those advocating the
"equidistance principle" on the other side, each constantly pointing out
the defects and weaknesses in the arguments of the other. The so-called
"equidistanceprinciple" continues towinthe battle asfaras Statepractice
is concerned, because of its relative convenience (which cannot be
denied), but that is al1that can be said for it, since the method is quite
inadequate to meet al1global situations, especially where the geographi-
cal configuration would render such a method inequitable as in the pres-
ent case. It is because of this patent defect in the method that the Court
rejected it as not forming part of the customary law and deserving the
status of nothing more than one method among others.

Historicallytherefore,as 1have pointed out above, the equitable prin-
ciple, as developed over the years from the time of the Truman Procla-
mation to the period when it received the attention of the International
Law Commission,has now been fully developed and has achieved the
status of an accepted rule of law within the jurisprudence of the Court
andthat of international arbitral tribunals.

In common law,the traditional role ofequityas a systemstanding sepa-
rate from the lawis sharply at variance with its role and meaningininter-
national law, and especially in the field of maritime boundary delimita-
tion. "The classical role of equity" asknownto common law

"is to modifythe rule of law where it might, if strictlyapplied, work
injustice.Thus law and equity working togethershould servetheend
ofjustice by introducing flexibility,adaptability and evenlimitations
upon the application of legal rules." (Sir Robert Jennings in Staat
und Volkerrechtsordnung,pp. 400-401 .)

What then is meant by equity or equitable principles in maritime
boundary delimitation? An answer was given in the 1982 Continental
Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) case, where the Court defined
that concept in the followingterms :

"Equity as a legalconcept is a directemanation of the idea ofjus-
tice. The Court whose task is by definition to administer justice is
bound to apply it. In the course of the history of legal systems the
term 'equity'has been used to define various legal concepts. It was
often contrasted with the rigid rules of positive law, the severity of
which had to be mitigatedin order to dojustice. In general,this con-
trasthasnoparallel inthe development ofinternational law ;the legal Tout observateur indépendant s'intéressant à la délimitation maritime
pourrait sans aucune difficulté distinguer l'existence d'une ((bataille
permanente » entre les deux écolesde penséedans ce domaine, certains
défendantlesprincipes équitablesetd'autres préconisant le((principede
l'équidistance», chaque école mettant l'accent constamment sur les

défautset les faiblessesdes arguments de l'autre. Ce que l'on appelle le
((principe del'équidistance»continue del'emporter en cequiconcernela
pratique des Etats, étant donnésa relative commodité; cette dernière
qualitédeceprincipe estindéniable,mais c'est làtout ceque l'onpeut dire
en sa faveur, car la méthode est toutà fait insuffisante pour faire facà
toutes les situations qui se présentent dans le monde, en particulier lors-
que la configuration géographique la rend inéquitable, comme dans
l'affaire considéréeici. C'esten raison de ce défautpatent de la méthode
que la Cour l'arejetéecommene faisant paspartie du droit coutumier et
méritant seulementde figurer comme une méthodeparmid'autres et pas
davantage.
Historiquement, donc, comme je l'ai signalé plus haut, les principes
équitables,telsqu'ilsont étéélaboré au coursdesannéesdepuisl'époque

de la proclamation Truman jusqu'au moment ou ils ont retenu l'atten-
tion de la Commission du droit international, sont désormais pleine-
mentélaborésetsontparvenus au rang derèglesadmises àl'intérieurdela
jurisprudence de la Cour et de celle des tribunaux d'arbitrage interna-
tionaux.
Dans la common law,le rôle traditionnel de l'equitycomme système
existantséparémentdu droit se distinguenettement de son rôle et de son
sens en droit international, en particulier dans le domaine de la délimita-
tion maritime. «Le rôle classique de l'equity))(telle que la connaît la
common law)

«est de modifier la règlede droit dans les cas où ellepourrait, sielle
était strictement appliquée,aboutirà une injustice. Ainsi, le droit et
l'equis: collaborant,devraientservir lesfinsde lajustice enintrodui-
sant dans l'application des règlesjuridiques la souplesse,l'adaptabi-
litéetmêmedeslimitations »(sir Robert Jennings, Staat und Volker-
rechtsordnung,p. 400-401).

Qu'entend-on doncpar équitéou par principes équitables en matière
de délimitation maritime? Une réponse a étédonnée en 1982dans l'af-
faire relative au Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne),
dans laquellela Cour a définice concept de la manière suivante :

((L'équitéen tant que notion juridique procède directement de
l'idéedejustice. La Cour,dont latâche estpar définition d'adminis-
trer la justice, ne saurait manquer d'en faire application. Dans l'his-

toire des systèmesjuridiques, le terme équitéa servi à désigner
diverses notionsjuridiques. On a souvent opposél'équité aux règles
rigides du droit positif, dont la rigueur doit être tempérpour que
justice soit rendue. Cette opposition est généralement sans équiva- concept of equity is a general principle directly applicable as law."
(I.C.J.Reports 1982, p. 60,para. 71.)

The Court shed light on this as far back as 1969,when it defended it as
follows :
"in short, it isnot a question of applyingequitysimplyas a matter of
abstract justice, but of applying arule oflaw which itself requires the
application of equitable principles, in accordance with the ideas

which have always underlain the development of the legal régimeof
thecontinental shelfinthisfield" (I.C.J.Reports 1969, p. 47,para. 85).

Some of the grey areas of equity need to be examined and considered

here. Take for example the maxim that equality is equity, or "equity did
delightin equality". Well, that may be positively so in common law, but
may not necessarilyhold good in the field of international law. Hence in
1969,the Court pronounced that "Equity does not necessarily imply
equality" and went onto state that :

"There can never be any question of completely refashioning
nature, and equity does not require that a Statewithout access to the
sea should be allotted an area of continental shelf, any more than
there couldbe a question ofrendering the situation of a State with an
extensivecoastlinesimilarto that ofa Statewithrestricted coastline."
(Ibid.,pp. 49-50,para. 91 .)

