Separate opinion of Judge Weeramantry

Document Number
078-19930614-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
078-19930614-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE WEERAMANTRY

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Paragraphs
1-11

Specialrole played by equityin this case 5-11
12-165

Conceptual problems associated with the use of equity 12-19
Issuesarising from the Court's reliance on equity 20
Analysisof equity with reference to maritime delimitation 21-165

1. The application of equity 21-42
(a) Equitableprinciples 22-24
(b) Equitableprocedures 25-27
(c) Equitablemethods 28-30
(d) Equitableresults 31-42

II. Inapplicability of equityasasystemseparate from law 43-51

(a) Equityincommon law
(b) Equityin civillaw
III. Thecategories ofequity

(a) Equity exaequoet bono
(b) Absolute equity
(c) EquitypraeterIegem
(d) Equity infralegem(alsotermedequity intralegemor
equitysecundumlegem)
(e) Equity contraIegem

IV. Theroutes ofentry ofequity
(a) Equity asrequired tobeapplied bytreaties
fb) Eciuityascontainedincustomaryinternational law
(c) ~qui6 asageneralprinciple offaw
(d) Equity as embodied in the decisions of courts and
tribunals
(e) Equity asexpounded in the writings ofthe publicists
fl Equity asjustice
(g) Equityasdrawn in bythe United Nations Charter
(h) Equity asembodiedin State practice

V. Apriori and aposteriori employment of equity
(a) The positive or a priori use of equity to construct a
result
(b) The negative or a posteriori use of equity to test a
result212 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP. OP. WEERAMANTRY)

VI. The usesofequity 110-121

(a) As abasis forindividualized justice 113-115
(b) As introducing considerations of fairness, reason-
ableness,and good faith 116

(c) As a basis for certain specific principles of legal
reasoning
(d) As offeringstandards for the allocationand sharing
ofresources and benefits
(e) To achievedistributivejustice

VII. Themethods of operation of equity

Throughbalancingtheinterests oftheparties
Through an equitableinterpretation of ale of law
or ofatreatyorset of facts
Throughtemperingtheapplication of strictmles
Through thechoice ofan equitableprinciple
Throughthe use ofjudicialdiscretion
Throughfillingingapsand intersticesinthe law
Through followingequitableprocedures
Through the application of equitable principles
alreadyembeddedinthe law
Throughits useinnegativefashionto test a result

VIII. The stagesof equitable decision-making

(a) Theidentification ofthearea of thedispute
(b) The preparatory phase of assembling the relevant
circumstances
(c) Thedecisionalphase
(d) Theconfirmatoryphase
Uncertaintiesin the use of equity

(a) Absenceof mechanismsfor precisequantification
(b) Lackofdefinitenessinthescope of equity
(c) Lackofcrystallizationof equitable results
(d) Changingnature ofthe law ofthe sea
(e) The resort to fact-intensiverather than rule-intensive pro-
cedures

PARTB. PARTICULI ANRVOCATION OFSEQUITY IN MARITIMD EELIMI-
TATION

Long-standing recognition of equity in the law ofthe sea
The use of equityin the 1958Geneva Convention
The use of equity in the 1982ntego Bay Convention
Categories of relevant factorsare not closed
The equidistanceprinciple
(i) 1sit a mandatory rule?
(ii) Does it have priority over other factors?
(iii) Does it have parity with other factors?

The "special circumstances" principleThe "relevant circumstances" principle
(a) Population
(b) Economicfactors

(c) State practice
(d) The icefactor
(e) National security
03 The conduct ofparties
(g) Disproportion incoastal length 1. The observations that ensue indicate the reasons for my agreement
withthe Judgment oftheCourt. In viewofthe Judgment's intensive use of
equity,they explorein somewhatextendedform thejurisprudential con-
tent and practical application ofthat conceptin a manner which can most

appropriately be attempted in a separate opinion.
2. Against thisbackground, itisnot necessary inthisopinionto recapi-
tulate the several details of fact, which are set out in the Judgment. This
opinion will attempt,rather, to examine the application of equity to those
facts, explaining my support of the methods used and conclusions
reached.
3. The ensuing analysis is undertaken against the background of the
substantialbody ofcreativework done bythis Court inlaying the founda-

tions of an equitablejurisprudence for the evolvinglaw of the sea. What
"appears atfirstsight to be ajumble ofdifferent and disparate elements" '
may well yield, upon closer examination, someuseful guidelines for the
determination of a case such asthis.

4. Although this opinion focuses on the field ofmaritimedelimitation,
it will also take in occasional glimpses, when necessary, of the broader
equitable landscape lyingbeyond.This isrendered al1the more necessary

because application of equity inthe field of maritime delimitation raises
far-reachingjuristic questions *and iscurrentlypassingthrough a critical
phase3.

Special RolePlayedbyEquityinthisCase
5. The Court's Judgment reveals the use of equity in several ways, and
at various stages in the judgmental process.

' R. Y. Jennings, "Equity and Equitable Principles", in Annuaire suissede droit
international,Vol. XLII (1986),p. 38. See, also, the same author in "The Principles
Governing Marine Boundaries", in Staat und VolkerrechtsordnungF , estschriftfur
Karl Doehring,1989,p. 408.
See Mark W. Janis, "Equity in International Law", Encyclopediaof PublicZnter-
nationalLaw, Vol.7,pp. 76-77:
"The application ofequitableprinciplesin these maritime delimitation caseshas
evoked a debate regarding the role of equity which is rather similar to that which
accompanied earlier manifestations of equity practice. Some obsewers - largeiy
in the positivist traditi-n have criticized the courts for going beyond their
powers."
Judge Jennings refers, in connection with maritime delimitation, to "some deep
problems - one might almost add a malaise - affectingthat part of internationallaw
today" ("The Principles Governing Marine Boundaries", op. cit.,p. 398).See,also, the
criticisms of the use of equity assembled by Judge Bedjaoui in "L''énigme'des
'principes équitables'dans ledroitdes délimitations maritimes",instaEspaiiolade
DerechoInternacional,Vol.XLII (1990),p. 376. 215 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP .P.WEERAMANTRY)

6. It describes the equidistance-special circumstances mle of the
1958Convention as expressinga general nom based on equitable prin-
ciples(para. 46)and examinesthe "equitable principles-relevant circum-
stances"rulerelatingtodelimitation ofacontinentalshelf,fisheryzone or
all-purpose singleboundary (para. 56).It also examines the effect of the
customary mle which requires a delimitation based on equitable prin-
ciples(paras. 46and 71).

7. The Court gives its attention to the application of equitable pro-
cedures (para. 92), the effecting of an equitable division (para. 64), the
need to arrive at an equitable result (paras. 54and 90),the ensuring of an

equitable solution (para. 65)and the process of evolving such a solution
(para. 63). It notes the prima facie equitable character of the reasons
underlyingthe equidistancemethod and the need foran equitable delimi-
tation to take into account the disparity in coastal lengths (para. 65). It
stressesthat a result which is equitable in itself is the objective of every
maritime delimitationbased on law(para. 70),and refersto the equity of
the delimitation line(para. 62).
8. The Judgment considers whether a given line is "equitable in its
result" (para. 62),and itdescribesthelinedrawn byDenmark 200nautical
miles from the baselines of Eastern Greenland as "inequitable in its
effects"(para. 87).It takes note of Norway'sargument that proportional-
ity is the test of the equitableness of a result arrived at by other means
(para. 63)and Denmark'sreferenceto "a method appropriatefor an equi-

table delimitation line" (para. 62).It considersthe manifestlyinequitable
resultsfollowingfrom the application ofthe median line (para. 68).

9. Specificreference ismade to themeasure ofdiscretionconferredon
the Court bythe need to arrive at an equitableresult(para. 90).Recogniz-
ing the need to make proper provision for equitable access to fishery
resources (paras. 75, 91 and 92), the Court makes a division according
to which it considers that "the requirements of equity would be met"
(para. 92).
10. Equity has thus played a role of ovenvhelming importance in the
Court's decision,involvingthe application of equitable principles, equi-
table procedures and equitable methods. The decision reveals an inten-
siveeffort directedtowards achievingan equitablesolution and attesting

the equitable nature of that solution. It draws in equity to address the
problem in hand through amultitude ofroutes - treaty,customaryinter-
national law and judicial decisions to name a few. The methods used
involveboththe apriori useofequityto workforwardstowardsapossible
result and theaposteriori use of equityto test a result thus reached.

11. Sincethis casehas drawn both upon the Court's generalequitable
jurisprudence andon itsparticular invocationsinrelation tothe lawofthe
sea,thisopinion will dealwithboth theseaspects.Thespecialinvocations
ofequitywhichgiveitredoubled emphasisinthe lawofthe seatend some-times to overshadow the applicability of general principles of equity,
which stillplay a vital part in this field. To minimize the importance of
general equitable considerations, especiallyat this incipient stage of the
developinglaw ofthe sea,may cramp the evolution ofthe latter in what is

perhaps its most formative phase. This opinion consequently devotes
someattention to an examination ofthe waysin which equity,both in its
general senseand initsspecialapplication tothelawofthe sea,cancontri-
bute to the solution ofthe varied problems encountered inthis case.

PART A. GENERAE LQUITABJ LERISDICTIO OFNTHE COURT

ConceptualProblemsAssociatedwith theUseofEquity

12. The issuewhether equity should play a role in maritime delimita-
tion isonewhichhasbeen questioned by eminentauthority, bothjudicial
and academic, and mustbe seriouslyaddressed ifreliance isto be placed
upon it. This is part of a larger question asto whether, indeed, although
equity is clearly a part of public international law,its use is really-
sary or useful, having regard to itsuncertainties, its difficulties of defini-
tion and its lack of methodologies for the precise quantification of its
findings.

13. Telders, forexample, has expressed the viewthat, apart from the
application ofthe principle of good faith, equityhas no special legalig-
nificancel. Ripert, in his lectures before the Hague Academy in 1933,
went even further to state that equity is a principle, but a principle of
morality and not of law2.
14. Indeed, judicial dicta of some judges of this Court have given
strong expression to such a view.Vice-President Koretsky,for example,
in the North Sea ContinentalShelf cases, affirmed that equity, being of
"a non-juridical,ethical character", ought not to be resorted to by this

Court :
"1feelthat to introduce sovague anotion intothejurisprudence of
the International Court mayopenthe door to makingsubjectiveand
therefore at times arbitrary evaluations, instead of following the
guidance of establishedgeneralprinciples and rules of international
law in the settlement of disputes submitted to the Court."

(I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 166,dissentingopinion.)

tionalLaw") inVenameldeGeschriften(CollectedPapers), TheHague, 194292,ata-
p. 338.
GeorgesRipert, "Lesrèglsudroitcivil applicablesaux rapports internationaux",
44 Recueildescoursdelilcadémiededroitinternational(1933-II),p.575- "L'équitéest
principe,mais principedemoraleet nonprincipedudroit."Judge Tanaka put itevenmorestronglyin hisobservationin the samecase
that, "Reference to the equitableprinciple isnothing elsebut beggingthe
question." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 196,dissenting opinion.) Other criti-

cisms l describe equity as a doctrine "déroutéeet déroutante","a riddle
wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma", as paradoxical, circular, fuzzy
and lackingprecise definition.

15. These conceptual criticisms of equity may be addressed at three
levels - atthe level oflawingeneral,atthe levelofinternational law and
at the level ofthe law ofthe sea.
16. At its mostgeneral level,equityhas been seen asthe source ofthat
dynamismwhich isnecessaryforlegaldevelopment.Thus,inthe wordsof
the eminentcomparativist PuigBrutau, "equity isone ofthe namesunder

which isconcealedthe creativeforcewhich animatesthe lifeofthe la^"^.

17. Atthe level of international law, that creativity is well illustrated
whenoneconsiders that equityhasbeen the sourcethat has giveninterna-
tional lawthe concept ofinternational mandates and trusts, ofgoodfaith,
of pacta sunt servanda, ofjus cogens, ofunjust enrichment, of rebus sic
stantibus and of abuse of rights. No doubt, the future holds for it a
similarlyvitalcreativerole.
18. Viewedmore specifically,in the context of the law of the sea, its

potential for developing that incipient branch of international law is so
far-reachingasto have attracted the commentthat it is
"a juridical arsenal from which the judge draws the tools which
enable him to identify, evaluate, understand and give effect to cir-
cumstances recognized asjuridically relevant in a particular case"3
(translation).

19. What follows isan analysis ofthese tools by which equityhelps to
identify, evaluate, understand and give effect to the circumstances in a
particular case.Thereafter,thisopinion wil1,addressthe questionwhether
the uncertainties of equity render it a practically unsuitable tool for the
determination of casessuch asthis.

IssuesArisingfrom the Court S RelianceonEquity
20. This analysis centres around the followingaspects of the reliance

on equityinthe Judgment :

As assembled by Judge Bedjaoui in "L''énigme'des 'principes équitables'dans le
droit des délimitations maritimes",op.cit.,p. 376.
"Juridical Evolution and Equity", in Essays in Jurisprudence in Honor of
Rosc"les principes équitables se présententen définitive commeun arsenaljuridique
dans lequel le juge puise les outils permettant d'identifier, d'évaluer,de com-
prendre et de satisfaire des circonstances reconnues juridiquement pertinentes
dans une espèce déterminée." (Bedjaouop.cit.,p. 384.)- TheJudgment oftheCourt,in commonwithmostothersinthe field of
maritime delimitation,resorts to equitynot merelyfor principles but
also forprocedures and methods, and forthe testing oftentativesolu-
tions reached. The one word "equity" covers al1these applications,
someofthem quitedistinctfromothers.

- Theterm "equity" asused bytheCourt, and ininternational lawand in
maritimedelimitationgenerally,has a distinctmeaningfromequityas
used in the sense of a corrective systemstanding apart from the law.
Wheneverthetermequityisusedinthe Judgment,theterm isnot used
in the lattersense, and this distinction must be kept in mind for an
appreciation oftheroleofequityinthiscase.

- Therehasbeen no resortto equity exaequoetbono.Nearly everydeci-
sionapplyingequitytomaritimedelimitationhasstressed thatthe spe-
ciesofequityemployedisnot equityexaequoetbono.Thisnecessitates

an examination ofthe distinctionsbetween that concept and the con-
ceptofequityactuallyemployed.The various categoriesofequityand
theirrelevancetothiscase cal1forexaminationinthiscontext.

- The Judgment draws in equity through treaties, customary interna-
tional lawandjudicial decisions,as wellasbroader conceptsofequity
which flow in from many sources. An examination of these varied
sources will clarify theseveralwaysin which the problem before the
Court hasnecessarilyattracted itsoperation.

- The Judgment uses equity a priori to work towards a result, and
a posteriori to check a result thus reached. This raises important
juristic issues.
- There are several purposes or ends for which equity has been used.
These are varied and some of them are pertinent to this Judgment in
particular andto maritimedelimitation ingeneral.Not al1thepossible
purposes and endsofequityareappropriate to maritimedelimitation.

Equity has many methods of operation, more than one of which has
beenused inthe Judgment. Thesemaynot al1be spelt out specifically,

but one or more of them are in constant use in everyexerciseof that
discretion,asindeedthey are inthis case.The ambit ofjudicial discre-
tion - a matter specificallyreferred to in the Judgment - has been
the subject of somecontroversy. In subscribing to the decision of the
Court, 1have accepted the legitimacyof such a use ofjudicial discre-
tion and feelimpelledto explain why1consider suchuse ofdiscretion
legitimate.
Theprocess of equitable decision-making,as in a boundary delimita-
tion, is not a singleprocess but can be broken up into its constituent
stages.The decisioninthiscasehasproceededthrough those stagesas willbe pointed out. Anappreciation ofthose separate stagesis an aid
tounderstanding theactualoperation ofequityinthiscase.

Theseaspectswillbediscussedinthe ensuingparagraphs in the order in
whichthey have been set out.

ANALYSISOFEQUITYWITH REFERENCETOMARITIMEDELIMITATION

I. TheApplicationofEquity

21. Theapplication of equityto a givencasecan comprise the applica-
tion of an equitable principle or principles, the adoption of an equitable
procedure or procedures, the use of an equitable method or the securing
of an equitable result. Al1of these aspects are relevant tothe determina-
tion ofthe present case.

(a) Equitableprinciples

22. Equitable principles are in this discussion taken to include con-
cepts,black-letter rules and standards or principles inthe broader sense,
as there is no need in this discussion to refine this categoryfurther. The
important distinction drawn by jurists l between black-letter rules and
standards orprinciplesishence not used forthe purpose ofthisclassifica-
tion, and the term "equitable principles" is to be read as covering al1of
these.
23. The Chamber of this Court, in the case concerning Delimitation of
theMaritime BoundaryintheGulfofMaineArea,had inmind a classifica-

tion ofthis broad nature when it observedthat there is a distinction:
"between what are principles and rules of international lawgovern-
ingthematter and whatcouldbebetterdescribed asthevarious equi-
table criteria and practical methods that may be used to ensure in
concret0that a particular situation is dealt with in accordance with

the principles and rules in question" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 290,
para. 80).
Theensuinganalysisproceeds upon thebroad divisionbetweenconcepts
and principles without making another specificcategory of "criteria".

24. General equitable principles relevant to this case would include
equitable principles applicable to the assessment of representations of
State policy regarding maritime delimitation which other States have
relied upon to their prejudice; equitable principles of interpretation in
relation to relevant treaties; and principles of fairness in considering

See,forexample,R.Dworkin, TakingRightsSeriously,1977,p. 46. whether large sections of the waters to be demarcated are unusable in
consequence of their beingfrozen over for considerableperiods.

(b) Equitableprocedures

25. As with most areas of law, equity has both a substantive and an
adjectival aspect. The application of equitable procedures of enquiry is
necessarily an important part of equity.Procedural equity in itsbroadest
form isthe equitywhich ensures that inthe process ofenquiry and investi-
gationleadingto a decision,the parties enjoy theopportunity ofafulland
fair presentation oftheirrespective casestothecourt ortribunal. The pro-
cedural aspect of equity has an ancient origin and is rooted in popular
concepts of fairness '.

26. The equitable concern with procedural fairness gives rise to the
principle involved inthiscase, that al1relevantcircumstances willbe con-
sideredindetermining how the maritimespacein contention isto be deli-
mited betweenthe Parties,unlessthisconsideration isprevented by a rule
oflaw.The Court initsJudgmenthastherefore givenitsconsideration to a
wide range of factors - Statepractice, the conduct ofthe Parties, propor-
tionality of coastlines, population, economic factors, the equidistance
principle and the unusability of part of the maritime space in contention
owingto drift ice.Whatever maybethe eventualconclusionregarding the
weighttobe givento eachfactor,Parties are entitled to a consideration of
such factors bythe Courtand inthe absence ofalegalprinciple rendering
a particular factor irrelevant, the impact of that factor upon the case in
hand needs to be assessed.

27. This is especiallyso having regard to the uniqueness of each par-

ticular case and the fact that its special circumstances may throw up for
consideration somefact or circumstance never considered in the relevant
jurisprudence up to that time. Thefact that a considerable portion of the
relevant area in this case is ice-bound for the greater part of the year is
such a factor. Asthis Court pointed out in the GulfofMaine case :

"Although the practice is still rather sparse, ... it too is there to
demonstrate that each specificcase is,in thefinal analysis,different

' For example, the audialterampartem rule has from ancient times been described
evenin popular literature

"Qui statuit aliquid parte inaudita altera,
Aequum licet statuerit, haud aequus fuit."
(Seneca,Medea199-200,citedin aseriesoflater common lawcasessuchas ReHarnrner-
LegalMaxims, 10thed., 1939,p. 66.)mithv. Rex,3App. Cas. 614at 624.Seealso Broom,221 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP .P. WEERAMANTRY)

from al1the others,that it ismonotypicand that, moreoften than not,
the most appropriate criteria, and the method or combination of

methods most likelyto yield a result consonant with what the law
indicates, can onlybe determined in relation to eachparticular case
and itsspecificcharacteristics." (I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 290,para. 81 .)

Thus, there is "no legal limitto the considerations which Statesmaytake
account of for the purpose of making surethat they apply equitable pro-
cedures" (I.C.J.Reports1969,p.50).

(c) Equitable methods

28. Among the practical methodslistedby the Chamber in the Gulfof
Mainecase,as distinctfrom criteria and rules orprinciples whichshould
be used for achievingan equitable result, arethe drawing of an equidis-
tance or median line, the division of the area in various segmentsusing
different methods in respect of each sector and the method of drawing a

line perpendicular to the coast or to the general direction of the coast '.

29. Many other suggestions appear in the literature, which could be
described as methods stemming from equitable considerations2. As
the jurisprudence on maritime delimitation develops, a refinement of
methods appropriate to particular types of dispute may wellemerge3.

30. Inthe present case,the Court hasusedasitsmethod theprovisional
adoption of the median line as its starting point and, havingregard to its
evaluation of the various considerations before it, moved that line east-
wards, carefully dividing the relevant space into segments which again

l I.C.J. Reports 1984,p. 313,para. 159.
See, for example, the five separate tasks devolving on the Court, as analysed by
J.1.Charney, of whichthe last three may be classified as methods:

"(3) To the extent possible, each piece of information identified in the prior
function to which it relates.onstnict a line or range of lines that best suits the
(4) These alternative lines and previously identified factors should be studied
and weighed according to their importance. In aprocess that might evenapproach
vector analysis, a line that best reflects al1the relevant factors in light of their
importance to the zone should be sought.

(5)A cartographical method should be selected to describe the line accurately
and reliably.(J.1.Charney, "Ocean Boundaries between Nations: ATheory for
Progress", 78AmericanJournalof InternationaLaw (1984),p. 597.)
One could, if so disposed, draw a distinction between a merely geometrical norm
and a juridical norm as Judge Tanaka did in his dissenting opinion in the North Sea
ContinentalShelfcases (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 183).However,if the geometrical norm
stems from equitable considerations, it is forthe purposes of this discussion classed as
an equitable method. Judge Tanaka wasreferring to the distinction between the rule of
equidistance as a mere technique and as a norm of law.have been differently divided having regard to the considerations
involved, such as the seasonal movement of fish and equitable access to
fisheryresources(para. 91). These methods are al1grounded in equitable
considerations and are, forthe purposes ofthe present discussion,treated
as equitablemethods.

(d) Equitable results

31. The first three aspects mentioned are only the means towards the
last, which, as the object and test of every determination according to
equitable principles, calls for considered attention. As this Court
obsemed in the Continental Shelf(Libyan Arab Jamahiïiya/Malta) case:

"It is however the goal - the equitable result - and not the
means used to achieve it, that must be the primary element .. ."
(I.C.J. Reports 1985,pp. 38-39,para. 45.)

32. The Court has at numerous points in its Judgment referred to the
importance of achieving an equitableresult. Some of these references are
detailedinparagraphs 7 and 8of this opinion. In paragraph 54,the Judg-
ment Statesthat "The aim in each and every situation must be to achieve
'an equitable result"' and in paragraph 56it concludes that :

"there is inevitably a tendency towards assimilation between the
special circumstances of Article 6 of the 1958Convention and the
relevant circumstances under customary law, and this if only
because they both are intended to enable the achievement of an
equitable result".
33. Articles 74 (1) and 83 (1) of the 1982Convention also highlight
the importance of achieving an equitable solution. The Judgment, after

referring to the "correction" of a median line delimitation in the Gulfof
Maine case l,similarly rejects the application of the median line in this
case as leading to "manifestly inequitable results" (para. 68) in view of
the greatdisparity of the lengths of coasts.

34. Thisconcern with equitableresults, despite the application ofequi-
table principles, procedures and methods, is well founded inthe Court's
jurisprudence. Theobject of equitableprinciples isto obtainan equitable
result. However equitable each principle may appear to be when consid-
ered in isolation, it may not necessarily produce an equitable result, as is
demonstrated by the application of the equidistance principle to two

opposite coastlines which are vastly differentin length. Asthis Court has
observed, "the term 'equitable principles' cannot be interpreted in the

I.C.JReports1984,p. 336,paras.221-222.

188abstract; itrefersbackto the principles and ruleswhichmaybe appropri-

ate in order to achieve an equitable result" (ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/
LibyanArab Jamahiriya), I.C.J. Reports 1982,p. 59, para. 70; emphasis
added).
35. Even though, in the North Sea ContinentalShelf cases, the Court
appearedto stressthemethods used, italsoemphasizedthe importance of
an equitable result, for, while it said that resort couldbe had "to various
principles or methods, as may be appropriate, or a combination of
them", thiswassubjectto theprovisothat "bytheapplication ofequitable
principles, a reasonable result is arrived at" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 49,
para. 90). So, also, the Court said: "it is necessary to seek not one
method of delimitationbut one goal" (ibid.,p. 50,para. 92).

36. This aspect was stressed also by this Court in the case concerning
the Continental Shelf(Tunisia/Libyan ArabJamahiriya):

"Theresultofthe application ofequitableprinciples mustbe equi-
table. Thisterminology,whichisgenerallyused, isnot entirelysatis-
factorybecauseitemploysthetermequitableto characterizeboth the
resultto be achievedand the meansto beapplied to reachthis result.
It is, however, the result which is predominant; the principles are
subordinate to the goal." (I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 59,para. 70.)

37. The difference between the use of an equitable method and the
achievementof an equitableresult waswellbrought outin thejoint sepa-
rate opinion of Judges Ruda, Bedjaoui and Jiménezde Aréchagain the
ContinentalShelf(LibyanArab Jamahiriya/Malta) case :

"To assert, as Malta has done, that the equidistance method
should be applied, evenifitproduces a delimitation whichisgrossly
disproportionate to the length ofthe relevant coasts,is an attemptto
subordinate the equitable result to be achieved, to the method
adopted. This is precisely the opposite of the fundamental rule of
delimitation, namely,that the method to be adopted shouldbe justi-
fied by the equity of the result." (I.C.J. Reports 1985,pp. 82-83,
para. 20.)

38. The GulfofMaine case drew a cleardistinction between the appli-
cation of equitable criteria and the reaching of an equitable result. The
process by which the Chamber determined the boundary line has been
analysedas consistingof:

(1) the delimitation oftheboundary linethroughthe use ofequitablecri-
teria- primarilytheuse ofgeographicalconfigurations to setoutthe
affectedareaandthe subsequentequal divisionofthat area;

(2) the adjustment of that line, by the consideration of relevant circum-
stancesincludinggeographic "anomalies" and the proportionality of
maritimearea to coastalfrontage;224 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP. OP.WEERAMANTRY)

(3) the checking ofthe equitableness of the resultsoreached, by examin-
ingotherfactors such aseconomicimpact and resource usepatterns '.

39. TheJudgment was speciallyusefulinseparatingsome ofthe differ-
ent elements included in the equitable process and showing how more
than one elementcouldbe used in combination2.

40. It is interesting also to note from the opinion of Judge Oda in
Tunisia/Libya that even as earlyas the 1958Convention
"the idea of an equitable solution, although not specifically men-
tioned in Article 6 of the 1958Convention, lay at the basis of that
provision . . ."(I.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 246, para. 144; emphasis
added).

It is to be noted also that the Law of the Sea Convention uses the term
"equitable solution" thus turning the spotlight onthe equity of the result
(see Arts. 74 and 83).
41. Having regard to the overall importance of the equitable result,
it is not without interest that there is support in legal philosophy for
the method of testing a solution by taking a view at its results. This addi-
tionaljuristic basis for checking a result for its equity or inequity comes
from the "sense of injustice" which has an ancient history in the
philosophy ofjurisprudence. This isbrieflyconsidered in SectionV,para-

graphs 104-109,below.

42. Theforegoingdiscussion showsthat al1four aspects ofequitydealt
with in this section come into play in this case, and an approach to the
application of equityinthisfashionhelps to focus attention uponthe par-
ticular aspect under examination.

II. InapplicabilityofEquityas a SystemSeparatefrom Law

43. It scarcelyneeds to bementioned thatthe termequity, asusedin the
Court's Judgment or in the context of international law,is quite distinct
fromits use to designate separate systems ofjudicial administration such
as existed in some legal systems for the purpose of correcting insufficien-
ciesand rigidities of the law.

44. The equity of the common law system and the aequitas of the
Roman law, exercised by the Chancellor and the praetor respectively,

werethesystemspar excellencewhich givethe wordequity such overtones
of interference with the law. Theterm equity as used inthe law of the sea
naturally does not absorb such associatedmeanings.

' SeeT.L.McDorman, P.M. SaundersandD. L.VanderZwaag,"TheGulfofMaine
BounZbid.Dropping-AnchororSettinga Course?",9 MarinePolicy(1985),p100.

190 45. In view of the substantial influence exercised bythese systemson
the developmentofinternational law,the heavyovertones ofequity'scor-
rectiveinfluenceoverlawtend to spi11overintointernational law,necessi-
tating a constant vigilance against this tendency. This is especially
important, in relation to maritime delimitation, wherethere is a constant
questioning as to whether the Court, in using equity, is overstepping its
authority. Asthis Court observedin Tunisia/Libya:

"In the course ofthe history of legal systemsthe term 'equity'has
been used to define various legal concepts. It was often contrasted
with the rigid rules of positive law, the severity of which had to be
mitigated in order to do justice. In general, this contrast has no
parallel in the development of international law; the legal con-
cept of equity is a general principle directly applicable as law."

(Z.C.J.Reports1982,p. 60,para. 71 .)
46. In view of the importance of equity in these two systems,a brief
note upon them ensues.

(a) Equityincommonlaw

47. In the NonvegianShipowners'Claimscase,the Permanent Court of
Arbitration said :

"The words 'lawand equity' usedinthe specialagreement of 1921
can not be understood here in the traditional sense in which these
words are used in Anglo-saxon jurisprudence.
The majority of international lawyers seem to agree that these
words are to be understood to mean generalprinciples ofjustice as
distinguished from any particular system of jurisprudence of the
municipal lawof any State." l

48. Someofthe principles ofequity,as evolvedbythe EnglishCourt of
Chancery,may,however,berelevantto a matter concerningthe lawofthe
sea, not because they are part of the English law of equity, but because
thoseprinciplesaccord withthe conceptsofgeneralequityasmore widely
understood. Such concepts might conceivably include such notions as
that equitylookstothe intent rather than tothe form,orthat aperson must
not act contrary to his own representations on the faith of which others

haveacted.Items of Stateconduct, for example,mayattract generalprin-
ciplesof equity such asthese.

(b) Equityincivillaw

49. The jus honorariumbuilt up by the Roman praetor,through his
praetorian edict, served the purpose, according to Papinian, of aiding,

--
ReportsofInternationalArbitralAwards(RIAA)Vol.1,1922,p.331.

191226 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP.OP.WEERAMANTRY)

supplementing or correcting the jus civile1 - a useful summary of three
differentfunctionsserved by Roman equity.Romanequity thus stoodas a
system separate from the jus civile,at any rate until Hadrian in A.D.125
froze the form of the edict,after which it ceased directly to be asource of

new law. The corrective function of aequitas up to that time included
action contra legem.
50. Though equity continuedto fertilizethe Roman lawthereafter,this
was achieved largely through the work of the jurists acting through the
interpretation and adaptation ofthe law rather than by standing in oppo-
sition to it2.
51. In viewofthe immenseinfluence ofthe civillawupon international
law,itbearsrepetition that the aequitasoftheera ofpraetorian equity - a
correctiveequity standing separate from the law - is not an analogy for

the equity of international law. The later tradition of the civillaw, of law
and equity integrating with each other to produce a harmonious whole,
would be atruer analogy.

III. fie Categories of Equity

52. As observed earlier, the Courtin itsJudgment has not used equity
ex aequo etbono.Nor has it used absolute equity or equity contra legem.

(a) Equityex aequo et bon0

53. The issue has frequently been raised, in the context of maritime
delimitation, as to whether the Court is resorting to a concept of equity
more liberal than that which it is entitled to administer. This issue has
come indeed to acquire the appearance of a question mark hanging over
the use of equityin such cases and has resulted in frequent disavowals,in

thejurisprudence of maritime delimitation, of resort to equity ex aequoet
b0n03.
54. The extent of the concern registered in this regard is indicated in
juristic literature which specificallyraises the question whether there is
indeed a difference between the equity administered by the Court and
equity exaequo etbono.Judge Jennings alerts us to the attendant dangers
oflitigantsobtaining a decision exaequoetbon0whethertheywantedit or
not, and observes :

"Adjuvandi,velsupplendi,vel corrigendijuriscivilis"(D.1.1.7.1).
Theequitableworkofthejurists wasfruitful,andimportantdoctrinessuchassub-
inEncyclopedia oftheSocialSciences,ed.Seligman,1931,Vol.5,p.584.Equitycandono
less ininternationallaw.
See I.C.J.Reports 1974,p. 33, para.78, andp. 202, para.69; I.C.J.Reports 1982,
p.60,para.71,andp.92,para.133A(1); I.C.J.Reports1984,p.278,para. 59,andp.299,
para. 112;.C.J.Reports1985,pp.38-39,para.45,andpp. 56-57. "At anyrate,the veryserious questionarises ofwhat exactlyisthe
differencebetween a decision according to equitableprinciples and
adecision exaequoet bono?" l

Thequestion raised istrulya veryserious one,for ifthis isindeedthe case,
the Court is extending itself into an area which it can only reach by the
consent ofparties2. Suchuncertainties necessitate a closeexamination of
the exaequoetbon0provision in Article38,paragraph 2,ofthe Statute of
the Court.
55. Thisphrase, which has its origins in the Roman law3 is defined in
the standard worksofreference interms that involvejustice, fairness and
conscience. Thus Black's Law Dictionary(5th ed., 1979,p. 500)defines it

as a "phrase derivedfrom the civillaw, meaning, injustice and fairness;
accordingto what isjust and good; accordingto equity and conscience".
It will be seen that equity ex aequoet bon0 is thus not confined within
limitations of existing rules oflawbut extends more widely,leavingaside
considerations of what the law maybe, regardingthe matter under refer-
ence. It entersintothe area of equity contralegem,as discussedbelow.

56. Equity exaequoetbono,inthecontext oftheCourt'sjurisprudence,
isperhaps bestapproachedthrougha perusal ofthe drafting historyofthe
exaequoet bon0provision in the Statute ofthe Court.
57. Onecouldperhapsidentifythree stagesinthe travauxpréparatoires
leading to the adoption of Article38(2) ofthe Statute :

(1) Earlier drafts of Article 38 ofthe Statute of the Permanent Court4
did not contain a subsectiondealing with decisions exaequoetbono.The
draft sectionread as follows :

"Dans les limites de sa compétence,telle qu'elle estdéterminée
par l'article34,la Cour applique en ordre successif:

1. Les conventionsinternationales soit générales, soitspéciales,
établissantdesrèglesexpressémentreconnuespar lesEtatsenlitige;
2. La coutume internationale, attestation d'une pratique com-
mune acceptéecommeloi;

l R. Y.Jennings,"ThePrinciples GoverningMarineBoundaries", op.cit.p.401.
See Encyclopedia ofPublicInternationLaw,op.cit.p.77.
just(ice)"(Adolf BergerEncyclopaedicDictionaryof Roman Law,ab1952,p. 377) and
appears,in Celsus'celebrateddefinitionojus as "arsaequi etboni"citedatthevery
commencementof Justinian's Digest (D.l.l.pr.). It appears,also, in the formulaof
actionesinaequumet bonum conceptae (Berger,ibid.).

DraftSchemeforthe Institutionof the PermanentCourtof InternationalJustice
Presentedto the Council of the Leagueof Nations by the AdvisoryCommitteeof
Jurists,Art.35(correspondingtothelaterArticle38). 3. Lesprincipes généraux de droit reconnus par lesnations civili-
sées;
4. Les décisionsjudiciaires etla doctrine des publicistes les plus
qualifiésdesdifférentesnations,commemoyensauxiliairesdedéter-
mination des règlesde droit." l

(2) The discussionsamong the distinguished international jurists par-
ticipatinginthe draftingCommittee'smeetingof 1December 19202are of
greatinterest.Mr.Fromageot(France) wishedto widenthewording ofthe

then Article35in order to enable ajudgment of the Courtto confirm an
arrangement reached by the parties - a result which was not possible
under the existingwordingof the Article.In the course ofthe ensuingdis-.
cussion,serious concernswerevoicedaboutthe effectof such an amend-
ment. The Chairman (Mr. Hagerup) expressed the viewthat Mr. Froma-
geot'sideabelongedrather tothe sphere ofarbitraljurisprudence andthat
its application would jeopardize the authority of a Court of Justice.
Mr. Fernandes (Brazil)expresseda fearthatthe amendment would open
the wayto arbitrary decisions.Mr. Loder (the Netherlands) pointed out,

however, that the Court would evidently not confirm proposals which
were not well founded. During further discussion, Mr. Fromageot
amended his proposa1to add to Article 35(3)thefurther words "the gen-
eral principles of law and justice". He explained that the effect of his
amendmentwouldbe to enable the Courtto stateasthe solereason forits
judgment thatthe award had seemedto itto bejust. He explained further
that this did not mean that the Court might disregard existing rules.
Mr. Fromageot'samendment was adopted3.

(3) However,the amended Article 35 continued to cause concern. At

the meeting of the Sub-Committeeheld on 10December 1920,to adopt
thefinaldraft for submissionto the Main Committee,it wasthe solesub-
ject of further discussion.That discussion isrecorded as follows :

"During the discussion on the President's report, M. POLITIS
(Greece) raised the question whether the text of Article 35, No. 3,
adopted by the Sub-Cornmittee,did actually express the Sub-Com-
mittee's opinion on the subject. This opinion was, according to
M. Politis,that the Court should have the right to apply the general
principles ofjustice onlybyvirtue of an agreementbetween the par-
ties. The actual text was wider, in sofar as it left it to the discretion

1 DocumentsconcerningtheActionTakenbytheCounciloftheLeagueofNationsunder
Article14ofthe CovenantandtheAdoptionbvtheAssernb."oftheStatuteofthePermanent
Court,~eneva, 1921,p.41,Annex. -
Seventh Meeting of the Sub-Committeeof the Third Committeeof the First
AssemblyMeetingheldon 1 December1920.
3 DocumentsconcemingActionTaken. ..,op.cit.,p145. of the Court to decide when those principles could be applied.
M. Politisconsequently proposed to alter the paragraph as follows :
î%egeneraIprincipleo sflawandwiththeconsentoftheparties,the
generalprinciplesofjusticerecognisedbycivilisednations.

After some discussion, M. FROMAGE(O France) proposed to meet
M. Politis'point byaddingatthe end of Article35,No. 3,the follow-
ing :
î%isprovisionshallnotprejudicethepoweroftheCourttodecidea
case ex aequo etbon0 iftheparties agree thereto.

TheArticlethusamendedwasadopted."
58. In reporting thisArticle(renumbered Article38)to the Main Com-

mittee,the Sub-Committeestated as follows :
"The Sub-Committee has .. .made the following changes in the
Article :

(2) Atthe end of No. 3ithas added anewclause in order to givea
more flexible character to this provision and to permit the Court, if
necessary and with the consent of the Parties, to make an award ex
aequo et bono."

Suchwasthe genesisofthe exaequoetbonoprovisionin Article38which
has provoked so much reference in the caseson the application of equity
in maritime boundary delimitations.

59. It isclear fromthis drafting historythat earlier drafts ofthe Article
were amended to allow for the possibility that parties could make their
own agreementsand askthe court to embodythem in ajudgment, which

the Court would do provided it conformed to general principles of
law and justice. Thereafter even more flexibility3 was introduced by
introducing a separate ex aequoet bono provision not necessarily tied
to "general principles of law and justice", and enabling the Court to
make an order in accordance with its sense of justice if the parties so
consented. There was clearlv an am~lerlatitude givento the Court in an
ex aequo et bono stan&hg on its lwn rather than if the
Court were to depend on a clause merely enabling it to decide in accor-
dance with general principles of law and justice. However the greater

' DocumentsconcerningActionTaken. ..,op.cit.,p. 157.
Zbid.,p. 211.
"Thenotion ex aequoetbon0 hadbeenlittleused beforeitsadditiontothePCWs
Statuteandwasincludedthere,withlittledebatea,rguaglytogivetheCourtsome-
what greaterflexibility." (JaEncyclopediaof PublicInternationLaw,Vol. 7,
p. 75.)reach of that clause necessitated the safeguard of resting it upon the
agreement of parties.

60. The expression exaequo et bono,viewed against this drafting his-
tory, shows quite clearly that the concept travels far beyond equity intra
legemorpraeter legemasdiscussed below l.It refersto adecision untram-
melled by rules of law but depending purely on the tribunal's sense of
justice. When, as in the present case, the Court uses equitable concepts
and procedures which enter its jurisdictional field through routes other
than Article38(2)and solongas the Court does not act contralegem,it is
acting in a field far removed from the vast expanses of equity exaequo et

bono. However, within its far more limited field of operation, it is well
entitled to use the full and appropriate range of equitable principles,
procedures and methods without being inhibited by concerns that it is
travellingbeyond itsjurisdiction.

61. Ifthe conceptual roadblock represented by exaequo et bono isout
ofthe way,a clearer pathopensoutfor afuller and moreconfident use of
equityin the developmentof the law ofthe sea. Thisaspect waswellsum-

marized in the North Sea Continental Shelf cases, where the Court
obsewed inthe clearest terms :

"when mention ismade ofa court dispensingjustice or declaring the
law,what ismeant isthatthe decision finds itsobjectivejustification
in considerations lying not outside but within the rules, and in this

field it is preciselyarule of lawthat callsforthe application of equi-
tableprinciples. There isconsequentlynoquestioninthiscase ofany
decision exaequo et bono,such as would only be possible under the
conditions prescribed by Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Court's
Statute." (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 48,para. 88.)2

(b) Absoluteequity

62. Thisterm,alsoinapplicable to the present case,connotes the appli-
cation of ajust and fair solutionirrespective ofwhether it overrides exist-

Chaim Perelman, in his study of lacunae in the law,makesthe point in the context
decision ex aequo et bonocould be read "dans le sens contralegem"(Leproblèmedesest for a
lacunesendroit, 1968,. 327).
For similar expressions by other tribunals, see the statement of the Court of Arbi-
tration in the Anglo-French Continental Shelf Arbitration Award (RIAA,Vol.XVIII,
paras. 70and 245; see,also, Guinea/Guinea-Bissau Arbitral Award (Revuegénéralee
droit internationalpublic(1985),Vol.89,paras. 88 and 90)referring to the Judgment of
this Court inthe NorthSea cases,and holding that itsownfunction, likewise,wasnot to
decide exaequoet bono.ing rules or principles of positivelaw, howeverwellentrenched they may
be. It is a disregard of the letter for the spirit of the law, a disregard of
technicalitiesinfavour ofjustice lThiswould comecloseto the connota-

tion of equity exaequoet bono as discussed inthe preceding section.

63. An illustrative and well-known example in the jurisprudence of
international law of the use of the expression "absolute equity" is to be
found inthe OrinocoSteamshipCo.case, 1910,where,inthe words ofthe
Permanent Court of Arbitration, the compromisrequired the US-Vene-
zuelan Mixed ClaimsCommissionto "givetheir decisionson the basis of
absolute equitywithoutregard to objectionsofatechnicalnature, ortothe

provisions of local legislation ...". The umpire's recognition of local
legislation in dismissing the claims on account of failure to exhaust
local remedies and the debtor's failure to notify the cession of the
debt in accordance with local legislation, was held to be a decision not
in accordance with absolute equity and thus to be in disregard of the
compromis2.

64. Themethods of equity exaequoetbonoand of absolute equity are
not the methods of international law. "Above all, it is necessaryto stop
viewingequityassomethingwhichisinopposition to the laworas supply-
inga correctiveto the la^."^

(c) Equitypraeter legem

65. This sense of equity refers to filling in gaps and intersticesin the
law. Evenwherethere is no rule oflawto provide for a matter, a decision
has nevertheless to be reached, for the judicial function does not permit

the court to abdicate the responsibility of judgment because the law is
silent4.Consequently, the gap5 has to be filled in some manner. Some
would Saythat the judge is freeto act in his discretion.Others would Say

See also Bin Cheng, "Justice and Equity in International Law", Curent Legal
Problems,1955,p. 203.
1Scott, Hague CourtReports (1916),p. 226.
Shabtai Rosenne, "The Position of the International Court of Justice on the
dations of the Principle of Equity in International LaA.Bloed and P. vanDijk
(eds.), FortyYearsInternationalCourtofJustice:Jurisdiction,Equity and Eq,988,y1
p. 108.
(1982-V),Chap. IV,"General Pnnciples and Equity", p. 85.ce", 178Recueildescours
The question whether there isa "gap" inthe lawor whether there isalwaysar
principle of law which is capable of extension and application to the case in hand is a
nicejurisprudential onewhichit isnot necessary to examinehere at length. For afuller,
and perceptive, discussion, see Vaughan Lowe, "The Role of Equity in International
Law", 12Australian YearbookofInternationaLaw (1988-1989),pp. 58-63.thejudge then fallsbackupon equityasaguide. Itisinthislatter sensethat
the expressionequitypraeter legemisgenerallyused.

66. In support of the view that equity should guide the judge in such

cases, it could be said that judicial discretion does not then roam un-
bridled and at large, but, rather, is used in a disciplined way along the
lines indicated by equitable concepts and principles. Within the para-
meters of those guidelines, that discretion willthen be exercisedthough
no rule of lawhas so far been formulated to governthe case.

67. Equity praeter legemreceivesjuridical justification also from the
fact,outlined elsewhereinthisopinion, thatthe body ofgeneralequitable
principles, as part of "general principles of law", is itselfpart of interna-

tional law.Indeed, viewedstrictlyfromthat point of view,it ceasestobe a
categoryof its ownbut is merelyan application ofthe lawitself.

68. In the context ofmaritime delimitation,there are dicta inthejuris-
prudence of the Court that strongly support the viewthat the process in
operation is one ofthe application of equitypraeter legem :

"1snot the conclusionthereforejustified, to round offthe enumer-
ation ofthose international acts whichreferto equity,that these acts
constitute applications ofthe generalprinciple of lawwhich author-

izesrecourse to equitypraeterlegemfor a better implementation of
the principles andrulesoflaw ?And itwouldnotbepremature to Say
that the application ofthe principle of equity forthe delimitation of
the areas ofthe continental shelfinthe present casewould thus be in
line with this practice." (NorthSea ContinentalShelJIZ.C.J.Reports
1969,p. 141,Judge Ammoun, separate opinion l.)

This aspect also receives some attention in the discussion, under item
head VI1 Ifb)elow,ofthe methods of equity.

(d) Equityinfra legem

69. Thisisthe categorymostrelevantto the Judgment ofthe Court,for
itiswithin itsconfinesthatthe equityusedbythe Court hasbeen adminis-
tered.As theCourt observedinthe North Sea ContinentaS l helfcases:

"when mention ismade ofa court dispensingjustice or declaringthe

l See, also,the separateopinion of the samejudge in BarcelonaTraction,Light and
PowerCompany,Lirnited, Second Phas(Z.C.JReports 1970,pp.332-333)in relation
toequitypraeterlegernandthesensewhichPapinian,theauthorofthatexpression,gave
to it. law,whatismeant isthatthe decisionfinds its objectivejustification
in considerations lying not outside but within the rules" (Z.C.J.
Reports 1969, p. 48,para. 88).

Thiswas clearlya referenceto equity infralegem '.
70. In relationto the generaljurisprudence oftheCourt,the operation
of equity infra legemhas been well summarized by Shabtai Rosenne in
terms that :

"It [the Court] has permitted the first steps to be taken towards
creatinga conception ofinternational equity,not contralegeminthe
sensethat itissometimessaidthat a decisionexaequoetbonomaybe
a decision contralegem;but intralegem,it beingthe substantive law,
and not the agreement of parties, that callsfor itsapplication."*

71. Judge Ammoun offered an important warning against exceeding
thelimitsofequity infralegemwhenhesaid,withreferenceto itsopposite,
equity contralegem :

"This conception of Equity, which really consists of a possible
derogation from general law in a particular case, has never been
applied in international law. Aninternational court whichconferred
such jurisdiction upon itself would appoint itself a legislator."
(Barcelona Traction,Light and Power Company, Limited, Z.C.J.
Reports 1970,p. 333,para. 42.)

72. With special reference to maritime delimitation, a comprehensive
doctrinal studyhas noted that :
"the doctrine of equitable principles applicable to maritime delimi-
tation has already achieved, both with regard to its procedural and

substantive elements,a degree of clarity and predictability which is
sufficient for it being recognized as a fundamental nom operating
within, and not outside,the lawW3.

(e) Equitycontra legem

73. Needless to Say,equity as used in the Judgment is not of this cat-
egory.Thenotion of equity beingin oppositionto the law and competing
with it in some way by offering a set of alternative principles is not the

Thefactthatthejudgemustfunction infralegemwhilethearbitratoisfreeofthose
constraints,ismentionedbyAristotleiapassagequotedbyGrotius "'Forthearbitra-
tor hasregardto what isfair,butthe judgefollowsthe law'"(De JureBelliac Pacis,
Bk.IShabtai Rosenne,.TheLaw and Practiceof the International Cour1965,Vol. II,
p.605.
BarbaraKwiatkowska,"TheInternationalCourtof JusticeDoctrineof Equitable
Principles Applicableto MaritimeDelimitation andIts Impacton the International
Lawof theSea",in A. Bloed andP.vanDijk(eds.), FortyYearsInternationalCourt of
Justice:Jurisdiction,EquityandEqualip. 158.image of equity that properly sets out the role of equity in international
law.Thisaspecthasalreadybeen discussedin SectionII. In international
law,equityisrather aforce that supplements the lawand helps it fonvard
on its course of deliveringjust resultsin disputesbetweenparties.

"[qhe International Court has been very careful - and in this
respect it maybe possibleto speak of a 'position' sincefundamental
questions ofjudicial policy are involved - to formulate itsresort to
'equity'not in terms of 'opposition'to 'law',but interms offulfilling
the law and if necessarysupplementing it." l

Judge Hudson, inthe DiversionofWaterfromtheMeusecase,alsostressed
this aspectwhen he said,
"Asharp divisionbetween law and equity,such as prevails in the
administration ofjustice insomeStates,should find noplaceininter-
national jurispnidence." (P.C.I.J.,SeriesA/B, No. 70,p. 76,separate
opinion.)

Ir ne Routes ofEntty of Equity
74. Therearemanyroutes ofentryofequityinto international law,and
equity has been drawn into the judgmental process in this case through
severalofthem. Aconcentration ofattention on onlyone or other ofthese
routes ofentrycan constrictthe full scopeofoperation ofequityin agiven
case.

(a) Equityasrequiredtobe applied by treaties
75. In relation to the matter before the Court, there is, of course, the
pre-eminent example of Articles 74 and 83 of the 1982Law of the Sea
Convention expressly making equity applicable in the delimitation of
maritimeboundaries.

76. Theinvocationofequitybytreatyisoftena meansbywhichadevel-
opingbranch ofthe law isbrought into line with contemporarythinking,
thereby enabling perspectives which have not yet crystallized into legal
rules to make their impact upon the lawin question. The Lawof the Sea
Convention exemplifiesthis process, which can also be seen in treaties
regardingcontemporaryconcernsrelatingto earth resources suchasfood
and space and in regard to economic matters and the settlement of dis-
putes. Thus, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cul-
tural Rights, 1966,deals with the "equitable distribution" of world food
supplies (Art. 11); and the Convention on International Liability for
Damage Caused by Space Objects requires compensation to be deter-
mined in accordance with "international law and the principles ofjustice

' Shabtai Rosenne, "The Position of the International Court of Justice on the
Foundations of the Principle of Equity in International Law",.,.88-89.and equity". The Charter of Economic Rightsand Duties of States, 1974,
likewiseusesterms such as "equity", "equitable", "just", "equitable shar-
ing", "equitable prices", "equitable terms of trade" (see Arts. 10,14,26,
28,29); and the Protocol of the Commission of Mediation, Conciliation
and Arbitration of the Organization of African Unity specificallydraws

equityinto the settlement of disputes (Arts.29and 30) l.

77. Thespecificinvocation of equitybythe Montego BayConvention
thus followsatime-honoured practice in international law, whichcan be
traced backthrough the centuries2.

(b) Equityascontainedincustomary internationallaw

78. Customaryinternational lawhasbeeninvoked inthe Judgmentasa
sourceofequity,especiallyin the context ofgivingmeaningto the expres-
sion "relevant circumstances" under international law (Judgment,
para. 56). Those relevant circumstances have been shown to be assimi-

lated with the specialcircumstances of Article6 of the 1958Convention,
as both are intended to enable the achievement of an equitable result
(ibid.).
79. The Court isrequired by Article38(1)of its Statute to decide such
disputes as are submitted to it "in accordance with international law".
Thereisan impressivebody ofauthority tothe effectthat equityispart of

customary international law. Friedmann, writing of the changing struc-
ture of international law, has observed :

"There is thus overwhelming support for the view developed by
Lauterpacht, Manley Hudson, De Visscherand Dahm that equity is
part and parcel ofthe modern systemof administration of j~stice."~

l See,further, Monique Chemillier-Gendreau, "Equity", in Bedjaoui (ed.), Interna-
tionalLaw: Achievementsand Prospects,1991,pp. 274-275.
2 Cf. the Jav Treatv of 1794.which. bv Article 7. ~rovided that the Commissioners
appointed under the Treatyto decide thematters in Contentionbetween Britain and the
United Statesshoulddecide the claims"according to the merits ofthe severalcasesand
to Justice, Equity and the Lawof Nations". ~ud~e~udson has listed numerous bilateral
treaties enteredintouring the intervening centuries which provide forthe application
Portugal Treaty and the 1926and 1930 Danish Treaties with Finland and Iceland,in-
respectively. See M.O. Hudson, ThePermanentCourt of InternationalJustice,1920-
1942,1943(1972reprint), p. 616(footnotes).

Friedmann, The Changing Structureof International Law, 1964, p. 197, citing
Hersch Lauterpacht, PrivateLaw Sourcesand Analogies,1927,para. 28; Manley Hud-
son, ThePermanent CourtofInternationalJustice,1972ed., p.617;CharlesDe Visscher,
"Contribution à l'étude dessources du droit international", 60 Revuede droit interna-
tionaletdelégislationcomparé(e1933),pp. 325,414 etseq.; Dahm, 1 Volkerrechts(1958),
pp. 40 et seq.So,also,Judge Hudson observedin hisindividualopinion inthe Diversion
of Waterfrom theMeuse case, "What are widely known as principles of
equity have been long considered to constitute a part of international
law ..." l- a view which received the support of Judge Jessup in the
North Sea ContinentalShelf cases2. In the FisheriesJurisdictioncase
(United Kingdom v. I~eland)~,Judge Dillard cited this opinion with

approval.Judge Hudson,writing extra-judicially,hasobsemed, "equity is
an element of international law itselr4.

80. In regardtothe lawofthe seaand the delimitation ofboundaries of
the continental shelf and the exclusiveeconomic zone, equity has been
recognizedbythisCourt aspart ofinternational law - asinthe NorthSea
ContinentalShelf cases5,and the Tunisia/Libyacase6.Thus in the North
Sea ContinentalShelf cases,the Court considered it inequitable that the
convexity or concavity of a coastline should deny equal treatment to

Stateswith coastlinesthat are comparable in length7.Therequirement of
a degree of proportionality betweenthe shelf awarded to a State and the
length of its coastlineswas likewiselooked upon as a principle of equity.
So,also,equitydid not require a "refashioning" ofgeographys.

(c) Equityasageneralprincipleoflawg

81. There are severalcategoriesofgeneralprinciples oflawapplied by
international law; and equitable principles, concepts and procedures,
such ashavebeen applied in the Judgment, finda place in more than one
of them.
82. Citingthe Gentinicaseconcerninginternational law'srecognition,
through equity,oftheprinciple ofprescription, whiledenyingrecognition
of local laws ofprescription, Professor BinCheng States :

"The process applied in the GentiniCase[lo]of tracing a general
principle from rules of positive law universally applied infor0 do-

* Loc.cit.
* Z.C.J.Reports1969,p. 84.
Z.C.J.Reports 1974,p.63,fn. 1.
The PermanentCourtofInternationalJustice,1920-1942,1972ed.,p. 617.
I.C.J.Reports1969,p.48,para.88.
I.C.J.Reports1982,p.60,para.71.
Z.C.J.Reports1969,pp.49-50,para.91.
Thephraseis used inthis formratherthanin the now inappropriatephraseology
referringto "civilized nations". Sir HumphreyWaldock preferredthe expression
"generalprinciples of law recognized in national legal systems", andthe shortened
expression"the generalprinciplesof law"is perhapsadequate for presentpurposes
(see North Sea ContinentalShelf;Z.C.J.Reports 1969,p. 136,JudgeAmmoun,separate
opinion).
'O VenezuelanArbitrationsof1903,p.720. mesticothrough the general feelingofmankind forthe requirements
ofequityandto equityitself,isa strikingreminderofDescamps'pro-
posa1forthe application in international law of 'objectivejustice'or
'equity'as evidencedbythe 'consciencje uridiquedespeuples civilisés'
and confirmsthe belief drawn from the travauxpréparatoires of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice that this
proposa1is not very different from the ultimately adopted formula

of 'the general principles of law recognised by civilisednations' in
Article 381(c)ofthe Court's Statute." l

Many classificationsof such generalprinciples are possible and the first
three items in a five-foldclassification by Schachter2show again under

how manyheads ofthis classificationthe principles ofequity used bythe
Court could have been drawn :

"(1) The principles of municipal law 'recognized by civilized
nations'.
(2) General principles of law 'derived fromthe specific nature of

theinternational community'.
(3) Principles'intrinsic tothe idea of law and basic to al1legalsys-
tems' ..."
83. Equityin itsgeneralsense,suchastheCourt hasused, findsa place
in al1ofthese categories.Regardingthefirstclause, whichof courseisthe
language of Article38,paragraph 1(c),ofthe Statute ofthe International

Court of Justice and the Permanent Court of International Justice,
Schachterpoints outthat some ofthe participants at the drafting stage of
thisclausehadin mindequityand principles recognizedbythe "legalcon-
scienceof civilized nation^"^ E.lihu Root, who prepared the draft finally
adopted, had intended howeverto referto principles actually recognized
and applied innational systems4.Itwouldbecorrectto Sayalsothat inter-
national law, as discussed by eminent commentators5 and by this Court,
has looked for universal acceptance by legal systemsrather than purely
municipally adopted principles for this purpose. Equity clearly comes

under this head .Part C ofthis opinion deals with the universalaspect of
equityin somegreater detail.

' GeneralPrinciples ofLaw as Applied by InternationalCourts and Tribuna1987,
pp.3Op.cit.p.75.
Ibid. .-
Ibid.,p. 76.
See WilfredJenks,CommonLaw ofMankind, 1958,p.106;Wolfgang Friedmann,
ne ChangingStructureofInternationalLaw, 1964,pp.188-210;andBinCheng ,eneral
Principles ofLaw asAppliedbyInternationalCourtsand Tribunal1987,p. 377. 84. Thesecondcategorywould comprise such principles as pactasunt
servanda which came into international law from the natural law tradi-
tion which was inextricablylinked with equityin the broader sense. The
third categoryincludes such ideas as reciprocity and equality of parties
before a tribunal, which arebasic to al1law.

85. The specialinfluence of equityin its general sense is evidentin al1
these categories and asthe concept of a common law of mankind gathers
momentum and principles relating to an equitable sharing of resources

become more urgently required,this route of entry of equity willperhaps
assumeincreasing importancein developing the law of the sea.

86. Schwarzenberger, in commenting on "general principles of law
recognised by civilised nations" as contained inthe Statute of the Court,
lists seven achievements of the draftsmen of that clause. One of them,
which fittingly summarizesthis discussion is that, "They [thedraftsmen]
opened a new channel through which concepts of natural law could be
received into international la^."^ Equitywouldrepresent a heavyitem of
traffic along that channel.

(d) Equityas embodiedinthedecisionsofcourtsandtribunals

87. Article 38, paragraph 1 (d),of the Court's Statute mentions that,

subjecttothe consideration that decisions ofthe Court shall haveno bind-
ingforce exceptbetween the parties and in respect ofthe particular case,
judicial decisionsshallbe a subsidiary means forthe determination ofthe
law.
88. Thejurisprudence of this Court has now reached a stagewhere a
considerable body of equitable principles is contained within the deci-
sions of the Court and where there is frequent resort to equity as an aid
towards the process of decision3.Through their adoption by the Court,
they have thus entered the mainstream of international law.
89. The Fisheriescase (I.C.J. Reports 1951,p. 116)is an outstanding

' Schachter, op.cit.,pp. 79-80.
As set out in his Foreword to Bin Cheng's GeneralPrinciplesof Law asAppliedby
InternationalCourtsand Tribunals,1987,p. xi.
See, for example, BarcelonaTraction,Light and PowerCompany, Limited,Second
Phase,Z.C.J.Reports 1970,p. 48,para. 94:
"It must first of al1be obsewed that itwould be difficult on an equitable basis to
make distinctions according to any quantitative .Theprotector Statemay,of
course, be disinclined to take up the case of the single small shareholder, but it
could scarcely be denied the right to do so in the name of equitable considera-
tions."early example l,but sincethen there has been much development of this
concept in the context of maritime delimitation through a series of deci-
sions of this Court making explicitreferences to the application of equi-
table principles.

