Separate opinion of Judge Ni

Document Number
070-19860627-JUD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
070-19860627-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE NI

1have voted in favour of al1the subparagraphs of the dispositifexcept
one. But it occurs to me that some parts of the dispositifare so worded and
formulated that, quite inevitably, a simple affirmative or negative vote
cannot adequately reflect the trend of my thoughts on the questions under
consideration. 1 therefore feel obliged to submit the present separate
opinion for the purpose of stating the position 1 take.
My primary concern is with respect to the "multilateral treaty reserva-
tion", sometimes referred to as the "Vandenberg Amendment". This
question might at first sight be deemed no longer important inasmuch as
the jurisdictional phase could be considered already over and the Court is
in any event competent to deal with the case on the basis of customary
international law as wellas the 1956Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and
Navigation between Nicaragua and the United States.

But a closer examination of the pleadings in the previous phase and the
Judgment of 26November 1984willreveal the fact that there had been left
behind at that time some "unfinished business" which must be considered
relegated to the present phase of the proceedings.
It is to be recalled that the Court wasthen confronted with the United

States contention that in accordance with proviso (c)to its declaration
accepting compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice,
such acceptance shall not extend to
"disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) al1parties to
the treaty affected by the decision are also parties to the case before
the Court, or (2) the United States of America specially agrees to
jurisdiction".

The multilateral treaties relied on by the Application of Nicaragua are
the Charter of the United Nations, the Charter of the Organization of
American States, the 1933MontevideoConvention on Rights and Duties
of States and the 1928 Havana Convention concerning the Duties and
Rights of States in the Event of Civil Strife.The threshold question during
thejurisdictional phase of the proceedings was whether the above multi-
lateral treaty reservation constituted a bar to Nicaragua's Application. To
support itscontention challenging thejurisdiction of the Court, the United
States named three Central American States, Le., El Salvador, Honduras
and Costa Rica, as the States parties to the four multilateral treaties202 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITlES (SEP.OP. NI)

mentioned abovewhichwould be affect eydtheadjudication of theclaims
submitted to the Court.

Whether or not these Central American States would be affect bed the
decision of the Court was a matter difficult to decide at the time of the
preliminary proceedings when the merits of the case were not being con-
sidered. Before the revision of the Rules of Court in 1972,decision on a

preliminary objection, such as the present one onjurisdiction, could have
beenjoined to thedecision on themerits of thecase.Thiscannot bedone in
thepresent instance. The Court thereforestated in paragraph 75of its 1984
Judgment that : "As for the Court, it is only when the general lines of the
judgment to be given become clear that the States 'affected' could be
identified." The Court concluded thereupon in paragraph 76 that :
"the Court has no choice but to avail itself of Article 79,paragraph 7,
of the present Rulesof Court,and declare that the objection based on

the multilateral treaty reservation of the United StatesDeclaration of
Acceptance does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an
exclusivelypreliminary character, and that consequently it does not
constitute an obstacle for the Court to entertain the proceedings
instituted byNicaragua under theApplication of 9April 1984"(I.C.J.
Reports 1984, pp. 425-426).
In retrospect, the Court could, in accordance with Article 79, para-
graph 7,of the Rules of Court, have ruled on this preliminary objection in

one of the three waysprovided therein. It could have upheld the objection
to itsjurisdiction on the ground that, by the wording of the multilateral
treaty reservation, Le., proviso(c)of the United States declaration, the
merepossibility of anyof theother Central American Statesbeing affected
by the decision, in one way or the other, was sufficient to defeat Nicara-
gua's claim of jurisdiction, in so far as allegations of breaches of treaty
obligations were concerned. Alternatively, the Court could have rejected
the preliminary objection on the ground that any decision to be given by
the Court would not affect any of the Central American States and,
moreover, according to Article 59of the Statute, such decision would have
no binding force except between the parties and in respect of that parti-
cular case, and therefore no third party would be affected thereby. But the
Court took the cautious step of postponing a definitive decision on the
question and preferred to leave it in abeyance forlater consideration. Of
course the circumstances of the case provided the Court with the possi-
bility of making such a choice, because Nicaragua's claimsdid not rely
solelyon the multilateral treaties but also on customary international law

and thebilateral Treaty of 1956,sothat the Court was not left to the hasty
choiceof either throwing out the case at its veryinception or accepting the
jurisdiction over the treaty-based claims of Nicaragua not without a tinge
of precipitation or prejudging. Now the casehas reached thestageof considering the merits. Should the
Court re-examine the question of multilateral treaty reservation ?1 would
prefer to say that the Court should continue to examine the question in
order toarrive at amore definitive decisionwith respect tojurisdiction and
also, inconsequence of goinginto themerits of the case,with respect to the
question of the applicable law. The United States raised the multilateral
treaty reservation as a plea in bar to the Application of Nicaragua. This
plea, once admitted, will(1) excludethe Court from exercisingjurisdiction
in so far as the claims made by Nicaragua are based on the multilateral
treaties in question ; and (2) preclude, if jurisdiction attaches on other
grounds so that the case is still in the Court for adjudication on the merits,
the application of rules of law provided in or derived from such multila-
teral treaties.
The first point above referred to isquite obvious. The second isrelevant
only in cases, of which the present case is one, where the Court remains
seisedwithjurisdiction to entertain the proceedings on grounds other than
the multilateral treaty or treaties in question. Here a problem of some

novelty has taken shape : whether, in a case such asthepresent one, which
is alleged to have arisen under, or is based upon, a multilateral treaty or
treaties- this being the very ground for invoking the multilateral treaty
reservation -, the Respondent in the case can in the meantime turn round
and Saythat the same multilateral treaty or treaties, the very object of the
reservation, should be the applicable law for the solution of the case in
dispute. The answer to this isnot entirely simpleand Iwillreturn toit later
in the opinion.
By the 1984Judgment, jurisdiction over Nicaragua's claims based on
customary international law and the bilateral Treaty of 1956 had been
affirmed and the case was ready to enter into the merits phase. However,
the question of the applicability of the multilateral treaty reservation
remained in abeyance, because it was not then sufficiently clear whether
third Statesparties to the multilateraltreaties inquestion wouldbe affected
by the Judgment to be given. A treatment of this question for its final
disposa1at thisphase of the proceedings isindispensablefor the following
reasons :

Firstly, from the procedural point of view, the question had not been,
and could not have been, givenfull treatment in the former proceedings. A
conclusion was reached with respect tojurisdiction on grounds other than
the multilateral treaties in question. Both the language and the reasoning
of the 1984Judgment do not indicate that an ultimate solution had been
attempted.
Secondly,the United States, asthedeclarant of the instrument accepting
jurisdiction of the Court on specific questions, has the right to expect a
decision on the question which, though properly belonging to thephase on
preliminary objection, can only be appropriately determined when the
merits are examined in the present proceedings.
Thirdly, despite its absence from the current proceedings, the United 204 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. NI)

States challenge to the jurisdiction of the Court on the ground of the
multilateral treaty reservation remains an objection which cannot be
ignored or overridden by the acceptance ofjurisdiction on grounds other
than the multilateral treaties in question. Failure to make a definitive
pronouncement on the objection raised by the absent Party will not be in
consonance withArticle 53,paragraph 2,which makes specificmention of
jurisdiction.

Finally, any determination on the multilateral treaty reservation is inti-
mately linked to thequestion of what rules of lawareto be applied. Should
the Court decide that the multilateral treaty reservation contained in the
United States declaration constitutes a valid objection to the Court's
jurisdiction, then only rules of customary international law and the pro-
visions of the bilateral Treaty of 1956 will be applicable to determine
Nicaragua's allegations of breaches of obligations by the United States.
The multilateral treaty reservation, once admitted, carries with it not only
exclusion of the Court's jurisdiction but also, as a corollary thereof, the
non-applicability of the rules of lawwhich are provided in or derived from
the multilateral treaties in question,Le., what can be called multilateral
treaty law.If,on thecontrary, the Court should decide that the multilateral
treaty reservation in the United States declaration does not constitute a
valid objection to the Court's jurisdiction. the application of multilateral
treaty law will be of course unquestioned and the plea in bar against the
Court's jurisdiction is thereby disposed of with finality.

In considering the merits of the case, the Court would be at liberty to
examine more fully the relevant facts in order to determine with more
precision whether any thrd State or States might be affectedby the Judg-
ment to be given. According to the United States,

"El Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica have each sought outside
assistance, principally from the United States, in their self-defense
against Nicaragua's aggression ...the United Stateshas responded to
these requests." (United States Counter-Memorial, para. 202.)