In the GulfofMaine casein 1984,the Chamber was confronted with a
choicebetweenthe criteria applicable, and resolved to favour and apply
onethat was "long held tobeasequitableasit issimple - equal division".
Perhaps,in the absence of any specialcircumstance, the Judgment in the
GulfofMainecase is a good example of equityimplyingequality.In that
case,the Chamber concluded :

"In short, the Chamber seesin the above findings confirmation of
its conviction that in the present casethere are absolutelyno condi-
tions ofan exceptionalkind whichmightjustify anycorrection ofthe
delimitation line it has drawn. The Chamber may therefore confi-
dently conclude thatthe delimitationeffected in compliance withthe
governingprinciples and rules oflaw,applyingequitable criteria and
appropriate methodsaccordingly,hasproduced an equitableoverall
iesult." (I.C.J.Reports 1984, p. 344,para. 241.)

A similarconclusion was reached by another Chamber in 1986in the
FrontierDisputecase where it concluded that although lent dans l'évolution du droit international; la notion juridique
d'équitéest un principe général directement applicable en tant que
droit.»(C.I.J. Recueil1982,p. 60,par. 71.)

La Cour avaitfaitlalumière sur cettequestiondès 1969,époqueoù elle
défendait cettenotion de la manière suivante:

«en d'autres termes, il ne s'agitpas d'appliquer l'équité simplement
comme une représentation de la justice abstraite, mais d'appliquer
une règlede droit prescrivant le recours à des principes équitables
conformément aux idées qui ont toujours inspiréle développement
du régimejuridique du plateau continental en la matière)) (C.I.J.
Recueil1969,p. 47,par. 85).

Certains des aspects les plus flous de l'équitédemandent à être
examinéset pris en considération ici. Prenons par exemple la maxime
selon laquelle l'égalité estsynonyme d'équité, ou encore«l'équitése
complaîtdans l'égalité ».Cela peut êtrepositivementvraidans la common
law,mais n'estpas nécessairementvalabledans ledomaine du droitinter-
national. En conséquence, en 1969,la Cour a conclu: «L'équitén'im-
plique pas nécessairement l'égalité», et elle a poursuivi en cestermes:

«Il n'estjamaisquestion derefairelanature entièrement etl'équité
ne commandepasqu'un Etat sans accès àlamer sevoieattribuerune
zone deplateau continental,pasplus qu'ilne s'agitd'égaliserlasitua-
tion d'un Etat dont les côtessontétendues et celle d'un Etat dont les

côtessont réduites.»(Ibid., p. 49,par. 91.)

Dans l'affaire du Golfedu Maine, en 1984,la Chambre s'est trouvée
devant un choix à faire entre les critères applicables, et elle a résolude
préféreret d'appliquer un critère «à propos duquel l'équitéest de longue

date considéréecomme un caractèrerejoignant la simplicité »,àsavoirla
division parparts égales.Peut-être,enl'absencede circonstancespéciale,
l'arrêtrendu dans l'affairedu GolfeduMaineest-ilunbon exemple de cas
où l'équité impliquel'égalitéD . ans cette affaire, la Chambre a conclu:
«En résumé,la Chambre trouve, dans les constatations qu'elle
vient de faire, une confirmation de sa conviction de l'absence totale,

dans le cas d'espèce,des conditions de nature vraiment exception-
nellequipourraientjustifier une quelconquecorrection delaligne de
délimitation qu'elle a tracée. La Chambre peut donc conclure en
toute sécurité que la délimitationeffectuéedansle respect des prin-
cipes et règlesde droit régissantla matière,en appliquant donc des
critèreséquitablesetenutilisant lesméthodesappropriées, aenoutre
produit un résultat d'ensemble équitable.))(C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p.344, par. 241.)

Une conclusion semblable a été formuléepar une autre chambre en
1986dans l'affaire du Différend frontalier, dans laquelle elle a conclu '"Equity does not necessarily imply equality'(NorthSea Continental

ShelJ;I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 49, para. 91), where there are no
special circumstances the latter is generally the best expression of
the former" (I.C.J.Reports1986,p. 633,para. 150).

But al1these concordant declarations do not mean that there are no
inherent problems with the "interpretation and application" of equitable
principles. Even theCourt in one of itsJudgments alluded to these prob-
lems and draw a distinction as well as suggesting an amendment to an

"unsatisfactory terminology" :

"The result ofthe application ofequitableprinciples mustbe equi-
table.Thisterminology, which isgenerallyused, isnot entirely satis-
factory because itemploysthe termequitable to characterizeboth the
resulttobe achieved and the means to be applied to reachthisresult.
It is, however, the result which is predominant; the principles are
subordinate to the goal." (I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 59,para. 70.)

In the present case, the Court has decided to start with a provisional
median line which 1perfectlyagree with. Then it moves on to correct the
line applying the equitable procedure in order to obtain an equitable
result.Whatever may be the method or principle employed, the ultimate
result iswhat isimportant - an equitableresult likewisederivingfrom the
principle.
There isalso the criticismconstantly levelled against the Court regard-
ing its application of equitable principles, i.e., that its decisions are ex
aequo et bono which can only be invoked when requested for under

Article 38,paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court. This contention that
decisions of the Court are an exercise of discretion or conciliation has
been refuted by the Court in many of itsJudgments.