90. The heavy reliance in the Judgment on judicial decisions thus
drawsinequitythrough yetanother source.Dependence on such casesas
the North Sea ContinentaS l helfcases,the Libya/Malta caseand the Gulf
of Maine casehas provided avenues not only forthe entry of equity into
maritime delimitation but for the construction, out of those equitable
principles, of a coherent body of equity-based maritime jurisprudence.
Anyconsideration ofproblems relating to the lawofthe sea mustthus, as

in this case, have regard to this considerable body of decisions which,
through their adoption of equitable principles, have made the fertilizing
influence of equity an integral part of maritime law.

(e) Equityasexpoundedinthewritingsof thepublicists

91. Goingbackto thefountainheads ofinternational law,oneseesthat
Grotius incorporated into international law the idea that equity could
complement the administration of internationaljustice, for he citesAris-
totle'sreferences to "the perception of what is fair", "the quality of fair-
ness", and "justicew2.Aristotle'sdefinition ofjustice as"the correction of
that in whichthe law,by reason ofitsgeneralcharacter, isat fault" isalso
cited.Indeed, Grotius' comment goessofarasto suggesteventhe applica-
tion of equity "outside the rules ofjustice, properly so-called".Grotius is
no doubt here using the term "rules ofjustice" in the sense in which we
would speak of "rules of law".
92. Onecannot failto note,inthisregard,the heavyreliancebyGrotius
on natural law, in his pioneering work on the construction of the basic

principles of the law of the sea. The law of the sea may perhaps be
described as an area ofinternational law which isparticularly sensitiveto
equitable influences.
93. The process initiated by Grotius goes onto this day and the great
publicists of each generation have, through their own writings, incorpo-
rated considerations and principles of equity into their contributions,
which havebeen assimilatedinto the corpus ofpublic international law3.

' SeeS.Rosenne,TheLawandPracticeoftheInternationalCourt,1965,Vol. II,p.605.
Grotius,De Jure Belliac Pacis (1646),Bk. II, Chap. XVI, sec. XXVI; see, also,
Bk. III, Chap. XX, sec. XLVII (Kelsey, trans., Classicsof International Law, 1925,
pp.425,824).
cists,someof whom havebeenreferredto inthisopinion,arekeepingup this tradition
andmakinga distinguishedcontributiontothisfast-developingfield.(f) Equityasjustice

94. In the NorthSea ContinentalShelfcases,the Court stated, "What-
everthe legalreasoning of a court ofjustice, itsdecisions must by defini-
tion be just and therefore in that sense equitable." (I.C.J.Reports 1969,
p. 48, para. 88.) Equity as part of justice which the court is bound to
administer then becomes part of its generaljurisprudence. Equity in the
sense of a quest for the just solution offers a firm substratum for a con-

siderable part of the Court's reasoning.
95. In his separate opinion in Barcelona Traction, Ligha tnd Power
Company, Limited,Second Phase, Judge Fitzmaurice, citing a standard
work on equity (Snell'sPrinciplesof Equity,26th ed., 1966,pp. 5-6),said :

"as the author of the passage cited points out .. . equity is not
distinguishable from law 'because it seeks a different end, for both
aim atjustice ...'But,it might be added, they can achieve it only if
they are allowed to complement one another." (I.C.J.Reports1970,
p. 86,para. 36.)

96. In ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/LibyanArab Jamahiriya),this Court
observed,

"Equity as a legal concept is a direct emanation from the idea of
justice. The Court whosetask isby definition to administerjustice is
bound to apply it." (I.C.J.Reports1982,p.60,para. 71 .)

This Court and its predecessor have of course been careful to point out
that thefactthat itdispensesjustice doesnot entitleit to ignorethe rules of
law. The need to administerjustice does not, in the words of the Perma-
nent Court, entitleit to "base itsdecision on considerations ofpure expe-
diency" (Free Zones of UpperSavoy and the District of Gex, P.C.I.J.,
SeriesA, No.24,p. 15).

97. Kelsen and some other authoritiesl have expressed the view that
the Court's function is to decide cases in accordance with international
lawandonno othergrounds.Kelsen says,for example,thatthe Statute of
the Court requires that the Court decide disputes in accordance with
international law and does not mention justice, thus leading to the view
that the Court is not authorized to decide disputes in accordance with
justice*.
98. Suchviews,withgreatrespect, donot take into accountthefact that
much ofinternational lawalready embodiesequity, and that equitywas a
principal route through whichmanybasicconceptsentered the corpus of

' E.g., Judge Koretskyin North Sea ContinentalShelf cases (FederalRepublicof
p. 165./Denmark; Federal Republic of Gennany/Netherlands, I.C.J. Reports 1969,
Kelsen, ïheLaw ofthe UnitedNations,1950,p. 366. international lawand becamepart ofit.Theyalsodonottakeinto account
the factthat to shutthegatestothe entryofthis Streamofinfluenceintothe
corpus ofinternational lawisto cramp the development ofthe latter.

(g) Equityasdrawninby the UnitedNations Charter

99. TheCharter ofthe United Nations inArticle 1setsout asone ofthe
Purposes of the United Nations that "To maintain international peace
and security" it shall "bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity
with the principles of justice and international law, [the]adjustment or
settlement of international disputes ...". The International Court has

been set up within that framework as one of the principal organs of the
United Nations and is thus obligedto actinthe adjustment and settlement
ofinternational disputes "in conformitywiththe principles ofjustice and
international law". Equityas an inherent part ofjustice, if not ofinterna-
tional law itself,thus enters into the Court's jurisprudence. Its signifi-
canceinthis regardcanbe measured fromthefactthat the maintenance of
international peace and securitybeingamong the foremost ofthe objects
of the United Nations and al1its agencies,a primary means of achieving
this object, namely, the principles ofjustice and international law must
themselves have primary importance. Indeed, justice and equity are
inherent attributes of peace itself, which is foremost among the objects
international lawaims at achieving lTheobligatorynature ofthis aspect
becomesclearerwhen oneconsidersalsothatthe earlierdraft oftheChar-
ter contained the words "withdueregardtojustice and international law"

which were changed to "inconformitywith"asthe earlier phrase was not
considered to be sufficientlyemphatic2.

100. So, also, the Preamble to the Charter expresses as one of the
fountainheads of the whole concept of the United Nations the deter-
mination of the peoples of the United Nations "to establish conditions
under whichjustice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties
and other sources of international law can be maintained". Shabtai
Rosenne rightly uses this aspect to point out that the unity of equity
with law and justice must therefore be seen in terms of a "monad" of
equity, law and justice (connoting a lack of opposition among them)

' SeeAnnuairede l'UA, 1972/1973,Vol.42/43, Editorial by Boutros Boutros-Ghali,
p. 4,on the need forinternational lawyersofthe "ataffronter lesproblèmes com-
plexes d'un monde nouveau, où le droit international devrait établirune paix durable,
justDocuments of the UnitedNationsConferenceonInternationalOrganization,VI,.
San Francisco, 1945,p. 454. 242 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP .P.WEERAMANTRY)

rather than the "triad" of law, justice and equity conceptualized by
Sohn l.
101. It needsscarcelyto be stressedthat everyportion oftheCharter is
as basic tothe operation of the Court as the Court's ownStatute, forthe

twoareone integrateddocument.TheCourt's warrant to useequityinthis
caseasin al1othersisthus mandatoryand comesdirectto it fromitsfunda-
mental statutory source. It is worthy of note, also, that the intimate link-
age ofjustice and equity as set out in the United Nations Charter, with
the law of the sea, was eloquently underlined by the President of
UNCLOS III, Mr. H. S.Amerasinghe,at the verycommencement of the
Conference, when he said, in his opening address as President:

"If the Conference resolvedto be guided by the principles ofjus-
tice and equity, and if it showed a spirit of mutual understanding,
goodwilland compromise,it would not onlybe livingup tothe high
expectations of the United Nations Charter but also handing down
to posterity one ofthe supremeachievements ofthe Organi~ation."~

(h) Equityas embodiedinStatepractice

102. A number of items of Statepractice have been placed before the
Court in support of propositions concerning their respective positions
which the Parties seek to infer from them. State practice would within
limitsbe evidentiary of customaryinternational law. In sofaras the State
practicerelied upon relatesto the delimitation ofmaritimeboundaries, it
isimportant to notethat equitableconsiderations, such asthe principle of
equidistance, often provide the background against which States nego-
tiate on such matters.Theresultingarrangements maytherefore incorpo-

rateprinciples ofequity.Tothe extentthat Statepracticehelpstobuild up
international law,international lawwould then have,built into itthrough
this source,some of the principles of equity.Concretized in this fashion,
their equitable origins may be obscured,but we may neverthelesssome-
times recognizethem in the Statepracticetheyhelped to evolve.

l S.Rosenne,"ThePositionofthe InternationalCourtofJusticeonthe Foundations
of the Principleof Equityin InternationalLaw",. cit.,pp. 88-89.Sohn's viewwas
expressed in"TheRole of Equityin the Jurisprudenceof the International Courtof
Justice",inMélanges Georgeserrin(1984),p303.
OfJicialRecordsofthenird UnitedNationsConferenceonthLaw of theSea,Vol.1,
p.4,para.16. V. A priori and a posteriori Employment of Equity

(a) Thepositiveor a priori useof equitytoconstructa result

103. The positive use of equity would of course be illustrated in the
Court's Judgmentbythe application of equitableconcepts and the use of
equitable procedures and methodstowards the achievement of an equi-
table result.

(b) Thenegativeora posteriori useof equitytotest aresult

104. Thishasbeentouched on alreadyinparagraphs3 1-42.Itwasthere
pointed out that the application of the equidistance principle, itself a
principle of equity, can on occasionyield a resultwhich is not equitable,
aspointed out bythis Court on more than one occasion. Wherethere isa
vastdisproportion incoastlines,asinthe Libya/Malta case,that wouldbe
a meansforusingequityinthe senseoftestingwhetherthe resultwouldbe
inequitable. So, also, in the present case,the vast disproportion between
thelengthsofthecoastlinesofGreenland andJan Mayenhasbeen usedin

testingwhetherthe result obtained byequitableprinciples and methods is
infactinequitable. Sucharoleofequitycanindeedbelookedatas "not so
much the positive assurance of an equitableresult asthe negative avoid-
ance of an inequitable one" ',but it has both practical value and theoreti-
caljustification.

105. Theuseofequityinthis senseisanalogoustothe useofinjusticeas
a test of justice, which has a long history in philosophical thought.

Althoughjustice by itsverynature isincapable of comprehensiveformu-
lation, injustice by its very nature is often amatter of instant detection.
Likewise,thoughthat whichisequitablecannotbeformulated in advance
in terms ofa comprehensivesetofrules2,that whichisinequitable can be
readily identified as such when a situationhas occurred or a proposa1is
mooted.

106. This line of thought regarding justice has an ancient lineage3.

Aristotle wrote in the NicomacheanEthics regarding the sense of injus-
tice that, "The many forms of injustice make the forms of justice quite

- -
ProsperWeil,The Lawof Maritime Delimitation: Rejlectio,989,p. 166.
Cf. Kelsen, Wasist Gerechtigke, nded.,Vienna,1975,p. 43- "Ichweiss nicht
undkannnichtsagenwasGerechtigkeitist ...undkannnursagenwasGerechtigkeitfür
mich ist"("1donotknowandcannotSaywhatjusticeis ...andcanonlySaywhatjustice
isto me").
SeeJuliusStone,Human Law andHumanJustice,1965,p.316.clear"', a theme also taken up by modem jurists2. Whereas the response
to the concept ofjustice is merelycontemplative,the response to a situa-
tion one senses as unjust is a more positive one3.The enlistment of the
senseofinjusticein the serviceofjustice thus enjoysstrongphilosophical
justification. The "sense of injustice" is "largely retrospective and cor-
rective", while "the deficienciesit identifies can be finally repaired only

byabody ofdoctrinethat isprospectiveand creativem4T . hisisan illustra-
tion ofthe factthat "theories ofjustice in al1their rich diversityofcontent
and mode of presentation, cannot safely be discarded even from the
most practical ~oncem"~.

107. In short,

"We are confronted here with the differencebetween, on the one
hand, the question ofthe definition ofequity inabstractoand,on the
other hand, the question of whether a concretesituation, measure or
decision is equitable."

108. Al1this is not to Say,however,that relevant rules of equity appli-
cableto a given object can never be formulated in advance. Theycan, up
to apoint, asthejuristic leaming on thattopic matures,butthey can never
be formulated totally and the senseofinjusticeor the senseofthe inequi-
tablewillalwayscontinueto offerassistancein thepursuit ofthe equitable

solution.

109. With reference to boundary delimitation, no code of justice or
equity, however precisely formulated, can cover al1 possibilities in
advance. However, a solution once presented, can immediately attract
a sense of injustice, which would then result in its rejection and the
search for another which does not produce the same reaction. The stress
upon the need for an equitable solution and the rejection of any solu-
tion which, though reached in accordance with equity, is inequitable,

isthus one whichhas philosophical support.

* NicornacheanEthics,V.i.5. See, also, Aquinas' Cornmentaryon the Nicornachean
Ethics,5.1.Cf. Plato'sRepublic,440C-D.
Cahn, op.cit.,p. 13.nseof Injustice,1949;Julius Stone, op.cit.,p. 316.
1.Jenkins, "Justice as Ideal and Ideology", in Nornos,Justice191,cited in Stone,
op.cit.,p. 317.
Stone, op.cit.,p. 321.
P.van DijkNatureand FunctionofEquity inInternationalEconornLaw, Grotiana
New Series, 1986,Vol.7,p. 5. VI. île UsesofEquity

110. Theuses ofequityare manifold and morethan one ofthem maybe
in operation simultaneouslyin a given case such asthat before theCourt.
Thisaspect of equity is best appreciated by using any of the well-known
classifications of the use of equity. Oscar Schachter's analysis, for
example, in his course on general international law at the Hague
Academy in 1982itemized five uses l:

(a) equityas a basis for "individualized" justice tempering the rigours of
strict law
(b) equity as introducing considerations of fairness,reasonableness, and
good faith;
(c) equity as offering certain specificprinciples of legal reasoning asso-
ciated with fairness and reasonableness, to wit, estoppel, unjust
enrichment and abuse ofrights ;
(d) equity as furnishing equitable standards for the allocation and
sharing ofresources and benefits;
(e) equity as a broad synonym for distributive justice and to satisfy
demands foreconomic and socialarrangements and redistribution of

wealth.
111. Tothislist maybe added someothers such asthose listedbelow as
methods of operation of equity.There may be someoverlap between the
two groups, for some of these uses of equity may alsobe listedasmethods
and viceversa.

112. Of the fivecategorieslisted above, it is clear that at least the first
four have relevance to this case.

113. (a) Though Schachter mentions "individualized justice" in the
sense of tempering the rigours of strict law, equity can be used to deliver
"individualized justice" withoutinfactoperating in conflict with a mle of
law.The use of equity in this sense for maritimedelimitation was wellput
by JudgeJiménezde Aréchagain the Tunisia/Libyacase :

"the judicial application of equitable principles means that a court
should render justice in the concrete case, by means of a decision
shaped by and adjusted to the relevant 'factual matrix' of that
case. Equity is here nothing other than the taking into account of a
complex ofhistorical and geographicalcircumstances the considera-
tion of which does not diminishjusticebut, on the contras., enriches
it." (Z.C.J.Reports1982,p. 106,para. 24,separate opinion.)

Schachter,op.cit.,p.82.

211 114. In many cases of maritime disputes including the present this
aspect is of great relevance, for each case calls for individualized treat-
ment within the context of whatever rules of customary or treaty lawmay
be relevant. No conflictwiththose rulesisimpliedbut an operation within
them,asmore fullydiscussed inthe sectiononequity intralegem.Thisuse
of equityto help shapethe decision to the "factual matrix" of the case is

very much in use in the present caseasevidenced bythe variety offactors
considered by the Court, at least one of which - the ice factor - has
perhaps not been considered in the Court's jurisprudence before.

115. The rationale of the individualized approach was also well
expressed by Judge Jiménezde Aréchagain the followingterms :

"Its [the Court's] having authority to apply equitable principles
does notentitle acourt to reach acapricious decision ineach particu-
lar case,buttoreach that decision which,inthelight oftheindividual
circumstances, isjust and fair for that case. Equity is thus achieved,
not merely by a singular decision ofjustice, but by the justice ofthat
singular decision." '
116. (b) Equityasconsiderations offairness and reasonableness isalso
clearly in operation in this case.

117. (c) Equityasthebasis of specificprinciples oflegalreasoninghas
also been used, as when the Court considers whether the conduct of
parties hasbeen such asto amount to an estoppel.This becomes relevant
in the present casein assessing,for e~ample,the effectofthe past conduct
of the Parties in relation to equidistancein demarcatingboundaries.

118. (d) Equitable standards for the allocation and sharing of
resources and benefits of course lie at the heart of this dispute and in the
context ofthesharing ofnatural resources ithasbeen shown elsewhere in
this opinion that equityisplaying an increasingly important international
role.
119. Useful analogues to equity'sroleinrelationtothesharing ofmari-
time space come from space law and riparian law. Space law takes in the
concept in the Moon Treaty, 1979(Agreement governing the Activitiesof
States on the Moon and other Celestial Bodies), which prescribes "the
equitablesharing by al1Statesparties" in the benefits derived from those

resources and also in the allocation of "slots" for the geostationary com-
munication satellitesin outer space.Therelevanttreatiesdealing withthe
allocation of these slots, such as the Convention of the International

' E. Jiménezde Aréchaga, "TheConception of Equityin Maritime Delimitation",in
InternationalLawat theTimeofZtsCodification:EssaysinHonourofRobertoAgo, 1987,
Vol.II,p.232.TelecommunicationUnion, invokeequity for this purpose through their
referenceto "equitable access" as a goal l.

120. A closer analogy,where a resource is to be divided between two
States, would be the rights of littoral and riparian States to lakes and
rivers.TheLacLanouxArbitration of 1957betweenFrance and Spain2is
an illustration of equitable principles of good faith and a just balance
betweenthe interestsofthe parties beingused to determine the respective
rightsoftwoStates.TheHelsinki Rulesonthe Usesofthe WatersofInter-
national Rivers (adopted by the International Law Association in 1966)
and the Resolution on Pollution of Rivers and Lakes (adopted by the
Institut dedroitinternational in 1979)showa heavydependence on equity

in relation to thesharing of resources.

121. (e) Equityin the senseofdistributivejustice and redistribution of
wealth is not involved in the present case. With reference to maritime
boundary delimitation, this Court has observed :

"Whileitisclearthat no rigidrulesexistastothe exactweighttobe
attached to each element in the case, this is very far from being an
exerciseofdiscretionorconciliation;nor isitan operation ofdistrib-
utive justice."(ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/LibyanArabJamahiriya),
I.C.J.Reports 1982,p. 60,para. 71 .)

VII. fie MethodsofOperationofEquity

(a) Throughbalancingtheinterestsoftheparties

122. Trueequity,it hasbeen said, "consists inholding in the best equi-
librium the considerations ofequityinvokedbyboth partie^"^ . heJudg-
mentinthiscasehasconsideredanumber ofcircumstancesand evaluated
their resultant effectin amanner that canbe so described.This isnot only
a well-acceptedmethod of equity,but has ample support from the juris-
prudence ofthis Court and of arbitral tribunals in maritime delimitation
cases.

123. In the Tunisia/Libyacase,theCourt defined itstask as an obliga-

-
M. A. Rothblatt,"SatelliteCommunicationandSpectnimAllocation",76Ameri-
canJournal of Internationl aw (1982),p. 56.
International LawReports, 1957,pp. 139,141.
Bin Cheng, General Principlesof Law as Applied by International Courts and
la commissionfranco-mexicainedes réclamations(1924-1932),p. 133.risprudencedetion "to balance up the various considerations whichit regardsasrelevant
in order to produce an equitable result" (Z.C.J.Reports 1982, p. 60,
para. 7 1).
124. Judge Jiménezde Aréchaga,in his separate opinion in the same
case,pointed outthat :

"To resortto equity means, in effect,to appreciate and balance the
relevantcircumstances ofthe case,soastorenderjustice, notthrough
the rigid application of general rules and principles and of formal
legal concepts, but through an adaptation and adjustment of such

principles, mles and concepts to the facts, realities and circum-
stances of each case." (Zbid.,p. 106,para. 24. See, also, ibid.,Judg-
ment,paras. 71and 107on the "balancing process".)
The process outlined by Judge Jiménez de Aréchaga describes very

closelythe processfollowedin the Judgment of the Court.
125. This notion of the balancing of considerations to reach an equi-
table result goes back very far in international law. The decisions of the
Commissions set up under the Jay Treaty of 1794', and authorized to
employequityintheir determinations, have beenanalysedashavingbeen
reached through "the necessary process of adjustment, of the weighing of
one consideration againstanother" 2.
126. Areferenceto the process of balancing up al1relevant considera-
tions was made alsoin the NorthSea caseswhere the Court observed :

"In fact, there is no legal limit to the considerations which States
may take account of for the purpose of making sure that they apply
equitableprocedures, and more often than not it isthe balancing-up
of al1such considerations that will produce this result rather than

reliance on one to the exclusion of al1others." (Z.C.J.Reports1969,
p. 50,para. 93.)
127. The Tribunal hearing the Delimitation ofthe ContinentalShelf
betweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrancecase3also engaged itself specifi-

cally in the task of balancing the factors presented to it by the respective
parties in determining the boundary linein theChannel Islands.

128. Ofcomparativeinterest,from a related area of the law,is the fol-
lowing methodologydescribed in Article V,paragraph 3,of the Helsinki
Rules onthe Uses of Waters of International Rivers :

A Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of
American and Britishnationals to settlea number of outstanding questions between the
two countries.
Moore's analysis, as cited by H. Lauterpacht in The FunctLawointheZnterna-
tionalCommunity,1933,p. 121,fn. 4. See,also, p. 132.
Decision of 30June 1977,RIAA, Vol.XVIII, pp. 87-95,paras. 180-202. "The weight to be given to each factor is to be determined by its
importance in comparison with other relevant factors. In determin-
ing what is a reasonable and equitable share, al1relevant factors are
to be considered together and a conclusion reached on the basis of
the whole."

@) Throughanequitableinterpretation ofaruleoflaworofatreatyorset of
facts

129. One of the important functions of the equitable approach in al1
judicial processes isto provide a method ofinterpretation. This can relate
to the interpretation of arule oflaw or of a document, or indeed of a setof
facts. Literalinterpretations,wedded to the letter ofthe law and to formal-
ism, contrast with liberal interpretations, based upon an equitable
approach. Whether itbe a rule oflaw or atreaty or a factual situation that
is under interpretation, the same duality of approach is possible, with

widelyvarying consequences.
130. Schwarzenbergerspellsout this aspect of equityintermsthat,
"The rule of equity,as it has grown,demands reasonableness and
good faith in the interpretation and application of treaties."l

131. Thiscould be morespecificallyaddressed interms of a choicenot
between two but among several availableinterpretations. In the words of
De Visscher :

"Equity canbesomethingother than anindependent basis ofdeci-
sion, aswhenin a decision which inotherrespects isfounded on pos-
itive law (intra legem),the judge chooses among several possible
interpretations of the rule the one which appears to him, having
regard to the particular circumstances of the case, most in harmony
with the demands of j~stice."~

132. Inthis case,one ofthe majorquestionsaddressed bythe Court has
been the interpretation, inaccordance with equity, ofthe "special circum-
stances" mentioned by the 1958Convention.

(c) Throughtemperingtheapplicationofstrictrules

133. This isthe classicalAristotelianconcept of equity,described thus
by Aristotle, inthe NicomacheanEthics:
"The reason for this is that law is always a general statement, yet

there are cases which it is not possible to cover in a general

' Schwarzenberger,"Equityin InternationalLaw",Yearbookof WorldAffairs,1972,
p.34Charles De Visscher, Theory and Reality in Public InternationLaw, trans.
P.E. Corbett,Princeton, 195, .336. statement ...This isthe essentialnature ofthe equitable :it isa recti-
fication of lawwherelaw is defective because of its generality." l

134. Equitycould thus adopta dominant attitude and correct alawthat
is defective, or adopt a soft or more lenient interpretation of a law, thus
temperingitsrigiditywithoutconflicting withit.The former attitude is,as
alreadynoted, inapplicable to international law.

135. However, the latter aspect of flexibility, which is relevant, is cap-
tured by Aristotle in the same work in his comparison of the indefinite-
ness of equityto the "leaden rule used by Lesbian builders", which "is not
rigid butcan be bent to the shape of the stonem2 .In the context of mari-

timedelimitation,eachcasepresents uponthe facts adifferent shape from
every other, and equity adjusts itself around that shape in the manner
described because it is flexible, where a rigid rule would scarcely do it
justice. TheJudgment in this case does no less.

(d) ïhroughthe choiceofanequitableprinciple

136. This is an aspectrelevantto thejudicial processes involved inthe
present case, for there aremanyequitableprinciples (and procedures and
methods) that can be used. The Court, for reasons stated, has made its
choice among these in deciding upon the line of delimitation it has
chosen.
137. Thejudicial function by its very nature involves a choice among
competingprinciples al1ofwhich inone way or another have relevance to

the matter in hand. What principles a court adopts from the range of
choice available is determined by a weighing of considerations such as
those of relevance, immediacyto the problem,practical value in the par-
ticular circumstances, and the degree of authority of the principle. These
arematters in which a court's experience and sense ofjudgment willpro-
vide it with guidance. In such situations, an important additional guide
wouldbe, within the limits of choiceavailablein law, the court's sense of
justice, fairness and equity.
138. In relation to maritime delimitation, apart from a few specific
principles such as the equidistance-special circumstances rule (which
have alreadyemerged), itwouldbe amatter forthecourt,among the range
of general principles (and procedures and methods) available, to make

such a choiceas isin accordance with law and its sense ofjustice.
139. This is another illustration of what Julius Stone describes as the
"element of evaluative choice" that is part and parce1of the judicial pro-
cess3.To use another expression of that eminentjurist, "leeways ofjudi-

Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics, . Rackham(tram.), Loeb ClassicalLibrary,
reviseded., 1934,pp. 315and 317.
Ibid.
SeeJuliusStone, LegalSystem andLawyers'Reasonings,1964,p.305. cialchoice" lexistwithinthe concept ofequity,asindeed they do in most
departments ofthe law.Thefact that international lawisinvolved,rather
than domesticlaw,doesnot alterthe nature ofthejudicial process.Equity
never was nor ever will be a completely objective department of legal
knowledge. In the words of a well-known treatise, "Equity may play
a dramatic role in supplementing the law or appear unobtrusively as
part of legalrea~oning."~

(e) Throughthe useofjudicialdiscretion

140. Someaspectsofthishavealreadybeen dealt within sofar asjudi-
cial discretionrelatesto the choice of an appropriate principle for appli-
cation. Judicial discretion also comes into operation in regard to the
choice of an appropriate solution from among a range of choices, al1of
them equallyavailableon the basis ofthe Court's reasoning.Indeed, this
aspect isparticularlyrelevant inthe present case,for,intheory, aninfinite
number of possible lines of delimitation would be available within the
framework ofthe principles which the Court has chosen to follow.
141. This aspect assumes even more relevance having regard to the
expressavermentin paragraph 90 ofthe Judgment thatthe adjustment of
the median linewouldbe within "the measure of discretionconferred on

the Court by the need to arrive at an equitable result". 1agree with this
assertion of judicial discretion, for its an explicit averment of what is
oftenanimplicitassumption. Itisessentialto point out,ifonemayborrow
the combined judicial and academic wisdom of O. W. Holmes and
Julius Stone, that, in matters such as this, there are no unique answers
which are "'right' in some absolute sense, as if judgment consists of
'addingup one'ssums ~orrectly"'~.Thecourt, asdistinctfrom an arbitra-
tor orconciliator,workswithincertainparametersset bylaw4.It exercises
itsdiscretionwithinthe parameters thus set,and,whereit usesthe flexible
tools of equity,it usesthem infralegem.Butyet,as with everyexerciseof
judicial discretion,thereisa range ofchoicesavailableto thejudge within
a broad framework of permissible limits. Where the choice falls within
that range depends uponthe judge, and howhe makeshischoicedepends
onthe guidingprinciples he employs.Thisisnot an area oflacunae inthe

law,for,though the law can offerguidingprinciples, itisby itsverynature
incapable of coveringentirelythe innumerablepermutations and combi-
nations of fact that present themselvesin a given case.

' Julius Stone, LegalSystem andLawyers'Reasonings,1964,p. 304.
Ian Brownlie,PrinciplesofInternationalLaw,4th ed., 1990,p. 26.
Julius Stone, Legal Systern and Lawyers' Reasonings, 1964, p. 305; and
O. W. Holmes, Jr., "Path of the Law", 10Harvard Law Review(1897),pp. 465-466.
by Aristotlein a passagepicked up by Grotius (see p. 233,footnote 1,above).oted 142. The use ofjudicial discretion may not be one of the great illumi-
nated places of the law but, within it, equity ispar excellenceone of the
lights lavailableto ajudge in determining his preference amidst the lee-
ways of choiceavailable2.Equityhere may consist of specificprinciples

that have emerged from equity, or equity in the broad and general sense
alreadydiscussed.Either wayequity can enterinternational lawand make
avital contribution toitscontinued development. Sincethe use ofjudicial
discretionwithin the prescribedparameters is thus anecessary and intrin-
sic part of the judicial process, a court exercising its discretion in a case
such asthis does not exceed itsjudicial function in making its considered
choice, within those limits, on the basis of its sense of the fair and equi-
table. Nor does itneedto feelinhibited, inthe exercise ofthat very proper

function, byconcerns that itistrespassingbeyond the limitsofthejudicial
function. Viewed thus, the wholespectrum ofequitableapplications, uses
and methodsstretches out before theCourt, enablingthe best choiceto be
made from the range available within the limits of its authority.

(f) Throughfillingingapsandintersticesinthelaw
143. This has already been dealt with in the context of equity praeter

legem.

(g) firoughfollowingequitableprocedures

144. Thishas alreadybeen dealt with in classification 1(b)above.

(h) Through theapplicationoefquitableprincipleaslreadyembedded inthelaw

145. Manyprinciples of equity such as unjust enrichment, good faith,
contractual fairness and the use of one's property so as not to cause
damage to others are already embedded in positive law. In the field of
international lawthe position isthe same. When one applies such arule of

' There could of course be several others, especially in a municipal forum, where a
judge may consciously or unconsciouslylean towards, for example, a utilitarian, an
analytical positivist,a realist, or otherphilosophicalstancein making his decision. See
Process", 6 ConnecticutJournalofInternationalLaw(1991),p. 599.es in the Judicial

On leewaysofchoiceinjudicial discretion,see,generally,Julius Stone,nLaw
and HumanJustice,1965,pp. 304-312.See also Lon L. Fuller, ne Morality of Law,
revised ed., 1969,for a view of the choices available, ranging from what Fuller calls
the morality of aspiration, high up on the scale, to the morality of duty lower down.
The more idealistic judge would make his choice higher up the scale than the more
pragrnatic. The highest points of the scale would be unsuitable for practical use.positive law, one is thus giving effect at the same time to a principle of
equity. At what precisetime a pasticular rule of equitytakes on also the
mantle of a rule of law is often a difficult question to decide. The results
reachedwouldoftenbethe same, and probing the matter further maythen
be a merely academic exercise.

(i) mrough itsuseinnegativefashionto test aresult

146. Thishas alreadybeen dealt with in classification V(b)above.

VIZI.fie StagesofEquitableDecision-Making'

147. It isperhaps helpful,in analysing ajudgment involvingthe use of
equity,to note that equityhas not beenapplied inone sweepingoperation,
but that it is a careful and ordered process involving sequential stages
which canbeseparatelyexamined.TheJudgment ofthe Court inthis case
appliesequityinthis ordered fashion and has my supportin regardto the
decision taken at each of these stages. These stages could of course be
differently analysed, but the following stages perhaps represent the

Court's approach to the problem.

(a) TheidentiJlcation ofthearea ofthedispute

148. Theearlier part ofthe Judgment carefullyconsidersthis aspectin
some detail (para. 21),specifying the three areas involved.The extent of
the relevant area isalso specified.

(b) Thepreparatoryphaseof assemblingthe relevant circumstances

149. Asin this case,the next task that presents itself isto assemble the
relevant circumstances. In so doing, the Court would independently
assess the relevance of each circumstance.The Judgment of the Court

indicateswhatcircumstances itconsidersrelevant.Theparticular circum-
stances involved inthis case are referred to in Part Bof this opinion.
150. In working onthis preparatory phase the Court would be guided
by the equitable procedure of considering every item relevant to the
matter under examination. The decision whether a matter has relevance
or not would naturally be dependent also on any applicable rules of law,
for the equity the Court is here using is not equity contra legem.This

' See,onthisaspect, MichelVirally("L'équiéansle droit.Aproposdesproblèmes
Honourof RobertoAgo, 1987,Vol.eIIpp. 526-530),which makes a three-fold division.
For a more elaborate analysis intofive stages, see J. Charney,"Ocean Boundaries
between Nations:ATheoryforProgress",op.cit.See,also,forafour-foldclassification
into identificationof area,identificationof method, applicationof practicalmethod
andassessmentofequitability,M.D.Evans,RelevantCircumstancesandMaritimeDeli-
mitation,1989,pp.87-88.aspect is of crucial importance in determining for example whether such
circumstances as population or economic factors should be taken into
account.

(c) Thedecisionalphase

151. Thishasa three-foldaspect - decisionsinregard to the appropri-
ate rules, whether of law or equity that have to be employed; decisionsin
regard to the assessment of the facts found to be relevant under head (b);
and the application of rules of law or equity to those facts to produce a
practical result.
152. Once the relevant circumstances are determined, their weight has
to be assessed.What weight would, for example, be givento the icefactor

in this casein working out a principle of fair division? What is its weight
both intrinsically and when matched against the other relevant factors?
What isthe weightto be givento proportionality in the light ofthe dispro-
portionate coastal lengths involved?

153. Thus each factor needs to be assessed for its intrinsicimportance
and forthe weight it carries amidst the totality of relevant factors.

(d) Theconfirmatoryphase

154. The Court would then reach a result, but that result needs to be
tested, for equitable principles or procedures do not automatically lead to
an equitable result. As already noted, while equidistance mightrepresent
an equitable principle or method, it could lead to a result which is not
equitable. A result must not be unjust. The philosophical underpinnings

of this concept have already been discussedin relation to the aposteriori
use of equityin category Vabove.

155. Thisshort surveyofthe handling ofequityin theJudgment, and of
possible approaches to the application of equity, will show the multitude
of heads and the diversity of routes through which equitybecomes avail-
able to the Court. It is hoped, also, that this analysis will have shown the
inevitability ofthe entry of equityinto a problem such asthat confronting
the Court, the productive role it can play through judicial decision and
othenvise in constructing the law ofthe futureand the fact that equity isa
vitaland integral part ofpositivelawwhich one neglectsonly atthe cost of
legaldevelopment.

UNCERTAINTIESIN THEUSE OFEQUITY
156. It isintrinsictothe operation of equity that there are some uncer-

tainties in regard to the extent of its application and the results which
emerge. This has already been noted in an earlier part of this opinion.Someofthe causes ofthese uncertainties, with specialreferenceto mari-
timedelimitation,areseparatelyconsideredbelow withaviewto address-

ing the question whether there is in equity, as is sometimes alleged, a
qualityofuncertainty whichrenders itan unsuitableinstrument fordeter-
miningthe claimsofparties in a matter such asthis.

(a) Absenceof mechanisms forprecise quantzjkation

157. To expectgreaterprecision isto ignore the verynature of equityl.
One is reminded here of the Aristotelian aphorism that only so much
precision can be achieved as the subject-matter will allow. The factual
material which equity deals with is in most cases rarely assessable in
quantifiable terms. Equity has no fine balances at its command to
weigh human conduct, no graded units of value with which to measure

the particular mix ofvaried factors a givencasemay present. It makes in
mostcasesan overall assessmenton thebasisof legalprincipleand human
experienceandwillnotbe able,inmathematicalfashion,toproducearesult
precisely calibrated to match the circumstances,if, indeed, such a result
wereat al1possible, havingregard to the nature of the subject-matter.

158. When therefore a court, as in this case, translates an equitable
finding intoa delimitation,it is onlyintermsofan assessmentofthe equi-

ties as closely as it can and not with any suggestion that the resulting
cartographic delimitation mirrors the exact ratio of equities involved.
Certainties such as are contended for here do not exist evenin the realm
ofthe law,leave alone the realm of equity2.

(b) Lackof definitenessinthe scope ofequiîy

159. Equity'sseemingweaknessindefyingcomprehensivedefinition3,
or precisequantification is at the sametime one of itsstrengths,for it has

' Judge Manley Hudson points out:

"The conceptions introducedinto the lawasprinciples of equitycannot be listed
with definiteness;but they are not to be discarded because they are vague,for that
is a quality attaching to international la..."(ThePermanentCourt ofInter-
national Justice,1920-1942(1972reprint, introL.B.Sohn), p. 617.)

On the belief in legal certainty even in law, as opposed to equity, seene,
TheProvinceandFunction of Law, 1946,pp. 204-205:
"mhe defence of legal 'certainty' insofar as it assumes that certainty can be
attained by continuing to adhere closelyto logical development of the 'principles
of law', is defending what has never existed. The appearance of certainty and
stabilityin legal rules and principles conceals existinguncertainty."

0. Schachter, op.cit.,p. 82:"No concept of international lawresistsprecise defini-
tion more than the notion of equity."givenittheflexibilityto make aprime contribution to the development of
the law. Try as one may to achieve the desirable goal of certainty, this
remains elusive,for

"the finest legal dissertations on equity will never succeed in com-
pletely eliminating what is perhaps an irreducible core of judicial
subjectivism ..."(ContinentalShelf( ALribJaamnahiriya/Malta),
Z.C.J.Reports 1985, p. 90, para. 37, joint separate opinion of
Judges Ruda, Bedjaoui and Jiménezde Aréchaga).
Elsewhere in this opinion, referencehas been made to the series of semi-

na1principlesequityhascontributed to international law.Thesehave pro-
ceededfrom itsquality offlexibility,itsabilityto handle newsituationsfor
whichlegalprecedentaffordsnoguidance, and itsconformity withjustice
and fairness. In maritimedelimitation law,likewise, these qualities willno
doubt assist it in shaping that body of lawin equitable fashion, and each
individual decision based on equity, such as the present case can contri-
bute to this end. The day equity is completelycaptured in a definition or
formula,its creativity would be at anend.

(c) Lackofcrystallizationof equitableresults

160. Inthe specialfield ofthe lawofthe sea,equitableconceptsremain
largely undefined and their theoretical foundations unclear. This is but
natural, particularly in such an actively developing field, for as
De Visscherhas obsewed,
"if one views the matter historically, rules of law have at al1times
been largely the offshoots of equitybefore being crystallized within

the positive legalorder" '.
The danger of overconceptualization of equitable principles has indeed
been noted by this Court in the context of the law of the sea2, however
greatthe apparent need to concretizethe application ofequityinthisfield.

(d) Changing natureof thelawofthesea

161. An additional circumstance making for uncertainty in this field
should alsobe noted - namely that the uncertainties of equity are com-

' Charles De Visscher,Del'équdanslerèglementarbitraloujudiciairedeslitigesde
droit internationalpublic,1972,pp: 8-9
"envisagéesdu point de vue de la formation historique de leur contenu, les règles
de droit ont de tout temps été largementtributairesde l'équite se cristal-
liser dans i'ordrejuridique positif."
See,also,M. D. Blecher, "Equitable Delimitation of Continental Shelf', 73American
Journal of InternatioLaw (1979),pp. 83-88.
ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/LibyanArabJamahiriya),I.C.J.Reports 1,. 92.pounded, inrelation tothe lawofthe sea,bythefact thatthe lawofthe sea
itself has been undergoing a process of spectacular change. Some cases
such asthe 1969NorthSeaContinentalShelfcasesand the 1982Continen-
tal Shelf(Tunisia/LibyanArab Jamahiriya)caseoccurred before the Law

ofthe SeaConvention was signed,whereasothers such asthe 1985 Conti-
nental Shelf(LibyanArabJamahiriya/Malta) case and the 1985Guinea/
Guinea-Bissaucases occurred after. Maritime delimitations such as are
sought in this case straddle the Geneva Convention of 1958 and the
Montego BayConvention of 1982,with al1the conceptual changes occur-
ring between 1958andthe present day.

162. Not only was a new dimension given by that Convention to the
applicability of equity but the very concepts to which it was being

applied - such asthat ofthe exclusiveeconomiczone - wereina state of
dynamic evolution. New concepts unknown in the 1950s such as that of
the exclusive economiczone were gathering strength even as older con-
cepts such asthat which based the continental shelfon anatural prolonga-
tion were losing momentum. It is no cause for surprise that flexible
principlessuperimposed upon sofluid asubjectshould have failedto pro-
duce a greaterpredictability of legal result.

(e) Theresorttofact-intensive ratherthanrule-intensiveprocedures

163. An important aspect which the Court must address in maritime
delimitation casesisthe extent to which it should concentrateonthe vari-
able facts of each separate case rather than on a search for overriding
mles which are common to al1l.The juristic literature describes the for-

mer as fact-intensiverather than rule-intensiveprocedures, and points to
the concentration on fact-intensiveprocedures as an additional cause of
uncertainty inthis area ofthe law. However, the type of enquiry involved
in the present case necessarily requires heavy reliance on fact-intensive
procedures.Additionally, the crystallization of equitable rules relating to
delimitationhasnot yet reached astageofsufficientmaturity to be a com-
prehensiveguide2.Fact-intensiveprocedures must therefore continue to
play a significant role in maritime delimitations.

164. In the history of maritime delimitation, there have indeed been
attempts to reduce the solution of this problem to mle-intensive pro-
cedures specified with nearly mathematical precision3.The effort at one

Schachter, op.cit.,p. 87.
See,generally, Schachter,id..
ofmathematical formulaetitled "Nuestra Formula Matematica",LanPlatafonnaSub-hree pages
marinay elDerechoInternacional,1952,pp. 82-84.Theformulae allocate different areas
of shelf according to three fixed factors - number of inhabitants, length of Coastand
area of territory.stage to erect the concept of equidistance into a rigid rule was another
attempt at rule-intensivesolutions aimed at achieving a predictable cer-
tainty of result.
165. Theself-limitingnature of such formulae isclear, especially in the
light of later experience revealing the relevance of numerous factors,
some of which may not have been foreseen, and some of which - such as
State conduct - cannot possibly be the subject of pre-set assessments.
Legal concepts cannot thus be locked into the rigours of mathematical
method.

Long-standingRecognitionof Equityinthe Law oftheSea

166. Apart from the generalapplicability ofequity in international law
which would, in any event, draw it into disputes in relation to the law of
the sea,ithasalsobeenspecificallydrawn intothe lawofthe seabytreaty,
proclamation, judicial and arbitral decisions and State practice. Equity
has long been specificallydrawn into the law of the sea in this fashion.
Thisaspect isdealt withinthe Judgment oftheCourt and 1shall deal with
itonlyinoutline. Itwill suffice forpresent purposes tonote that itsinvoca-
tion in the Truman Proclamation (of 28September 1945)was coevalwith

the verybirth ofthe continental shelfdoctrine.Thestatementin that Proc-
lamation that the determination of boundaries, where the continental
shelf extended to the shores of another Stateor was shared with another
State, was to be inaccordancewithequitableprincipleswas a significant
earlyindication that the law of the seawould, in its formativephase, lean
heavily on equity.
167. A landmark event wasthe GenevaConvention of 1958which will
be considered below. However, even before this, the régimeof equity in
this field was well established:

"It is generally admitted that in State practice prior to the Gen-
eva Conference of 1958the tendency wasto referin generalterms to
the delimitation of continental shelf boundaries or 'equitableprin-
ciples'. .." (NorthSea ContinentalShelJ;I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 91,
Judge Padilla Nervo, separate opinion.)

168. In the jurisprudence of this Court in maritime disputes,the equi-
table approach received recognition in 1951 in the Anglo-Nonvegian
Fisheries case1. The development of this trend, through a series of

l I.C.J.Reports1951,p. 142.See,also, S.Rosenne, TheInternationalCourtofJustice,
1957,pp. 427-428.

224 cases1until the latest decisions of this Court, has entrenched equity as
a key legal factor in this field. This trend is evident also in the arbitral
decisions2.

169. In the deliberations during UNCLOS III, the role of equity in
relation to the law of the sea progressivelyachieved increasing recogni-
tion,tillitbecameenshrined asacardinalprinciple in thefinal draft ofthe
Convention, in Articles 74 and 83. In achieving this status, equity dis-
placed other suggestedcriteria such as equidistance which had appeared
in earlier drafts as the prime consideration for delimitation. Indeed, a
deep concernfor equitableconsiderationspermeates the Convention (see

Arts. 160(2)(d),161(1)(e),162(2)(d),163 (4),274(a)).

170. So much importance has equity gained in this regard that it has
been described as "currently gaining ground as the central principle of
maritime boundary delimitation over the 1958equidistance-special cir-
cumstancesr~le"~.

Re UseofEquityin the1958GenevaConvention

171. The 1958Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf provides
by Article 6 that, where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the
territories of the two States whose coasts are opposite to each other, the
boundary of the continental shelf appertaining to such States shall be
determined by agreementbetweenthem :

"In the absenceofagreement,and unless another boundary line is
justified by special circumstances, the boundary is the median line,
every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points of the
baselinesfrom whichthebreadth oftheterritorial seaofeachStateis
measured."

172. Judge Odahas observedthat, although not specificallymentioned
in Article6,the idea of an equitablesolution layatthe basis ofthat provi-
sion4 which can perhaps be regarded as having inferentially attracted
equityinto delimitation.

North Sea ContinentalShelfcases, I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 3; ContinentalShelf
(Tunisia/LibyanArabJamahiriya)case, Z.C.J.Reports 1982,p. 18;caseconcerning Deli-
mitationof theMaritimeBoundaryin theGulfof MaineArea,Z.C.J.Reports1984,p. 246;
and ContinentalShelf(LibyanArabJamahiriya/Malta) case, I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 13.
See,inparticular, the decisions ofthe Court ofArbitration intheationof the
ContinentalShelf between the United Kingdom and France case, RZAA,Vol. XVIII,
pp. 3ff.; and Chile/ArgentinaBeagleChamelArbitration,InternationalLegalMaterials,
1978,pp. 36ff.
H. W.Jayewardene, RegimeofIslandsinInternationalLaw, 1990,p.316.
ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), I.C.J. Reports1982,p. 246,
para.144,dissenting opinion ofJudge Oda. 173. There are two pointers in the Article to the area of enquiry in
which the Court should engage itself -

(i) anyagreementbetween the parties, and,
(ii) in the absence of such agreement, whether any line other than the
median lineisjustified byspecialcircumstances.
174. Under each of these heads, there are matterswhich arise for con-
sideration.
175. Under the firsthead,there isthe Agreement of 1965between Nor-
way and Denmark which is considered in the Judgment of the Court.

1respectfullyexpress myagreement withthe conclusion ofthe Court that
that Agreement does not relate to the maritime area in dispute in the
present case.
176. Under the secondhead, the Court has been addressed on a num-
ber of factors - relative populations, proportionality of coastlines,
respective landmasses and economic importance to the appurtenant
Coast,to mention a few. These matters will receive consideration later in
this opinion. It ismyviewthat none ofthem can be ruled out inlimineon
the basis of a generalprinciple ofirrelevancerelatingto anyonecategory.

177. Aswas observed by the Court of Arbitration in Delimitationofthe
Continental Shelfbetweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrancein 1977 :
"the rôle of the 'special circumstances' condition in Article 6 is to
ensure an equitable delimitation; and the combined 'equidistance-
specialcircumstances rule',in effect,givesparticular expression to a

general nom that, failing agreement, the boundary between States
abutting on the same continental shelf is to be determined on equi-
table principles7''.

TheUseof Equityinthe1982MontegoBay Convention
178. The "equitable solution" formula contained in the Convention
(Arts. 71 (1) and 83 (1)) - a compromisebetween that favoured by the
equidistance group2 and that favoured by the equitable principles

group3 - gave further recognition to the role of equity.

RIAA,Vol.XVIII, p. 45,para. 70.
"The delimitation of the Exclusive EconomicZone/Continental Shelf between
adjacent or opposite Statesshall be effected by agreement employing, as a general
stances where this is justified." (Doc. NG 7/2/Rev.2, 28 March 1980,cited byircum-
Brown, "Delimitations of Offshore Areas: Hard Labour and Bitter Fmits at
UNCLOS III", MarinePolicy (1981),p. 180.)
"The delimitation of the exclusiveeconomic zone between adjacentand oppo-
site States shall be effected by agreement, in accordance with equitableprinciples
taking into account al1relevant circumstances and employing any methods where
appropriate, to lead to an equitable solution." (Doc. NG 7/10/Rev.2, 28 March
1980,cited by Brown,op. cit.) 179. As is observed in a contemporary text on the régimeof islands
under international law :

"The most distinctivefeature of the provision [on the economic
zone and continental shelf in the Informa1Single Negotiating Text]
was the abandonment of the 1958 equidistance-special circum-

stancesmode1in favour of a formulabased onthe principle of equi-
table delimitation."

180. The acceptance by both groups2 of phraseology including "an
equitablesolution" despitethe widedisparities inthe positions ofthe two
groups givesequitya position of special importance in this sensitiveand
controversial area of international law, thus creating a special need for a
fullerinvestigationof al1the implicationsofthe phraseologyso adopted3.

Categories of RelevantFactorsAreNot Closed

181. In paragraphs 122-128abovedealing withthe operation ofequity

through the balancing of interests,attention has been givento the wayin
whichthe various relevantcircumstancesare weighedagainsteachother.
Referencewasthere made tothe North Sea caseswhich stated that there
was no legal limit to the considerations which Statestake account of for
thispurpose4. So,also,inthe Libya/Malta case,this Court observed :

"For a court,althoughthere isassuredlyno closedlistofconsider-
ations,it isevidentthat onlythose thatare pertinent to the institution
ofthe continental shelfasithas developedwithin the law,and to the

application ofequitableprinciples to itsdelimitation, willqualifyfor
inclusion." (I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 40,para. 48.)

182. No completelist canbemade,ifforno otherreason than that each
caseisunique and one can neverforetellwhat circumstancesmaysurface
or achieveimportanceinthe unknown disputes of the future. Moreover,

l H. W. Jayewardene, TheRegimeofIslandsinInternational Law,1990,p. 320.
See OfJicialRecords of theThirdUnited Nations Confereon the Law of theSea,
Vol.XV,pp. 39-42,forthe discussion on the compromisetext formulated by the Presi-
dent, and for its acceptance by the two groups concemed.
It is not necessary for present purposes to enter into discussions of the question
whetherthe provisions ofthe Convention haveacquired the force ofcustomaryinterna-
tional law. That question is not free of controverssee Jennings, "Law Making
and Package Deal", in Mélangesofferts à Paul Reuter, Paris, 1981, pp. 347-355;
L. A. Howard, "The Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea and the Treaty/
Custom Dichotomy", 16 Texas International Law Journal(1981), pp. 321-345;
H. Caminos and M. R.Molitor, "Progressive Development of International Law and
the Package Deal", 79AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw (1985),pp. 871-890;and
M. C. W. Pinto, "Maritime Security and the 1982UN Conference on the Law of the
Sea"I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 50, para.93. Confidence,UNIDIR, 1993,p. 9,at pp. 40-46. 262
MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP. OP. WEERAMANTRY)

each item - such as State conduct or national security - is infinitely
variable and, more often than not, is itself a conglomerate of factors
which themselves needto be assessedand evaluated. This Court's descrip-
tion of each as "monotypic" l thus aptly captures its individuality.

183. It maybenotedthat,althoughthe 1961Helsinki Rules on the Uses
ofWater of International Rivers,containedin ArticleV,paragraph 2,alist
of relevant factors, the list is expresslystated to be non-exhaustive.

184. From these preliminary observationsto what extent can the pro-
cess be carried fonvard of developingequitable principles in relation to
maritime delimitation?
185. Since "there is no legal limit to the considerations which States
may take account op2, it would seem, for example, that they cannot be
limitedtothe purelygeographic.Geographicfactors mayperhaps beused
as the starting point for an enquiry of this nature, and it is right to stress
their importance. However the equitable solution yielded by the applica-

tion of the principles of equity is not attained by the mere application of
geographicallybasedprinciples such asthe equidistanceprinciple. In the
anxiety to concretize equitable principles by relating them to demon-
strable and quantifiable data such as geographic data we may perhaps
shut out important considerations relevant to equity. Definiteness of
principle is no doubt an important value to be striven after3,but it could
bebought attoo highapriceat an incipientstage ofdevelopment ofalegal
concept.

186. Among the factors taken into consideration inthe Tunisia/Libya
case werenot merelygeographicalfactorsbut historical and politicalfac-
tors as well.Among these were the history of the enactment of petroleum
licensing by each party and the grant of successive petroleum conces-
sions4, and such indicia as were available of the line or lines which the
parties themselves had considered equitable or acted upon as such5.

187. When oneventures outside the areas of pure geography and geo-
logy,oneencountersconsiderationswhich are of immense importance in

the real world - matters such as population, security,history,practical
usability,political status and economicdependence. Doubtless they will

' I.C.J.Reports1984,p.290,para. 81.
NorthSea ContinentalShelfcases, I.C.J.Reports1969,p.50,para.93.
Law at the Timeof Its Codification:Essaysin Honour ofRoberto Ago, 1987,VolII,l
p. 349.
See ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/LibyanArabJamahinya),I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 83,
para. 117.
Ibid.,p. 84,para. 118.See,also,Jiménezde Aréchaga,"TheConception of Equityin
Maritime Delimitation", inInternationalLaw at the Timeof Its Codification:Essaysin
Honour ofRobertoAgo, 1987,Vol. II,p. 232.263 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP .P.WEERAMANTRY)

have differentvalues in individual casesvaryingfrom the minimal to the
immenselyinfluential and these will need to be taken into consideration
and evaluated.
188. In the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between the United
Kingdomand France,the United Kingdom relied upon such matters as
demography and economicsl and, though the court did not regard them
as exercising a decisive influence on the delimitation, it held that they
couldsupportand strengthen,butnot negative,anyconclusionsindicated
by the geographical, political and legal circumstances2. To quote
Judge Jiménezde Aréchagaagain :

"Al1the relevantcircumstancesaretobeconsidered and balanced;
they are to bethrown togetherintothe crucible and their interaction
will yield the correct equitable solution of each individual case."
(I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 109,para. 35.)

189. Equity was by very definition the process by which situations
which couldnot be provided for by the specific letter of a legal rule were
taken into account where the purely mechanical application of the rule
would shut them out. It would be a negation of that flexibilitywhichis a
characteristic ofequityifwewereatthis earlystagein the developmentof
maritime demarcation to introduce into it the very element of rigidity

which equitabledoctrine was devisedto prevent. Asthis Court observed
in Tunisia/Libya, no attempt should be made to overconceptualize the
application ofthe principles and rules applicableto the continental shelf
(ibid.,. 92,para. 132).

TheEquidistancePrinciple

190. Itisnecessaryto considerthestatus oftheequidistancemethod,as
Nonvay laysgreatstorebyit,not onlyin itsownright but alsobyvirtue of
the 1965Agreementbetween the Parties.

191. Speakingingeneralterms,three possibleranks maybeassignedto
thisrule :
(i) the status of a mandatory rule either under customaryinternational
law or, where parties are bound by the Convention,in the absence
of agreement or justification of a different rule by other circum-

stances;
(ii) astatusofpriority overotherequitablefactors tobeconsidered;

(iii) astatusofparity withotherequitable factors.

RZAA, Vol.XVIII,pp. 84-85,paras.171-173.
* Ibid.p.90,para.188.

229(i) Zsita mandatoryrule ?

192. Inthe NorthSea ContinentalShelfcases, this Court, whileviewing
the equidistance mle as one of great practical convenience and wide
applicability,heldthat theequidistancemethod wasneitherprescribed by
a mandatory mle of customary international law (I.C.J. Reports 1969,
p. 46,para. 83,p. 53,para. 101)nor an inherent necessity of continental
shelfdoctrine (ibid.,pp. 35-36).Placingthe mle in the context of itsequi-
table origins, the Court observed:

"It was, and it really remained to the end, governed by two
beliefs; - namely, first, that no one single method of delimitation
waslikelyto prove satisfactoryin al1circumstances,and that delimi-
tation should,therefore,becarriedout by agreement(or byreference
to arbitration); and secondly,that it shouldbe effected on equitable
principles. It was in pursuance ofthe first ofthese beliefsthat in the
draft that emergedas Article6 of the GenevaConvention,the Com-
missiongavepriority to delimitation by agreement, - and in pursu-
ance of the second that it introduced the exception in favour of
'special circumstances'.Yet the record shows that, even with these
mitigations, doubts persisted, particularly as to whether the equi-
distance principle would in al1 cases prove equitable." (Zbid.,

pp. 35-36,para. 55.)
193. The GulfofMaine casealsomadethisclear :

"The Chamber must therefore conclude in this respect that the
provisions of Article 6 of the 1958Convention on the Continental
Shelf,although in force between the Parties, do not entai1eitherfor
them or for the Chamber any legal obligation to apply them to the
singlemaritimedelimitation whichisthesubjectofthepresent case."
(Z.C.J.Reports1984,p. 303,para. 125.)

194. This Court tersely summarized the jurispmdence on this point
when it observedin the Libya/Malta case,
"The Court isunable to acceptthat, evenasapreliminary and pro-
visional steptowardsthe drawing of a delimitationline,the equidis-
tance method is one which must be used . .."(Z.C.J.Reports 1985,
p. 37,para. 43.)

195. Ifthe ruleisto haveamandatorystatus under theConvention,this
can onlyoccurinthe absence ofagreementand inthe absence ofjustifica-
tion by special circumstances. Where specialcircumstances exist,asthey
do in this case,the equidistance mle cannot in any event be mandatory.

196. Althoughthe equidistance mle maybe basicallyequitable in con-
ception and origin, it is by its very nature and definition inflexible, con-
trastinginthisrespectwiththe flexibilityofequitywhichenablesthelatterto accommodate itself to varying and unforeseeable conditions which
must depend on each particular case.

(ii) Doesithavepriority overotherfactors?

197. This Court also expressed itself on this aspect in the North Sea
ContinentalShelfcases,whenitsaidthat thisruledidnot haveaprivileged
statusinrelationto othermethods '.Statepractice,asthe Court obsewed,
often resorted to this rule but it showed also that in many cases other

criteria had been resorted to, when they were found to offer a better
wayto reach agreement.

198. Asthe Chamber obsewed in the GulfofMaine case,"Nor isthere
any method of which it can be said that it must receive priority"
(I.C.J. Reports1984,p.315,para. 163).

199. In the Libya/Malta case,this Court obsewed that

"the equidistancemethod has neverbeen regarded, evenin a delimi-
tation between opposite coasts,asoneto be applied withoutmodifi-
cation whatever the circumstances" (I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 48,
para. 65).

(iii)Doesithaveparity withotherfactors?

200. The previous discussion showsthat the equidistance rule, impor-
tant though it be, isone ofthe multiplefactorsthat need consideration in
the context of any delimitation case. What can be said of these different
factorsisthat theymayassumedifferentdegreesofimportance inthe con-
text of different cases,butthat there isno ranking order amongthem.This
was the position under the 1958Conventionbut, afterthe 1982Conven-

tion,the matter has beenmade clearer still.
201. It is perhaps not without significance that the equidistance rule
doesnot appear in eitherArticle74orArticle83ofthe Conventiononthe
Law of the Sea, 1982, although the Revised Single Negotiating Text
(RSNT) of 19762,and the Informa1Composite Negotiating Text(ICNT)
of 19773aswell asthe tworevisedtextsofthe lattercontaineda reference
to the median or equidistanceline "where appr~priate"~.
202. The Court of Arbitration in Delimitationof the ContinentalShelf
betweenthe UnitedKingdom and France, 1977,placed the equidistance
rule in context when it obsewed that :

I.C.J.Report1969,pp.45-46, para. 82.
See Oficial Recordsof thenird United Nations ConferencoentheLawof theSea,
Vol.V,pp. 164and 165.Articles74and83werethennumbered62and71, respectively.
See ibidVol. VIII,pp. 16and 17.
4,See ibidVol.XIII,pp. 77-78. "even under Article 6 [ofthe 1958Convention] it is the geographi-
caland othercircumstancesofanygivencasewhichindicate andjus-
tifythe use ofthe equidistancemethod as the means of achievingan

equitablesolutionrather than the inherent quality ofthe method asa
legalnom of delimitation" '.