While admitting provision of economic and military assistance to El Sal-
vador, the United Statescontended that itwasexercisingthe inherent right
of individual and collective self-defence under Article 51 of the United
Nations Charter. El Salvador for its part has filed, pursuant to Article 62,
paragraph 1,of the Court's Statute, a Declaration of Intervention which
the Court had found to be premature (I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 215-
217).
Under the given circumstances, should the Court find that the facts of
the case do not justify the United States claim of collective self-defence,
then El Salvador's claimof individual self-defencewould also be in ques-
tion. On theotherhand, if the Court shouldfind the United States claimof
collective self-defence to be well founded, it would also reflect on the
justification of ElSalvador's claimof its rightof individual self-defence.Inone way or the other, El Salvador, to single it outas an example of a third
State involved without mentioning any other, cannot be held to be un-
affected, though not bound by the Judgment to be given. It is difficult to
imagine that the Court, in making suchdetermination, can eitherjustify or
deny the United Statescontention without reference to the position of El
Salvadoreither in express language or by implication. This willgiverise to
a kind of situation that, whilethe United States is bound by theJudgment
to be given, a third State thus linked thereto remains technically beyond
the reach of the resjudicata. Thus it might be said that, under normal
circumstances, the multilateral treaty reservation raised by the United
States, in so far asjurisdiction based on multilateral treaties is concerned,
merits consideration. However, the matter does not end there.
As has been said before, admission of a reservation like the present one

precludes, ifjurisdiction still attaches on othergrounds, the application of
multilateral treaty law, and thus only customary international law and
rules of law provided in or derived from the bilateral Treaty of 1956will
apply to determine the merits of the claims made by Nicaragua in the
Court against the United States. However, it is to be noticed that the
United States, while relying on the multilateral treaty reservation to chal-
lenge the exerciseofjurisdiction by the Court, has at the same time, both
within and outside the proceedings in the Court, persistently invoked the
United Nations Charter, the main source of multilateral treaty law ap-
plicable to the case before the Court, in order tojustify its actions vis-à-vis
Nicaragua.
In an address before the American Society of International Law on 12
April 1984,three days after the filingof the Nicaraguan Application in this
Court, the United StatesPermanent Representative to the United Nations
spoke for the first timeof the right of individual and collectiveself-defence
under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. It was stated that :

"This prohibition on the useof forcewasneverintended to stand on
its own, but, as everyone here knows, 1 am certain, was to be seen in
the context of the entire Charter. In particular, asstated in Article 51,
it was not intended to 'impair the inherent right of individual or
collectiveself-defense if an armed attack occurs against a member of
the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures
necessary to maintain international peace and security'." (Nicara-
guan Memorial, Ann. C, Attachment 11-4.)

It is also to be recalled that, after the Judgment of 26 November 1984on
jurisdiction and the admissibility of Nicaragua's Application was given,
the United Statesrepeated, initsstatement of 18January 1985,theclaimof
the right of collective self-defence under the United Nations Charter
(International Legal Materials, 1985,No. 1,p. 246).

Such references to the right of individual and collective self-defenceunder Article 51of the United Nations Charter were made by counsel for
the United Statesin theoral proceedings on interim measuresof protection
in April 1984as well as in the phase on jurisdiction and admissibility in

October of the sameyear(hearings of 27April 1984and 16October 1984).
For instance, counsel for the United States stated to the Court that :
"Nicaragua's Application and request improperly cal1 upon this
Court in the circumstances of this case to make judgments and to
impose measures potentially impairing the inherent right of States to
individual and collective self-defence under Article 51of the United

Nations Charter" (hearing of 27 April 1984,morning).
At another instance, counsel for the United Statesstated with such gravity
as to say :

"the right to engage inindividual or collectiveself-defencerecognized
by Article 51of the Charter is absolute, may not be impaired by this
Courtor anyother organization of theUnited Nations.. ." (hearingof
16October 1984,morning).

In thewritten proceedings inthephase onjurisdiction and admissibility,
the Counter-Memorial submitted by the United States on 17August 1984
contained numerous passages in explanation of its position. It stated
categorically that :

"Under Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, El Sal-
vador has an inherent right of self-defenseagainst such armedattacks
and a right to request that the United States provide itwith assistance
in resisting such attacks. The United States presently does provide
economic and military assistance to El Salvador . . .(United States
Counter-Memorial. para. 290.)

Under the caption "The Various Multilateral Treaties on whichNicaragua
Bases its Claims Are the Applicable Law Among Nicaragua, the United
States, and the Other Central American States", the United States claimed
that :

"Nicaragua, the United States, and the other four Central Ameri-
can States are al1parties to each of the four multilateral treaties on
which Nicaragua bases its claims, most notably the Charters of the
United Nations and theOrganization of American States. Regardless
of the status of the Charter of the United Nations as customary and
general international law, those treaties constitute the /ex interpartes,
and Nicaragua's claims cannot be adjudicated by referring to some
other, unagreed sources of law." (United States Counter-Memorial,
para. 320.)

The Counter-Memorial went on at great length to argue that the pro-
visions of the United Nations Charter relevant to the present case "sub-207 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTlVITIES (SEP.OP. NI)

sume" and "supervene" related principles of customary international law
(paras. 313-319). It stressed in one of its concluding paragraphs that

"It is well-settled that the right of individual or collective self-
defense is an inherent right of States. The special and extraordinary
nature of the right of individual or collectiveself-deferiseisexplicitly
recognized in the prescription of Article 51 that 'iiothing in the
present Charter shall impair' that right." (Para. 516.)

Various arguments were advanced by the United States to equate the
Charter provisions with customary international law relevant to the pre-
sent case(United StatesCounter-Memorial. paras. 313-322).for the purpose
of showing that, since the multilateral treaty reservation. once admitted.
bars application of treaty law. it will likewise bar the application of cus-
tomary international law because the latter has been subsumed or super-
vened by the former.

However. it is certain that when principles of customary international
law are incorporated into a multilateral treaty like the United Nations
Charter. these principles of customary international law do not thereby
become extinct. The same principles continueto be operative and binding
on States. sometimes alongside or in conjunction with treaty law. in their
international relations with one another. Article 38. paragraph 1, of the
Statute enumerates, as applicable by the Court, the various sources of
international law which. in the course of application, usually support.
rather than preclude, each other. But it would be inconceivable that
application of one should exclude that of any other.
The Judgrnent of 26 November 1984 clearly stated :

"The Court cannot dismiss the claims of Nicaragua under princi-
ples of customary and general international law, simply because such
principles have been enshrined in the texts of the conventions relied
upon by Nicaragua. The fact that these above-mentioned principles,
recognized as such, have been codified or embodied in rnultilateral
conventions does not mean that they cease to exist and to apply as

principles of customary law, evenas regards countries that are parties
to such conventions." (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 424. para. 73.)

What isleft of theabove-mentioned arguments is that the United States
is unreservedly committed to the position of accepting the multilateral

treaties, theUnitedNationsCharter in particular, as theapplicable lawfor
the settlement of the present dispute. This isclearly in contradiction to the
stand ittook in respect of themultilateral treaty reservation inchallenging
the exercise of jurisdiction over the dispute by the Court.
What is more. not only did the United States hold firm on the appli-
cation ofmultilateral treaty law,but Nicaragua also,for itspart, responded
tothe United States contention based on Article 51of the United Nations
Charter by arguing that thefactual allegations made against Nicaragua bythe United States fellshort of an "armed attack" within the meaning of the
aforesaid Article and that the United States had not fulfilled the condition
of immediately reporting to the Security Council as required by that
Article. Counsel for Nicaragua stated, for instance, the following :

"Article 51recognizes'theinherent right of individual or collective
self-defence ifan armed attackoccursagainst amember of the United
Nations'. The critical words are 'if an armed attack occurs'. They
delimit the scope of the exception." (Hearing of 25 April 1984,
morning).

"Article 51provides that measures taken by members in the exer-
cise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the
Security Council. Neither the United Statesnor El Salvadorhas ever
made such a report to the Security Council." (Ibid)

It can be plainly seen that the two Parties have in fact alreadyjoined
issue not merelyon the applicabilify,but also on the substance,of a specific
provision in the multilateral treaty. They hold different views which,
however, stem from the same source, Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter. It is left to the Court to decide, on the basis of such multilateral
treaty, whether the actions of the United States can bejustified. Although
such exchanges did not occur in the present phase of the proceedings, the
like-minded logic of the Parties to rely on multilateral treaty law as the
applicable law for the solution of the case in dispute should not be nega-
tived by the mere fact that such exchanges were made at an earlier stage.
No procedural formalism will in al1 seriousness disregard the Parties'
shared positive attitude towards theapplication of the rulesof lawflowing
from instruments ofglobalor regional recognition. The United States itself
has quoted authorities to show that it is only when there are no provisions
of a treaty applicable to a situation that international customary law is,

next in hierarchical order, properly resorted to and that these conclusions
are virtually axiomatic (United States Counter-Memorial, para. 321).If it
can be taken that Members of the United Nations may "opt out" of the
Organization's Charter by way of invoking a multilateral treaty reserva-
tion, why cannot they "opt in" by joining issue on the merits of such
multilateral treaty ?

It isto bepointed out that claims based on a treaty do not onlyowetheir
creation and existence to the treaty. They are also to be regulated by the
treaty in question. It can hardly be imagined that claims are based on a
treaty but not regulated by it. It is owing to the possibility of affecting a
third party or parties by the application of multilateral treaty law, that the
Court is asked to refrain from exercisingjurisdiction in a case such as the
present. Therefore, where the Court refrains from exercisingjurisdictionbecause of the multilateral treaty reservation, it will be precluded from
applying multilateral treaty law. Conversely, if the Court does exercise
jurisdiction notwithstanding the multilateral treaty reservation, itlogically
follows that the multilateral treaty law, which regulates the mutual rights
and obligations of the parties, will be applied for the settlement of the
dispute before the Court.
The multilateral treaty resemation of the United States, though proce-
durally linked tojurisdiction, isinsubstance related to the regulation of the
rights and obligations of the Parties. The United States cannot claim that
the multilateral treaty reservation concerns only the jurisdiction of the
Court and is without relation to the question of the applicable law. These
two aspects are intimately related and cannot contradict each other, if the

reservation isto haveanymeaning at all.However,the United States, while
invoking the multilateral treaty reservation, had at al1times declared its
unconditional reliance on the United Nations Charter, which is a multi-
lateral treaty, and had at no time made any intimation that such attitude
was without prejudice to its position on the reservation with respect to
jurisdiction. In fact, it could not have maintained such a self-conflicting
stand.

