Separate opinion of Judge Schwebel

Document Number
078-19930614-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
078-19930614-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SCHWEBEL

1am in substantial but not full agreement with the Court's Judgment.
There is no need to specify the several holdings of the Court with which
1agree. The questions whose treatment by the Court is in my view ques-
tionable arethe following.

1. SHOULD THE LAW OF MARITIM DEELIMITATIO BNEREVISED TO
INTRODUC END APPLY DISTRIBUTIV JUESTICE?

TheJudgment quite rightly observesthatthe realinterestsimmediately
at stakein this case are fishingrights, restricted to a southerly, relatively
ice-free zone of the disputedarea. It decides that equal access to the
capelin resources of the southern part of the area of overlapping claims
has to be assured by a substantial adjustment or shiftingeastwards of the
median line. The Court concludes that the two Parties "should enjoy
equitable access to the fishing resources of this zone, which should
accordinglybe divided into two equal parts".

While the Court may be commended for the simplicity of its conclu-
sion, aprincipled consistency with itsearliercase-law islessconspicuous.
In this Judgment, the Court recalls "the need, referred to in thea/
Malta case, for 'consistency and a degree of predictability"'. But in this,
the most critical holding of the Judgment on the real assets at stake, the

Court jettisons what its case-law, and the accepted customary law of the
question, have provided.
In itsseminal Judgment in the North Sea Continental Shelfcases, the
Court held that delimitation ofthe continental shelfis the samething
as awarding ajust and equitable share of a previouslyundelimited area".
It held that

"the doctrine of thejust and equitable share appears to be wholly at
variance with what the Court entertains no doubt isthe mostnda-
mental of al1 the rules of law relating to the continental shelf,
enshrined in ...the 1958Geneva Convention, ... namely that the
rights ofthe coastalStateinrespect ofthearea ofcontinental sh...
exist ipsofacto and ab initio,by virtue of its sovereignty over the
land ...
It followstha...,the notion of apportioningan asyetundelimited
area, considered as a whole (which underlies the doctrine of thejust
and equitable share), isuite foreign to, and inconsistent with, the
basic concept of continental shelf entitleme... The delimitation itself must indeed be equitably effected, but it cannot have as its
object the awarding of an equitable share, or indeed of a share, as
such, at all,- forthe fundamental concept involved does not admit
oftherebeinganythingundivided to share out." (I.C.J.Reports1969,
p. 22,paras. 19and 20.)

The Court consequently rejected the claim of the Federal Republic of
Germanyto a "'justand equitable' shareofthe shelfareasinvolved"(ibid.,
p. 29).
In the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) case, the
Court concluded that :

"these economicconsiderationscannot betaken into account forthe
delimitation of the continental shelf areas appertaining to each
Party.They are virtually extraneous factors sincethey are variables
whichunpredictablenational fortune orcalamity,asthe casemaybe,
mightat anytime causeto tiltthe scaleone wayorthe other. Acoun-
try mightbe poor today and become rich tomorrow as a result of an
event such as the discovery of a valuable economic resource."

(I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 77,para. 107.)
In the case concerning Delimitationof the Maritime Boundary in the
Gulfof MaineArea, the Chamber of the Court observed that fishing, oil
exploration and other such considerations advanced by the Parties
divergedfromthe cruxofthe matter.TheChamberwasbound "nottotake

a decision ex aequo et bono,but to achieve a result on the basis of law"
(I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 278,para. 59).Whenit approached what it charac-
terized as "the real subject of the dispute between the United States and
Canada in the present case, the principal stake in the proceedings",
GeorgesBank(ibid., p. 340p ,ara. 232),the Court confrontedthe questionof
whether the line which it had drawn on geographical grounds should
be affected by considerations of human and economic geography. The
Chamber held that such considerations were"ineligibleforconsideration
as criteria to be applied in the delimitation process itself' (ibid.).It con-
cluded :

"It is,therefore,in the Chamber'sview,evidentthatthe respective
scaleofactivitiesconnected withfishing - ornavigation,defence or,
forthat matter,petroleum exploration and exploitation - cannot be
taken into account as a relevant circumstance or, if the term is pre-
ferred,asan equitablecriterion to beapplied in determiningthe deli-
mitation line. What the Chamber would regard as a legitimate

scruple lies rather in concern lest the overall result, even though
achievedthrough the application of equitable criteria andthe use of
appropriate methods for giving them concrete effect, should un-
expectedlyberevealedasradicallyinequitable, that isto Say,aslikely
to entai1 catastrophic repercussions for the livelihood and econ-
omic well-being of the population of the countries concerned."
(Ibid.,p. 342,para. 237.) In the ContinentalShelf (Libyan ArabJamahiriya/Malta) case, the
Court reaffirmed "the principle that therebe no question of distribu-
tivejustice"(I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 40,para. 46A.court applying equi-
table considerations maytake into account "only those that arepertinent
to the institution of the continental shelf as it has developed within the

law" (ibid.,p. 40,para. 48).Thus the Court rejectedthe economic consid-
erations advanced by Malta as "totallyunrelated to the underlyinginten-
tion ofthe applicableules of international law" (ibid.,p. 41,para. 50).

In the light of this jurisprudence, why shouldmark be accorded
equal accesswithNonvay to the sectionofthearea ofoverlappingclaims
in which, inseason, the presence of capelin and the absence of drift ice
provide avaluablefishingground? WhymustwhattheCourt describesas
"equitable accessto the fishing resources" ofthis zonebe shared? It was
not claimed or shown that, if Greenland were not to be accorded fuller
access to the ice-free area in whichpelin may be fished in season,

Greenland wouldbe confronted bycatastrophiceconomicrepercussions,
so eventhat "legitimate scruple" did noteinto play.

It follows that the Court by this holding of distributive justice has
departed fromthe acceptedlawof the matter,asfashioned pre-eminently
byit.Itisnot suggestedthat thisdeparture fromprinciple and precedent is
legally fatal. If what is lawful in maritime delimitation by the Court is
what is equitable, and ifwhat is equitable is asvariable as the weather of
The Hague, then thisinnovation maybe seen as,and it maybeyasdefens-
ible and desirable as another. It may be more defensible and desirable
than that concerningthe length of coastlines.

II. SHOULD THE DIFFERINE GXTEN TF THELENGTH OF OPPOSITE
COASTLIND ESETERMIN THEEPOSITIO NF THE LINEOF DELIMITATION?

The Court observesthat it has never before had occasion to apply the
1958Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf. In the North Sea
ContinentalShelf cases, Germany was not a party to the Convention;

similarly,in the continental shelf casesbetween Tunisia and Libya and
between Libya and Malta, Libya was not a party. In the Gulfof Maine
case,Canadaand the United States wereparties tothe 1958Convention,
but they requested thehamber to define "the course ofthe singlemari-
time boundarythat dividesthe continental shelf and fisheries zones", so
that, as the Court notes, the Chamber considered that the 1958Conven-
tion, being applicable only to the continental shelf, did not govern the
delimitation at issue. The Court consequently and rightly now holds
that:

"In the presentcase,both Statesareparties tothe 1958Convention
and, there being no joint request for a single maritime boundary as in the Gulfof Maine case, the 1958Convention is applicable to
the delimitation of the continental shelf between Greenland and
Jan Mayen." (Judgment, p. 58,para. 45.)

It followsthat, sincethe Convention isapplicable, and sinceby the terms
of Article 38 ofthe Statute,

"The Court, whosefunction isto decide in accordance with inter-
national law such disputes as are submittedto it, shallapply :
(a) international conventions,whether general or particular, estab-
lishingrulesexpresslyrecognized bythe contesting States"

theCourt inthis case isbound to giveeffectto the pertinent provisions of
the 1958Convention.
Article6ofthe 1958Convention isprescriptive.Itsfirst paragraph pro-
vides :

"Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories
of two or more States whose coasts are opposite each other, the
boundary of the continental shelf appertaining to such States shall
be determined by agreementbetween them. In the absence of agree-
ment, and unless anotherboundary lineisjustified byspecialcircum-

stances, the boundary is the median line, every point of which is
equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the
breadth of theterritorial sea of each State is measured."
Since there is no agreementbetween the Parties, "the boundary is the
median line" - "unless another boundary line is justified by special

circumstances". That brings us to the ever-recurring question: are there
specialcircumstanceswhich justify another boundary ?

It is plain that the term "special" circumstances may not be judicially
interpreted to mean "any" circumstances. The meaning of the term
"special" is antithetical to "any" or "all" or what is the generality of
circumstances. Nor in interpreting the 1958Convention may "special"
circumstancesbe equated with the broader range of "relevant" circum-
stances which may be applicable in customary international law. The
factors that are pertinent to a circumstance clearly are wider than those
which are special to it. What then are "special circumstances" - i.e.,

particular, peculiar or singular circumstances - as that term is illumi-
nated bythe travauxpréparatoireo sfthe 1958GenevaConvention and by
Court precedents?

The travauxpréparatoires indicate that, by special circumstances, the
drafters ofthe 1958Conventiondecidedly didnot mean anycircumstance
which the arbitrator orjudge might see as relevant.Judgment was to be
made on the basis of law, not exaequo etbono.Graphic illustration wasgiven of what are "special circumstances" :initially, an exceptional con-
figuration of the coast, or the presence of islands or of navigable
channels. The pertinent passage of the report of the International Law
Commission,whichultimatelywasthebasisofthe draft ofthe Convention
submittedto the Geneva Conference, provides :

"Having regard to the conclusions of the committee of experts
referred to above [thecommitteewhich proposed equidistance],the
Commission now felt in the position to formulate a general rule,
based on the principle of equidistance,applicable to theboundaries
of the continental shelfboth of adjacent States and of Stateswhose
coastsareopposite to eachother.The rulethus proposed issubjectto
suchmodifications as maybe agreedupon bythe parties. Moreover,
whileinthe caseofboth kinds ofboundariesthe rule ofequidistance
is the general rule, it is subject to modification in cases in which
another boundary line isjustified by specialcircumstances.Asinthe
case of the boundaries of coastal waters, provisionmust bemadefor
departuresnecessitatedby anyexceptionalconfiguration of thecoast,as
wellas thepresence of islands orofnavigablechannels. Tothat extent
the rule adopted partakes of some elasticity. . .. arbitration,while
expectedtotake intoaccount thespecialcircumstancec sallingfor modi-

fication of themajorprincipleof equidistance, is not contemplatedas
arbitration exaequo etbono. Thatmajorprinciple must constitute the
basis ofthearbitrationc,onceivedassettlementonthebasisoflaw, sub-
ject to reasonable modifications necessitateb dy the special circum-
stances ofthe case."(Yearbookof theInternationalLaw Commission,
1953,Vol.II, p. 216,para. 82;emphasissupplied.)