TheCourt wentonto observethat theequidistancemethod,likeanyother
method, was "a function or reflection ofthe geographical and other rele-
vant circumstancesof each particular case"2.
203. The status of parity of the equidistance method when compared
with others was well expressed by the Arbitral Tribunal in the dispute
between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, 1985,whenit said:

"Le tribunal estime pour sa part que l'équidistancen'est qu'une
méthodecommelesautresetqu'ellen'estniobligatoireniprioritaire,
mêmes'ildoit lui être reconnuune certaine qualité intrinsèqueen
raison de son caractère scientifique et de la facilitérelative avec
laquelle ellepeut êtreppliq~ée."~

The"SpecialCirmmstances"Principle

204. "Attemptsmade at the GenevaConference on the Lawofthe Sea
to strike out the alternative of 'special circumstances' and to make the
equidistance method the only rule were rejected by a large majority."
(NorthSea,I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 93,Judge Padilla Nervo,separate opin-
ion.)This isreadilyunderstandable when one considers that

"in certain geographical circumstances which are frequently met
with, the equidistance method, despite its known advantages,leads
unquestionably to inequity ..."(ibid.,Judgment,p. 49,para. 89).
205. This principle articulates the rule of procedural equity that al1
material circumstancesrelevant tothe matterinhand shouldbe taken into
account in reaching an equitable result and that no legally relevantcir-
cumstancesshould be left out of consideration unlessthere iscompelling
reason to do so.
206. Aswas observedbytheCourt ofArbitrationin Delimitationof the
Continental Shelfbetweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrancein 1977:

"the rôle of the 'special circumstances' conditionin Article 6 is to
ensure an equitable delimitation; and the combined 'equidistance-
specialcircumstances rule',in effect,givesparticular expression to a

RZAA,Vol. XVIII,pp.45-46,para.70.
* Zbid.,p. 57, para. 97.
Revuegénéraledderoitintemationalpublic(1985),Vol.89,p. 525, para.102. general nom that, failing agreement, the boundary between States
abutting on the same continental shelf is to be determined on equi-
tableprinciples" l.

207. Everycaseis different and, whilegeneralguidelines existsuch as
the equidistanceprinciple in the absenceof other or competingfactors,it
is forthe Courtto decide in each casewhat arethe appropriate factorsto
be taken into account and what weight should attach to them. It is too
early in the history of maritime delimitation for any determining prin-
ciplesto be laid down by this Court as to the relative importance of one
factor overthe other. It may be that whenthese determinationsare made
on a case-by-casebasis,some guidelineswillin course oftime emerge.

The"RelevantCircumstances" Principle

208. Asthe Court ofArbitration obsemed in 1977in Delimitationofthe
Continental Shelfbetweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrance:
"The choiceofthe method ormethods ofdelimitationin anygiven
case, whether under the 1958Convention or customary law, has
therefore to be determined in the light of those circumstances

[Le.,geographical and other relevant circumstances of each particu-
lar case]and ofthe fundamental nom that the delimitation must be
in accordance with equitable principles."*

209. It is also to be stressed,before approaching a consideration of
eachofthesefactors,that theywillbe approached notfromthestandpoint

of either Norway or Denmark but fromthe standpoint ofthe two territo-
ries in question - Jan Mayen and Greenland - as if these were inde-
pendent territories competing for maritime rights, for it is clear that
whatever maritime rights these territories enjoy are generated by their
relevant coastlines and not by considerations that they are part of some
largerpolitical entity.
210. 1 agree with the Court in its careful consideration and overall
evaluation of the various relevant factors enumerated by it. While doing
so, 1 would like, however, to emphasize that consideration should not
be limitedto factors which are geophysical intheir nature.
211. In each casethere surfacesfor consideration a varied mix of fac-

tors. Apart fromthe differentnature ofthe mix in each case,any onefac-
tor,suchaspopulation oreconomy,willnaturallypresent itselfdifferently
in each case.For example,the population factor maybe oflittlerelevance
or no relevancein one case,while in another it may assumeconsiderable

RZAA,Vol.XVIII, p.45,para.70.
2 Zbid.,. 57,para.97.

233268 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP. OP.WEERAMANTRY)

significance. So, also, with economicfactors or indeed any other factor
one may care to name. Any generalproposition that population or econ-
omy areirrelevant because, unlike geophysical configurations, they may
change with time isjuristically untenable and not in conformity with the
flexibility of equity.

212. In other words, 1respectfully endorse the findingsthe Court has
reached on the respective items arising for consideration in this case.
Access to fishery resources is a matter to which the Court has rightly
devoted particular care and attention and 1 am in agreement with this

approach and with its resultant effect upon the overall delimitation.
1would, however, add a few observations on some of the matters con-
sidered.

(a) Population

213. For example, while agreeing with the weight the Court gives to
the population factor in the present case, 1would stress that no general
proposition can be laid down that the population factor is in al1cases
irrelevant.
214. One can visualize a case where a particular coast has sustained a
teeming population for several centuries and the coast facing it has no
population whatsoever and has been uninhabited as far as historical

memory extends. Cases such as that need to be considered as and when
they arise and cannotbe left out ofconsideration on anygeneralprinciple
that the population factor is irrelevant.uch an approach would be con-
trary to equitableprinciples and procedures.
215. Reference may alsobe made in this context to the Anglo-French
Arbitration, in which it is significant that amongthe factorsadvanced by
the United Kingdom was the fact that the Channel Islands were "popu-
lousislands of a certainpolitical and economicimportance" 'The Court
observed that it "accepts the equitable considerations invoked by the
United Kingdom as carrying a certain weightW2.
216. It is true that factors such as population or lack of it are change-
able overtime.Apiece ofland which istodaybarren anduninhabited may
in a hundred years be the centre of a numerous and thrivingpopulation

just as a thrivingpopulation of today may, forreasons which cannot now
be foreseen,be reduced to a few struggling survivors some generations
from today. These are factors inherent in the nature of human life and
settlementbut on the basis of such lack of certainty, these factorsought
not, in my view, to be totally disregarded by an overridinggeneral prin-
cipleapplicable in al1cases.

RIAA, Vol.XVIII, p.93,para. 197.
Ibid.p. 93,para. 198. 217. When the Law of the SeaConvention spelt out in Article 121(3)
that rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of
their own shall have no exclusiveeconomiczone or continental shelf, it
was perhaps givingexpressionto the concept that population and econ-
omic life are relevant to the enjoyment of exclusiveeconomic zones and
continental shelfentitlements. It was not rocksper se that wereexcluded
fromtheserightsbut rockswhichlackedthepossibilityofsustaininghabi-
tation or economiclife, thus indicatingthe importance ofthese factorsin
attracting exclusiveeconomiczone and continental shelf entitlements,in
an appropriate case.

218. The Lawofthe SeaConventioncould not have adopteda divided
rationale in its different parts on this vital question, and if it considered
population and economic life to be a vital and determining factor in
regardto the questionwhether rocksattracted these entitlements,it could
not have considered that in regard to other geographical configurations
population and economiclifewereirrelevant and to be ignored.

(b) Economicfactors

219. Similarconsiderationsapply to economicfactors.Onthis aspect,
itmustbepointed outthat thisisan areainwhichthejurisprudence ofthe
Court has not thus far been conclusive,despite the trend of recent deci-
sionsto treat economicfactors as irrelevant. In the Gulfof Maine1,when
the dispute was clearlyabout resources,Canada argued for the preserva-
tion offishingpatterns established overthe past ten to fifteen years while
the United Statescontended that it was virtually entitled to a monopoly
over the Georges Bank fishery. Although the Chamber dismissed these
argumentsasirrelevant in law,yetit did not altogetherignorethem,hold-

ingthat data asto human and economicgeography,although

"ineligiblefor consideration as criteria tobe applied in the delimita-
tion process itself,may ...be relevantto assessment ofthe equitable
character of a delimitation first established on the basis of criteria
borrowedfromphysical and politicalgeography" (p.340,para. 232).

In other words, these factorscould in fact be usedto test the equityofthe
result.The Chamber placedstringentlimitationson suchuse,limitingitto
caseswherethe resultswere

Z.C.JReports1984,paras48 and232 ofJudgment. "radically inequitable, that is to Say,as likely to entai1catastrophic
repercussions for the livelihood and economic well-being of the
population of the countries concerned" (Z.C.J.Reports1984,p. 342,
para. 237).
Yet we have here a recognition, however restricted, that such factors can
play a part inthe overall result'.

(c) Statepractice

220. So, also, in considering individual acts of State practice, an
important limiting factor is that the special circumstances and political
considerations that lie behind a particular arrangement between two
countries are often veiled in obscurity unless the parties themselves
record or state those facts2.This is well illustrated in the present case in
relationto Norway's owntreaty with Iceland, for Norway herself accepts
that there were specialpoliticalconsiderations lyingbehind that arrange-
ment. As stated in paragraph 560 of Nonvay's Counter-Memorial,

"The political bargain struck between Norway and Iceland was excep-
tional ...",and in the same paragraph, the arrangement giving Iceland a
200-milezone is described as a "concession made in favour of Iceland"
which "produced a boundary which reflects no nom of equitable delimi-
tation". On Norway's own submission, these circumstances render an
agreementatypical, which might otherwisebe relied upon as an item of
Statepractice.

221. Anothervariable factor in relationto Statepractice isthe fact that
the effectgiventoislands for equidistance purposes hassometimesbeen a
partial effect,thus introducing an additional element of flexibility. For
example, the Greece-Italy Agreement of 24 May 1977givesto the Greek
islands involved a varying effect, ranging from full effect for the large
islands of Corfu, Kefallinia and Zakinthos to lessereffects forthe islands
of Othonoi and Mathraki.

222. Otherinstances of partial effect also exist, such as the Iran-Oman
Agreement of 25 July 1974,where the presence of the small island of
Umm alFaiyarinbelongingtoOman does notcause aproportional devia-
tion ofthedemarcationlinebetweenOman and Iran. Had thisislandbeen
given full effect, the line would have moved considerably closer to the
Iranian Coastthan it appears on the map (Reply of Denmark, Ann. 71).

See, generally on this aspect, D. W. Bowett, "The Economic Factor in Maritime
Delimitation Cases", in InternatioLaw at the Time of its Codification:Essays in
HonourofRobert0Ago, 1987,Vol.II,p. 45,esp.at pp. 58-63,pointing out, interalia,that
of the Convention is divorced from these economic interests.ntion and that nopart
* Rejoinder of Norway, p. 178,para. 605. 223. Soalso in the United Kingdom-Ireland Agreement of 7 Novem-
ber 1988(ReplyofDenmark,Ann.72),the ScillyIsleshavenotbeen given

full effect.
224. Nor is thejurisprudence of this Court markedlydifferentin this
regard.The Court itselfhas in more than one of itsjudgments givenless
than full effectto small islands in relation to the equidistanceprinciple.
Thehalf-effectbasisofdelimitation wasused in Tunisia/Libya lin regard
to the Kerkennah Islands, and in the GulfofMaine case2in regard to the
Canadian SealIsland.The half-effectbasiswas alsoused bythe Court of
Arbitrationinthe caseconcerningthe DelimitationoftheContinentalShelf
betweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrancein relation tothe ScillyIsles,for

"abating the disproportion and inequity which would othenvise
result from giving full effect to the Scilly Isles as a base-point for
determiningthe course ofthe b~undary"~.

(d) fie icefactor
225. Onthe icefactor,likewise,onewouldhesitate to Saythat there can

be a generalproposition that it can have no bearing. In the present case,
the factorsare such that althoughthe ice is a real geophysical factor that
impinges on the usability ofthe waters in question, it is so situated that it
does not makea differencesignificantenough to affectthe result.

226. However, while in these days of climatic change there may be
some changeabilityin drift ice patterns, there may well be cases where
drift ice or the freezing of theseas for the greater part of the year have,

throughout recorded history, rendered ice-bound the sector adjacent to
the coastline of one Party, whilethe sectoradjacent to the coastline ofthe
other remains largelyunaffected. In such a casethis seemsindeedto be a
factor pertinent to the question of equitable division, for it intrinsically
affectsthe usability ofthe areas to be demarcated.

227. These are but extreme cases.However,they servethe purpose of
showingthat possible avenues of enquiryoughtnot tobe foreclosed.

(e) Nationalsecuriîy
228. Similarconsiderationsapply to factorsbearing on national secu-

ritywhichagainwillVaryfromcaseto caseand mayinagivencaseassume
considerable importance. The observation in Libya/Malta cited in the
Judgment (para. 81) to the effect that security considerations are not
unrelated to the concept of the continental shelf bears this out (I.C.J.
Reports1985,p. 42,para. 51).

l Z.C.J.Reports1982vv. 63-64vara.79: v.89.-ara.129.
Z.C.J.R&o~-ts1984Pb 336-3fipara.222.
RZAA, Vol. XVIII,p.117,para.251.(f) Theconduct ofparties

229. Regardingthe conduct ofparties,thishasbeen fullydealt withby
the Court. Conduct can, in an appropriate case, assume importance as,
for example,whereit amounts to an admission or an estoppel,but 1agree
that itdoesnot constitutean elementwhich couldinfluence the particular
delimitation in the present case.
230. Whilethe itemsof conduct relied upon do not thus become suffi-
ciently significant to affect the present decision, the possibility must
always remain open in future casesthat any one or more of such factors
can assume sufficientsignificance to affect a delimitation.

(g) Disproportionincoastallength
231. The disproportion in length of the coastlines, however, assumes

importance in this case. The Court in its Judgment has dealt with this
aspect at length and 1am in agreement with the Court's reasoning and
conclusiononthis matter.
232. The equitable aspects involved in this question of disproportion
orproportionality maybe briefly setout as follows :

(a) Disproportion in coastallengthsoftreauiring.considerationboth onthe
isclearlvarelevantcircumstance
basisoCpriordecisionsand onthebasisofiquitable principles.

(b) The principle of proportionality does not mean a division of mari-
time space on a proportionate basis. This Court observed in the
Libya/Malta casethat it rejectsanyattemptto "define the equitiesin
arithmetical terms" (I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 55,para. 75).Asthe Court
there observed :
"The Court does not consider that an endeavour to achieve a

predeterminedarithmeticalratio intherelationship betweentherele-
vant coasts and the continental shelf areas generated bythem would
be in harmony with the principles govemingthe delimitation opera-
tion." (Ibid.)
(c) The factor of proportionality applies only to coastlines and not to
landmass, for "it is the coastal length that matters" (ibid., p. 73,
Judge Sette-Camara,separate opinion).

(d) Proportionality can legitimatelybe used asa test to verifythe equity
ofadelimitation.
"In the view ofthe Court, there is no reason of principle whythe
testofproportionality, moreorlessinthe fonn inwhichitwasusedin
the Tunisia/Libyacase,namelytheidentification of'relevant coasts',
the identification of 'relevantreas'ofcontinental shelf,the calcula-
tion of the mathematicalratios of the lengths of the coasts and the areas of shelf attributed, and finally the comparison of such ratios,
shouldnot beemployedtoverifythe equityofadelimitationbetween
opposite coasts, just as well as between adjcicent coasts." (Z.C.J.
Reports1985,p. 53,para. 74.)

(e) The Court would useproportionality as an instrumentfor correcting
disproportionality where -
"the flagrant disproportion in the lengths of coasts is such that the
correctionofanylineaccordingtoareasonableratio isindispensable
for achieving an equitable result"(ibid., p. 73,Judge Sette-Camara,
separate opinion. See, also, Anglo-French Arbitration, RZAA,
Vol.XVIII, p. 58,para. 101).

If3 The application of the principle of proportionality is an instance of
the use of the sense of injustice to test the justice of a result, as
described inparagraphs 104-109 above.
(g) Eventhough the equidistanceprinciple isbased on equitable consid-
erations,equidistance isonlya prima faciesolution.Thefact ofgross
disproportionality as in this case wouldsuffice to move the Court

awayfromthatprima faciesolution.
(h) Such disproportion constitutes a special circumstance within the
meaningofArticle 6,paragraph 1,ofthe 1958Conventionas wellasa
relevantcircumstance under customaryinternationallaw.

233. Atthe conclusionofthis surveyofthe applications ofequityinthe
Judgment of the Court, it would be appropriate to examine the concept
briefly in global terms. Giventhe crucialimportance of equityto the law
of the sea, and given also that the law of the sea is still at aical and

formativephase,noexamination of equity'sinfluenceupon the lawofthe
seaiscompletewithoutasearch forconcepts,principles and attitudesthat
range further afield in a global sense. Such a universal view can only
strengthenmaritime law,both initsconceptualcontent and initsauthori-
tativeforce.Theconceptsofequitycurrentlydrawn upon byinternational
law do not represent the totality of the available corpus of equitable
thought wherewithto strengthen the equitable approach to the problems
of maritime law. Such perspectivescan also offer insights of value inthe
determination of a casesuch asthis.

234. The International Court of Justice, specifically structured to
embody a "representation of the main forms of civilization and of the
principal legal systemsof the world" (see Article9 of the Statute of the
Court), isunder aparticular obligationtosearch inal1thesetraditions and founds legal relations between nations on equity and justice."
(I.C.J. Reports1969,pp. 139-140,Judge Ammoun, separate opinion;
footnotes omitted.)

238. The list of sources cited by Judge Ammoun provides a vast
resourcefrom whichto quarry the elementsof the universal senseofjus-
ticeand fairness that underlies the meaningof equity.Some other impor-

tant sources should also be mentioned - the fine analyses ofjustice in
Greekl and Judaic2 philosophy; the equity-impregnated concept of
"dharma" in Hindujurisprudence3;the elaborately researched concept

of fairness and justice in Buddhism4; the Christian tradition of justice
and conscience as "weightier matters of the law" as opposed to mere
legalism 5;and the Qur'anic injunction :

' Cf.the conflictbetweenconscience and the unjust lawashighlightedin Sophocles'
Antigone,fifth centuryB.C.- Sophocles, Antigone,Eliz.Wyckoff(trans.), in Complete
Greek Tragedies II,ed. D. Grene and R. Lattimore, 1960,University of Chicago Press,
p. 170.

"If mankind is to master the greatest of al1arts, the art of livingtogether in neigh-
bourliness - iflawisto lightthe march ofthe human spirit toward a closerunder-
standing among nations - we must recognizethe truth which was revealed tothe
Prophets of Israel,that equityisan integral component ofjustice." (Ralph A.New-
. man, "The Principles of Equity as a Source of World Law", 4 Israel Law Review
(1966),p. 631.)
The Bhagavad Gita gives righteousness a central place in world order (IV.7) and
the very first word of this classic, described as the glory of Sanskrit literature, is
the word "dharma "- see Juan Mascari, (trans.), Penguin Classics, 1962,p. 37; and
the BrihadAranyaka Upanishadacharacterizes dharma as the king of kings (1,4-14).
Kane'smonumental treatise on the dharmasastra (P.V.Kane, HistoryofDharmasastra,
1946)sets out among the meanings of dharma the concepts of duty, right, justice
and morality (Vol. 1,p. 1).Fritz Berolzheimer describes the philosophical positions
regarding justice in ancient India as "the antecedents of later legal and ethical
developments among the Greeks and Romans" (Berolzheimer, The World'sLegal
Philosophies,1968,p. 37).
See,generally, K. N. Jayatilleke, "The Principles of International Lawin Buddhist
Doctrine", 120Recueildescours(1967-1),pp. 443-567.World ruiership is to be under a
"kingless authority". That "kingless authority" istobe the law (p. 539);and righteous-
nessisextremelyimportanttothe Buddhistconception oflaw(p.449).Twoconceptions
underlie the Buddhist attitude towards law:(a)the rule of righteousness; (b)the happi-
ness and well-being of mankind (L. P. N. Perera, Buddhismand HumanRights, 1991,
p. 41).

SeeMatthew 23:23.Theexpositions ofconsciencebymediaevalchurchmen (such
as the Summae Confessorumwritten to guide priests in assessing the moral conduct of
penitents) were probably an influential source in shaping the thinking of the early
EnglishChancellors (seeA. W. B.Simpson,A HistoryoftheComrnon Law of Contract,
1975,p. 405. See, also, ibid., pp. 377-379 and pp. 397-405).Their primary concem
centred so much on conscience that the rubric under which early Chancery cases are
to be found is not Equity but Conscience (see ibid.,p. 398),for in laying the founda-

tions of equityjurisprudence, the Chancellor sat "as ajudge of conscience,in a court
of conscience,to apply the law of conscience .. .(ibid.). "If thou judge
judge in equitybetweenthem
forGod loveththose
whojudge in equity" l

whichhasbeen the subjectofextensivecommentaryoverthe centuriesby
thejurists of Islam2.

239. The sophisticated notions of reasonable and fair conduct cur-
rently being unveiled by modern researches in African3, Pacific4 and
Amerindian5customarylaw, and the principle of deep harmony withthe
environment which underlies Australian Aboriginal customary law6add
to the reservoirof sourcesavailable.

240. Whatemergesisanotion ofequitybroad-based upon globaljuris-
prudence which speaks therefore with greater authority. Notions of the
supremacy of international law,its impregnation with concepts of right-
eousness, the sacrosanct nature of earth resources, harmony of human

activitywiththe environment,respect forthe rights offuture generations,
and the custody of earth resources with the standard of due diligence
expected of a trustee are equitable principles stressed by those tradi-

'Surah 5,Verse45,Yusuf Ali'stranslation. In particular, the technique of legal rea-
soning called istihsan,referred to by Judge Ammoun, accords an important role to
equity. See,also,John Makdisi, "Legal Logicand Equity in Islamic Law", 33American
JournalofComparativeLaw(1985),p.63;H.Afchar, "The Muslim Conception of Law",
International Encyclopediof ComparativeLaw,Vol.VII,pp. 90-96,and the same author
on "Equity in Musulman Law", in Ralph Newman (ed.), Equity in the WorldSLegal
Systems, 1973,pp. 111-123.
* îheir techniques oflegalreasoning included qiyas (reasoning by analogy),istishab
(presumption of continuity), istislah (considerations of public interest) and istihsan
(a concept of equity).SeeMakdisi, op.cit.,pp. 40-45.The relevanceto equity of some of
them - such as istislahand istihsa- need scarcelybe stressed.
The individuai's rightof ownership of land is limited by the superior right of the
socialgroupto whichhebelongs - A.N.Allott,in Cotran and Rubin (eds.),Readingsin
AfricanLaw, 1970,p.265.See also, T. O. Elias, TheNatureofAfrican Customay Law,
1956,p.272:"It isthis motiveofthejudge to do equitythat isthe most persistent charac-
amongtheBarotseof N. Rhodesia,1955,pp. 202-206;J. H. Driberg ("The African Con-ocess
ception of Law",Journalof Comparativekgislation and InternationalLaw,November
1934,pp. 230-246)discussesAfrican law as an organic growth keeping in tune with the
changing needs of society.Onthe felt standards of the community which are not them-
selvesmatters of lawentering the process ofjudgment, see, M. Gluckman, Orderand
Rebellionin TribalAfrica,1963,pp. 178-206.

See,generally,PeterSack,LandbetweenTwoLaws,1973;and P.Hambruch, Nauru:
ResultsoftheSouthSeasExpedition,1914.Forthe trustconcept in traditional Hawaiian
land law, see M.K. MacKenzie (ed.), Native Hawaiian RightsHandbook 1991,p. 26.

See K.N. Llewellynand E.A.Hoebel, TheCheyenneWay,1941;Charles F.Wilkin-
son, AmericanIndians,ïïme, and theLaw, 1987.
SeeH. McRae, G. Nettheim, L. Beacroft,AboriginalLegal Issues,1991,pp. 44-56;
Mabo v. Queensland(1992),7 AustralianLaw Journal408 (High Court of Australia).tions - principles whosefullerimplicationshaveyetto bewovenintothe
fabric ofinternational law.Suchan approach canalsogiveto equity,espe-
cially in its application to the increasingly important area of planetary
resources such as the sea, a deeper and more insightfulmeaning than it

would bear if the search were less than universal. It also emphasizes the
long-termperspectivesthat need tobekeptinviewasadevelopingbranch
of the law settles intothe conceptual mould which givesit shape for the
foreseeablefuture.

241. Two examples of such broader perspectiveswhich are specially
relevantto the lawofthe seaand whicharedrawnfrom two widely differ-

ent legal traditions will illustrate this proposition. They highlight the
principles of conservation of earth resources and safeguards against
environmental pollution which are of particular importance to the
law relating to such an important earth resource, and are not without
relevance to maritime boundary delimitation cases. This case itself has
highlighted the importance of conservation as a factor constituting the
background to the disputebefore it,forthe near extinction ofthe capelin,
one of the richest resources of this maritime region, was a compelling

circumstance leading to the international negotiations preceding this
case.
242. The first illustration of such a broader perspective comes from
traditional legal systems such as the African, the Pacific, and the Amer-
indian, which contained a deeply ingrained respect for the earth, the
atmosphere, the lakesand the seas,whichthe evolvinglawofthe sea can
consider with profit l.Among Pacific societies, for example, land had
metaphysicalconnotations which prevented it frombeing seen as a sale-

able commodity likeitems of merchandise2.Respect for these elemental
constituents of the inheritance of succeedinggenerations dictated rules
and attitudes based upon a concept of an equitable sharing which was
both horizontal in regard to the present generation and vertical for the
benefit of generations yetto corne3.

' See,also,E.B.Weiss,ZnFairnesstoFutureGenerations:InternationaLaw, Common
that eachgeneration isatrustee or steward ofthe natural environment forthe benefit of
generations yetunborn, and forthe factthat intergenerational fairness canbe addressed
under principles of equity in accordance with a long tradition in international law of
using equitableprinciples to achieve ajust result.

See P.Sack, op.cit.,pp. 33and 37.
See E.B.Weiss,op.cit.,p.37,
"The use of equity to provide equitable standards for allocating and sharing
resources and benefits laysthe foundation for developingprinciples ofintergener-
ational equity. These principles can build upon the increasing use by the Interna-
tional Court of Justice of equitable principles to achieve a result that the Court
viewsas fair and just." 243. The second illustration comes from Islamic law which enshrines
another deeply relevant equitable idea - the idea that earth resources
suchasland cannotbe the subjectofoutrightownership asisthe casewith
movables, but are the subject of trusteeship for the benefit of al1future
generations. Such a juristic concept dictates the principle that such
resources must be treated with the care due to the property of others and
that the present must preserveintact for the futurethe inheritance it has
receivedfromthe past. In such equitableprinciples mayliea keyto many
of the environmental concems which affect the land, the sea and the air
space ofthe planet.

244. Such transcending equities, as visualized by those systems, add
new dimensions to the equitable framework within whichthe equities of
the law of the sea can evolve,and add authority to this structure. They
underscore the special responsibility of a tribunal delimiting maritime
areas to pay due emphasis to the universal nature of the material out of

which itismoulding the lawof the future.

245. To place these conclusionsin an elegantsetting:
"Behind the diverse facades of legal systemswe discern the sub-
stantial identity of the underlying principles of equity which link
legalsystemstogether, as in a Gothic cathedra1the multiplicity ofits
rhythms of Stoneunite with the fundamental impulses of the mind
and ofnature." l

246. Notwithoutreason didthe emerginglawofthe seafind inequitya
general area of agreementamongparticipants at UNCLOS who cameto
its meetingsrepresentingwidelydifferentbackgrounds and widelydiver-
gent interests.

247. Thisbrief surveyofavasttopic - the contribution ofequityto an
individual decision - is intended to indicate the many waysin which it
contributes to theprocess ofjudgment and can contribute to the develop-
ment of the law of the sea. While not intended to be a comprehensive
exposition, it could also serve the limited purpose of drawing attention
to aspects of its operation which, by remaining implicit, may remain
unexplored.
248. International law throughout its history has been richly inter-
wovenwith equitablestrands ofthought. Of equityperhaps morethan of
any other department of legalthought it could trulybe said that, "Under

' Newman, op.cit.,p. 631.279 MARITIMEDELIMITATION(SEP. OP. WEERAMANTRY)

the surfaceeddies createdby the decisions of individual cases, there
surgesamightytideofthefundamentalprinciplesofjustice." Thattide
needstobedrawninto servicetoits fullestpotentialasthedevelopinglaw
oftheseamovestowardsitsfullermaturity.

(Signed) ChristopherGregoryWEERAMANTRY.

'SeeR. A.Newman, op.cit.,p. 621.

245

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE WEERAMANTRY

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Paragraphs
1-11

Specialrole played by equityin this case 5-11
12-165

Conceptual problems associated with the use of equity 12-19
Issuesarising from the Court's reliance on equity 20
Analysisof equity with reference to maritime delimitation 21-165

1. The application of equity 21-42
(a) Equitableprinciples 22-24
(b) Equitableprocedures 25-27
(c) Equitablemethods 28-30
(d) Equitableresults 31-42

II. Inapplicability of equityasasystemseparate from law 43-51

(a) Equityincommon law
(b) Equityin civillaw
III. Thecategories ofequity

(a) Equity exaequoet bono
(b) Absolute equity
(c) EquitypraeterIegem
(d) Equity infralegem(alsotermedequity intralegemor
equitysecundumlegem)
(e) Equity contraIegem

IV. Theroutes ofentry ofequity
(a) Equity asrequired tobeapplied bytreaties
fb) Eciuityascontainedincustomaryinternational law
(c) ~qui6 asageneralprinciple offaw
(d) Equity as embodied in the decisions of courts and
tribunals
(e) Equity asexpounded in the writings ofthe publicists
fl Equity asjustice
(g) Equityasdrawn in bythe United Nations Charter
(h) Equity asembodiedin State practice

V. Apriori and aposteriori employment of equity
(a) The positive or a priori use of equity to construct a
result
(b) The negative or a posteriori use of equity to test a
result OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. WEERAMANTRY

[Traduction]

Paragraphes
INTRODUCTION 1-11
Rôle particulier de l'équidans la présente affaire 5-11

Problèmes conceptuels que soulèvele recours àl'équité 12-19

Questions que soulève l'emploide la notion d'équitépar la Cour 20
Analyse de l'équitpar rapport à la délimitationmaritime 21-165
1. L'application de l'équité 21-42

a) Lesprincipeséquitables 22-24
b) Lesprocédureséquitables 25-27
c) Lesméthodes équitables 28-30
d) Lesrésultatséquitables 31-42
II. L'inapplicabilitéde l'équité comme systèextérieurau
droit

a) L'équitéen commonlaw
b) L'équitédans lessystèmesdetradition romaniste
III. Lescatégoriesd'équité

a) L'équité exaequoetbon0
b) L'équitéabsolue
c) L'équitépraeter legem
d) L'équitéinfralegem(également qualifiéeéquitéintra
legemou équitésecundumlegem)
e) L'équitécontra legem
IV. Comment l'équité s'introduitans ledroitinternational

a) L'équitéàlaquelle lestraités obligentàrecourir
b) L'équitéreflétédansledroitinternationalcoutumier
c) L'équitéen tant que principe générl u droit
d) L'équitédans lajurispmdence

e) L'équitédans la doctrine 91-93
fl L'équitéentantque justice 94-98
g) L'équitéintroduite par la Charte des Nations Unies 99-101
h) L'équitédansla pratiquedes Etats 102
V. Recours àl'équitéàpriori eàposteriori 103-109

a) Le recours positif ouà priori à l'équitéen vue de
parveniraun résultat 103
b) Lerecours négatif ouàposteriori àl'équitpour véri-
fierun résultat 104-109212 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP. OP. WEERAMANTRY)

VI. The usesofequity 110-121

(a) As abasis forindividualized justice 113-115
(b) As introducing considerations of fairness, reason-
ableness,and good faith 116

(c) As a basis for certain specific principles of legal
reasoning
(d) As offeringstandards for the allocationand sharing
ofresources and benefits
(e) To achievedistributivejustice

VII. Themethods of operation of equity

Throughbalancingtheinterests oftheparties
Through an equitableinterpretation of ale of law
or ofatreatyorset of facts
Throughtemperingtheapplication of strictmles
Through thechoice ofan equitableprinciple
Throughthe use ofjudicialdiscretion
Throughfillingingapsand intersticesinthe law
Through followingequitableprocedures
Through the application of equitable principles
alreadyembeddedinthe law
Throughits useinnegativefashionto test a result

VIII. The stagesof equitable decision-making

(a) Theidentification ofthearea of thedispute
(b) The preparatory phase of assembling the relevant
circumstances
(c) Thedecisionalphase
(d) Theconfirmatoryphase
Uncertaintiesin the use of equity

(a) Absenceof mechanismsfor precisequantification
(b) Lackofdefinitenessinthescope of equity
(c) Lackofcrystallizationof equitable results
(d) Changingnature ofthe law ofthe sea
(e) The resort to fact-intensiverather than rule-intensive pro-
cedures

PARTB. PARTICULI ANRVOCATION OFSEQUITY IN MARITIMD EELIMI-
TATION

Long-standing recognition of equity in the law ofthe sea
The use of equityin the 1958Geneva Convention
The use of equity in the 1982ntego Bay Convention
Categories of relevant factorsare not closed
The equidistanceprinciple
(i) 1sit a mandatory rule?
(ii) Does it have priority over other factors?
(iii) Does it have parity with other factors?

The "special circumstances" principle VI. Lesutilisations de I'équité

a) L'équité commebase d'unejustice «individualisée))
b) L'équitécomme introduisant dans le processus des
considérations d'impartialité,de raison et de bonne
foi
c) L'équité comme basede certains principes spécifi-
ques de raisonnement juridique
d) L'équité comme fournissant des normes pour I'allo-
cation etle partage de ressources etd'avantages

e) L'équité comme moyende parvenir à une justice
distributive
VII. Comment intervient l'équité

a) Miseenbalance desintérêts des Parties
b) Interprétation équitabled'une règlede droit ou d'un
traitéoud'un ensemblede faits
c) Modérationde l'application de règlesstrictes
d) Choixd'un principe équitable
e) Exercicedu pouvoir discrétionnairedujuge
fl Suppléancedes lacunes etdes interstices du droit
g) Application de procédures équitables
h) Application de principes équitables faisant déjà
partie du droit

i) Utilisation a contrariopour vérifierunrésultat
VIII. Lesstades de l'élaborationd'unedécisionen équité

a) Définitiondela zone en litige
b) La phase préparatoire de la réunion des circons-
tances pertinentes
c) Laphase de décision
d) La phase de confirmation

Incertitudes dans l'utilisation de I'équité
a) Absence de mécanismede quantification précise
b) Manque deprécisiondela portéede I'équité
c) Absence de cristallisation desrésultats équitables
d) Caractèreévolutifdu droit dela mer

e) Lerecours à des procéduresaxéessur lesfaits plutôt que sur
les règles
PARTIE B. MENTIONS PARTICULI~RES DE L'ÉQUITÉEN MATI~RE DE DÉLI-
MITATIONMARITIME

Reconnaissance de longue date de I'équité en droit de la mer
L'équité dansla convention de Genèvede 1958
L'équité dansla convention de Montego Bay de 1982
La liste des catégories des facteurspertinents n'estpas close
Le principe de l'équidistance

i) Est-ceune règleobligatoire?
ii) A-t-ellepriorité surlesautresfacteurs?
iii) Est-ellesur un plan d'égalité avelcesautres facteurs ?

Le principe des «circonstances spéciales ))The "relevant circumstances" principle
(a) Population
(b) Economicfactors

(c) State practice
(d) The icefactor
(e) National security
03 The conduct ofparties
(g) Disproportion incoastal lengthLe principe des ((circonstances pertinentes »
a) Lapopulation
b) Lesfacteurs économiques
c) lapratique des Etats
d) Lefacteur desglaces
e) Lasécuriténationale
fl Laconduite des parties
g) Ladisproportion des longueurs de côtes 1. The observations that ensue indicate the reasons for my agreement
withthe Judgment oftheCourt. In viewofthe Judgment's intensive use of
equity,they explorein somewhatextendedform thejurisprudential con-
tent and practical application ofthat conceptin a manner which can most

appropriately be attempted in a separate opinion.
2. Against thisbackground, itisnot necessary inthisopinionto recapi-
tulate the several details of fact, which are set out in the Judgment. This
opinion will attempt,rather, to examine the application of equity to those
facts, explaining my support of the methods used and conclusions
reached.
3. The ensuing analysis is undertaken against the background of the
substantialbody ofcreativework done bythis Court inlaying the founda-

tions of an equitablejurisprudence for the evolvinglaw of the sea. What
"appears atfirstsight to be ajumble ofdifferent and disparate elements" '
may well yield, upon closer examination, someuseful guidelines for the
determination of a case such asthis.

4. Although this opinion focuses on the field ofmaritimedelimitation,
it will also take in occasional glimpses, when necessary, of the broader
equitable landscape lyingbeyond.This isrendered al1the more necessary

because application of equity inthe field of maritime delimitation raises
far-reachingjuristic questions *and iscurrentlypassingthrough a critical
phase3.

Special RolePlayedbyEquityinthisCase
5. The Court's Judgment reveals the use of equity in several ways, and
at various stages in the judgmental process.

' R. Y. Jennings, "Equity and Equitable Principles", in Annuaire suissede droit
international,Vol. XLII (1986),p. 38. See, also, the same author in "The Principles
Governing Marine Boundaries", in Staat und VolkerrechtsordnungF , estschriftfur
Karl Doehring,1989,p. 408.
See Mark W. Janis, "Equity in International Law", Encyclopediaof PublicZnter-
nationalLaw, Vol.7,pp. 76-77:
"The application ofequitableprinciplesin these maritime delimitation caseshas
evoked a debate regarding the role of equity which is rather similar to that which
accompanied earlier manifestations of equity practice. Some obsewers - largeiy
in the positivist traditi-n have criticized the courts for going beyond their
powers."
Judge Jennings refers, in connection with maritime delimitation, to "some deep
problems - one might almost add a malaise - affectingthat part of internationallaw
today" ("The Principles Governing Marine Boundaries", op. cit.,p. 398).See,also, the
criticisms of the use of equity assembled by Judge Bedjaoui in "L''énigme'des
'principes équitables'dans ledroitdes délimitations maritimes",instaEspaiiolade
DerechoInternacional,Vol.XLII (1990),p. 376. 1. Lesobservations qui suiventindiquent lesraisons pour lesquellesje

suisen accord avecl'arrêtde la Cour. Commecelui-cifaitsouvent appel à
la notion d'équité,je consacrerai quelques développements au contenu
jurisprudentiel de ceconceptet à son applicationpratique en m'efforçant
de rester dans le cadre d'une opinion individuelle.
2. Cela étant, il n'y a pas lieu de récapitulerici les diverses circons-
tances de fait quisont exposéesdans l'arrêtJ .e tenterai plutôt d'examiner

l'application de l'équité à ces faits en expliquant pourquoi j'approuve
les méthodes employéespar la Cour et les conclusions auxquelles elle
estparvenue.
3. L'analysequisuits'inscrit dans laperspective del'importante Œuvre
de créationque la Coura accomplieenposant lesfondements d'unejuris-
prudence en matièred'équité pourun droit de la mer en pleine évolution.

Il est fort possible que cequi «apparaît àpremièrevuecomme un fouillis
d'éléments différente stdisparates))' nous donne, à y regarder de plus
près,quelquesorientationsutiles pour statuer sur desaffairesanalogues à
celle-ci.
4. Cette opinion porte principalement sur la délimitation mari-
time, mais sans s'interdire, à l'occasion, des aperçus plus larges sur

l'équité en général.Celaest d'autant plus nécessaireque l'application de
l'équitédans le domaine de la délimitation maritime soulève de vastes
problèmesde droit2 et passe actuellement par une phase critique3.

Rôleparticulierde l'équité danslaprésente affaire

5. L'arrêtde la Cour fait apparaître le recours àl'équité de différentes
manières,et à différentsstadesdu processus dejugement.

R. Y.Jennings, «Equity and Equitable Principles », dans Annuairesuissede droit
international,l. XLII (1986), p. 38. Voir aussi, du mêmeauteur, «The Principles
Goveming Marine Boundaries », dans Staat und Volken-echtsordnung,estschriftfür
Karl Doehring,1989,p. 408.
VoirMark W.Janis, «Equityin International Law»,EncyclopediaofPublicZnterna-
tionalLaw,vol. 7,p. 76-77:
«L'applicationdesprincipesd'équitédans cesaffaires de délimitationmaritime
a soulevéconcernant le rôle de l'équun débat quiressemble assez à celui qui
avait marqué desmanifestations précédentesde la pratique de l'équ. ertains
observateurs - souvent de tradition positivi-teont reproché auxtribunaux
d'excéder leurs pouvoirs.»
M. Jennings évoque,au sujet de la délimitation maritime,de ((sérieuxproblèmes
- on pourrait presque parler d'un mala-squi affectent ce domaine du droit inter-
national aujourd'hui («The Principles Governing Marine Boundaries », op. cit,
p. 398); voir aussi les critiques du recours à l'équité réuniepsar M. Bedjaoui dans
«L'a énigme» des ((principeséquitables» dans le droit des délimitations maritimes»,
RevistaEspafiolade DerechoInternacional,vol. XLII (1990),p. 376. 215 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP .P.WEERAMANTRY)

6. It describes the equidistance-special circumstances mle of the
1958Convention as expressinga general nom based on equitable prin-
ciples(para. 46)and examinesthe "equitable principles-relevant circum-
stances"rulerelatingtodelimitation ofacontinentalshelf,fisheryzone or
all-purpose singleboundary (para. 56).It also examines the effect of the
customary mle which requires a delimitation based on equitable prin-
ciples(paras. 46and 71).

7. The Court gives its attention to the application of equitable pro-
cedures (para. 92), the effecting of an equitable division (para. 64), the
need to arrive at an equitable result (paras. 54and 90),the ensuring of an

equitable solution (para. 65)and the process of evolving such a solution
(para. 63). It notes the prima facie equitable character of the reasons
underlyingthe equidistancemethod and the need foran equitable delimi-
tation to take into account the disparity in coastal lengths (para. 65). It
stressesthat a result which is equitable in itself is the objective of every
maritime delimitationbased on law(para. 70),and refersto the equity of
the delimitation line(para. 62).
8. The Judgment considers whether a given line is "equitable in its
result" (para. 62),and itdescribesthelinedrawn byDenmark 200nautical
miles from the baselines of Eastern Greenland as "inequitable in its
effects"(para. 87).It takes note of Norway'sargument that proportional-
ity is the test of the equitableness of a result arrived at by other means
(para. 63)and Denmark'sreferenceto "a method appropriatefor an equi-

table delimitation line" (para. 62).It considersthe manifestlyinequitable
resultsfollowingfrom the application ofthe median line (para. 68).

9. Specificreference ismade to themeasure ofdiscretionconferredon
the Court bythe need to arrive at an equitableresult(para. 90).Recogniz-
ing the need to make proper provision for equitable access to fishery
resources (paras. 75, 91 and 92), the Court makes a division according
to which it considers that "the requirements of equity would be met"
(para. 92).
10. Equity has thus played a role of ovenvhelming importance in the
Court's decision,involvingthe application of equitable principles, equi-
table procedures and equitable methods. The decision reveals an inten-
siveeffort directedtowards achievingan equitablesolution and attesting

the equitable nature of that solution. It draws in equity to address the
problem in hand through amultitude ofroutes - treaty,customaryinter-
national law and judicial decisions to name a few. The methods used
involveboththe apriori useofequityto workforwardstowardsapossible
result and theaposteriori use of equityto test a result thus reached.

11. Sincethis casehas drawn both upon the Court's generalequitable
jurisprudence andon itsparticular invocationsinrelation tothe lawofthe
sea,thisopinion will dealwithboth theseaspects.Thespecialinvocations
ofequitywhichgiveitredoubled emphasisinthe lawofthe seatend some- 6. L'arrêt définit larègle équidistance-circonstances spéciales de la
convention de 1958comme une norme généralefondéesurdes principes
équitables (par. 46) et examine la règle «principes équitables-circons-
tancespertinentes »relative à la délimitationd'un plateau continental ou
d'une zone de pêche,ou au tracéd'une ligne unique de délimitation à
toutes fins (par. 56). Il examine égalementl'effet de la règlecoutumière
qui exige une délimitation fondée sur des principes équitables (par. 46
e. .I).
7. La Cour accorde son attention à l'application de procédures équi-
tables (par.92), à la réalisation d'une division équitable (par. 64)à la
nécessité de parvenir àun résultat équitable(par.54et 90),àlaréalisation

d'une solution équitable(par. 65) et àl'opération qui consiste àdégager
cette solution (par. 63). Elle note le caractère équitablerima facie des
raisons sous-jacentes àla méthodede l'équidistance etla nécessitéd'une
délimitationéquitablepour tenircompte dela disparitédeslongueursdes
côtes(par. 65).Elle souligne qu'un résultatqui soitéquitableen lui-même
constitue le but de toute délimitation maritime fondée sur le droit
(par. 70),et évoquel'équité de la ligne de délimitation (par.62).
8. L'arrêtexamine si une ligne donnéeest ((équitabledans son résul-
tat»(par. 62),etilyestdit que la lignetracéepar leDanemark à200milles
marins àpartir des lignes de base du Groenlandoriental produirait «des
effets inéquitables» (par. 87).Il prend note de l'argument de la Norvège

selonlequel la proportionnalité est le critèredu caractère équitable d'un
résultatobtenupar d'autres moyens (par. 63)etdesdéclarationsdu Dane-
markconcernant «une méthode permettant d'aboutir à une ligne de déli-
mitation équitable)) (par. 62). Il examine les résultats manifestement
inéquitablesdécoulantde l'application de la lignemédiane (par. 68).
9. Il est fait expressément mention du pouvoir discrétionnaire que
confère à la Cour la nécessitde parvenir à un résultat équitable (par.90).
Reconnaissantqu'il fautprendre desdispositions appropriéespour assu-
rer un accèséquitable aux ressources halieutiques (par. 75, 91 et 92), la
Cour opèreun partage selon lequel elle considère qu'elle pourrait ainsi
«répondre aux exigences de l'équité »(par. 92).

10. L'équitéa doncjouéun rôletout à faitdéterminantdans la décision
de la Cour, s'agissant de l'application de principes équitables, de procé-
dureséquitablesetdeméthodeséquitables.L'arrê ttaduitun effortinten-
sif en vue de parvenirà une solution équitable et de vérifier le caractère
équitablede cettesolution. La mise en Œuvrede l'équité pour résoudrele
problèmesefait par demultiples voies :droitconventionnel,droitinterna-
tional coutumier et jurisprudence, pour n'en citer que quelques-unes.
Parmi les méthodes employéesfigurent à la fois l'utilisatiànpriori de
l'équitéà la recherched'un résultatpossible et sonutilisatioà posteriori
pour vérifierun résultat ainsiobtenu.
11. Puisque,dans cetteaffaire, on a invoqué à la fois lajurisprudence

de la Cour concernant l'équité engénéra elt sesapplicationsparticulières
dans le contexte du droit de la mer, ces deux aspectsseront abordés dans
la présente opinion. Les applications spéciales qui accentuent l'impor-times to overshadow the applicability of general principles of equity,
which stillplay a vital part in this field. To minimize the importance of
general equitable considerations, especiallyat this incipient stage of the
developinglaw ofthe sea,may cramp the evolution ofthe latter in what is

perhaps its most formative phase. This opinion consequently devotes
someattention to an examination ofthe waysin which equity,both in its
general senseand initsspecialapplication tothelawofthe sea,cancontri-
bute to the solution ofthe varied problems encountered inthis case.

PART A. GENERAE LQUITABJ LERISDICTIO OFNTHE COURT

ConceptualProblemsAssociatedwith theUseofEquity

12. The issuewhether equity should play a role in maritime delimita-
tion isonewhichhasbeen questioned by eminentauthority, bothjudicial
and academic, and mustbe seriouslyaddressed ifreliance isto be placed
upon it. This is part of a larger question asto whether, indeed, although
equity is clearly a part of public international law,its use is really-
sary or useful, having regard to itsuncertainties, its difficulties of defini-
tion and its lack of methodologies for the precise quantification of its
findings.

13. Telders, forexample, has expressed the viewthat, apart from the
application ofthe principle of good faith, equityhas no special legalig-
nificancel. Ripert, in his lectures before the Hague Academy in 1933,
went even further to state that equity is a principle, but a principle of
morality and not of law2.
14. Indeed, judicial dicta of some judges of this Court have given
strong expression to such a view.Vice-President Koretsky,for example,
in the North Sea ContinentalShelf cases, affirmed that equity, being of
"a non-juridical,ethical character", ought not to be resorted to by this

Court :
"1feelthat to introduce sovague anotion intothejurisprudence of
the International Court mayopenthe door to makingsubjectiveand
therefore at times arbitrary evaluations, instead of following the
guidance of establishedgeneralprinciples and rules of international
law in the settlement of disputes submitted to the Court."

(I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 166,dissentingopinion.)

tionalLaw") inVenameldeGeschriften(CollectedPapers), TheHague, 194292,ata-
p. 338.
GeorgesRipert, "Lesrèglsudroitcivil applicablesaux rapports internationaux",
44 Recueildescoursdelilcadémiededroitinternational(1933-II),p.575- "L'équitéest
principe,mais principedemoraleet nonprincipedudroit."tance de l'équité dansle droit de lamertendent parfois àplacer au second
plan l'applicabilité desprincipes généraux d'équité, quijouent encoru en
rôle décisifdans cedomaine. En minimisantl'importance des considéra-
tions généralesen matière d'équités,urtout àcettephase initiale du déve-

loppement du droit de la mer, on risque d'entraver cette évolution àun
stade qui estpeut-êtreleplus importantpour saformation.Nousaccorde-
rons donc une certaine attention à l'examen des moyens par lesquels
l'équitét,ant dans sonacception généralequedans son application parti-
culière au droit de la mer, peut contribuer à la solution des divers
problèmesrencontrés enl'espèce.

Problèmes conceptuelsqu soulèvelerecours à l'équité

12. La question de savoir si l'équité doit jouerun rôle en matière de
délimitation maritime a suscité des doutes de la part d'éminentesauto-
rités,tant judiciaires qu'académiques, et doit être étudiée sérieusement
si l'on veut pouvoir se fierà cette notion. Sur un plan plus généralon
peut même sedemander si, bien que l'équité soit manifestementune
composante du droit international public, son utilisation est vraiment
nécessaireouutile,compte tenu de sesincertitudes, de la difficultéqu'ily

a à la définir et du manque de méthodespour mesurer exactement ses
effets.
13. Telders,par exemple, a exprimél'avisque, mise à part l'application
du principe de la bonne foi, l'équitén'a pas de signification juridique
spéciale'. Dans le cours qu'il a fait en 1933 à l'Académiede La Haye,
Ripert est mêmealléplus loinen déclarant: aL'équité est principe, mais
principe de morale et non principe du droit. ))
14. Certains membres de la Cour internationale de Justice ont même

expriméce point de vue avec force dans leurs opinions. Par exemple,
M. Koretsky, Vice-Président,a affirmé à propos des affaires du Plateau
continentalde la merdu Nord que l'équité, ayant«un caractère non pas
juridique, mais éthique D,ne devrait pas être appliquéepar la Cour:
((11me semble qu'en introduisantune notion aussivague dans la
jurisprudence de la Cour internationale, on risque d'ouvrir la voieà

desévaluationssubjectivesetdonc parfoisarbitraires,etque lerègle-
ment des différends soumis à la Cour ne s'inspirerait plus alors des
règles et des principes généraux du droit international établi.»
(C.Z.J.Recueil1969,p. 166,opinion dissidente.)

(Opzet van een boek over het internationale recht » (((Esquissed'un livre sur le
droit internatioD),dans VerzameldeGeschriften(Recueil d'articles), La Haye, 1948,
p. 338.
Georges Ripert,Les règles du droit civil applicables aux rapports internatio-
naux », Recueildes coursde l'Acadde droitinternational,t. 44(1933-II),p. 575.Judge Tanaka put itevenmorestronglyin hisobservationin the samecase
that, "Reference to the equitableprinciple isnothing elsebut beggingthe
question." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 196,dissenting opinion.) Other criti-

cisms l describe equity as a doctrine "déroutéeet déroutante","a riddle
wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma", as paradoxical, circular, fuzzy
and lackingprecise definition.

15. These conceptual criticisms of equity may be addressed at three
levels - atthe level oflawingeneral,atthe levelofinternational law and
at the level ofthe law ofthe sea.
16. At its mostgeneral level,equityhas been seen asthe source ofthat
dynamismwhich isnecessaryforlegaldevelopment.Thus,inthe wordsof
the eminentcomparativist PuigBrutau, "equity isone ofthe namesunder

which isconcealedthe creativeforcewhich animatesthe lifeofthe la^"^.

17. Atthe level of international law, that creativity is well illustrated
whenoneconsiders that equityhasbeen the sourcethat has giveninterna-
tional lawthe concept ofinternational mandates and trusts, ofgoodfaith,
of pacta sunt servanda, ofjus cogens, ofunjust enrichment, of rebus sic
stantibus and of abuse of rights. No doubt, the future holds for it a
similarlyvitalcreativerole.
18. Viewedmore specifically,in the context of the law of the sea, its

potential for developing that incipient branch of international law is so
far-reachingasto have attracted the commentthat it is
"a juridical arsenal from which the judge draws the tools which
enable him to identify, evaluate, understand and give effect to cir-
cumstances recognized asjuridically relevant in a particular case"3
(translation).

19. What follows isan analysis ofthese tools by which equityhelps to
identify, evaluate, understand and give effect to the circumstances in a
particular case.Thereafter,thisopinion wil1,addressthe questionwhether
the uncertainties of equity render it a practically unsuitable tool for the
determination of casessuch asthis.

IssuesArisingfrom the Court S RelianceonEquity
20. This analysis centres around the followingaspects of the reliance

on equityinthe Judgment :

As assembled by Judge Bedjaoui in "L''énigme'des 'principes équitables'dans le
droit des délimitations maritimes",op.cit.,p. 376.
"Juridical Evolution and Equity", in Essays in Jurisprudence in Honor of
Rosc"les principes équitables se présententen définitive commeun arsenaljuridique
dans lequel le juge puise les outils permettant d'identifier, d'évaluer,de com-
prendre et de satisfaire des circonstances reconnues juridiquement pertinentes
dans une espèce déterminée." (Bedjaouop.cit.,p. 384.)Danslamême affaire,M.Tanakas'estexpriméavecplus devigueurencore
en disant que :((Renvoyeràl'équité n'estrien d'autre qu'une pétitionde
principe. »(C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 196,opinion dissidente.)D'autres criti-
ques lparlent del'équité commed'une doctrine déroutéeed téroutante»
ou d'a un paradoxe entortillédansun mystère à l'intérieurd'uneénigme»
ou l'ont qualifiéede paradoxale, circulaire,floue et dépourvuede défini-

tion précise.
15. Cescritiques delanotion d'équité peuventsesitue rtroisniveaux :
celuidu droit engénéralc ,eluidu droit international et celuidu droitde la
mer.
16. Auplan le plus général,l'équité a été considérée colm amseurce
du dynamismequi estnécessaireau developpement du droit. Ainsi,pour
reprendrelaformule del'éminent comparatiste PuigBrutau : l'équitéest
un desnoms souslesquelsse cache la force créatrice qui animela vie du
droit» 2.
17. Au plan du droit international, cette créativitéest claire si l'on

considèreque l'équité a étéla sourcequd ionnéau droit international le
conceptdemandat etderégimedetutelleinternationaux, debonne foi,de
pacta suntservanda,dejus cogens,d'enrichissement sans cause, de rebus
sic stantibuset d'abus de droit. Et l'avenir luiréserve,nul doute, un rôle
vitaltout aussicréateur.
18. Dans un contexteplus particulier, celui du droit de la mer,l'équité
semble pouvoir contribuer si largement au développement de cette
branche relativementnouvelle du droit international qu'on apu dire que

«les principes équitablesseprésententen définitivecommeun arse-
naljuridique dans lequel lejuge puise lesoutilspermettant d'identi-
fier, d'évaluer,de comprendre et de satisfaire des circonstances
reconnues juridiquement pertinentes dans une espèce détermi-
née »3.

19. Ce qui suit estune analysedesoutilsgrâceauxquelsl'équitéaide à
identifier,évalueretcomprendre lescirconstances detelle ou telleaffaire
età leurdonner effet.Nous verronsensuite si,dans lapratique, lesincerti-
tudes liéesà l'équité empêchentd'en faireun oup tlur réglerdesaffaires
comme celle-ci.

Questionsquesoulève l'emploide la notiond'équitépalra Cour

20. Cette analyse est axéesur lesaspectssuivants du recours à l'équité
dans l'arrêt:

droit des délimitations marit», op.cit.,p. 376.(principes équitables» dans le
«Juridical Evolution and Equa,dans EssaysinJurisprudenceinHonorofRoscoe
Pound,1962,p. 84.
Bedjaoui, op.cit.,p. 384.- TheJudgment oftheCourt,in commonwithmostothersinthe field of
maritime delimitation,resorts to equitynot merelyfor principles but
also forprocedures and methods, and forthe testing oftentativesolu-
tions reached. The one word "equity" covers al1these applications,
someofthem quitedistinctfromothers.

- Theterm "equity" asused bytheCourt, and ininternational lawand in
maritimedelimitationgenerally,has a distinctmeaningfromequityas
used in the sense of a corrective systemstanding apart from the law.
Wheneverthetermequityisusedinthe Judgment,theterm isnot used
in the lattersense, and this distinction must be kept in mind for an
appreciation oftheroleofequityinthiscase.

- Therehasbeen no resortto equity exaequoetbono.Nearly everydeci-
sionapplyingequitytomaritimedelimitationhasstressed thatthe spe-
ciesofequityemployedisnot equityexaequoetbono.Thisnecessitates

an examination ofthe distinctionsbetween that concept and the con-
ceptofequityactuallyemployed.The various categoriesofequityand
theirrelevancetothiscase cal1forexaminationinthiscontext.

- The Judgment draws in equity through treaties, customary interna-
tional lawandjudicial decisions,as wellasbroader conceptsofequity
which flow in from many sources. An examination of these varied
sources will clarify theseveralwaysin which the problem before the
Court hasnecessarilyattracted itsoperation.

- The Judgment uses equity a priori to work towards a result, and
a posteriori to check a result thus reached. This raises important
juristic issues.
- There are several purposes or ends for which equity has been used.
These are varied and some of them are pertinent to this Judgment in
particular andto maritimedelimitation ingeneral.Not al1thepossible
purposes and endsofequityareappropriate to maritimedelimitation.

Equity has many methods of operation, more than one of which has
beenused inthe Judgment. Thesemaynot al1be spelt out specifically,

but one or more of them are in constant use in everyexerciseof that
discretion,asindeedthey are inthis case.The ambit ofjudicial discre-
tion - a matter specificallyreferred to in the Judgment - has been
the subject of somecontroversy. In subscribing to the decision of the
Court, 1have accepted the legitimacyof such a use ofjudicial discre-
tion and feelimpelledto explain why1consider suchuse ofdiscretion
legitimate.
Theprocess of equitable decision-making,as in a boundary delimita-
tion, is not a singleprocess but can be broken up into its constituent
stages.The decisioninthiscasehasproceededthrough those stagesas- Comme la plupart des autres décisions en matière de délimitation
maritime, l'arrêtde la Cour tire de l'équité non seulement desprin-
cipes mais aussi des procédures et des méthodes,et des critèrespour
apprécierles solutions auxquelles on est arrivé à titre provisoire. Le
mêmemot «équité » couvre toutes ces applications, dont certaines
sonttrèsdifférentesdesautres.
- Leterme «équité»,tel qu'il estemployépar la Cour et, de façongéné-

rale, en droit international et en matièrede délimitations maritimes,
n'apas lemêmesens quequand ilsert à désignerun systèmecorrectif
distinct du droit. Ce dernier sens n'est pas celui du mot «équité»
lorsqu'il apparaît,maintesreprises,dansl'arrêt etilfaut gardercette
distinctionàl'esprit sil'onveut comprendre lerôle de l'équitédans la
présenteaffaire.
- Il n'ya pas eu de recourà l'équitéexaequo etbono.Presquetoutesles
décisionsappliquant l'équité à la délimitationmaritime ont souligné
quel'équité enquestionn'estpas du type exaequo etbono.De cefait il
est nécessaire d'examiner les distinctions entre ce concept et le

concept d'équitéeffectivement employé. Les diverses catégories
d'équitéet leur pertinence en la présente affaire devront être exami-
néesdans cecontexte.
- L'équitéintervientdansl'arrê ptar lavoiedetraités,de dispositions du
droit international coutumier et de décisionsjudiciaires, et aussisous
la forme de conceptions plus larges de l'équitédont les sources sont
nombreuses.L'examen de ces différentessourcespermettra de mieux
comprendre les diverses modalités selon lesquelles le problème
portédevant la Cour ne pouvait manquer de susciter le recours à ce

concept.
- L'arrêt recourtàl'équitéà priori en vue de parvenir àun résultat,età
posteriori pour vérifier un résultat ainsi obtenu. Cela soulève des
questionsjuridiques importantes.
- L'équitéa été mise àcontribution àla recherche de différentsbuts ou
fins. Ils sont nombreux et certains d'entre eux ontun rapport aveccet
arrêt en particulier et avec la délimitation maritime en général.Or,
tous les buts et fins possibles de l'équité conviennentpas tous àla
délimitationmaritime.

- L'équité opèrdee bien desfaçons,dont plus d'une a servidans l'arrêt.
Elles ne sont pas toujours énoncées explicitement, mais une ou
plusieurs d'entre elles sont d'usage constant chaque fois que ce
pouvoir discrétionnaire est exercé,comme cela a effectivementétéle
cas en l'espèce. Les limites du pouvoir discrétionnaire du juge -
problème mentionné expressémentdans l'arrêt - ont prêtéà contro-
verse. En souscrivant à la décisionde la Cour, j'ai admis la légitimité
decetusage du pouvoirdiscrétionnairedujuge etje croisdevoirexpli-
querpourquoi je considèrecetexercicecommelégitime.
- La démarche suivie pour parvenir à une décision équitable,par

exemple en matière dedélimitation maritime,n'est pas monolithique
mais peut être décomposéeen plusieursétapes. En l'espèce,cette dé- willbe pointed out. Anappreciation ofthose separate stagesis an aid
tounderstanding theactualoperation ofequityinthiscase.