The Court made its position abundantly clear even in the Judgment in
1969in the North Sea ContinentaS l helfcases :

"Nevertheless,whenmention ismade ofa court dispensingjustice
or declaring the law,what ismeant isthatthe decision finds itsobjec-
tive justification in considerations lying not outside but within the
mles, and in this field it is precisely arule of law that calls for the
application of equitable principles. There is consequently no ques-
tion in this case of anydecision ex aequoet bono. .." (I.C.J.Reports
1969,p. 48,para. 88.)
Asimilar viewwas again expressed inthe Tunisia/Libyacase when the
Court said that:

"Application of equitable principles istobe distinguished from a
decision exaequoetbono.. .Whileitisclearthatno rigidmles existas D~LIMITATION MARITIME(OP. IND.AJIBOLA) 297

«Bien que «l'équité n'implique pas nécessairementl'égalité »
(Plateau continentalde la merdu Nord, C.I.J.Recueil 1969,p. 49,

par.91), il reste qu'en l'absence de circonstances spéciales c'est en
généralcelle-ci qui traduit le mieux celle-là.(C.I.J.Recueil1986,
p. 633,par. 150.)
Cependant, toutes cesdéclarationsconcordantes ne signifient pas qu'il
n'ya aucun problème inhérent «à l'interprétationeà l'application »des
principes équitables.Mêmela Cour,dans l'un de sesarrêts,a faitallusion

à cesproblèmes et a formulé une distinction courageuse en mêmetemps
que suggéré la modification d'une terminologiequi n'était «pas entière-
ment satisfaisante»:
«L'application de principes équitables doit aboutirà un résultat
équitable. Cette façon de s'exprimer, bien que courante, n'est pas
entièrement satisfaisante, puisque l'adjectifquitablequalifie à la
fois le résultàtatteindre et les moyenà employer pour y parvenir.

C'est néanmoins le résultat qui importe: les principes sont subor-
donnés àl'objectifàatteindre. » (C.I.J.Recueil1982,p. 59,par. 70.)
Dans la présente affaire,la Cour a décidéde commencer par une ligne
médiane provisoire, ce sur quoi je suisparfaitement en accord avec elle.
Elle passeensuite àla rectification de la ligne en appliquant laprocédure
équitableafin d'obtenir un résultatéquitable.Quelsquesoientlaméthode

ou leprincipe misenŒuvre,lerésultatultimeestcequi importe :un résul-
tat équitable découlantde mêmedu principe.
Il y a aussi la critique constamment adressée à la Cour au sujet de
l'application qu'elle fait des principes équitables,avoir que ses déci-
sions sont des décisionsex aequo etbon0qui ne peuvent être invoquées
quelorsqu'ellessontdemandéesau titre du paragraphe 2de l'article38du
Statut de laCour.Cetteaffirmationselonlaquelle lesdécisionsdelaCour
sontdesexemples d'exercice d'unpouvoirdiscrétionnaireou de concilia-
tion a étéréfuté pear la Courdans nombre de sesarrêts.
La Cour a exposé sa position de façon tout à fait claire mêmedans
l'arrêtde 1969concernant les affaires duPlateau continentalde la merdu
Nord:

«Néanmoins,lorsqu'on parledujuge quirend lajustice ou qui dit
le droit, il s'agit de justification objective de ses décisionsnon pas
au-delàdestextes mais selon lestextesetdans cedomaine c'estpréci-
sémentune règlede droit quiappellel'application de principes équi-
tables.Il n'est par conséquent pas question en l'espèced'une déci-
sionex aequoet bon0 ..»(C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 48,par. 88.)

Un avis analogue a été formulé à nouveau dans l'affaire Tunisie/Libye
lorsquela Cour a déclaré :

«Il faut distinguer entre l'application de principes équitableset le
fait derendre une décisionxaequoetbon0 ..Certes, iln'existepasde to the exact weight to be attached to each element inthe case,this is
very far from being an exercise of discretion or conciliation; nor is it
an operation of distributive justice." (I.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 60,
para. 71.)
Thisimportant assertion disclaiming the use of equity exaequoetbon0

can also be found in the Judgment of the Chamber in the Gulfof Maine
case and in the Arbitral Award inthe Guinea/Guinea-Bissaucase.

To conclude this discussion of equitable principles, and despite al1of
theiralleged "defects", theyhave worked effectivelyfor overtwodecades,
and have received ovenvhelming support from the entire world commu-
nity asreflectedin the 1982Conventionon the Lawofthe Sea,and al1the
United Nations Conferences on the Law of the Sea. They are now the
fundamental principles which customaryinternational law brings to the
task ofmaritimedelimitation and perhaps constitute thefonsetorigoofits
future development.The judicial process, like the law, is dynamic.It will
continue to develop and be improved upon. The use of equitable prin-
ciples in this field is definitely on course and equity is not floundering in
uncharted seas.There willalwaysbe room for fine-tuning,but there isno

doubtthatthe international customarylaw ofmaritimeboundary delimi-
tation, now solidlybased on equitableprinciples, has come to stay.

SOLVIN GHE EQUATION

Thispresent case isan important onein the history of the development
of customaryinternational law on maritimeboundary delimitation. It isa
delimitation case in which the Court has to resolve the dispute between
the Parties even in the absence of a specialagreement. Itis also the first
case relating to the maritime area of the North-East Atlantic where the
effect of ice on that maritime area was an issuein the dispute. Moreover,
and most importantly, this is the first case before the Court that has
required a definitive interpretation and application of the 1958Geneva
Convention on the Continental Shelf,in particular Article6,paragraph 1,
thereof. In this case, both Parties agree that they arebound by the provi-
sions of the Convention which was signed by Denmark on 29April1958,

and subsequentlyratified on 12June 1963 ;Norway accededto iton 9Sep-
tember 197 1.
Hence, the first directinference isthatthe median linemethod of deli-
mitation isapplicableto any matter ofmaritimedelimitationinrespect of
the continental shelfboundary betweenGreenland and Jan Mayen. Even
the Danish Memorial admits (on p. 59,para. 210)and confirms that the
1958Convention remainsin forceas between both States. D~LIMITATION MARITIME(OP. IND. AJIBOLA) 298

règlesrigides quant au poids exact à attribuerà chaque élémentde
l'espèce;on estcependantfort loin de l'exerciced'un pouvoirdiscré-
tionnaire ou delaconciliation.Il ne s'agitpasnon plusd'un recoursà
lajustice distributive. »(C.Z.J.Recueil1982,p. 60,par. 71.)