SointheviewoftheInternational LawCommission,"reasonable modifi-
cations" of "the general rule, based on the principle of equidistance"
might be made where departures were "necessitated by the special cir-
cumstances ofthe case".
Atthe GenevaConferenceat whichthe 1958Convention was adopted,
the Commission'scarefullycrafted proposa1was sustained in a formula-
tion of the British and Netherlands delegations.The only elucidation of
what might be a special circumstance was the statement of the British
delegation's Admiralty expert, Commander Kennedy, offered in expla-
nation of "The fairest method of establishing a sea boundary .. .that
ofthe median line" :

"Amongthe specialcircumstanceswhichmightexistthere was,for
example, the presence of a small or large island in the area to be
apportioned; he [Commander Kennedy] suggested that, for the
purposes of drawing a boundary, islands should be treated on their merits, very small islands or sand cays ... being neglected as base
points .. .Other types of special circumstances were the possession
by one of the two States concerned of special mineral exploitation
rights or fisheryrights, or the presence of a navigablechannel; inal1
such cases,a deviationfrom the median line would bejustified, but
the median linewouldstillprovidethebeststartingpoint fornegotia-
tions." (UNCLOS 1,Fourth Committee,Continental Shelf, Offial
Records,Vol. VI,p. 93.)

No delegation questioned the sense and scope of special circumstances
givenby Commander Kennedy. Atthe sametime,the United Statesdele-
gation obsemed that "the mle adopted would have to be fairly elastic",
and supported maintenance of "the reference to special circumstances,
sinceaccountwould haveto betaken ofthe greatvariety of complexgeo-
graphicalsituations that existed" (ibid.,p.95).Whilethe diversityofviews
about the merits of equidistance which since has become ritualized was
introduced at the Geneva Conference,the text of what became Article 6
was ovenvhelminglyadopted.

At the Geneva Conference as in the International Law Commission,
there was no suggestion that differing lengths of opposite coastlines -
whichwould represent the typical and not the specialcase - would con-
stitute a special circumstance. Of course islands, as well as mainlands,
havecoasts, whichmaybe situated opposite other coasts. Butthe accept-
ance of islands as a special circumstance in the travaux préparatoires

plainly refers to islands whose situation or size or other characteristics
mayconstituteaspecialcircumstance in adelimitationbetween twoother
coasts; an island was not conceivedto be of itself a special circumstance
which affectsits own coastal projections. That concept is so bizarre that
naturally it finds no expression inthe intentions ofthose who drafted the
1958Convention.

Ofprior casesinthisCourt ofdelimitation ofthecontinental shelforof
fishingzones,three are particularly pertinent. In the NorthSea Continen-
talShelfcases, the Court drewadistinctionbetween the situation ofadja-
cent and opposite coasts. It took account of the lengths and configura-
tions of the coasts of adjacent States.sto opposite States, it had this to
say of the product of the International Law Commission which found
expression in Article6ofthe 1958GenevaConvention :

"Most ofthe difficultiesfeltin the International LawCommission
related, as here,to the caseofthe lateral boundary betweenadjacent States. Lessdifficulty was felt overthat of the median lineboundary
between opposite States,although it too is an equidistance line. For
thisthere seemsto the Courtto begoodreason.Thecontinental shelf
area off, and dividing, opposite States, can be claimed by each of
them to be a natural prolongation of its territory. These prolonga-
tions meetand overlap, and canthereforeonlybe delimited bymeans
ofamedian line;and, ignoring the presence ofislets,rocks and minor
coastal projections, the disproportionally distorting effect of which
can be eliminated by other means, such a line must effect an equal
division ofthe particular area involved.Ifthere isathird Stateon one
ofthe coastsconcerned, thearea of mutual natural prolongation with
that of thesame or another opposite State willbe a separate and dis-
tinct one,tobe treated inthe same way.Thistype of case istherefore
differentfrom that oflaterallyadjacent States on the same coast with
no immediatelyopposite coast infront ofit,and does not giverise to

the samekind ofproblem - aconclusion which also finds somecon-
firmation in the difference of language to be observed in the two
paragraphs of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention ... as respects
recourse in the one case to median lines and in the other to lateral
equidistance lines, in the event of absence of agreement.

If on the other hand, contrary to the view expressedin the preced-
ing paragraph, it were correctto Saythat there is no essentialdiffer-
ence inthe process of delimiting the continental shelf areas between
opposite States and that of delimitations between adjacent States,
then the resultsought in principle to be the same orat leastcompar-
able. But in fact,whereas a median line divides equallybetween the
two opposite countries areas that can be regarded as being the
natural prolongation of the territory of each of them, a lateral equi-
distance line often leaves to one of the States concerned areas that

are a natural prolongation of the territory of the other." (I.C.J.
Reports1969,pp. 36-37,paras. 57and 58.)

In theGulfofMaine case, the Chamber adjusted a median line to take
account ofthe "actualsituation"respectingthelength ofcoastlines,which
insomemeasure wereopposite.Itsselection ofthe relevantcoastlines, the
largerpart ofwhichwere adjacentrather than opposite, wascontroversial,
but a calculation wasmade ofthe lengths ofthe coastlinessoselected and
the resultant relationship between them was mathematically applied to
adjust the position ofthe median linein that precisemeasure.The Gulfof
Maine case is distinguishablefrom the instant case on the grounds that,
first, the 1958Convention was not applicable to its determination of a
singlemaritimeboundary ;second, the adjustment inthe median line was
made in a situation in which the coasts were not only opposite but adja-
cent and in which a salient issue was abatement of claimed cut-off effects
which an unadjusted median linewould entail; and third,the adjustmentin the position of the median line was made in proportion to the actual
differenceinthe length of the coastswhich the Chamber calculated.

Whilefor these reasons, the GulfofMaine caseprovides no more than
qualified support forthe Court's reasoningand conclusionsin the instant
case,direct support isprovided bythe Court's Judgment inthe Continen-
talShelf(LibyanArabJamahariya/Malta) case. Not on a doctrinal level,
for, on the contrary, the Court in that case had this to Sayabout Libya's
contention thatthe lengthofcoastlinesafforded thebasis ofdelimitation :

"However,to usethe ratio ofcoastallengthsas ofitselfdetermina-
tiveofthe seawardreach and area ofcontinental shelfproper to each
Party,isto gofarbeyond the useofproportionality asatest ofequity,
and asa correctiveofthe unjustifiable difference oftreatment result-
ingfrom somemethod of drawingthe boundary line. If such a use of
proportionality were right, it is difficult indeed to see what room
would be leftfor anyother consideration; for it wouldbe at oncethe
principle of entitlement to continental shelf rights and also the
method of putting that principle into operation. Its weakness as a
basis of argument, however, is that the use of proportionality as a
method initsownright iswantingofsupportin the practiceofStates,
in the public expression of their views at (in particular) the Third

United Nations Conference onthe Lawofthe Sea,orinthejurispru-
dence.Itisnotpossibleforthe Courtto endorse aproposa1atonceso
far-reaching and so novel." (Z.C.J.Reports1985,p. 45,para. 58.)

Nevertheless, the Court proceeded, in a situation of purely opposite
coasts,inwhichthe fargreaterlength ofLibya'scoastin relation to that of
Malta was similarto the verygreat extent of Greenland's coastrelativeto

that of Jan Mayen, to shift the median line markedly northwards in
Libya'sfavourto take account ofadifferencein coastallengths. It cannot
be said,to take mathematical or proportionate account of a difference in
coastallengths,for,unlike the GulfofMaineJudgment, the application of
proportionality in the Libya/Malta case evidences no discernible, spe-
cific relationship between the different coastal lengths of Libya and
Malta. Indeed, in that case as in this, if the vast differences in coastal
lengthswereto havebeen givenproportionate effect,the relativelyminus-
culeislandswould haveno continental shelvesor fishingzones at all.The
obscure measure of adjustment of the median line between Libya and
Malta appears to have had the benefit of inspiration, if divine,then from
Roman gods, for the line selectedjust happened essentiallyto coincide
with the limit ofthe claimsof a third State,Italy,whose claims the Court
paradoxically earlier had declined to pass upon. In the current case, the
measureofadjustment seemstohavefollowed,ifnot fromthe inspiration
of Norse gods, then from considerations of symmetry,once the decisionwas made to furnish "equitable access" to the southern sector in which
capelin may be fished. In Selden's seventeenth-centurydays, equity was
described as the Chancellor's conscience,variable indeed; it was as ifthe
standard of measurementcalled a foot were to be the length ofthe Chan-
cellor's foot, "an uncertain measure". (Pollock, ed., Table Talk of John
Selden, 1927, p. 43.) Nowadays, equity is to be impressionistically
measured by the length of opposite coastlines.

III. SHOULD MAXIMALIC STLAIMS BEREWARDED?

Ifthe casebetween Denmark and Nonvay istobe consideredin a fash-
ion which places the legal entitlements of each Party on an equal plane,
then both Greenland and Jan Mayen should be viewed as entitled prima

facie to a 200-mile zone. These entitlements, however, being less than
400miles apart, overlap. Thus itiswithinthislargemaritime area of over-
lapping potential entitlements that the line of delimitation had to be
drawn. But not in Denmark's view. For itspart,Denmark claimed its full
200-mile entitlement, proposing to leave Nonvay none of its, whereas
Nonvay, for its part, took a more modest approach, claiming not the full
extent of its200-mileentitlementbut onlythose areas which lieto the east
of a median line drawn between the opposite coasts of Jan Mayen and
Greenland. That isto Say,Denmark's claim isprecisely the same claim as
could be made if Jan Mayen Island did not exist or, if existing, were to
be treated not as an island but as a rock "which cannot sustain human
habitation or economic life" ofits own and whichaccordinglyshall have
"no exclusive economiczone or continental shelf" (Art. 121 ofthe 1982
United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea).The singular charac-
teristics ofJan Mayen Island mayleaveroom for argument about whether
itmeetsthe standards ofArticle 121,but Denmark did notmake that argu-
ment; it accepted that Jan Mayen Island isnot a rock but an island.

Theline of delimitationindicated by the Court givesthe impression of
rewarding Denmark's maximalistclaimand penalizing Nonvay's modera-
tion. Equitable or equal access isgivento the Partiesin the southerly area
that matters, and the remainder ofthe line isindicated to conjoin withthe
line so to be drawn, apparentlyal1of this to fa11within the area of Nor-
way'sclaim. Nonvay proposed a median line,whichfellroughly midway
between the coasts of Greenland andJan Mayen, but which nevertheless
would have accorded Greenland significantlymore continental shelf and
fishingzone than Jan Mayen, for the reason that Greenland's far longercoast generates more area seawards than does Jan Mayen's short coast.
Butthat wasnot seenassufficientfor Denmark's maximalistclaimorthe
Court's apportionment, which is markedly more generous to Denmark
than is the median line. To arrive at this expanded apportionment, the
Court has found it right to award Greenland a bonus forthe length of its
coast or to penalize Jan Mayen for the shortness of its. The result is to
attribute almost three-quarters of the total area of overlapping potential
entitlements to Denmark and a bit more than one-quarter to Norway.
Whythisshould beseenasequitableisnotclearbutwhat isclearisthatthe
Court's Judgment may tend to encourage immoderate and discourage
moderate claimsin future. Yet it may be said in defence of the approach

of Denmark, if not of the Court, that, however extreme Denmark's
claim appears in legal terms, in political terms it is perfectly under-
standable. Once Norway had extended to Iceland a 200-mile zone in
relation to Jan Mayen, naturally Denmark sought no less on behalf of
Greenland.