Theseaspectswillbediscussedinthe ensuingparagraphs in the order in
whichthey have been set out.

ANALYSISOFEQUITYWITH REFERENCETOMARITIMEDELIMITATION

I. TheApplicationofEquity

21. Theapplication of equityto a givencasecan comprise the applica-
tion of an equitable principle or principles, the adoption of an equitable
procedure or procedures, the use of an equitable method or the securing
of an equitable result. Al1of these aspects are relevant tothe determina-
tion ofthe present case.

(a) Equitableprinciples

22. Equitable principles are in this discussion taken to include con-
cepts,black-letter rules and standards or principles inthe broader sense,
as there is no need in this discussion to refine this categoryfurther. The
important distinction drawn by jurists l between black-letter rules and
standards orprinciplesishence not used forthe purpose ofthisclassifica-
tion, and the term "equitable principles" is to be read as covering al1of
these.
23. The Chamber of this Court, in the case concerning Delimitation of
theMaritime BoundaryintheGulfofMaineArea,had inmind a classifica-

tion ofthis broad nature when it observedthat there is a distinction:
"between what are principles and rules of international lawgovern-
ingthematter and whatcouldbebetterdescribed asthevarious equi-
table criteria and practical methods that may be used to ensure in
concret0that a particular situation is dealt with in accordance with

the principles and rules in question" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 290,
para. 80).
Theensuinganalysisproceeds upon thebroad divisionbetweenconcepts
and principles without making another specificcategory of "criteria".

24. General equitable principles relevant to this case would include
equitable principles applicable to the assessment of representations of
State policy regarding maritime delimitation which other States have
relied upon to their prejudice; equitable principles of interpretation in
relation to relevant treaties; and principles of fairness in considering

See,forexample,R.Dworkin, TakingRightsSeriously,1977,p. 46. DÉLIMITATION MARITIME (OP.IND. WEERAMANTRY) 219

marcheacomportéplusieursétapes,quiserontindiquéesS .il'on saisit
ces différentes étapesl,'on peut mieux comprendre la mise en Œuvre
effectivedu principed'équité dans cetteaffaire.

Dans les paragraphes qui suivent, ces divers aspects seront examinés
dans l'ordre oùilsont été évoqués.

I. L'applicationdel'équité

21. L'application de l'équitéà une affaire donnéepeut comprendre
l'application d'un principe ou de principes équitables,l'adoption d'une
procédureoudeprocédures équitablesl,'emploid'une méthodeéquitable
ou l'obtention d'un résultatéquitable.. ous cesaspectssontpertinents en
l'espèce.

a) Lesprincipeséquitables

22. L'expression ((principes équitables)) est ici entendue comme
englobant les concepts, les règlesproprement dites et les normes ou
principes au sens le plus large,car l'affinement de ces distinctions serait
hors de propos. L'importante distinction établiepar les juristes l entre
les règlesproprement dites et les normes ou les principes n'est donc
pas reprise ici et l'expression ((principes équitables)) s'applique à

l'ensemble.
23. Dans l'affaire de la Délimitationde lafrontière maritimedans la
région dugolfeduMaine, la Chambre dela Cour avait àl'esprit uneclassi-
fication généralede cegenre quand ellea notéla distinction à faire:

entre ce qui constituedesprincipes et règlesdu droit international
régissantlamatièreetcequiseraitplutôt descritèreséquitablesetdes
méthodes pratiques susceptiblesles uns et les autres d'êtreutilisés
pour faire en sorte qu'une situation déterminée soit concrètement
régléeen conformité avec les principes et règles en question))
(C.I.J.ecueil1984,p. 290.par. 80).

Dans l'analysequi suit, on a retenu la distinctiongénéraleentre concepts
et principes sans érigerles((critèreD en catégorieparticulière.
24. Lesprincipes équitablesdecaractèregénéraqluisont pertinents en
l'espèce comprendraient ceux qui s'appliquent à l'appréciation des
expressionsde lapolitique d'un Etaten matièrede délimitationmaritime
surlesquellesd'autres Etatssesontfondés à leur détriment;lesprincipes
équitables d'interprétation des traités pertinents; et les principes de

l Voir,paexemple,R. Dworkin, TakingRightsSeriousl1977p. 46. whether large sections of the waters to be demarcated are unusable in
consequence of their beingfrozen over for considerableperiods.

(b) Equitableprocedures

25. As with most areas of law, equity has both a substantive and an
adjectival aspect. The application of equitable procedures of enquiry is
necessarily an important part of equity.Procedural equity in itsbroadest
form isthe equitywhich ensures that inthe process ofenquiry and investi-
gationleadingto a decision,the parties enjoy theopportunity ofafulland
fair presentation oftheirrespective casestothecourt ortribunal. The pro-
cedural aspect of equity has an ancient origin and is rooted in popular
concepts of fairness '.

26. The equitable concern with procedural fairness gives rise to the
principle involved inthiscase, that al1relevantcircumstances willbe con-
sideredindetermining how the maritimespacein contention isto be deli-
mited betweenthe Parties,unlessthisconsideration isprevented by a rule
oflaw.The Court initsJudgmenthastherefore givenitsconsideration to a
wide range of factors - Statepractice, the conduct ofthe Parties, propor-
tionality of coastlines, population, economic factors, the equidistance
principle and the unusability of part of the maritime space in contention
owingto drift ice.Whatever maybethe eventualconclusionregarding the
weighttobe givento eachfactor,Parties are entitled to a consideration of
such factors bythe Courtand inthe absence ofalegalprinciple rendering
a particular factor irrelevant, the impact of that factor upon the case in
hand needs to be assessed.

27. This is especiallyso having regard to the uniqueness of each par-

ticular case and the fact that its special circumstances may throw up for
consideration somefact or circumstance never considered in the relevant
jurisprudence up to that time. Thefact that a considerable portion of the
relevant area in this case is ice-bound for the greater part of the year is
such a factor. Asthis Court pointed out in the GulfofMaine case :

"Although the practice is still rather sparse, ... it too is there to
demonstrate that each specificcase is,in thefinal analysis,different

' For example, the audialterampartem rule has from ancient times been described
evenin popular literature

"Qui statuit aliquid parte inaudita altera,
Aequum licet statuerit, haud aequus fuit."
(Seneca,Medea199-200,citedin aseriesoflater common lawcasessuchas ReHarnrner-
LegalMaxims, 10thed., 1939,p. 66.)mithv. Rex,3App. Cas. 614at 624.Seealso Broom,justice à respecter pour déterminer si de vastes étendues des eaux qui
doivent faire l'objet de la délimitation sont inutilisables parce qu'elles
sont recouvertes de glace pendant de longuespériodes.

b) Lesprocédures équitables

25. Comme c'estle cas pour la plupart desdomaines du droit,l'équité
concerne à la fois le fond et la procédure. L'application de procédures
équitables dans la recherche d'une solution est nécessairement une
composante importante de l'équité. L'équité en matièdre eprocédure,au
sens le plus large du terme, est celle qui garantit que, dans le processus
d'enquêteet d'examen qui conduit àune décision,lesparties ont lapossi-
bilitéde faire valoir, en pleine justice, leurs moyens respectifs devant la

cour ou letribunal. L'aspectprocédural del'équité aune origineancienne
et trouvesa racine dans les notions populaires de franc-jeu l.
26. Le souci d'équité en matièrede procédureest à l'origine du prin-
cipe applicable dans cette affaire, selon lequel toutes les circonstances
pertinentes seront prises en considération pour déterminer comment
l'espace maritimeen litige doit êtredélimitéentrlees Parties, à moins que
cela ne soitinterdit par une règlede droit. Aussi, dans son arrêt,la Cour
a-t-elle pris en considération de nombreux facteurs - la pratique des

Etats,la conduite des Parties, la proportionnalité des façades maritimes,
la population, les facteurs économiques,le principe d'équidistance et le
fait qu'une partie de l'espace maritime en litige était inutilisable du fait
des glaces dérivantes. Quelle que soit, en fin de compte, la conclusion
quant à l'importance à accorder àchacun d'eux, les Parties sont en droit
de s'attendre que la Cour prenne ces facteurs en considération et, en
l'absence d'un principe juridique privant de pertinence un facteur parti-
culier, qu'elleapprécie leur impact sur l'affaire dont il s'agit.
27. Cela est d'autant plus vrai que chaque casparticulier est unique et

que les circonstances spéciales qui l'entourent peuvent amener à tenir
compte d'un fait ou d'un facteur n'ayant jamais étépris en considération
jusqu'alors dans lajurisprudence pertinente, par exemplelorsqu'un vaste
secteur de la zone pertinente est bloquépar les glaces pendant la plus
grande partie de l'année.CommelaChambre dela Cour l'asoulignédans
l'affaire duGolfeduMaine:

(La pratique, d'ailleurs,bien qu'encore peu abondante àcause de
lanouveautérelativede lamatière,est làpour démontrer quechaque

Par exemple,la règleaudialterampartema étéénoncéedèl'sAntiquité mêmdeans
la littérature populaire:

«Qui statuit aliquid parte inaudita altera,
Aequum licet statuerit, haud aequus fuit.»
(Sénèque,Médée1 ,99-200,citédans une sériede décisionsjudiciairesde commonlaw
tellesque ReHummersrnithRent-Charge,4Ex87,97; Smithv.Rex,3App. Cas.614,624.
Voiraussi Broom, kgal Maxims, 10eéd.,1939,p. 66.)221 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP .P. WEERAMANTRY)

from al1the others,that it ismonotypicand that, moreoften than not,
the most appropriate criteria, and the method or combination of

methods most likelyto yield a result consonant with what the law
indicates, can onlybe determined in relation to eachparticular case
and itsspecificcharacteristics." (I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 290,para. 81 .)

Thus, there is "no legal limitto the considerations which Statesmaytake
account of for the purpose of making surethat they apply equitable pro-
cedures" (I.C.J.Reports1969,p.50).

(c) Equitable methods

28. Among the practical methodslistedby the Chamber in the Gulfof
Mainecase,as distinctfrom criteria and rules orprinciples whichshould
be used for achievingan equitable result, arethe drawing of an equidis-
tance or median line, the division of the area in various segmentsusing
different methods in respect of each sector and the method of drawing a

line perpendicular to the coast or to the general direction of the coast '.

29. Many other suggestions appear in the literature, which could be
described as methods stemming from equitable considerations2. As
the jurisprudence on maritime delimitation develops, a refinement of
methods appropriate to particular types of dispute may wellemerge3.

30. Inthe present case,the Court hasusedasitsmethod theprovisional
adoption of the median line as its starting point and, havingregard to its
evaluation of the various considerations before it, moved that line east-
wards, carefully dividing the relevant space into segments which again

l I.C.J. Reports 1984,p. 313,para. 159.
See, for example, the five separate tasks devolving on the Court, as analysed by
J.1.Charney, of whichthe last three may be classified as methods:

"(3) To the extent possible, each piece of information identified in the prior
function to which it relates.onstnict a line or range of lines that best suits the
(4) These alternative lines and previously identified factors should be studied
and weighed according to their importance. In aprocess that might evenapproach
vector analysis, a line that best reflects al1the relevant factors in light of their
importance to the zone should be sought.

(5)A cartographical method should be selected to describe the line accurately
and reliably.(J.1.Charney, "Ocean Boundaries between Nations: ATheory for
Progress", 78AmericanJournalof InternationaLaw (1984),p. 597.)
One could, if so disposed, draw a distinction between a merely geometrical norm
and a juridical norm as Judge Tanaka did in his dissenting opinion in the North Sea
ContinentalShelfcases (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 183).However,if the geometrical norm
stems from equitable considerations, it is forthe purposes of this discussion classed as
an equitable method. Judge Tanaka wasreferring to the distinction between the rule of
equidistance as a mere technique and as a norm of law. casconcret estfinalementdifférentdesautres, qu'il estun unicum,et

que les critèresles plus appropriéset la méthode ou la combinaison
de méthodes la plus apte àassurer un résultat conforme aux indica-
tions donnéespar ledroit,nepeuvent leplussouventêtredéterminés
que par rapport au cas d'espèceet aux caractéristiques spécifiques
qu'ilprésente. »(C.I.J.Recueil1984,p. 290,par. 81 .)»

Il n'ya donc «pas de limitesjuridiques aux considérations que les Etats
peuvent examiner afin de s'assurer qu'ils vont appliquer des procédés
équitables »(C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 50).

c) Lesméthodeséquitables
28. Parmi les méthodespratiques - par opposition aux critères et

règlesou principes - dont la Chambre a dit, dans l'affaire du Golfedu
Maine,qu'ellesdevaientêtreappliquéespour parvenir àun résultatéqui-
table, figurent le tracéd'une ligne d'équidistance ou ligne médiane, le
partage de la zone en divers secteurs, des méthodes différentes étant
appliquéespour chaque secteur, et le tracé d'uneligne perpendiculaire à

la côte ou àla directiongénéralede la côte l.
29. La doctrine contient bien d'autres suggestions qui peuvent être
considéréescommedesméthodesprocédantde considérationsd'équité2.
Avec le développement de la jurisprudence en matière de délimitation
maritime, ilestfort possible que l'onobserveun affinementdesméthodes

convenant àtel ou teltype de différend3.
30. En l'espèce,la Cour a adoptécomme méthodecelle consistant à
adopter provisoirement la ligne médiane comme ligne de départ puis,
selon sa propre appréciation des diverses considérations dont elle était
saisie, elle a déplacé cette lignevers l'est,en partageant soigneusement

C.I.J.Recueil1984,p. 313,par. 159.
J. 1.Chamey, par exemple,distingue lescinq tâches qui incombent àla Cour, dont
lestrois demièrespeuvent être qualifse méthodes:
«3) Autant quepossible,chaque élémentd'information recueilliconformément
au paragraphe précédent devrait être utpour tracer une ligne ou une sériede
lignesconvenant le mieux àla fonction àlaquelle il correspond.
4) Ces lignes possibles et les facteurs identifiés auparavant devraient être
étudiéset pesésen fonction de leur importance. Par un processus qui pourrait
mêmeserapprocher de l'analyse vectorielle,ilconviendrait de chercher àdétermi-
ner la ligne qui reflètele mieux tous les facteurs pertinents, compte tenu de leur
importance par rapport àla zone en question.
5) On choisirait une méthode cartographique pour décrire laligne de façon
préciseet fiabl»(J. 1.Chamey, «Ocean Boundaries between NationsA:Theory
for Progress»,American Journal ofZnternatiol aw(1984),vol. 78,p. 597.)
3 Il n'estpas impossible d'opérerune distinction entreune normepurement géomé-
trique et une normejuridique, comme. Tanaka l'a fait dans son opinion dissidente
dans les affaires du Plateaucontinentalde la merdu Nord(C.Z.J.Recueil1969,p. 183).
Cependant, sila norme géographiqueprocèdede considérations d'équin,ous la clas-
serons ici parmi les méthodes équitablM..Tanaka faisait allusion à la distinction
entrela règlede l'équidistance comme simpletechniqueet comme norme de droit.have been differently divided having regard to the considerations
involved, such as the seasonal movement of fish and equitable access to
fisheryresources(para. 91). These methods are al1grounded in equitable
considerations and are, forthe purposes ofthe present discussion,treated
as equitablemethods.

(d) Equitable results

31. The first three aspects mentioned are only the means towards the
last, which, as the object and test of every determination according to
equitable principles, calls for considered attention. As this Court
obsemed in the Continental Shelf(Libyan Arab Jamahiïiya/Malta) case:

"It is however the goal - the equitable result - and not the
means used to achieve it, that must be the primary element .. ."
(I.C.J. Reports 1985,pp. 38-39,para. 45.)

32. The Court has at numerous points in its Judgment referred to the
importance of achieving an equitableresult. Some of these references are
detailedinparagraphs 7 and 8of this opinion. In paragraph 54,the Judg-
ment Statesthat "The aim in each and every situation must be to achieve
'an equitable result"' and in paragraph 56it concludes that :

"there is inevitably a tendency towards assimilation between the
special circumstances of Article 6 of the 1958Convention and the
relevant circumstances under customary law, and this if only
because they both are intended to enable the achievement of an
equitable result".
33. Articles 74 (1) and 83 (1) of the 1982Convention also highlight
the importance of achieving an equitable solution. The Judgment, after

referring to the "correction" of a median line delimitation in the Gulfof
Maine case l,similarly rejects the application of the median line in this
case as leading to "manifestly inequitable results" (para. 68) in view of
the greatdisparity of the lengths of coasts.

34. Thisconcern with equitableresults, despite the application ofequi-
table principles, procedures and methods, is well founded inthe Court's
jurisprudence. Theobject of equitableprinciples isto obtainan equitable
result. However equitable each principle may appear to be when consid-
ered in isolation, it may not necessarily produce an equitable result, as is
demonstrated by the application of the equidistance principle to two

opposite coastlines which are vastly differentin length. Asthis Court has
observed, "the term 'equitable principles' cannot be interpreted in the

I.C.JReports1984,p. 336,paras.221-222.

188l'espace pertinent en secteurs qui eux-mêmesont été partagésdifférem-
ment selon les facteurs pris en considération, tels que le mouvement
saisonnier du poisson et l'accèséquitable aux ressources halieutiques
(par. 92).Cesméthodesreposenttoutes surdesconsidérationsd'équité et,
pour les besoins de la présente étude,elles seront traitées comme des
méthodes équitables.

d) Lesrésultatséquitables

31. Lestrois premiers aspects qui viennent d'êtreévoquésne sont que
les moyens de parvenir au dernier, lequel, étantl'objet et la pierre de
touche de toute détermination fondée sur des principes équitables, doit
être examiné avec attention. Comme laCour l'a notédans l'affaire du
Plateau continental(Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte):

«C'est cependant le but - le résultat équitabl- et non le moyen
utilisépour l'atteindre, qui doit constituer l'élémentprincipal ..»
(C.I.J. Recueil1985,p. 38-39,par. 45.)

32. La Cour s'est référée dans de nombreux passages de son arrêt à
l'importance qu'il y a àparvenir à un résultat équitable. Certainsde ces
passages sont évoquésen détail aux paragraphes 7 et 8 de la présente
opinion. Au paragraphe 54de l'arrête ,lledéclareque : Lebut,danstoute
situation,quelle qu'ellesoit,doit êtred'aboutirà «un résultat équitable»,
et, auparagraphe 56,elle conclut:
«il y a inévitablement une tendance à l'assimilation des circons-

tances spécialesde l'article6de la convention de 1958etdescircons-
tances pertinentes en droit coutumier, ne serait-ce que parce que
toutes deux doiventpermettre d'atteindre un résultat équitable.»

33. Dans ses articles 74,paragraphe 1,et 83,paragraphe 1,la conven-
tion de 1982souligne elle aussi qu'il importe d'aboutir à une solution

équitable.L'arrêt, après avoirévoquéla «correction »d'une délimitation
opérée selon la ligne médianedans l'affaire du GoIfedu Maine1,rejette
de la mêmefaçon l'application de la ligne médianedans la présente af-
faire comme aboutissant à des «résultats manifestement inéquitables»
(par. 68)étantdonnéla grande disparité deslongueursdes côtes.
34. Cesouci de l'équité desrésultats,quelsquesoientceux donnéspar
l'application de principes, de procédureset de méthodes équitables,est
bien établidans lajurisprudence de la Cour. L'objet des principes équi-
tables estd'obtenir un résultatéquitable.Aussiéquitableque puisse appa-
raîtrechaqueprincipe isolément, ilsepeut qu'ilne conduise pas nécessai-
rement à un résultat équitable, comme cela ressort de l'application du

principe d'équidistance à deux côtes qui se font face mais sont de
longueurs très différentes. Comme la Cour l'a déjà noté, «l'expression

C.I.JRecueil1984,p336,par.221-222.abstract; itrefersbackto the principles and ruleswhichmaybe appropri-

ate in order to achieve an equitable result" (ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/
LibyanArab Jamahiriya), I.C.J. Reports 1982,p. 59, para. 70; emphasis
added).
35. Even though, in the North Sea ContinentalShelf cases, the Court
appearedto stressthemethods used, italsoemphasizedthe importance of
an equitable result, for, while it said that resort couldbe had "to various
principles or methods, as may be appropriate, or a combination of
them", thiswassubjectto theprovisothat "bytheapplication ofequitable
principles, a reasonable result is arrived at" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 49,
para. 90). So, also, the Court said: "it is necessary to seek not one
method of delimitationbut one goal" (ibid.,p. 50,para. 92).

36. This aspect was stressed also by this Court in the case concerning
the Continental Shelf(Tunisia/Libyan ArabJamahiriya):

"Theresultofthe application ofequitableprinciples mustbe equi-
table. Thisterminology,whichisgenerallyused, isnot entirelysatis-
factorybecauseitemploysthetermequitableto characterizeboth the
resultto be achievedand the meansto beapplied to reachthis result.
It is, however, the result which is predominant; the principles are
subordinate to the goal." (I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 59,para. 70.)

37. The difference between the use of an equitable method and the
achievementof an equitableresult waswellbrought outin thejoint sepa-
rate opinion of Judges Ruda, Bedjaoui and Jiménezde Aréchagain the
ContinentalShelf(LibyanArab Jamahiriya/Malta) case :

"To assert, as Malta has done, that the equidistance method
should be applied, evenifitproduces a delimitation whichisgrossly
disproportionate to the length ofthe relevant coasts,is an attemptto
subordinate the equitable result to be achieved, to the method
adopted. This is precisely the opposite of the fundamental rule of
delimitation, namely,that the method to be adopted shouldbe justi-
fied by the equity of the result." (I.C.J. Reports 1985,pp. 82-83,
para. 20.)

38. The GulfofMaine case drew a cleardistinction between the appli-
cation of equitable criteria and the reaching of an equitable result. The
process by which the Chamber determined the boundary line has been
analysedas consistingof:

(1) the delimitation oftheboundary linethroughthe use ofequitablecri-
teria- primarilytheuse ofgeographicalconfigurations to setoutthe
affectedareaandthe subsequentequal divisionofthat area;

(2) the adjustment of that line, by the consideration of relevant circum-
stancesincludinggeographic "anomalies" and the proportionality of
maritimearea to coastalfrontage;((principes équitables» ne saurait être interprétédeans l'abstrait; elle
renvoie aux principes et règlespermettant d'aboutir à un résultatéqui-
table» (Plateau continental(Tunisie/Jamahiriyaarabe libyenne),C.Z.J.
Recueil1982,p.59,par. 70; lesitaliquessont de moi.)
35. Bienque,dans lesaffairesdu Plateaucontinentaldela merduNord,
la Couraitparu s'attacher particulièrement auxméthodesutilisées e,llea
aussisoulignél'importanced'unrésultatéquitablec ,ar,tout endisant que
1'01p1ouvait avoir ((recoursàdiversprincipes ou méthodes, selonle cas,
ainsiqu'àleur combinaison»,ellea assorticettedéclarationd'unecondi-
tion: ((pourvu qu'on aboutissepar application de principes équitables à
un résultatraisonnable»(C.Z.J.Recueil1969,p. 49,par. 90).La Cour a dit
aussi: «on doit rechercher non pas une méthode unique de délimita-
tion mais un but unique »(ibid.,p. 50,par. 92).

36. Cet aspect a étmis en lumièreaussipar la Cour dans l'affairedu
Plateau continenta(lTunisie/Jamahiriyaarabe libyenne):
L'application de principes équitables doitaboutir à un résultat
équitable. Cette façonde s'exprimer, bien que courante, n'est pas

entièrement satisfaisante, puisque l'adjectif équitablequalifie à la
fois le résultatatteindre et les moyensà employerpour yparvenir.
C'est néanmoinsle résultat qui importe :les principes sont subor-
donnés àl'objectifà atteindre.» (C.Z.J.Recueil1982,p. 59,par. 70.)
37. Ladifférenceentrel'utilisationd'uneméthodeéquitable etl'obten-

tion d'un résultat équitable a été biem nise en lumière dans l'opinion
conjointe de MM. Ruda, Bedjaoui etJiménezde Aréchagadans l'affaire
du Plateau continental(Jamahiriyaarableibyenne/Malte):
((Prétendre,comme l'a fait Malte, que la méthodede l'équidis-
tance doit être appliquéemême si ellea pour résultat une délimita-

tion complètementdisproportionnée à la longueur des côtes perti-
nentesrevient àvouloirsubordonner lerésultatéquitablerecherché à
la méthode adoptée.C'est là précisémentle contraire de la règle
fondamentale de la délimitation,quiveut que la méthode àadopter
soitjustifiéepar l'équitdu résultat.» (C.Z.J.Recueil1985,p. 82-83,
par. 20.)

38. Dans l'affairedu Golfedu Maine,une distinction a clairement été
faite entre l'application de critèreséquitableset l'obtention d'un résultat
équitable.La démarchepar laquellela Chambre a fixéla lignede délimi-
tation a étéanalyséecommecomprenant troisphases :

1) ladéterminationdelalignededélimitationpar lerecours àdescritères
équitables - principalement l'utilisation de configurations géogra-
phiques pour définir lazoneen cause,suiviedupartagede laditezone
parparts égales;
2) l'ajustement de cetteligne pour tenir compte des circonstancesperti-
nentes,y compris les anomalies»géographiquesetla proportionna-
litédesespacesencauseparrapport auxfaçadesmaritimes;224 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP. OP.WEERAMANTRY)

(3) the checking ofthe equitableness of the resultsoreached, by examin-
ingotherfactors such aseconomicimpact and resource usepatterns '.

39. TheJudgment was speciallyusefulinseparatingsome ofthe differ-
ent elements included in the equitable process and showing how more
than one elementcouldbe used in combination2.

40. It is interesting also to note from the opinion of Judge Oda in
Tunisia/Libya that even as earlyas the 1958Convention
"the idea of an equitable solution, although not specifically men-
tioned in Article 6 of the 1958Convention, lay at the basis of that
provision . . ."(I.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 246, para. 144; emphasis
added).

It is to be noted also that the Law of the Sea Convention uses the term
"equitable solution" thus turning the spotlight onthe equity of the result
(see Arts. 74 and 83).
41. Having regard to the overall importance of the equitable result,
it is not without interest that there is support in legal philosophy for
the method of testing a solution by taking a view at its results. This addi-
tionaljuristic basis for checking a result for its equity or inequity comes
from the "sense of injustice" which has an ancient history in the
philosophy ofjurisprudence. This isbrieflyconsidered in SectionV,para-

graphs 104-109,below.

42. Theforegoingdiscussion showsthat al1four aspects ofequitydealt
with in this section come into play in this case, and an approach to the
application of equityinthisfashionhelps to focus attention uponthe par-
ticular aspect under examination.

II. InapplicabilityofEquityas a SystemSeparatefrom Law

43. It scarcelyneeds to bementioned thatthe termequity, asusedin the
Court's Judgment or in the context of international law,is quite distinct
fromits use to designate separate systems ofjudicial administration such
as existed in some legal systems for the purpose of correcting insufficien-
ciesand rigidities of the law.

44. The equity of the common law system and the aequitas of the
Roman law, exercised by the Chancellor and the praetor respectively,

werethesystemspar excellencewhich givethe wordequity such overtones
of interference with the law. Theterm equity as used inthe law of the sea
naturally does not absorb such associatedmeanings.

' SeeT.L.McDorman, P.M. SaundersandD. L.VanderZwaag,"TheGulfofMaine
BounZbid.Dropping-AnchororSettinga Course?",9 MarinePolicy(1985),p100.

190 3) la vérification de l'équitédu résultat ainsi obtenu au regard d'autres
facteurs tels que les effets économiques et les utilisations faites des
ressources 1.
39. L'arrêt a eule mérite particulier d'isoler certains des éléments
inclus dans le processus équitable et de montrer comment l'on pouvait
appliquer ensembleplus d'un élément2.

40. Il est intéressant aussi de lire dans l'opinion de M. Oda dans
l'affaireTunisie/Libyeque, dèsla convention de 1958,
«l'idée d'unesolution équitableb , ien que l'article de la convention
de 1958ne s'yréfèrepas expressément,n'en constitue pas moins la
base de cettedisposition ..»(C.I.J. Recueil1982,p. 246,par. 144;les
italiquessont de moi).

On observera aussi que la convention sur le droit de la mer emploie
l'expression «solution équitable », mettant ainsi l'accent sur l'équitédu
résultat(voirlesarticles 74et 83).
41. Comptetenu del'importance généraledu résultatéquitable,iln'est
pas sans intérêtque la philosophie du droit corrobore la méthode qui
consiste à apprécier la valeur d'une solution d'après ses résultats. Cet

appui juridique supplémentaire à la thèse selon laquelle un résultat doit
être évalué en fonction de son caractère équitable ou inéquitable pro-
cèdedu «sens de l'injustice» qui est fort ancien dans la philosophie du
droit. Ce point sera examiné brièvement dans la section V ci-après
(par. 104-109).
42. Ce qui précède montreque les quatre aspects de l'équitédont il a
étéquestion ici sont tous en jeu en l'espèce, etqu'en abordant sous cet
anglel'application de l'équité on peut mieux appréhender l'aspect parti-
culier dont il s'agit.

II. L'inapplicabilitde l'équitécommesystèmeextérieurau droit
43. Il esà peinebesoin de dire que l'expression «équité»,telle qu'elle

est employéedans l'arrêtde la Cour ou dans le contexte du droit interna-
tional, n'a pas du tout le mêmesens que lorsqu'elle désigneles régimes
d'administration de lajustice distinctstels qu'il en a existédans certains
systèmesjuridiques où ilsservaient à corriger lesinsuffisances du droit et
sesrigidités.
44. L'equitydu systèmede commonlawet l'aequitas du droit romain,
exercéesrespectivement par le Chancelloret par le praetor, ont étépar
excellenceles modèlesqui ont donnéau mot «équité»cetteconnotation
d'immixtion dans le droit. Ces connotations sont évidemment absentes
lorsqu'il s'agitdu droit de la mer.

' VoirT. L.McDorman, P. M. Saunders et DL.VanderZwaag, «The Gulf of Maine
Boundary :Dropping Anchor or Settinga Course? », 19MarinP eolicyvol.9,p. 100.
. Ibid. 45. In view of the substantial influence exercised bythese systemson
the developmentofinternational law,the heavyovertones ofequity'scor-
rectiveinfluenceoverlawtend to spi11overintointernational law,necessi-
tating a constant vigilance against this tendency. This is especially
important, in relation to maritime delimitation, wherethere is a constant
questioning as to whether the Court, in using equity, is overstepping its
authority. Asthis Court observedin Tunisia/Libya:

"In the course ofthe history of legal systemsthe term 'equity'has
been used to define various legal concepts. It was often contrasted
with the rigid rules of positive law, the severity of which had to be
mitigated in order to do justice. In general, this contrast has no
parallel in the development of international law; the legal con-
cept of equity is a general principle directly applicable as law."

(Z.C.J.Reports1982,p. 60,para. 71 .)
46. In view of the importance of equity in these two systems,a brief
note upon them ensues.

(a) Equityincommonlaw

47. In the NonvegianShipowners'Claimscase,the Permanent Court of
Arbitration said :

"The words 'lawand equity' usedinthe specialagreement of 1921
can not be understood here in the traditional sense in which these
words are used in Anglo-saxon jurisprudence.
The majority of international lawyers seem to agree that these
words are to be understood to mean generalprinciples ofjustice as
distinguished from any particular system of jurisprudence of the
municipal lawof any State." l

48. Someofthe principles ofequity,as evolvedbythe EnglishCourt of
Chancery,may,however,berelevantto a matter concerningthe lawofthe
sea, not because they are part of the English law of equity, but because
thoseprinciplesaccord withthe conceptsofgeneralequityasmore widely
understood. Such concepts might conceivably include such notions as
that equitylookstothe intent rather than tothe form,orthat aperson must
not act contrary to his own representations on the faith of which others

haveacted.Items of Stateconduct, for example,mayattract generalprin-
ciplesof equity such asthese.

(b) Equityincivillaw

49. The jus honorariumbuilt up by the Roman praetor,through his
praetorian edict, served the purpose, according to Papinian, of aiding,

--
ReportsofInternationalArbitralAwards(RIAA)Vol.1,1922,p.331.

191 45. Etant donnéla forte influence que ces systèmesont exercéesur le
développementdu droit international, cetteidéede correction du droit a
tendance à pénétrerdans le droit international, et il faut donc veiller
constamment à écarter cette tendance. Cela importe particulièrement
dans le domaine de la délimitation maritime, où l'on se demande
constamment si,en recourant àl'équitél,a Cour n'excède passa compé-
tence.Comme la Cour l'anotédans l'affaire Tunisie/Libye:

«Dans l'histoiredes systèmesjuridiques, le terme équité a servia
désignerdiverses notions juridiques. On a souvent opposél'équité
aux règlesrigides du droit positif, dont la rigueur doit êtretempérée
pour que justice soitrendue. Cette opposition estgénéralementsans
équivalentdans l'évolutiondu droit international; la notion juri-
dique d'équitéestun principe généraldirectementapplicableentant
que droit.»(C.I.J. Recueil1982,p. 60,par. 71.)

46. Etant donnél'importance del'équité danc sesdeux systèmes,quel-
quesbrèvesindications à leur sujets'imposent:

a) L'équitéencommon law

47. Dans l'affaire des Armateurs norvégiensl,a Cour permanente
d'arbitrage a di:
«Les mots «droit et équité » qui figurent dans le compromis de
1921 ne peuventpas s'entendre icidans lesenstraditionnel qui estle
leur dans la pratiquejuridique anglo-saxonne.
Ilsemblequelamajoritédesspécialistesdu droitinternationalsoient

d'accord pour considérer queces mots doiventêtre compriscomme
désignant desprincipes dejustice généraux, distinctse tout système
juridique particulier du droit interne d'un Etat quelconque'»
48. Il sepeut toutefois que certainsdesprincipes d'équité élaborépasr
la Court of Chancery anglaisesoientpertinents dans le contexte du droit
de la mer, non parce qu'ils font partie deI'equityau sens institutionnel
anglais,maisparce que ces principes sont en accord avec l'idéed'équité
au sens généraldu terme. Il pourrait s'agir,par exemple, de l'idéeque

l'équité se soucide l'intention plus que de la forme, ou que nul ne doit
agir contrairement à ses propres affirmations dès lors que celles-ciont
induit d'autres personnesàagircommeellesl'ontfait.Desprincipesgéné-
raux d'équité tels queceux-ci peuvent s'appliquer, par exemple, à cer-
taines conduites desEtats.

b) L'équitédanslessystèmesde tradition romaniste

49. Lejus honorarium élaboré par lepraetorromain, parla voie de son
éditprétorien, servait,d'aprèsPapinien,à soutenir,compléterou corriger

' Recueildessentencesarbitrales(Rvol.1,192p.33 1.

191226 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP.OP.WEERAMANTRY)

supplementing or correcting the jus civile1 - a useful summary of three
differentfunctionsserved by Roman equity.Romanequity thus stoodas a
system separate from the jus civile,at any rate until Hadrian in A.D.125
froze the form of the edict,after which it ceased directly to be asource of

new law. The corrective function of aequitas up to that time included
action contra legem.
50. Though equity continuedto fertilizethe Roman lawthereafter,this
was achieved largely through the work of the jurists acting through the
interpretation and adaptation ofthe law rather than by standing in oppo-
sition to it2.
51. In viewofthe immenseinfluence ofthe civillawupon international
law,itbearsrepetition that the aequitasoftheera ofpraetorian equity - a
correctiveequity standing separate from the law - is not an analogy for

the equity of international law. The later tradition of the civillaw, of law
and equity integrating with each other to produce a harmonious whole,
would be atruer analogy.

III. fie Categories of Equity

52. As observed earlier, the Courtin itsJudgment has not used equity
ex aequo etbono.Nor has it used absolute equity or equity contra legem.

(a) Equityex aequo et bon0

53. The issue has frequently been raised, in the context of maritime
delimitation, as to whether the Court is resorting to a concept of equity
more liberal than that which it is entitled to administer. This issue has
come indeed to acquire the appearance of a question mark hanging over
the use of equityin such cases and has resulted in frequent disavowals,in

thejurisprudence of maritime delimitation, of resort to equity ex aequoet
b0n03.
54. The extent of the concern registered in this regard is indicated in
juristic literature which specificallyraises the question whether there is
indeed a difference between the equity administered by the Court and
equity exaequo etbono.Judge Jennings alerts us to the attendant dangers
oflitigantsobtaining a decision exaequoetbon0whethertheywantedit or
not, and observes :

"Adjuvandi,velsupplendi,vel corrigendijuriscivilis"(D.1.1.7.1).
Theequitableworkofthejurists wasfruitful,andimportantdoctrinessuchassub-
inEncyclopedia oftheSocialSciences,ed.Seligman,1931,Vol.5,p.584.Equitycandono
less ininternationallaw.
See I.C.J.Reports 1974,p. 33, para.78, andp. 202, para.69; I.C.J.Reports 1982,
p.60,para.71,andp.92,para.133A(1); I.C.J.Reports1984,p.278,para. 59,andp.299,
para. 112;.C.J.Reports1985,pp.38-39,para.45,andpp. 56-57.lejus civile- formule qui résumeassezbientroisfonctionsdifférentes de
l'équité endroit romain. Celle-ciétait donc un systèmedifférenddu jus
civile,du moins jusqu'à ce que Hadrien, en l'an 125 de notre ère, fixe
la forme de l'édit,après quoi il cessa d'êtredirectement une source de
droit nouveau. Jusqu'alors, la fonction correctrice de l'aequitaspermet-

tait d'allerontralegem.
50. Bienque l'équité ait continuéd'inspirer ledroit romain par lasuite,
ce fut surtout par l'Œuvredesjuristes qui interprétaient et adaptaient le
droit plutôt que de s'yopposer2.

51. Compte tenu de l'influence immensequ'a eue le droit de tradition
romanisteinternational, ilestpermis de répéterque l'aequitasdel'époque
de l'équité prétorienne - équitécorrective distincte du droit - ne doit

pas être considérée comme étantanalogue à l'équitéen droit internatio-
nal. La tradition plus tardive du droit de tradition romaniste, selon
laquelleledroit etl'équité secomplètenp tour former un ensembleharmo-
nieux,offrirait une analogieplus juste.

III. Les catégories d'équité

52. Nous avons vu que dans son arrêt laCour n'apas utilisél'équité ex
aequo et bono.Elle n'a pas eu recours non plus à l'équité absolueni à
l'équitécontra legem.

a) L'équité ex aequo et bon0

53. S'agissantde délimitationmaritime, on s'estsouvent demandésila
Cour ne recourait pas àun concept de l'équité pluslargeque celuiqu'elle
esthabilitée àappliquer. Onpeut mêmeconsidérerqu'un point d'interro-
gation plane sur le recours à l'équitédans des affaires de ce genre et la

jurisprudence de la délimitation maritime estjalonnée de prises de posi-
tion écartant l'équitéexaequoetbono3.

54. L'ampleur de cette préoccupation apparaît dans la doctrine qui
pose expressément la question de savoir s'il y a ou non une différence
entre l'équité administréepar la Cour et l'équité ex aequo et bono.
M. Jennings nous met en garde contre le risque de voir des parties à un
différend obtenir une décision ex aequoet bonoqu'elles l'aient voulu ou

non, et il fait observer:

1 «Adjuvandi,vel supplendi,vel corrigendijurisciv(D.1.1.7.1).
2 L'Œuvredesjuristesen matièred'équitaéétféconde,et d'importantesdoctrines
telles que la subrogation,l'estoppelet l'avisimpliciterésultentde leurs efforts. Voir
W. W.Cook,dansEncyclopediaof the Social Scienc, ir.publ.Seligman,1931,vol. 5,
p. 584.Onnepeutattendremoins del'équité en droitinternational.
par.71,et p. 92, par. 133A 1; C.Z.J.Recueil1984,p. 278, par. 59,et p. 299, par. 112;
C.Z.J.Recueil1985,p.38-39,par.45,etp. 56-57. "At anyrate,the veryserious questionarises ofwhat exactlyisthe
differencebetween a decision according to equitableprinciples and
adecision exaequoet bono?" l

Thequestion raised istrulya veryserious one,for ifthis isindeedthe case,
the Court is extending itself into an area which it can only reach by the
consent ofparties2. Suchuncertainties necessitate a closeexamination of
the exaequoetbon0provision in Article38,paragraph 2,ofthe Statute of
the Court.
55. Thisphrase, which has its origins in the Roman law3 is defined in
the standard worksofreference interms that involvejustice, fairness and
conscience. Thus Black's Law Dictionary(5th ed., 1979,p. 500)defines it

as a "phrase derivedfrom the civillaw, meaning, injustice and fairness;
accordingto what isjust and good; accordingto equity and conscience".
It will be seen that equity ex aequoet bon0 is thus not confined within
limitations of existing rules oflawbut extends more widely,leavingaside
considerations of what the law maybe, regardingthe matter under refer-
ence. It entersintothe area of equity contralegem,as discussedbelow.

56. Equity exaequoetbono,inthecontext oftheCourt'sjurisprudence,
isperhaps bestapproachedthrougha perusal ofthe drafting historyofthe
exaequoet bon0provision in the Statute ofthe Court.
57. Onecouldperhapsidentifythree stagesinthe travauxpréparatoires
leading to the adoption of Article38(2) ofthe Statute :

(1) Earlier drafts of Article 38 ofthe Statute of the Permanent Court4
did not contain a subsectiondealing with decisions exaequoetbono.The
draft sectionread as follows :

"Dans les limites de sa compétence,telle qu'elle estdéterminée
par l'article34,la Cour applique en ordre successif:

1. Les conventionsinternationales soit générales, soitspéciales,
établissantdesrèglesexpressémentreconnuespar lesEtatsenlitige;
2. La coutume internationale, attestation d'une pratique com-
mune acceptéecommeloi;

l R. Y.Jennings,"ThePrinciples GoverningMarineBoundaries", op.cit.p.401.
See Encyclopedia ofPublicInternationLaw,op.cit.p.77.
just(ice)"(Adolf BergerEncyclopaedicDictionaryof Roman Law,ab1952,p. 377) and
appears,in Celsus'celebrateddefinitionojus as "arsaequi etboni"citedatthevery
commencementof Justinian's Digest (D.l.l.pr.). It appears,also, in the formulaof
actionesinaequumet bonum conceptae (Berger,ibid.).

DraftSchemeforthe Institutionof the PermanentCourtof InternationalJustice
Presentedto the Council of the Leagueof Nations by the AdvisoryCommitteeof
Jurists,Art.35(correspondingtothelaterArticle38). «A tout lemoins, latrès sérieusequestionsepose de savoirquelle
estexactementla différenceentreune décisionconformeàdesprin-
cipeséquitablesetune décision ex aequoet bono?» '

La question est en effet très sérieusecar, si tel est bien le cas, la Cour
s'aventure dansun domaine où elle ne peut pénétrerque moyennant le
consentement des parties2. De telles incertitudes nécessitentun examen
approfondi de la disposition du Statut de la Cour relatif à la facultéde
statuer ex aequoet bono(paragraphe 2 de l'article38).
55. Cette expression, qui vient du droit romain3, est définiedans les
ouvragesderéférenceclassiques endestermesquiévoquentlajustice etla
conscience.C'estainsiquele BlackS Law Dictionary(5eéd.,1979,p. 500)la
définitdans lestermessuivants :(expressiondérivée du droit detradition

romaniste signifiant: conformément alajustice et àl'impartialité; selon
ce qui estjuste etbon; conforme à l'équitéetà la conscience». L'onvoit
quel'équité ex aequo et bonon'estdoncpas enferméedans les limitesdes
règlesde droit existantes mais qu'elle s'étend plus largement,indépen-
damment decequepeut êtreledroit, à l'égarddel'objetdont ils'agit.Elle
entre dans le domaine de l'équité contra legem,comme on le verra plus
loin.
56. Pour saisir le sens de l'équitex aequoet bonodans le cadre de la
jurisprudence de la Cour, lemieux estpeut-être d'évoquer l'histoirdee la
rédactionde la disposition du Statut de la Cour qui s'yrapporte.

57. Trois étapes peuvent sans doute être distinguéed sans les travaux
préparatoires quiont abouti àl'adoption du paragraphe 2 de l'article38
du Statut :
1) Les premièresversions de l'article 38 du Statut de la Cour perma-

nente4 ne contenaient pas de paragraphe traitant des décisionsex aequo
et bono.Leprojet d'article était rédigécommesuit:
((Dans les limites de sa compétence, telle qu'elleest déterminée
par l'article4,la Cour applique en ordre successif:

1. Les conventions internationales soit générales, soit spéciales,
établissantdesrèglesexpressémentreconnuespar les Etats enlitige;
2. La coutume internationale, attestation d'une pratique com-
mune acceptéecommeloi;

' R.Y. Jennings,((ThePrinciplesGoveming MarineBoundaries», op. citp.401.
L'expressionvoisine bonumet aequumveut dire«rightand equitable,fair(ness)
andjust(ice)»(bienetéquitablei,mpartial(itée)tjust(ic)e)(AdolfBerger,Encyclopaedic
Dictionaryof RomanLaw, 1952,p. 377),etelle apparaît,dansla céeéfinitionque
Celse a donnéedujus, comme «ars aequi et boni)),expression citéetout au débutdu
DigestedeJustinien(D.1.PI.).lleapparaîtaussidanslaformuleactionesinaequumet
bonum conceptae(Berger,ibid.).
Avant-projetpour l'établissemdtelaCourpermanentedeJusticeinternationale
présentéau Conseil de la Sociédes Nations par le comité consultatifde juristes,
art.35(devenu plustardl'article38). 3. Lesprincipes généraux de droit reconnus par lesnations civili-
sées;
4. Les décisionsjudiciaires etla doctrine des publicistes les plus
qualifiésdesdifférentesnations,commemoyensauxiliairesdedéter-
mination des règlesde droit." l

(2) The discussionsamong the distinguished international jurists par-
ticipatinginthe draftingCommittee'smeetingof 1December 19202are of
greatinterest.Mr.Fromageot(France) wishedto widenthewording ofthe

then Article35in order to enable ajudgment of the Courtto confirm an
arrangement reached by the parties - a result which was not possible
under the existingwordingof the Article.In the course ofthe ensuingdis-.
cussion,serious concernswerevoicedaboutthe effectof such an amend-
ment. The Chairman (Mr. Hagerup) expressed the viewthat Mr. Froma-
geot'sideabelongedrather tothe sphere ofarbitraljurisprudence andthat
its application would jeopardize the authority of a Court of Justice.
Mr. Fernandes (Brazil)expresseda fearthatthe amendment would open
the wayto arbitrary decisions.Mr. Loder (the Netherlands) pointed out,

however, that the Court would evidently not confirm proposals which
were not well founded. During further discussion, Mr. Fromageot
amended his proposa1to add to Article 35(3)thefurther words "the gen-
eral principles of law and justice". He explained that the effect of his
amendmentwouldbe to enable the Courtto stateasthe solereason forits
judgment thatthe award had seemedto itto bejust. He explained further
that this did not mean that the Court might disregard existing rules.
Mr. Fromageot'samendment was adopted3.

(3) However,the amended Article 35 continued to cause concern. At

the meeting of the Sub-Committeeheld on 10December 1920,to adopt
thefinaldraft for submissionto the Main Committee,it wasthe solesub-
ject of further discussion.That discussion isrecorded as follows :

"During the discussion on the President's report, M. POLITIS
(Greece) raised the question whether the text of Article 35, No. 3,
adopted by the Sub-Cornmittee,did actually express the Sub-Com-
mittee's opinion on the subject. This opinion was, according to
M. Politis,that the Court should have the right to apply the general
principles ofjustice onlybyvirtue of an agreementbetween the par-
ties. The actual text was wider, in sofar as it left it to the discretion

1 DocumentsconcerningtheActionTakenbytheCounciloftheLeagueofNationsunder
Article14ofthe CovenantandtheAdoptionbvtheAssernb."oftheStatuteofthePermanent
Court,~eneva, 1921,p.41,Annex. -
Seventh Meeting of the Sub-Committeeof the Third Committeeof the First
AssemblyMeetingheldon 1 December1920.
3 DocumentsconcemingActionTaken. ..,op.cit.,p145. 3. Lesprincipes généraux de droit reconnus par lesnations civili-
sées;
4. Les décisionsjudiciaireset la doctrine des publicistes les plus
qualifiésdesdifférentesnations,commemoyensauxiliairesdedéter-
mination des règlesde droit.» l

2) Le débatentre les éminentsinternationalistes quiont participé àla
réunion quele comitéde rédactionatenue le le'décembre19202est très
intéressant.M.Fromageot(France)voulait quelarédactiondecequiétait
alors l'article 35fût un peu plus souple afin de rendre possible un juge-
ment de la Cour confirmant un accord intervenu auparavant entre les
parties, cequin'étaitpaspossibleauxtermes del'articletelqu'ilétaitalors
rédigé.Au cours de la discussion qui suivit, de graves préoccupations
furent exprimées quant à l'effet d'un tel amendement. Le président

(M. Hagerup) fit valoir que l'idéeexpriméepar M. Fromageot rentrait
plutôt dans le domaine de lajuridiction arbitrale et que son application
compromettrait l'autoritéde la Cour de Justice. M. Fernandes (Brésil)
exprima la crainte que cet amendement n'eûtpour résultat des décisions
arbitraires.M. Loder (Pays-Bas) fit observer toutefois que la Cour ne
confirmerait évidemmentpas des propositions qui ne seraient pas bien
fondées.Au cours du débat,M. Fromageot apporta à sapropre proposi-
tion une modification tendant à ajouter auparagraphe3de l'article35les
mots «lesprincipesgénéraux du droit etdelajusticeB.Il expliquaque son
amendement aurait pour effet de permettre à la Cour d'indiquer comme
seulmotifde sonjugement cequiluiparaissaitjuste. Ilexpliqua aussique

cela ne signifiait aucunement que la Cour pût ne pas tenir compte des
règlesexistantes.L'amendement de M. Fromageot fut adopté3.
3) Cependant, l'article35tel que modifié continuaitde préoccuperles
membresdela Sous-Commission.Lorsdelaséancedu 10décembre1920,
au cours de laquelle fut adoptéle texte finalà soumettre àla Troisième
Commission,seul cetarticle donna lieu àune nouvellediscussion, dont il
est rendu compte dans lestermessuivants :

«Au cours de la discussion du rapport du Président,M. POLITIS
(Grèce)demande si letexte de l'article35,no3, adopté parla Sous-
Commission, est l'expression absolument exacte de l'opinion de la
Sous-Commission sur cette question. La Sous-Commission était,
croit-il,d'opinion quelaCourn'aurait lafacultéd'appliquerlesprin-
cipesgénéraux delajustice qu'en vertud'unaccord entre lesparties.
Letexte en question estplus large,puisqu'il donne à la Cour le droit

' Documentsau sujet de mesuresprisespar le Conseilde la Sociétédes Nations aux
termesdel'article14duPacteet del'adoptionpar l'Asseu Statutdela Courpenna-
nente,Genève,1921,p.41, annexe.
Septièmeséancede la Sous-Commission de la Troisième Commissionde la
premièreAssemblée- ledécembre 1920.
Documentsausujetdesmesuresprise..op.cit.,p. 145. of the Court to decide when those principles could be applied.
M. Politisconsequently proposed to alter the paragraph as follows :
î%egeneraIprincipleo sflawandwiththeconsentoftheparties,the
generalprinciplesofjusticerecognisedbycivilisednations.

After some discussion, M. FROMAGE(O France) proposed to meet
M. Politis'point byaddingatthe end of Article35,No. 3,the follow-
ing :
î%isprovisionshallnotprejudicethepoweroftheCourttodecidea
case ex aequo etbon0 iftheparties agree thereto.

TheArticlethusamendedwasadopted."
58. In reporting thisArticle(renumbered Article38)to the Main Com-

mittee,the Sub-Committeestated as follows :
"The Sub-Committee has .. .made the following changes in the
Article :

(2) Atthe end of No. 3ithas added anewclause in order to givea
more flexible character to this provision and to permit the Court, if
necessary and with the consent of the Parties, to make an award ex
aequo et bono."

Suchwasthe genesisofthe exaequoetbonoprovisionin Article38which
has provoked so much reference in the caseson the application of equity
in maritime boundary delimitations.

59. It isclear fromthis drafting historythat earlier drafts ofthe Article
were amended to allow for the possibility that parties could make their
own agreementsand askthe court to embodythem in ajudgment, which

the Court would do provided it conformed to general principles of
law and justice. Thereafter even more flexibility3 was introduced by
introducing a separate ex aequoet bono provision not necessarily tied
to "general principles of law and justice", and enabling the Court to
make an order in accordance with its sense of justice if the parties so
consented. There was clearlv an am~lerlatitude givento the Court in an
ex aequo et bono stan&hg on its lwn rather than if the
Court were to depend on a clause merely enabling it to decide in accor-
dance with general principles of law and justice. However the greater

' DocumentsconcerningActionTaken. ..,op.cit.,p. 157.
Zbid.,p. 211.
"Thenotion ex aequoetbon0 hadbeenlittleused beforeitsadditiontothePCWs
Statuteandwasincludedthere,withlittledebatea,rguaglytogivetheCourtsome-
what greaterflexibility." (JaEncyclopediaof PublicInternationLaw,Vol. 7,
p. 75.)reach of that clause necessitated the safeguard of resting it upon the
agreement of parties.

60. The expression exaequo et bono,viewed against this drafting his-
tory, shows quite clearly that the concept travels far beyond equity intra
legemorpraeter legemasdiscussed below l.It refersto adecision untram-
melled by rules of law but depending purely on the tribunal's sense of
justice. When, as in the present case, the Court uses equitable concepts
and procedures which enter its jurisdictional field through routes other
than Article38(2)and solongas the Court does not act contralegem,it is
acting in a field far removed from the vast expanses of equity exaequo et

bono. However, within its far more limited field of operation, it is well
entitled to use the full and appropriate range of equitable principles,
procedures and methods without being inhibited by concerns that it is
travellingbeyond itsjurisdiction.

61. Ifthe conceptual roadblock represented by exaequo et bono isout
ofthe way,a clearer pathopensoutfor afuller and moreconfident use of
equityin the developmentof the law ofthe sea. Thisaspect waswellsum-

marized in the North Sea Continental Shelf cases, where the Court
obsewed inthe clearest terms :

"when mention ismade ofa court dispensingjustice or declaring the
law,what ismeant isthatthe decision finds itsobjectivejustification
in considerations lying not outside but within the rules, and in this

field it is preciselyarule of lawthat callsforthe application of equi-
tableprinciples. There isconsequentlynoquestioninthiscase ofany
decision exaequo et bono,such as would only be possible under the
conditions prescribed by Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Court's
Statute." (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 48,para. 88.)2

(b) Absoluteequity

62. Thisterm,alsoinapplicable to the present case,connotes the appli-
cation of ajust and fair solutionirrespective ofwhether it overrides exist-

Chaim Perelman, in his study of lacunae in the law,makesthe point in the context
decision ex aequo et bonocould be read "dans le sens contralegem"(Leproblèmedesest for a
lacunesendroit, 1968,. 327).
For similar expressions by other tribunals, see the statement of the Court of Arbi-
tration in the Anglo-French Continental Shelf Arbitration Award (RIAA,Vol.XVIII,
paras. 70and 245; see,also, Guinea/Guinea-Bissau Arbitral Award (Revuegénéralee
droit internationalpublic(1985),Vol.89,paras. 88 and 90)referring to the Judgment of
this Court inthe NorthSea cases,and holding that itsownfunction, likewise,wasnot to
decide exaequoet bono.simplementautorisée àstatuer selon lesprincipes générauxdu droit et de
la justice. Cependant, à cause de cetteportée plus large, il fallut stipuler
que l'application de cette disposition devait reposer sur l'accord des
parties.
60. Ce rappel destravaux préparatoires montre très clairement que le

concept de décision ex aequo et bonova bien au-delà de l'équitéintra
legem ou praeter legemdont nous parlerons plus loin1. L'expression
désigneune décisionquin'estpas entravéepar lesrèglesdu droitmaisqui
dépendseulement du sens de lajustice du tribunal. Lorsque, comme dans
la présente affaire, la Cour utilise des concepts et des procédures équi-
tables qui entrent dans le champ de sa compétencepar des voies autres
que l'article 38, paragraphe 2, et dans la mesure où elle n'agit pas contra
legem, elleseplace dansun domainequi esttrèséloigné du vastechamp de

l'équitéexaequoet bono.Dans son propre secteur, beaucoup plus limité,
elle est cependant tout àfait en droit de recourir à toute la gamme des
principes, procédures et méthodes équitablesappropriés sans craindre
d'outrepasser sa compétence.
61. Une fois écartél'obstacle conceptuel que représentela notion ex
aequo et bono,il devient plus facile de recourir plus largement et avec
moins d'appréhension à l'équitédans le développement du droit de la
mer. Cetteidéea été bien résuméedans les affaires du Plateaucontinental
de la merdu Nord. L'arrêtde la Cour contient le passage suivant, qui est

sans équivoque :
«lorsqu'on parle dujuge qui rendla justice ou quidit ledroit, ils'agit
de justification objective de ses décisions non pas au-delà des
textes mais selon lestextes et dans ce domaine c'estprécisémentune
règle de droit qui appelle l'application de principes équitables. Il

n'estpar conséquentpas questionen l'espèced'unedécisionexaequo
et bono,ce qui ne seraitpossible que dans les conditionsprescrites à
l'article38,paragraphe 2,du Statut de la Cour. » (C.I.J.Recueil1969,
p. 48,par.

b) L'équitéabsolue

62. Cette expression, qui ne s'applique pas non plus à la présente
affaire, évoque l'application d'une solution juste et impartiale, qu'elle

Chaim Perelman, dans son étude sur les lacunes du droit, fait observer, dans le
contexte des arbitrages et desdécisionsjudiciaires en droit international public, qu'une
demande visant àobtenir une décisionexaequoet bonopourrait être interprété«edans
le sensontralegem))(Leproblèmedeslacunesendroit, 1968,327).
D'autres tribunaux ontpris des positions analogues. Voirpar exemple la sentence
du tribunal dans i'affairede l'arbitrage franco-britannique relatif au plateau continen-
tal(RSA,vol.XVIII,par. 70et 245);voir aussi la sentencearbitrale enl'affaire Guinée/
Guinée-Bissau(Revuegénérale de droit intemationalpublic,t. 89, 1985,par. 88 et 90)
faisant référenàl'arrêt e la Cour internationale deJustice dans lesaffaires de la Mer
aequoetbono.clarant que,de même, letribunal arbitral n'était pas habilitéà statuer exing rules or principles of positivelaw, howeverwellentrenched they may
be. It is a disregard of the letter for the spirit of the law, a disregard of
technicalitiesinfavour ofjustice lThiswould comecloseto the connota-

tion of equity exaequoet bono as discussed inthe preceding section.

63. An illustrative and well-known example in the jurisprudence of
international law of the use of the expression "absolute equity" is to be
found inthe OrinocoSteamshipCo.case, 1910,where,inthe words ofthe
Permanent Court of Arbitration, the compromisrequired the US-Vene-
zuelan Mixed ClaimsCommissionto "givetheir decisionson the basis of
absolute equitywithoutregard to objectionsofatechnicalnature, ortothe

provisions of local legislation ...". The umpire's recognition of local
legislation in dismissing the claims on account of failure to exhaust
local remedies and the debtor's failure to notify the cession of the
debt in accordance with local legislation, was held to be a decision not
in accordance with absolute equity and thus to be in disregard of the
compromis2.