Cette importante dénégation encequi concerne le recours àl'équitéex
aequo et bono seretrouve dans l'arrêt rendupar la Chambre dans l'affaire
du Golfedu Maine et dans la sentence du tribunal arbitral dans l'affaire
Guinée/Guinée-Bissau.
Pour conclure cet examen des principes équitables, on peut dire que
malgrétous leurs prétendus «défauts», ils ont montré leur efficacité
pendant plus de deux décennieset ont bénéficié d'un très largeappui de
l'ensemble de la communauté internationale comme le montrent la
convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer de 1982et toutes les
conférencesdesNations Unies sur ledroit de lamer. Ilsconstituentmain-
tenant les principes fondamentaux que le droit international coutumier
fait interveniren matière de délimitationmaritime, et ils sont peut-être la

fons et origo de son développement futur. Le processus judiciaire, de
mêmeque le droit, est denature dynamique. Il continuera de se dévelop-
per et de s'améliorer. L'emploide principes équitables dans ce domaine
est incontestablement devenu une réalitéet l'équité neva pas au hasard
dans des eaux inconnues. Il y aura toujours place pour des mises au
point, mais ilest certain que le droitinternational coutumier de la délimi-
tation maritime, solidement fondémaintenant sur des principes équita-
bles, est destinérester.

Laprésenteaffaireestimportantedans l'histoiredu développementdu
droit international coutumier de la délimitation maritime. Il s'agitd'une
affaire de délimitation où la Cour est appeléeà statuer surun différend
entre les Parties en l'absence mêmed'un compromis. C'est aussi la pre-
mièreaffaireconcernant des zonesmaritimes du nord-est del'Atlantique,
où l'effetdes glaces doitêtrepris enconsidération.De plus, etcela esttrès

important, c'est la première affaire où la Cour ait eu se prononcer de
manièredéfinitivesurl'interprétation etl'applicationde la convention de
Genèvede 1958sur leplateau continental, en particulier du paragraphe 1
de sonarticle6.Dans cetteaffaire, lesdeux Partiesreconnaissent qu'elles
sont liéespar les dispositions de la convention, que le Danemark a signée
le29avril 1958etensuiteratifiéele 12juin 1963,et àlaquelle la Norvègea
adhéréle 9septembre 1971.
On peut donc immédiatement en déduire, premièrement, que la
méthodede la lignemédianeestapplicable à tous lesaspects de la délimi-
tation maritime concernant la limite du plateau continental entre le
Groenland et Jan Mayen. Le Danemark lui-mêmereconnaît et confirme

dans son mémoire (p. 59, par. 210) que la convention de 1958 est en
vigueur entre les deux~tats; Thepoint ofdeparture, however,betweenDenmark and Norwayisthat
while Norway insiststhatthe median line as stipulated in Article6 ofthe
1958Convention applieswithout anycondition or reservation, Denmark
argues that the rule in Article 6 is one of equidistance-special circum-
stances,and that Jan Mayen isa specialcircumstance 'barexcellence".

The crux of the matter is accordingly the question of whether
Jan Mayen is a special circumstance par excellenceU . nfortunately, Den-
mark did not elaborate on what it considered to constitute a special cir-
cumstance of that kind. From the evidence before the Court, it was
established by Denmark and apparently conceded by Norway, that
Jan Mayen is a relatively small, isolated and uninhabited island. As to
population it was common ground between both Parties that there are
about 25persons on the island at any giventime, and that their presence
ismainlyconnected withmeteorologicalactivities.In paragraphs 206and

207 of the Danish Memorial, Jan Mayen was described as a desolate
island without natural resources of anysignificance.Mining and hunting
activitieswere once attempted there, but have since been abandoned. It
hasno harbour (natural orartificial)and evenattemptsto constructa port
there for a fishing base were subsequently given up. The question is
whetherthis geographical,economic, and socialfeature of Jan Mayen is
enough to give it the status of a special circumstance par excellencein
international law. Some of the important considerations that could so
qualifyJan Mayen maynow have to be received.

The first such consideration is whether Jan Mayen is a rock. If it is a
mere rock, then its legal position may have to be related to Article 121,
paragraph 3,ofthe 1982Convention onthe Lawofthe Seainwhicharock
is defined as that "which cannot sustain human habitation or economic
lifeof [its]own" and "shall haveno exclusiveeconomiczone or continen-
talshelr'. So it is clearfrom this definition that if Jan Mayen is a rock, it

may not be entitledto an exclusiveeconomiczone and continental shelf,
unlike an island. But here there can be no doubt, especially after
Denmark'spresentation of its argumentsat the hearings, that Jan Mayen
isnot arockbut an island.Thislegalstatus ofJan Mayenwasacceptedby
Denmark during the oralpresentation ofitscase,andJan Mayenwasalso
referred to as an island in its pleadings. If,therefore, Jan Mayens not a
rockbut anisland,it canbe defined under Article 121,paragraphs 1and 2,
as "a naturally formed area of land surrounded by water, which is above
water at hightide" and :

"theterritorial sea,the contiguouszone,the exclusiveeconomiczone
and the continental shelf of an island are determined in accordance
withthe provisionsofthisConvention,applicable to other land terri-
tory" (United Nations Convention on the Lawofthe Sea,Part VIII,
Art. 121). Le désaccord entrele Danemark et la Norvège,cependant, vient de ce
que la Norvègesoutient que la délimitationpar la ligne médiane telle
qu'elle eststipuléeàl'article 6de la convention de 1958s'applique sans
conditions ni réserves,alors que le Danemark prétend que larèglede
l'article 6 est une règle((équidistance-circonstancesspéciales)), etque
Jan Mayen estune circonstancespéciale «par excellence».
Il est donc essentiel de déterminersi Jan Mayen est une circonstance
spécialeparexcellence.Malheureusement,leDanemark n'apasprécisé ce
qu'ilentendait parune circonstancespécialede cegenre.Devant la Cour,
il a ététablipar le Danemark et apparemment reconnu par la Norvège