Asnoted, in this case Article6 of the 1958Convention has mandatory
force,forthe Partiesand fortheCourt. Butthe 1958Conventionconcerns

the continental shelf; it does not govern the fishing zone. It is agreed by
the Parties and the Court alikethat customaryinternational law governs
delimitation ofthe fishingzone. It isalsoagreedthat, inthis caseofoppo-
site coasts, it would make no practical sense for the delimitation of the
fishing zone to produce a line which differs from that to be drawn for
delimitation ofthe continental shelf.

Thesavinggraceforthe Court's Judgmentinthesecircumstancesisthat
the customary law governing delimitation of the fishing zone is elastic
indeed, havingbeen shaped by the Court's judicial and by arbitral deci-
sions and the porous terms of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea. Under that Convention, which is not in force, an equi-
table solution isto be achieved,forthe continental shelfand the exclusive
economic zone, on the basis of international law as referred to in Ar-
ticle 38 ofthe Statute of the Court. Nothing is said in these Convention
provisions of equidistance, or special circumstances, or relevantircum-

stances. Permeable as the Convention's provisions are, they exclude an
equitable solution based not on international law but considerations ex
aequo etbono.Theterms of Article 38of the Statute distinguishbetween
the function of judicial decision in accordance with international lawwhich applies the sources ofthat law,and the power ofthe Courtto decide
a case exaequoetbon0if the parties so agree.
Nevertheless, theauthority to seekan equitablesolution bythe applica-
tion ofalawwhose principlesremain largelyundefined affords the Court
an exceptional measure of judicial discretion. In this Judgment, the
Court's attempted definition of that law ultimately does little more than
require the investigation of "relevant circumstances" which have to be
taken into account if an equitable result isto be achieved.Invoking "rele-
vant circumstances" is in accord with earlier Judgments of the Court,

beginning with the NorthSea ContinentalShelf cases, and is consistent
with the tenor of the debate at the Third United Nations Conference on
the Law of the Sea. If the Court draws from the cornucopia of judicial
discretionafforded by itsappreciation ofwhatcircumstances are relevant
the decision thatthe fishingzoneshallbeequally apportionedin this case,
itisdifficultto maintain thatthat exercise of discretion ismore objection-
able than indication of an alternativeline.

If that is so, the questionhen arises, should the continental shelf line
imported bythe 1958Convention - the median line - govern, or should
the fishingzonelineindicated by the Court's sense of equitygovern?

There is no ready answerto this conundrum. It might on the onehand
be maintained thatthe 1958Convention affords anterior and harder law,
unmodified by a subsequenttreatyinforce. It should accordingly govern,
the more so because there are a number of continental shelf agreements
and awards which are in force which are not treated as having been
reworked by the subsequent advent of the concept of the exclusive
economic zone or variants thereof or by the lenient terms of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. On the other hand, it
might be maintained that, even ifthat be generallyso, the real interests at
stake in this case involve the apportionment of fishing rights and that,
therefore, the Court's appreciation offishingzoneequitiesshouldgovern
any apportionment of the continental shelf.

The Court avoids a choice between these approaches by maintaining
that itapplies "a general nom based on equitableprinciples" amalgamat-
ing the two in a formula it describes as "the equidistance-special circum-
stances rule". Whether, in view of the reasoningemployedinthis case by
the Court, it has effectively employed that rule is debatable. But what is
clear isthat the Court leavens itsJudgment with a largeinfusion of equi-
table ferment,importing asit does a search for "relevant circumstances",
and so concocts a conclusion whi'chdoes not lend itself to dissectionor,
forthat matter, dissent. Based on large and loose approaches such as its
gross impression of the effects of differinglengths of coasts, its desire to
afford equitable access to fishing resources, and the attractions of thesymmetrical conjoinder of indicated lines of delimitation, the Court
comesup withalinewhich,giventhe criteria employed,maybeasreason-
ableasanother. Wherethis leavesthe lawofmaritimedelimitation,to the

extentthat such a law subsists,isperplexing.

(Signe d)ephen M. SCHWEBEL.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SCHWEBEL

1am in substantial but not full agreement with the Court's Judgment.
There is no need to specify the several holdings of the Court with which
1agree. The questions whose treatment by the Court is in my view ques-
tionable arethe following.

1. SHOULD THE LAW OF MARITIM DEELIMITATIO BNEREVISED TO
INTRODUC END APPLY DISTRIBUTIV JUESTICE?

TheJudgment quite rightly observesthatthe realinterestsimmediately
at stakein this case are fishingrights, restricted to a southerly, relatively
ice-free zone of the disputedarea. It decides that equal access to the
capelin resources of the southern part of the area of overlapping claims
has to be assured by a substantial adjustment or shiftingeastwards of the
median line. The Court concludes that the two Parties "should enjoy
equitable access to the fishing resources of this zone, which should
accordinglybe divided into two equal parts".

While the Court may be commended for the simplicity of its conclu-
sion, aprincipled consistency with itsearliercase-law islessconspicuous.
In this Judgment, the Court recalls "the need, referred to in thea/
Malta case, for 'consistency and a degree of predictability"'. But in this,
the most critical holding of the Judgment on the real assets at stake, the

Court jettisons what its case-law, and the accepted customary law of the
question, have provided.
In itsseminal Judgment in the North Sea Continental Shelfcases, the
Court held that delimitation ofthe continental shelfis the samething
as awarding ajust and equitable share of a previouslyundelimited area".
It held that

"the doctrine of thejust and equitable share appears to be wholly at
variance with what the Court entertains no doubt isthe mostnda-
mental of al1 the rules of law relating to the continental shelf,
enshrined in ...the 1958Geneva Convention, ... namely that the
rights ofthe coastalStateinrespect ofthearea ofcontinental sh...
exist ipsofacto and ab initio,by virtue of its sovereignty over the
land ...
It followstha...,the notion of apportioningan asyetundelimited
area, considered as a whole (which underlies the doctrine of thejust
and equitable share), isuite foreign to, and inconsistent with, the
basic concept of continental shelf entitleme... The delimitation OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. SCHWEBEL

[Traduction]

Jem'associepour l'essentiel, maisnon entièrement,à l'arrêtela Cour.
Il n'yapaslieu depréciserlesdifférentsénoncédselaCoursur lesquelsje
suisd'accord.Lesquestionsquela Cour a traitéesde façon contestable, à
mon avis,sont les suivantes.

1. CONVIENT D-IREVISER LEDROITDE LADÉLIMITATIONMARITIME
POUR YINTRODUIREETDISPENSERUNE JUSTICE DISTRIBUTIVE?

Dans l'arrêt, laCour fait observer a très juste titre que les véritables
intérêts qusiont directement en jeu dans cette affaire sont les droits de
pêche,limités à une zone méridionale, relativementlibrede glace, de la
zoneenlitige.Elledécidequ'unaccèségaa luxressourcesen capelan dela
partie méridionalede la zone de chevauchementdes revendications doit
être assurépar un ajustement ou un déplacement sensiblevers l'estde la
ligne médiane.La Cour conclut que les deux Parties ((doivent avoir un
accèséquitable aux ressourceshalieutiquesde cettezone »,laquelle doit

en conséquenceêtrd eivisée «en deux parties de superficies égales».
Sila Cour peut être félicitdee la simplicitéde sa conclusion,la cohé-
rence desprincipes appliqués avecsajurisprudence antérieureestmoins
évidente.Danscet arrêt,laCour rappelle «la nécessité, entionnéedans
l'affaireibye/Malte, de «la cohérenceet [d'lunecertaine prévisibilité».
Mais dans cette conclusion de l'arrêt, la plusimportante au regard des
intérêtsvéritablement ejneu, la Courjette par-dessus bord l'acquisde sa
jurisprudence et du droit coutumierétablien la matière.
Dans le fécond arrêqtu'ellea rendu dans les affaires du Plateau conti-
nental de la mer du Nord, la Cour a considéréque la délimitationdu
plateau continental est «autre [chose]que d'attribuer une part juste et
équitabled'unezone non encore délimitée ».Elle a déclaréque :

«la doctrine de la part juste et équitable sembles'écarter totalement
de la règlequi constitue sans aucun doute possible pour la Cour la
plus fondamentale de toutes les règlesde droit relatives au plateau
continental et qui est consacréepar ..la convention de Genève de
1958 :..les droits de 1'Etatriverain concernant la zone de plateau
continental..existentipsofacoet ab initioenvertu delasouveraineté

de 1'Etatsur ceterritoi...
Il en découleque ..l'idéederépartirune zone non encoredélimi-
tée considérée commu en tout, idée sous-jacenteàla doctrine de la
part juste et équitable, est absolument étrangère et opposée à la
conception fondamentale du régimedu plateau continental ..Certes itself must indeed be equitably effected, but it cannot have as its
object the awarding of an equitable share, or indeed of a share, as
such, at all,- forthe fundamental concept involved does not admit
oftherebeinganythingundivided to share out." (I.C.J.Reports1969,
p. 22,paras. 19and 20.)

The Court consequently rejected the claim of the Federal Republic of
Germanyto a "'justand equitable' shareofthe shelfareasinvolved"(ibid.,
p. 29).
In the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) case, the
Court concluded that :

"these economicconsiderationscannot betaken into account forthe
delimitation of the continental shelf areas appertaining to each
Party.They are virtually extraneous factors sincethey are variables
whichunpredictablenational fortune orcalamity,asthe casemaybe,
mightat anytime causeto tiltthe scaleone wayorthe other. Acoun-
try mightbe poor today and become rich tomorrow as a result of an
event such as the discovery of a valuable economic resource."