Throughout the proceedings prior to its withdrawal from participation,
the United Stateshad persistently relied on multilateral treaties, the Uni-
ted NationsCharter inparticular, not merelyfor thepurpose ofconvincing
the Court, as suggested in paragraph 46 of the Judgment, that the present
dispute was one "arising under" those treaties and hence excluded from
jurisdiction by the United States multilateral treaty reservation, but to
fortify its claim ofjustification for its actions vis-à-visNicaragua on the
basis of Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, which constitutes the
mainstay of its affirmative defence in the present case. Although the
United States chose not to participate in the proceedings on the merits, it
did clearlystate the basesof itsarguments against Nicaragua'sApplication
during the phase on jurisdiction and admissibility. In this sense, the
question of applicable law isconsidered by the United States as essential

and central to-its defence.
Since lack ofjurisdiction, if the multilateral treaty reservation is effec-
tive,willpresuppose non-application of multilateral treaty law, insistence
on applying multilateral treaty law can only be taken as abandonment of
the position on the multilateral treaty resemation. In viewof the attitude
shared by both Parties towards the question of the applicable law, and in
deference to the paramountcy of the United Nations Charter, it is sub-
mitted that the United States should be considered as having waived its
objection based upon the multilateral treaty reservation which concerns
both thejurisdiction of the Court and the application of law.Theattitude
of the United States as described above warrants a conclusion of such
waiver,which alone iscompatible with its own stance of strong adherence
to the United NationsCharter, as wellas the other multilateral treaties. It
is to be recalled that the United States once emphasized :"those treatiesconstitute the lex interpartes, and Nicaragua's claims cannot be adjudi-
cated by referring to some other, unagreed sources of law" (United States

Counter-Memorial, para. 320).

According to the Judgment of 26 November 1984,the Court hasjuris-
diction to adjudicate Nicaragua's claims based on customary international
law and the bilateral Treaty of 1956.What remains to be decided in the
merits phase on the question of the multilateral treaty reservation is
whether or not the Court is also competent to entertain the proceedings
with respect to Nicaragua's claims based on multilateral treaties and, as a
corollary thereof,what lawwillbe the applicable law. Sincethe question of
the applicable law cannot be treated independently of the multilateral
treaty reservation, the unequivocal attitude maintained by the United

States with respect to the applicable law can only be taken as waiverof the
multilateral treaty reservation. The assumption ofwaiver does not alter the
position of the Court, which has already entertained jurisdiction over the
present proceedings. Suchbeing the case,whilethe Court remains seisedof
the case as before, the rights and obligations of the Parties are subject to
both the multilateral treaty law and the related principles of customary
international law as well as rules derived from the bilateral Treaty of
1~5-..
There is no legal barrier to prevent the United States from givingeffect
to the waiver, since, according to the text df the multilateral treaty reser-
vation, the United States can always specially agree to jurisdiction. It is
also to be noted that Nicaragua has not complained in the Court of any

third State or States. It did not question the right of ElSalvador to receive
from the United States assistance, military or otherwise (Nicaraguan
Memorial, para. 193). The Court has likewise made clear in its 1984
Judgment on jurisdiction and admissibility of Nicaragua's Application
that "the rights of no other State may be adjudicated in theseproceedings"
(I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 436,para. 98).Whether or not they willbe affected
in any manner by the decision to be given, it might be appropriate to refer
to Article 59 of the Statute, which provides that a decision will have no
binding force except between the parties and in respect of the particular
case. In fact, on the question whether or not Nicaragua has acted in such a

way as to amount to resort to the threat or use of force against its neigh-
bours, the Court in the present Judgment considers the evidence to be
insufficient or inconclusive. Consequently no third party would be in al1
certainty affected thereby.

Before concluding, it may be said that the treatment of the rnultilateral
treaty reservation invoked by the United Stateshas followed a zigzagpath
for which a careful mapping would be necessary. Failure to do so will
confound the issuesresulting in contradictionsand inconsistencies, as can
bedemonstrated by theconflict between the United States stand in respect
ofjurisdiction and its stand in respect of the applicable law.They need to
be re-aligned and given comprehensiveappraisal in accordance with logicand good sense. For the foregoing reasons, 1regret that 1cannot cast an
affirmative vote for subparagraph (1) of paragraph 292 in the operative
part of the Judgment, which finds the multilateral treaties invoked by
Nicaragua as not applicable because of the multilateral treaty reservation
of the United States. As to the other subparagraphs in which customary
international law and provisions of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce
and Navigation signed on 21January 1956are taken as bases, 1havevoted
infavour on the understandingthat relevant rules of themultilateraltreaty
law are, where appropriate, not precluded from being applied as bases in
support of the findings.

(Signed) NI Zhengyu. 1. Je me suisprononcé enfaveur du sous-paragraphe 1du dispositif de
l'arrêt maisen bonne logique,comme laCour yreconnaît l'applicabilitéde
la <(réserveVandenberg )),elle n'aurait dèslors pas dû continuer à con-
naître delarequêteduNicaragua dans lamesureoùcelle-ciétaitfondéesur
l'article36,paragraphe 2,du Statut (voirci-après lapremière partie).Dans
lamêmemesure, maispour d'autres raisons quej'exposerai, je penseque la
Cour aurait dû dire en plus que ledifférenddont elleétaitsaisien'étaitpas
justiciable (voir ci-après la deuxième partie).
2. A mon avis,la Cour ne pouvait demeurer saisiede cette affaire qu'en
ce qui concerne les violations du traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de navi-

gation de 1956,conclu entre les deux Parties, qui auraient étécommises
par les Etats-Unis. Partant de ce point de vue, j'ai votépour le sous-
paragraphe 7 maiscontre le sous-paragraphe 6parce qu'ilaurait suffi que
la Cour fonde sa décisionsur le sous-paragraphe 7, et contre lesous-para-
graphe 8 parce que la décisionde la Cour qui y figure concerne un man-
quement à des obligations erga omnes découlant du droit international
coutumieret quecette décisionn'apassa placedans l'arrêtJ .e n'aipas non
plus pu voter pour lesous-paragraphe 10parcequej'estime quelaCour fait
erreur quand elle établit une relation entre les attaques des Etats-Unis
contre le territoire du Nicaragua et le traitéde 1956,et qu'en fondant son
raisonnement sur (le but et l'objet ))de ce traité, ellea outrepassé la
compétenceque lui donne la clause compromissoire qu'il contient. Sij'ai

votécontre le sous-paragraphe 11,c'est parce que les attaques contre le
territoire du Nicaragua ne peuvent pas à mon avis êtreliées à un man-
quement au traitéde 1956 ;quant à l'embargo généraslur lecommerce, il
ne doit pas êtreconsidéré commeun tel manquement (voir ci-après la
troisièmepartie).
3. J'aiétécontraintde voter contre les sous-paragraphes 2,3,4,5,9, 12
et 13pourla simpleraison quej'ai estimé, commeje l'aiditplus haut, quela
Cour n'aurait dûseprononcer sur cesquestions en laprésenteaffairequesi
cesquestions avaient relevéde la clausecompromissoire du traitéde 1956.
Toutefois, celane veut pas dire queje soisendésaccord avectouslesmotifs
dedroit exposéspar la Courau sujet des principes de la non-intervention,

de l'interdiction de l'emploide la force et du respect de la souveraineté.Il
est certain que ces principes doivent êtrerespectéspar le Nicaragua non
moins que par les Etats-Unis d'Amérique. En particulier, lefait que j'ai
votécontre lesous-paragraphe 9 ne doit pas êtreinterprétécomme impli-
quant queje suiscontre lesconclusions de la Cour sur la question qui yest
traitée.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE NI

1have voted in favour of al1the subparagraphs of the dispositifexcept
one. But it occurs to me that some parts of the dispositifare so worded and
formulated that, quite inevitably, a simple affirmative or negative vote
cannot adequately reflect the trend of my thoughts on the questions under
consideration. 1 therefore feel obliged to submit the present separate
opinion for the purpose of stating the position 1 take.
My primary concern is with respect to the "multilateral treaty reserva-
tion", sometimes referred to as the "Vandenberg Amendment". This
question might at first sight be deemed no longer important inasmuch as
the jurisdictional phase could be considered already over and the Court is
in any event competent to deal with the case on the basis of customary
international law as wellas the 1956Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and
Navigation between Nicaragua and the United States.

But a closer examination of the pleadings in the previous phase and the
Judgment of 26November 1984willreveal the fact that there had been left
behind at that time some "unfinished business" which must be considered
relegated to the present phase of the proceedings.
It is to be recalled that the Court wasthen confronted with the United

States contention that in accordance with proviso (c)to its declaration
accepting compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice,
such acceptance shall not extend to
"disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) al1parties to
the treaty affected by the decision are also parties to the case before
the Court, or (2) the United States of America specially agrees to
jurisdiction".