que Jan Mayen est une île relativementpetite, isoléeet inhabitée.En ce
qui concerne la population, les deux Parties sont d'accord que vingt-
cinq personnes environ se trouvent en permanence sur l'île et que leur
présenceest principalement liée à des activitésmétéorologiques.Aux
paragraphes 206et207du mémoiredu Danemark, Jan Mayen estdécrite
comme une île déserte à peu près dépourvuede ressources naturelles.
Dans lepassé,desactivitésminièresetde chasseyont étéentreprisespuis
abandonnées. L'île nepossède pas de ports (naturels ou artificiels) et
même les projets d'aménagement d'unport qui aurait servide base pour
la pêcheont été abandonnésL . a question est de savoir si ces caractéris-
tiques géographiques, économiqueset sociales de Jan Mayen sont suf-

fisantes pour en faire une circonstance spécialepar excellenceen droit
international. II convient maintenant d'examiner quelques-unes des
considérationsimportantesqui pourraient amener àqualifier Jan Mayen
de la sorte.
LapremièredecesconsidérationsestcelledesavoirsiJan Mayen estou
non un rocher. S'ils'agitd'un simplerocher, sa situationjuridique pour-
rait relever du paragraphe 3de l'article 121de la convention de 1982qui
disposeque ((lesrochersquine seprêtentpas àl'habitation humaineou à
une vieéconomiquepropre n'ont pasdezoneéconomiqueexclusiveni de
plateau continentalB.IlrésultedecettedéfinitionquesiJan Mayen estun
rocher, elle ne peut pas, la différenced'une île, avoir droàtune zone
économiqueexclusiveet àun plateau continental.Mais ilestindiscutable,

spécialementaprèsavoirentendu lesargumentsdu Danemark pendant la
procédure orale,que Jan Mayen n'est pas un rocher mais une île. Le
Danemark a reconnu dans sesplaidoiries que tel étaitle statutjuridique
deJan Mayen, etilaégalementparlédeJan Mayencommed'uneîledans
sespiècesécrites.SidoncJan Mayenn'estpas un rochermais une île, elle
peut êtredéfiniaeuxtermesdesparagraphes 1et 2del'article 121comme
«une étendue naturellede terre entourée d'eau qui reste découverte à
maréehaute ))et

((lamerterritoriale, la zone contiguë,la zone économique exclusive
et leplateau continental d'une île sont délimitésconformémenatux

dispositions de la convention applicables aux autres territoires
terrestres)) (convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer,
partie VIII, art. 121). The conclusion which must inevitably be reached here is that since
Jan Mayen isacknowledgedto be an island,it isentitledto the considera-
tions that would normallybe attached to otherlandterritory.Hence, it is
likeanyterritory entitledtoits owncontinental shelfand fisherieszonein
the same manner as Greenland, and for this purpose cannot constitute a
specialcircumstance.
Another suggestion on special circumstances that may be worthy of
consideration at this point is whether Jan Mayen isan incidental special
feature. If it is, it maythen amount to a special circumstance under
Article 6 of the 1958Geneva Convention. Perhaps it is necessaryto put
in perspectivetheimportant provision of Article 6,paragraph 1,which is
the Articlebeing examinedhere :

"Where the same continental shelfis adjacent to the territories of
two or more States whose coastsare oppositeeach other,the bound-
ary ofthe continental shelfappertaining to such Statesshallbe deter-
mined byagreementbetweenthem. In the absenceofagreement,and
unless another boundary is justified by special circumstances, the
boundary isthe medianline,everypoint ofwhich isequidistant from
the nearestpoints ofthe'baselinesfromwhichthebreadth oftheterri-
torial sea of each Stateis measured." (Emphasis added.)

Here,it isdifficult tosert that Jan Mayen isan incidental special fea-
ture. In this regard, the decision inthe North Sea Continental helf cases
may wellbe veryrelevant, eventhough there is no similaritybetween the
geographical situation in the case between the Federal Republic of
Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands, and this casebefore theCourt.
In the geographical situation of this case, there is no consideration of
"quasi-equalityasbetween States", aswasfound to existin the North Sea
ContinentalShelf cases (Federal Republicof Gennany/Denmark;Federal
Republicof Gennany/Netherlands).

It maytherefore not be correctto statethat Jan Mayen willhave such a
distortingeffectin any sensewhatsoever.Themedian lineissuehere isnot
between mainland Nonvay and Greenland - thedistancebetweenwhich
iswellover700mileswithhigh seasinbetween. Itfollowsthatthe issueof
a smallisland closetothe median lineor located in such a wayasto bring
about a distorting effectdoes not arise inthis case and forthis reason the
issue ofincidental specialfeatures does not arise.
What again is leftto be considered here iswhether, as inthe North Sea
ContinentalShelf cases,there isageographicalsituation whichmaybring
Jan Mayenintothe ambit of provisionsrelating to the "presence of islets,
rocksand minor coastalprojections" (Z.C.J.Reports1969,p. 36,para. 57).
As 1havealreadypointed out, the situationhereisdifferent. Jan Mayen is
neither an islet,nor a rock, nor ainor coastalprojection.
Havingtreated the question of specialcircumstancesas it relatesto the
equidistancemethod under Article6,paragraph 1,ofthe GenevaConven- La conclusion qui s'impose nécessairementici est que, puisqu'il est
reconnu que Jan Mayen est une île, elledoit bénéficierdu traitement qui
est normalement accordéàun autre territoireterrestreE. lle a donc droit,
comme tout autre territoire,à un plateau continental et àune zone de

pêche propresau même titre que le Groenland, et ellene peut pas consti-
tuerune circonstancespéciale à cet égard.
Unautrepoint quivautd'être examinéec nequiconcernel'existencede
circonstances spécialesest de savoir si Jan Mayen constitue une carac-
téristique spécialeaccessoire. Dans l'affirmative, elle pourrait corres-
pondre àune circonstancespécialeau sensde l'article6de la convention
de Genèvede 1958.Peut-êtreest-il nécessairede rappeler l'importante
disposition du paragraphe 1de l'article6dont il estquestion ici:

«Dans le cas où un mêmeplateau continental est adjacent aux
territoires de deux ou plusieurs Etats dont les côtes se font face, la
délimitationduplateau continental entrecesEtats estdéterminéepar
accordentre cesEtats. Adéfaut d'accord,età moins que descircons-
tances spécialesne justifient une autre délimitation, celle-ci est
constituéepar lalignemédianedont tous lespoints sont équidistants
despoints lesplus proches des lignes de base partir desquelles est
mesuréelalargeurdelamerterritoriale dechacun decesEtats.»(Les
italiquessont de moi.)