64. Themethods of equity exaequoetbonoand of absolute equity are
not the methods of international law. "Above all, it is necessaryto stop
viewingequityassomethingwhichisinopposition to the laworas supply-
inga correctiveto the la^."^

(c) Equitypraeter legem

65. This sense of equity refers to filling in gaps and intersticesin the
law. Evenwherethere is no rule oflawto provide for a matter, a decision
has nevertheless to be reached, for the judicial function does not permit

the court to abdicate the responsibility of judgment because the law is
silent4.Consequently, the gap5 has to be filled in some manner. Some
would Saythat the judge is freeto act in his discretion.Others would Say

See also Bin Cheng, "Justice and Equity in International Law", Curent Legal
Problems,1955,p. 203.
1Scott, Hague CourtReports (1916),p. 226.
Shabtai Rosenne, "The Position of the International Court of Justice on the
dations of the Principle of Equity in International LaA.Bloed and P. vanDijk
(eds.), FortyYearsInternationalCourtofJustice:Jurisdiction,Equity and Eq,988,y1
p. 108.
(1982-V),Chap. IV,"General Pnnciples and Equity", p. 85.ce", 178Recueildescours
The question whether there isa "gap" inthe lawor whether there isalwaysar
principle of law which is capable of extension and application to the case in hand is a
nicejurisprudential onewhichit isnot necessary to examinehere at length. For afuller,
and perceptive, discussion, see Vaughan Lowe, "The Role of Equity in International
Law", 12Australian YearbookofInternationaLaw (1988-1989),pp. 58-63.prévaleou nonsur des règlesouprincipes existants du droit positif, aussi
solidementétablissoient-ils.C'estpréférerl'espritde laloi àsalettre,faire
passerlajusticeavant lesconsidérationstechniques 'Onseraitalors assez

près du sens de l'équité ex aequo et bon0 dont nous avons parlé dans la
sectionprécédente.
63. On trouve dans l'affaire de 170rinocoSteamship Co. (1910) un
exemplemarquant et familier de la jurisprudence de droit international
concernant l'utilisation de l'expression ((équitéabsolue ». Dans cette
affaire, pour reprendre les termes de la Cour permanente d'arbitrage, le
compromis obligeaitla commission mixte chargée d'examinerles récla-
mations opposant les Etats-Unis au Venezuela à ((rendre sa sentence

sur la base de l'équité absolue sans tenir compte d'objectionsde nature
technique ou de dispositions de la législationlocale ..» Considérantque
l'arbitre avait pris en considération la législation locale en écartant les
réclamationsau motif que les voies de recours internes n'avaient pas été
épuiséeset que le débiteurn'avait pas notifié lacession de la dette con-
formément à la législation locale, il a été décidé que la décision n'était
pas en accord avecl'équité absolueet qu'elle étaitpar conséquent con-
traire au compromis2.
64. Ni les méthodesde l'équitéex aequo et bon0 ni celles de l'équité

absolue ne sont les méthodes du droit international. ((Surtout, il faut
cesser de considérerl'équité commequelque chosequi s'opposeau droit
ou lui apporte un correctif.»

c) L'équité praeter legem

65. Il s'agit,dans cetteacception, de combler leslacunes et en quelque
sorte lesinterstices du droit. Même là où iln'existeaucune règlejuridique
surun point donné,il faut néanmoins prendre une décision,car la fonc-
tionjudiciaire nepermet pasautribunal d'abdiquer, dufaitque ledroit est

muet, la responsabilité de juger qui est la sienne4. Il faut donc que la
lacune5 soit combléed'une manièreoud'une autre.Certains diront que le

Voir aussi Bin Cheng, ((Justice and Equity in International Law», Current Legal
Problems,1955,p. 203.
Scott,Les travauxdelaCourpennanented'arbitragedLaHaye,vol. 1,1921,p. 245.
Shabtai Rosenne, «The Position ofthe International Court ofJustice on the Foun-
dations of the Principle of Equity in International Law»,dans A. P.van Dijk
(dir. publ.), Forty YearsInternationalCourtofJustice:Jurisdictiand Equality,
1988VoirO. Schachter, «International Lawin Theory and Practice»,Recueildes cours,
t. 178(1982-V),chap. IV,«General Principles and Equity»,p. 85.
La question de savoir s'ily a une ((lacuneroit ou si I'onpeut toujours trou-
ver une règle ouun principe de droit susceptible d'êtreétenduet appliquéà l'espèce
considérée est unpoint délicatde théorie en droit sur lequel il n'estpas nécessairede
s'étendreici. Cette question est très finement analyséedans Vaughan Lowe,e
Role of Equity in International Law»,AustralianYearbookof Internatl aw, 1988-
1989,vol. 12,p. 58-63.thejudge then fallsbackupon equityasaguide. Itisinthislatter sensethat
the expressionequitypraeter legemisgenerallyused.

66. In support of the view that equity should guide the judge in such

cases, it could be said that judicial discretion does not then roam un-
bridled and at large, but, rather, is used in a disciplined way along the
lines indicated by equitable concepts and principles. Within the para-
meters of those guidelines, that discretion willthen be exercisedthough
no rule of lawhas so far been formulated to governthe case.

67. Equity praeter legemreceivesjuridical justification also from the
fact,outlined elsewhereinthisopinion, thatthe body ofgeneralequitable
principles, as part of "general principles of law", is itselfpart of interna-

tional law.Indeed, viewedstrictlyfromthat point of view,it ceasestobe a
categoryof its ownbut is merelyan application ofthe lawitself.

68. In the context ofmaritime delimitation,there are dicta inthejuris-
prudence of the Court that strongly support the viewthat the process in
operation is one ofthe application of equitypraeter legem :

"1snot the conclusionthereforejustified, to round offthe enumer-
ation ofthose international acts whichreferto equity,that these acts
constitute applications ofthe generalprinciple of lawwhich author-

izesrecourse to equitypraeterlegemfor a better implementation of
the principles andrulesoflaw ?And itwouldnotbepremature to Say
that the application ofthe principle of equity forthe delimitation of
the areas ofthe continental shelfinthe present casewould thus be in
line with this practice." (NorthSea ContinentalShelJIZ.C.J.Reports
1969,p. 141,Judge Ammoun, separate opinion l.)

This aspect also receives some attention in the discussion, under item
head VI1 Ifb)elow,ofthe methods of equity.

(d) Equityinfra legem

69. Thisisthe categorymostrelevantto the Judgment ofthe Court,for
itiswithin itsconfinesthatthe equityusedbythe Court hasbeen adminis-
tered.As theCourt observedinthe North Sea ContinentaS l helfcases:

"when mention ismade ofa court dispensingjustice or declaringthe

l See, also,the separateopinion of the samejudge in BarcelonaTraction,Light and
PowerCompany,Lirnited, Second Phas(Z.C.JReports 1970,pp.332-333)in relation
toequitypraeterlegernandthesensewhichPapinian,theauthorofthatexpression,gave
to it.juge estlibre d'agircommeill'entend. D'autres estimerontqu'alors lejuge
se retrouve avec l'équité comme guide.C'est dans ce dernier sens que
l'expression équité praeter legemest généralementemployée.
66. Al'appui del'opinion selonlaquellel'équité doitguider lejugedans
ces cas-là, on pourrait dire qu'alors le pouvoir discrétionnairedujuge ne
s'exercepas de façon débridéeet en toute libertémais au contraire qu'il
l'utilisede manière disciplinéeen s'inspirant des concepts et desprincipes
de l'équité.l'intérieurdesparamètresde cettelignedirectrice,cepouvoir
discrétionnairepourra alors s'exercer,bien qu'aucune règlejuridique n'ait
été formuléejusqu'icipour s'appliquer a cegenred'éventualité.
67. L'équité praeter legemtire aussi une justification juridique du fait

- signalé ailleurs dans la présente opinion - que le corpusdes prin-
cipesgénéraux d'équité, etn ant quepartie intégrante des((principes gé-
néraux du droit », fait lui-même partie du droit international. En fait,
considérée strictementde ce point de vue, elle cesse de constituer une
catégorie distincte mais est simplement une application du droit lui-
même.
68. Dans lecontexte de la délimitationmaritime, ilya dans lajurispru-
dence de la Cour des dictaquiautorisent tout àfaità considérerleproces-
sus suivicomme un cas d'application de l'équité praeterlegem:

«N'est-onpas en droitde conclure, au terme de l'énumération des
actesinternationaux se référant àl'équitéq, ue ces actes constituent
desapplications du principe généralde droitquiautorise lerecours à
l'équitépraeter legempourune meilleure miseen Œuvredesprincipes

etdesrèglesdedroit? Et ilneseraitpasprématuréde direque l'appli-
cation du principe d'équitépour ladélimitationdeszones du plateau
continental enla présente affaireresterait ainsi dans la ligne de cette
pratique.»(PlateaucontinentaldelamerduNord,C.I.J.Recueil1969,
p. 141,opinion individuelle de M.Ammoun l.)

Cet aspect de la question est égalementconsidéré dans le cadre de l'ana-
lyse desméthodes qui figure ci-après(voir VIIJ;)).

d) L'équité infra legem

69. C'est là la catégoriela plus pertinente pour l'arrêtde la Cour, car
c'estàl'intérieurde seslimitesque l'équitémiseen Œuvrepar laCour aété
appliquée. Comme la Cour l'a fait observer dans les affaires du Plateau
continentalde la merduNord:

alorsqu'on parle du juge qui rend la justice ou qui dit le droit, il

Voirégalement I'opinion individuelledu mêmejugedans i'affaire de la Barcelona
Traction,Light and Power Company, Limited, deuxième phase(C.Z.J.Recueil 1970,
p. 332-333),en cequiconcernel'équpraeterlegemetlesens que Papinien, l'auteur de
cette locution, donnait à celle-ci. law,whatismeant isthatthe decisionfinds its objectivejustification
in considerations lying not outside but within the rules" (Z.C.J.
Reports 1969, p. 48,para. 88).

Thiswas clearlya referenceto equity infralegem '.
70. In relationto the generaljurisprudence oftheCourt,the operation
of equity infra legemhas been well summarized by Shabtai Rosenne in
terms that :

"It [the Court] has permitted the first steps to be taken towards
creatinga conception ofinternational equity,not contralegeminthe
sensethat itissometimessaidthat a decisionexaequoetbonomaybe
a decision contralegem;but intralegem,it beingthe substantive law,
and not the agreement of parties, that callsfor itsapplication."*

71. Judge Ammoun offered an important warning against exceeding
thelimitsofequity infralegemwhenhesaid,withreferenceto itsopposite,
equity contralegem :

"This conception of Equity, which really consists of a possible
derogation from general law in a particular case, has never been
applied in international law. Aninternational court whichconferred
such jurisdiction upon itself would appoint itself a legislator."
(Barcelona Traction,Light and Power Company, Limited, Z.C.J.
Reports 1970,p. 333,para. 42.)

72. With special reference to maritime delimitation, a comprehensive
doctrinal studyhas noted that :
"the doctrine of equitable principles applicable to maritime delimi-
tation has already achieved, both with regard to its procedural and

substantive elements,a degree of clarity and predictability which is
sufficient for it being recognized as a fundamental nom operating
within, and not outside,the lawW3.

(e) Equitycontra legem

73. Needless to Say,equity as used in the Judgment is not of this cat-
egory.Thenotion of equity beingin oppositionto the law and competing
with it in some way by offering a set of alternative principles is not the

Thefactthatthejudgemustfunction infralegemwhilethearbitratoisfreeofthose
constraints,ismentionedbyAristotleiapassagequotedbyGrotius "'Forthearbitra-
tor hasregardto what isfair,butthe judgefollowsthe law'"(De JureBelliac Pacis,
Bk.IShabtai Rosenne,.TheLaw and Practiceof the International Cour1965,Vol. II,
p.605.
BarbaraKwiatkowska,"TheInternationalCourtof JusticeDoctrineof Equitable
Principles Applicableto MaritimeDelimitation andIts Impacton the International
Lawof theSea",in A. Bloed andP.vanDijk(eds.), FortyYearsInternationalCourt of
Justice:Jurisdiction,EquityandEqualip. 158. s'agitdejustification objective de ses décisionsnon pas au-delà des
textes mais selon lestextes »(C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 48,par. 88).

C'était là manifestement une allusion à l'équitéinfralegeml.
70. En cequi concerne lajurisprudence delaCour dans son ensemble,
la mise en Œuvrede l'équitéinfralegema été fort bien résuméepar Shab-
tai Rosennecommesuit :
«La Cour a permis que soient effectuésles premiers pas dans le

sens de la mise en place d'une conception de l'équité internationale
qui est non pas contralegem,au sens où l'on dit parfois qu'une déci-
sion exaequoet bonopeut êtreune décisioncontralegem,mais intra
legem, car c'est le droit positif, et non pas l'accord des parties, qui
appelle le recours à cetteconception. »

71. M. Ammoun a lancéune importante mise en garde au sujet du
risque de dépasserles limites de l'équité infralegem;il a en effetdéclaré,
en parlant de son contraire, l'équitécontralegem:
«Cette conception del'equityconsistantensommeen une possible
dérogation au droit commun n'a jamais reçu application en droit

international. Le juge international qui s'accorderait cette compé-
tences'érigeraiten législateur.»(BarcelonaTraction,Ligha tndPower
Company,Limited, C.I.JR . ecueil1970,p. 333,par. 42.)

72. Pour cequi estenparticulier dela délimitationmaritime,uneétude
doctrinale deportéegénérale contient l'observation suivante :

«la doctrine des principes équitables applicable à la délimitation
maritime a déjà atteint,en ce qui concerne àla foislaprocédure etle
fond, un degréde clartéet de prévisibilitéqui est suffisant pour la
faire reconnaître comme une norme fondamentale opérant àl'inté-
rieur et non pas àl'extérieurdu droit v3.

e) L'équité contra legem

73. Il va sans dire que l'équitéappliquée dans l'arrêt nerelèvepas de
cette catégorie. La notion d'équitépar opposition au droit et rivalisant
avec celui-ci d'une certaine manière enproposant une sériede principes

' Le fait que le juge esttenu d'agir infa legem,alors que l'arbitre échappeàces con-
regarde ce qui estjuste, lejuge regarde la loi» (Dejure belliacpacis, liv. III, chap. XX,
sect.XLVII,traduction de Pradier-Fodéré,librairie Guillat ie,1967).
Shabtai Rosenne, ne Law and Practice of theInternational Court,1965,vol. II,
D.605.
Barbara Kwiatkowska, «The International Court ofJusticeDoctrine of Equitable
Princi~les Applicable to Maritime Delimitation and Its Impact on the International
Lawofthe si;», dans A.BloedetP.van Dijk(dir.publ.), ~orti YearsInternationalCourt
ofJustice:Jurisdiction,Equityand Equality,p. 158.image of equity that properly sets out the role of equity in international
law.Thisaspecthasalreadybeen discussedin SectionII. In international
law,equityisrather aforce that supplements the lawand helps it fonvard
on its course of deliveringjust resultsin disputesbetweenparties.

"[qhe International Court has been very careful - and in this
respect it maybe possibleto speak of a 'position' sincefundamental
questions ofjudicial policy are involved - to formulate itsresort to
'equity'not in terms of 'opposition'to 'law',but interms offulfilling
the law and if necessarysupplementing it." l

Judge Hudson, inthe DiversionofWaterfromtheMeusecase,alsostressed
this aspectwhen he said,
"Asharp divisionbetween law and equity,such as prevails in the
administration ofjustice insomeStates,should find noplaceininter-
national jurispnidence." (P.C.I.J.,SeriesA/B, No. 70,p. 76,separate
opinion.)

Ir ne Routes ofEntty of Equity
74. Therearemanyroutes ofentryofequityinto international law,and
equity has been drawn into the judgmental process in this case through
severalofthem. Aconcentration ofattention on onlyone or other ofthese
routes ofentrycan constrictthe full scopeofoperation ofequityin agiven
case.

(a) Equityasrequiredtobe applied by treaties
75. In relation to the matter before the Court, there is, of course, the
pre-eminent example of Articles 74 and 83 of the 1982Law of the Sea
Convention expressly making equity applicable in the delimitation of
maritimeboundaries.

76. Theinvocationofequitybytreatyisoftena meansbywhichadevel-
opingbranch ofthe law isbrought into line with contemporarythinking,
thereby enabling perspectives which have not yet crystallized into legal
rules to make their impact upon the lawin question. The Lawof the Sea
Convention exemplifiesthis process, which can also be seen in treaties
regardingcontemporaryconcernsrelatingto earth resources suchasfood
and space and in regard to economic matters and the settlement of dis-
putes. Thus, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cul-
tural Rights, 1966,deals with the "equitable distribution" of world food
supplies (Art. 11); and the Convention on International Liability for
Damage Caused by Space Objects requires compensation to be deter-
mined in accordance with "international law and the principles ofjustice

' Shabtai Rosenne, "The Position of the International Court of Justice on the
Foundations of the Principle of Equity in International Law",.,.88-89.autres que ceux du droit n'estpas l'imagede l'équité qua i véritablement

place en droit international. Cet aspect de la question a déjà été examiné
dans la section II. En droit international, l'équitéest plutôt une force qui
complète le droit et qui l'aide à avancer dans sa démarche visant à
produire desrésultatsjustes dans lecadredesdifférendsentre lesparties :
«La Cour internationale a pris grand soin- et àcetégardon peut
peut-être parler d'une ((position» car des questions fondamentales
de politique judiciaire sont en jeu - de présenter son recours à
l'«équité » non pas comme une «opposition » au «droit », mais

comme une façon de donner pleinement effet au droit et, si besoin
est,de le compléter.» '
Dansl'affaireconcernant lesPrisesd'eau à laMeuse,Manley O.Hudson a
de son côtéinsistésur cet aspect de la questionlorsqu'il a déclaré:
«Une démarcation nette entre le droit et l'équité,telle que la

prévoient certains Etats dans l'administration de la justice, ne doit
pas trouver place dans la jurisprudence internationale. » (C.P.J.I.
sérieA/B no70,p. 76,opinion individuelle.)

IV. Commentl'équité s'introduitdans ledroit international
74. Lesvoiespar lesquellesl'équité s'introduit danledroit international

sontnombreuses et,danslaprésenteaffaire,c'estpar plusieurs d'entreelles
qu'elle s'estintroduite dans le processus qui a abouti l'arrêtde la Cour.
Centrer son attention uniquement sur l'un ou l'autre de ces cheminements
peut empêcherl'équité d'opérer pleinemed ntnsune affaire donnée.

a) L'équité à laquelleles traités obligeàrecourir

75. En ce qui concerne la question sousmise à la Cour, il y a évidem-
ment l'exempleprééminent constituéparlefait que lesarticles 74et 83de
la convention de 1982sur le droit de la mer rendent expressémentl'équité
applicable en matière de délimitationmaritime.
76. Invoquerl'équitédans un traitéestsouvent un moyend'aligner sur
la pensée contemporaine une branche en développement du droit, de
sorte que des perspectives qui ne sont pas encore cristalliséesen règles
juridiques puissent néanmoins s'ouvrir dans le champ du droit en ques-
tion. Laconvention surledroit dela merillustre ceprocessus,qui apparaît
égalementdans destraités consacrés à des sujetscontemporains tels que
ceux qui ont trait auxressources de laplanète,par exemplel'alimentation
etl'espace, ou concernantdesquestionséconomiques, ou encorele règle-

ment desdifférends.Ainsi,le pacte international relatif aux droits écono-
miques, sociaux et culturels de 1966traite de la «répartition équitable»
des ressources alimentaires mondiales (art. 11); et la convention sur la
responsabilité internationale pour les dommages causés par les objets

Shabtai Rosenne, «The Position ofthe International Court ofJustice on the Foun-
dations of the Principle of Equity in Internationopci?p..,88-89.and equity". The Charter of Economic Rightsand Duties of States, 1974,
likewiseusesterms such as "equity", "equitable", "just", "equitable shar-
ing", "equitable prices", "equitable terms of trade" (see Arts. 10,14,26,
28,29); and the Protocol of the Commission of Mediation, Conciliation
and Arbitration of the Organization of African Unity specificallydraws

equityinto the settlement of disputes (Arts.29and 30) l.

77. Thespecificinvocation of equitybythe Montego BayConvention
thus followsatime-honoured practice in international law, whichcan be
traced backthrough the centuries2.

(b) Equityascontainedincustomary internationallaw

78. Customaryinternational lawhasbeeninvoked inthe Judgmentasa
sourceofequity,especiallyin the context ofgivingmeaningto the expres-
sion "relevant circumstances" under international law (Judgment,
para. 56). Those relevant circumstances have been shown to be assimi-

lated with the specialcircumstances of Article6 of the 1958Convention,
as both are intended to enable the achievement of an equitable result
(ibid.).
79. The Court isrequired by Article38(1)of its Statute to decide such
disputes as are submitted to it "in accordance with international law".
Thereisan impressivebody ofauthority tothe effectthat equityispart of

customary international law. Friedmann, writing of the changing struc-
ture of international law, has observed :

"There is thus overwhelming support for the view developed by
Lauterpacht, Manley Hudson, De Visscherand Dahm that equity is
part and parcel ofthe modern systemof administration of j~stice."~

l See,further, Monique Chemillier-Gendreau, "Equity", in Bedjaoui (ed.), Interna-
tionalLaw: Achievementsand Prospects,1991,pp. 274-275.
2 Cf. the Jav Treatv of 1794.which. bv Article 7. ~rovided that the Commissioners
appointed under the Treatyto decide thematters in Contentionbetween Britain and the
United Statesshoulddecide the claims"according to the merits ofthe severalcasesand
to Justice, Equity and the Lawof Nations". ~ud~e~udson has listed numerous bilateral
treaties enteredintouring the intervening centuries which provide forthe application
Portugal Treaty and the 1926and 1930 Danish Treaties with Finland and Iceland,in-
respectively. See M.O. Hudson, ThePermanentCourt of InternationalJustice,1920-
1942,1943(1972reprint), p. 616(footnotes).

Friedmann, The Changing Structureof International Law, 1964, p. 197, citing
Hersch Lauterpacht, PrivateLaw Sourcesand Analogies,1927,para. 28; Manley Hud-
son, ThePermanent CourtofInternationalJustice,1972ed., p.617;CharlesDe Visscher,
"Contribution à l'étude dessources du droit international", 60 Revuede droit interna-
tionaletdelégislationcomparé(e1933),pp. 325,414 etseq.; Dahm, 1 Volkerrechts(1958),
pp. 40 et seq.lancésdans l'espace prévoit desréparations qui doivent être déterminées
conformément«au droit international et aux principes de lajustice et de
l'équitéB. Demêmel,acharte desdroitsetdevoirséconomiquesdesEtats

de 1974emploiedestermescomme équité », équitable»,((juste»,«par-
tage équitable»,«prix équitables », (termesde l'échangeéquitables»(voir
art. 10,14,26,28 et29),et leprotocole de la commissionde médiation,de
conciliation et d'arbitrage de l'Organisation de l'unité africaine faitex-
pressémentappel à l'équitépour lerèglement desdifférends(art.29et30)'.
77. Ainsi, en invoquant expressément l'équité,la convention de

Montego Bayne fait que suivre une pratique vénérabledu droit interna-
tional, dont on peut suivre lescheminements àtraverslessiècles2.

b) L'équité reflétédeansledroitinternationalcoutumier

78. Le droit international coutumiera été invoquédans l'arrêtcomme
sourced'équité, enparticulier dans le contexte de l'argumentation visant

a préciserle sens de l'expression ((circonstancespertinentes » en droit
international (arrêt, par.56). On a montré queces circonstances perti-
nentes sont assimilables aux circonstances spéciales de l'article 6de la
convention de 1958étantdonnéque, dans lesdeux cas, il s'agitde rendre
possible un résultat équitable (ibid.).

79. La Cour, en vertu de l'article38, paragraphe 1,de son Statut, est
tenue de régler ((conformémentau droitinternational »lesdifférendsqui
lui sont soumis. Il existeun imposant corpus d'opinions autorisées selon
lesquelles l'équité faitpartie du droit international coutumier. Fried-
mann, traitant de l'évolution des structuresdu droit international, a fait
observercequi suit:

((11existedoncune majorité écrasanted'opinions qui corroborent
le point de vue développépar Lauterpacht, Manley Hudson, De
Visscher et Dahm selon lequel l'équité faitpartie intégrante du

systèmemoderne d'administration de lajustice. »3

l Voiraussi Monique Chemillier-Gendreau, «L'équit»,dans Bedjaoui (dir. publ.),
Droitinternational:Bilanetperspective,1991,p. 283-294.
VoirletraitéJay de 1794,qui stipulaitn article7que les commissairesnommés
envertu du traitépour déciderdesquestions en litigeentre l'AngleterreetlesEtats-Unis
devaient prendreune décisionsurlesdiversesprétentions enprenant en considération
le bien-fondé des différentes thèses aiue la justice, l'équitédroit des gens».
M. Hudson a dresséune liste où figurent de nombreux traitésbilatéraux, conclusau
cours desdeux sièclesquiont suivi,quiprévoient lerecoursquité- telsqueletraité
de 1795entre lesEtats-Unis etl'Espagne, letraitéde 1840entrelaGrande-Bretagneet le
Portugal,et les traités concluspar le Danemark en 1926et en 1930avec la Finlande et
l'Islande respectivement. Voir O. Hudson, ThePermanentCourt of International
Justice,1920-1942,1943(réimpression,1972),p. 616(notes).
Friedmann, The ChangingStructure of InternationalLaw, 1964, p. 197, citant
Hersch Lauterpacht,PrivatLaw Sourcesanddnalogies, 1927,par. 28;Manley Hudson,
The Permanent Court of InternationalJustice, édition de 1972, p. 617; Charles De
Visscher, «Contribution à l'étudedes sources du droit international », Revuede droit
internationalet de législationcompa,ol. 60,1933,p. 325,414 et suiv.; Dahm, Volker-
rechts,vol. 1,1958,p. 40et suiv.So,also,Judge Hudson observedin hisindividualopinion inthe Diversion
of Waterfrom theMeuse case, "What are widely known as principles of
equity have been long considered to constitute a part of international
law ..." l- a view which received the support of Judge Jessup in the
North Sea ContinentalShelf cases2. In the FisheriesJurisdictioncase
(United Kingdom v. I~eland)~,Judge Dillard cited this opinion with

approval.Judge Hudson,writing extra-judicially,hasobsemed, "equity is
an element of international law itselr4.

80. In regardtothe lawofthe seaand the delimitation ofboundaries of
the continental shelf and the exclusiveeconomic zone, equity has been
recognizedbythisCourt aspart ofinternational law - asinthe NorthSea
ContinentalShelf cases5,and the Tunisia/Libyacase6.Thus in the North
Sea ContinentalShelf cases,the Court considered it inequitable that the
convexity or concavity of a coastline should deny equal treatment to

Stateswith coastlinesthat are comparable in length7.Therequirement of
a degree of proportionality betweenthe shelf awarded to a State and the
length of its coastlineswas likewiselooked upon as a principle of equity.
So,also,equitydid not require a "refashioning" ofgeographys.

(c) Equityasageneralprincipleoflawg

81. There are severalcategoriesofgeneralprinciples oflawapplied by
international law; and equitable principles, concepts and procedures,
such ashavebeen applied in the Judgment, finda place in more than one
of them.
82. Citingthe Gentinicaseconcerninginternational law'srecognition,
through equity,oftheprinciple ofprescription, whiledenyingrecognition
of local laws ofprescription, Professor BinCheng States :

"The process applied in the GentiniCase[lo]of tracing a general
principle from rules of positive law universally applied infor0 do-

* Loc.cit.
* Z.C.J.Reports1969,p. 84.
Z.C.J.Reports 1974,p.63,fn. 1.
The PermanentCourtofInternationalJustice,1920-1942,1972ed.,p. 617.
I.C.J.Reports1969,p.48,para.88.
I.C.J.Reports1982,p.60,para.71.
Z.C.J.Reports1969,pp.49-50,para.91.
Thephraseis used inthis formratherthanin the now inappropriatephraseology
referringto "civilized nations". Sir HumphreyWaldock preferredthe expression
"generalprinciples of law recognized in national legal systems", andthe shortened
expression"the generalprinciplesof law"is perhapsadequate for presentpurposes
(see North Sea ContinentalShelf;Z.C.J.Reports 1969,p. 136,JudgeAmmoun,separate
opinion).
'O VenezuelanArbitrationsof1903,p.720. M. Hudson également a fait observer dans son opinion individuelle
concernant l'affaire des Prises d'eauxà la Meuse: «Les règles bien
connues sous le nom de principes d'équité sont depuis longtemps consi-
déréescommefaisantpartie du droitinternational ..» l- manièrede voir
à laquelle a souscrit Philip C.Jessup dans le cadre desaffaires du Plateau
continentalde lamerduNord2. Dans l'affaire de la Compétence enmatière

de pêcherie( sRoyaume-Uni c. I~lande)~,M. Dillard a cité cette opinion
avec approbation. Hudson, dans une publication privée, a fait la remar-
quesuivante :((l'équitestun élémend tu droitinternational lui-même» 4.
80. En ce qui concerne le droit de la mer et la délimitationdu plateau
continental etde lazone économiqueexclusive,l'équité a étéreconnuepar
la Courinternationale de Justice commefaisantpartie du droitinternatio-
nal, par exempledans lesaffairesdu PlateaucontinentaldelamerduNord5
etdans l'affaireTunisie/Libye6.Ainsi,dans lesaffairesdu Plateaucontinen-
taldelamerduNord, laCour ajugéinéquitablequ'en raisondela convexité

ou dela concavitéd'unelignecôtièreon refusel'égalité detraitement à des
Etatsdontles lignescôtièressontdelongueurcomparable7.L'exigenced'une
certaine proportionnalitéentre le plateau accordé àun Etat et la longueur
de ses côtes a égalementétéconsidéréecomme un principe d'équité.
Ainsi, également, l'équitné'exigeaitpas que l'on ((refasse»la géographie8.

c) L'équité entantqueprincipe générd al droit

81. Les principes générauxde droit appliqués en droit international
peuvent êtreclassésen plusieurs catégories et les principes, concepts et
procédures équitables, telsque ceux qui ont été appliquésdans l'arrêt,
trouvent place dans plus d'une d'entre elles.

82. M. Bin Cheng,invoquant l'affaire Gentini,relative à la reconnais-
sance par ledroitinternational, par letruchement de l'équitéd ,u principe
de prescription, reconnaissance qui ne comportait pas l'acceptation du
droit local de la prescription, déclare ce qui suit:
«La démarchesuivie dans l'affaire Gentini[lo1c,onsistant a énon-
cerun principe général à partir de règlesdedroit positifuniverselle-

' Loc.cit.
C.Z.J.Recueil1969,p. 84.
C.Z.J.Recueil1974,p. 63,note 1.
C.Z.J.Recueil1969,p. 48,par. 88.Justice,1920-1942,éditionde 1972,p. 617.
C.1.J.Recueil198p.60,Dar.71.
C.Z.J.Recueil196P;.9:30,par. 91.
Zbid.
L'expression est employée sous cetteforme et non selon la formule maintenant
inappropriée de(nations civilisD.sSir Humphrey Waldock préférait l'expression
((principes générauxde droit reconnus dans les systèmesjuridiques nationaux)), et
l'expression abrég«les principes générauxdu droit » est peut-êtreadéquatepour ce
qui nous intéresseici (voir Plateau continentalde la mer du Nord, C.Z.J.Recueil1969,
p.'O3VenezuelanArbitrationsof 1903,p. 720. mesticothrough the general feelingofmankind forthe requirements
ofequityandto equityitself,isa strikingreminderofDescamps'pro-
posa1forthe application in international law of 'objectivejustice'or
'equity'as evidencedbythe 'consciencje uridiquedespeuples civilisés'
and confirmsthe belief drawn from the travauxpréparatoires of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice that this
proposa1is not very different from the ultimately adopted formula

of 'the general principles of law recognised by civilisednations' in
Article 381(c)ofthe Court's Statute." l

Many classificationsof such generalprinciples are possible and the first
three items in a five-foldclassification by Schachter2show again under

how manyheads ofthis classificationthe principles ofequity used bythe
Court could have been drawn :

"(1) The principles of municipal law 'recognized by civilized
nations'.
(2) General principles of law 'derived fromthe specific nature of

theinternational community'.
(3) Principles'intrinsic tothe idea of law and basic to al1legalsys-
tems' ..."
83. Equityin itsgeneralsense,suchastheCourt hasused, findsa place
in al1ofthese categories.Regardingthefirstclause, whichof courseisthe
language of Article38,paragraph 1(c),ofthe Statute ofthe International

Court of Justice and the Permanent Court of International Justice,
Schachterpoints outthat some ofthe participants at the drafting stage of
thisclausehadin mindequityand principles recognizedbythe "legalcon-
scienceof civilized nation^"^ E.lihu Root, who prepared the draft finally
adopted, had intended howeverto referto principles actually recognized
and applied innational systems4.Itwouldbecorrectto Sayalsothat inter-
national law, as discussed by eminent commentators5 and by this Court,
has looked for universal acceptance by legal systemsrather than purely
municipally adopted principles for this purpose. Equity clearly comes

under this head .Part C ofthis opinion deals with the universalaspect of
equityin somegreater detail.

' GeneralPrinciples ofLaw as Applied by InternationalCourts and Tribuna1987,
pp.3Op.cit.p.75.
Ibid. .-
Ibid.,p. 76.
See WilfredJenks,CommonLaw ofMankind, 1958,p.106;Wolfgang Friedmann,
ne ChangingStructureofInternationalLaw, 1964,pp.188-210;andBinCheng ,eneral
Principles ofLaw asAppliedbyInternationalCourtsand Tribunal1987,p. 377. D~LIMITATIONMARITIME(OP. IND. WEERAMANTRY) 237

ment appliquées in for0 domesticoen raison du sentiment général
qu'éprouve l'humanitéà l'égard desexigences de l'équité etde
l'équité elle-même,rappeld lee manièrefrappante la proposition de

Descamps en faveur de l'application, en droit international, d'une
«justice objective» ou de l'aéquité » telles qu'ellesressortent de la
«conscience juridique des peuples civilisés», et elle confirme le
sentimentque l'onaenconsultant lestravauxpréparatoiresdu Statut
de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, qui est que cette
proposition n'estpas trèsdifférentedelaformule,adoptéeendéfini-
tive,des«principesgénéraux de droitreconnus par lesnations civili-
sées»,formule del'article38,paragraphe 1c),du StatutdelaCour.» '

De nombreuses classifications de ces principes généraux sont possibles,
etlestroispremièresrubriques d'une classificationencinqpointsfaitepar
Schachter2montrent, encore une fois, de combien de rubriques de cette
classification auraient pu être tirésles principes d'équité retenuspar la
Cour :
«1) Lesprincipes de droit interne ((reconnus par les nations civili-
sées.»
2) Des principes générauxde droit «tirésde la nature spécifique
delacommunautéinternationale. »
3) Des principes ((inhérents à l'idéede droit et ayant un caractère

fondamental pour touslessystèmesjuridiques ..fi
83. L'équité au sens général, quiest celui qu'a retenu la Cour, trouve
place dans toutes cescatégories.En cequiconcernelapremièrerubrique,
dont laterminologie estévidemmentcellede l'article38,paragraphe 1c),
du StatutdelaCour internationale deJusticeetdelaCour permanente de
Justiceinternationale,Schachterfaitobserverquecertains deceuxqui ont
participé à l'élaborationde cette clause avaient à l'esprit l'équitet les
principes reconnus par la ((consciencejuridique desnations civilisées » 3.

Toutefois,Elihu Root, qui a établileprojet finalement adopté,entendait
se référer aux principeseffectivement reconnus et appliqués dans les
systèmesnationaux4. Ilseraitexact dedireégalementqueledroitinterna-
tional, tel qu'il a été analysépar d'éminents commentateurs5et par la
Cour internationale deJustice, a recherchél'acceptation universelledela
part des systèmesjuridiques et non des principes adoptéssur un plan
purement interne à cettefin. L'équité se range manifestementsous cette
rubrique. La partie Cde la présente opinion traiterade façon plus détail-
lie de l'aspectuniverselde l'équité.

' General Principles of Lawas Applied by InternationalCourts and Tribunals,1987,
p. 3Op.cit.,p. 75.
3 Ibid.
Ibid.,p.76.
VoirWilfredJenks,CommonLawof Mankind,1958,p. 106;Wolfgang Friedmann,
The Changing Structure fnternationalLaw,1964,p. 188-21etBin Cheng,General
Principlesof LawasAppliedby InternationalCourtsandTribunals,1987,p.377. 84. Thesecondcategorywould comprise such principles as pactasunt
servanda which came into international law from the natural law tradi-
tion which was inextricablylinked with equityin the broader sense. The
third categoryincludes such ideas as reciprocity and equality of parties
before a tribunal, which arebasic to al1law.

85. The specialinfluence of equityin its general sense is evidentin al1
these categories and asthe concept of a common law of mankind gathers
momentum and principles relating to an equitable sharing of resources

become more urgently required,this route of entry of equity willperhaps
assumeincreasing importancein developing the law of the sea.

86. Schwarzenberger, in commenting on "general principles of law
recognised by civilised nations" as contained inthe Statute of the Court,
lists seven achievements of the draftsmen of that clause. One of them,
which fittingly summarizesthis discussion is that, "They [thedraftsmen]
opened a new channel through which concepts of natural law could be
received into international la^."^ Equitywouldrepresent a heavyitem of
traffic along that channel.

(d) Equityas embodiedinthedecisionsofcourtsandtribunals

87. Article 38, paragraph 1 (d),of the Court's Statute mentions that,

subjecttothe consideration that decisions ofthe Court shall haveno bind-
ingforce exceptbetween the parties and in respect ofthe particular case,
judicial decisionsshallbe a subsidiary means forthe determination ofthe
law.
88. Thejurisprudence of this Court has now reached a stagewhere a
considerable body of equitable principles is contained within the deci-
sions of the Court and where there is frequent resort to equity as an aid
towards the process of decision3.Through their adoption by the Court,
they have thus entered the mainstream of international law.
89. The Fisheriescase (I.C.J. Reports 1951,p. 116)is an outstanding

' Schachter, op.cit.,pp. 79-80.
As set out in his Foreword to Bin Cheng's GeneralPrinciplesof Law asAppliedby
InternationalCourtsand Tribunals,1987,p. xi.
See, for example, BarcelonaTraction,Light and PowerCompany, Limited,Second
Phase,Z.C.J.Reports 1970,p. 48,para. 94:
"It must first of al1be obsewed that itwould be difficult on an equitable basis to
make distinctions according to any quantitative .Theprotector Statemay,of
course, be disinclined to take up the case of the single small shareholder, but it
could scarcely be denied the right to do so in the name of equitable considera-
tions." 84. La deuxième catégorie comprendrait des principes tels que pacta
suntservandal, qui sont entrés dans le droit international à partir de la
tradition du droit naturel, elle-mêmeinextricablement liée à l'équitéau
senslarge. Quant à latroisièmecatégorie,elleenglobedesidéestelles que
laréciprocitéetl'égalitédesparties devant lejuge, qui sont fondamentales
pour tout droit quel qu'il soit.
85. L'influence particulière de l'équitéau sens généralest évidente
dans toutes cescatégorieset, à mesure que lanotion d'un droitcommun à
l'humanité se renforceet que la nécessitéde définir des principes pour

assurer un partage équitabledes ressourcesdevientplus urgente, cette mo-
dalitéd'introduction de l'équité dans le droit international prendra peut-
êtreune importance croissante dans le développement du droit de la
mer.
86. Schwarzenberger,commentant les ((principes générauxde droit
reconnus par les nations civilisées» évoquésdans le Statut de la Cour,
énumèreseptréalisationsquisont à inscrireà l'actifde ceuxqui ont rédigé
cette disposition. L'une d'elles, qui résumefort bien la présente analyse,
est que «[les rédacteurs]de cette dispositionont ouvert un nouveaucanal

par lequel lesconcepts du droit naturel ontpu êtreaccueillisdans le droit
international D~.L'équitéreprésenteraiutn élémenitmportantde la circu-
lation desidées à travers ce canal.

d) L'équité danslajurisprudence

87. Il est dià l'article 38, paragraphe 1 d),du Statut de la Cour que,
sous réservede cette considération que les décisionsde la Cour ne sont
obligatoires quepour les parties en litige et dans le cas qui a été décidé,
les décisionsjudiciaires sont un moyen auxiliaire de détermination du
droit.
88. Lajurisprudence dela Cour internationale deJusticeen estmainte-
nant arrivée àun point où ellereflèteun corpusconsidérablede principes

équitableset où la Cour s'appuie fréquemmentsur l'équité pour parvenir
à une décision3.Ayant étéadoptés par la Cour, ces principes sont ainsi
entrés dansle courant généraldu droit international.
89. L'affaire des Pêcherie(sC.I.J. Recueil1951, p. 116) fournit à cet

' Schachter, op. cit.,p. 79-80.
Formule employée dans ravant-propos de Schwarzenberger à l'ouvrage de
Bin Cheng intituléeneralPrinciplesof Law as Applied by InternationalCourts and
Tribunals,1987,p. xi.
Voirpar exemple BarcelonaTraction,LightandPowerCompany,Limited, deuxième
phase, C.I.J.Recueil1970,p. 48,par. 94:
((11y a lieu tout d'abord de constater qu'en matièred'équitéil serait difficile
d'établirdesdistinctions d'aprèsdes critèresquantitatifs l'Etatprotecteur
peut ne pas se montrer disposéà prendre fait et cause pour le petit actionnaire
isolé, maisil paraît difficile de lui dénierle droit de le faire au nom de considéra-
tions d'équit».early example l,but sincethen there has been much development of this
concept in the context of maritime delimitation through a series of deci-
sions of this Court making explicitreferences to the application of equi-
table principles.

90. The heavy reliance in the Judgment on judicial decisions thus
drawsinequitythrough yetanother source.Dependence on such casesas
the North Sea ContinentaS l helfcases,the Libya/Malta caseand the Gulf
of Maine casehas provided avenues not only forthe entry of equity into
maritime delimitation but for the construction, out of those equitable
principles, of a coherent body of equity-based maritime jurisprudence.
Anyconsideration ofproblems relating to the lawofthe sea mustthus, as

in this case, have regard to this considerable body of decisions which,
through their adoption of equitable principles, have made the fertilizing
influence of equity an integral part of maritime law.

(e) Equityasexpoundedinthewritingsof thepublicists

91. Goingbackto thefountainheads ofinternational law,oneseesthat
Grotius incorporated into international law the idea that equity could
complement the administration of internationaljustice, for he citesAris-
totle'sreferences to "the perception of what is fair", "the quality of fair-
ness", and "justicew2.Aristotle'sdefinition ofjustice as"the correction of
that in whichthe law,by reason ofitsgeneralcharacter, isat fault" isalso
cited.Indeed, Grotius' comment goessofarasto suggesteventhe applica-
tion of equity "outside the rules ofjustice, properly so-called".Grotius is
no doubt here using the term "rules ofjustice" in the sense in which we
would speak of "rules of law".
92. Onecannot failto note,inthisregard,the heavyreliancebyGrotius
on natural law, in his pioneering work on the construction of the basic

principles of the law of the sea. The law of the sea may perhaps be
described as an area ofinternational law which isparticularly sensitiveto
equitable influences.
93. The process initiated by Grotius goes onto this day and the great
publicists of each generation have, through their own writings, incorpo-
rated considerations and principles of equity into their contributions,
which havebeen assimilatedinto the corpus ofpublic international law3.

' SeeS.Rosenne,TheLawandPracticeoftheInternationalCourt,1965,Vol. II,p.605.
Grotius,De Jure Belliac Pacis (1646),Bk. II, Chap. XVI, sec. XXVI; see, also,
Bk. III, Chap. XX, sec. XLVII (Kelsey, trans., Classicsof International Law, 1925,
pp.425,824).
cists,someof whom havebeenreferredto inthisopinion,arekeepingup this tradition
andmakinga distinguishedcontributiontothisfast-developingfield.égard,bienquel'undespremiers, un exempleremarquable l,mais, depuis
lors, ce concept s'estconsidérablement développédans le contexte de la
délimitation maritime àtravers une sériede décisionsdans lesquellesla
Cour internationale de Justice s'estréférédeefaçon explicite à I'applica-
tion de principes équitables.
90. Ainsi, du fait que l'arrêt fait largementappelà la jurisprudence,
l'équités'y trouve introduite à partir d'une autre source encore. En se
fondant surdesaffairestellesque cellesdu Plateaucontinentaldelamerdu

Nord, l'affaire Libye/Malte et l'affaire du GolfeduMaine,on a ouvert des
voiesnonseulement à l'introduction del'équitédans ladélimitationmari-
time,mais aussi àl'édification, àpartir de ces principes équitables, d'un
corpuscohérentdejurisprudence maritime fondéesur l'équité.Parconsé-
quent, tout examendesproblèmesrelatifs au droit de la merdoit, comme
c'est le cas dans la présente affaire, tenir compte de ce vaste ensemble
jurisprudentiel qui, parce qu'il comporte l'adoption de principes équi-
tables,fait que l'influencefécondantede l'équité devienptartie intégrante
du droit de la mer.

e) L'équité dansla doctrine
91. Aux sources mêmesdu droit international, Grotius incorporait à ce
dernier l'idéeque l'équité pouvaitcompléterl'administrationde lajustice
internationale, car il cite Aristote parlant de «la perception de ce qui est

équitable »,de «la qualitéd'équité»et dela ((justicei2.La définitionque
donne Aristote de la justice,à savoir «corriger ce en quoi la loi, vu son
caractère général,est défaillante», est également citée.En fait, Grotius,
danssescommentaires, vajusqu'à évoquerlerecours à l'équité«indépen-
damment des règlesde justice proprement dites ». Et il emploie ici sans
aucun doute l'expression «règles de justice »au sens ou nous parlerions
nous-mêmesde «règlesde droit B.
92. On ne peut manquer de noter, à cet égard, à quel point Grotius
s'appuie sur le droit naturel dans lestravaux qu'en véritable pionnier il a

consacrés à l'édification des principesfondamentauxdu droit de la mer.
Onpourrait peut-êtredire du droit de lamer qu'il estun domaine du droit
international particulièrement sensibleaux influences de l'équité.
93. Le processus lancé par Grotius se poursuit à ce jour et, à chaque
générationl,esgrandspublicistesont, dans leurs propres écrits,incorporé
desconsidérationset desprincipes équitables àleurs apports, qui ont été
assimilésdans le corpus du droit international public3.

VoirS.Rosenne,TheLaw andPracticeof theInternationalCourt,1965,vol.II, p. 605.
Grotius, Dejure belliacpacis, 1646,liv. II, chap. XVI, sect. XXVI; voir également
liv. III, chap. XX, sect. XLVII, traduction de Pradier-Fodéré,librairie Guillaumin et
Cle,1967.
Pour ce qui concerne en particulier le droit de la mer, un certain nombre de publi-
cistes modernes éminents,dont certains ont été citédsans la présenteopinion, perpé-
tuent cette tradition et se distinguent par ce qu'ils apportent à ce domaine en plein
développement.(f) Equityasjustice

94. In the NorthSea ContinentalShelfcases,the Court stated, "What-
everthe legalreasoning of a court ofjustice, itsdecisions must by defini-
tion be just and therefore in that sense equitable." (I.C.J.Reports 1969,
p. 48, para. 88.) Equity as part of justice which the court is bound to
administer then becomes part of its generaljurisprudence. Equity in the
sense of a quest for the just solution offers a firm substratum for a con-

siderable part of the Court's reasoning.
95. In his separate opinion in Barcelona Traction, Ligha tnd Power
Company, Limited,Second Phase, Judge Fitzmaurice, citing a standard
work on equity (Snell'sPrinciplesof Equity,26th ed., 1966,pp. 5-6),said :

"as the author of the passage cited points out .. . equity is not
distinguishable from law 'because it seeks a different end, for both
aim atjustice ...'But,it might be added, they can achieve it only if
they are allowed to complement one another." (I.C.J.Reports1970,
p. 86,para. 36.)

96. In ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/LibyanArab Jamahiriya),this Court
observed,

"Equity as a legal concept is a direct emanation from the idea of
justice. The Court whosetask isby definition to administerjustice is
bound to apply it." (I.C.J.Reports1982,p.60,para. 71 .)

This Court and its predecessor have of course been careful to point out
that thefactthat itdispensesjustice doesnot entitleit to ignorethe rules of
law. The need to administerjustice does not, in the words of the Perma-
nent Court, entitleit to "base itsdecision on considerations ofpure expe-
diency" (Free Zones of UpperSavoy and the District of Gex, P.C.I.J.,
SeriesA, No.24,p. 15).

97. Kelsen and some other authoritiesl have expressed the view that
the Court's function is to decide cases in accordance with international
lawandonno othergrounds.Kelsen says,for example,thatthe Statute of
the Court requires that the Court decide disputes in accordance with
international law and does not mention justice, thus leading to the view
that the Court is not authorized to decide disputes in accordance with
justice*.
98. Suchviews,withgreatrespect, donot take into accountthefact that
much ofinternational lawalready embodiesequity, and that equitywas a
principal route through whichmanybasicconceptsentered the corpus of

' E.g., Judge Koretskyin North Sea ContinentalShelf cases (FederalRepublicof
p. 165./Denmark; Federal Republic of Gennany/Netherlands, I.C.J. Reports 1969,
Kelsen, ïheLaw ofthe UnitedNations,1950,p. 366.f) L'équité en tant quejustice

94. Dans les affaires du Plateau continental de la merdu Nord,la Cour
a déclaré:«Quel que soit le raisonnement juridique du juge, ses déci-
sions doivent par définition êtrejustes, donc en ce sens équitables.))
(C.Z.J.Recueil1969,p. 48,par. 88.)L'équité en tant quepartie de lajustice
quela Cour esttenued'administrer devient donc unepartiede sajurispru-
dencegénérale.L'équita éu sensd'une recherche de lasolutionjuste offre
un substrat solide àunepartie considérabledu raisonnement de la Cour.
95. Dans son opinion individuelle dans l'affaire de la Barcelona Trac-

tion,Lightand Power Company,Limited,deuxièmephase, M. Fitzmaurice,
citant un ouvrage de base sur l'équité(Snell'sPrinciplesofEquity,26eéd.,
1966,p. 5-6),a déclaré :
«comme l'auteur du passage cité ledit ...l'equity ne se distingue

pas du droit «en cequ'elleviseune fin différente,carl'uneet l'autre
ont pour but la justice». Mais, peut-on ajouter, le droit et l'équité
ne peuventréaliserlajustice que sion leslaissesecomplétermutuel-
lement. »(C.Z.J.Recueil1970,p. 86,par. 36.)
96. Dans l'affaire du Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe

libyenne),la Cour internationale de Justice a fait l'observation suivante:
«L'équitéen tant que notion juridique procède directement de
l'idéedejustice. La Cour, dont latâche estpar définition d'adminis-
trer la justice, ne saurait manquer d'en faire application. » (C.I.J.

Recueil1982,p. 60,par. 71 .)
La Cour, comme sa devancière,a pris soin, comme il va de soi, de noter
que le fait qu'elle dispense la justice ne l'habilite pasméconnaîtreles
règlesdu droit. La nécessitéd'administrer lajustice ne l'habilite pas, pour

reprendre lesparoles de la Cour permanente, à«se déterminerseulement
par des considérationsde pureopportunité »(Zonesfranches dela Haute-
Savoieet duPaysde Gex,C.P.J. I. sérieA no24,p. 15).
97. Kelsen et quelques autres autorités1ont émisl'avisque la mission
de la Cour est de statuer conformément au droit international, à I'exclu-
sion detoute autre base. Kelsendéclare, par exemple,que le Statut de la
Cour fait obligation à celle-ci de réglerles différends conformémentau
droit international et qu'il ne mentionne pas la justice, ce qui conduità
penser que la Cour n'est pas habilitée à régler lesdifférends conformé-
ment àlajustice2.

98. De telles opinions,malgrétout lerespectqu'elles méritent,ne tien-
nent pas compte du fait qu'une bonne partie du droit international
englobedéjà l'équité et que l'équité a été l'une des principalevsoies par

l Par exempleM. Koretskydans les affairdu Plateau continentalde la mer du
Nord (Républiquefédérald'Allemagne/Danemark;Républiquefédéraled'Allemagne/
Pays-Bas),C.Z.J.Recueil1969,p. 165.
Kelsen,TheLaw of theUnitedNations,1950,p.366. international lawand becamepart ofit.Theyalsodonottakeinto account
the factthat to shutthegatestothe entryofthis Streamofinfluenceintothe
corpus ofinternational lawisto cramp the development ofthe latter.

(g) Equityasdrawninby the UnitedNations Charter

99. TheCharter ofthe United Nations inArticle 1setsout asone ofthe
Purposes of the United Nations that "To maintain international peace
and security" it shall "bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity
with the principles of justice and international law, [the]adjustment or
settlement of international disputes ...". The International Court has

been set up within that framework as one of the principal organs of the
United Nations and is thus obligedto actinthe adjustment and settlement
ofinternational disputes "in conformitywiththe principles ofjustice and
international law". Equityas an inherent part ofjustice, if not ofinterna-
tional law itself,thus enters into the Court's jurisprudence. Its signifi-
canceinthis regardcanbe measured fromthefactthat the maintenance of
international peace and securitybeingamong the foremost ofthe objects
of the United Nations and al1its agencies,a primary means of achieving
this object, namely, the principles ofjustice and international law must
themselves have primary importance. Indeed, justice and equity are
inherent attributes of peace itself, which is foremost among the objects
international lawaims at achieving lTheobligatorynature ofthis aspect
becomesclearerwhen oneconsidersalsothatthe earlierdraft oftheChar-
ter contained the words "withdueregardtojustice and international law"

which were changed to "inconformitywith"asthe earlier phrase was not
considered to be sufficientlyemphatic2.

100. So, also, the Preamble to the Charter expresses as one of the
fountainheads of the whole concept of the United Nations the deter-
mination of the peoples of the United Nations "to establish conditions
under whichjustice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties
and other sources of international law can be maintained". Shabtai
Rosenne rightly uses this aspect to point out that the unity of equity
with law and justice must therefore be seen in terms of a "monad" of
equity, law and justice (connoting a lack of opposition among them)

' SeeAnnuairede l'UA, 1972/1973,Vol.42/43, Editorial by Boutros Boutros-Ghali,
p. 4,on the need forinternational lawyersofthe "ataffronter lesproblèmes com-
plexes d'un monde nouveau, où le droit international devrait établirune paix durable,
justDocuments of the UnitedNationsConferenceonInternationalOrganization,VI,.
San Francisco, 1945,p. 454. lesquellesdenombreuxconcepts debase sesontintroduitsdans lecorpus

du droit international et en sont devenus partie intégrante.Elles ne tien-
nent pas compte non plus du fait qu'en interdisant à ce courant d'in-
fluence de s'introduire dans le corpus du droit international, on entrave
le développementde ce dernier.

g) L'équité introduiteparla ChartedesNations Unies

99. La Charte des Nations Unies, en son article 1,stipule que l'un des
buts des Nations Unies estde«maintenir la paix etla sécuritéinternatio-
nales »,etàcettefin ((réaliser,par desmoyenspacifiques, conformément
aux principes de la justice et du droit international, l'ajustement ou le
règlementde différends ...de caractère internationa..» La Cour a été
crééedans cecadrecommel'undesorganesprincipaux del'organisation
des Nations Unies, et elle est donc tenue d'agir, pour l'ajustement et le
règlementdes différends internationaux,aconformémentaux principes
de lajustice et du droit international L'équité commeélémentinhérent

de lajustice, sinon dudroit international lui-même,s'introduitdonc dans
lajurisprudence de la Cour. Son importance à cet égardpeut semesurer
au fait qu'étantdonné quelemaintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinterna-
tionales estl'un desobjectifsprimordiaux del'organisation des Nations
Unies et de toutes ses institutions, un moyen primordial d'atteindre cet
objectif,à savoir lesprincipes de lajustice et du droit international, doit
lui-même avoiruneimportance primordiale. En fait,justice etéquité sont
desaspectsindissociables delapaix elle-mêmeq ,uifigureaupremierrang
des objectifs que le droit international vise à atteindre1. Le caractère
contraignant de cetélémena tpparaît plus clairement quand on considère
aussi que le projet initial de la Charte comportait les mots «en tenant
dûment compte)) de la justice et du droit international, qui ont été
remplacéspar le mot «conformément»c ,ar la formule précédenten'apas

étéconsidéréecommesuffisammentaccentuée2.
100. Le préambulede la Charte, également,énonce commel'une des
sources de l'idée mêmdees Nations Unies la résolution des peuples des
Nations Unies «àcréerlesconditionsnécessaires aumaintien delajustice
et du respect des obligations néesdes traitéset autres sources du droit
international». Shabtai Rosenne invoque à juste titre cet aspect de la
question pour faire observer que l'union de l'équité avec le droit et la
justice doit en conséquence être considérée commuene «monade»
équité-droit-justice(ce qui implique l'absence d'opposition entre ces

' VoirAnnuairedeI'AAA,1972/1973,vol.42/43, éditol e BoutrosBoutros-Ghali,
problèmescomplexesd'unmondenouveau,où ledroitinternationaldevraitétabliruneerles
paix durable,justeetéquitaB.e
Documentsde la Conférencedes Nations Unies surl'organisation internationale,
vol.VI,SanFrancisco,1945,p. 472. 242 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP .P.WEERAMANTRY)

rather than the "triad" of law, justice and equity conceptualized by
Sohn l.
101. It needsscarcelyto be stressedthat everyportion oftheCharter is
as basic tothe operation of the Court as the Court's ownStatute, forthe

twoareone integrateddocument.TheCourt's warrant to useequityinthis
caseasin al1othersisthus mandatoryand comesdirectto it fromitsfunda-
mental statutory source. It is worthy of note, also, that the intimate link-
age ofjustice and equity as set out in the United Nations Charter, with
the law of the sea, was eloquently underlined by the President of
UNCLOS III, Mr. H. S.Amerasinghe,at the verycommencement of the
Conference, when he said, in his opening address as President:

"If the Conference resolvedto be guided by the principles ofjus-
tice and equity, and if it showed a spirit of mutual understanding,
goodwilland compromise,it would not onlybe livingup tothe high
expectations of the United Nations Charter but also handing down
to posterity one ofthe supremeachievements ofthe Organi~ation."~

(h) Equityas embodiedinStatepractice

102. A number of items of Statepractice have been placed before the
Court in support of propositions concerning their respective positions
which the Parties seek to infer from them. State practice would within
limitsbe evidentiary of customaryinternational law. In sofaras the State
practicerelied upon relatesto the delimitation ofmaritimeboundaries, it
isimportant to notethat equitableconsiderations, such asthe principle of
equidistance, often provide the background against which States nego-
tiate on such matters.Theresultingarrangements maytherefore incorpo-

rateprinciples ofequity.Tothe extentthat Statepracticehelpstobuild up
international law,international lawwould then have,built into itthrough
this source,some of the principles of equity.Concretized in this fashion,
their equitable origins may be obscured,but we may neverthelesssome-
times recognizethem in the Statepracticetheyhelped to evolve.

l S.Rosenne,"ThePositionofthe InternationalCourtofJusticeonthe Foundations
of the Principleof Equityin InternationalLaw",. cit.,pp. 88-89.Sohn's viewwas
expressed in"TheRole of Equityin the Jurisprudenceof the International Courtof
Justice",inMélanges Georgeserrin(1984),p303.
OfJicialRecordsofthenird UnitedNationsConferenceonthLaw of theSea,Vol.1,
p.4,para.16.termes), et non comme la «triade» du droit, de la justice et de l'équité
envisagéepar Sohnl.
101. Il estàpeine besoin d'insister sur le fait que toutes les différentes
parties de la Charteont,pour le fonctionnement de la Cour,un caractère
tout aussi fondamental que son Statut même,car la Charte et le Statut
forment un seuldocumentconstituant un tout. Lesraisonsqu'a la Courde
recourir à l'équitédans la présente affaire comme dans toutes les autres
ont donc un caractère impérieux,et elles lui viennent directement de sa
source statutaire fondamentale. Il y a lieu de noter en outre que le lien

intime qui existeentre la justice et l'équité tellqu'elles ressortent de la
Charte des Nations Unies et le droit de la mer a été éloquemmenm t is en
relief par le présidentde la troisièmeconférencedes Nations Unies sur le
droit de la mer, H. S. Amerasinghe,lequel, au débutmêmede la confé-
rence, dans son discours d'ouverture en tant que président, a déclaréce
qui suit:

«Sila conférencedécidede s'inspirer desprincipes de lajustice et
de l'équitéet si elle fait preuve d'un esprit d'entente réciproque, de
bonne volontéet de compromis, elle se montrera digne des idéaux
élevéd se la Charte des Nations Unies ettransmettra à la postéritéce
qui sera peut-êtrel'un des accomplissementssuprêmes de l'organi-
sation.»2

h) L'équité dans lapratique des Etats

102. Un certain nombre d'exemples de la pratique des Etats ont été
fournis à la Cour à l'appui de propositions concernant les positions
respectives que les Parties cherchent à en déduire.La pratique des Etats
constituerait,dans certaines limites, un élémentde preuve du droit inter-
national coutumier. Dans la mesure où la pratique des Etats sur laquelle
on s'appuie a traità la délimitationmaritime, il importede noter que des
considérations d'équité, tellesque le principe de l'équidistance, fournis-

sentsouventl'arrière-plan desnégociationsentrelesEtats en cesmatières.
Les dispositions auxquelles on aboutit peuvent donc englober des prin-
cipeséquitables.Danslamesure où lapratique desEtats contribue àl'édi-
fication du droitinternational, celui-cirenfermeraitdonc,incorporés àsa
substance àpartir de cettesource,certains desprincipes de l'équitéI.l se
peut que, cesprincipes s'étant concrétiséd se cettefaçon, le fait qu'ilsont
leur origine dans l'équité soit obscurci, mais nous pouvons néanmoins
parfois les reconnaître dans la pratique des Etats qu'ils ont contribué à
créer.

S.Rosenne, «The Position ofthe International Court ofJustice on the Foundations
ofthe Principof EquityinInternational Law»,op.cit.,p. 88-89.L'opinionde Sohn est
expriméedans «The Role of Equity in the Jurisprudence of the International Court of
Justice »,dans Mélanges Geors errin,1984,p. 303.
Nations Unies Documentsofficielsdela troisièmeconfeesNationsUniessur le
droitde la mer,première seslTeséance,vol. 1,par. 16. V. A priori and a posteriori Employment of Equity

(a) Thepositiveor a priori useof equitytoconstructa result

103. The positive use of equity would of course be illustrated in the
Court's Judgmentbythe application of equitableconcepts and the use of
equitable procedures and methodstowards the achievement of an equi-
table result.