The multilateral treaties relied on by the Application of Nicaragua are
the Charter of the United Nations, the Charter of the Organization of
American States, the 1933MontevideoConvention on Rights and Duties
of States and the 1928 Havana Convention concerning the Duties and
Rights of States in the Event of Civil Strife.The threshold question during
thejurisdictional phase of the proceedings was whether the above multi-
lateral treaty reservation constituted a bar to Nicaragua's Application. To
support itscontention challenging thejurisdiction of the Court, the United
States named three Central American States, Le., El Salvador, Honduras
and Costa Rica, as the States parties to the four multilateral treaties OPlNION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. NI

[Traduction]

J'ai votéen faveur de tous lessous-paragraphes du dispositif sauf un. Or,
je m'aviseque certains passages du dispositif sont rédigde telle manière
qu'un simple vote affirmatif ou négatif nepeut en aucun cas traduire exac-
tement le fond de ma penséesur lesquestions examinées. Aussi me vois-je
obligé d'exposerma position dans la présente opinion individuelle.

Ce qui me préoccupe au premier chef,c'est la question de la ((réserve
relative aux traités multilatéraux, appelée parfois amendement Van-
denberg ))On pourrait penser de prime abord que cette question a perdu
tout intérêtpuisque laphase sur lacompétencepeut êtreconsidérée comme
bien terminée etque la Cour est en tout étatde cause compétente pour
connaîtrede l'affairesur labase du droit international coutumier ainsi que
du traitéd'amitié,dlecommerce et de navigation conclu en 1956entre le
Nicaragua et les Etats-Unis.
Un examen attentif des thèsesdes Parties dans la phaseprécédente etde
l'arrêtde la Cour du 26 novembre 1984 montre cependant que certains
points ont étélaissés ensuspens à l'époqueet que ces points doivent être

considéréscomme reportés à la présente phase de l'instance.
Il faut rappeler qu'à l'époqueles Etats-Unis ont fait valoir devant la
Cour qu'en vertu de la clause c)de la réservedont ils avaient assorti leur
déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour leur
acceptation ne s'aplpliquaitpas :

aux différends résultant d'un traité multilatéral, à moins que
1)toutes les parties au traitéque la décisionconcerneaffect by the
decisio noient égalementparties àl'affaire soumisà la Cour, ou que
2) les Etats-Unis d'Amériqueacceptent expressément lacompétence
de la Cour o.

Lestraitésmultila~térauxinvoquéspar leNicaragua dans sarequêtesont
la Charte des Natialns Unies, la charte de l'organisation des Etats amé-
ricains, la conventilon de Montevideo de 1933 concernant les droits et
devoirs des Etats et la convention de La Havane de 1928concernant les
droits et devoirs des Etats en cas de luttes civiles. La toute première
question qui s'estposée lorsde la phase de la compétencea étéde savoir si
la réserve relative aux traités multilatéraux s'opposaià ce que la Cour
connaisse de la requêtedu Nicaragua. A l'appui de la thèse qu'ils ont
développéecontre la compétencede la Cour, les Etats-Unis ont soutenu
que trois Etats d'Annériquecentrale (El Salvador, le Honduras et le Costa202 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITlES (SEP.OP. NI)

mentioned abovewhichwould be affect eydtheadjudication of theclaims
submitted to the Court.

Whether or not these Central American States would be affect bed the
decision of the Court was a matter difficult to decide at the time of the
preliminary proceedings when the merits of the case were not being con-
sidered. Before the revision of the Rules of Court in 1972,decision on a

preliminary objection, such as the present one onjurisdiction, could have
beenjoined to thedecision on themerits of thecase.Thiscannot bedone in
thepresent instance. The Court thereforestated in paragraph 75of its 1984
Judgment that : "As for the Court, it is only when the general lines of the
judgment to be given become clear that the States 'affected' could be
identified." The Court concluded thereupon in paragraph 76 that :
"the Court has no choice but to avail itself of Article 79,paragraph 7,
of the present Rulesof Court,and declare that the objection based on

the multilateral treaty reservation of the United StatesDeclaration of
Acceptance does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an
exclusivelypreliminary character, and that consequently it does not
constitute an obstacle for the Court to entertain the proceedings
instituted byNicaragua under theApplication of 9April 1984"(I.C.J.
Reports 1984, pp. 425-426).
In retrospect, the Court could, in accordance with Article 79, para-
graph 7,of the Rules of Court, have ruled on this preliminary objection in

one of the three waysprovided therein. It could have upheld the objection
to itsjurisdiction on the ground that, by the wording of the multilateral
treaty reservation, Le., proviso(c)of the United States declaration, the
merepossibility of anyof theother Central American Statesbeing affected
by the decision, in one way or the other, was sufficient to defeat Nicara-
gua's claim of jurisdiction, in so far as allegations of breaches of treaty
obligations were concerned. Alternatively, the Court could have rejected
the preliminary objection on the ground that any decision to be given by
the Court would not affect any of the Central American States and,
moreover, according to Article 59of the Statute, such decision would have
no binding force except between the parties and in respect of that parti-
cular case, and therefore no third party would be affected thereby. But the
Court took the cautious step of postponing a definitive decision on the
question and preferred to leave it in abeyance forlater consideration. Of
course the circumstances of the case provided the Court with the possi-
bility of making such a choice, because Nicaragua's claimsdid not rely
solelyon the multilateral treaties but also on customary international law

and thebilateral Treaty of 1956,sothat the Court was not left to the hasty
choiceof either throwing out the case at its veryinception or accepting the
jurisdiction over the treaty-based claims of Nicaragua not without a tinge
of precipitation or prejudging.Rica) seraient, en tant qu'Etats parties aux quatre traités multilatéraux
susmentionnés, affe<:tépsar une décisionde la Cour sur les demandes du
Nicaragua.
Lors de la phase préliminairede I'instance, et alors que l'affaire n'était
pas examinéeau forid, il étaitdifficile de déterminersi ces Etats d'Amé-
rique centrale seraient ou non affectépar la décisionde la Cour. Avant la
revision en 1972du Règlementde la Cour une décisionsur une exception
préliminaire, telleque ladite exception d'incompétence,pouvait êtrejointe

au fond, maiscelan'étaitplus possibleen l'espèce.C'estpourquoi la Cour a
dit, au paragraphe 75de son arrêtde 1984 :<(Quant àlaCour, cen'est qu'à
partir du moment où lesgrandes lignesde son arrêtsedessineraient qu'elle
pourrait déterminer quels Etats seraient affectés H.Puis ellea conclu, au
paragraphe 76, que :

((la Cour n'ad'autre choixque d'appliquer l'article79.paragraphe 7,
de son Règ1emr:ntactuel, et de déclarerque l'objection tiréede la
réserve relativeaux traitésmultilatérauxfigurant dans la déclaration
d'acceptation des Etats-Unis n'a pas, dans les circonstances de I'es-
pèce,un caractkre exclusivement préliminaire etqu'en conséquence
rien ne s'opposeà ceque laCour connaisse de I'instanceintroduite par
le Nicaragua dans sa requêtedu 9 avril 1984 (C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 425-426).

Rétrospectivementje ferai observer que, conformément à l'article 79,
paragraphe 7, de sori Règlement, laCour pouvait se prononcer sur cette
exception préliminairede l'unedes trois manièresqui y sont prévues. Elle
pouvait retenir l'exception d'incompétencemotif pris qu'aux termes
mêmes de laréserverelativeauxtraitésmultilatéraux - etplus précisément
laclause c)de laréserve àladéclaration desEtats-Unis - lesimplefait que
tel ou tel autre Etat d'Amérique centrale pouvait être, d'une manière ou
d'une autre, affectépar la décision suffisaità faire échecà la thèse nica-
raguayenne de la compétencepour cequi concerne lesviolations alléguées

d'obligations conventionnelles. La Cour pouvait aussi rejeter I'exception
préliminaire motif pris que toute décision qu'ellerendrait n'affecterait
aucun des Etats d'Amérique centrale et qu'en outre, conformément à
l'article59 du Statut, sa décision ne serait obligatoireque pour les parties
en litigeet dans lecasqui allait êtredécidé,ibien qu'aucun Etat tiers n'en
serait affecté. Mais laCour a pris la précautionde surseoirà une décision
définitiveen la matiière,préférant remettre à plus tard l'examen de la
question. Certes, les circonstances de l'espècepermettaient a la Cour de
choisir cette solution. En effet, les griefs du Nicaragua se fondaient non
seulement surdes traitésmultilatérauxmaisaussi sur ledroit international
coutumier et le trait6 bilatéralde 1956.Rien n'obligeait donc la Cour à
décider aussitôt soitde mettre un terme à l'instance dèsle débutsoit de se