(I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 77,para. 107.)
In the case concerning Delimitationof the Maritime Boundary in the
Gulfof MaineArea, the Chamber of the Court observed that fishing, oil
exploration and other such considerations advanced by the Parties
divergedfromthe cruxofthe matter.TheChamberwasbound "nottotake

a decision ex aequo et bono,but to achieve a result on the basis of law"
(I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 278,para. 59).Whenit approached what it charac-
terized as "the real subject of the dispute between the United States and
Canada in the present case, the principal stake in the proceedings",
GeorgesBank(ibid., p. 340p ,ara. 232),the Court confrontedthe questionof
whether the line which it had drawn on geographical grounds should
be affected by considerations of human and economic geography. The
Chamber held that such considerations were"ineligibleforconsideration
as criteria to be applied in the delimitation process itself' (ibid.).It con-
cluded :

"It is,therefore,in the Chamber'sview,evidentthatthe respective
scaleofactivitiesconnected withfishing - ornavigation,defence or,
forthat matter,petroleum exploration and exploitation - cannot be
taken into account as a relevant circumstance or, if the term is pre-
ferred,asan equitablecriterion to beapplied in determiningthe deli-
mitation line. What the Chamber would regard as a legitimate

scruple lies rather in concern lest the overall result, even though
achievedthrough the application of equitable criteria andthe use of
appropriate methods for giving them concrete effect, should un-
expectedlyberevealedasradicallyinequitable, that isto Say,aslikely
to entai1 catastrophic repercussions for the livelihood and econ-
omic well-being of the population of the countries concerned."
(Ibid.,p. 342,para. 237.) la délimitation doit s'effectuer équitablement, maiselle ne saurait
avoirpour objet d'attribuer une part équitable nimêmesimplement
unepart, carla conception fondamentale en la matièreexclutqu'il y
ait quoi que ce soit d'indivisartager. » (C.I.J. Recueil1969,p. 22,
par. 19-20.)

La Cour a donc rejetéla revendication de la République fédérald e'Alle-
magne à une «part juste et équitable deszonesde plateau continental en
cause »(ibid.,p.29).
Dans l'affaire du Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe
libyenne),la Cour a conclu que:

«ces considérations économiquesne sauraient être retenuep sour la
délimitation des zonesde plateau continental relevant de chaque
Partie.Ils'agitdefacteursquasimentextrinsèques,puisquevariables
et pouvant à tout moment faire pencher la balance d'un côté oude
l'autredefaçonimprévisible,selonlesheursoumalheursdespays en
cause. Un pays peut être pauvreaujourd'hui et devenir prospère
demain à la suite d'un événement telque la découverte d'une
nouvellerichesseéconomique. »(C.I.J. Recueil1982,p. 77,par. 107.)

Dans l'affaire de la Délimitationde lafrontière maritimedans la région
dugolfedu Maine,la Chambre de la Cour a observéque lapêche,lapros-
pection de pétroleet d'autres considérations analogues avancéespar les
Partiess'éloignaientdu cŒurdu problème.La Chambre étaittenue «non
pas de déciderexaequoet bono,mais d'asseoir le résultat à atteindre sur
une base de droit» (C.I.J. Recueil1984,p. 278, par. 59). Lorsqu'elle a
abordéce qu'ellea qualifiéde ((véritableobjetdu différend quioppose
les Etats-Unis au Canada dans la présente affaire», le banc de Georges
(ibid.,p. 340,par.32),ellea abordélaquestion desavoirsilalignequ'elle
avaittracéesur desbasesgéographiquesdevraitêtremodifiéeenfonction
de considérationsde géographiehumaineet économique.La Chambre a
jugéque de telles circonstances«ne peuvent pas entrer en considération

entant que critèresà appliquerà l'opérationde délimitationelle-même »
(ibid.).Et de conclur:
«Ilestdoncévident,auxyeuxdelaChambre,quel'ampleur respec-
tivedecesactivitéshumainesliées àlapêche - ou àlanavigation, àla
défense,ou d'ailleursà la recherche età l'exploitation d'hydrocar-
bures- nesauraitentrerenconsidérationentantquecirconstanceper-

tinenteou,si1'011réfèree,ntant quecritèreéquitableà appliquer àla
déterminationdelalignededélimitation.Lescrupuleque laChambre
estimejustifié d'avoirestceluides'assurerquelerésultatglobal,bien
qu'issu de l'application de critères équitableset de l'utilisation de
méthodesappropriéesdestinées à les traduire concrètement, ne se
révèlepas d'une manièreinattenduecommeradicalementinéquitable,
c'est-à-direcommesusceptibled'entraînerdesrépercussionscatastro-
phiques pour la subsistance et le développement économique des
populations despays intéressés.»(Ibid.,p. 342,par. 237.) In the ContinentalShelf (Libyan ArabJamahiriya/Malta) case, the
Court reaffirmed "the principle that therebe no question of distribu-
tivejustice"(I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 40,para. 46A.court applying equi-
table considerations maytake into account "only those that arepertinent
to the institution of the continental shelf as it has developed within the

law" (ibid.,p. 40,para. 48).Thus the Court rejectedthe economic consid-
erations advanced by Malta as "totallyunrelated to the underlyinginten-
tion ofthe applicableules of international law" (ibid.,p. 41,para. 50).

In the light of this jurisprudence, why shouldmark be accorded
equal accesswithNonvay to the sectionofthearea ofoverlappingclaims
in which, inseason, the presence of capelin and the absence of drift ice
provide avaluablefishingground? WhymustwhattheCourt describesas
"equitable accessto the fishing resources" ofthis zonebe shared? It was
not claimed or shown that, if Greenland were not to be accorded fuller
access to the ice-free area in whichpelin may be fished in season,

Greenland wouldbe confronted bycatastrophiceconomicrepercussions,
so eventhat "legitimate scruple" did noteinto play.

It follows that the Court by this holding of distributive justice has
departed fromthe acceptedlawof the matter,asfashioned pre-eminently
byit.Itisnot suggestedthat thisdeparture fromprinciple and precedent is
legally fatal. If what is lawful in maritime delimitation by the Court is
what is equitable, and ifwhat is equitable is asvariable as the weather of
The Hague, then thisinnovation maybe seen as,and it maybeyasdefens-
ible and desirable as another. It may be more defensible and desirable
than that concerningthe length of coastlines.

II. SHOULD THE DIFFERINE GXTEN TF THELENGTH OF OPPOSITE
COASTLIND ESETERMIN THEEPOSITIO NF THE LINEOF DELIMITATION?

The Court observesthat it has never before had occasion to apply the
1958Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf. In the North Sea
ContinentalShelf cases, Germany was not a party to the Convention;

similarly,in the continental shelf casesbetween Tunisia and Libya and
between Libya and Malta, Libya was not a party. In the Gulfof Maine
case,Canadaand the United States wereparties tothe 1958Convention,
but they requested thehamber to define "the course ofthe singlemari-
time boundarythat dividesthe continental shelf and fisheries zones", so
that, as the Court notes, the Chamber considered that the 1958Conven-
tion, being applicable only to the continental shelf, did not govern the
delimitation at issue. The Court consequently and rightly now holds
that:

"In the presentcase,both Statesareparties tothe 1958Convention
and, there being no joint request for a single maritime boundary Dans l'affairedu Plateaucontinental(Jamahirzjaarabelibyenne/Malte),
la Cour a réaffirmé«le principe qu'il nesaurait être question dejustice
distributive))C.I.J.Recueil1985,p. 40, par. 46). Lorsqu'une juridiction
applique des considérationsd'équité,«seules pourront intervenir celles
qui se rapportent à l'institution du plateau continental telle qu'elle s'est
constituéeendroit »(ibid.,p.40,par. 48).Ainsi,laCour arejetélesconsidé-
rations économiques avancéespar Malte comme «tout à fait étrangèreà

l'intention qui sous-tend les règles applicables du droit international))
(ibid.,p. 41,par. 50).
A la lumière de cettejurisprudence, pourquoi devrait-on accorder au
Danemarkle mêmeaccèsque la Norvègeau secteur de lazone de chevau-
chement des revendications où la présence de capelan et l'absence de
glacesdérivantesoffrent,ensaison, un territoire depêcheprécieux? Pour-
quoifaut-ilpartager ceque laCour décritcommeun «accèséquitableaux
ressourceshalieutiques »de cette zone? Il n'apas étéprétendu ni démon-
tré que,si le Groenland ne se voyait pas accorder un plus large acàèla
zonelibre de glaceoù l'onpeut pêcherle capelan en saison, le Groenland

setrouveraitconfronté àdesrépercussionséconomiquescatastrophiques,
de sorte que même ce ascrupule justifié»n'estpas intervenu.
Il s'ensuit que la Cour, par cette décisionde justice distributive, s'est
écartée du droitétablienlamatière,qu'ellead'ailleurselle-mêmefaçonné
dans une large mesure. Non qu'il soitjuridiquement funeste de s'écarter
ainsidesprincipes etdesprécédents.Siledroit, enmatièrede délimitation
maritime par la Cour, est ce qui est équitable,et sice qui est équitableest
aussi variable que le temps àLa Haye, alors cette innovation peut être
jugée, et ellepeut être,aussidéfendableet souhaitable qu'une autre. Elle
peut êtreplus défendableet souhaitable que celle qui tient la longueur
des côtes.

II. LA DIFFÉRENCEDE LONGUEURSDES CÔTESQUI SEFONTFACE
DEVRAIT-ELLE DÉTERMINER LAPOSITION DE LA LIGNE DEDÉLIMITATION?

La Cour constatequ'elle n'a encorejamais eul'occasion d'appliquer la
convention de Genèvesurleplateau continental de 1958.Dans lesaffaires

du Plateaucontinentalde lamed ruNord,l'Allemagnen'était paspartie à la
convention; de même,dans les affaires du plateau continental entre la
Tunisie etla Libyeet entre la LibyeetMalte,la Libyen'était paspartiela
convention.Dans l'affaire du GolfeduMaine,le Canada et les Etats-Unis
étaientpartiesàlaconvention de 1958,maisilsavaient priélaChambre de
définir«le tracéde la frontièremaritimeunique divisant leplateau conti-
nental et les zones depêche)),si bien que, comme le relèvela Cour, la
Chambre a considéréque la convention de 1958,étantapplicable au seul
plateau continental, ne régissaitpas la délimitation demandée.La Cour
conclut donc maintenant, età bon droit, que:

«Dans la présente affaire,les deux Etats sont partiàsla conven-
tion de 1958,et, puisqu'il n'y a pas eu de demande commune pour as in the Gulfof Maine case, the 1958Convention is applicable to
the delimitation of the continental shelf between Greenland and
Jan Mayen." (Judgment, p. 58,para. 45.)

It followsthat, sincethe Convention isapplicable, and sinceby the terms
of Article 38 ofthe Statute,

"The Court, whosefunction isto decide in accordance with inter-
national law such disputes as are submittedto it, shallapply :
(a) international conventions,whether general or particular, estab-
lishingrulesexpresslyrecognized bythe contesting States"

theCourt inthis case isbound to giveeffectto the pertinent provisions of
the 1958Convention.
Article6ofthe 1958Convention isprescriptive.Itsfirst paragraph pro-
vides :

"Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories
of two or more States whose coasts are opposite each other, the
boundary of the continental shelf appertaining to such States shall
be determined by agreementbetween them. In the absence of agree-
ment, and unless anotherboundary lineisjustified byspecialcircum-

stances, the boundary is the median line, every point of which is
equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the
breadth of theterritorial sea of each State is measured."
Since there is no agreementbetween the Parties, "the boundary is the
median line" - "unless another boundary line is justified by special

circumstances". That brings us to the ever-recurring question: are there
specialcircumstanceswhich justify another boundary ?