(b) Thenegativeora posteriori useof equitytotest aresult

104. Thishasbeentouched on alreadyinparagraphs3 1-42.Itwasthere
pointed out that the application of the equidistance principle, itself a
principle of equity, can on occasionyield a resultwhich is not equitable,
aspointed out bythis Court on more than one occasion. Wherethere isa
vastdisproportion incoastlines,asinthe Libya/Malta case,that wouldbe
a meansforusingequityinthe senseoftestingwhetherthe resultwouldbe
inequitable. So, also, in the present case,the vast disproportion between
thelengthsofthecoastlinesofGreenland andJan Mayenhasbeen usedin

testingwhetherthe result obtained byequitableprinciples and methods is
infactinequitable. Sucharoleofequitycanindeedbelookedatas "not so
much the positive assurance of an equitableresult asthe negative avoid-
ance of an inequitable one" ',but it has both practical value and theoreti-
caljustification.

105. Theuseofequityinthis senseisanalogoustothe useofinjusticeas
a test of justice, which has a long history in philosophical thought.

Althoughjustice by itsverynature isincapable of comprehensiveformu-
lation, injustice by its very nature is often amatter of instant detection.
Likewise,thoughthat whichisequitablecannotbeformulated in advance
in terms ofa comprehensivesetofrules2,that whichisinequitable can be
readily identified as such when a situationhas occurred or a proposa1is
mooted.

106. This line of thought regarding justice has an ancient lineage3.

Aristotle wrote in the NicomacheanEthics regarding the sense of injus-
tice that, "The many forms of injustice make the forms of justice quite

- -
ProsperWeil,The Lawof Maritime Delimitation: Rejlectio,989,p. 166.
Cf. Kelsen, Wasist Gerechtigke, nded.,Vienna,1975,p. 43- "Ichweiss nicht
undkannnichtsagenwasGerechtigkeitist ...undkannnursagenwasGerechtigkeitfür
mich ist"("1donotknowandcannotSaywhatjusticeis ...andcanonlySaywhatjustice
isto me").
SeeJuliusStone,Human Law andHumanJustice,1965,p.316. l! Recours à l'équità priori etàposteriori

a) Lerecourspositifou àpriorià I'équité venedeparvenir àunrésultat

103. Le recours positif à l'équité serait évidemment illustréd ,ans
l'arrêtdela Cour,par l'application de conceptsd'équitéetlerecours àdes
procédures et méthodes équitables envue de l'obtention d'un résultat
équitable.

b) Lerecoursnégatifou àposterioriàl'équitépou vérifieunrésultat

104. On a déjà dit un mot de cela dans les paragraphes 31 à 42. On
a fait observer alors que l'application du principe de l'équidistance,
lui-même principe d'équité, peut à l'occasion produire un résultat qui
n'est pas équitable, comme la Cour l'a fait observer plus d'une fois.

Dans les cas où il existe une large disproportion entre les côtes,comme
dans l'affaireLibye/Malte, ce serait là un moyen de recourir à l'équité
en ce sens que l'on vérifierait si le résultat est inéquitable. C'est ainsi
également que, dans la présente affaire, la très grande disproportion
de longueurs des côtes du Groenland et de Jan Mayen a été invoquée
pour s'assurer que le résultat obtenu par l'application de principes et
méthodes équitablesn'est pas en fait inéquitable. On peut en réalité
considérer que ce rôle de l'équité «consiste moins à assurer positi-
vement un résultat équitable qu'àéviternégativementune solution iné-

quitable))', mais il aà la fois une valeur pratique et une justification
théorique.
105. Le recours à l'équité ainsi entenduest analogue au recours à
l'injustice commecritèrede lajustice, qui a un longpassédans l'histoire
delapenséephilosophique. Lajustice, par sanature mêmen , e seprêtepas
à une formulation complète, mais l'injustice, par sa nature même,peut
souventêtredéceléeimmédiatement.Dm e ême,alors que ce qui est équi-
table peut être impossible à formuler d'avance au moyen d'une série
complète de règles2,ce qui est inéquitable peut être aisément reconnu

commetel quand on setrouvedevant une situation donnéeou quandune
proposition doit êtrepesée.
106. Cettefaçon de considérerlajustice a de lointains ancêtres3.Dans
17Ethiqueà Nicomaque,Aristote a écrit, ausujet du sentiment de l'injus-
tice,que:«Lesnombreusesformes de l'injusticefontapparaîtreen pleine

ProsperWeil,Perspectivesdu droitde la délimitationmaritime,1988,p. 180.
Cf.Kelsen,WasistGerechtigkeit?2eéd.,Vienne,1975,p.4Ichweissnichtund
kannnichtsagenwasGerechtigkeiti..undkannnursagenwas Gerechtigkeifümich
isP.(«Jenesaispasetje nepeuxpasdirecequ'estlajust.etpeuxseulementdirece
quelajustice estpourmoi.»)
VoirJuliusStone,HumanLaw andHumanJustice,1965,p. 316.clear"', a theme also taken up by modem jurists2. Whereas the response
to the concept ofjustice is merelycontemplative,the response to a situa-
tion one senses as unjust is a more positive one3.The enlistment of the
senseofinjusticein the serviceofjustice thus enjoysstrongphilosophical
justification. The "sense of injustice" is "largely retrospective and cor-
rective", while "the deficienciesit identifies can be finally repaired only

byabody ofdoctrinethat isprospectiveand creativem4T . hisisan illustra-
tion ofthe factthat "theories ofjustice in al1their rich diversityofcontent
and mode of presentation, cannot safely be discarded even from the
most practical ~oncem"~.

107. In short,

"We are confronted here with the differencebetween, on the one
hand, the question ofthe definition ofequity inabstractoand,on the
other hand, the question of whether a concretesituation, measure or
decision is equitable."

108. Al1this is not to Say,however,that relevant rules of equity appli-
cableto a given object can never be formulated in advance. Theycan, up
to apoint, asthejuristic leaming on thattopic matures,butthey can never
be formulated totally and the senseofinjusticeor the senseofthe inequi-
tablewillalwayscontinueto offerassistancein thepursuit ofthe equitable

solution.

109. With reference to boundary delimitation, no code of justice or
equity, however precisely formulated, can cover al1 possibilities in
advance. However, a solution once presented, can immediately attract
a sense of injustice, which would then result in its rejection and the
search for another which does not produce the same reaction. The stress
upon the need for an equitable solution and the rejection of any solu-
tion which, though reached in accordance with equity, is inequitable,

isthus one whichhas philosophical support.

* NicornacheanEthics,V.i.5. See, also, Aquinas' Cornmentaryon the Nicornachean
Ethics,5.1.Cf. Plato'sRepublic,440C-D.
Cahn, op.cit.,p. 13.nseof Injustice,1949;Julius Stone, op.cit.,p. 316.
1.Jenkins, "Justice as Ideal and Ideology", in Nornos,Justice191,cited in Stone,
op.cit.,p. 317.
Stone, op.cit.,p. 321.
P.van DijkNatureand FunctionofEquity inInternationalEconornLaw, Grotiana
New Series, 1986,Vol.7,p. 5.clartéles formes de lajustice » lthème également étudié par lesjuristes
modernes2.Tandisquelaréaction à l'égarddu concept dejustice estpure-
mentcontemplative,la façon dont on réagitdevantune situation que l'on
ressent comme injuste estpluspositive3.Mettre lesentiment de l'injustice
au service de la justice est donc une démarche qui bénéficie d'une puis-
santejustification philosophique. Le «sentiment de l'injustice» est ((de
caractèreengrandepartie rétrospectifet correctif »,tandisque «les défi-

ciencesqu'ilpermet de percevoir ne peuventfinalement êtreréparées que
par un corps de doctrine dont la nature est prospective et ~réatrice»~.
C'est là une illustration du fait que «les théories relatives à la justice,
dans toute leur diversité de contenu et de mode de présentation, ne
peuvent sans risque être écartées mêmedes préoccupations les plus pra-
tiques »5.
107. Pour abréger :

«Nous avons ici devant nous la différence entre, d'une part, la
question de la définition de l'équité in abstracto et, d'autre part, la
question de savoir si une situation, une mesure ou une décision
concrètessont équitables.»

108. Cela toutefois ne revient pas àdire qu'il n'estjamais possible de
formuler a l'avance des règlesd'équité pertinentes applicables àun objet
donné. Jusqu'à un certain point, ces règles peuvent être formulées à
mesure que mûrit la connaissance juridique du sujet en question, mais

elles ne peuvent jamais être formulées totalement, et le sentiment de
l'injusticeou le sentiment de l'inéquitable demeureronttoujours une aide
dans la recherche de la solution équitable.
109. En ce qui concerne la délimitation des frontières, aucun code de
justice ou d'équité, aussiprécisémentformulésoit-il,ne peuetnvisager à
l'avancetoutes les possibilités.Toutefois,lorsqu'une solution est présen-
tée,elle peut immédiatement susciter un sentiment d'injustice qui abou-
tiraà lafairerejeter etàrechercheruneautresolutionquineprovoque pas

la mêmeréaction.Insistersurla nécessité d'une solution équitableetreje-
ter toute solution qui, bien qu'élaborée conformément à l'équité,est
cependant inéquitable, c'estdonc une démarchequitrouve un soutien du
côtéde la philosophie.

' Ethiqueà Nicomaque,V.i.5.Voir également leCommentairede Thomasdilquin sur
I'Ethiqua Nicomaque,5.1,no893.Cf.la Républiqude Platon, 440C-D.
Voir E. N. Cahn, TheSenseofInjustice,1949;Julius Stone, op.cit.,p. 316.
Cahn, op.cit.,p. 13.
1.Jenkins, ((Justice as Ideal and Ideology », dans Nomos,Justice,191,citédans
Stone. on.citD.317.
P.van Dijk, NatureandFunctionofEquityinInternational Economcaw,Grotiana
New Series, 1986,vol. 7,p. 5. VI. île UsesofEquity

110. Theuses ofequityare manifold and morethan one ofthem maybe
in operation simultaneouslyin a given case such asthat before theCourt.
Thisaspect of equity is best appreciated by using any of the well-known
classifications of the use of equity. Oscar Schachter's analysis, for
example, in his course on general international law at the Hague
Academy in 1982itemized five uses l:

(a) equityas a basis for "individualized" justice tempering the rigours of
strict law
(b) equity as introducing considerations of fairness,reasonableness, and
good faith;
(c) equity as offering certain specificprinciples of legal reasoning asso-
ciated with fairness and reasonableness, to wit, estoppel, unjust
enrichment and abuse ofrights ;
(d) equity as furnishing equitable standards for the allocation and
sharing ofresources and benefits;
(e) equity as a broad synonym for distributive justice and to satisfy
demands foreconomic and socialarrangements and redistribution of

wealth.
111. Tothislist maybe added someothers such asthose listedbelow as
methods of operation of equity.There may be someoverlap between the
two groups, for some of these uses of equity may alsobe listedasmethods
and viceversa.

112. Of the fivecategorieslisted above, it is clear that at least the first
four have relevance to this case.

113. (a) Though Schachter mentions "individualized justice" in the
sense of tempering the rigours of strict law, equity can be used to deliver
"individualized justice" withoutinfactoperating in conflict with a mle of
law.The use of equity in this sense for maritimedelimitation was wellput
by JudgeJiménezde Aréchagain the Tunisia/Libyacase :

"the judicial application of equitable principles means that a court
should render justice in the concrete case, by means of a decision
shaped by and adjusted to the relevant 'factual matrix' of that
case. Equity is here nothing other than the taking into account of a
complex ofhistorical and geographicalcircumstances the considera-
tion of which does not diminishjusticebut, on the contras., enriches
it." (Z.C.J.Reports1982,p. 106,para. 24,separate opinion.)

Schachter,op.cit.,p.82.

211 VI. Les utilisationsde l'équité

110. Les utilisations de l'équité sont multiples,et il se peut que
plusieurssoientprésentes à lafois dansune affairedonnée,telle que celle
dont la Cour est saisie. Le meilleur moyen de comprendre cet aspect de
l'équitéest d'employer les classificationsconnues du recours àl'équité.
Par exemple, l'analyse faite par Oscar Schachter dans le cours de droit
international généralqu'il a professé à l'Académiede La Haye en 1982
dénombrait cinqutilisations ':

a) équitécomme base d'une justice ((individualisée» tempérant les
rigueurs du droit strict;
b) l'équitécomme introduisant dans le processus des considérations
d'impartialité,deraison etdebonne foi;
c) l'équité comme apportant certainsprincipes spécifiques de raisonne-
mentjuridique associésàl'impartialitéet àla raison, àsavoir l'estop-
pel,l'enrichissementsanscause etl'abusdu droit;

d) llepartagede ressourcesetd'avantagesqui;ablespour l'allocation et

e) l'équité comme approximativement synonyme dejustice distributive
et visantà satisfairecertaines exigences concernant des dispositions
d'ordre économiqueetsocialetlaredistributiondes richesses.
111. A cette liste peuvent être ajoutées quelques autres utilisations
telles que cellesquisonténuméréesplusloincommeméthodes de miseen
Œuvrede l'équité. Ilpeuy t avoir un certainchevauchemententre lesdeux
catégories,car certaines de ces utilisations de l'équité peuvent également
être considéréecsomme des méthodesetviceversa.
112. Des cinq catégories énumérées ci-dessus, il est évident qu'au

moins les quatre premièressont pertinentes dans la présente affaire :
113. a) Quoique Schachter parle de la ((justice individualisée»
comme d'une démarche visant à tempérerles rigueurs du droit strict, on
peut recourir àl'équitépour parvenir àune ((justiceindividualisée»sans
pour autant opérer contrairement à une règlede droit. L'utilisation de
l'équité considéré deans ce sens pour la délimitationmaritime a étéfort
bien caractériséepar M. Jiménez de Aréchaga dans l'affaire Tunisie/
Libye :

((appliquer judiciairement les principes équitables signifie que le
tribunal doitrendrela justice, dans le casconcret dont ilestsaisi,par
une décision conçue en fonction de l'ensemble des faits propres à
cetteaffaire etadaptéea cesfaits.L'équité n'esticirien d'autre que le
fait detenircompte detout un ensemble de circonstanceshistoriques
etgéographiquesdont l'interventionn'affaiblitpaslajustice, mais au
contraire l'enrichit.»(C.I.J. Recueil 1982, p. 106, par. 24, opinion
individuelle.)

Schachter,op.cit.,p. 82. 114. In many cases of maritime disputes including the present this
aspect is of great relevance, for each case calls for individualized treat-
ment within the context of whatever rules of customary or treaty lawmay
be relevant. No conflictwiththose rulesisimpliedbut an operation within
them,asmore fullydiscussed inthe sectiononequity intralegem.Thisuse
of equityto help shapethe decision to the "factual matrix" of the case is

very much in use in the present caseasevidenced bythe variety offactors
considered by the Court, at least one of which - the ice factor - has
perhaps not been considered in the Court's jurisprudence before.

115. The rationale of the individualized approach was also well
expressed by Judge Jiménezde Aréchagain the followingterms :

"Its [the Court's] having authority to apply equitable principles
does notentitle acourt to reach acapricious decision ineach particu-
lar case,buttoreach that decision which,inthelight oftheindividual
circumstances, isjust and fair for that case. Equity is thus achieved,
not merely by a singular decision ofjustice, but by the justice ofthat
singular decision." '
116. (b) Equityasconsiderations offairness and reasonableness isalso
clearly in operation in this case.

117. (c) Equityasthebasis of specificprinciples oflegalreasoninghas
also been used, as when the Court considers whether the conduct of
parties hasbeen such asto amount to an estoppel.This becomes relevant
in the present casein assessing,for e~ample,the effectofthe past conduct
of the Parties in relation to equidistancein demarcatingboundaries.

118. (d) Equitable standards for the allocation and sharing of
resources and benefits of course lie at the heart of this dispute and in the
context ofthesharing ofnatural resources ithasbeen shown elsewhere in
this opinion that equityisplaying an increasingly important international
role.
119. Useful analogues to equity'sroleinrelationtothesharing ofmari-
time space come from space law and riparian law. Space law takes in the
concept in the Moon Treaty, 1979(Agreement governing the Activitiesof
States on the Moon and other Celestial Bodies), which prescribes "the
equitablesharing by al1Statesparties" in the benefits derived from those

resources and also in the allocation of "slots" for the geostationary com-
munication satellitesin outer space.Therelevanttreatiesdealing withthe
allocation of these slots, such as the Convention of the International

' E. Jiménezde Aréchaga, "TheConception of Equityin Maritime Delimitation",in
InternationalLawat theTimeofZtsCodification:EssaysinHonourofRobertoAgo, 1987,
Vol.II,p.232. 114. Dans de nombreuses affaires de différendsmaritimes, y compris
celle-ci,cetaspect de laquestion estd'une grandeimportance, carchaque
affaire appelle un traitement individualisédans le contexte des règlesde

droit coutumier ou de droit conventionnel qui peuvent être pertinentes.
Celan'implique nullement un conflitavec cesrègles,maisunedémarche à
l'intérieurde celles-ci,commeon leverraplus endétaildans la section de
la présenteopinion quiconcernel'équité intralegem.Cerecours àl'équité
pour faciliterl'adaptation de la décisionaux«faits propres »à une affaire
donnée est très apparent en l'espèce, comme leprouve la diversité des
facteurs considéréspar la Cour, dont l'un au moins - le facteur concer-
nant les glaces - n'a peut-êtrejamaisétépris en considération aupara-
vant dans lajurisprudence de la Cour.
115. La raisond'êtrede l'approche individualiséea égalementété bien

formuléepar M.Jiménezde Aréchagadanslestermessuivants :
«Le faitquela Coura autoritépour appliquer desprincipes équi-
tables ne l'autorise pas à adopter une décision capricieuse dans
chaque cas d'espèce,mais à adopter la décisionqui,àla lumièredes
circonstances spécifiques, est juste et équitablepour cette espèce.

Ainsi, l'équitéest réalisée,non pas simplementpar une décisionde
justice singulière, mais par la justice de cette décision singulière.
116. b) L'équité comme introduisant dans le processusdes considéra-
tionsd'impartialitéetderaisonintervient elleaussimanifestement dans la
présente affaire.
117. c) L'équitécomme apportant desprincipes spécifiques deraison-

nementjuridique a été utiliséeaussi, par exemplelorsquela Cour s'inter-
roge sur le point de savoir si le comportement des parties a été telqu'il
donne lieu àun estoppel.Cela devient pertinent dans la présente affaire
lorsqu'il s'agit de déterminer,par exemple, l'effet de la conduite passée
des Parties en ce qui concernel'équidistance dans la démarcation.
118. d) Les normes équitables pour l'allocation et le partage des
ressources et des avantages se situent évidemment au cŒur mêmedu
présentdifférendet,dans lecontextedupartage desressourcesnaturelles,
on amontrépar ailleursdans laprésente opinion quel'équitéjoue un rôle
de plus en plus important au plan international.

119. On trouve dans le droit de l'espace et le droit des cours d'eau des
analogies qui sont utiles pour analyser le rôle de l'équité ence qui
concerne le partage d'espaces maritimes. Le droit spatial admet cette
notion dans letraité surla Lunede 1979(accordrégissantlesactivitésdes
Etats sur la Lune et les autres corps célestes),qui prescrit la ((répartition
équitable,entre tous les Etats parties)), des avantages résultant des
ressources en question, ainsi que dans l'attribution dans l'espace
extra-atmosphérique de «fenêtres» ou de ((créneaux»pour les satellites

' E. Jiménezde Aréchaga,((The Conception of Equity in Maritime Delimitation »,
dans Le droit internationalà l'heurede sa codification. Etudesen l'honneurde Roberto
Ago,1987,vol.IIp. 232.TelecommunicationUnion, invokeequity for this purpose through their
referenceto "equitable access" as a goal l.

120. A closer analogy,where a resource is to be divided between two
States, would be the rights of littoral and riparian States to lakes and
rivers.TheLacLanouxArbitration of 1957betweenFrance and Spain2is
an illustration of equitable principles of good faith and a just balance
betweenthe interestsofthe parties beingused to determine the respective
rightsoftwoStates.TheHelsinki Rulesonthe Usesofthe WatersofInter-
national Rivers (adopted by the International Law Association in 1966)
and the Resolution on Pollution of Rivers and Lakes (adopted by the
Institut dedroitinternational in 1979)showa heavydependence on equity

in relation to thesharing of resources.

121. (e) Equityin the senseofdistributivejustice and redistribution of
wealth is not involved in the present case. With reference to maritime
boundary delimitation, this Court has observed :

"Whileitisclearthat no rigidrulesexistastothe exactweighttobe
attached to each element in the case, this is very far from being an
exerciseofdiscretionorconciliation;nor isitan operation ofdistrib-
utive justice."(ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/LibyanArabJamahiriya),
I.C.J.Reports 1982,p. 60,para. 71 .)

VII. fie MethodsofOperationofEquity

(a) Throughbalancingtheinterestsoftheparties

122. Trueequity,it hasbeen said, "consists inholding in the best equi-
librium the considerations ofequityinvokedbyboth partie^"^ . heJudg-
mentinthiscasehasconsideredanumber ofcircumstancesand evaluated
their resultant effectin amanner that canbe so described.This isnot only
a well-acceptedmethod of equity,but has ample support from the juris-
prudence ofthis Court and of arbitral tribunals in maritime delimitation
cases.

123. In the Tunisia/Libyacase,theCourt defined itstask as an obliga-

-
M. A. Rothblatt,"SatelliteCommunicationandSpectnimAllocation",76Ameri-
canJournal of Internationl aw (1982),p. 56.
International LawReports, 1957,pp. 139,141.
Bin Cheng, General Principlesof Law as Applied by International Courts and
la commissionfranco-mexicainedes réclamations(1924-1932),p. 133.risprudencedede communication àorbitegéostationnaire. Lestraitéspertinents ou il est
question de la répartition de ces créneaux,tels que la convention de
l'Union internationale des télécommunications, invoquent à cette fin
l'équitéen faisant référence à l'«accèséquitable » len tant qu'objectif à
atteindre.

120. Un exempleplus proche, relatif au partage d'une ressourceentre
deux Etats, setrouvedans lesdroits desEtatsriverains de lacs et de cours
d'eau. L'arbitrage intervenu en 1957entrela France et l'Espagne au sujet
du lac Lanoux2 estuneillustration du recoursauxprincipes équitablesde
bonnefoi etd'unjuste équilibreentrelesintérêtsdespartiespour détermi-
ner les droits respectifs de deux Etats. Les règlesd'Helsinki, adoptées en
1966par l'International Law Association pour les utilisations des eaux
des fleuves internationaux, ainsi que la résolution sur la pollution des

fleuves et des lacs (adoptéepar l'Institut de droit international en1979),
montrent à quel point l'on a recours à l'équitéen matière de partage de
ressources.
121. e) L'équité dans le sens dejustice distributive et de redistribution
des richesses n'entre pas en jeu dans la présente affaire. En ce qui
concerneladélimitationmaritime,la Cour aeul'occasion defairel'obser-
vation suivante :

«Certes il n'existe pas de règlesrigides quant au poids exact à
attribuerà chaque élémentde l'espèce; onest cependantfort loin de
l'exercice d'un pouvoir discrétionnaire ou de la conciliation. Il ne
s'agit pas non plus d'un recours à la justice distributive. » (Plateau
continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne),C.Z.J.Recueil 1982,

p. 60,par. 71.)

VZZ.Commentintervientl'équité

a) Miseen balancedesintérêtd sesparties

122. La véritable équité, a-t-on dit, consiste «à tenir en équilibre,
autant que possible, les considérations d'équité invoquéep sar les deux
partiesD~. Dans cetteaffaire,l'arrêt atenu compted'un certainnombrede
circonstances et en a apprécié l'incidenced'une manière que l'on peut
décrireainsi.Non seulementcetteméthode defaireintervenirl'équité est-
elle bien acceptée,mais elle bénéficie amplementde l'appui de lajuris-
prudence de la Cour et de tribunaux arbitraux dans des affaires de
délimitationmaritime.

123. Dans l'affaireTunisie/Libye,la Cour adéfini satâche commeune

l M. A. Rothblatt,«SatelliteCommunication and SpectrumAllocati»,American
JournalofInternationalLaw,vol.76,1982, p. 56.
RSA,vol.XII,p. 281.
3 BinCheng, GeneralPrinciplesofLawasAppliedby InternationalCourts andTribu-
nals,1987,p.48-49,citantl'affairePinson(1928),publiée dansJurisprudencede la com-
missionfranco-mexicainedes réclamati(1924-l932),p. 133.tion "to balance up the various considerations whichit regardsasrelevant
in order to produce an equitable result" (Z.C.J.Reports 1982, p. 60,
para. 7 1).
124. Judge Jiménezde Aréchaga,in his separate opinion in the same
case,pointed outthat :

"To resortto equity means, in effect,to appreciate and balance the
relevantcircumstances ofthe case,soastorenderjustice, notthrough
the rigid application of general rules and principles and of formal
legal concepts, but through an adaptation and adjustment of such

principles, mles and concepts to the facts, realities and circum-
stances of each case." (Zbid.,p. 106,para. 24. See, also, ibid.,Judg-
ment,paras. 71and 107on the "balancing process".)
The process outlined by Judge Jiménez de Aréchaga describes very

closelythe processfollowedin the Judgment of the Court.
125. This notion of the balancing of considerations to reach an equi-
table result goes back very far in international law. The decisions of the
Commissions set up under the Jay Treaty of 1794', and authorized to
employequityintheir determinations, have beenanalysedashavingbeen
reached through "the necessary process of adjustment, of the weighing of
one consideration againstanother" 2.
126. Areferenceto the process of balancing up al1relevant considera-
tions was made alsoin the NorthSea caseswhere the Court observed :

"In fact, there is no legal limit to the considerations which States
may take account of for the purpose of making sure that they apply
equitableprocedures, and more often than not it isthe balancing-up
of al1such considerations that will produce this result rather than

reliance on one to the exclusion of al1others." (Z.C.J.Reports1969,
p. 50,para. 93.)
127. The Tribunal hearing the Delimitation ofthe ContinentalShelf
betweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrancecase3also engaged itself specifi-

cally in the task of balancing the factors presented to it by the respective
parties in determining the boundary linein theChannel Islands.

128. Ofcomparativeinterest,from a related area of the law,is the fol-
lowing methodologydescribed in Article V,paragraph 3,of the Helsinki
Rules onthe Uses of Waters of International Rivers :

A Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of
American and Britishnationals to settlea number of outstanding questions between the
two countries.
Moore's analysis, as cited by H. Lauterpacht in The FunctLawointheZnterna-
tionalCommunity,1933,p. 121,fn. 4. See,also, p. 132.
Decision of 30June 1977,RIAA, Vol.XVIII, pp. 87-95,paras. 180-202. obligation de «peser soigneusement les diverses considérations qu'elle
juge pertinentes, de manière à aboutir à un résultat équitable))(C.Z.J.
Recueil1982,p. 60,par. 71).
124. M. Jiménezde Aréchaga,dans son opinion individuelle dans la
mêmeaffaire, a faitobserver que:

((Appliquer l'équité signifiedonc en fait considérer et mettre en
balance les circonstancesparticulières à l'espèce,de façon àstatuer,
non pas en appliquant rigidement un certain nombre de règles et
principes générauxet de notionsjuridiques formelles, mais en adap-
tant et en ajustant ces principes, règles et notions aux faits, aux
réalitéset aux circonstances de l'espèce.»(Zbid.,p. 106,par. 24;voir
aussi ibid.,arrêt,par.71et 107,au sujet de la «mise enbalance ».)

La démarchequedécritM.JiménezdeAréchagacorrespond detrèsprès à
celle qui a été suividans l'arrêtde la Cour.
125. Cetteidéede peser lesconsidérationsenprésencepour parvenir à
un résultat équitable remonte très loin en droit international. Les déci-
sionsdes commissions constituéesenapplication du traitéJayde 1794',et
autorisées à recourir àl'équité dans leurs déterminations, ont été analy-
séescommel'aboutissement du «processusnécessaired'ajustement, de la
mise en balance d'une considération par rapport à une autre »*.

126. La mise en balance de toutes les considérations pertinentes est
également évoquéedans les affaires de la Mer du Nord, où la Cour a
observé :
«En réalitéil n'y a pas de limites juridiques aux considérations
que lesEtatspeuventexaminer afin de s'assurerqu'ilsvontappliquer

desprocédéséquitablesec t'est leplussouventlabalance entretoutes
cesconsidérationsqui créeral'équitable plutôtque l'adoption d'une
seule considération en excluant toutes les autres.)) (C.Z.J.Recueil
1969,p. 50,par. 93.)
127. Letribunal saiside l'affairede la Délimitationduplateau continen-

tal entre le Royaume-Uni et la France3 s'est lui aussi donné expressé-
ment pour tâche de mettre en balance les facteursprésentéspar les deux
parties pour déterminerla ligne de délimitationdans la régiondes îles
Anglo-Normandes.
128. Dans un domainejuridique connexe, il est intéressantde compa-
rer aussil'article,paragraphe 3,des règlesd'Helsinki relatives auxutili-
sations des eaux des fleuves internationaux, qui contient la méthode
suivante :

Grande-Bretagne prévoyant la créationde trois commissions mixtes de ressortissants
américains etbritanniques pour régler uncertain nombre de questions faisant l'objet
d'un contentieux entre les deux pays.
Analyse de Moore, citéepH. Lauterpacht dans TheFunctionofLawintheZnter-
nationalCommunity,1933,p. 121,note 4; voir aussi p. 132.
Décisiondu 30juin 1977,RSA,volXVIII,p. 223-231,par. 180-202. "The weight to be given to each factor is to be determined by its
importance in comparison with other relevant factors. In determin-
ing what is a reasonable and equitable share, al1relevant factors are
to be considered together and a conclusion reached on the basis of
the whole."

@) Throughanequitableinterpretation ofaruleoflaworofatreatyorset of
facts

129. One of the important functions of the equitable approach in al1
judicial processes isto provide a method ofinterpretation. This can relate
to the interpretation of arule oflaw or of a document, or indeed of a setof
facts. Literalinterpretations,wedded to the letter ofthe law and to formal-
ism, contrast with liberal interpretations, based upon an equitable
approach. Whether itbe a rule oflaw or atreaty or a factual situation that
is under interpretation, the same duality of approach is possible, with

widelyvarying consequences.
130. Schwarzenbergerspellsout this aspect of equityintermsthat,
"The rule of equity,as it has grown,demands reasonableness and
good faith in the interpretation and application of treaties."l

131. Thiscould be morespecificallyaddressed interms of a choicenot
between two but among several availableinterpretations. In the words of
De Visscher :

"Equity canbesomethingother than anindependent basis ofdeci-
sion, aswhenin a decision which inotherrespects isfounded on pos-
itive law (intra legem),the judge chooses among several possible
interpretations of the rule the one which appears to him, having
regard to the particular circumstances of the case, most in harmony
with the demands of j~stice."~

132. Inthis case,one ofthe majorquestionsaddressed bythe Court has
been the interpretation, inaccordance with equity, ofthe "special circum-
stances" mentioned by the 1958Convention.

(c) Throughtemperingtheapplicationofstrictrules

133. This isthe classicalAristotelianconcept of equity,described thus
by Aristotle, inthe NicomacheanEthics:
"The reason for this is that law is always a general statement, yet

there are cases which it is not possible to cover in a general

' Schwarzenberger,"Equityin InternationalLaw",Yearbookof WorldAffairs,1972,
p.34Charles De Visscher, Theory and Reality in Public InternationLaw, trans.
P.E. Corbett,Princeton, 195, .336. «Le poids à accorder à chaque facteur doit être déterminé selon
son importance,comparée àcelledesautresfacteurspertinents. Pour
établirce qui est une part raisonnable et équitable,tous les facteurs
pertinents doivent être considérésensembleet la conclusion doit se
déterminer en fonction du tout. »[Traductiondu Greffe.]

b) Interprétation équitable d'un reglede droit ou d'untraitéou d'unen-

sembledefaits
129. L'une des fonctions importantes de l'équitéd ,ans tout processus
judiciaire, consisteàoffrir un moded'interprétation.Ilpeut s'agird'inter-

préterune règlede droit, ou un document, voire un ensemble de faits.
L'interprétation littérale, attachéeà la lettre du droit et au formalisme,
s'oppose à l'interprétation libérale, qui s'inscrit dans une optique
d'équité. Quece qui est à interpréter soitune règlede droit, un traité ou
une situation de fait, cette double lecture, avec des conséquences fort
différentes,est possible.
130. Schwarzenbergerénonce cet aspect de l'équité en cestermes :

«La règlede l'équitét,elle qu'elles'estdéveloppée,exigeque l'on
soitraisonnable et debonne foidans l'interprétation et l'application
destraités.» l

131. On pourrait considérer plus précisémentqu'il s'agitd'un choix
non pas entre deux, mais entre plusieurs interprétations possibles. Ainsi
que le dit De Visscher :
«L'équitépeut n'êtrepas une base de décisionindépendante :tel
estlecaslorsque, dansune sentencequi, par ailleurs,restefondée sur

le droit positifinfa legem),lejuge choisitentreplusieurs interpréta-
tions possibles de la règle cellequi lui paraît la plus conforme aux
exigences de lajustice, eu égard aux circonstances de l'espèce. »2

132. Dans la présente affaire, l'une des principales questions exami-

néespar la Cour a été l'interprétation selon l'équité des «circonstances
spéciales »mentionnéesdans la convention de 1958.

c) Modération de l'applicationde règlesstrictes

133. C'estl'idéearistotélicienneclassiquedel'équité, décritp ear Aris-
tote dans 1'Ethique à Nicomaque :
«Laraisonen estquelaloi esttoujoursunénoncégénérae l,tpour-
tant ilexistedes casqu'iln'estpaspossible decouvrir dans unénoncé

p.346,357.enberger, Equityin InternationalLaw», Yearbookof WorldAffairs,1972,
CharlesDe Visscher,Théoriesetéalitésndroit internationalpublic,Pedone, 1955,
p. 416. statement ...This isthe essentialnature ofthe equitable :it isa recti-
fication of lawwherelaw is defective because of its generality." l

134. Equitycould thus adopta dominant attitude and correct alawthat
is defective, or adopt a soft or more lenient interpretation of a law, thus
temperingitsrigiditywithoutconflicting withit.The former attitude is,as
alreadynoted, inapplicable to international law.

135. However, the latter aspect of flexibility, which is relevant, is cap-
tured by Aristotle in the same work in his comparison of the indefinite-
ness of equityto the "leaden rule used by Lesbian builders", which "is not
rigid butcan be bent to the shape of the stonem2 .In the context of mari-

timedelimitation,eachcasepresents uponthe facts adifferent shape from
every other, and equity adjusts itself around that shape in the manner
described because it is flexible, where a rigid rule would scarcely do it
justice. TheJudgment in this case does no less.

(d) ïhroughthe choiceofanequitableprinciple

136. This is an aspectrelevantto thejudicial processes involved inthe
present case, for there aremanyequitableprinciples (and procedures and
methods) that can be used. The Court, for reasons stated, has made its
choice among these in deciding upon the line of delimitation it has
chosen.
137. Thejudicial function by its very nature involves a choice among
competingprinciples al1ofwhich inone way or another have relevance to

the matter in hand. What principles a court adopts from the range of
choice available is determined by a weighing of considerations such as
those of relevance, immediacyto the problem,practical value in the par-
ticular circumstances, and the degree of authority of the principle. These
arematters in which a court's experience and sense ofjudgment willpro-
vide it with guidance. In such situations, an important additional guide
wouldbe, within the limits of choiceavailablein law, the court's sense of
justice, fairness and equity.
138. In relation to maritime delimitation, apart from a few specific
principles such as the equidistance-special circumstances rule (which
have alreadyemerged), itwouldbe amatter forthecourt,among the range
of general principles (and procedures and methods) available, to make

such a choiceas isin accordance with law and its sense ofjustice.
139. This is another illustration of what Julius Stone describes as the
"element of evaluative choice" that is part and parce1of the judicial pro-
cess3.To use another expression of that eminentjurist, "leeways ofjudi-

Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics, . Rackham(tram.), Loeb ClassicalLibrary,
reviseded., 1934,pp. 315and 317.
Ibid.
SeeJuliusStone, LegalSystem andLawyers'Reasonings,1964,p.305. généra l.Voicilanature essentielle del'équité :ellecorrigelaloilors-
que la loi estimparfaite à cause de sagénéralité ».'
134. L'équitépourraitdonc adopter uneattitudeimpérieuse etcorriger
une règlede droit imparfaite, ou bien en donner une interprétation plus
souple ou plus accommodante, en tempérant ainsi sa rigueur sans la
contredire. Lapremièreattitude est,je l'aidéjàindiqué,impropreau droit

international.
135. Mais cet aspect de souplesse,qui estpertinent, estbienillustrépar
Aristote dans le mêmeouvrage lorsqu'il compare le caractèreindéfinide
l'équité à la «règle de plomb utiliséepar les maçons de Lesbos», qui
«n'estpas rigide, mais peut seplier suivantla forme de la pierre » 2.Dans
le contexte de la délimitationmaritime, chaque affaire présente des faits
d'une forme différentede toutes les autres, et l'équité s'ajuste en suivant
cette forme, comme il l'indique, parce qu'elle est souple, alors qu'une
règlerigide ne lui rendrait guère justice. C'est ce que fait l'arrêtdans la
présente affaire.

d) Choixd'unprincipeéquitable

136. Cet aspect touche aux processus judiciaires qui interviennent
dans la présente affaire, car les principes (ainsi que les procédures et
méthodes)équitablesquipeuventêtre employéssontnombreux. LaCour,
pour les raisons indiquées, a fait son choix entre eux en décidant de la

ligne de délimitationqu'ellea arrêtée.
137. Par sanature même,la fonctionjudiciaire consiste àchoisirentre
des principes concurrents qui tous, d'une manière ou d'une autre, sont
pertinents dans l'affaire en cause. Lesprincipes que lejuge adopte parmi
tous ceux quis'offrent a luidépendent dupoids qu'ilaccorde à desconsi-
dérations telles que la pertinence, le rapport direct avec le problème,
l'intérêt pratique dansles circonstances de l'espèce, et ledegréd'autorité
du principe. Voilà des domaines où l'expérienceet le discernement du
juge lui serviront de guide. En pareils cas, celui-ci trouve une gouverne
supplémentaireetimportantedans leslimitesde choixqu'offreledroit,en
son sensde la justice, de l'impartialitéet de l'équité.
138. En matière de délimitation maritime, abstraction faite de quel-
ques principes spécifiques tels que la règle de l'équidistance-circons-
tances spéciales(quisont déjà apparus), ilappartientau juge de faireson
choix parmi la gamme des principes généraux (et des procédures et
méthodes) utilisables,conformément au droit et à son sens de la justice.

139. Voilàencoreuneillustration de cequeJuliusStoneappelle l'aélé-
ment de choix évaluateur~ qui fait partie intégrante du processus judi-
ciaire3.Pourreprendre uneautreexpression de cetéminentjuriste,lejuge

Aristote,~thiqueà Nicomaque,V.x.4et6,éditide Loeb, 1934.

VoirJuliusStone,LegalSystem andLawyers'Reasonings,1964,p. 305. cialchoice" lexistwithinthe concept ofequity,asindeed they do in most
departments ofthe law.Thefact that international lawisinvolved,rather
than domesticlaw,doesnot alterthe nature ofthejudicial process.Equity
never was nor ever will be a completely objective department of legal
knowledge. In the words of a well-known treatise, "Equity may play
a dramatic role in supplementing the law or appear unobtrusively as
part of legalrea~oning."~

(e) Throughthe useofjudicialdiscretion

140. Someaspectsofthishavealreadybeen dealt within sofar asjudi-
cial discretionrelatesto the choice of an appropriate principle for appli-
cation. Judicial discretion also comes into operation in regard to the
choice of an appropriate solution from among a range of choices, al1of
them equallyavailableon the basis ofthe Court's reasoning.Indeed, this
aspect isparticularlyrelevant inthe present case,for,intheory, aninfinite
number of possible lines of delimitation would be available within the
framework ofthe principles which the Court has chosen to follow.
141. This aspect assumes even more relevance having regard to the
expressavermentin paragraph 90 ofthe Judgment thatthe adjustment of
the median linewouldbe within "the measure of discretionconferred on

the Court by the need to arrive at an equitable result". 1agree with this
assertion of judicial discretion, for its an explicit averment of what is
oftenanimplicitassumption. Itisessentialto point out,ifonemayborrow
the combined judicial and academic wisdom of O. W. Holmes and
Julius Stone, that, in matters such as this, there are no unique answers
which are "'right' in some absolute sense, as if judgment consists of
'addingup one'ssums ~orrectly"'~.Thecourt, asdistinctfrom an arbitra-
tor orconciliator,workswithincertainparametersset bylaw4.It exercises
itsdiscretionwithinthe parameters thus set,and,whereit usesthe flexible
tools of equity,it usesthem infralegem.Butyet,as with everyexerciseof
judicial discretion,thereisa range ofchoicesavailableto thejudge within
a broad framework of permissible limits. Where the choice falls within
that range depends uponthe judge, and howhe makeshischoicedepends
onthe guidingprinciples he employs.Thisisnot an area oflacunae inthe

law,for,though the law can offerguidingprinciples, itisby itsverynature
incapable of coveringentirelythe innumerablepermutations and combi-
nations of fact that present themselvesin a given case.

' Julius Stone, LegalSystem andLawyers'Reasonings,1964,p. 304.
Ian Brownlie,PrinciplesofInternationalLaw,4th ed., 1990,p. 26.
Julius Stone, Legal Systern and Lawyers' Reasonings, 1964, p. 305; and
O. W. Holmes, Jr., "Path of the Law", 10Harvard Law Review(1897),pp. 465-466.
by Aristotlein a passagepicked up by Grotius (see p. 233,footnote 1,above).oteda «des marges de choix»' dans le concept d'équité, comme d'ailleurs
dans la plupart desdomaines du droit. Lefait qu'il s'agissede droit inter-
national plutôt que de droitinterne ne modifiepas lanature de ceproces-

sus. L'équitén'a jamais été ni ne sera jamais un domaine entièrement
objectif de connaissance du droit. Dans les termes d'un ouvrage bien
connu :«L'équitépeutjouerun rôlespectaculaire de complémentau droit
ou bien se fondre discrètementdans le raisonnementjuridique. »*

e) Exercicedupouvoirdiscrétionnaird eujuge

140. Certains aspects de cet exercice ont déjàétéétudiés dans lame-
sure où le pouvoir discrétionnaire du juge est liéau choix d'un principe
approprié à appliquer. Le pouvoir discrétionnaire du juge intervient
égalementlorsqu'il choisitune solution appropriée àpartir d'une gamme
depossibilités,quiseprésententtouteségalementsurlabasedu raisonne-
ment de la Cour. En fait, cet aspect est particulièrement pertinent en

l'espècecar, enthéorie,ily aurait un nombreinfini de lignes de délimita-
tion possibles dans le cadre desprincipes que la Cour a décidéde suivre.
141. Cetaspect estencorepluspertinent sil'on considèrel'affirmation
expressefaite par la Courauparagraphe 90de l'arrêt àl'effetquel'ajuste-
ment dela lignemédiane «resteraitdans leslimitesdu pouvoir discrétion-
naire que lui confèrela nécessitéde parvenir àun résultat équitable».Je
m'associe à cetteaffirmation du pouvoir discrétionnaire de la Cour,car il
s'agitd'une énonciation explicitede ce qui est souvent un postulat impli-
cite.Il est indispensable de souligner, si l'on peut emprunteà la foisà
la sagesse d'un juge et à celle d'un universitaire en la personne de
O. W. Holmes et de Julius Stone,que,dans desaffairescomme celle-ci,il
n'ya pas de réponseuniquequi soit « u us te manièreabsolue, comme
si lejugement consistait àfaire "une addition ~orrecte"»~. Lejuge, àla

différenced'un arbitreoud'un conciliateur,opère àl'intérieurde certains
paramètres fixéspar le droit4. Il exerce son pouvoir discrétionnaire dans
les limites de ces paramètres et,lorsqu'il emploie les instruments souples
de l'équité,il le faitinfra legem. Mais, comme dans tout exercice du
pouvoir discrétionnaire dujuge, ilya unegamme de choix dans un cadre
large de limites autorisées. Où se situe son choix dans cette gamme
dépend du juge, et comment il le fait dépend des principes directeurs
auxquels il a recours.l ne s'agitpas ici de lacunes du droit, car sile droit
peut offrir des principes directeurs, il ne saurait, par sa nature même,
couvrir entièrement les innombrables permutations et combinaisons de
faits qui seprésentent dansune affairedonnée.

' Ian Brownlie,rinciplesofInternationalLaw,4eéd.,1990,p. 26.4.
Julius Stone, LegalSystem andLawyers'Reasonings,1964,p.O.5W. Holmes
Jr., «Path of the Law»,Harvard Law Review,vol. 10,1987,p. 465-466.
Cette distinction entre la démarchedujuge etcelle de l'arbitre a été notépear Aris-
tote dansun passage relevépar Grotius (voirci-dessus p. 233,note 1). 142. The use ofjudicial discretion may not be one of the great illumi-
nated places of the law but, within it, equity ispar excellenceone of the
lights lavailableto ajudge in determining his preference amidst the lee-
ways of choiceavailable2.Equityhere may consist of specificprinciples

that have emerged from equity, or equity in the broad and general sense
alreadydiscussed.Either wayequity can enterinternational lawand make
avital contribution toitscontinued development. Sincethe use ofjudicial
discretionwithin the prescribedparameters is thus anecessary and intrin-
sic part of the judicial process, a court exercising its discretion in a case
such asthis does not exceed itsjudicial function in making its considered
choice, within those limits, on the basis of its sense of the fair and equi-
table. Nor does itneedto feelinhibited, inthe exercise ofthat very proper

function, byconcerns that itistrespassingbeyond the limitsofthejudicial
function. Viewed thus, the wholespectrum ofequitableapplications, uses
and methodsstretches out before theCourt, enablingthe best choiceto be
made from the range available within the limits of its authority.

(f) Throughfillingingapsandintersticesinthelaw
143. This has already been dealt with in the context of equity praeter

legem.

(g) firoughfollowingequitableprocedures

144. Thishas alreadybeen dealt with in classification 1(b)above.

(h) Through theapplicationoefquitableprincipleaslreadyembedded inthelaw

145. Manyprinciples of equity such as unjust enrichment, good faith,
contractual fairness and the use of one's property so as not to cause
damage to others are already embedded in positive law. In the field of
international lawthe position isthe same. When one applies such arule of

' There could of course be several others, especially in a municipal forum, where a
judge may consciously or unconsciouslylean towards, for example, a utilitarian, an
analytical positivist,a realist, or otherphilosophicalstancein making his decision. See
Process", 6 ConnecticutJournalofInternationalLaw(1991),p. 599.es in the Judicial

On leewaysofchoiceinjudicial discretion,see,generally,Julius Stone,nLaw
and HumanJustice,1965,pp. 304-312.See also Lon L. Fuller, ne Morality of Law,
revised ed., 1969,for a view of the choices available, ranging from what Fuller calls
the morality of aspiration, high up on the scale, to the morality of duty lower down.
The more idealistic judge would make his choice higher up the scale than the more
pragrnatic. The highest points of the scale would be unsuitable for practical use. 142. L'exercicedu pouvoir discrétionnaire du juge n'est peut-être pas
l'un des domaines du droit où règnela plus grande lumière mais, à cet
égard,l'équité estpar excellence l'undesprincipaux guides ldontun juge
peut se servir pour arrêtersa préférence à l'intérieur desmarges de choix
dont il dispose2.L'équité peutici consister en des principes spécifiques
issus d'elle-même,ou s'entendre au sens large et généralque j'ai déjà

analysé.Dansl'unoul'autre cas,l'équitépeut entrerdans ledroitinterna-
tional et contribuer de manière vitale à son développement ultérieur.
L'exercicedu pouvoirdiscrétionnaire dujuge àl'intérieur desparamètres
prescrits faisant ainsi nécessairement et intrinsèquement partie du
processusjudiciaire, une juridiction exerçant son pouvoir discrétionnaire
dans une affaire comme celle-ci n'outrepasse donc pas sa fonctionjudi-
ciaire en opérantun choix réfléchid , ans ces limites, selonson sens de ce
qui estjuste et équitable.Elle n'a pas lieu non plus de s'estimerretenue,

dans l'exercicede cettefonction tout à fait légitime,par lacrainte detrans-
gresser les limites de la fonctionjudiciaire. Sous cet angle, tout le spectre
des applications, utilisations et méthodes équitables s'étend devant la
Cour, lui permettant de faire le meilleur choix, dans la gamme dont elle
dispose,dans les limites de son autorité.

f) Suppléance deslacuneset desintersticesdudroit

143. Ce point a déjà été traitédans le contexte de l'équitépraeter
legem.

g) Applicationdeprocédures équitables
144. J'en ai déjàparlédans la section 1b)ci-dessus.

h) Applicationdeprincipeséquitablesfaisant déjàpard tiedroit

145. Bien des principes d'équité, tels que l'enrichissement sans cause,
la bonne foi, la loyauté contractuelle et l'exercice du droit de propriété
de manière à ne pas causer de dommage à autrui, font déjàpartie du
droitpositif.En droitinternational, la situation est la même.Lorsque l'on

11pourrait évidemmenty en avoir plusieurs autres, surtout dans une instance de
droit interne, oùun juge peut consciemment ou inconsciemment pencher, par exemple,
rence philosophique, pour prendre sa décision.VoirC. G. Weeramantry, «The Impor-re préfé-
tance of Philosophical Perspectives in the Judicial Process», Connecticut Journalof
InternationalLaw,vol. 6, 1991,p. 599.
Au sujet des marges de choix dans le pouvoir discrétionnaire du juge, voir, de
manière générale, Julius Stone,nLaw andHumanJustice,1965,p.304-312.Voir
aussi Lon L. Fuller, TheMoralityof Law, éditionreviséede 1969,pour un aperçu des
choix existants, qui vont de ce que Fuller appelle la moralité d'aspiration,tout en haut
de l'échellej,usqu'à la moralitédu devoir, plus bas. Lejuge le plus idéalisteporte son
se prêteraientpas àune utilisation pratique.ragmatique. Lessommetsdel'échellenepositive law, one is thus giving effect at the same time to a principle of
equity. At what precisetime a pasticular rule of equitytakes on also the
mantle of a rule of law is often a difficult question to decide. The results
reachedwouldoftenbethe same, and probing the matter further maythen
be a merely academic exercise.

(i) mrough itsuseinnegativefashionto test aresult

146. Thishas alreadybeen dealt with in classification V(b)above.

VIZI.fie StagesofEquitableDecision-Making'

147. It isperhaps helpful,in analysing ajudgment involvingthe use of
equity,to note that equityhas not beenapplied inone sweepingoperation,
but that it is a careful and ordered process involving sequential stages
which canbeseparatelyexamined.TheJudgment ofthe Court inthis case
appliesequityinthis ordered fashion and has my supportin regardto the
decision taken at each of these stages. These stages could of course be
differently analysed, but the following stages perhaps represent the

Court's approach to the problem.

(a) TheidentiJlcation ofthearea ofthedispute

148. Theearlier part ofthe Judgment carefullyconsidersthis aspectin
some detail (para. 21),specifying the three areas involved.The extent of
the relevant area isalso specified.

(b) Thepreparatoryphaseof assemblingthe relevant circumstances

149. Asin this case,the next task that presents itself isto assemble the
relevant circumstances. In so doing, the Court would independently
assess the relevance of each circumstance.The Judgment of the Court

indicateswhatcircumstances itconsidersrelevant.Theparticular circum-
stances involved inthis case are referred to in Part Bof this opinion.
150. In working onthis preparatory phase the Court would be guided
by the equitable procedure of considering every item relevant to the
matter under examination. The decision whether a matter has relevance
or not would naturally be dependent also on any applicable rules of law,
for the equity the Court is here using is not equity contra legem.This

' See,onthisaspect, MichelVirally("L'équiéansle droit.Aproposdesproblèmes
Honourof RobertoAgo, 1987,Vol.eIIpp. 526-530),which makes a three-fold division.
For a more elaborate analysis intofive stages, see J. Charney,"Ocean Boundaries
between Nations:ATheoryforProgress",op.cit.See,also,forafour-foldclassification
into identificationof area,identificationof method, applicationof practicalmethod
andassessmentofequitability,M.D.Evans,RelevantCircumstancesandMaritimeDeli-
mitation,1989,pp.87-88.applique une telle règlede droit positif, on met donc en Œuvreen même
temps un principe d'équitéL . emoment exact où une règledonnéed'équité
est promue règlede droit est souvent difficileà déterminer.Les résultats
sont souvent les mêmes, etune recherche plus pousséerisque donc d'être
un simple exercice théorique.

i) Utilisationa contrario pourvérifierunrésulta2
146. J'en ai déjàtraitédans la section Vb)ci-dessus.

VIII. Lesstadesde l'élaboration d'unedécision enéquité'

147. Il est peut-être utile, en étudiant un arrêt qui fait intervenir
l'équitéd,'observer que celle-cin'a pas étéappliquée en bloc,mais selon
une démarche prudente et ordonnée comportant une série de stades
successifs qui peuvent s'analyser séparément. L'arrêd te la Cour dans la
présente affairerecourt à l'équitéde cettemanière ordonnéeetje m'asso-
cie àla décisionqu'elle a prise à chaque stade. Il est naturellement pos-
siblede les analyserdifféremment,mais lesétapes ci-aprèsreflètentpeut-
êtrel'approche que laCour a appliquéeau problème.

a) Définition delazoneenlitige

148. Le début de l'arrêt traite soigneusementde cet aspect assez en
détail(par.21),enprécisantlestroiszones en cause.L'étenduede lazone
pertinente est égalementindiquée.

b) Laphasepréparatoird eelaréunion descirconstancespertinentes

149. Commedanslaprésenteaffaire,latâchesuivanteconsiste àréunir
les circonstances pertinentes. Ce faisant, la Cour apprécie de manière
indépendante la pertinence de chacune d'elles. L'arrêt précisecelles
qu'elle ajugéespertinentes. Les circonstancesconcrètes dont il s'agitici

sont évoquées dans la partieBde la présenteopinion.
150. Lors de cettephasepréparatoire, laCour s'inspirede laprocédure
équitable qui consiste àétudier chaque élémenp t ertinent pour l'affaire.
La déterminationde la pertinence ou de l'absence de pertinence d'un fait
dépendaussi,naturellement, des règlesde droit applicables, car l'équité
dont use ici la Cour n'est pas l'équitécontra legem.Cet aspect est d'une

de délimitation maritime»,dLesdroitinternationalàl'heuredesa codification.Etudes
en l'honneudeRobertoAgo,vol. II,1987,p. 526-530),qui établitune divisiontripartite.
Pourune analyseplus développéeen cinqparties, voirJ. Chamey, «Ocean Boundaries
between Nations :ATheory for Progr»,op.cit.Voiraussi, pour une classification en
quatre parties: définition de la zone, définition de la méthode, application d'une
méthodepratique et évaluationdu caractère équitable,M. D. Evans, RelevantCircums-
tancesand Maritime Delimitation,1989,p. 87-88.aspect is of crucial importance in determining for example whether such
circumstances as population or economic factors should be taken into
account.

(c) Thedecisionalphase

151. Thishasa three-foldaspect - decisionsinregard to the appropri-
ate rules, whether of law or equity that have to be employed; decisionsin
regard to the assessment of the facts found to be relevant under head (b);
and the application of rules of law or equity to those facts to produce a
practical result.
152. Once the relevant circumstances are determined, their weight has
to be assessed.What weight would, for example, be givento the icefactor

in this casein working out a principle of fair division? What is its weight
both intrinsically and when matched against the other relevant factors?
What isthe weightto be givento proportionality in the light ofthe dispro-
portionate coastal lengths involved?

153. Thus each factor needs to be assessed for its intrinsicimportance
and forthe weight it carries amidst the totality of relevant factors.

(d) Theconfirmatoryphase

154. The Court would then reach a result, but that result needs to be
tested, for equitable principles or procedures do not automatically lead to
an equitable result. As already noted, while equidistance mightrepresent
an equitable principle or method, it could lead to a result which is not
equitable. A result must not be unjust. The philosophical underpinnings

of this concept have already been discussedin relation to the aposteriori
use of equityin category Vabove.

155. Thisshort surveyofthe handling ofequityin theJudgment, and of
possible approaches to the application of equity, will show the multitude
of heads and the diversity of routes through which equitybecomes avail-
able to the Court. It is hoped, also, that this analysis will have shown the
inevitability ofthe entry of equityinto a problem such asthat confronting
the Court, the productive role it can play through judicial decision and
othenvise in constructing the law ofthe futureand the fact that equity isa
vitaland integral part ofpositivelawwhich one neglectsonly atthe cost of
legaldevelopment.

UNCERTAINTIESIN THEUSE OFEQUITY
156. It isintrinsictothe operation of equity that there are some uncer-

tainties in regard to the extent of its application and the results which
emerge. This has already been noted in an earlier part of this opinion.importance cruciale pour déterminer par exemple si des circonstances
telles quela population ou les facteurséconomiquesdevraientêtreprises
en compte.

c) La phasededécision

151. Cette phase a un triple aspect- décisionsportant sur les règles
appropriées, qu'elles soient de droit ou d'équité, à utiliser; décisions

portant sur l'appréciation desfaitsjugéspertinents visésenb);etapplica-
tion des règlesde droit ou d'équitéà ces faits pour aboutià un résultat
pratique.
152. Une fois déterminéesles circonstances pertinentes, il convient
d'en apprécier le poids. Par exemple, quel poids faut-il accorder au
facteur qui constitue la présence de glaces en l'espècepour élaborer un
principe de partage juste? Quel est son poids, tant intrinsèque que par
rapport aux autres facteurs pertinents? Quelpoids accorder à la propor-
tionnalité, compte tenu de la disproportion des longueurs de côtes en
cause ?
153. Ainsi, chaque élément doit être apprécié pour son importance

intrinsèque etpour lepoids quilui revient sur latotalité desfacteursperti-
nents.

d) Laphasede confirmation

154. La Cour parvientalors àun résultat,mais celui-ci doitêtrevérifié,
car desprincipes ou desprocédures équitablesne setraduisent pas auto-
matiquement par un résultatéquitable.Commeonl'adéjàobservé,même
sil'équidistance peut représenterun principe ou une méthode équitable,
elle pourrait conduireà un résultat quine le seraitpas. Or, un résultatne
doit pas êtreinjuste.Lesbasesphilosophiques de ce concept ont déjàété

étudiées à propos du recours à l'équitéàposteriori sous la rubrique V
ci-dessus.
155. Ce bref aperçu de l'usagede l'équitdans l'arrêt etdesdifférentes
démarchespossibles pourappliquer l'équitémontrelamultitudederubri-
ques et la diversité des modes selon lesquels la Cour peut recourir à
l'équité.J'espère aussi que cette analyse aura montré que l'équité ne
pouvait manquer d'intervenir dans un problème comme celui dont la
Cour est saisie, qu'elle peut jouer un rôle productif, par la décisionjudi-
ciaire et aussiautrement, pour construire le droit de l'avenir, etenfin que
l'équitéest une partie intégrante et vitale du droit positif, que l'on ne
saurait négligerqu'au détrimentdu développementdu droit.

INCERTITUDESDANS L'UTILISATIONDE L'ÉQUITÉ

156. Il estinhérentau fonctionnement del'équité qu'il existedesincer-
titudes quant à la portée et au résultatde son application. Je l'ai déjà
signalé dans cette opinion. J'étudierai séparément ci-aprèsquelques-Someofthe causes ofthese uncertainties, with specialreferenceto mari-
timedelimitation,areseparatelyconsideredbelow withaviewto address-

ing the question whether there is in equity, as is sometimes alleged, a
qualityofuncertainty whichrenders itan unsuitableinstrument fordeter-
miningthe claimsofparties in a matter such asthis.

(a) Absenceof mechanisms forprecise quantzjkation

157. To expectgreaterprecision isto ignore the verynature of equityl.
One is reminded here of the Aristotelian aphorism that only so much
precision can be achieved as the subject-matter will allow. The factual
material which equity deals with is in most cases rarely assessable in
quantifiable terms. Equity has no fine balances at its command to
weigh human conduct, no graded units of value with which to measure

the particular mix ofvaried factors a givencasemay present. It makes in
mostcasesan overall assessmenton thebasisof legalprincipleand human
experienceandwillnotbe able,inmathematicalfashion,toproducearesult
precisely calibrated to match the circumstances,if, indeed, such a result
wereat al1possible, havingregard to the nature of the subject-matter.

158. When therefore a court, as in this case, translates an equitable
finding intoa delimitation,it is onlyintermsofan assessmentofthe equi-

ties as closely as it can and not with any suggestion that the resulting
cartographic delimitation mirrors the exact ratio of equities involved.
Certainties such as are contended for here do not exist evenin the realm
ofthe law,leave alone the realm of equity2.

(b) Lackof definitenessinthe scope ofequiîy

159. Equity'sseemingweaknessindefyingcomprehensivedefinition3,
or precisequantification is at the sametime one of itsstrengths,for it has

' Judge Manley Hudson points out:

"The conceptions introducedinto the lawasprinciples of equitycannot be listed
with definiteness;but they are not to be discarded because they are vague,for that
is a quality attaching to international la..."(ThePermanentCourt ofInter-
national Justice,1920-1942(1972reprint, introL.B.Sohn), p. 617.)