déclarercompétentepour connaître desgriefsdu Nicaragua fondés surdes
dispositions conventionnelles, cequi auraitdonnéune certaine impression
deprécipitation ouserait apparu commepréjugeantquelquepeu lasuitede
l'instance. Now the casehas reached thestageof considering the merits. Should the
Court re-examine the question of multilateral treaty reservation ?1 would
prefer to say that the Court should continue to examine the question in
order toarrive at amore definitive decisionwith respect tojurisdiction and
also, inconsequence of goinginto themerits of the case,with respect to the
question of the applicable law. The United States raised the multilateral
treaty reservation as a plea in bar to the Application of Nicaragua. This
plea, once admitted, will(1) excludethe Court from exercisingjurisdiction
in so far as the claims made by Nicaragua are based on the multilateral
treaties in question ; and (2) preclude, if jurisdiction attaches on other
grounds so that the case is still in the Court for adjudication on the merits,
the application of rules of law provided in or derived from such multila-
teral treaties.
The first point above referred to isquite obvious. The second isrelevant
only in cases, of which the present case is one, where the Court remains
seisedwithjurisdiction to entertain the proceedings on grounds other than
the multilateral treaty or treaties in question. Here a problem of some

novelty has taken shape : whether, in a case such asthepresent one, which
is alleged to have arisen under, or is based upon, a multilateral treaty or
treaties- this being the very ground for invoking the multilateral treaty
reservation -, the Respondent in the case can in the meantime turn round
and Saythat the same multilateral treaty or treaties, the very object of the
reservation, should be the applicable law for the solution of the case in
dispute. The answer to this isnot entirely simpleand Iwillreturn toit later
in the opinion.
By the 1984Judgment, jurisdiction over Nicaragua's claims based on
customary international law and the bilateral Treaty of 1956 had been
affirmed and the case was ready to enter into the merits phase. However,
the question of the applicability of the multilateral treaty reservation
remained in abeyance, because it was not then sufficiently clear whether
third Statesparties to the multilateraltreaties inquestion wouldbe affected
by the Judgment to be given. A treatment of this question for its final
disposa1at thisphase of the proceedings isindispensablefor the following
reasons :

Firstly, from the procedural point of view, the question had not been,
and could not have been, givenfull treatment in the former proceedings. A
conclusion was reached with respect tojurisdiction on grounds other than
the multilateral treaties in question. Both the language and the reasoning
of the 1984Judgment do not indicate that an ultimate solution had been
attempted.
Secondly,the United States, asthedeclarant of the instrument accepting
jurisdiction of the Court on specific questions, has the right to expect a
decision on the question which, though properly belonging to thephase on
preliminary objection, can only be appropriately determined when the
merits are examined in the present proceedings.
Thirdly, despite its absence from the current proceedings, the United LaCour en est ensuite arrivée austade du fond. Devait-elle réexaminer
la question de la réserve relative auxtraités multilatérauxJe dirai plutôt
qu'elle devait conti.nuer son examen pour parvenir à une dkcision plus
définitivesur sa corripétencemais aussidu point de vuedu droit applicable

puisqu'elle examinait l'affaire au fond. C'est en tant que fin de non-
recevoir que la réserve relative auxtraités multilatéraux a étéopposéeà la
requêtedu Nicaragua par les Etats-Unis. Si elle était admiseelle devait :
1) exclure la compétencede la Cour pour connaître des griefs du Nica-
ragua fondés surles traités multilatéraux en questionet 2) empêcherl'ap-
plication des règlesde droit viséesdans ces traités multilatéraux ou en
découlant,au cas oii la Cour se déclarerait compétente sur d'autresbases
pour statuer au fond.

La première conskquencesusmentionnéeestmanifeste. La seconde n'est
envisageable que s'ilarrive, comme dans la présente affaire,que la Cour
demeure compétente sur des bases autres que le traitémultilatéral ou les
traitésmultilatéraux en question. Un problème quelque peu nouveau se
pose alors : est-il possible, dans une affaire qui, comme la présenteins-
tance. est censéerésillterou dépendred'un traité multilatéral oude traités
multilatéraux - et c'estpour cette raison précisequ'est invoquée la réserve

relative aux traités multilatérau-, que ledéfendeurfasse volte-face à un
certain moment et dise que ce mêmetraité multilatéral ouces mêmes
traitésmultilatéraux,quifont justement l'objetde laréserve,devraient être
le droit applicable au règlementde l'affaire en litig?Il n'est pas du tout
simple de répondre à cette question, aussi j'y reviendrai.
Par son arrêt de1'984l,a Cour s'estdéclarée compétentepour connaître
des griefs du Nicaragua fondés sur le droit international coutumier et le
traitébilatéralde 1956,ouvrant ainsi lavoieà l'examenau fond. Mais ellea
laisséen suspens la question de l'applicabilitéde la réserve relative aux
traitésmultilatérauxcar on ne serendait pas assezbien compte à l'époque
sidesEtats tiers parties aux traités multilatéraux encauseseraientaffectés
par l'arrêtqu'elle rendrait. Il fallait donc que la Cour tranche définitive-
ment la question au stade actuel, et ce pour les raisons suivantes.

Premièrement,du point devuede laprocédure,cettequestion n'apas été

examinéecomplèternent lors de la phase antérieure de l'instance et elle
n'aurait du reste pas pu l'être.La Cour s'estdéclaréecompétentesur des
bases autres que lestraitésmultilatérauxenquestion.Riendans laforme ni
dans le fond de l'arrêtde 1984ne donne à penser que la Cour ait alors
essayéde résoudre définitivementla question.
Deuxièmement, lesEtats-Unis ayant déclaréaccepterlajuridiction de la
Cour pour certains différends particuliers sont en droit d'attendre une
décisionsur une question qui, bien que relevant à proprement parler de la
phase des exceptions préliminaires, nepeut être dûmenttranchée qu'au
stade du fond.
Troisièmement, 1t:sEtats-Unis n'ont pas comparu pendant la phase 204 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. NI)

States challenge to the jurisdiction of the Court on the ground of the
multilateral treaty reservation remains an objection which cannot be
ignored or overridden by the acceptance ofjurisdiction on grounds other
than the multilateral treaties in question. Failure to make a definitive
pronouncement on the objection raised by the absent Party will not be in
consonance withArticle 53,paragraph 2,which makes specificmention of
jurisdiction.

Finally, any determination on the multilateral treaty reservation is inti-
mately linked to thequestion of what rules of lawareto be applied. Should
the Court decide that the multilateral treaty reservation contained in the
United States declaration constitutes a valid objection to the Court's
jurisdiction, then only rules of customary international law and the pro-
visions of the bilateral Treaty of 1956 will be applicable to determine
Nicaragua's allegations of breaches of obligations by the United States.
The multilateral treaty reservation, once admitted, carries with it not only
exclusion of the Court's jurisdiction but also, as a corollary thereof, the
non-applicability of the rules of lawwhich are provided in or derived from
the multilateral treaties in question,Le., what can be called multilateral
treaty law.If,on thecontrary, the Court should decide that the multilateral
treaty reservation in the United States declaration does not constitute a
valid objection to the Court's jurisdiction. the application of multilateral
treaty law will be of course unquestioned and the plea in bar against the
Court's jurisdiction is thereby disposed of with finality.

In considering the merits of the case, the Court would be at liberty to
examine more fully the relevant facts in order to determine with more
precision whether any thrd State or States might be affectedby the Judg-
ment to be given. According to the United States,

"El Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica have each sought outside
assistance, principally from the United States, in their self-defense
against Nicaragua's aggression ...the United Stateshas responded to
these requests." (United States Counter-Memorial, para. 202.)

While admitting provision of economic and military assistance to El Sal-
vador, the United Statescontended that itwasexercisingthe inherent right
of individual and collective self-defence under Article 51 of the United
Nations Charter. El Salvador for its part has filed, pursuant to Article 62,
paragraph 1,of the Court's Statute, a Declaration of Intervention which
the Court had found to be premature (I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 215-
217).
Under the given circumstances, should the Court find that the facts of
the case do not justify the United States claim of collective self-defence,
then El Salvador's claimof individual self-defencewould also be in ques-
tion. On theotherhand, if the Court shouldfind the United States claimof
collective self-defence to be well founded, it would also reflect on the
justification of ElSalvador's claimof its rightof individual self-defence.Inactuelle mais leur objection à la compétencede la Cour tiréede la réserve
relative aux traités multilatérauxn'en demeurait pas moins une exception
que la Cour ne pouvait ignorer et àlaquelle ellene pouvait passer outre en
arguant de sa compétence fondée sur des bases autres que les traités

multilatéraux invoclués.Ne pas se prononcer définitivement sur I'excep-
tion soulevéepar la partie non comparante n'aurait pas été conforme à
l'article53,paragraphe 2,du Statut, oùmention expresse de lacompétence
est faite.
Enfin,toute décisionsur la réserverelativeaux traités multilatéaux était
étroitement liée à li~question des règlesde droit à appliquer. Si la Cour
décidait que la réserve relative aux traités multilatérauxdont les Etats-
Unis avaient assorti leur déclaration constituait une exception d'incom-
pétence valable, elle ne pouvait appliquer, pour se prononcer sur les
allégations du Nicaragua concernant les violations d'obligations dont les
Etats-Unis se seraient rendus coupables, que les règlesdu droit interna-
tional coutumier et lesdispositionsdu traité bilatéralde 1956.Une foisrete-

nue. la réserve relative auxtraités multilatérauxnon seulement excluait la
compétencede la Cour mais encore, par voie de conséquence.entraînait
I'inapplicabilitédes règlesdedroit prévuesdans lestraitésmultilatérauxen
question - autrement dit le droit conventionnel multilatéral - ou en
découlant. Si, en revanche, la Cour décidait que la réserve relative aux
traités mu1tilatérau:ujointe a la déclaration des Etats-Unis ne constituait
pas une exception d'incompétencevalable, I'applicabilitédu droit conven-
tionnel multilatéral ne faisait évidemment aucun doute et l'exception
d'incompétence étaitainsi définitivement rejetée.
Lors de la phase sur le fond, la Cour avait tout loisir d'examiner plus
avant les faits pertinents en vue de déterminerde façon plus précisesi un
Etat tiers ou des Etats tiers pouvaient être affectés par l'arrêt qu'elle
rendrait. Selon les ]Etats-Unis,

((El Salvador. le Honduras et le Costa Rica ont chacun fait appel à
l'aideextérieure,principalementdesEtats-Unis, au titre de la Iégitime
défensecontre l'agressionnicaraguayenne ..lesEtats-Unis ont donné
suite ;ices demandes (contre-mémoire des Etats-Unis, par. 202).