It is plain that the term "special" circumstances may not be judicially
interpreted to mean "any" circumstances. The meaning of the term
"special" is antithetical to "any" or "all" or what is the generality of
circumstances. Nor in interpreting the 1958Convention may "special"
circumstancesbe equated with the broader range of "relevant" circum-
stances which may be applicable in customary international law. The
factors that are pertinent to a circumstance clearly are wider than those
which are special to it. What then are "special circumstances" - i.e.,

particular, peculiar or singular circumstances - as that term is illumi-
nated bythe travauxpréparatoireo sfthe 1958GenevaConvention and by
Court precedents?

The travauxpréparatoires indicate that, by special circumstances, the
drafters ofthe 1958Conventiondecidedly didnot mean anycircumstance
which the arbitrator orjudge might see as relevant.Judgment was to be
made on the basis of law, not exaequo etbono.Graphic illustration was une délimitation maritime uniquecomme dans l'affairedu Golfedu
Maine, la convention est applicable à la délimitationdu plateau
continentalentre leGroenland etJan Mayen. »(Arrêtp,. 58,par. 45.)

Il s'ensuit que,puisque la conventionestapplicable etqu'en vertudel'ar-
ticle38du Statut:
«La Cour, dont la mission est de réglerconformémentau droit
international les différendsquiluisont soumis,applique :

a) les conventions internationales, soit générales, soit spéciales,
établissant desrèglesexpressément reconnuespar les Etats en
litige,

la Cour esttenue en l'espèced'appliquer lesdispositionspertinentes dela
convention de 1958.
L'articledelaconventionde 1958estimpératif.Leparagraphe 1decet
articledispose :

((Dans le cas où un mêmeplateau continental est adjacent aux
territoires de deux ou plusieurs Etats dont les côtes se font face, la
délimitationdu plateau continental entre ces Etats est déterminée
par accord entre ces Etats. A défaut d'accord,et à moins que des
circonstances spécialesne justifient une autre délimitation,celle-ci
estconstituéepar la lignemédianedont tous lespoints sont équidis-
tants despoints lesplusprochesdes lignesdebase àpartir desquelles
estmesuréela largeur dela merterritoriale de chacun de cesEtats. »

Comme il n'y a pas d'accord entre les Parties, la «délimitation ..est
constituéepar la ligne médiane» - «à moins que des circonstances
spécialesnejustifient uneautre délimitation ».Celanous ramèneàI'éter-
nelle question: existe-t-il des circonstances spécialesqui justifient une
autre délimitation?
Il est clair que l'expression circonstances «spéciales» ne saurait être
interprétéepar le juge comme signifiant des circonstances ((quelcon-
ques».Le sens du mot ((spéciales»est àl'opposé de «quelconques » ou
de «toutes», ou de ce qui constitue des circonstances générales. Pour
interpréter la conventionde 1958,on ne peut pas davantage assimiler les
circonstances «spéciales» à la gamme plus large des circonstances
«pertinentes »pouvant être applicablesen droit international coutumier.

Lesfacteursqui sontpertinents àune circonstancesont évidemmentplus
larges que ceux qui lui sont spéciaux.Qu'est-cealors que les «circons-
tances spéciales» - c'est-à-dire des circonstancesparticulières,propres
ou singulières - à la lumièrejetéesur cette expression par les travaux
préparatoires dela convention de Genèvede 1958etpar lajurisprudence
de la Cour?
Il ressort destravauxpréparatoires quelesrédacteursde la convention
de 1958n'entendaient certainement pas, par «circonstancesspéciales»,
toute circonstance que l'arbitreou lejuge pourrait estimerpertinente. Le
jugement devaitêtrerendusurlabase du droit etnonexaequo etbono.Cegiven of what are "special circumstances" :initially, an exceptional con-
figuration of the coast, or the presence of islands or of navigable
channels. The pertinent passage of the report of the International Law
Commission,whichultimatelywasthebasisofthe draft ofthe Convention
submittedto the Geneva Conference, provides :

"Having regard to the conclusions of the committee of experts
referred to above [thecommitteewhich proposed equidistance],the
Commission now felt in the position to formulate a general rule,
based on the principle of equidistance,applicable to theboundaries
of the continental shelfboth of adjacent States and of Stateswhose
coastsareopposite to eachother.The rulethus proposed issubjectto
suchmodifications as maybe agreedupon bythe parties. Moreover,
whileinthe caseofboth kinds ofboundariesthe rule ofequidistance
is the general rule, it is subject to modification in cases in which
another boundary line isjustified by specialcircumstances.Asinthe
case of the boundaries of coastal waters, provisionmust bemadefor
departuresnecessitatedby anyexceptionalconfiguration of thecoast,as
wellas thepresence of islands orofnavigablechannels. Tothat extent
the rule adopted partakes of some elasticity. . .. arbitration,while
expectedtotake intoaccount thespecialcircumstancec sallingfor modi-

fication of themajorprincipleof equidistance, is not contemplatedas
arbitration exaequo etbono. Thatmajorprinciple must constitute the
basis ofthearbitrationc,onceivedassettlementonthebasisoflaw, sub-
ject to reasonable modifications necessitateb dy the special circum-
stances ofthe case."(Yearbookof theInternationalLaw Commission,
1953,Vol.II, p. 216,para. 82;emphasissupplied.)

SointheviewoftheInternational LawCommission,"reasonable modifi-
cations" of "the general rule, based on the principle of equidistance"
might be made where departures were "necessitated by the special cir-
cumstances ofthe case".
Atthe GenevaConferenceat whichthe 1958Convention was adopted,
the Commission'scarefullycrafted proposa1was sustained in a formula-
tion of the British and Netherlands delegations.The only elucidation of
what might be a special circumstance was the statement of the British
delegation's Admiralty expert, Commander Kennedy, offered in expla-
nation of "The fairest method of establishing a sea boundary .. .that
ofthe median line" :

"Amongthe specialcircumstanceswhichmightexistthere was,for
example, the presence of a small or large island in the area to be
apportioned; he [Commander Kennedy] suggested that, for the
purposes of drawing a boundary, islands should be treated on theirqui constituedes «circonstancesspéciales»a été illustrévisuellement :au
départ,une configuration exceptionnelle de la côte,ou la présence d'îles
ou de chenaux navigables. Lepassagepertinent durapport de laCommis-
sion du droit international, qui servit finalement de base au projet de
conventionprésenté à la conférencede Genève,précise :

«Tenant compte des conclusions du Comité d'expertsdont il est
question plus haut [le comité qui avait proposé l'équidistance], la
Commission a estiméqu'elle étaitmaintenanten mesure de formuler
une règlegénérale, fondéesur le principe de l'équidistance, appli-
cable aux limites du plateau continental aussi bien lorsqu'il s'agit
d'Etats limitrophes que d'Etats dont les côtes se font face. La règle
ainsi proposée peut être modifiéepar accord entre les parties. Au

surplus,si,dans l'une et l'autre éventualité,les limitessont détermi-
nées,en général,par la règle de l'équidistance, des modifications
peuvent être apportées à cette règle lorsque des circonstances
spécialesjustifient letracéd'une autrelimite.Comme pour leslimites
des eauxterritoriales, ildoit êtrerévu qu'op neut s'écartede la règle
lorsqu'une conjigurationexceptionnelledelacôteouencorelaprésence
d'îlesoudechenauxnavigablesl'exigent. La règleadoptéeestdoncpar
là dotéed'unecertaine élasticité...l'arbitrage- dont onattend qu'il
tiennecomptedes circonstancesspéciales exigeanlta modijkation du
principe généra dl'équidistance- neseprésentepas commeunarbi-
trage ex aequo et bono. C'estsurla base duprincipe général qu doit
êtrerendul'arbitrage,considéré commeunrèglemenftondé sur ledroit
sous réservedes modifications raisonnables commandéepsar les
circonstancesspécialesdescas d'espèce. »(Nations Unies, Documents

officielsde IAssembléegénéraleh ,uitième session,supplémentno9
(A/2456), ((Rapport de la Commission du droit international »,
1953,p. 16,par. 82; les italiquessont de moi.)

Ainsi, selon la Commission du droit international, «des modifications
raisonnables » de la «règle généralef,ondéesurle principe de l'équidis-
tance » peuvent êtreapportées lorsque «les circonstances spéciales des
casd'espèce »commandent que l'on s'enécarte.
Lors de la conférencede Genève au cours de laquelle la convention
de 1958 a étéadoptée, la proposition soigneusement élaborée par la
Commission fut appuyée dansune formuledesdélégationsbritannique et
néerlandaise. Le seul éclaircissementconcernant ce qui pourrait consti-
tuerune circonstancespécialesetrouve dans la déclarationde l'expert de
l'amirautéde la délégationbritannique,le capitaine de frégate Kennedy,
qui a expliqué «la méthode la plus équitablepour délimiter des eaux
maritimes, ..la ligne médiane» :

«Au nombre des circonstances spéciales dont il pourrait y avoir
lieu de tenir compte, on peut mentionnner par exemple l'existence
d'une île, petite ou grande, dans la zone à répartir. Il [le capi-
taine Kennedy] suggèreque, pour tracer une ligne de démarcation, merits, very small islands or sand cays ... being neglected as base
points .. .Other types of special circumstances were the possession
by one of the two States concerned of special mineral exploitation
rights or fisheryrights, or the presence of a navigablechannel; inal1
such cases,a deviationfrom the median line would bejustified, but
the median linewouldstillprovidethebeststartingpoint fornegotia-
tions." (UNCLOS 1,Fourth Committee,Continental Shelf, Offial
Records,Vol. VI,p. 93.)

No delegation questioned the sense and scope of special circumstances
givenby Commander Kennedy. Atthe sametime,the United Statesdele-
gation obsemed that "the mle adopted would have to be fairly elastic",
and supported maintenance of "the reference to special circumstances,
sinceaccountwould haveto betaken ofthe greatvariety of complexgeo-
graphicalsituations that existed" (ibid.,p.95).Whilethe diversityofviews
about the merits of equidistance which since has become ritualized was
introduced at the Geneva Conference,the text of what became Article 6
was ovenvhelminglyadopted.

At the Geneva Conference as in the International Law Commission,
there was no suggestion that differing lengths of opposite coastlines -
whichwould represent the typical and not the specialcase - would con-
stitute a special circumstance. Of course islands, as well as mainlands,
havecoasts, whichmaybe situated opposite other coasts. Butthe accept-
ance of islands as a special circumstance in the travaux préparatoires

plainly refers to islands whose situation or size or other characteristics
mayconstituteaspecialcircumstance in adelimitationbetween twoother
coasts; an island was not conceivedto be of itself a special circumstance
which affectsits own coastal projections. That concept is so bizarre that
naturally it finds no expression inthe intentions ofthose who drafted the
1958Convention.