On the belief in legal certainty even in law, as opposed to equity, seene,
TheProvinceandFunction of Law, 1946,pp. 204-205:
"mhe defence of legal 'certainty' insofar as it assumes that certainty can be
attained by continuing to adhere closelyto logical development of the 'principles
of law', is defending what has never existed. The appearance of certainty and
stabilityin legal rules and principles conceals existinguncertainty."

0. Schachter, op.cit.,p. 82:"No concept of international lawresistsprecise defini-
tion more than the notion of equity."unes des causes de ces incertitudes, plus particulièrement en matière de
délimitation maritime, en vue de répondre à la question de savoir si,
commeon leditparfois,l'équité comporteun élémentd'incertitude quien

fait un instrument impropre au règlementdes revendications des parties
dansune affaire comme celle-ci.

a) Absencedemkcanismede quantficationprécise

157. Enattendreune plus grande précision,c'estméconnaîtrelanature
mêmede l'équité l.Il nous revient ici l'aphorisme d'Aristote que l'on ne
peut pas atteindreplus deprécisionquelesujetnelepermet. Leséléments
de fait qui relèventde l'équité ne sont, dans la plupart des cas, que rare-
ment quantifiables. L'équiténe dispose d'aucune balance de précision

pour peser la conduite humaine, d'aucune unité étalonnéepour mesurer
le dosage particulier de facteurs divers que peut présenter une affaire
donnée.Leplus souvent, elleprocède à une détermination d'ensemble en
fonctiondesprincipes du droitet del'expériencehumaine etellen'estpas
en mesure de produire, de manière mathématique, un résultat calibré
exactement pour répondre auxcirconstances, à supposer d'ailleurs qu'un

tel résultat soitmêmepossible,comptetenu de la nature du sujet.
158. Aussi, lorsqu'une juridiction traduit, comme dans cette affaire,
une conclusiond'équité enune délimitation,cen'estqu'en fonctiond'une
appréciation des éléments d'équité, faite d'aussi près qu'ellle e peut, et
sansprétendreque la délimitationcartographique qui enrésultereflètele
rapport exactdes élémentsd'équité D.es certitudestelles que celles dont
on voudrait seprévaloiricin'existentpas, mêmedans ledomaine du droit,

et moinsencore dans celui de l'équité2.

b) Manquedeprécisionde laportéedel'équité

159. La faiblesse apparente de l'équitée ,n ne seprêtant pas àune défi-
nitioncomplète3ou àune quantification précise,estenmêmetempsl'une

Selon M. Manley Hudson:

«Les conceptions introduites dans le droit en tant que principes d'équiténe
sauraient être énumérées avpercécision; mais il ne faut pas les écarter parce
lui-même.»(ne PermanentCourtofInternationalJustice,1920-1942(réimpressionational
de 1972,introduction dL.B.Sohn),p. 617).

Au sujet de la croyance à la certitudejuridique mêmeen droit, par opposition à
l'équité, voiJrulius Stnee,ProvinceandFunctionoflaw, 1946,p. 204-205:
«La défensede la ((certitude »juridique, dans la mesure où elle suppose que
l'on peut atteindre la certitude en continuant de suivre de prèsIedéveloppement
logique des «principes de droit», revient à défendre ce qui n'a jamais existé.
L'apparencede certitudeet de stabilité desrèglesetprincipesdu droiten dissimule
l'incertitude réelle.»
0.Schachter, op.cit.,p:«Aucun concept de droitinternationalne résistedavan-
tage àune définitionpréciseque la notion d'éq.ité»givenittheflexibilityto make aprime contribution to the development of
the law. Try as one may to achieve the desirable goal of certainty, this
remains elusive,for

"the finest legal dissertations on equity will never succeed in com-
pletely eliminating what is perhaps an irreducible core of judicial
subjectivism ..."(ContinentalShelf( ALribJaamnahiriya/Malta),
Z.C.J.Reports 1985, p. 90, para. 37, joint separate opinion of
Judges Ruda, Bedjaoui and Jiménezde Aréchaga).
Elsewhere in this opinion, referencehas been made to the series of semi-

na1principlesequityhascontributed to international law.Thesehave pro-
ceededfrom itsquality offlexibility,itsabilityto handle newsituationsfor
whichlegalprecedentaffordsnoguidance, and itsconformity withjustice
and fairness. In maritimedelimitation law,likewise, these qualities willno
doubt assist it in shaping that body of lawin equitable fashion, and each
individual decision based on equity, such as the present case can contri-
bute to this end. The day equity is completelycaptured in a definition or
formula,its creativity would be at anend.

(c) Lackofcrystallizationof equitableresults

160. Inthe specialfield ofthe lawofthe sea,equitableconceptsremain
largely undefined and their theoretical foundations unclear. This is but
natural, particularly in such an actively developing field, for as
De Visscherhas obsewed,
"if one views the matter historically, rules of law have at al1times
been largely the offshoots of equitybefore being crystallized within

the positive legalorder" '.
The danger of overconceptualization of equitable principles has indeed
been noted by this Court in the context of the law of the sea2, however
greatthe apparent need to concretizethe application ofequityinthisfield.

(d) Changing natureof thelawofthesea

161. An additional circumstance making for uncertainty in this field
should alsobe noted - namely that the uncertainties of equity are com-

' Charles De Visscher,Del'équdanslerèglementarbitraloujudiciairedeslitigesde
droit internationalpublic,1972,pp: 8-9
"envisagéesdu point de vue de la formation historique de leur contenu, les règles
de droit ont de tout temps été largementtributairesde l'équite se cristal-
liser dans i'ordrejuridique positif."
See,also,M. D. Blecher, "Equitable Delimitation of Continental Shelf', 73American
Journal of InternatioLaw (1979),pp. 83-88.
ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/LibyanArabJamahiriya),I.C.J.Reports 1,. 92.de ses forces, en lui donnant la souplesse nécessaire pour apporter une
contribution de premier plan à l'évolutiondu droit. Quoi que nous
fassions pour atteindre cet objectiflouable qu'est la certitude, celui-ci se
dérobe, car

les plus belles dissertationsjuridiques sur l'équiténe parviendront
pas a éliminer une part peut-être irréductiblede ce subjectivisme
prétorien ..))(Plateaucontinental(Jamahiriyaarabelibyenne/Malte),
C.I.J.Recueil1985,p. 90, par. 37, opinion conjointe de MM. Ruda,
Bedjaoui et Jiménezde Aréchaga).

Nous avons déjàévoqué dans cette opinion la série de principes féconds
que l'équité a apportésau droitinternational. Ilssontlesfruitsde saqualité
de souplesse, de son aptitude a répondrea des situations nouvelles, où les
précédentsjuridiques ne sont d'aucun secours, et de sa conformitéà la
justice et a l'impartialité.De même,ces qualités nemanqueront pas de
l'aidera façonner ledroitde la délimitationmaritimedemanièreéquitable,

etchaque décisionindividuellefondéesurl'équitéc,ommedans laprésente
affaire, peuty contribuer. Lejour où l'équité sera complètementcapturée
dansune définitionou une formule,sa créativité sera épuisée.

c) Absencede cristallisationdesrésultats équitables

160. Dans le domaine spécialdu droit de la mer, les conceptsd'équité
restent en grande partie imprécis,et leurs fondements théoriques peu
clairs. Ce n'est que naturel, surtout dans un domaine qui se développe
aussiactivement,car comme De Visscherl'anoté,
((envisagéesdu point de vue de la formation historique de leur

contenu, les règlesde droitont de tout temps été largementtributaires
de l'équité avantde se cristalliser dans l'ordre juridique positif» l.
Le danger d'une conceptualisation excessive des principes équitables a
d'ailleurs étésignalépar cette Cour dans le contexte du droit de la mer2,
sigrand quesoit lebesoin apparentde concrétiserl'applicationdel'équité
dans ce domaine.

d) Caractèreévolutifdudroitde la mer

161. Il convientaussi de noter une autre circonstancequi contribue au
manque de sécurité dansce domaine: les incertitudes de l'équitésont

l Charles De Visscher, Del'équdanslerèglementarbitraol ujudiciairedeslitigesde
mitation of Continental Shelf», AmericanJournalof ZnternatioLaw,vol. 73, 1979,
p. 83-88.

* Plateau continental(Tunisie/Jarnahiriyaarabe libyenne),C.I.J.Recueil1982,p. 92.

222pounded, inrelation tothe lawofthe sea,bythefact thatthe lawofthe sea
itself has been undergoing a process of spectacular change. Some cases
such asthe 1969NorthSeaContinentalShelfcasesand the 1982Continen-
tal Shelf(Tunisia/LibyanArab Jamahiriya)caseoccurred before the Law

ofthe SeaConvention was signed,whereasothers such asthe 1985 Conti-
nental Shelf(LibyanArabJamahiriya/Malta) case and the 1985Guinea/
Guinea-Bissaucases occurred after. Maritime delimitations such as are
sought in this case straddle the Geneva Convention of 1958 and the
Montego BayConvention of 1982,with al1the conceptual changes occur-
ring between 1958andthe present day.

162. Not only was a new dimension given by that Convention to the
applicability of equity but the very concepts to which it was being

applied - such asthat ofthe exclusiveeconomiczone - wereina state of
dynamic evolution. New concepts unknown in the 1950s such as that of
the exclusive economiczone were gathering strength even as older con-
cepts such asthat which based the continental shelfon anatural prolonga-
tion were losing momentum. It is no cause for surprise that flexible
principlessuperimposed upon sofluid asubjectshould have failedto pro-
duce a greaterpredictability of legal result.

(e) Theresorttofact-intensive ratherthanrule-intensiveprocedures

163. An important aspect which the Court must address in maritime
delimitation casesisthe extent to which it should concentrateonthe vari-
able facts of each separate case rather than on a search for overriding
mles which are common to al1l.The juristic literature describes the for-

mer as fact-intensiverather than rule-intensiveprocedures, and points to
the concentration on fact-intensiveprocedures as an additional cause of
uncertainty inthis area ofthe law. However, the type of enquiry involved
in the present case necessarily requires heavy reliance on fact-intensive
procedures.Additionally, the crystallization of equitable rules relating to
delimitationhasnot yet reached astageofsufficientmaturity to be a com-
prehensiveguide2.Fact-intensiveprocedures must therefore continue to
play a significant role in maritime delimitations.

164. In the history of maritime delimitation, there have indeed been
attempts to reduce the solution of this problem to mle-intensive pro-
cedures specified with nearly mathematical precision3.The effort at one

Schachter, op.cit.,p. 87.
See,generally, Schachter,id..
ofmathematical formulaetitled "Nuestra Formula Matematica",LanPlatafonnaSub-hree pages
marinay elDerechoInternacional,1952,pp. 82-84.Theformulae allocate different areas
of shelf according to three fixed factors - number of inhabitants, length of Coastand
area of territory.aggravées,en ce qui concerne le droit de la mer, par le fait que celui-cia
connu des transformations spectaculaires. Certaines affaires, telles que
cellesdu Plateau continentadle lamerduNordde 1969et celledu Plateau
continental(Tunisie/Jarnahiriya arabelibyenne)de 1982sont antérieures à
la signature de la convention du droit de la mer, alors que d'autres, par
exemple l'affaire du Plateau continental (Jamahiriyaarabe libyenne/
Malte) de 1985et cellesdela Guinée/Guinée-Bissa duela même année,lui
sont postérieures. Des délimitations maritimes comme celles de la
présenteaffaireressortissentà lafoisà laconventiondeGenèvede 1958et
àcelle de Montego Bay de 1982,avectous les changements conceptuels

intervenus de 1958 à nosjours.
162. Non seulement cette convention a-t-elle donné une nouvelle
dimension à l'applicabilitéde l'équit, aislesconcepts mêmes auxquels
elle s'appliquait- comme celui de la zone économiqueexclusive - se
trouvaient enétatd'évolution dynamiqueD . esconceptsnouveaux,incon-
nus dans lesannéescinquante,tel celuide la zoneéconomiqueexclusive,
ont prisde l'importancependant que d'autres, plus anciens,commecelui
qui fondait le plateau continental sur un prolongement naturel, en ont
perdu. Il n'yapaslieu de s'étonner quedesprincipes souples,superposés
à un sujet aussi mouvant, n'aient pas réussià produire une plus grande
prévisibilitdesrésultatsjuridiques.

e) Lerecours à desprocédures axéessurlesfaitsplutôt quesurlesrègles

163. Il est un aspect important que la Cour doit examiner dans des
affairesdedélimitationmaritime lamesuredanslaquelleelledevraits'atta-
cherauxfaits,variables,dechaquecasd'espèceplutôt qu'àlarecherchede
règlesprépondérantesc,ommunes àtouteslesaffaires'.Ladoctrinequalifie

le premier cas de procédureaxéesur les faits plutôt que sur les règleset
observeque l'attachement auxprocédures dupremier type est une cause
supplémentaired'incertitude danscedomainedu droit.Toutefois,legenre
de recherchesque demande la présenteaffaire exigenécessairement que
l'on fasselargementappelauxprocéduresaxéessurlesfaits.Ausurplus,la
cristallisationdesrègleséquitablesrelativesàladélimitationn'apas encore
atteint unematurité suffisantepourêtreun guide fiable en toutes circons-
tances2.Lesprocéduresaxéessurlesfaitsdoiventdonccontinuer àjouer un
rôle significatifdanslesdélimitationsmaritimes.
164. L'histoire de la délimitation maritime a effectivement vu des
tentativesderéduirelasolutiondeceproblème àdesprocéduresaxéessur

des règlesénoncéesavec une précision quasi mathématique3L . esefforts

' Schachter, op.cit.,p. 87.
Voir,de manière générale, Schachteri,bid.
La meilleure illustration en est peut-êtrefournie par les suggL.Az-ns de J.
carraga, trois pages de formules mathématiquesintitulées«Nuestra Formula Mate-
matica~, danLa PlatafonnaSubmarinayelDerechoInternacional,1952,p. 82-84.Ces
formules attribuent différentes étenduesde plateau selon trois facteurs fixes
d'habitants, longueur de côte et superficie du territoire.stage to erect the concept of equidistance into a rigid rule was another
attempt at rule-intensivesolutions aimed at achieving a predictable cer-
tainty of result.
165. Theself-limitingnature of such formulae isclear, especially in the
light of later experience revealing the relevance of numerous factors,
some of which may not have been foreseen, and some of which - such as
State conduct - cannot possibly be the subject of pre-set assessments.
Legal concepts cannot thus be locked into the rigours of mathematical
method.

Long-standingRecognitionof Equityinthe Law oftheSea

166. Apart from the generalapplicability ofequity in international law
which would, in any event, draw it into disputes in relation to the law of
the sea,ithasalsobeenspecificallydrawn intothe lawofthe seabytreaty,
proclamation, judicial and arbitral decisions and State practice. Equity
has long been specificallydrawn into the law of the sea in this fashion.
Thisaspect isdealt withinthe Judgment oftheCourt and 1shall deal with
itonlyinoutline. Itwill suffice forpresent purposes tonote that itsinvoca-
tion in the Truman Proclamation (of 28September 1945)was coevalwith

the verybirth ofthe continental shelfdoctrine.Thestatementin that Proc-
lamation that the determination of boundaries, where the continental
shelf extended to the shores of another Stateor was shared with another
State, was to be inaccordancewithequitableprincipleswas a significant
earlyindication that the law of the seawould, in its formativephase, lean
heavily on equity.
167. A landmark event wasthe GenevaConvention of 1958which will
be considered below. However, even before this, the régimeof equity in
this field was well established:

"It is generally admitted that in State practice prior to the Gen-
eva Conference of 1958the tendency wasto referin generalterms to
the delimitation of continental shelf boundaries or 'equitableprin-
ciples'. .." (NorthSea ContinentalShelJ;I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 91,
Judge Padilla Nervo, separate opinion.)

168. In the jurisprudence of this Court in maritime disputes,the equi-
table approach received recognition in 1951 in the Anglo-Nonvegian
Fisheries case1. The development of this trend, through a series of

l I.C.J.Reports1951,p. 142.See,also, S.Rosenne, TheInternationalCourtofJustice,
1957,pp. 427-428.

224 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME (OP. IND.WEERAMANTRY) 258

déployés à un moment pour érigerle concept d'équidistance en règle

rigide ont représentéune autre tentative de recoursdes solutions axées
sur lesrèglesen vue d'obtenir une certitude prévisibledu résultat.
165. Le caractère intrinsèquement limitéde ces formules est clair,
surtout comptetenu del'évolutionultérieure,quiarévélé lapertinence de
nombreux facteurs, dont certains n'avaient peut-êtrepas étéprévus,et
dont quelques-uns - commelaconduitedesEtats - nesauraientabsolu-
ment pas faire l'objet d'évaluationsréétabliesAesoncepts juridiques
ne peuvent donc pas être ainsi enfermés dans la rigueur de méthodes
mathématiques.

PARTIE B. MENTION SARTICULI~RESDE L'ÉQUITÉ
EN MATIERE DE DÉLIMITATION MARITIME

Reconnaissancede longuedate del'équité endroitde la mer

166. En dehors de sonapplicabilitégénéraleen droitinternational,qui
la feraitintervenir de toute manière dans desdifférendsrelevant du droit
de la mer, l'équita aussiété expressémentincorporée au droitde la mer
par voie de traités,de proclamations et de décisionsjudiciaires et arbi-
trales et par lapratique des Etats. Elle a étéainsiincorporée depuis long-
temps au droit de la mer. Cet aspect esttraitédans l'arrêtde la Cour etje

me contenterai de l'aborder dans sesgrandes lignes.l suffit ici de rappe-
lerque samention dans laproclamation Truman(du 28septembre 1945)a
coïncidéaveclanaissance deladoctrine du plateau continental.Endécla-
rant que,lorsque leplateau continentals'étendait verslescôtesd'un autre
Etat ou était partagé avec un autre Etat, la délimitation devait être
conforme à des principes équitables,cette proclamation a donné une
première indication importante que le droit de la mer, dans sa phase de
formation, seraitlourdement tributaire de l'équité.
167. La convention de Genèvede 1958,dont je parlerai plus loin, a fait
date. Mais avant mêmecelle-ci,lerégimede l'équitédans cedomaineétait
bien établi

«11est généralement admis que,dans la pratique des Etats anté-
rieureàla conférencede Genèvede 1958,on avait tendance à parler,
entermestrèsgénérauxd , e délimiterlesplateaux continentauxselon
des ({principeséquitables.» (affaires du Plateau continentalde la
mer du Nord, C.Z. J .cueil 1969, p. 91, opinion individuelle de

M. Padilla Nervo.)
168. Dans la jurisprudence de cette Cour en matière de différends
maritimes, l'approche basée sur l'équitéa étéreconnue en 1951 dans
l'affaire desêcheriea snglo-norvégiennes l.Le développement de cette

* C.I.J.Recueil1951,p. 142;voir aussi S.Rosenne, TheInternationalCourtofJustice,
1957,p. 427-428. cases1until the latest decisions of this Court, has entrenched equity as
a key legal factor in this field. This trend is evident also in the arbitral
decisions2.

169. In the deliberations during UNCLOS III, the role of equity in
relation to the law of the sea progressivelyachieved increasing recogni-
tion,tillitbecameenshrined asacardinalprinciple in thefinal draft ofthe
Convention, in Articles 74 and 83. In achieving this status, equity dis-
placed other suggestedcriteria such as equidistance which had appeared
in earlier drafts as the prime consideration for delimitation. Indeed, a
deep concernfor equitableconsiderationspermeates the Convention (see

Arts. 160(2)(d),161(1)(e),162(2)(d),163 (4),274(a)).

170. So much importance has equity gained in this regard that it has
been described as "currently gaining ground as the central principle of
maritime boundary delimitation over the 1958equidistance-special cir-
cumstancesr~le"~.

Re UseofEquityin the1958GenevaConvention

171. The 1958Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf provides
by Article 6 that, where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the
territories of the two States whose coasts are opposite to each other, the
boundary of the continental shelf appertaining to such States shall be
determined by agreementbetweenthem :

"In the absenceofagreement,and unless another boundary line is
justified by special circumstances, the boundary is the median line,
every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points of the
baselinesfrom whichthebreadth oftheterritorial seaofeachStateis
measured."

172. Judge Odahas observedthat, although not specificallymentioned
in Article6,the idea of an equitablesolution layatthe basis ofthat provi-
sion4 which can perhaps be regarded as having inferentially attracted
equityinto delimitation.

North Sea ContinentalShelfcases, I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 3; ContinentalShelf
(Tunisia/LibyanArabJamahiriya)case, Z.C.J.Reports 1982,p. 18;caseconcerning Deli-
mitationof theMaritimeBoundaryin theGulfof MaineArea,Z.C.J.Reports1984,p. 246;
and ContinentalShelf(LibyanArabJamahiriya/Malta) case, I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 13.
See,inparticular, the decisions ofthe Court ofArbitration intheationof the
ContinentalShelf between the United Kingdom and France case, RZAA,Vol. XVIII,
pp. 3ff.; and Chile/ArgentinaBeagleChamelArbitration,InternationalLegalMaterials,
1978,pp. 36ff.
H. W.Jayewardene, RegimeofIslandsinInternationalLaw, 1990,p.316.
ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), I.C.J. Reports1982,p. 246,
para.144,dissenting opinion ofJudge Oda.tendance, par uneséried'affaires l qui s'estprolongéejusqu'aux décisions
lesplusrécentesde la Cour,a consacrél'équité entant que facteur fonda-
mental de droit dans ce domaine. Cette tendance ressort également des
décisionsarbitrales2.

169. Au cours des délibérations qui ont eu lieu à la troisième confé-
rence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, le rôle de l'équité dans le
contexte du droit de la mer s'est peu à peu fait admettre, jusqu'à s'y
implanter comme principe cardinal dans le projet final de la convention,
aux articles 74et 83.En acquérantce statut, l'équitéa supplantéd'autres
critèresquiavaientétésuggérécso ,mmecelui del'équidistance, quifaisait
figure, dans desprojetsantérieurs, de considérationprincipale enmatière
de délimitation.En fait,un profond souci pour lesconsidérationsd'équité

imprègnetoute la convention (voirart. 160,par. 2,al. d); 161,par. 1,al. e);
162,par. 2, al. d); 163,par. 4; 274,al. a)).
170. L'équité à pris tant d'importance à cet égard qu'on l'a présentée
comme «gagnant actuellement du terrain en tant que principe central de
la délimitation maritime au détriment de la règle de l'équidistance-
circonstancesspécialesde 1958 »3.

L'équitédansla conventionde Genèvede 1958

171. La convention de Genève de 1958 sur le plateau continental
prévoit à l'article 6 que dans le cas où un mêmeplateau continental est
adjacent auxterritoires de deux Etats dont lescôtes sefont face,la délimi-
tation du plateau continental entre ces Etats est déterminéepar accord
entre ces Etats:

«A défaut d'accord,et à moins que des circonstancesspéciales ne
justifient une autre délimitation, celle-ci est constituéepar la ligne
médiane dont tous les points sont équidistants des points les plus
proches des lignes de base à partir desquelles est mesuréela largeur
de la mer territoriale de chacun de ces Etats. »

172. M. Oda a fait observer que, même sielle n'est pas expressément
mentionnée à l'article 6, l'idéed'une solution équitable est a la base de
cette disposition4,qui peut être considérée comme ayant peut-être indi-
rectementfait entrerl'équitédans la délimitation.

' Affairesdu PlateaucontinentaldelamerduNord.C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 3;affaire du
affaire de la Délimitationde la frontièremaritime dans la régiondu golfe du Maine,;
C.I.J.Recueil1984p.246:et affaire du Plateau continentalfJamahirivaarabelibvenne/
Malte),C.I.J.~ecu~l1985,p.13.
Voirenparticulier lesdécisionsdu tribunal arbitral dans l'affairede la Délimitation
duplateaucontinentalentre~o~aurne-un aeFrance,RSA,vol.XVIII, p. 130etsuiv.;
et Arbitrage entreI'tirgentineet le Chili concernantle canal de Beagle, International
Le al Materials,1978,p. 36et suiv.
H. W. Jayewardene, Regimeof IslandsinInternationalLaw, 1990,p. 316.
Plateau continental(Tunisie/Jamahiriyaarabelibyenne),C.I.J.Recueil 1982,p. 246,
par. 144,opinion dissidenteM.eOda. 173. There are two pointers in the Article to the area of enquiry in
which the Court should engage itself -

(i) anyagreementbetween the parties, and,
(ii) in the absence of such agreement, whether any line other than the
median lineisjustified byspecialcircumstances.
174. Under each of these heads, there are matterswhich arise for con-
sideration.
175. Under the firsthead,there isthe Agreement of 1965between Nor-
way and Denmark which is considered in the Judgment of the Court.

1respectfullyexpress myagreement withthe conclusion ofthe Court that
that Agreement does not relate to the maritime area in dispute in the
present case.
176. Under the secondhead, the Court has been addressed on a num-
ber of factors - relative populations, proportionality of coastlines,
respective landmasses and economic importance to the appurtenant
Coast,to mention a few. These matters will receive consideration later in
this opinion. It ismyviewthat none ofthem can be ruled out inlimineon
the basis of a generalprinciple ofirrelevancerelatingto anyonecategory.

177. Aswas observed by the Court of Arbitration in Delimitationofthe
Continental Shelfbetweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrancein 1977 :
"the rôle of the 'special circumstances' condition in Article 6 is to
ensure an equitable delimitation; and the combined 'equidistance-
specialcircumstances rule',in effect,givesparticular expression to a

general nom that, failing agreement, the boundary between States
abutting on the same continental shelf is to be determined on equi-
table principles7''.

TheUseof Equityinthe1982MontegoBay Convention
178. The "equitable solution" formula contained in the Convention
(Arts. 71 (1) and 83 (1)) - a compromisebetween that favoured by the
equidistance group2 and that favoured by the equitable principles

group3 - gave further recognition to the role of equity.

RIAA,Vol.XVIII, p. 45,para. 70.
"The delimitation of the Exclusive EconomicZone/Continental Shelf between
adjacent or opposite Statesshall be effected by agreement employing, as a general
stances where this is justified." (Doc. NG 7/2/Rev.2, 28 March 1980,cited byircum-
Brown, "Delimitations of Offshore Areas: Hard Labour and Bitter Fmits at
UNCLOS III", MarinePolicy (1981),p. 180.)
"The delimitation of the exclusiveeconomic zone between adjacentand oppo-
site States shall be effected by agreement, in accordance with equitableprinciples
taking into account al1relevant circumstances and employing any methods where
appropriate, to lead to an equitable solution." (Doc. NG 7/10/Rev.2, 28 March
1980,cited by Brown,op. cit.) 173. Cetarticle donne deuxindications quant au domaine sur lequella
Cour doit s'interroger:
i) existenced'un accordéventuelentre lesparties,et
ii) a défaut d'accord,justification d'une ligne autre que la ligne médiane
enraison decirconstancesspéciales.

174. Il se pose sous chacune de ces rubriques des questions qui méri-
tent réflexion.
175. Autitre du premier point, il y a l'accord de 1965entre la Norvège
etle Danemark,qui estexaminédans l'arrêtdelaCour. Je partage respec-
tueusement la conclusion de la Cour, a savoir que cet accord ne se
rapporte pas à la zonemaritime en litige dans la présente affaire.

176. Quant au secondpoint, la Cour a entendu des arguments portant
sur plusieursfacteurs :effectifs relatifsdespopulations, proportionnalité
des côtes, masses terrestres respectives et importance économique de la
zone pour la côte correspondante, pour n'en citer que quelques-uns. Je
traiterai de cesquestionsplusloin dans la présente opinion.Aucun de ces
facteurs,selon moi,nepeutêtreexclu inlimineaunomd'un principe géné-
ral de non-pertinence d'une quelconque catégorie de facteurs.
177. Ainsique l'aobservéletribunal arbitraldansl'affaire dela Délimi-
tationduplateau continentalentrele Royaume-Uniet la France, en 1977 :

«le rôle delaconditionrelativeaux«circonstancesspéciales »,posée
a l'article 6, est d'assurer une délimitationéquitable;en fait,la règle
combinant «équidistance-circonstancesspéciales »constitueI'expres-
sion particulièred'une norme généralesuivantlaquelle lalimiteentre
des Etats qui donnent sur le mêmeplateau continental doit, en
l'absence d'accord, être déterminée selon dp ersincipes équitables »'.

L'équité danslaconventiondeMontegoBayde 1982

178. La formule de la solution équitable»qui figure dans la conven-
tion (art. 71, par. 1,et 83,par. 1) - compromis entre celle que préconi-
saient les tenants de l'équidistance2et celle que proposaient ceux des
principes équitables3 - a constituéune autre reconnaissance encore du
rôle de l'équité.

l RSA,vol. XVIII, p. 175,par. 70.
«La délimitationde la zone économiqueexclusive/du plateau continental entre
Etats limitrophes ou qui se font face sefait par voie d'accord en utilisant, comme
principe général, la lignemédiane ou la ligned'équidistance compte tq,uand
cela estjustifié,de tous les facteurs particuliers. » (Doc. NG7/2/Rev.2, 28 mars
1980,citépar Brown, «Delimitations of Offshore Are:Hard Labour and Bitter
Fmits at UNCLOS III »,Marine Policy,1981,p. 180.)
«La délimitationde lazone économique exclusiveentre Etats limitropheset/ou se
faisant face se fait par voie d'accord, conformémentà des principes équitables,
compte tenu de tous les facteurs pertinents et en utilisant, le cas échéant, toutes
28mars 1980,citépar Brown, op.cit.)solution équitable.» (Doc. NG7/10/Rev.2, 179. As is observed in a contemporary text on the régimeof islands
under international law :

"The most distinctivefeature of the provision [on the economic
zone and continental shelf in the Informa1Single Negotiating Text]
was the abandonment of the 1958 equidistance-special circum-

stancesmode1in favour of a formulabased onthe principle of equi-
table delimitation."

180. The acceptance by both groups2 of phraseology including "an
equitablesolution" despitethe widedisparities inthe positions ofthe two
groups givesequitya position of special importance in this sensitiveand
controversial area of international law, thus creating a special need for a
fullerinvestigationof al1the implicationsofthe phraseologyso adopted3.

Categories of RelevantFactorsAreNot Closed

181. In paragraphs 122-128abovedealing withthe operation ofequity

through the balancing of interests,attention has been givento the wayin
whichthe various relevantcircumstancesare weighedagainsteachother.
Referencewasthere made tothe North Sea caseswhich stated that there
was no legal limit to the considerations which Statestake account of for
thispurpose4. So,also,inthe Libya/Malta case,this Court observed :

"For a court,althoughthere isassuredlyno closedlistofconsider-
ations,it isevidentthat onlythose thatare pertinent to the institution
ofthe continental shelfasithas developedwithin the law,and to the

application ofequitableprinciples to itsdelimitation, willqualifyfor
inclusion." (I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 40,para. 48.)

182. No completelist canbemade,ifforno otherreason than that each
caseisunique and one can neverforetellwhat circumstancesmaysurface
or achieveimportanceinthe unknown disputes of the future. Moreover,

l H. W. Jayewardene, TheRegimeofIslandsinInternational Law,1990,p. 320.
See OfJicialRecords of theThirdUnited Nations Confereon the Law of theSea,
Vol.XV,pp. 39-42,forthe discussion on the compromisetext formulated by the Presi-
dent, and for its acceptance by the two groups concemed.
It is not necessary for present purposes to enter into discussions of the question
whetherthe provisions ofthe Convention haveacquired the force ofcustomaryinterna-
tional law. That question is not free of controverssee Jennings, "Law Making
and Package Deal", in Mélangesofferts à Paul Reuter, Paris, 1981, pp. 347-355;
L. A. Howard, "The Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea and the Treaty/
Custom Dichotomy", 16 Texas International Law Journal(1981), pp. 321-345;
H. Caminos and M. R.Molitor, "Progressive Development of International Law and
the Package Deal", 79AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw (1985),pp. 871-890;and
M. C. W. Pinto, "Maritime Security and the 1982UN Conference on the Law of the
Sea"I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 50, para.93. Confidence,UNIDIR, 1993,p. 9,at pp. 40-46. 179. Commelenote un ouvragecontemporain sur lerégimedes îles en
droit international :

«L'aspectleplus frappant de cettedisposition[surla zoneécono-
mique et le plateau continental dans le texte unique de négociation
officieux] était l'abandon du modèle équidistance-circonstances
spécialesde 1958enfaveur d'uneformulefondéesurleprincipe dela
délimitationéquitable. »

180. Le fait que les deux groupes aient accepté2un libellécomportant
l'expression «une solution équitable» malgré lesgrandes disparités de
leurspositions respectives donne àl'équité une placespécialementimpor-
tante dans cedomaine délicatet controversédu droitinternational, cequi

rendparticulièrementnécessaireune étudeplusapprofondie detoutes les
incidences du libelléainsiadopté3.

La listedescatégoriesdesfacteurs pertinents n'estpas close

181. Aux paragraphes 122 à 128 ci-dessus, consacrés à l'emploi de
l'équité sous formed'une mise en balance des intérêts des parties, j'ai
analyséla manière dont les différentes circonstances pertinentes sont
pesées lesunes par rapport auxautres.J'y ai évoqué les affaires de la Mer
du Nord,oùl'on adit qu'iln'yavait pas de limitesjuridiques auxconsidé-

rations que les Etats prennent en compte à cette fin4. Et de même,dans
l'affaireLibye/Malte, la Cour a observé :
«En effet,bien qu'iln'yait certespas de listelimitativedes consi-

dérationsauxquelleslejuge peut faireappel, detouteévidenceseules
pourront intervenir cellesqui serapportent àl'institution du plateau
continental telle qu'elle s'estconstituéeendroit,et àl'application de
principes équitables à sa délimitation.» (C.I.J. Recueil 1985,p. 40,
par. 48.)

182. Il n'est pas possible d'en dresser une liste complète, ne serait-ce
que parce que chaqueaffaire estunique et quel'on nepeutjamais prédire
quellescirconstancespeuvent survenirou prendre de l'importance dans

H. W.Jayewardene, TheRegimeofIslandsinInternationalLaw, 1990,p. 320.
sur ledroitde lamer,vol.XV,p. 42-46,pour la discussion du texte de compromis établi
par le président,et pour son acceptation par les deux groupes concernés.
Il n'ya pas lieu de débattreicila question de savoirsilesdispositions de la conven-
tion ont acquis force de droit international coutumier. Cette question n'est pas sans
prêteracontroverse(voirJennings, «LawMaking and Package Deal »,dans Mélanges
offertsàPaulReuter,Paris, 1981,p. 347-355;L.A. Howard, ((TheThird UN Conference
on the Law of the Sea and the Treaty/Custom Dichotomy», TexasInternationalLaw
Journal,1981,vol. 16,p. 321-345;H. Caminos etR.Molitor, ((ProgressiveDevelop-
ment of International Law and the Package Deal »,AmericanJournal ofInternational
Law, 1985,vol. 79,p. 871-890;etM. C. W.Pinto, ((Maritime Security and the 1982UN
UNIDIR, 1993,p. 40-46.of the Sean, Maritime Security,TheBuilding ofConfidence,
C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 50,par. 93. 262
MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP. OP. WEERAMANTRY)

each item - such as State conduct or national security - is infinitely
variable and, more often than not, is itself a conglomerate of factors
which themselves needto be assessedand evaluated. This Court's descrip-
tion of each as "monotypic" l thus aptly captures its individuality.

183. It maybenotedthat,althoughthe 1961Helsinki Rules on the Uses
ofWater of International Rivers,containedin ArticleV,paragraph 2,alist
of relevant factors, the list is expresslystated to be non-exhaustive.

184. From these preliminary observationsto what extent can the pro-
cess be carried fonvard of developingequitable principles in relation to
maritime delimitation?
185. Since "there is no legal limit to the considerations which States
may take account op2, it would seem, for example, that they cannot be
limitedtothe purelygeographic.Geographicfactors mayperhaps beused
as the starting point for an enquiry of this nature, and it is right to stress
their importance. However the equitable solution yielded by the applica-

tion of the principles of equity is not attained by the mere application of
geographicallybasedprinciples such asthe equidistanceprinciple. In the
anxiety to concretize equitable principles by relating them to demon-
strable and quantifiable data such as geographic data we may perhaps
shut out important considerations relevant to equity. Definiteness of
principle is no doubt an important value to be striven after3,but it could
bebought attoo highapriceat an incipientstage ofdevelopment ofalegal
concept.

186. Among the factors taken into consideration inthe Tunisia/Libya
case werenot merelygeographicalfactorsbut historical and politicalfac-
tors as well.Among these were the history of the enactment of petroleum
licensing by each party and the grant of successive petroleum conces-
sions4, and such indicia as were available of the line or lines which the
parties themselves had considered equitable or acted upon as such5.

187. When oneventures outside the areas of pure geography and geo-
logy,oneencountersconsiderationswhich are of immense importance in

the real world - matters such as population, security,history,practical
usability,political status and economicdependence. Doubtless they will

' I.C.J.Reports1984,p.290,para. 81.
NorthSea ContinentalShelfcases, I.C.J.Reports1969,p.50,para.93.
Law at the Timeof Its Codification:Essaysin Honour ofRoberto Ago, 1987,VolII,l
p. 349.
See ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/LibyanArabJamahinya),I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 83,
para. 117.
Ibid.,p. 84,para. 118.See,also,Jiménezde Aréchaga,"TheConception of Equityin
Maritime Delimitation", inInternationalLaw at the Timeof Its Codification:Essaysin
Honour ofRobertoAgo, 1987,Vol. II,p. 232.les litiges inconnus de l'avenir. De plus, chaque circonstance, commela
conduite desEtats ou la sécuriténationale,peut varierde manièreinfinie
et, le plus souvent,représente un amalgame de facteurs qui doivent eux-
mêmesêtre appréciéest évaluésE . n disant que chaque casconcret estun
«unicum»l, la Cour a bien exprimé cetteindividualité.
183. Il estànoter que silesrèglesd'Helsinki de 1961sur lesutilisations
des eaux des fleuves internationaux comportaient à l'article V, para-
graphe 2, unelistedefacteurspertinents, celle-ciestexpressémentprésen-
téecomme non limitative.

184. A partir de ces observations préliminaires, dans quelle mesure
peut-on progresser sur la voie de l'élaborationde principes équitablesen
matièrede délimitationmaritime?
185. Puisqu'«il n'ya pas de limitesjuridiques aux considérations que
les Etats peuvent examiner»2, il semblerait, par exemple, qu'elles ne
peuvent se restreindre àce qui est purement géographique. Des facteurs
géographiques peuvent peut-être servir de point de départ pour une
recherche de cette nature, et il est légitimed'en souligner l'importance.
Toutefois, la solution équitable que donne le recours aux principes de

l'équité ne s'obtient pas en appliquant simplementdes principes fondés
sur la géographie, comme celui de l'équidistance. Dansnotre empresse-
ment à concrétiser des principes équitables en les reliant àdes données
démontrableset quantifiables, comme les données géographiques,nous
risquonspeut-êtred'exclure desconsidérationsimportantes quitouchent
à l'équité.La précision d'un principe est à n'en pas douter une valeur
importante à rechercher3,mais elle risque de coûter trop cheraux débuts
du développementd'un conceptjuridique.
186. Parmi les facteurs pris en considération dans l'affaire Tunisie/

Libyesetrouvaient non seulementdesfacteursgéographiques mais aussi
des élémentshistoriqueset politiques. Il s'agissaitnotamment de I'histo-
rique de l'adoption des législationspétrolières depsarties et de l'octroide
concessions pétrolières successives4, ainsi que des indices existant au
sujetdela ligneoudes lignesque lesparties elles-mêmesavaientpu consi-
dérer ou traiter en pratique commeéquitables5.
187. Lorsque l'on s'aventure en dehors desdomaines de la géographie
etde lagéologiepures,on rencontre desconsidérationsd'une importance
capitale dans le monde réel,par exemplela population, la sécurité,l'his-

toire, l'utilité pratique, lestatut politique et la dépendance économique.

' C.I.J.Recueil1984,p.290, par.81.
VoirShigeruOda,«Delimitationof a SingleMaritimeBoundary», dans Ledroit.
internationalàl'heuredesa codification.EtudesenI'honneurdeRobertoAgII,1987,
p. 349.
Voir Plateau continentalfTunisie/Jamahirivaarab. lir.enne).C.I.J.Recueil
p. 83,par. 117.
Ibid.,p.84,par.118.VoiraussiJiménezdeAréchaga,TheConceptionofEquityin
MaritimeDelimitation»,dans Le droit internationala l'heurede sa codification.Etudes
enl'honneurde RobertoAgo,volII,1987,p.232.263 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP .P.WEERAMANTRY)

have differentvalues in individual casesvaryingfrom the minimal to the
immenselyinfluential and these will need to be taken into consideration
and evaluated.
188. In the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between the United
Kingdomand France,the United Kingdom relied upon such matters as
demography and economicsl and, though the court did not regard them
as exercising a decisive influence on the delimitation, it held that they
couldsupportand strengthen,butnot negative,anyconclusionsindicated
by the geographical, political and legal circumstances2. To quote
Judge Jiménezde Aréchagaagain :

"Al1the relevantcircumstancesaretobeconsidered and balanced;
they are to bethrown togetherintothe crucible and their interaction
will yield the correct equitable solution of each individual case."
(I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 109,para. 35.)

189. Equity was by very definition the process by which situations
which couldnot be provided for by the specific letter of a legal rule were
taken into account where the purely mechanical application of the rule
would shut them out. It would be a negation of that flexibilitywhichis a
characteristic ofequityifwewereatthis earlystagein the developmentof
maritime demarcation to introduce into it the very element of rigidity

which equitabledoctrine was devisedto prevent. Asthis Court observed
in Tunisia/Libya, no attempt should be made to overconceptualize the
application ofthe principles and rules applicableto the continental shelf
(ibid.,. 92,para. 132).

TheEquidistancePrinciple

190. Itisnecessaryto considerthestatus oftheequidistancemethod,as
Nonvay laysgreatstorebyit,not onlyin itsownright but alsobyvirtue of
the 1965Agreementbetween the Parties.

191. Speakingingeneralterms,three possibleranks maybeassignedto
thisrule :
(i) the status of a mandatory rule either under customaryinternational
law or, where parties are bound by the Convention,in the absence
of agreement or justification of a different rule by other circum-

stances;
(ii) astatusofpriority overotherequitablefactors tobeconsidered;

(iii) astatusofparity withotherequitable factors.

RZAA, Vol.XVIII,pp. 84-85,paras.171-173.
* Ibid.p.90,para.188.

229Ces facteurs auront indubitablement une valeur différente selonchaque
affaire,leurinfluencevariant du minime àl'extrêmee ,tilconviendra d'en
tenir compte et de lesapprécier.
188. Dans l'affaire de la Délimitationdu plateau continental entrele
Royaume-Uniet la France, le Royaume-Uni a tiré argumentde la démo-
graphie et de l'économie let,bien que letribunal n'aitpas considéréque
ces aspects exerçassent une influence décisivesur la délimitation,il a
estimé qu'ilspouvaient étayeret renforcer, mais non contredire, les con-
clusions déjàdéduites des éléments géographiques, politiqueestjuridi-

ques2.Pour citerencore une fois M.Jiménezde Aréchaga :
«Toutes les circonstances pertinentes doivent êtreenvisagées et
mises en balance; chacune d'entre elles doit jouer son rôle et c'est
l'effetréciproquequ'ellespeuvent avoirl'une sur l'autre qui fournit
la solution équitablecorrectedans chaque cas. »(C.Z.J.Recueil1982,
p. 109,par. 35.)

189. L'équité étap itar définitionmême leprocessus qui permettait de
prendre en considération des situations qui ne pouvaient être couvertes
expressémentpar une règlededroitlorsquel'application purement méca-
nique decetterèglelesaurait exclues.Ceseraitniercettesouplessequi est
une caractéristiquede l'équité que d'yintroduire, à ce stade précocedu

développementde la démarcation maritime, l'élémen dte rigiditéque la
doctrine del'équité visaitjustement àéviter.Ainsique laCour l'aobservé
dans l'affaire Tunisie/Libye,il faut se garder d'une conceptualisation
excessivede l'application desprincipes et règlesrelatifs au plateau conti-
nental (ibid.,p. 92,par. 132).

Leprincipedel'équidistance

190. Ilfaut examinerquel estlestatut àaccorder à laméthodedel'équi-
distanceétantdonnéquela Norvègeyfaitune largeplace, non seulement

en tant que telle, mais aussi dans le contexte de l'accord conclu en 1965
entre les Parties.
191. D'une manièregénérale,cettre èglepeut êtresituée à troisniveaux
différents:
i) celui d'unerèglequi est obligatoiresoit en droit international coutu-
mier,soit si lesparties sont liéespar la convention, défaut d'accord

ou sid'autres circonstancesnejustifient pas l'application d'unerègle
différente;
ii) celui d'une règlequi a prioritépar rapport aux autres facteurs équi-
tablesdont ondoittenir compte;
iii) etceluid'unerèglequi estsurun plan d'égalitéavelcesautresfacteurs
équitables.

RSA,vol.XVIII,p.219-220, par. 171-173.
Ibidp.226,par.188.(i) Zsita mandatoryrule ?

192. Inthe NorthSea ContinentalShelfcases, this Court, whileviewing
the equidistance mle as one of great practical convenience and wide
applicability,heldthat theequidistancemethod wasneitherprescribed by
a mandatory mle of customary international law (I.C.J. Reports 1969,
p. 46,para. 83,p. 53,para. 101)nor an inherent necessity of continental
shelfdoctrine (ibid.,pp. 35-36).Placingthe mle in the context of itsequi-
table origins, the Court observed:

"It was, and it really remained to the end, governed by two
beliefs; - namely, first, that no one single method of delimitation
waslikelyto prove satisfactoryin al1circumstances,and that delimi-
tation should,therefore,becarriedout by agreement(or byreference
to arbitration); and secondly,that it shouldbe effected on equitable
principles. It was in pursuance ofthe first ofthese beliefsthat in the
draft that emergedas Article6 of the GenevaConvention,the Com-
missiongavepriority to delimitation by agreement, - and in pursu-
ance of the second that it introduced the exception in favour of
'special circumstances'.Yet the record shows that, even with these
mitigations, doubts persisted, particularly as to whether the equi-
distance principle would in al1 cases prove equitable." (Zbid.,

pp. 35-36,para. 55.)
193. The GulfofMaine casealsomadethisclear :

"The Chamber must therefore conclude in this respect that the
provisions of Article 6 of the 1958Convention on the Continental
Shelf,although in force between the Parties, do not entai1eitherfor
them or for the Chamber any legal obligation to apply them to the
singlemaritimedelimitation whichisthesubjectofthepresent case."
(Z.C.J.Reports1984,p. 303,para. 125.)

194. This Court tersely summarized the jurispmdence on this point
when it observedin the Libya/Malta case,
"The Court isunable to acceptthat, evenasapreliminary and pro-
visional steptowardsthe drawing of a delimitationline,the equidis-
tance method is one which must be used . .."(Z.C.J.Reports 1985,
p. 37,para. 43.)

195. Ifthe ruleisto haveamandatorystatus under theConvention,this
can onlyoccurinthe absence ofagreementand inthe absence ofjustifica-
tion by special circumstances. Where specialcircumstances exist,asthey
do in this case,the equidistance mle cannot in any event be mandatory.

196. Althoughthe equidistance mle maybe basicallyequitable in con-
ception and origin, it is by its very nature and definition inflexible, con-
trastinginthisrespectwiththe flexibilityofequitywhichenablesthelatter i) Est-ceunerègleobligatoire?

192. Dans lesaffaires du PlateaucontinentadlelamerduNord,la Cour,
tout enconsidérantque la règlede l'équidistance étaiut ne méthode extrê-
mement pratique dont l'emploi étaitindiqué dans un grand nombre de
cas,aconclu qu'ellen'étaitpasune règleobligatoire de droit international
coutumier (C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 46, par. 83, p. 53, par. 101)et qu'elle
n'étaitpas non plus liéede façon inhérente et nécessaireà la doctrinedu
plateau continental (ibid.,p. 35-36).Plaçant la règledans lecontexte de ses
origines,qui était celui de l'équité,Cour a observé :

(([L'opiniondesjuristes] a procédée,t ellen'acesséde procéder,de
deuxconvictions :enpremierlieuilétaitpeu probable qu'une méthode
dedélimitationuniquedonne satisfactiondanstoutes lescirconstances
et la délimitation devaitdonc s'opérerpar voie d'accord ou d'arbi-
trage; en second lieu la délimitation devaits'effectuer selon desprin-
cipes équitables.C'est en raison de la première conviction que la
Commissiona donnépriorité àla délimitationpar voied'accord dans
leprojet quiestdevenul'article6delaconventiondeGenèveet c'esten
raison de la seconde conviction qu'elle a introduit l'exception des

((circonstances spéciales. Les documents montrent cependant que,
même aveccesatténuations,lesdoutesont persisté,enparticuliersur le
point de savoir si le principe de I'équidistancese révélert quitable
danstous les cas.» (Ibid.,p. 36,par. 55.)
193. Cepoint aégalementétéprécisd éans l'affaire duolfeduMaine:

a La Chambre ne peut donc que conclure, sous cet angle, que les
dispositions de l'article 6 de la convention de 1958sur le plateau
continental,tout enétantenvigueurentre les Parties, ne comportent
pas pour cesdernières,ni pour la Chambre, une obligationjuridique
de les appliqueràla délimitationmaritime unique qui fait l'objet du
présent procès.»(C.I.J.Recueil1984,p. 303,par. 125.)

194. LaCoura,en quelquesmots,résumélajurisprudence àcet égard
en observantdans l'affaire Libye/Malte:

«La Cour ne saurait admettre que, mêmecomme étapeprélimi-
naire etprovisoire du tracéd'unelignededélimitation,laméthodede
I'équidistancedoiveforcément êtreutilisée ..» (C.I.J.Recueil1985,
p. 37,par. 43.)

195. Sila règledoit être obligatoire en vertu de la convention, c'est
seulement àdéfaut d'accord,et sidescirconstancesspéciales nejustifient
pas l'application d'une règledifférente.Quand il existedescirconstances
spéciales,comme dans la présente affaire, la règlede I'équidistance ne
peut en tout caspas êtreobligatoire.
196. S'ilse peut que la règlede I'équidistance soit fondamentalement
équitabledans saconception et dans sonorigine,elle estpar nature etpar
définitiond'unerigiditéquiva à l'encontre de lasouplesse de l'équité,quito accommodate itself to varying and unforeseeable conditions which
must depend on each particular case.

(ii) Doesithavepriority overotherfactors?

197. This Court also expressed itself on this aspect in the North Sea
ContinentalShelfcases,whenitsaidthat thisruledidnot haveaprivileged
statusinrelationto othermethods '.Statepractice,asthe Court obsewed,
often resorted to this rule but it showed also that in many cases other

criteria had been resorted to, when they were found to offer a better
wayto reach agreement.

198. Asthe Chamber obsewed in the GulfofMaine case,"Nor isthere
any method of which it can be said that it must receive priority"
(I.C.J. Reports1984,p.315,para. 163).

199. In the Libya/Malta case,this Court obsewed that

"the equidistancemethod has neverbeen regarded, evenin a delimi-
tation between opposite coasts,asoneto be applied withoutmodifi-
cation whatever the circumstances" (I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 48,
para. 65).

(iii)Doesithaveparity withotherfactors?

200. The previous discussion showsthat the equidistance rule, impor-
tant though it be, isone ofthe multiplefactorsthat need consideration in
the context of any delimitation case. What can be said of these different
factorsisthat theymayassumedifferentdegreesofimportance inthe con-
text of different cases,butthat there isno ranking order amongthem.This
was the position under the 1958Conventionbut, afterthe 1982Conven-

tion,the matter has beenmade clearer still.
201. It is perhaps not without significance that the equidistance rule
doesnot appear in eitherArticle74orArticle83ofthe Conventiononthe
Law of the Sea, 1982, although the Revised Single Negotiating Text
(RSNT) of 19762,and the Informa1Composite Negotiating Text(ICNT)
of 19773aswell asthe tworevisedtextsofthe lattercontaineda reference
to the median or equidistanceline "where appr~priate"~.
202. The Court of Arbitration in Delimitationof the ContinentalShelf
betweenthe UnitedKingdom and France, 1977,placed the equidistance
rule in context when it obsewed that :

I.C.J.Report1969,pp.45-46, para. 82.
See Oficial Recordsof thenird United Nations ConferencoentheLawof theSea,
Vol.V,pp. 164and 165.Articles74and83werethennumbered62and71, respectively.
See ibidVol. VIII,pp. 16and 17.
4,See ibidVol.XIII,pp. 77-78. D~~LIMITATION MARITIME (OP.IND. WEERAMANTRY) 265

permet àcelle-cides'adapter auxcirconstancesvariablesetimprévisibles
qui sont lepropre de chaque affaireparticulière.

ii)A-t-elleprioritésurlesautresfacteurs ?

197. LaCour s'estégalementexprimée surcepoint dans lesaffairesdu
Plateau continentad l elamerduNord,lorsqu'ellea déclaré que cetterègle
n'avaitpasun statut privilégié par rapport aux autresméthodes 'Lapra-
tique desEtats,ainsique l'aobservéla Cour,montrait que cetterègleétait

fréquemmentemployéemaisaussique,dansbon nombre de cas,d'autres
critères avaient été retenusquand il s'avérait qu'iloffraient un meilleur
moyen deparvenir àun accord.
198. Comme l'aobservéla Chambre dans l'affairedu GolfeduMaine:
«Il n'y a pas non plus une méthodedont Vonpuisse dire absolument
qu'elledoit être priseen considérationen priorité» (C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 315,par. 163).
199. Dans l'affaireLibye/Malte, la Cour a observéque

«la méthode de l'équidistancen'a jamais été considéréceomme
applicable telle quelle en toutes circonstances,fût-ce entre côtes se
faisant face»(C.I.J. Recueil1985, p. 48,par. 65).

iii) Est-ellesurunpland'égalité aveclesautresfacteu ?rs

200. L'examenquiprécèdemontreque larèglede l'équidistance,pour
importante qu'elle soit,estl'un desmultiplesfacteurs àprendreen consi-
dération dansune affaire de délimitation. On dirade ces facteurs qu'ils
peuventprendre une importance différentesuivantlecontextede chaque

affaire,maisqu'il n'existeentreeuxaucunehiérarchie.Telétaitlecassous
le régimede la convention de 1958mais, après la conventionde 1982,ce
point estdevenu encoreplus clair.
201. Il estpeut-être significatifque larèglede l'équidistance ne figure
pas à l'article74nià l'article83de la convention de 1982sur ledroit de la
mer,alorsque letexteunique de négociationreviséde 19762etletexte de
négociationcompositeofficieuxde 19773ainsiquelesdeuxversionsrevi-
séesde ce dernier mentionnaient l'emploi,«le cas échéan t4,de la ligne
médiane oude la ligned'équidistance.

202. Letribunal arbitral quiastatuéen1977dans l'affairedela Délimi-
tationduplateau continentalentrele Royaume-Uni et laFrance a situé la
règlede l'équidistancedans son contexteen observant que :

' C.I.J.Recueil1969,p. 45-46,par. 82.
VoirNations Unies, DocumentsofficielsdelatroisièmeconfeesNations Unies
surledroitdlamer.vol.V,a. 176et 178.Lesarticles74et 83étaient alors numéroté6s2
et 71,respectivement.
Ibid.,voVIII,p. 17-19.
Ibid.,voXIII,p. 86. "even under Article 6 [ofthe 1958Convention] it is the geographi-
caland othercircumstancesofanygivencasewhichindicate andjus-
tifythe use ofthe equidistancemethod as the means of achievingan

equitablesolutionrather than the inherent quality ofthe method asa
legalnom of delimitation" '.

TheCourt wentonto observethat theequidistancemethod,likeanyother
method, was "a function or reflection ofthe geographical and other rele-
vant circumstancesof each particular case"2.
203. The status of parity of the equidistance method when compared
with others was well expressed by the Arbitral Tribunal in the dispute
between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, 1985,whenit said:

"Le tribunal estime pour sa part que l'équidistancen'est qu'une
méthodecommelesautresetqu'ellen'estniobligatoireniprioritaire,
mêmes'ildoit lui être reconnuune certaine qualité intrinsèqueen
raison de son caractère scientifique et de la facilitérelative avec
laquelle ellepeut êtreppliq~ée."~

The"SpecialCirmmstances"Principle

204. "Attemptsmade at the GenevaConference on the Lawofthe Sea
to strike out the alternative of 'special circumstances' and to make the
equidistance method the only rule were rejected by a large majority."
(NorthSea,I.C.J.Reports1969,p. 93,Judge Padilla Nervo,separate opin-
ion.)This isreadilyunderstandable when one considers that

"in certain geographical circumstances which are frequently met
with, the equidistance method, despite its known advantages,leads
unquestionably to inequity ..."(ibid.,Judgment,p. 49,para. 89).
205. This principle articulates the rule of procedural equity that al1
material circumstancesrelevant tothe matterinhand shouldbe taken into
account in reaching an equitable result and that no legally relevantcir-
cumstancesshould be left out of consideration unlessthere iscompelling
reason to do so.
206. Aswas observedbytheCourt ofArbitrationin Delimitationof the
Continental Shelfbetweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrancein 1977:

"the rôle of the 'special circumstances' conditionin Article 6 is to
ensure an equitable delimitation; and the combined 'equidistance-
specialcircumstances rule',in effect,givesparticular expression to a

RZAA,Vol. XVIII,pp.45-46,para.70.
* Zbid.,p. 57, para. 97.
Revuegénéraledderoitintemationalpublic(1985),Vol.89,p. 525, para.102. «mêmesous l'anglede l'article 6 [dela convention de 19581,ce sont

les circonstances géographiques et autres qui, dans chaque espèce,
indiquent et justifient le recours à la méthode de l'équidistance
comme étantle moyen de parvenir à une solution équitable, plutôt
que la vertu propre de cetteméthode qui ferait d'elleune règlejuri-
dique de délimitation »'.
Le tribunal a poursuivi en observant que l'application de la méthode

d'équidistance, comme de toute autre méthode, «dépend des circons-
tances pertinentes, géographiques et autres, du casd'espèce »2.
203. Laposition d'égalitéoù setrouvelaméthodede l'équidistancepar
rapport aux autres a été bien exprimée en1985par le tribunal arbitral
dans le différend entrela Guinéeet la Guinée-Bissau :
«Le tribunal estime pour sa part que l'équidistancen'est qu'une

méthodecommelesautres etqu'ellen'estniobligatoireniprioritaire,
mêmes'il doit lui être reconnuune certaine qualité intrinsèque en
raison de son caractère scientifique et de la facilité relative avec
laquelle ellepeut être appliquée.»3

Leprincipedes «circonstancesspéciale »s

204. «Toutes les propositions faites à la conférence de Genève sur
le droit de la mer en vue d'éliminer la référence aux «circonstances
spéciales»et de faire de la méthodede l'équidistancela règleunique ont
étérejetéesà une grandemajorité.»(Plateaucontinentalde lamer duNord,
C.Z.JR. ecueil1969,p. 93,opinion individuelle de M.Padilla Nervo.) Il est
facile de le comprendre sil'on considère

«que, malgré sesavantagesreconnus, la méthode de l'équidistance
aboutit dans certaines conditions géographique assez fréquentes à
créerune incontestable inéquité ..»(ibid.,arrêtp,. 49,par. 89).

205. Ce principe est l'expression de la règled'équité procédurale qui
veut que toutes les circonstancesmatériellespertinentes pour la question
dont il s'agit soient prises en considération pour parvenir a un résultat
équitable et qu'aucune circonstance juridiquement pertinente ne soit
omiseen l'absence de motifscontraignants à cet effet.
206. Ainsi que l'a observé letribunal arbitral dans l'affaire de laéli-
mitation du plateau continental entrele Royaume-Uni etla France en
1977 :

«le rôle de la condition relative aux «circonstances spéciales »,
posée à l'article6,estd'assurer une délimitationéquitable;en fait,la
règle combinant «équidistance-circonstances spéciales» constitue

l RSA,vol. XVIII, p. 175-176,par.70.
Ibid.,p. 188,par.97.
Revuegénéraldeedroitinternationalpubt89, 1985,p.525,par. 102. general nom that, failing agreement, the boundary between States
abutting on the same continental shelf is to be determined on equi-
tableprinciples" l.

207. Everycaseis different and, whilegeneralguidelines existsuch as
the equidistanceprinciple in the absenceof other or competingfactors,it
is forthe Courtto decide in each casewhat arethe appropriate factorsto
be taken into account and what weight should attach to them. It is too
early in the history of maritime delimitation for any determining prin-
ciplesto be laid down by this Court as to the relative importance of one
factor overthe other. It may be that whenthese determinationsare made
on a case-by-casebasis,some guidelineswillin course oftime emerge.