Tout en admettant avoir fourni une aide économique et militaire à El
Salvador, les Etats-Unis ont soutenu avoir exercé ledroit naturel de Iégi-
time défense, individuelle et collective, reconnu àl'article 51 de la Charte
des Nations Unies. Pour sa part, El Salvador a déposé,conformément à
l'article 62, paragraphe 1,du Statut de la Cour, une déclaration d'inter-
vention que la Cour a jugée prématurée(C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 215-
217).

Dans ces conditions, si la Cour concluait que les faits de la cause ne
justifiaient pas l'argument de Iégitimedéfense collectiveavancé par les
Etats-Unis, l'argument de Iégitimedéfense individuelle d'El Salvador
aurait alors étélui aussi sujet à caution. Mais, si la Cour concluait que
l'argument de Iégitimedéfense collectiveavancépar les Etats-Unis était
fondé,cela seserait répercuté aussi sur la revendicationpar ElSalvador deone way or the other, El Salvador, to single it outas an example of a third
State involved without mentioning any other, cannot be held to be un-
affected, though not bound by the Judgment to be given. It is difficult to
imagine that the Court, in making suchdetermination, can eitherjustify or
deny the United Statescontention without reference to the position of El
Salvadoreither in express language or by implication. This willgiverise to
a kind of situation that, whilethe United States is bound by theJudgment
to be given, a third State thus linked thereto remains technically beyond
the reach of the resjudicata. Thus it might be said that, under normal
circumstances, the multilateral treaty reservation raised by the United
States, in so far asjurisdiction based on multilateral treaties is concerned,
merits consideration. However, the matter does not end there.
As has been said before, admission of a reservation like the present one

precludes, ifjurisdiction still attaches on othergrounds, the application of
multilateral treaty law, and thus only customary international law and
rules of law provided in or derived from the bilateral Treaty of 1956will
apply to determine the merits of the claims made by Nicaragua in the
Court against the United States. However, it is to be noticed that the
United States, while relying on the multilateral treaty reservation to chal-
lenge the exerciseofjurisdiction by the Court, has at the same time, both
within and outside the proceedings in the Court, persistently invoked the
United Nations Charter, the main source of multilateral treaty law ap-
plicable to the case before the Court, in order tojustify its actions vis-à-vis
Nicaragua.
In an address before the American Society of International Law on 12
April 1984,three days after the filingof the Nicaraguan Application in this
Court, the United StatesPermanent Representative to the United Nations
spoke for the first timeof the right of individual and collectiveself-defence
under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. It was stated that :

"This prohibition on the useof forcewasneverintended to stand on
its own, but, as everyone here knows, 1 am certain, was to be seen in
the context of the entire Charter. In particular, asstated in Article 51,
it was not intended to 'impair the inherent right of individual or
collectiveself-defense if an armed attack occurs against a member of
the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures
necessary to maintain international peace and security'." (Nicara-
guan Memorial, Ann. C, Attachment 11-4.)

It is also to be recalled that, after the Judgment of 26 November 1984on
jurisdiction and the admissibility of Nicaragua's Application was given,
the United Statesrepeated, initsstatement of 18January 1985,theclaimof
the right of collective self-defence under the United Nations Charter
(International Legal Materials, 1985,No. 1,p. 246).

Such references to the right of individual and collective self-defencel'exercicede son droitde légitimedéfense individuelle.Dans l'unou l'autre

cas, on ne pouvait soutenir qu'El Salvador, pour ne citer que lui en tant
qu'Etat tiers concerné,ne serait pas affectépar l'arrêt,sans êtrecependant
liépar lui. On voit nia1comment la Cour pouvait soit admettre soit rejeter
l'argument des Etats-Unis sans allusion directe ou indirecte à la situation
d'El Salvador. Il en serait résultéque l'arrêtaurait lié lesEtats-Unis mais
n'aurait pas eu techniquement parlant force de chose jugéepour un Etat
tiers, encore que ce dernier eût étéconcerné.On peut donc dire que la
réserve relative auxtraités multilatéraux opposéepar les Etats-Unis à la
compétence fondée sur les traités multilatéraux méritait normalement
d'être examinée. Mais ce n'est pas tout.

Commeje l'aidéjiinoté,enadmettant une réserve telleque la réserveen
question - et pour autant qu'il restait d'autres bases de compétence -
on excluait l'appliceitiondu droit conventionnel multilatéral, si bien que
seulement le droit international coutumier et les règlesdedroit contenues
dans le traitébilatéralde 1956ou en découlant allaient s'appliquer lorsque
la Cour statuerait ail fond sur les griefs formuléspar le Nicaragua contre
les Etats-Unis. Il est cependant à relever que les Etats-Unis, tout en se
fondant sur la réserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux pour contester la
compétencede la Cour, ont constamment invoqué la Charte desNations
Unies - instrument qui constitue la principale source du droit conven-

tionnel multilatéral applicable - à l'appui de leurs actions vis-à-vis du
Nicaragua, aussi bien à la Cour qu'ailleurs.
Dans l'allocution qu'ellea prononcée à 1'AmericanSociety of Interna-
tional Law le 12avril 1984,troisjours aprèsledépôtparleNicaragua de sa
requête,la représeni'antepermanente des Etats-Unis auprès de I'Organi-
sation des Nations Unies a mentionné pour la première fois le droit de
légitimedéfenseindividuelle et collective visé àl'article 51de la Charte des
Nations Unies. Elle a déclaréce qui suit :

((Cette interdiction de l'emploi de la force n'a jamais étécensée
avoir un caract~ireabsolu. Comme vous le savez tous, j'en suis sûre,
elle devait êtreconsidéréedans le contexte généralde la Charte. En
particulier, aux termes de l'article 51,elle((ne porte [pas]atteinteau
droit naturel de légitimedéfense,individuelle oucollective,dans lecas
ou un Membre des Nations Unies est l'objet d'une agressionarmée,
jusqu'à ceque le Conseil de sécuritéait pris les mesures nécessaires

pour maintenir la paix et la sécurité internationales. (Mémoiredu
Nicaragua, annexe C, pièce 11-4.)
Il convient de rappeler aussi qu'aprèsque la Cour eut rendu son arrêtdu
26 novembre 1984 sur sa compétence et la recevabilitéde la requêtedu
Nicaragua les Etats-Unis ont repris, dans leur déclaration du 18janvier
1985, l'argument du1droit de légitime défense collectiveen vertu de la

Charte des Nations Unies (International Legal Materials, 1985, no 1,
p. 246).
L'exercicedu droiitde légitimedéfenseindividuelle oucollectiveenvertuunder Article 51of the United Nations Charter were made by counsel for
the United Statesin theoral proceedings on interim measuresof protection
in April 1984as well as in the phase on jurisdiction and admissibility in

October of the sameyear(hearings of 27April 1984and 16October 1984).
For instance, counsel for the United States stated to the Court that :
"Nicaragua's Application and request improperly cal1 upon this
Court in the circumstances of this case to make judgments and to
impose measures potentially impairing the inherent right of States to
individual and collective self-defence under Article 51of the United

Nations Charter" (hearing of 27 April 1984,morning).
At another instance, counsel for the United Statesstated with such gravity
as to say :

"the right to engage inindividual or collectiveself-defencerecognized
by Article 51of the Charter is absolute, may not be impaired by this
Courtor anyother organization of theUnited Nations.. ." (hearingof
16October 1984,morning).

In thewritten proceedings inthephase onjurisdiction and admissibility,
the Counter-Memorial submitted by the United States on 17August 1984
contained numerous passages in explanation of its position. It stated
categorically that :

"Under Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, El Sal-
vador has an inherent right of self-defenseagainst such armedattacks
and a right to request that the United States provide itwith assistance
in resisting such attacks. The United States presently does provide
economic and military assistance to El Salvador . . .(United States
Counter-Memorial. para. 290.)