Ilestdifficiled'affirmerqueJan Mayenestune caractéristiquespéciale
accessoire. A cet égard, l'arrêt renddans les affaires dulateau conti-
nentalde la merdu Nord pourrait bien être pertinent, quoiqu'iln'existe
aucune similitudeentrelasituationgéographiquedans lesaffairesentre la
Républiquefédérald e'Allemagne, leDanemarketles Pays-Basetcelle-ci.
Dans lescirconstancesgéographiquesde l'espèce, ilne saurait y avoir de
« situationgéographiquedequasi-égalitéentreplusieurs Etats »analogue
àcellequiseprésentaitdans lesaffairesdu Plateaucontinentadlelamerdu
Nord (Républiquefédérale dAllemagne/Danemark; Républiquefédérale

d Allemagne/Pays-Bas).
Il serait donc peut-être inexact d'affirmerque Jan Mayen puisse avoir
un quelconqueeffetde distorsion decegenre.Lalignemédianedont il est
question ici n'estpas entre la Norvègecontinentale et le Groenland, que
séparent plusde 700 milles de haute mer. Le problème d'une petiteîle
proche de la ligne médiane ou situéede telle sorte qu'elle a un effet de
distortion ne se pose donc pas dans cette affaire et, pour cette raison, la
questiond'une caractéristiquespécialeaccessoirene seposepas non plus.
Ilrestedonc à examinersi,commedans lesaffairesdu Plateaucontinen-
tal& la merdu Nord,il existe une situation géographique telle queJan
Mayenpuisse releverdesdispositions relatives àla prise en compte «des
îlots, des rochers ou des légerssaillants de la côte» (C.I.J. Recueil1969,
p.36,par. 57).Commeje l'ai déjà indiqué, la situationest ici différente.

Jan Mayen n'est ni une île, ni un rocher, ni un légersaillant de la côte.
Ayant examiné la question des circonstances spéciales dans ses
rapports avecla méthodede l'équidistanceau regard desdispositions dution on the Continental Shelf, 1shall now turn my attention to the other
side ofthe equationreferredto inthejurisprudence oftheCourtas "rele-
vant circumstances". While one may venture to Saythat special circum-
stancesrelateto geophysicalpeculiaritiesinrespect ofcoastsofStates,the
term "relevant circumstances" is perhaps wider in scope, but similar in
purpose and content.

However, an examination of the pronouncements by the Court on
"relevant circumstances" as a pertinent consideration in cases of mari-
time boundary delimitationpoints to some ways in which international
lawcontinues to develop.

In the NorthSea ContinentalShelf cases,the Court states :

"In fact,there is no legal limitto the considerations which States
may take account of for the purpose of making sure that they apply
equitableprocedures, and more often than not it isthe balancing-up
of al1such considerations that will produce this result rather than
relianceon onetothe exclusionofal1others.Theproblem ofthe rela-
tiveweighttobeaccorded to differentconsiderationsnaturally varies
with the circumstances of the case." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 50,
para. 93.)

Ontheotherhand,not al1factorsthat comewithinthe categoryof"rele-
vant circumstances"ingeneralare infactrelevantineverycase.Thisagain
was made clear by the Court in the Libya/Malta case when it declared
that althoughthere wasnolegallimittotheconsiderations whichtheState
mighttakeintoaccount yet "only thosethat arepertinent tothe institution
of the continental shelfas it has developed within the law ... willqualify
for such inclusion" (I.C.J. Reports1985,p. 50,para. 48).

It is now clear that, apart from geographicalconfiguration, "relevant

circumstances" also accommodate al1other circumstances such aspopu-
lation, socio-economicstructures, security, conduct of the parties, etc.,
where these are relevant. The equitableprinciples of customaryinterna-
tional law which, as already stated, constitutethe applicable law in this
casewithregardtothefisheryzone,equallyrequireaccount to be taken of
proportionality (as in the case of the continental shelf) or what should
better becalledthe disparity ofcoastallengthsofthe Parties,asa relevant
circumstance.Ifwethereforetakea criticallookatthe length ofthe coast-
line of Greenland in comparison withthat ofJan Mayen wemay Saythat
the difference is clear (the length of the coast of Greenland is 524kilo-
metres, while that of Jan Mayen is 54.8kilometres). It is also clear that
under the equitableprinciples of customaryinternational law such a dis-
parity of coastal lengths is a relevant circumstance to be taken into con-
sideration because : paragraphe 1 de l'article 6 de la convention de Genèvede 1958sur le
plateau continental, je passeraiàl'autre termede l'équation quelajuris-
prudence de la Cour appelle «circonstances pertinentes ».Alors que les
circonstances spéciales, pourrait-on dire, concernent des particularités
géographiques des côtes des Etats, l'expression ((circonstances perti-

nentes» est peut-êtred'une signification plus étendue, mais sa raison
d'être et son contenusont similaires.
Cependant, l'examendesdéclarationsfaitesparlaCour àpropos de la
possibilitéde prendre en considération des «circonstances pertinentes ))
dans des affaires de délimitation maritime faitapparaître certaines'des
orientations suivantlesquelles le droit international continue de se déve-
lopper.
Dans lesaffairesdu Plateaucontinentad lelamerduNord,la Cour adit:

«En réalitéi,l n'ya pas de limitesjuridiques aux considérations
quelesEtatspeuventexaminer afinde s'assurerqu'ilsvontappliquer
desprocédéséquitableestc'estleplussouventlabalance entretoutes
cesconsidérationsqui créeral'équitable plutôqtue l'adoption d'une
seuleconsidération en excluanttoutes les autres. De tels problèmes
d'équilibre entrediversesconsidérationsvarient naturellement selon
lescirconstances de l'espèce. »(C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 50,par. 93.)