Ofprior casesinthisCourt ofdelimitation ofthecontinental shelforof
fishingzones,three are particularly pertinent. In the NorthSea Continen-
talShelfcases, the Court drewadistinctionbetween the situation ofadja-
cent and opposite coasts. It took account of the lengths and configura-
tions of the coasts of adjacent States.sto opposite States, it had this to
say of the product of the International Law Commission which found
expression in Article6ofthe 1958GenevaConvention :

"Most ofthe difficultiesfeltin the International LawCommission
related, as here,to the caseofthe lateral boundary betweenadjacent on tienne compte de l'étendue desîles et que l'on ne prenne pas
comme points de départ pour mesurer la mer territoriale les très

petites îles et les bancs de sableD'autres circonstances spéciales
pourraient consister dans le fait que l'un des Etats posséderait des
droits spéciaux en matière d'exploitation minièreou de pêche,ou
encoredans l'existenced'unchenalnavigable.Danstous lescasdece
genre, une déviationde la ligne médianepourra se justifier, mais
cette ligneconstituera, mêmealors, le meilleurpoint de départpour
desnégociations. >>(Nations Unies,Documentsofficielsdelapremière
conférence desNations Uniessur ledroitdela mer,quatrièmecommis-
sion,plateau continental, vol.,p. 112.)

Aucune délégationn'a contestéle sens et la portée des circonstances
spécialesdéfinispar le capitaine Kennedy. Cependant, la délégationdes
Etats-Unis a observéque «la règleadoptée [devrait] être dotée d'une
certaine souplesse» et préconisé quel'on conserve «la mention des
circonstances spéciales, puisqu'il[serait]nécessairede tenir compte de
la grande diversité des situations géographiquesfort complexes qui se
présent[erai]ent»(ibid.,p. 114).Siles divergencesde vues concernant les
méritesde l'équidistancequi sont maintenant devenues la règlesont
apparues àlaconférencedeGenève,letextequidevaitdevenir l'article6a
été adotitéà une maiorité écrasante.
Nul ka dit,que cesoit àlaconférencedeGenèveou lorsdestravaux de
la Commission du droit international, que la différencede longueursdes
côtes se faisant face- qui représenteraitle cas le plus courant et non
l'exception - constituerait une circonstance spéciale. Certes, les îles,
commelesterritoirescontinentaux, ont descôtes,quipeuvent êtresituées
enfaced'autrescôtes.Maiss'ilaétéadmis,lorsdestravauxpréparatoires,

que les îles pouvaient constituer une circonstance spéciale,il s'agissait
manifestement d'îles dont la situation ou les dimensions, ou d'autres
caractéristiques encore, pourraient êtreune circonstance spécialedans
une délimitation entre deux autres côtes; une île n'était pas conçue
comme étanten soi une circonstance spéciale exerçantun effet sur ses
propres projections côtières.Cettenotion est sibizarre qu'on n'entrouve
naturellement pas l'expression dans les intentions des rédacteurs de la
convention de 1958.
Quant aux affaires dont cette Cour a déjà eu àconnaître au sujet de la
délimitationdu plateau continental ou de zones de pêche, trois d'entre
ellessontparticulièrementpertinentes. Dans lesaffaires du Plateau conti-
nental de la mer du Nord,la Cour a établiune distinction entre les côtes
limitrophes et cellesqui se font face. Elle a tenu compte des longueurs et
des configurations des côtes d'Etats limitrophes. Quant aux Etats qui se
font face,voicicequ'elle a ditde l'issuedestravaux de la Commission du
droitinternational,reflétéedans l'articledela convention de Genèvede

1958:
«La plus grandepartie des difficultés éprouvéep sar la Commis-
sion du droit international concernaient comme icile cas de la ligne States. Lessdifficulty was felt overthat of the median lineboundary
between opposite States,although it too is an equidistance line. For
thisthere seemsto the Courtto begoodreason.Thecontinental shelf
area off, and dividing, opposite States, can be claimed by each of
them to be a natural prolongation of its territory. These prolonga-
tions meetand overlap, and canthereforeonlybe delimited bymeans
ofamedian line;and, ignoring the presence ofislets,rocks and minor
coastal projections, the disproportionally distorting effect of which
can be eliminated by other means, such a line must effect an equal
division ofthe particular area involved.Ifthere isathird Stateon one
ofthe coastsconcerned, thearea of mutual natural prolongation with
that of thesame or another opposite State willbe a separate and dis-
tinct one,tobe treated inthe same way.Thistype of case istherefore
differentfrom that oflaterallyadjacent States on the same coast with
no immediatelyopposite coast infront ofit,and does not giverise to

the samekind ofproblem - aconclusion which also finds somecon-
firmation in the difference of language to be observed in the two
paragraphs of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention ... as respects
recourse in the one case to median lines and in the other to lateral
equidistance lines, in the event of absence of agreement.

If on the other hand, contrary to the view expressedin the preced-
ing paragraph, it were correctto Saythat there is no essentialdiffer-
ence inthe process of delimiting the continental shelf areas between
opposite States and that of delimitations between adjacent States,
then the resultsought in principle to be the same orat leastcompar-
able. But in fact,whereas a median line divides equallybetween the
two opposite countries areas that can be regarded as being the
natural prolongation of the territory of each of them, a lateral equi-
distance line often leaves to one of the States concerned areas that

are a natural prolongation of the territory of the other." (I.C.J.
Reports1969,pp. 36-37,paras. 57and 58.)

In theGulfofMaine case, the Chamber adjusted a median line to take
account ofthe "actualsituation"respectingthelength ofcoastlines,which
insomemeasure wereopposite.Itsselection ofthe relevantcoastlines, the
largerpart ofwhichwere adjacentrather than opposite, wascontroversial,
but a calculation wasmade ofthe lengths ofthe coastlinessoselected and
the resultant relationship between them was mathematically applied to
adjust the position ofthe median linein that precisemeasure.The Gulfof
Maine case is distinguishablefrom the instant case on the grounds that,
first, the 1958Convention was not applicable to its determination of a
singlemaritimeboundary ;second, the adjustment inthe median line was
made in a situation in which the coasts were not only opposite but adja-
cent and in which a salient issue was abatement of claimed cut-off effects
which an unadjusted median linewould entail; and third,the adjustment latéralede délimitation entre Etats limitrophes.Les difficultésont
étémoindres pour cequiestdelalignemédianededélimitationentre
Etats dont lescôtessefont face,bien qu'ils'agisselaaussid'uneligne
d'équidistance.Il sembleàla Cour qu'ily a unebonne raison àcela.
En effetleszones de plateau continental setrouvant au large'Etats
dont lescôtessefontfaceetséparantcesEtatspeuventêtreréclamées
par chacun d'eux àtitre de prolongement naturel de son territoire.
Ces zones se rencontrent, se chevauchent et ne peuvent donc être
délimitéeqsueparune lignemédiane;sil'onnetient pas comptedes
îlots,desrochersoudes légerssaillantsdelacôte,dont onpeut élimi-

ner l'effetexagéréde déviationpar d'autres moyens, une telle ligne
doit diviser également l'espacedont il s'agit. Si un troisième Etat
borde l'une descôtes,lazoneoùleprolongementnaturel desonterri-
toire recoupe celui de'Etat déjà considérélui faisanftace, ou celui
d'un autre Etat lui faisant face, sera distincte et séparéemais devra
êtretraitédeelamême manière.Toutdifférentestlecas d'Etatslimi-
trophes setrouvant surlamême côteetn'ayant pasdevis-à-visimmé-
diat; les problèmes soulevésne sont pas du mêmeordre: cette
conclusion est confirméepar la rédaction différente des deuxpara-
graphes de l'article 6de la convention de Genèv..quant à I'utilisa-
tion,à défaut d'accord,de lignes médianesou de lignes latérales
d'équidistance selonle cas.
En revanche si, contrairement à l'opinion émise au para-
graphe précédenti,l était exactde dire qu'iln'y a pas de différence
essentielle pour la délimitationdu plateau continental entre le cas

d'Etats se faisant face et le cas d'Etats limitrophes, les résultats
devraient êtreen principe sinon identiques du moins comparables.
Or en fait, alors qu'une ligne médiane tracée entre deux paysse
faisant face diviseégalementdeszones qui peuvent être considérées
comme le prolongement naturel du territoire dechacun d'eux,il est
fréquent qu'une ligne latérale d'équidistance laisse'un des Etats
intéressésdeszonesquisontleprolongementnatureldu territoire de
l'autre.»(C.I.J. Recueil1969,p. 36-37,par. 57-58.)

Dans l'affaire du Golfe du Maine, la Chambre a ajusté une ligne
médianepour tenir compte de la ((situation réelletouchant la longueur
des côtes qui dans une certaine mesure se faisaient face. Son choix des
côtespertinentes, qui pour la plus grandepartie étaientadjacentesetnon

opposées,étaitcontestablemaisilaétéprocédé àun calculdelalongueur
des côtes ainsi choisies et le rapport entre celles-ci a été appliqué de
manière mathématiquepour ajuster la position de la lignemédianedans
cette mesure précise.L'affaire du Golfe du Maine se distingue de la
présente affaireen ce sens que, premièrement, la convention de 1958
n'étaitpas applicableà la déterminationpar la Chambre d'une frontière
maritime unique; deuxièmement,l'ajustementdela lignemédianeya été
effectuédans lecasde côtesnon seulementsefaisantfacemaisaussi adja-
centes et où se posait la question importante de la correction des effetsin the position of the median line was made in proportion to the actual
differenceinthe length of the coastswhich the Chamber calculated.

Whilefor these reasons, the GulfofMaine caseprovides no more than
qualified support forthe Court's reasoningand conclusionsin the instant
case,direct support isprovided bythe Court's Judgment inthe Continen-
talShelf(LibyanArabJamahariya/Malta) case. Not on a doctrinal level,
for, on the contrary, the Court in that case had this to Sayabout Libya's
contention thatthe lengthofcoastlinesafforded thebasis ofdelimitation :

"However,to usethe ratio ofcoastallengthsas ofitselfdetermina-
tiveofthe seawardreach and area ofcontinental shelfproper to each
Party,isto gofarbeyond the useofproportionality asatest ofequity,
and asa correctiveofthe unjustifiable difference oftreatment result-
ingfrom somemethod of drawingthe boundary line. If such a use of
proportionality were right, it is difficult indeed to see what room
would be leftfor anyother consideration; for it wouldbe at oncethe
principle of entitlement to continental shelf rights and also the
method of putting that principle into operation. Its weakness as a
basis of argument, however, is that the use of proportionality as a
method initsownright iswantingofsupportin the practiceofStates,
in the public expression of their views at (in particular) the Third

United Nations Conference onthe Lawofthe Sea,orinthejurispru-
dence.Itisnotpossibleforthe Courtto endorse aproposa1atonceso
far-reaching and so novel." (Z.C.J.Reports1985,p. 45,para. 58.)