The"RelevantCircumstances" Principle

208. Asthe Court ofArbitration obsemed in 1977in Delimitationofthe
Continental Shelfbetweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrance:
"The choiceofthe method ormethods ofdelimitationin anygiven
case, whether under the 1958Convention or customary law, has
therefore to be determined in the light of those circumstances

[Le.,geographical and other relevant circumstances of each particu-
lar case]and ofthe fundamental nom that the delimitation must be
in accordance with equitable principles."*

209. It is also to be stressed,before approaching a consideration of
eachofthesefactors,that theywillbe approached notfromthestandpoint

of either Norway or Denmark but fromthe standpoint ofthe two territo-
ries in question - Jan Mayen and Greenland - as if these were inde-
pendent territories competing for maritime rights, for it is clear that
whatever maritime rights these territories enjoy are generated by their
relevant coastlines and not by considerations that they are part of some
largerpolitical entity.
210. 1 agree with the Court in its careful consideration and overall
evaluation of the various relevant factors enumerated by it. While doing
so, 1 would like, however, to emphasize that consideration should not
be limitedto factors which are geophysical intheir nature.
211. In each casethere surfacesfor consideration a varied mix of fac-

tors. Apart fromthe differentnature ofthe mix in each case,any onefac-
tor,suchaspopulation oreconomy,willnaturallypresent itselfdifferently
in each case.For example,the population factor maybe oflittlerelevance
or no relevancein one case,while in another it may assumeconsiderable

RZAA,Vol.XVIII, p.45,para.70.
2 Zbid.,. 57,para.97.

233 l'expression particulière d'une norme générale suivant laquelle la
limite entre des Etats qui donnent sur le même plateau continental
doit,enl'absence d'accord, êtredéterminéeselondesprincipes équi-
tables» l.
207. Chaque affaire estdifférenteet,s'ilexistedesprincipes directeurs
généraux commel'applicationdu principe de l'équidistanceen l'absence
d'autres facteurs ou de facteurs concurrents, il appartientà la Cour de

déterminerdans chaque cas les facteurs appropriés à prendre en compte
et lepoids àleur accorder. L'histoirede la délimitation maritimeesttrop
récentepour que la Cour puisse définir desprincipes déterminants ence
quiconcernel'importance relatived'unfacteurparrapport àun autre. En
procédant ainsiau caspar cas,il esttoutà faitpossiblequ'avecletempsse
dégagentcertains principes directeurs.

Le principedes «circonstancespertinentes))

208. Commel'aobservéen 1977letribunal arbitral dans l'affairede la
Délimitation duplateau continentae lntreleRoyaume-Uni etla France:

«Qu'on se place sous l'angle de la convention de 1958ou sous
celuidu droit coutumier, le choixde la méthode ou desméthodesde
délimitation doitdonc être faitdans chaque cas àla lumièrede ces
circonstances[c'est-à-dire, lescirconstancesgéographiqueset autres
circonstances pertinentes de chaque espèce particulière]et sur la
base de la règle fondamentale qui veut que la délimitation soit
conforme à desprincipes équitables.»2

209. Il convient aussi de souligner, avant d'aborder l'examen de
chacun decesfacteurs,que ceux-cine devrontpas êtreenvisagésdu point
de vue de la Norvègeou du Danemark, mais de celuides deuxterritoires
enquestion - Jan Mayen etleGroenland - commesiceux-ciétaientdes
territoires indépendants en concurrencepour des droits sur des espaces
maritimes,car ilestclairque lesdroits dont peuvent àcetégardbénéficier
ces territoires sont engendréspar leurs côtes pertinentes et non par leur

appartenance à une entitépolitique pluslarge.
210. Je suisd'accordavecl'analyseapprofondie etl'évaluation globale
qu'afaitesla Cour desdiversfacteurspertinents qu'elle a énumérés.Cela
étant,je désirecependant soulignerque l'examenne devraitpas selimiter
aux facteurs de nature géophysique.
211. Il se dégagedans chaque affaire une combinaison variée de
facteurs à prendre en considération. Outreque cette combinaison n'est
jamais la même,chaque facteur, tel que la population ou l'économie,s'y
présente naturellement de manière différente.Par exemple, le facteur
population pourra dansune affaireêtrepeupertinent, voirepasdutout, et

RSA,vol.XVIII,p. 175,par70.
Ibidp. 188,par97.268 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP. OP.WEERAMANTRY)

significance. So, also, with economicfactors or indeed any other factor
one may care to name. Any generalproposition that population or econ-
omy areirrelevant because, unlike geophysical configurations, they may
change with time isjuristically untenable and not in conformity with the
flexibility of equity.

212. In other words, 1respectfully endorse the findingsthe Court has
reached on the respective items arising for consideration in this case.
Access to fishery resources is a matter to which the Court has rightly
devoted particular care and attention and 1 am in agreement with this

approach and with its resultant effect upon the overall delimitation.
1would, however, add a few observations on some of the matters con-
sidered.

(a) Population

213. For example, while agreeing with the weight the Court gives to
the population factor in the present case, 1would stress that no general
proposition can be laid down that the population factor is in al1cases
irrelevant.
214. One can visualize a case where a particular coast has sustained a
teeming population for several centuries and the coast facing it has no
population whatsoever and has been uninhabited as far as historical

memory extends. Cases such as that need to be considered as and when
they arise and cannotbe left out ofconsideration on anygeneralprinciple
that the population factor is irrelevant.uch an approach would be con-
trary to equitableprinciples and procedures.
215. Reference may alsobe made in this context to the Anglo-French
Arbitration, in which it is significant that amongthe factorsadvanced by
the United Kingdom was the fact that the Channel Islands were "popu-
lousislands of a certainpolitical and economicimportance" 'The Court
observed that it "accepts the equitable considerations invoked by the
United Kingdom as carrying a certain weightW2.
216. It is true that factors such as population or lack of it are change-
able overtime.Apiece ofland which istodaybarren anduninhabited may
in a hundred years be the centre of a numerous and thrivingpopulation

just as a thrivingpopulation of today may, forreasons which cannot now
be foreseen,be reduced to a few struggling survivors some generations
from today. These are factors inherent in the nature of human life and
settlementbut on the basis of such lack of certainty, these factorsought
not, in my view, to be totally disregarded by an overridinggeneral prin-
cipleapplicable in al1cases.

RIAA, Vol.XVIII, p.93,para. 197.
Ibid.p. 93,para. 198.assumerdans une autre une importance considérable.Il en est de même
pour les facteurs économiques ou d'ailleurs tout autre facteur que l'on
pourrait imaginer. Dire, en généralisant,quelapopulation oul'économie
sont dénuéesde pertinence parce qu'à la différence des configurations
géophysiquesces facteurs peuvent changer avec le temps est juridique-
mentinsoutenable et contraire à la souplessequi est lepropre de l'équité.
212. En d'autres termes,je souscrisrespectueusementauxconclusions
auxquelles estparvenue la Cour sur les différentspoints qui étaientcon-
sidérerdans cetteaffaire.L'accèsaux ressourceshalieutiques estune ques-
tionà laquellelaCour,à justetitre,aaccordéuneattentionetunsoinparticu-

liers,etje suis d'accordavec cettedémarcheainsi qu'avecl'effetqui en est
résultépour l'ensembledeladélimitation.J'ajouterai cependant quelques
observations au sujet de certains desfacteursqui ont été examinés.

a) Lapopulation

213. Par exemple, tout en étant d'accord surlepoidsque la Courattri-
bue au facteur populationdans laprésenteaffaire,je tiensà soulignerque
l'onne peut généraliseretaffirmer que lefacteur population est dans tous
les cas dénuéde pertinence.
214. On peut imaginerla situation d'une côte qui aurait fait vivre une

population nombreuse pendant plusieurs siècles etoù la côte lui faisant
face n'abriterait aucune population et aurait été inhabitéede mémoire
d'homme. Des situations de cegenredoiventêtreexaminéesindividuelle-
ment et ne peuvent pas être ignorées au nom d'un principe général qui
voudrait que le facteur population soit dénué depertinence. Une telle
approche serait contraire aux principes et auxprocédures équitables.
215. On peut aussi mentionner à cet égard l'arbitragefranco-britan-
nique, en relevant que parmi les facteurs invoquéspar le Royaume-Uni
figurait le fait que lesîlesAnglo-Normandes étaient«des îles populeuses,
d'une certaine importance politique et économique»'. Le tribunal a
déclaré reconnaître «que les considérations d'équité invoquéep sar le

Royaume-Uniont un certain poids D~.
216. Il est vrai que des facteurs comme la population ou l'absence de
population peuvent évoluer avec le temps. Il se peut qu'un territoire
aujourd'hui désolé et inhabité deviennedans une centaine d'années le
foyer d'une population nombreuse et prospère, ou qu'une population
actuellementflorissante se voie réduitedans quelques générations,pour
des raisons impossibles à prévoir,à une poignée d'habitants survivant à
grand-peine. De tels facteurs sont inhérentsà la nature de la vie et des
établissements humains mais cette incertitude ne doit pas, selon moi,
entraîner leur exclusiontotale au nom d'un principe généralet préémi-

nent qui seraitapplicable dans tous les cas.

l RSA,vol.XVIII,p. 229,par. 197.
Zbid.,par. 198. 217. When the Law of the SeaConvention spelt out in Article 121(3)
that rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of
their own shall have no exclusiveeconomiczone or continental shelf, it
was perhaps givingexpressionto the concept that population and econ-
omic life are relevant to the enjoyment of exclusiveeconomic zones and
continental shelfentitlements. It was not rocksper se that wereexcluded
fromtheserightsbut rockswhichlackedthepossibilityofsustaininghabi-
tation or economiclife, thus indicatingthe importance ofthese factorsin
attracting exclusiveeconomiczone and continental shelf entitlements,in
an appropriate case.

218. The Lawofthe SeaConventioncould not have adopteda divided
rationale in its different parts on this vital question, and if it considered
population and economic life to be a vital and determining factor in
regardto the questionwhether rocksattracted these entitlements,it could
not have considered that in regard to other geographical configurations
population and economiclifewereirrelevant and to be ignored.

(b) Economicfactors

219. Similarconsiderationsapply to economicfactors.Onthis aspect,
itmustbepointed outthat thisisan areainwhichthejurisprudence ofthe
Court has not thus far been conclusive,despite the trend of recent deci-
sionsto treat economicfactors as irrelevant. In the Gulfof Maine1,when
the dispute was clearlyabout resources,Canada argued for the preserva-
tion offishingpatterns established overthe past ten to fifteen years while
the United Statescontended that it was virtually entitled to a monopoly
over the Georges Bank fishery. Although the Chamber dismissed these
argumentsasirrelevant in law,yetit did not altogetherignorethem,hold-

ingthat data asto human and economicgeography,although

"ineligiblefor consideration as criteria tobe applied in the delimita-
tion process itself,may ...be relevantto assessment ofthe equitable
character of a delimitation first established on the basis of criteria
borrowedfromphysical and politicalgeography" (p.340,para. 232).

In other words, these factorscould in fact be usedto test the equityofthe
result.The Chamber placedstringentlimitationson suchuse,limitingitto
caseswherethe resultswere

Z.C.JReports1984,paras48 and232 ofJudgment. 217. Lorsque la convention sur le droit de la mer a énoncéau para-
graphe3 de son article 121que lesrochersqui ne seprêtentpasà l'habita-

tion humaine ou à une vie économique propre n'ont pas de zone
économiqueexclusiveni de plateau continental, elle exprimait peut-être
la notion suivant laquelle la population et la vie économique sont perti-
nentes pour la possession de titràsune zone économiqueexclusive età
un plateau continental. Elle n'excluait pas du bénéficede ces titres les
rochersen eux-mêmesmais lesrochersnepouvant seprêter àl'habitation
humaine ou à une vieéconomiquepropre et indiquait ainsil'importance
de ces facteurs pour la possession, le cas échéant, d'un titre zone
économiqueexclusiveet àun plateau continental.
218. La convention sur le droit de la mer ne peut pas avoir dans ses
différentespartiesadoptéunelogiquedifférentesurcettequestion fonda-
mentale, et si la population et la vie économique ysont considérées
commedesfacteursessentielsetdéterminantsencequiconcernelapossi-

bilitépour desrochers de sevoirattribuer cestitres, ellene peut pas avoir
considéré que la population et la vie économiquesont dénuéesde perti-
nence etdoiventêtreignoréed sans lecas d'autresconfigurationsgéogra-
phiques.

b) Lesfacteurs économiques

219. Il en est de mêmedes facteurs économiques.A cet égard,il faut
observerqu'il s'agitd'un domainedans lequellajurisprudence delaCour
n'apas étéjusqu'iccioncluante, malgrélatendance de récentesdécisions
à nepas accorder de pertinence auxfacteurséconomiques.Dans l'affaire
du Golfe du Maine1, où le différend portait manifestement sur des
ressources, le Canada a mis en avant la préservation des pratiques de
pêche établiesdepuis dix àquinze ans tandis que les Etats-Unis d'Amé-
rique soutenaient qu'ils avaient virtuellement droitn monopole des
pêcheriessur le banc de Georges. Sila Chambre a rejetéces arguments
comme dénuésde pertinence en droit, elle ne les a pas entièrement
ignorés,considérantque les élémentsfournispar la géographiehumaine
et économiquesont des circonstancesqui

«ne peuventpas entrer en considérationentant que critèreà appli-
quer à l'opérationde délimitationelle-même, maisdont justement
on peut se servir.pour juger du caractèreéquitablede la délimita-
tion établieàl'originesur labase descritèresempruntésà la géogra-

phie physique etpolitique (p.340,par. 232).
End'autres termes,cesfacteurspouvaienteffectivementservir àapprécier
l'équitédu résultat.La Chambre a soumisleur emploi dans ce sensà des
restrictionsrigoureuses, lelimitant au casoù le résultat était

' C.Z.J.Recueil1984,paragraphes48 et232de I'arrêt. "radically inequitable, that is to Say,as likely to entai1catastrophic
repercussions for the livelihood and economic well-being of the
population of the countries concerned" (Z.C.J.Reports1984,p. 342,
para. 237).
Yet we have here a recognition, however restricted, that such factors can
play a part inthe overall result'.

(c) Statepractice

220. So, also, in considering individual acts of State practice, an
important limiting factor is that the special circumstances and political
considerations that lie behind a particular arrangement between two
countries are often veiled in obscurity unless the parties themselves
record or state those facts2.This is well illustrated in the present case in
relationto Norway's owntreaty with Iceland, for Norway herself accepts
that there were specialpoliticalconsiderations lyingbehind that arrange-
ment. As stated in paragraph 560 of Nonvay's Counter-Memorial,

"The political bargain struck between Norway and Iceland was excep-
tional ...",and in the same paragraph, the arrangement giving Iceland a
200-milezone is described as a "concession made in favour of Iceland"
which "produced a boundary which reflects no nom of equitable delimi-
tation". On Norway's own submission, these circumstances render an
agreementatypical, which might otherwisebe relied upon as an item of
Statepractice.

221. Anothervariable factor in relationto Statepractice isthe fact that
the effectgiventoislands for equidistance purposes hassometimesbeen a
partial effect,thus introducing an additional element of flexibility. For
example, the Greece-Italy Agreement of 24 May 1977givesto the Greek
islands involved a varying effect, ranging from full effect for the large
islands of Corfu, Kefallinia and Zakinthos to lessereffects forthe islands
of Othonoi and Mathraki.

222. Otherinstances of partial effect also exist, such as the Iran-Oman
Agreement of 25 July 1974,where the presence of the small island of
Umm alFaiyarinbelongingtoOman does notcause aproportional devia-
tion ofthedemarcationlinebetweenOman and Iran. Had thisislandbeen
given full effect, the line would have moved considerably closer to the
Iranian Coastthan it appears on the map (Reply of Denmark, Ann. 71).

See, generally on this aspect, D. W. Bowett, "The Economic Factor in Maritime
Delimitation Cases", in InternatioLaw at the Time of its Codification:Essays in
HonourofRobert0Ago, 1987,Vol.II,p. 45,esp.at pp. 58-63,pointing out, interalia,that
of the Convention is divorced from these economic interests.ntion and that nopart
* Rejoinder of Norway, p. 178,para. 605. radicalementinéquitable,c'est-à-dire ..susceptibled'entraîner des
répercussions catastrophiques pour la subsistance et le développe-
ment économique des populations des pays intéressés)) (C.Z.J.
Recueil1984,p. 342,par. 237).

Nous voyons cependant là une reconnaissance, pour limitéequ'elle soit,
du rôle que ces facteurspeuventjouer dans le résultat global'.

c) La pratiquedesEtats
220. De même,l'examen de telle ou telle manifestation de la pratique
des Etats voit sa portée fortement restreinte par le fait que les circons-

tances spécialeset les considérationspolitiquessous-jacentes àun arran-
gement particulier entre deux pays restent souvent dans l'ombre à moins
que lesparties elles-mêmesne lesconsignent ou ne lesfassentconnaître2.
La présente affaire en est une bonne illustration en ce qui concerne
l'accord conclu par la Norvègeavec l'Islande, car la Norvègereconnaît
elle-même l'existencede considérations politiques derrière cet arrange-
ment. Comme indiqué au paragraphe 560 du contre-mémoire de la
Norvège :((Le marché politique que la Norvègea conclu avecl'Islande
avait un caractèreexceptionnel ..»,et, dans le mêmeparagraphe, l'arran-
gement accordant à l'Islande une zone des 200 milles est décrit comme
((une concessionfaite en faveur de l'Islande » qui a abouti à une limite
qui ne correspond àaucune norme de délimitation équitable B.De l'avis
mêmede la Norvège,ces circonstances rendent atypique un accord sur
lequelonpourrait autrementfairefondcommeconstituant un exemple de

la pratique des Etats.
221. Une autre variable de la pratique des Etats est l'effet partiel qui a
étéparfoisattribué à des îlesenmatièred'équidistance, introduisant ainsi
un élément supplémentairede flexibilité.Par exemple, l'accord Grèce-
Italie du 24 mai 1977attribue aux îles grecques concernées un effet va-
riable, qui va d'un plein effet pour lesgrandes îles de Corfou,Céphalonie
et Zante à des efforts réduits pour les îles d'othonoi et de Mathrakion.

222. Il existe d'autres cas d'effet partiel, comme l'accord Iran-Oman
du 25 juillet 1974,où la présence de la petite île de Umm al Faiyarin
appartenant à l'Oman ne cause pas une déviation proportionnelle
de la ligne de démarcation entre l'Oman et l'Iran. Si un plein effet

avait étéattribué à cette île, la ligne aurait étédéplacéebeaucoup plus
prèsde la côte iranienne qu'il n'apparaît sur la carte (répliquedu Dane-
mark,annexe 71).

Voirsur cepoint, d'unemanière général. . Bowett,«The Economic Factor in
Maritime Delimitation Cases », dans Le droit internationalà l'heurede sa codiJication.
Etudesen l'honnedeRoberto Ago,vol. II, 1987,p. 45, et particulièrement lespages 58
cŒurmêmede la convention de 1982et qu'aucune partie de celle-cine fait àxceptionnt au
cet égard.
Duplique de la Norvège,p. 169,par. 605. 223. Soalso in the United Kingdom-Ireland Agreement of 7 Novem-
ber 1988(ReplyofDenmark,Ann.72),the ScillyIsleshavenotbeen given

full effect.
224. Nor is thejurisprudence of this Court markedlydifferentin this
regard.The Court itselfhas in more than one of itsjudgments givenless
than full effectto small islands in relation to the equidistanceprinciple.
Thehalf-effectbasisofdelimitation wasused in Tunisia/Libya lin regard
to the Kerkennah Islands, and in the GulfofMaine case2in regard to the
Canadian SealIsland.The half-effectbasiswas alsoused bythe Court of
Arbitrationinthe caseconcerningthe DelimitationoftheContinentalShelf
betweenthe UnitedKingdomandFrancein relation tothe ScillyIsles,for

"abating the disproportion and inequity which would othenvise
result from giving full effect to the Scilly Isles as a base-point for
determiningthe course ofthe b~undary"~.

(d) fie icefactor
225. Onthe icefactor,likewise,onewouldhesitate to Saythat there can

be a generalproposition that it can have no bearing. In the present case,
the factorsare such that althoughthe ice is a real geophysical factor that
impinges on the usability ofthe waters in question, it is so situated that it
does not makea differencesignificantenough to affectthe result.

226. However, while in these days of climatic change there may be
some changeabilityin drift ice patterns, there may well be cases where
drift ice or the freezing of theseas for the greater part of the year have,

throughout recorded history, rendered ice-bound the sector adjacent to
the coastline of one Party, whilethe sectoradjacent to the coastline ofthe
other remains largelyunaffected. In such a casethis seemsindeedto be a
factor pertinent to the question of equitable division, for it intrinsically
affectsthe usability ofthe areas to be demarcated.

227. These are but extreme cases.However,they servethe purpose of
showingthat possible avenues of enquiryoughtnot tobe foreclosed.

(e) Nationalsecuriîy
228. Similarconsiderationsapply to factorsbearing on national secu-

ritywhichagainwillVaryfromcaseto caseand mayinagivencaseassume
considerable importance. The observation in Libya/Malta cited in the
Judgment (para. 81) to the effect that security considerations are not
unrelated to the concept of the continental shelf bears this out (I.C.J.
Reports1985,p. 42,para. 51).

l Z.C.J.Reports1982vv. 63-64vara.79: v.89.-ara.129.
Z.C.J.R&o~-ts1984Pb 336-3fipara.222.
RZAA, Vol. XVIII,p.117,para.251. 223. C'est ainsi égalementque dans l'accord Royaume-Uni -Irlande
du 7 novembre 1988(répliquedu Danemark, annexe 72), il n'a pas été
attribuéun plein effetaux Sorlingues.
224. Lajurisprudence delaCour n'estpasnon plustrèsdifférente à cet
égard.Dansplusieursde sesarrêtse ,llen'a elle-mêma ettribuéqu'un effet
partielà des petites îlespour l'application du principe de l'équidistance.
Laméthodedu demi-effeta étéutiliséd eans l'affaireunisie/Libyelpour
les îles Kerkennah et dans l'affaire duGolfedu Maine2pour l'îlecana-
dienne Seal. Le tribunal a égalementappliquécette méthodeaux Sor-
lingues dans l'affaire de la Délimitationdu plateau continental entrele

Royaume-Uni etlaFrance
«pour remédier àla disproportion eà l'inéquité qu'ocnréesanscela
en donnant un plein effet aux Sorlingues en tant que point de base
pour fixer letracéde la lignede délimitation3.

d) Lefacteurdesglaces

225. En ce qui concerne le facteur des glaces, l'on hésiterait aussà
poser en règlegénérale qu'ilne peut avoir aucun effetsurla délimitation.
Dans la présente affaire,lesglaces sont un facteur géophysiqueréelqui
entravelespossibilitésd'utilisation deseauxenquestion,maisleurlocali-
sation est telle qu'elles ne causent pas une différence suffisantepour

affecterlerésultat.
226. Cependant, il est possible que le régimedes glaces dérivantes
présenteune certaine variabilité dans l'actuellepériodede changement
climatique,et ilpeut arriver que lesglacesdérivantes oulefait que la mer
estprise pendant la plus grandepartie de l'année aientpour résultatque,
demémoired'homme,lesecteuradjacent à la côted'unepartie estbloqué
par les glaces,alors que le secteur adjacenàla côte de l'autre partie est
trèspeuaffecté. Il semblequecettecirconstancepuisse, enpareil cas,être
un facteurpertinent pour une divisionéquitable,carelleaffecteintrinsè-
quement la possibilitéd'utiliserleszonesà délimiter.
227. Il ne s'agitlà que de cas extrêmes.Ils montrent cependant que

certaines orientations possibles de l'analysene sontpaà exclure.

e) La sécuriténationale
228. Il en estde mêmepour lesfacteursrelatifs àla sécurité nationale,

lesquels,là encore,seront différentsselon lesaffaireset pourront dans cer-
tains cas prendre une importance considérable. L'observationde la Cour
dans l'affaireLibye/Malte,citéedans l'arrêt (par.l), suivant laquelleles
considérationsde sécuriténe sont pas sans rapport avec le concept de
plateau continental confirme ce point(C.Z.J.Recueil1985,p. 42, par. 51).

C.Z.J.Recueil1982,p.63-64,par.79;p. 89, par. 129.
C.Z.J.Recueil1984,p.336-337,par.222.
RSA,vol.XVIII,p.255,par.251.(f) Theconduct ofparties

229. Regardingthe conduct ofparties,thishasbeen fullydealt withby
the Court. Conduct can, in an appropriate case, assume importance as,
for example,whereit amounts to an admission or an estoppel,but 1agree
that itdoesnot constitutean elementwhich couldinfluence the particular
delimitation in the present case.
230. Whilethe itemsof conduct relied upon do not thus become suffi-
ciently significant to affect the present decision, the possibility must
always remain open in future casesthat any one or more of such factors
can assume sufficientsignificance to affect a delimitation.

(g) Disproportionincoastallength
231. The disproportion in length of the coastlines, however, assumes

importance in this case. The Court in its Judgment has dealt with this
aspect at length and 1am in agreement with the Court's reasoning and
conclusiononthis matter.
232. The equitable aspects involved in this question of disproportion
orproportionality maybe briefly setout as follows :

(a) Disproportion in coastallengthsoftreauiring.considerationboth onthe
isclearlvarelevantcircumstance
basisoCpriordecisionsand onthebasisofiquitable principles.

(b) The principle of proportionality does not mean a division of mari-
time space on a proportionate basis. This Court observed in the
Libya/Malta casethat it rejectsanyattemptto "define the equitiesin
arithmetical terms" (I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 55,para. 75).Asthe Court
there observed :
"The Court does not consider that an endeavour to achieve a

predeterminedarithmeticalratio intherelationship betweentherele-
vant coasts and the continental shelf areas generated bythem would
be in harmony with the principles govemingthe delimitation opera-
tion." (Ibid.)
(c) The factor of proportionality applies only to coastlines and not to
landmass, for "it is the coastal length that matters" (ibid., p. 73,
Judge Sette-Camara,separate opinion).

(d) Proportionality can legitimatelybe used asa test to verifythe equity
ofadelimitation.
"In the view ofthe Court, there is no reason of principle whythe
testofproportionality, moreorlessinthe fonn inwhichitwasusedin
the Tunisia/Libyacase,namelytheidentification of'relevant coasts',
the identification of 'relevantreas'ofcontinental shelf,the calcula-
tion of the mathematicalratios of the lengths of the coasts and thef) La conduitedesparties

229. La question de la conduite des parties a été parfaitement traitée
par la Cour. La conduite des parties peut, dans certains cas, revêtirde
l'importance quand,par exemple, elle équivaut à une admission ou à un
estoppel,mais je suis d'accord qu'elle ne constitue pas un élément qui
puisse avoirune influence sur la délimitationeffectuéedans cetteaffaire.
230. Les élémentsinvoqués à cet égardne sont donc pas d'une impor-
tance telle qu'ils puissent affecter la décision, mais il existe toujours la
possibilitéque dans des affaires futures un ou plusieurs de ces éléments

soient assez importants pour pouvoir affecter la délimitation.

g) La disproportiondeslongueursde côtes

231. La disproportion des longueurs de côtes, par contre, est impor-
tante dans cetteaffaire. La Cour, dans sonarrêt,s'estlonguementétendue
sur ce point et je suis d'accord avecson raisonnement et sa conclusionà
cet égard.
232. Les différentsaspectsde la question de la disproportion ou de la
proportionnalité envisagésdu point de vue de l'équité peuvent être
succinctementrésuméscommesuit :

a) une disproportion des longueurs de côtes aussi importante que celle
qui se manifeste dans la présente affaire est clairement une circons-
tance pertinente àprendre en considérationtant au regard de déci-
sionsantérieuresquepour l'application deprincipes équitables ;

b) leprincipe deproportionnalité nesignifiepas une division del'espace
maritime sur une base proportionnelle. La Cour a déclaré dans
l'affaire Libye/Malte qu'elle se refusaità ((exprimer en chiffres »
l'équitdu résultat(C.I.J.Recueil1985,p. 55,par. 75).Elle aégalement
observé :
«La Cour nepensepas qu'ilsoitconformeauxprincipes de l'opé-

ration de délimitationd'essayer de parvenir à un rapport arithmé-
tique préétabli entre les côtes pertinentes et les surfaces de plateau
continental qu'elles engendrent. (Zbid.)

c) lefacteur de proportionnalité s'applique seulementauxcôtes etnon à
la masseterrestre,car «c'estlalongueur du littoralqui importe »(ibid.,
p. 73,opinionindividuelle deM.Sette-Camara);
d) la proportionnalité peut légitimementservir de critère pour vérifier
l'équitd'unedélimitation.
«De l'avis de la Cour, aucune raison de principe n'empêche

d'employerle test de proportionnalité, peu prèsde lamanièredont
on l'a fait en l'affaireisie/Libye,et qui consisteà déterminerles
«côtes pertinentes»etles «zones pertinentes »de plateau continen-
talà calculerlesrapports arithmétiquesentreleslongueurs decôteet areas of shelf attributed, and finally the comparison of such ratios,
shouldnot beemployedtoverifythe equityofadelimitationbetween
opposite coasts, just as well as between adjcicent coasts." (Z.C.J.
Reports1985,p. 53,para. 74.)

(e) The Court would useproportionality as an instrumentfor correcting
disproportionality where -
"the flagrant disproportion in the lengths of coasts is such that the
correctionofanylineaccordingtoareasonableratio isindispensable
for achieving an equitable result"(ibid., p. 73,Judge Sette-Camara,
separate opinion. See, also, Anglo-French Arbitration, RZAA,
Vol.XVIII, p. 58,para. 101).

If3 The application of the principle of proportionality is an instance of
the use of the sense of injustice to test the justice of a result, as
described inparagraphs 104-109 above.
(g) Eventhough the equidistanceprinciple isbased on equitable consid-
erations,equidistance isonlya prima faciesolution.Thefact ofgross
disproportionality as in this case wouldsuffice to move the Court

awayfromthatprima faciesolution.
(h) Such disproportion constitutes a special circumstance within the
meaningofArticle 6,paragraph 1,ofthe 1958Conventionas wellasa
relevantcircumstance under customaryinternationallaw.

233. Atthe conclusionofthis surveyofthe applications ofequityinthe
Judgment of the Court, it would be appropriate to examine the concept
briefly in global terms. Giventhe crucialimportance of equityto the law
of the sea, and given also that the law of the sea is still at aical and

formativephase,noexamination of equity'sinfluenceupon the lawofthe
seaiscompletewithoutasearch forconcepts,principles and attitudesthat
range further afield in a global sense. Such a universal view can only
strengthenmaritime law,both initsconceptualcontent and initsauthori-
tativeforce.Theconceptsofequitycurrentlydrawn upon byinternational
law do not represent the totality of the available corpus of equitable
thought wherewithto strengthen the equitable approach to the problems
of maritime law. Such perspectivescan also offer insights of value inthe
determination of a casesuch asthis.

234. The International Court of Justice, specifically structured to
embody a "representation of the main forms of civilization and of the
principal legal systemsof the world" (see Article9 of the Statute of the
Court), isunder aparticular obligationtosearch inal1thesetraditions and lessurfacesattribuées,etfinalement à comparer cesrapports,afinde
s'assurerdel'équité d'une délimitationentrecôtessefaisantfac teut
autant qu'entre côtesadjacentes.»(C.Z.J.Recueil1985,p. 53,par. 74.)

e) la Cour se servira de la proportionnalité pour corriger une situation
lorsque
«la disproportion entre les longueurs de côte [est]si flagrante qu'il
[faut] absolument, pour parvenir à un résultat équitable, corriger

toute ligne éventuelle selonun rapport raisonnable)) (ibid., p. 73,
opinion individuelle de M.Sette-Camara; voir égalementl'arbitrage
franco-britannique, RSA,vol.XVIII, p. 189,par. 101);

JI recours au sens de l'injustice pour vérifierla justice d'un résultat,

commeonl'a vuauxparagraphes 104 à 109ci-dessus ;
g) bien que le principe de l'équidistance soitfondé sur des considéra-
tionséquitables,l'équidistanceestseulementune solutionprimafacie.
L'existenced'une disproportion flagrante, comme en l'espèce, suffi-
raitàdétournerlaCourdecettesolutionprimafacie;
h) unetelle disproportion estune circonstancespécialeau sensdu para-
graphe 1de l'article6 de la convention de 1958,ainsi qu'une circons-
tancepertinente auregard du droitinternational coutumier.

PARTIE C. CÉQUITÉ CONSIDÉRÉE
SELON UNE PERSPECTIVEUNIVERSELLE

233. Il estbon, en concluant cetteanalyse des applications de l'équité
dans l'arrêdt e la Cour, d'examiner rapidement ceconcept dans une pers-
pective universelle. Vu l'importance cruciale que revêt l'équitdéans le
droit de la mer, et étantdonnéen plus que celui-ci setrouve encore dans
une phase critique et formative, un examen du rôle de l'équité serait
incomplet s'il ne s'accompagnait pas d'une recherche de concepts, de
principes et d'attitudes de portéeplus étendueet plus universelle. Se
placer ainsi dans une perspective universellene peut qu'affermirle droit
delamerencequiconcerneaussibiensoncontenuconceptuelquel'auto-
ritéquiluiestreconnue. Lesconceptsd'équité dont s'inspire actuellement
le droit international ne sont que partiellement représentatifsdu corpus

de la réflexion qui a étéconsacrée à l'équité etsur lequel pourrait
s'appuyer cetteapproche desproblèmesdu droit de la mer.Onpourrait y
trouver aussi des enseignements utiles pour réglerune affaire comme
celle-ci.
234. La Cour internationale de Justice, dont la composition doit assu-
rer«la représentationdesgrandesformesdecivilisationet desprincipaux
systèmesjuridiques du monde » (voir l'article9 du Statut de la Cour), a
une obligation particulière de rechercher dans l'ensemble de ces tradi-tionset de cessystèmesjuridiques lesprincipes etlesapproches de nature

à enrichir le droit qu'elle administre, c'est-à-dire, dans le contexte de la
présente espèce,les contributions que l'équitépourrait apporter au droit
de la mer.
235. Cetterecherchedestraditions mondiales d'équité pourrait ouvrir
des perspectives de portée considérablepour le développement du droit
delamer. Ils'agitenparticulier denotionsprofondément enracinéesdans
ces traditions, et que le droit international n'a pas encore exploitées,
comme celles d'un magistère à l'égarddesressources de la planète, d'une
utilisation équitable de ces ressources qui transcende l'immédiat, de
l'attribution d'un statut(suigeneris))àdesressourcesplanétaires comme
la terre, les lacs et les rivières,d'une gestionprudente de cesressources et
de leur conservation au bénéfice des générations futures. L'importance
de cesnotions pour ledéveloppementdu droit de la mer sepasse d'expli-
cations.

236. Ces points de vue se retrouvent dans un grand nombre de tradi-
tions etde civilisations,etl'ubiquitédu principe d'équitéadéjàétérelevée
dans lajurisprudence de la Cour.
237. Apropos plusparticulièrement du droit de la mer, M. Ammoun a
observédans lesaffaires du Plateau continentalde la merdu Nord:

«Intégré danslesgrands systèmesjuridiques du monde moderne
auxquels fait allusion l'article du Statut de la Cour, le principe
d'équité se manifestedans le droit de l'Europe occidentale et de
l'Amérique latine, héritières directesdu jus gentium romano-médi-
terranéen; dans la common lawtempéréeet complétéepar l'equity
dite accessoire, dans le droit musulman que fondent sur l'équitée,t
plus particulièrement sur son équivalentqu'est l'égalité, leoran et
l'enseignement des quatre grandsjurisconsultes de l'Islam condensé

dans la Shari'a et comportant, parmi les sources du droit,'lstihsan,
autorisant lesjugements d'équité;le droit chinois,avecla primauté
de la loi morale et du sens commun de l'équitée , n accord avec la
philosophie marxiste-léniniste; le droit soviétique, qui fait place
nettement aux préoccupations d'équité;le droit hindou qui convie
«l'individu à agir et le jugà statuer selon sa conscience, selon la
justice, selon l'équité, siucune autre règlede droit ne s'impose à
eux»; enfinledroitdesautrespays d'Asieetdespaysd'Afrique dont
les coutumes incitent particulièrement le jugeà ne pas s'écarterde
l'équité edtont lesEuropéensontsouventméconnu «le rôleconcilia-
teur et la nature équitable)); coutume dont est néun jus gentium
constitué conjointement avec les règlesde la common law dans les
anciennes possessions anglaises, les lacunes étant à combler
((suivant lajustice, l'équiet la conscience »; et, dans lesanciennes

possessionsfrançaises,avec ledroit de l'Europe occidentaleimbu de
droit romain.
Un principe généralde droit s'est en conséquence établi quele
droit des gens ne pouvait s'empêcher d'accueillir,fondant les rela- founds legal relations between nations on equity and justice."
(I.C.J. Reports1969,pp. 139-140,Judge Ammoun, separate opinion;
footnotes omitted.)

238. The list of sources cited by Judge Ammoun provides a vast
resourcefrom whichto quarry the elementsof the universal senseofjus-
ticeand fairness that underlies the meaningof equity.Some other impor-

tant sources should also be mentioned - the fine analyses ofjustice in
Greekl and Judaic2 philosophy; the equity-impregnated concept of
"dharma" in Hindujurisprudence3;the elaborately researched concept

of fairness and justice in Buddhism4; the Christian tradition of justice
and conscience as "weightier matters of the law" as opposed to mere
legalism 5;and the Qur'anic injunction :

' Cf.the conflictbetweenconscience and the unjust lawashighlightedin Sophocles'
Antigone,fifth centuryB.C.- Sophocles, Antigone,Eliz.Wyckoff(trans.), in Complete
Greek Tragedies II,ed. D. Grene and R. Lattimore, 1960,University of Chicago Press,
p. 170.

"If mankind is to master the greatest of al1arts, the art of livingtogether in neigh-
bourliness - iflawisto lightthe march ofthe human spirit toward a closerunder-
standing among nations - we must recognizethe truth which was revealed tothe
Prophets of Israel,that equityisan integral component ofjustice." (Ralph A.New-
. man, "The Principles of Equity as a Source of World Law", 4 Israel Law Review
(1966),p. 631.)
The Bhagavad Gita gives righteousness a central place in world order (IV.7) and
the very first word of this classic, described as the glory of Sanskrit literature, is
the word "dharma "- see Juan Mascari, (trans.), Penguin Classics, 1962,p. 37; and
the BrihadAranyaka Upanishadacharacterizes dharma as the king of kings (1,4-14).
Kane'smonumental treatise on the dharmasastra (P.V.Kane, HistoryofDharmasastra,
1946)sets out among the meanings of dharma the concepts of duty, right, justice
and morality (Vol. 1,p. 1).Fritz Berolzheimer describes the philosophical positions
regarding justice in ancient India as "the antecedents of later legal and ethical
developments among the Greeks and Romans" (Berolzheimer, The World'sLegal
Philosophies,1968,p. 37).
See,generally, K. N. Jayatilleke, "The Principles of International Lawin Buddhist
Doctrine", 120Recueildescours(1967-1),pp. 443-567.World ruiership is to be under a
"kingless authority". That "kingless authority" istobe the law (p. 539);and righteous-
nessisextremelyimportanttothe Buddhistconception oflaw(p.449).Twoconceptions
underlie the Buddhist attitude towards law:(a)the rule of righteousness; (b)the happi-
ness and well-being of mankind (L. P. N. Perera, Buddhismand HumanRights, 1991,
p. 41).

SeeMatthew 23:23.Theexpositions ofconsciencebymediaevalchurchmen (such
as the Summae Confessorumwritten to guide priests in assessing the moral conduct of
penitents) were probably an influential source in shaping the thinking of the early
EnglishChancellors (seeA. W. B.Simpson,A HistoryoftheComrnon Law of Contract,
1975,p. 405. See, also, ibid., pp. 377-379 and pp. 397-405).Their primary concem
centred so much on conscience that the rubric under which early Chancery cases are
to be found is not Equity but Conscience (see ibid.,p. 398),for in laying the founda-

tions of equityjurisprudence, the Chancellor sat "as ajudge of conscience,in a court
of conscience,to apply the law of conscience .. .(ibid.). tions juridiques entre les nations sur l'équitéet la justice.)) (C.I.J.
Recueil1969,p. 139-140,opinion individuelle de M.Ammoun; notes
omises.)

238. Lalistedessourcescitéespar M.Ammounestune minedont nous

pouvons extraire les éléments d'un sens universelde la justice et de
l'impartialité quiest à la racine mêmede l'équité. D'autres sources
importantes seraient aussi à mentionner - les analyses si élaborées
de la justice dans la philosophie grecque letjudaïque2; le concept im-
prégné d'équité de «dharma » dans la jurisprudence hindoue3 ; la

profonde impartialitéde l'équité et de lajustice dans lebouddhisme4; la
tradition chrétienne de la justice et de la conscience déclarées«plus
importantes que la loi», en opposition au pur légalisme5;et l'injonction
coranique :

Voirle conflitentre la conscienceet l'injustice de la loi dans Antigonede Sophocle,
Vesiècleav. J.-C. (Traduction anglaise de Eliz. Wyckoff,dans CompleteGreekTrage-
diesII,publié sousla direction de D. Grene R. Lattimore, 1960,Editions de l'univer-
sitéde Chicago, p. 170.)

«Pour que l'humanité maîtrise leplusgrand de tous lesarts, l'artdevivreensemble
en bon voisinage- pour que le droit éclairela marchede l'esprit humainversune
meilleurecompréhensionentre lesnations - nous devonsreconnaître lavéritéqui
justice.» (Ralph A. Newman, «The Principles of Equity as a Source of Worldledela
Law», IsraelLaw Review,vol. 4, 1966,p. 631.)

Le Bhagvadgitadonne à la vertu un rôle central dans l'ordre mondial (IV.7)et le
tout premier mot de ce classique,qualifiédejoyau de la littérature sanscrite,est le mot
dharma,et le BhradaranayakeUpanishadadit que le dharmaestle roi des rois (1,4-14).
Lemonumental traitéde Kane sur le dharmasastra (P.V.Kane, HistoryofDharmasas- .
tra, 1946)cite parmi les significations du dharmales concepts de devoir, de droit, de
justice et demoralité(vol. 1,p..Fritz Berolzheimervoit dans lesconceptions philoso-
phiques de lajustice dansl'Inde ancienne les ((antécédentsde l'évolution ultéridure
droit et de l'éthiquechez les Grecs et les Romai»s(Berolzheimer, TheWorld'sLegal
Philosophies,1968,p. 37).

Voir,d'un point devuegénéralK , . N. Jayatilleke, «The Principles of International
Law in Buddhist Doctrine)), Recueildes cours,t. 120 (1967-1),p. 443-567.Le monde
doit être gouvernépar une ((autoritésans roi ». Cette «autorité sans roi » doit être
le droitCp. 539); et le respect du droit et de la morale est extrêmementimportant
dans la conception bouddhiste du droit (p. 449). Deux concepts sont à la base de
l'attitude bouddhiste par rapport au droit: a) la règle de la vertu; b) le bonheur
et le bien-êtrede l'humanité(L. P. N. Perera, Buddhism and Human Rights, 1991,
p. 41).
VoirMatthieu 23:23. Lesconceptions de laconsciencedans 1'Eglisedu MoyenAge
(comme les Summae Confessoncmdevant aider les prêtresà apprécier la conduite
morale despénitents)ont probablement contribuéàfaçonner la pensée des chanceliers
anglais(voir A. W.B.Simpson,A HistoryoftheCommonLaw of Contract,1975,p. 405;
voir aussi ibid.,p. 377-379et p. 397-4La)conscience tenait une si large place àleurs
veux aue la rubriaue oui rassemble les ~remièresdécisions des chanceliersn'est Das
i'équi<maisla co6sciehce(voiribid.,p.3$8),car,posant lesbases dela jurisprudencêen
la conscience..» (ibid.)ait «entantquejuge dela conscience,en appliquant ledroit de

241 "If thou judge
judge in equitybetweenthem
forGod loveththose
whojudge in equity" l

whichhasbeen the subjectofextensivecommentaryoverthe centuriesby
thejurists of Islam2.

239. The sophisticated notions of reasonable and fair conduct cur-
rently being unveiled by modern researches in African3, Pacific4 and
Amerindian5customarylaw, and the principle of deep harmony withthe
environment which underlies Australian Aboriginal customary law6add
to the reservoirof sourcesavailable.

240. Whatemergesisanotion ofequitybroad-based upon globaljuris-
prudence which speaks therefore with greater authority. Notions of the
supremacy of international law,its impregnation with concepts of right-
eousness, the sacrosanct nature of earth resources, harmony of human

activitywiththe environment,respect forthe rights offuture generations,
and the custody of earth resources with the standard of due diligence
expected of a trustee are equitable principles stressed by those tradi-

'Surah 5,Verse45,Yusuf Ali'stranslation. In particular, the technique of legal rea-
soning called istihsan,referred to by Judge Ammoun, accords an important role to
equity. See,also,John Makdisi, "Legal Logicand Equity in Islamic Law", 33American
JournalofComparativeLaw(1985),p.63;H.Afchar, "The Muslim Conception of Law",
International Encyclopediof ComparativeLaw,Vol.VII,pp. 90-96,and the same author
on "Equity in Musulman Law", in Ralph Newman (ed.), Equity in the WorldSLegal
Systems, 1973,pp. 111-123.
* îheir techniques oflegalreasoning included qiyas (reasoning by analogy),istishab
(presumption of continuity), istislah (considerations of public interest) and istihsan
(a concept of equity).SeeMakdisi, op.cit.,pp. 40-45.The relevanceto equity of some of
them - such as istislahand istihsa- need scarcelybe stressed.
The individuai's rightof ownership of land is limited by the superior right of the
socialgroupto whichhebelongs - A.N.Allott,in Cotran and Rubin (eds.),Readingsin
AfricanLaw, 1970,p.265.See also, T. O. Elias, TheNatureofAfrican Customay Law,
1956,p.272:"It isthis motiveofthejudge to do equitythat isthe most persistent charac-
amongtheBarotseof N. Rhodesia,1955,pp. 202-206;J. H. Driberg ("The African Con-ocess
ception of Law",Journalof Comparativekgislation and InternationalLaw,November
1934,pp. 230-246)discussesAfrican law as an organic growth keeping in tune with the
changing needs of society.Onthe felt standards of the community which are not them-
selvesmatters of lawentering the process ofjudgment, see, M. Gluckman, Orderand
Rebellionin TribalAfrica,1963,pp. 178-206.

See,generally,PeterSack,LandbetweenTwoLaws,1973;and P.Hambruch, Nauru:
ResultsoftheSouthSeasExpedition,1914.Forthe trustconcept in traditional Hawaiian
land law, see M.K. MacKenzie (ed.), Native Hawaiian RightsHandbook 1991,p. 26.

See K.N. Llewellynand E.A.Hoebel, TheCheyenneWay,1941;Charles F.Wilkin-
son, AmericanIndians,ïïme, and theLaw, 1987.
SeeH. McRae, G. Nettheim, L. Beacroft,AboriginalLegal Issues,1991,pp. 44-56;
Mabo v. Queensland(1992),7 AustralianLaw Journal408 (High Court of Australia). ((Et situ juges
alorsjuge entre eux à la balance
Oui, Dieu aime ceux
quijugent àla balance » l,

qui a été abondamment commentéeau cours des sièclespar les juristes

islamiques 2.
239. Les notions très élaboréesde conduite raisonnable et équitable
que révèlent lesrecherchesmodernes sur ledroitcoutumier de l'Afrique3,
du Pacifique4 et des Indiens d'Amérique5 et les principes de profonde

harmonie avecl'environnement qui sont àlabase du droit coutumierdes
aborigènes d'Australie6 accroissent encore la masse des sources dispo-
nibles.
240. Cequi sedégage,c'estune notion de l'équité que ist fondéesur la

basetrès large d'unejurisprudence universelle et qui s'affirme alors avec
une plus grande autorité.Les notions de la primauté du droit internatio-
nal, les concepts de vertu dont celui-ci est imprégné,le caractère sacro-
saint des ressources de la terre, l'harmonie entre l'activitéde l'homme et

l'environnement, lerespectdesdroitsdesgénérationsfutures etlagestion
de ces ressources avec la prudence et la prévoyance qui conviennent à

Sourate 5, verset 45, traduction Muhammad Hamidullah. En particulier, la
méthodede raisonnementjuridique appeléeistihsan,dontparle M.Ammoun, donneun
rôle important à l'équité. oir égalementJohn Makdisi, «Legal Logic and Equity in
Islamic Law», AmericanJournal of ComparativeLaw,vol. 45, 1985,p. 63; H. Afchar,
((The Muslim Conception of Law», International Encyclopediaof Comparative Law,
vol.VII,p.90-96;etlemêmeauteur, Equityin Musulman Law»,dans Ralph Newman
(dir. publ.), Equityin the World'sLegalSystem, 1973,p. 111-123.
Leursméthodesde raisonnementjuridique sont lessuivantes:qiyas(rais0nnement
par analogie), istishab (présomptionde continuité),istislah (considérations d'intérêt
public) et istihsan(concept d'équité. oir Makdisi, op.cit.,p. 40-45.La pertinence de
certaines de ces méthodes- comme istislahet istihsan- n'apas àêtre soulignée.
Le droit pour l'individu de posséderde la terre est limitépar le droit supérieur du
groupe social auquel il appartient (A. N. Allott, dans Cotran et Rubin (dir. publ.),
Readings in African Law, 1970,p. 265). Voir aussiT. O. Elias, ne Nature of African
CustomaryLaw,1956,p.272: ((C'est cettevolontédejuger enéquitéquiestlacaractéris-
tiquela plus constante du processusjudiciaire africDiVoirégalementM.Gluckman,
TheJudicial Processamong the Barotse of N. Rhodesia, 1955,p. 202-206;J. H. Driberg
(«The African Conception of Law»,Journal ofComparativeLegislationand Znternatio-
nulLaw, novembre 1934,p.230-246)traite du droit africain envisagésous l'anglede sa
croissance organiqueen fonction de l'évolution desbesoinsde la socié.urlesvaleurs
de la collectivitéquine sontpas en elles-mêmesdes élémend tsu droit appliquédans le
processus judiciaire, voir M. Gluckman, Order and Rebellionin TribalAfrica, 1963,
p. 178-206.
Voir, d'un point de vue général, Peter Sack,Land between TwoLaws, 1973,et
P. Hambruch, Nauru: Results of the South Seas Expedition,1914.Pour le concept de
loyautéendroit fonciertraditionnel hawaiien,voirM.K.MacKenzie(dir.publ.), Native
Hawaiian Rights Handbook 1991,p.26
VoirK. N. Llewellynet E.A. Hoebel, TheCheyenneWay,1941; Charles F.Wilkin-
son, AmericanZndians,Time,and theLaw, 1987.
VoirH. McRae, G. Nettheim et L.Beacroft,ArboriginalLegalZssues,1991,p.44-56;
Mabo v.Queensland(1992),AustralianLawJournal,vol.7,p.408(High Court ofAustra-
lia).tions - principles whosefullerimplicationshaveyetto bewovenintothe
fabric ofinternational law.Suchan approach canalsogiveto equity,espe-
cially in its application to the increasingly important area of planetary
resources such as the sea, a deeper and more insightfulmeaning than it

would bear if the search were less than universal. It also emphasizes the
long-termperspectivesthat need tobekeptinviewasadevelopingbranch
of the law settles intothe conceptual mould which givesit shape for the
foreseeablefuture.

241. Two examples of such broader perspectiveswhich are specially
relevantto the lawofthe seaand whicharedrawnfrom two widely differ-

ent legal traditions will illustrate this proposition. They highlight the
principles of conservation of earth resources and safeguards against
environmental pollution which are of particular importance to the
law relating to such an important earth resource, and are not without
relevance to maritime boundary delimitation cases. This case itself has
highlighted the importance of conservation as a factor constituting the
background to the disputebefore it,forthe near extinction ofthe capelin,
one of the richest resources of this maritime region, was a compelling

circumstance leading to the international negotiations preceding this
case.
242. The first illustration of such a broader perspective comes from
traditional legal systems such as the African, the Pacific, and the Amer-
indian, which contained a deeply ingrained respect for the earth, the
atmosphere, the lakesand the seas,whichthe evolvinglawofthe sea can
consider with profit l.Among Pacific societies, for example, land had
metaphysicalconnotations which prevented it frombeing seen as a sale-

able commodity likeitems of merchandise2.Respect for these elemental
constituents of the inheritance of succeedinggenerations dictated rules
and attitudes based upon a concept of an equitable sharing which was
both horizontal in regard to the present generation and vertical for the
benefit of generations yetto corne3.

' See,also,E.B.Weiss,ZnFairnesstoFutureGenerations:InternationaLaw, Common
that eachgeneration isatrustee or steward ofthe natural environment forthe benefit of
generations yetunborn, and forthe factthat intergenerational fairness canbe addressed
under principles of equity in accordance with a long tradition in international law of
using equitableprinciples to achieve ajust result.

See P.Sack, op.cit.,pp. 33and 37.
See E.B.Weiss,op.cit.,p.37,
"The use of equity to provide equitable standards for allocating and sharing
resources and benefits laysthe foundation for developingprinciples ofintergener-
ational equity. These principles can build upon the increasing use by the Interna-
tional Court of Justice of equitable principles to achieve a result that the Court
viewsas fair and just."quelqu'un qui en a reçu le dépôtet la responsabilité sontdes principes
équitablessurlesquelsinsistent cestraditions - principes dont toutes les
incidencesn'ont pas encoreétéincorporéesdanls etissu du droitinterna-
tional. Cette approche peut aussi conférer àl'équité, spécialemen dtans
son application au domaine de plus en plus important des ressources

planétaires commela mer, une significationplus profonde et plus péné-
trante que si sa recherche n'étaitpas universelle. En outre, elle met en
relief lesperspectives àlongterme qu'ilfaut garder présentes àl'esprità
mesure qu'une branche du droit en mutation se cristallise dans le moule
conceptuel qui dictera sa configuration pour l'avenirprévisible.
241. Deux exemples de ces perspectives plus larges, qui intéressent
particulièrementledroit delameretquisontempruntés àdeuxtraditions

juridiques très différentes,illustreront cetteproposition. Ils ont trait aux
principes de conservationdesressources du globeet deprotection contre
la pollution de l'environnement qui sont d'une particulièreimportance
pour le droit applicable à une ressourceaussi importantede la planèteet
ils ne sont pas dénuésde pertinence dans des affaires de délimitation
maritime. On a pu voir dans cette affaire mêmeque la conservation des
ressources se trouvait à l'arrière-plandu différend carc'étaitla quasi-

extinctiondu capelan,une desresssourceslesplusprécieusesdelarégion,
quiadirectementcontribué àl'ouverture desnégociationsinternationales
qui ont précédé la saisind ee la Cour.
242. Lepremier de cesexemplesnous estdonnépar des systèmesjuri-
diquestraditionnelscommeceux del'Afrique,du Pacifique etdesIndiens
d'Amérique dans lesquels était profondément enracinu én respect de la
terre, de l'atmosphère, des lacs et desmers, dont le développementdu

droit de la merpeut utilement s'inspirer'. Dans lessociétés du Pacifique,
par exemple, la terre possédait des connotations métaphysiques qui
empêchaientque l'on considère qu'elle puisse être vendue comme une
marchandise2. Le respect de ces élémentsconstitutifs du patrimoine des
générations suivantes dictait desrègles etdes attitudes fondées surla
notion d'un partage équitable qui était à la fois horizontal vis-à-visde la
génération présente et vertical pour lebénéfice des générations àvenir3.

' Voir aussiE. B. Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations: InternatLaw,l
CommonPatrimonyand Intergenerational Equity,1989: diverses cultures considèrent
que chaquegénératio anpourmissiondegéreretdeconserverl'environnemenntaturel
au bénéficedes générationà naître.et il est ~ossibie de maintenirI'entreles
générationesn aFpliquantles princi'Pesconsacréspar une longue traditiondu droit
juste.ationalconsistantàrecouriràdesprincipeséquitabsourparveniràunrésultat
VoirP. Sack,op. cit.,p.33et 37.
VoirE.B. Weiss,op.cit.,p.37:

«Le recoursà l'équité pour étabd liers normes équitables d'allocationet de
d'équité intergénérationnelle.priscipespeuvent s'appuyersurl'usage crois-
santque faitla Courinternationale deJusticede principeséquitablespourparve-
niràun résultatqu'elleonsidèrecommeimpartialetjuste.» 243. The second illustration comes from Islamic law which enshrines
another deeply relevant equitable idea - the idea that earth resources
suchasland cannotbe the subjectofoutrightownership asisthe casewith
movables, but are the subject of trusteeship for the benefit of al1future
generations. Such a juristic concept dictates the principle that such
resources must be treated with the care due to the property of others and
that the present must preserveintact for the futurethe inheritance it has
receivedfromthe past. In such equitableprinciples mayliea keyto many
of the environmental concems which affect the land, the sea and the air
space ofthe planet.

244. Such transcending equities, as visualized by those systems, add
new dimensions to the equitable framework within whichthe equities of
the law of the sea can evolve,and add authority to this structure. They
underscore the special responsibility of a tribunal delimiting maritime
areas to pay due emphasis to the universal nature of the material out of

which itismoulding the lawof the future.

245. To place these conclusionsin an elegantsetting:
"Behind the diverse facades of legal systemswe discern the sub-
stantial identity of the underlying principles of equity which link
legalsystemstogether, as in a Gothic cathedra1the multiplicity ofits
rhythms of Stoneunite with the fundamental impulses of the mind
and ofnature." l

246. Notwithoutreason didthe emerginglawofthe seafind inequitya
general area of agreementamongparticipants at UNCLOS who cameto
its meetingsrepresentingwidelydifferentbackgrounds and widelydiver-
gent interests.

247. Thisbrief surveyofavasttopic - the contribution ofequityto an
individual decision - is intended to indicate the many waysin which it
contributes to theprocess ofjudgment and can contribute to the develop-
ment of the law of the sea. While not intended to be a comprehensive
exposition, it could also serve the limited purpose of drawing attention
to aspects of its operation which, by remaining implicit, may remain
unexplored.
248. International law throughout its history has been richly inter-
wovenwith equitablestrands ofthought. Of equityperhaps morethan of
any other department of legalthought it could trulybe said that, "Under

' Newman, op.cit.,p. 631. 243. Le deuxième exemple est empruntéau droit islamique, qui con-
sacre une autre notion d'équité profondémentpertinente: l'idéesuivant
laquelle les ressources de la Terre ne sont pas susceptiblesd'une appro- '
priation pure et simple au mêmetitre que les biens meubles, mais font
l'objet d'une tutelle qui doit êtreexercéepour le bénéficede toutes les
générations futures. Ce conceptjuridique veut que ces ressourcessoient
traitées avec le soin dû aux biens d'autrui et que chaque génération
préservepour l'avenir l'héritagequ'elle a reçu du passé. Ces principes

équitables renferment peut-êtrela clef de bon nombre des problèmes
environnementaux qui affectent la terre et les océans et l'air que l'on
respire.
244. Cette équitétranscendantale, telle qu'envisagéepar cessystèmes,
ajoutedesdimensionsnouvelles au cadre dans lequelpeuvent sedévelop-
per les considérationséquitablesapplicablesen droit de la mer et rehaus-
serleur autorité. Elle montre a quelpoint un tribunal chargéde délimiter
des espaces maritimes est spécialement tenu d'accorder toute l'impor-
tance nécessaireau caractère universel des éléments àpartir desquels il
façonne le droit de l'avenir.

245. Je conclurai surune note d'élégance que :
((Derrière les façades diverses des systèmes juridiques nous
discernons l'identité fondamentale des principes sous-jacents
d'équité qui unissentles systèmesjuridiques, de la mêmemanière

que dansune cathédrale gothique la multiplicitédesrythmes de ses
pierres se fond avec les élans fondamentaux de l'esprit et de la
nature. ))l
246. Ce n'est pas sans raison que les participants a la conférence des

Nations Unies sur ledroit de la mer,venus d'horizons extrêmementdiffé-
rents et avec des intérêts radicalement divergents,ont pu trouver dans
l'équitéun terrain d'entente pour l'élaborationdu nouveau droit de la
mer.

247. Cette brève analyse d'une vaste question - la contribution de
l'équité a une décision particulière - a pour but de montrer les

nombreuses manières dont elle intervient dans le processusjudiciaire et
dont elle peut contribuer au développement du droit de la mer. Sans
prétendre être exhaustive,elle continuera peut-être, à tout le moins, à
appeler l'attention surdesaspectsqui,restantimplicites,peuvent demeu-
rerinexplorés.
248. Toute l'histoire du droit international est richement tisséede ré-
flexions diverses sur la question de l'équité. Pluq suetout autre domaine
de la penséejuridique, l'équitéest peut-êtrecelui dont on peut dire que

Newman, op.cit.,p. 631.279 MARITIMEDELIMITATION(SEP. OP. WEERAMANTRY)

the surfaceeddies createdby the decisions of individual cases, there
surgesamightytideofthefundamentalprinciplesofjustice." Thattide
needstobedrawninto servicetoits fullestpotentialasthedevelopinglaw
oftheseamovestowardsitsfullermaturity.

(Signed) ChristopherGregoryWEERAMANTRY.

'SeeR. A.Newman, op.cit.,p. 621.

245«sous les remous superficiels crééspar les décisions rendues dans des
affairesparticulières monte la maréepuissante des principes fondamen-
taux de lajustice lToute la puissance de cettemarée doit être exploitée
pour que le droit de la mer qui se développe actuellement parvienne à
complètematurité.

(Signé Christopher Gregoq WEERAMANTRY.

VoirR.A. Newman, op.cit.,p.621.

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