Under the caption "The Various Multilateral Treaties on whichNicaragua
Bases its Claims Are the Applicable Law Among Nicaragua, the United
States, and the Other Central American States", the United States claimed
that :

"Nicaragua, the United States, and the other four Central Ameri-
can States are al1parties to each of the four multilateral treaties on
which Nicaragua bases its claims, most notably the Charters of the
United Nations and theOrganization of American States. Regardless
of the status of the Charter of the United Nations as customary and
general international law, those treaties constitute the /ex interpartes,
and Nicaragua's claims cannot be adjudicated by referring to some
other, unagreed sources of law." (United States Counter-Memorial,
para. 320.)

The Counter-Memorial went on at great length to argue that the pro-
visions of the United Nations Charter relevant to the present case "sub-de l'article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies a étémentionné par les
conseils des Etats-Unis en avril 1984lors des plaidoiries sur les mesures

conservatoires ainsi qu'en octobre de la mêmeannéelors des plaidoiries
sur la compétenceet la recevabilité(audiences des 27 avril et 16octobre
1984).L'un d'euxa déclaré,par exemple, que :
<la requêteet 1.ademande du Nicaragua requièrent à tort la Cour de

prendre des décisionset d'imposer des mesures qui risquent deporter
atteinte au droit naturel de légitimedéfense individuelleou collective
des Etats, prévupar l'article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies ))
(audience du 2'7avril 1984,matin).

A une autre occasiori,un conseil des Etats-Unis est alléjusqu'àdire, cequi
est grave :

le droit de légitimedéfense, individuelleou collective, consacré à
l'article 51de laiCharte est absolu ;il ne peut y êtreporté atteinteni
par la Cour ni par un autre organe des Nations Unies ...»(audiencedu
16octobre 1984,matin).

Dans lecontre-mémoireque lesEtats-Unis ont déposé le 17août 1984au
cours de la phase cle la compétence et de la recevabilité, ils exposent
maintes fois leur position. On y trouve l'assertion suivante :

En vertu de:l'article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies, El Sal-
vador possède im droit naturel de légitimedéfensecontre de telles
attaques armées, ainsique le droit d'obtenir des Etats-Unis une aide
qui lui permette d'y résister. Actuellement, lesEtats-Unis fournissent
une assistance économique et militaire au Salvador ... (Contre-

mémoiredes Ei.ats-Unis, par. 290.)
Sous le titre Les divers traités multilatéraux surlesquels sont fondéesles
demandes du Nicaragua constituent ledroit applicable entre leNicaragua,

les Etats-Unis et les;autres Etats d'Amériquecentrale )).les Etats-Unis
déclarentce qui suit :
((Le Nicaragua, les Etats-Unis et lesquatre autres Etats centraméri-
cains sont tous parties à chacun des quatre traités multilatéraux

invoquéspar le Nicaragua à l'appui de ses griefs, et tout particuliè-
rement à la Charte desNations Unies et à la charte de l'organisation
des Etats américains. Indépendamment du fait que la Charte des
Nations Unies (consacrele droit international généralet coutumier,
cestraitésconstituent la /ex interpartes,et la Cour ne saurait donc sta-
tuer sur les demandes du Nicaragua "n se référant àd'autres sources
de droit, non acceptées par les Etats susmentionnés. (Contre-
mémoiredes Eiats-Unis, par. 320.)

Ensuite les Etats-Unis s'attachent àfaire valoir que lesdispositions de la
Charte des Nations Unies pertinentes en l'espèce <<résument ))et sup-207 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTlVITIES (SEP.OP. NI)

sume" and "supervene" related principles of customary international law
(paras. 313-319). It stressed in one of its concluding paragraphs that

"It is well-settled that the right of individual or collective self-
defense is an inherent right of States. The special and extraordinary
nature of the right of individual or collectiveself-deferiseisexplicitly
recognized in the prescription of Article 51 that 'iiothing in the
present Charter shall impair' that right." (Para. 516.)

Various arguments were advanced by the United States to equate the
Charter provisions with customary international law relevant to the pre-
sent case(United StatesCounter-Memorial. paras. 313-322).for the purpose
of showing that, since the multilateral treaty reservation. once admitted.
bars application of treaty law. it will likewise bar the application of cus-
tomary international law because the latter has been subsumed or super-
vened by the former.

However. it is certain that when principles of customary international
law are incorporated into a multilateral treaty like the United Nations
Charter. these principles of customary international law do not thereby
become extinct. The same principles continueto be operative and binding
on States. sometimes alongside or in conjunction with treaty law. in their
international relations with one another. Article 38. paragraph 1, of the
Statute enumerates, as applicable by the Court, the various sources of
international law which. in the course of application, usually support.
rather than preclude, each other. But it would be inconceivable that
application of one should exclude that of any other.
The Judgrnent of 26 November 1984 clearly stated :

"The Court cannot dismiss the claims of Nicaragua under princi-
ples of customary and general international law, simply because such
principles have been enshrined in the texts of the conventions relied
upon by Nicaragua. The fact that these above-mentioned principles,
recognized as such, have been codified or embodied in rnultilateral
conventions does not mean that they cease to exist and to apply as

principles of customary law, evenas regards countries that are parties
to such conventions." (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 424. para. 73.)

What isleft of theabove-mentioned arguments is that the United States
is unreservedly committed to the position of accepting the multilateral

treaties, theUnitedNationsCharter in particular, as theapplicable lawfor
the settlement of the present dispute. This isclearly in contradiction to the
stand ittook in respect of themultilateral treaty reservation inchallenging
the exercise of jurisdiction over the dispute by the Court.
What is more. not only did the United States hold firm on the appli-
cation ofmultilateral treaty law,but Nicaragua also,for itspart, responded
tothe United States contention based on Article 51of the United Nations
Charter by arguing that thefactual allegations made against Nicaragua by ACTIVITÉS MILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP.IND. NI) 207

plantent lesprinc:ipes du droit international coutumier en la matière
(par. 313-319).Vers la fin de leur contre-mémoireils font observer ce qui
suit :

11est établi que le droit de légitime défense, individuelleou
collective,estuindroit naturel des Etats, dont le caractère particulier
et exceptionnel est expressément reconnu à l'article 51,où il est dit
qu'<(aucune disposition de la présenteCharte ne porte atteinte à ce
droit. (Par. 51.6.)

Les Etats-Unis ont avancéplusieurs arguments pour démontrerque les
dispositions de la Charte correspondaient au droit international coutumier
applicable en l'espèce(contre-mémoire des Etats-Unis, par. 313-322), et
établirainsi que, puisque la réserverelative auxtraités multilatéraux,sion
l'admet, s'oppose à I'application du droit conventionnel, elle s'oppose
aussi àI'application tiudroit international coutumier, celui-ciétantrésumé
et supplanté par celui-là.
Il reste qu'une fois incorporés dans un traité multilatéral comme la
Charte des Nations llnies lesprincipesdu droitinternational coutumier ne
deviennent pas caducs pour autant. Cesprincipes continuent à s'appliquer
aux Etats dans leurs relations internationales réciproques et à les lier,
parfois parallèlement au droit conventionnel, parfois conjointement avec
lui. L'article8, paragraphe 1,du Statut énumèreles diverses sources du

droit international que la Cour peut appliquer. En pratique, ces sources se
complètent plus qu'elles ne s'excluent mutuellement. Maisil serait incon-
cevable que I'application d'une source de droit exclue I'application de
toute autre source de droit.
Dans son arrêt du26 novembre 1984,la Cour a déclaré clairement :
La Cour ne peut rejeter les demandes nicaraguayennes fondées
sur les principes du droit international général etcoutumier au seul

motif que ces principes sont repris dans les textes des conventions in-
voquéespar le Nicaragua. Le fait que lesprincipes susmentionnés,et
reconnus commietels. sont codifiésou incor~orésdans des conven-
tions multilatérales ne veut pas dire qu'ils'cessent d'exister et de
s'appliquer en t,antque principes de droit coutumier, même à l'égard
de pays qui sont parties auxdites conventions. (C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 424, par. 73.:)

II ressort des arguments exposés ci-dessusque les Etats-Unis se sont
engagés sans restriction à accepter que les traités multilatéraux et en
particulier la Charte des Nations Unies constituent le droit applicable
au règlementdu présent différend,cequi est nettement contraire à la posi-
tion qu'ils ont adoptéeau sujet de la réserve relative auxtraitésmultila-
térauxquand ils ont.contesté la compétencede la Cour en l'espèce.
Qui plus est,non seulement les Etats-Unis sesont nettement prononcés
pour I'application dii droit conventionnel multilatéral mais le Nicaragua,
pour sa part, lorsqu"il a réfutél'argument que les Etats-Unis tiraient de
l'article51de laCharte des Nations Unies, a fait valoir que lesfaits que lesthe United States fellshort of an "armed attack" within the meaning of the
aforesaid Article and that the United States had not fulfilled the condition
of immediately reporting to the Security Council as required by that
Article. Counsel for Nicaragua stated, for instance, the following :

"Article 51recognizes'theinherent right of individual or collective
self-defence ifan armed attackoccursagainst amember of the United
Nations'. The critical words are 'if an armed attack occurs'. They
delimit the scope of the exception." (Hearing of 25 April 1984,
morning).