Nevertheless, the Court proceeded, in a situation of purely opposite
coasts,inwhichthe fargreaterlength ofLibya'scoastin relation to that of
Malta was similarto the verygreat extent of Greenland's coastrelativeto

that of Jan Mayen, to shift the median line markedly northwards in
Libya'sfavourto take account ofadifferencein coastallengths. It cannot
be said,to take mathematical or proportionate account of a difference in
coastallengths,for,unlike the GulfofMaineJudgment, the application of
proportionality in the Libya/Malta case evidences no discernible, spe-
cific relationship between the different coastal lengths of Libya and
Malta. Indeed, in that case as in this, if the vast differences in coastal
lengthswereto havebeen givenproportionate effect,the relativelyminus-
culeislandswould haveno continental shelvesor fishingzones at all.The
obscure measure of adjustment of the median line between Libya and
Malta appears to have had the benefit of inspiration, if divine,then from
Roman gods, for the line selectedjust happened essentiallyto coincide
with the limit ofthe claimsof a third State,Italy,whose claims the Court
paradoxically earlier had declined to pass upon. In the current case, the
measureofadjustment seemstohavefollowed,ifnot fromthe inspiration
of Norse gods, then from considerations of symmetry,once the decision d'amputation queproduirait, disait-on,une lignemédianenonajustée;et,
troisièmement, l'ajustementde l'emplacement de la ligne médiane a été
effectuéproportionnellement à la différenceréelledelongueursdescôtes
calculéeparla Chambre.
Si,pour cesraisons,l'affaire du Golfedu Mainene conforteque d'une
manière mitigée lesmotivations et les conclusions de la Cour dans la
présenteaffaire,sonarrêd tans l'affairedu Plateaucontinental(Jamahiriya
arabe libyenne/Malte) leur apporte un appui direct. Non sur le plan
doctrinal car,au contraire,la Cour avaitdéclarépropos delathèsedela

Libyesuivantlaquelle la longueur descôtesfournissaitla base de la déli-
mitation :
«Mais retenir le rapport entre ces longueurs commedéterminant
enlui-mêmelaprojectionenmeretlasuperficiedu plateau continen-
tal qui relèvede chaque Partie, c'estallerbien au-delà d'un recours
à la proportionnalité pour vérifier l'équitédu résultat et corriger

une différencede traitement injustifiée imputable à une certaine
méthode.Sila proportionnalité pouvait êtreappliquée ainso i,n voit
mal quel rôle toute autre considération pourrait encorejouer; en
effetlaproportionnalité seraitalorsàlafoisleprincipe du titre surle
plateau continental et la méthode permettantde mettre ce principe
enŒuvre.Entout étatdecauselafaiblessedel'argumentestquel'uti-
lisation de la proportionnalité comme véritable méthodene trouve
aucun appui dans la pratique des Etats ou leurs prises de position
publiques,enparticulier àlatroisièmeconférencedesNationsUnies
surledroit delamer,non plus quedanslajurisprudence. LaCour ne
saurait retenir une proposition à la fois si neuve et si radicale.))
(C.Z.J.Recueil1985,p. 45-46,par. 58.)

Néanmoins, dans le cas de deux côtes se faisant purement face, où
l'extrême disparitéde longueurs de la côte libyenne et de celle de Malte
étaitsimilaireàcellequiexisteentre leslongueursdelacôtedu Groenland
et de celle de Jan Mayen, la Cour a nettement déplacé laligne médiane
vers le nord en faveur de la Libye pour tenir compte de la différencede
longueurs des côtes. On ne peut pas dire qu'elle ait tenu compte de
manièremathématiqueouproportionnelledela différencedeslongueurs

des côtes car,à la différencede l'arrêt rendudans l'affaire du Golfedu
Maine,l'application de la proportionnalité dans l'affaireLibye/Malte ne
présenteaucun rapport perceptible ou spécifique avec la différencede
longueursdescôtes dela Libyeetde Malte.Avrai dire,dans cecascomme
dans laprésenteaffaire,s'ilavaitétédonnéuneffetproportionnel auxtrès
considérables différencesde longueurs des côtes, les îles relativement
minusculesn'auraient pas eu de plateau continental ou dezone de pêche
du tout. Le calcul peu transparent de l'ajustement de la ligne médiane
entrela LibyeetMaltesembleavoirbénéficiéd'une inspiration,qus i,ielle
était divine,étaitcelle des dieux romains, car la ligne choisiese trouvait
précisément coïncider avecla limite des revendications d'un troisième
Etat, l'Italie, sur lesquelles auparavant la Cour avait paradoxalementwas made to furnish "equitable access" to the southern sector in which
capelin may be fished. In Selden's seventeenth-centurydays, equity was
described as the Chancellor's conscience,variable indeed; it was as ifthe
standard of measurementcalled a foot were to be the length ofthe Chan-
cellor's foot, "an uncertain measure". (Pollock, ed., Table Talk of John
Selden, 1927, p. 43.) Nowadays, equity is to be impressionistically
measured by the length of opposite coastlines.

III. SHOULD MAXIMALIC STLAIMS BEREWARDED?

Ifthe casebetween Denmark and Nonvay istobe consideredin a fash-
ion which places the legal entitlements of each Party on an equal plane,
then both Greenland and Jan Mayen should be viewed as entitled prima

facie to a 200-mile zone. These entitlements, however, being less than
400miles apart, overlap. Thus itiswithinthislargemaritime area of over-
lapping potential entitlements that the line of delimitation had to be
drawn. But not in Denmark's view. For itspart,Denmark claimed its full
200-mile entitlement, proposing to leave Nonvay none of its, whereas
Nonvay, for its part, took a more modest approach, claiming not the full
extent of its200-mileentitlementbut onlythose areas which lieto the east
of a median line drawn between the opposite coasts of Jan Mayen and
Greenland. That isto Say,Denmark's claim isprecisely the same claim as
could be made if Jan Mayen Island did not exist or, if existing, were to
be treated not as an island but as a rock "which cannot sustain human
habitation or economic life" ofits own and whichaccordinglyshall have
"no exclusive economiczone or continental shelf" (Art. 121 ofthe 1982
United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea).The singular charac-
teristics ofJan Mayen Island mayleaveroom for argument about whether
itmeetsthe standards ofArticle 121,but Denmark did notmake that argu-
ment; it accepted that Jan Mayen Island isnot a rock but an island.

Theline of delimitationindicated by the Court givesthe impression of
rewarding Denmark's maximalistclaimand penalizing Nonvay's modera-
tion. Equitable or equal access isgivento the Partiesin the southerly area
that matters, and the remainder ofthe line isindicated to conjoin withthe
line so to be drawn, apparentlyal1of this to fa11within the area of Nor-
way'sclaim. Nonvay proposed a median line,whichfellroughly midway
between the coasts of Greenland andJan Mayen, but which nevertheless
would have accorded Greenland significantlymore continental shelf and
fishingzone than Jan Mayen, for the reason that Greenland's far longerrefusédeseprononcer. Danslaprésenteaffaire, la mesure del'ajustement
semblerépondre, sicen'estpas à l'inspiration desdivinitésnorvégiennes,
à des considérations de symétrie,une fois la décision prise d'assurer
un «accès équitable » au secteur méridional où la pêcheau capelan est
possible. Au XVIIe siècle, du temps de Selden, l'équitése mesurait,
disait-on,à l'aune du pied du chancelier, ((mesure incertaine » (Pollock
(dir. publ.), Table Talkof Johnelden, 1927,p. 43). De nos jours, elle se

mesure de manière impressionniste à l'aune de la longueur des côtes se
faisantface.

III. LESREVENDICATIONS MAXIMALISTESDOIVENT-ELLES ÊTRE
RÉCOMPENSÉES ?

Si l'affaire entre le Danemark et la Norvège doit êtreenvisagéeen
plaçant sur le mêmeplan lestitresjuridiques de chaque Partie, le Groen-
land et Jan Mayen devraient alors être considérés comme ayant l'unet

l'autre droitprimafacieàunezone de 200milles.Cestitres,cependant, se
chevauchent parce que la distance entre le Groenland et Jan Mayen est
inférieureà 400 milles. C'est doncà l'intérieurde cette vaste zone mari-
time de chevauchementdestitrespotentiels que doitêtretracée la ligne de
délimitation.Mais tel n'étaitpas l'avis du Danemark. Celui-ci a reven-
diqué son droit entier à une zone de 200 milles en proposant de n'en
rien laisserà la Norvège, alors que la Norvège, pour sa part, a adopté
une attitude plus modeste, en ne revendiquant pas la totalité de son
droit à une zone de 200 milles mais seulement les zones situées à l'est
d'une ligne médiane tracée entreles côtes se faisant face de Jan Mayen
et du Groenland. Cela signifie que la revendication du Danemark

est exactement la mêmeque celle qu'il aurait pu formuler si l'île de
Jan Mayen n'avait pas existéou si elle devait malgré tout être traitée
non comme une île mais comme un rocher «qui ne se prêtepas àl'habi-
tation humaine ou àune vie économique»propre et qui par conséquent
n'a «pas de zone économique exclusive ni de plateau continental))
(article 121de la convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, de
1982).Les caractéristiques singulièresde Jan Mayen peuvent prêter à
discussion quant à leur conformité au critère de l'article 121, mais le
Danemark n'apas avancécetargument; il a admis que Jan Mayen n'était
pas un rocher mais une île.
La ligne de délimitation indiquéepar la Cour donne l'impression de

récompenser la revendication maximaliste du Danemark et de pénaliser
la modérationde la Norvège.Un accèséquitableou égal estaccordé aux
Parties dans lesecteurméridional, qui estceluiquicompte, etlereste dela
ligne est indiqué commerejoignant la ligne ainsitracée, le tout tombant
apparemment dans la zone revendiquée par la Norvège. La Norvège a
proposéune lignemédiane, situéeapproximativement à mi-chemin entre
lescôtes du Groenland et deJan Mayen,qui aurait cependant accordéau
Groenland une zone de plateau continental et une zone de pêche nette-coast generates more area seawards than does Jan Mayen's short coast.
Butthat wasnot seenassufficientfor Denmark's maximalistclaimorthe
Court's apportionment, which is markedly more generous to Denmark
than is the median line. To arrive at this expanded apportionment, the
Court has found it right to award Greenland a bonus forthe length of its
coast or to penalize Jan Mayen for the shortness of its. The result is to
attribute almost three-quarters of the total area of overlapping potential
entitlements to Denmark and a bit more than one-quarter to Norway.
Whythisshould beseenasequitableisnotclearbutwhat isclearisthatthe
Court's Judgment may tend to encourage immoderate and discourage
moderate claimsin future. Yet it may be said in defence of the approach

of Denmark, if not of the Court, that, however extreme Denmark's
claim appears in legal terms, in political terms it is perfectly under-
standable. Once Norway had extended to Iceland a 200-mile zone in
relation to Jan Mayen, naturally Denmark sought no less on behalf of
Greenland.