D'un autrecôté, lesfacteurs pouvant être rangés dans la catégorie des
«circonstancespertinentes »engénéran le sontpas tous réellementperti-
nents dans tous les cas. La Cour l'a encore précisédans l'affaire Libye/
Malte lorsqu'elle a déclaré que,s'il n'y a pas de limite juridique aux
considérationsdont lesEtats sont endroitde tenir compte, ((seulespour-
ront intervenircellesquiserapportent àl'institutiondu plateau continen-
tal telle qu'elle s'est constituée en droit)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1985, p. 40,
par. 48).
Il est maintenant clair que, outre la configuration géographique,les

«circonstances pertinentes » englobent aussi toutes les autres circons-
tances, comme la population, les structures socio-économiques,la sécu-
rité,la conduite des parties, etc., lorsque celles-cisont pertinentes. Les
principes équitablesdu droit international coutumier qui, comme je l'ai
déjà indiqué, constituent ledroit applicable dans cette affaire en ce qui
concerne la zone de pêche, requièrent égalemenqtu'il soit tenu compte
comme d'une circonstance pertinente de la proportionnalité (de même
que dans le cas du plateau continental) ou de ce que l'on pourrait plus
justement appeler la disparitéde longueurs des côtes des Parties. Sil'on
examine d'un Œil critique la longueur de la côte du Groenland par
comparaison avec celle de Jan Mayen, l'on constate une différence
évidente(lalongueur de la côte du Groenland estde 524 kilomètres,alors
que celle de Jan Mayen est de 54,8kilomètres).Il est clair aussi qu'au

regard desprincipes équitablesdu droitinternational coutumier une telle
disparitédelongueursdescôtes estune circonstancepertinente àprendre
en considération car :302 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP . P.AJIBOLA)

"While every case of maritime delimitation is different in its cir-
cumstancesfrom the next, only a clearbody of equitable principles

can permit such circumstances to be properly weighed, and the
objectiveof an equitable result,as required by generalinternational
law,to be attained."(Z.C. R e.orts1985,p. 55,para. 76.)
A clearpicture has now emerged ofthe possiblelinkbetweenthe con-
cept of "relevantcircumstances" as enshrined in the equitable principles
of customaryinternational law and "special circumstances" as a notice-

able peculiarity in the geographical configuration of the coastlines of
Greenland and Jan Mayen. Thislink(orwhat has beentermed the "foot-
bridge" by one greatjurist) was a component of the decision reached by
the Anglo-French Court of Arbitration, an arbitral tribunal that had the
opportunity of applying the provisions of Article 6,paragraph 1,of the
Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf in 1977.In its Award the
link was effectedthus:

"In short the rôle of the 'specialcircumstances' condition in Ar-
ticle6istoensurean equitabledelimitation; and the combined 'equi-
distance-specialcircumstance rule',ineffect,givesparticular expres-
sionto ageneralnom that, failingagreement,the boundary between
Statesabutting on thesame continental shelf isto be determined on
equitable principles. In addition, Article 6 neitherfines 'special
circumstances' nor lays down the criterion by which it is to be
assessed whether any given circumstances justify a boundary line
otherthan the equidistance line. Consequently, evenunder Article6
the question whether the use of the equidistance principle or some
other method is appropriate for achievingan equitable delimitation
isverymuch a matter of appreciation inthe lightofthe geographical
and other circumstances." (Reportsof InternationalArbitralAwards
(RIA), Vol.XVIII, p. 45,para. 70.)

Wenow have al1the necessarycomponents or ingredients ofthe equa-
tion which has to be resolved in this case andin al1subsequent cases on
maritime boundary delimitation. On the one hand, the provision of Ar-
ticle 6,paragraph 1,of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf

enjoins al1Statesto settleal1their delimitationmatters by agreement and
then goes onto Saythat, if this fails the equidistance method should be
applied unlessthere are "special circumstances".Onthe other hand,gen-
eralinternational lawalsopostulates that al1delimitation mattersshould
be resolved by agreementbetween the parties and that, in the event of a
failure to reach agreement,equitable principles should be applied. Such
an equitable procedure must have regard to "relevant circumstances".

In the first case,the resolving of delimitation matters by agreement is
common to both sets of provisions. There is also a requirement to give «S'ilest vrai que les circonstances de chaque cas de délimitation
maritime diffèrent, seul un ensemble clair de principes équitables
peutpermettre deleurreconnaître lepoids quiconvientetd'atteindre

l'objectif du résultat équitable prescritpar le droit international
général.»(C.I.J. Recueil1985,p. 55,par. 76.)
Ilestainsiapparu uneimageclairedelarelation quipeut existerentre le
concept de «circonstancespertinentes »consacrédans lesprincipes équi-
tables du droit international coutumier et les «circonstances spéciales»

constituéespar une particularité remarquabledelaconfigurationgéogra-
phique descôtes du Groenland et deJan Mayen.Cette relation (cequ'un
éminentjuriste aappeléla «passerelle ») a été l'une des considérations
intervenuesdans lasentencerenduepar letribunal arbitral franco-britan-
nique,quiavaiteu à appliquer,en 1977,lesdispositionsduparagraphe 1de
l'article 6de la convention de Genèvede 1958sur leplateau continental :

«En résumél,e rôle de la condition relative aux «circonstances
spéciales)),posée à l'article 6, est d'assurer une délimitation équi-
table; en fait, la règlecombinant ((équidistance-circonstance spé-
ciale»constituel'expressionparticulièred'unenormegénéralesuivant
laquelle la limite entre des Etats qui donnent sur le mêmeplateau
continental doit, en l'absence d'accord, être déterminée selon des
principes équitables.De plus, l'article 6 s'abstient de définir les
«circonstances spéciales » aussi bien que d'indiquer le critère
permettant d'établirsides circonstancesdonnéesjustifientune déli-

mitation autre que celle qui résultede la ligne d'équidistance. Il
s'ensuit que,mêmesousl'anglede l'article6,la question de savoirsi
le principe de l'équidistance ou quelqueautre méthode permet
d'aboutir àune délimitation équitableest très largementune ques-
tion d'appréciation quidoit être résolue à la lumière des circons-
tances géographiques et autres.» (Recueil des sentences arbitrales,
(RSA),vol.XVIII, p. 175,par. 70.)

Nous possédons maintenant tous les éléments ou ingrédientn séces-
sairespour l'équation quiest à résoudredans cetteaffaire et dans toutes
les affairesultérieuresde délimitation maritime.D'une part, les disposi-
tions du paragraphe 1 de l'article 6de la convention de Genèvesur le
plateau continental stipulent que tous les Etats doivent régler leurs
problèmesdedélimitationpar voied'accord,etpoursuivent endisantque,
à défaut d'accord, la méthodede l'équidistance doit être appliquéeen
l'absencede «circonstances spéciales ».D'autre part, le droit internatio-
nal générav l eut que toutes les questions de délimitation soient résolues

par voie d'accord entrelesparties et qu'à défaut d'accordil soitappliqué
des principes équitables. Cette procédure équitabledoit prendre en
compte les «circonstances pertinentes ».
Dans lepremier cas,la solution des questions de délimitationpar voie
d'accord est commune aux deux ensembles de dispositions. 11est égale-consideration to geophysical or other peculiarities which are termed
either "special circumstances" or "relevant circumstances" and the

methodadvocated bythe Convention isequidistance,whilegeneralinter-
national lawrequiresthe application ofequitableprinciples. Thustheend
resultofsolvingtheequation isspecial circumstances/equidistance being
equal apparently to relevant circumstances/equitable principles. In
other words agreement/special circumstances/equidistance equals
agreementhelevant circumstances/equitable principles.One however is
encapsulatedin the other as was found bythe Court of Arbitration in the
Anglo-French casewhich declaredthat

"In the view of this Court, therefore,the rules of customary law
area relevantand evenessentialmeansboth forinterpretingand com-
pletingthe provisions of Article6."(RIAA,p. 48,para. 75.)
In my final appraisal, therefore, the supreme contribution of current
customaryinternational law as compared to the special circumstances-
equidistance rule(asinthis casewhereboth theseinstitutions ofmaritime
boundary delimitation have to be considered)is that the ultimate rule of

lawistheapplication ofequitableprinciples;this isthecontemporary law
onthismatter. Inconclusiontothispart ofmyopinion 1should liketogive
a classic example of solving equations similar to the one that presents
itselfin this case.It readshus:

"The Court accordinglyfinds thatthe GenevaConvention of 1958
onthe Continental Shelf isa treaty in force,the provisions of which
are applicable as between the Parties to the present proceedings

under Article2oftheArbitration Agreement.Thisfinding,the Court
wishes at thesametime to emphasise, does not mean that it regards
itself as debarred from taking any account in these proceedings of
recent developments in customary law. On the contrary, the Court
has no doubt that it should take due account of the evolution of the
law of the sea in so far as this may be relevant in the context of the
present case." (Zbid.,p. 37,para. 48.)
This decision is inter-temporal in tone, but there is no doubt that it
reflectsthe current view ofthe lawon maritimeboundary delimitation -

law isdynamic and moveswith the times.

(Signed) BolaAJIBOLA.mentprescrit deprendre enconsidérationlesparticularités géophysiques
ou autresqui sontappelées«circonstancesspéciales»ou «circonstances
pertinentes » et la méthode préconisée par la convention est l'équidis-
tance, alors que le droit international général requiert l'applicationde
principes équitables.Le résultatfinal obtenu en résolvant l'équationest
que leterme circonstances spéciales/équidistanceest apparemment égal
au terme circonstances pertinentes/principes équitables. Autrement dit,
accord/circonstances spéciales/équidistanceest égal à accord/circons-
tances pertinentes/principes équitables.L'undecestermesestcependant
contenu dans l'autre, ainsi que l'a conclu le tribunal dans l'arbitrage
franco-britannique quand il a déclaré que :

«Le tribunal estimepar conséquentque les règlesdu droit coutu-
mier sont pertinentes et en vérité essentiellespour interpréter et
compléterles dispositions de l'article 6.» (RSA, vol.XVIII, p. 178,
par. 75.)

J'estimedonc endernièreanalyseque lacontribution suprêmedu droit
international coutumier actuel par comparaison avec la règlecircons-
tancesspéciales-équidistance(dansune affairecommecelle-cioùdoivent
êtreprises en considération cesdeux institutions de la délimitation mari-
time) est que l'application de principes équitables constitue la règle
fondamentale du droit; tel est le droit contemporain en la matière. Pour
conclure cette partie de mon opinion je citerai un exemple classique de
résolution d'équations semblables à celle que pose cette affaire. Il se lit

commesuit :
«Letribunal conclutenconséquencequelaconventiondeGenève
de 1958sur le plateau continental est un traitéen vigueur dont les
dispositionssonten l'espèceapplicables entre lesparties auxtermes
de l'article2 du compromis d'arbitrage. Cela ne signifie pas - le
tribunal tient à le souligner en mêmetemps - qu'il estime devoir

exclure, dans la présente affaire,toute considérationtenant compte
des développements récentsdu droit coutumier. Au contraire, le
tribunal ne doutepas qu'ildoit prendre en considération l'évolution
du droit de la mer danstoute la mesureoù celaseraitpertinent pour
l'examende la présente affaire. »(Ibid., p.166,par. 48.)
Cette décision aun ton intertemporel, mais il est indéniablequ'elle
reflètela conception actuelle du droit de la délimitation maritime - le

droit a un caractère dynamique etil évolueavecletemps.

(Signé)Bola AJIBOLA.

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