Asnoted, in this case Article6 of the 1958Convention has mandatory
force,forthe Partiesand fortheCourt. Butthe 1958Conventionconcerns

the continental shelf; it does not govern the fishing zone. It is agreed by
the Parties and the Court alikethat customaryinternational law governs
delimitation ofthe fishingzone. It isalsoagreedthat, inthis caseofoppo-
site coasts, it would make no practical sense for the delimitation of the
fishing zone to produce a line which differs from that to be drawn for
delimitation ofthe continental shelf.

Thesavinggraceforthe Court's Judgmentinthesecircumstancesisthat
the customary law governing delimitation of the fishing zone is elastic
indeed, havingbeen shaped by the Court's judicial and by arbitral deci-
sions and the porous terms of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea. Under that Convention, which is not in force, an equi-
table solution isto be achieved,forthe continental shelfand the exclusive
economic zone, on the basis of international law as referred to in Ar-
ticle 38 ofthe Statute of the Court. Nothing is said in these Convention
provisions of equidistance, or special circumstances, or relevantircum-

stances. Permeable as the Convention's provisions are, they exclude an
equitable solution based not on international law but considerations ex
aequo etbono.Theterms of Article 38of the Statute distinguishbetween
the function of judicial decision in accordance with international lawmentplus vastes qu'à Jan Mayen vu quela côte beaucoup plus longue du
Groenland génèrevers le large une superficieplus grandeque la côte de
longueur réduite deJan Mayen. Maiscela n'apas été jugésuffisant pour
la revendication maximaliste du Danemark ou pour la répartition effec-
tuéepar la Cour, qui estnettementplusgénéreusepour le Danemark que
ne l'estla lignemédiane.Pourparvenir à cetterépartition plusgénéreuse,
la Cour a jugébon d'accorder au Groenland une prime au titre de la
longueur de sacôteou depénaliserJan Mayen pour lalongueurréduitede
lasienne. Lerésultatestl'attribution au Danemark deprèsdestroisquarts
du total de lazone de chevauchementdestitrespotentielsetd'un peuplus

d'un quart à la Norvège.On voit mal commentcettesolution devraitêtre
considérée commeéquitable,mais, ce qui est clair, c'estque l'arrêtde la
Cour pourrait dans l'avenir encourager les revendications immodérées
et découragerles revendications modérées. On peut dire cependant à la
défensede l'approche adoptéepar le Danemark,sinon par la Cour, que si
extrêmequepuisseparaître la revendication du Danemark d'un point de
vue juridique, elle est parfaitement compréhensible d'un point de vue
politique. Après que la Norvège a accordé à l'Islande une zone de
200milles face àJan Mayen, le Danemark n'anaturellement pas revendi-
quémoins pour le Groenland.

Commeje l'aiindiqué,l'article 6de la convention de 1958a, dans cette
affaire,forceobligatoire pour les Parties etpour la Cour. Mais la conven-
tion de 1958concerne le plateau continental; elle ne régitpas la zone de
pêche.LesParties demêmeque la Cour sontd'accord que ledroitinterna-
tional coutumier régitladélimitationdeszones depêche.Ellessont égale-
ment d'accord que, dans ce cas de côtes se faisant face, il serait dénué de
sens sur leplan pratique que la délimitationde lazone depêche aboutisse
àune lignedifférentede celle qui doit êtretracéepour la délimitationdu
plateau continental.
Ce qui sauve l'arrêtde la Cour dans ces circonstances est l'élasticité
incontestable du droit coutumier régissantla délimitation de la zone de

pêche,telqu'ilaétéfaçonné par lajurisprudence delaCour etd'instances
arbitrales et la porosité des dispositions de la convention des Nations
Unies sur le droit de la mer. Selon cette convention, qui n'est pas en
vigueur, ilfaut aboutir une solutionéquitable,pour leplateau continen-
tal et lazoneéconomiqueexclusive,conformémentau droitinternational
tel qu'ilestvisél'article38du Statut de laCour. Lesdispositions de cette
convention sont muettes sur l'équidistance,ou les circonstances perti-
nentes.Pourperméablesque soient lesdispositions de laconvention, elles
excluent une solutionéquitablefondéenon surle droitinternational mais
sur des considérationsex aequoet bono.L'article38 du Statut établitune
distinctionentrelafonction de décisionjudiciaire conformémentaudroitwhich applies the sources ofthat law,and the power ofthe Courtto decide
a case exaequoetbon0if the parties so agree.
Nevertheless, theauthority to seekan equitablesolution bythe applica-
tion ofalawwhose principlesremain largelyundefined affords the Court
an exceptional measure of judicial discretion. In this Judgment, the
Court's attempted definition of that law ultimately does little more than
require the investigation of "relevant circumstances" which have to be
taken into account if an equitable result isto be achieved.Invoking "rele-
vant circumstances" is in accord with earlier Judgments of the Court,

beginning with the NorthSea ContinentalShelf cases, and is consistent
with the tenor of the debate at the Third United Nations Conference on
the Law of the Sea. If the Court draws from the cornucopia of judicial
discretionafforded by itsappreciation ofwhatcircumstances are relevant
the decision thatthe fishingzoneshallbeequally apportionedin this case,
itisdifficultto maintain thatthat exercise of discretion ismore objection-
able than indication of an alternativeline.

If that is so, the questionhen arises, should the continental shelf line
imported bythe 1958Convention - the median line - govern, or should
the fishingzonelineindicated by the Court's sense of equitygovern?

There is no ready answerto this conundrum. It might on the onehand
be maintained thatthe 1958Convention affords anterior and harder law,
unmodified by a subsequenttreatyinforce. It should accordingly govern,
the more so because there are a number of continental shelf agreements
and awards which are in force which are not treated as having been
reworked by the subsequent advent of the concept of the exclusive
economic zone or variants thereof or by the lenient terms of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. On the other hand, it
might be maintained that, even ifthat be generallyso, the real interests at
stake in this case involve the apportionment of fishing rights and that,
therefore, the Court's appreciation offishingzoneequitiesshouldgovern
any apportionment of the continental shelf.

The Court avoids a choice between these approaches by maintaining
that itapplies "a general nom based on equitableprinciples" amalgamat-
ing the two in a formula it describes as "the equidistance-special circum-
stances rule". Whether, in view of the reasoningemployedinthis case by
the Court, it has effectively employed that rule is debatable. But what is
clear isthat the Court leavens itsJudgment with a largeinfusion of equi-
table ferment,importing asit does a search for "relevant circumstances",
and so concocts a conclusion whi'chdoes not lend itself to dissectionor,
forthat matter, dissent. Based on large and loose approaches such as its
gross impression of the effects of differinglengths of coasts, its desire to
afford equitable access to fishing resources, and the attractions of the DÉLIMITATIONMARITIME (OP. IND.SCHWEBEL) 128

international qui applique lessourcesdecedroitetlafacultépour laCour
de statuerexaequoet bonosilesparties sont d'accord.
Néanmoins, lepouvoirde rechercher une solution équitablepar appli-
cation d'un droitdont lesprincipes demeurent engrandepartie indéfinis
offre àla Cour une exceptionnellefacultédiscrétionnairedans l'exercice
de sa fonction judiciaire. Dans cet arrêt, la définition qu'aessayéde
donner la Cour de cedroit seramènepresque,en définitive, à la nécessité
d'examiner les «circonstances pertinentes » qui doivent être prisesen

compte afin de parvenir à un résultat équitable. L'invocation des
«circonstancespertinentes »estenaccordavecdesarrêtsprécédend tsela
Cour, àcommencer par les affaires du Plateaucontinentalde la mer du
Nord,etelleestconforme àlateneur desdébatsdelatroisièmeconférence
desNations Uniessurledroitde lamer.SilaCoura puisédans letrésorde
pouvoir discrétionnairequelui offre son appréciationde ce que sont les
circonstances pertinentes la décision suivant laquelle,dans la présente
affaire,lazone depêchedevraêtrepartagé parparts égales,il estdifficile
desoutenir quecetexercicedesafacultédiscrétionnaire estpluscontesta-
ble que l'indication d'une autreligne.
S'ilenestainsi,la questionsepose desavoirsic'estlalignededélimita-

tion du plateau continentaldéterminée par la conventionde 1958 - c'est-
à-dire la lignemédiane - ou la lignede délimitationde la zone de pêche
déterminée par le sens de l'équide la Cour qui doit prévaloir.
La solution de cetteénigmen'estpas facile.D'uncôté,on peut dire que
la convention de 1958représenteun droit plus ancien et plus affermiqui
n'aétémodifié par aucuneconventionultérieureenvigueur.C'estellequi
devrait donc l'emporter, d'autant plus qu'il existe un certain nombre
d'accords etde sentencesarbitralesconcernant leplateau continental qui
sont en vigueur et ne sont pas considérésavoirété modifié pasr l'appari-
tion ultérieuredu concept de zone économiqueexclusiveou de variantes
de celui-ci, ou par les dispositions indulgentes de la convention des

Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer. Mais on peut aussi,d'un autre côté,
fairevaloirque, même sitel estgénéralemenltecas,lesintérêtsréellement
encausedans laprésenteaffaireconcernentlepartage desdroits depêche
et que, par conséquent,lepartage du plateau continental devrait êtrerégi
par l'appréciationdelapart delaCour desconsidérationséquitablesrela-
tivesà la zone de pêche.
La Cour évitede choisirentre cesdeux approches en affirmant qu'elle
applique «une norme générale fondés eur des principes équitables» en
amalgamant lesdeux dans une formulequ'elle appelle «la règleéquidis-
tance-circonstancesspéciales». Au vu du raisonnement suivi dans cette
affaire par la Cour, on peut se demander si elle a effectivementemployé

cette règle.l est cependant clair qu'ellerelève son arrêtar une impor-
tante adjonction de ferment d'équité, sous la formede la recherche de
«circonstances pertinentes », et concocte de la sorteune conclusion qui
neprêtepas àdissectionni,à vraidire,àcontestation.Apartir de considé-
rations à la fois vastes et floues telles que son impression générale des
effetsdela différencede longueursdescôtes,sondésird'assurer unaccèssymmetrical conjoinder of indicated lines of delimitation, the Court
comesup withalinewhich,giventhe criteria employed,maybeasreason-
ableasanother. Wherethis leavesthe lawofmaritimedelimitation,to the

extentthat such a law subsists,isperplexing.

(Signe d)ephen M. SCHWEBEL.équitableauxressourceshalieutiques,etlesséductionsd'une coïncidence
symétriquedes lignes de délimitation indiquées,la Cour a aboutiàune
ligne qui, étantdonnéles critères employés,est peut-être aussi raison-
nable qu'une autre.Ce qu'ilen estmaintenant du droit de la délimitation
maritime, pour autant qu'il existe encore, est une question qui laisse
perplexe.

(Signé)Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Schwebel

Links