"Article 51provides that measures taken by members in the exer-
cise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the
Security Council. Neither the United Statesnor El Salvadorhas ever
made such a report to the Security Council." (Ibid)

It can be plainly seen that the two Parties have in fact alreadyjoined
issue not merelyon the applicabilify,but also on the substance,of a specific
provision in the multilateral treaty. They hold different views which,
however, stem from the same source, Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter. It is left to the Court to decide, on the basis of such multilateral
treaty, whether the actions of the United States can bejustified. Although
such exchanges did not occur in the present phase of the proceedings, the
like-minded logic of the Parties to rely on multilateral treaty law as the
applicable law for the solution of the case in dispute should not be nega-
tived by the mere fact that such exchanges were made at an earlier stage.
No procedural formalism will in al1 seriousness disregard the Parties'
shared positive attitude towards theapplication of the rulesof lawflowing
from instruments ofglobalor regional recognition. The United States itself
has quoted authorities to show that it is only when there are no provisions
of a treaty applicable to a situation that international customary law is,

next in hierarchical order, properly resorted to and that these conclusions
are virtually axiomatic (United States Counter-Memorial, para. 321).If it
can be taken that Members of the United Nations may "opt out" of the
Organization's Charter by way of invoking a multilateral treaty reserva-
tion, why cannot they "opt in" by joining issue on the merits of such
multilateral treaty ?

It isto bepointed out that claims based on a treaty do not onlyowetheir
creation and existence to the treaty. They are also to be regulated by the
treaty in question. It can hardly be imagined that claims are based on a
treaty but not regulated by it. It is owing to the possibility of affecting a
third party or parties by the application of multilateral treaty law, that the
Court is asked to refrain from exercisingjurisdiction in a case such as the
present. Therefore, where the Court refrains from exercisingjurisdictionEtats-Unis alléguaient contre lui ne suffisaient pas à constituer une
agression armée )> au sens dudit article et qu'une condition prescrite
par cet articlen'avait pas étéremplie par les Etats-Unis, cellequi exigede
faire immédiatement rapport au Conseil de sécurité.C'est ainsi qu'un des
conseils du Nicaragua a déclaré :

((L'article 51reconnaît ((le droit naturel de légitime défenseindi-
viduelleoucollective, dans lecas oùun MembredesNations Unies est
l'objet d'une agression armée ...u Les mots importants sont est
l'objet d'une agression armée >);ils délimitent la portéede l'excep-
tion. ))(Audience du 25 avril 1984,matin.)

((L'article 51dispose que lesmesures prises par des Membres dans
l'exercice du diroit de légitime défensedevront êtreimmédiatement
portées àla corinaissance du Conseil de sécurité. Ni lesEtats-Unis ni
El Salvador n'ont jamais porté quoi que ce soit de ce genre à la
connaissance du Conseil de sécurité. (Ibid.)

On voit bien qu'en fait les deux Parties se sont déjà affrontées non
seulement sur la question de l'applicabilitémais aussi sur celle du contenu

d'une disposition particulière d'un traitémultilatéral. Ellesdéfendaient
des points de vue (différentsmais qui découlaient de la même source,
l'article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies. Il appartenait à la Cour de
déterminer,sur la base de ce traitémultilatéral,si les actes des Etats-Unis
pouvaient sejustifier. Que cet échangede vuesait eu lieu non pas lors de la
phase actuelle de l'iristance maislorsd'une phaseantérieurene devrait rien
ôter au fait que, daris un mêmeesprit, les Parties ont trouvé logiquede se
fondersur le droit conventionnel multilatéralen tant quedroit applicable
au règlementdu différend.En aucun cas le formalisme de la procédurene

saurait sérieusementconduire à ne pas tenir compte de l'attitude positive
commune que les P*artiesont adoptéeen ce qui concerne l'application de
règlesde droit découlant d'instruments mondialement ou régionalement
reconnus. Les Etats-Unis eux-mêmesont cité des sources sûres pour
démontrer que ce n'est qu'en l'absence de dispositions conventionnelles
applicables dans un cas particulier qu'il convientde recourir ensuite, dans
l'ordre hiérarchique,au droit international coutumier, et que cela allait
presque de soi (cont.re-mémoiredes Etats-Unis, par. 321). S'il est vraique
les Etats Membres de l'organisation des Nations Unies peuvent esquiver
la Charte des Nations Unies en arguant d'une réserve relativeaux traités

multilatéraux, pourquoi ne peuvent-ils pas y faire face en acceptant de
débattre du sens de:ce traitémultilatéral ?
11est a noter que lesdemandes fondéessur un traiténe voient lejour et
n'existent que par ce traitéet qu'en plus elles sont régiespar lui. On ne
saurait imaginer qiie des demandes soient fondées sur un traité mais
qu'elles ne soient pas régiespar lui. C'est parce que l'application du droit
conventionnel multilatéral risquait d'affecter un tiers ou des tiers que la
Cour a étéinvitée !Ise déclarer incompétente enl'espèce.Dèslors, si la
Cour se déclarait incompétente en raison de l'existence de la réservebecause of the multilateral treaty reservation, it will be precluded from
applying multilateral treaty law. Conversely, if the Court does exercise
jurisdiction notwithstanding the multilateral treaty reservation, itlogically
follows that the multilateral treaty law, which regulates the mutual rights
and obligations of the parties, will be applied for the settlement of the
dispute before the Court.
The multilateral treaty resemation of the United States, though proce-
durally linked tojurisdiction, isinsubstance related to the regulation of the
rights and obligations of the Parties. The United States cannot claim that
the multilateral treaty reservation concerns only the jurisdiction of the
Court and is without relation to the question of the applicable law. These
two aspects are intimately related and cannot contradict each other, if the

reservation isto haveanymeaning at all.However,the United States, while
invoking the multilateral treaty reservation, had at al1times declared its
unconditional reliance on the United Nations Charter, which is a multi-
lateral treaty, and had at no time made any intimation that such attitude
was without prejudice to its position on the reservation with respect to
jurisdiction. In fact, it could not have maintained such a self-conflicting
stand.

Throughout the proceedings prior to its withdrawal from participation,
the United Stateshad persistently relied on multilateral treaties, the Uni-
ted NationsCharter inparticular, not merelyfor thepurpose ofconvincing
the Court, as suggested in paragraph 46 of the Judgment, that the present
dispute was one "arising under" those treaties and hence excluded from
jurisdiction by the United States multilateral treaty reservation, but to
fortify its claim ofjustification for its actions vis-à-visNicaragua on the
basis of Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, which constitutes the
mainstay of its affirmative defence in the present case. Although the
United States chose not to participate in the proceedings on the merits, it
did clearlystate the basesof itsarguments against Nicaragua'sApplication
during the phase on jurisdiction and admissibility. In this sense, the
question of applicable law isconsidered by the United States as essential

and central to-its defence.
Since lack ofjurisdiction, if the multilateral treaty reservation is effec-
tive,willpresuppose non-application of multilateral treaty law, insistence
on applying multilateral treaty law can only be taken as abandonment of
the position on the multilateral treaty resemation. In viewof the attitude
shared by both Parties towards the question of the applicable law, and in
deference to the paramountcy of the United Nations Charter, it is sub-
mitted that the United States should be considered as having waived its
objection based upon the multilateral treaty reservation which concerns
both thejurisdiction of the Court and the application of law.Theattitude
of the United States as described above warrants a conclusion of such
waiver,which alone iscompatible with its own stance of strong adherence
to the United NationsCharter, as wellas the other multilateral treaties. It
is to be recalled that the United States once emphasized :"those treatiesrelative aux traités multilatéraux,elle n'aurait pas pu appliquer le droit
conventionnel multilatéral. Inversement. si la Cour se déclarait compé-
tente malgré la réserve relative aux traités multilatéraux. il s'en serait
logiquement ensuivi que le droit conventionnel multilatéral. qui régit les
droits et obligations mutuels des parties, s'appliquerait au règlement du
différend dont elle étaitsaisie.

La réservedesEtats-Unis relativeaux traitésmultilatéraux.bien que liée
à la compétence du point de vue de la procédure,se rattache du point de
vuedu fond aux règlesapplicables aux droits et obligationsdes Parties. Les
Etats-Unis ne peuvent prétendre que la réserve relative auxtraitésmulti-
latérauxn'a de rapport qu'avec la compétencede la Cour et qu'elle n'en a
aucun avec la question du droit applicable. Ces deux aspects sur la ques-
tion sont intimement liéset ne s'opposent pas. sans quoi la réserven'aurait
aucun sens. Or les Etats-Unis. tout en invoquant la réserve relative aux
traités multilatéraux,n'ont cesséde déclarerqu'ils se fondaient sans res-
triction aucune sur laCharte desNations Unies. autrement dit sur un traité
multilatéral,et ils n'ont a aucun moment laisséentendreque leur position
était sans préjudicede celle qu'ils adoptaient sur la réserve relativeaux

traitésmultilatérau?~au regard de la compétence. D'ailleurs.ils n'auraient
pas pu défendre un point de vue si contradictoire.
Tout au long de Il'instance,jusqu'à ce qu'ils décidentde ne plus parti-
ciper à la procédure:,lesEtats-Unis ont constamment invoquédes traités
multilatérauxetenparticulier la Charte desNations Unies, non seulement
pour convaincre la Cour que le différend à l'examen <résultait de))ces
traitésetétaitdoncexclude lacompétencedela Cour par laréserverelative
aux traités multilatitraux. ainsi qu'il est dit au paragraphe 46 de l'arrêt,
mais encore pour étayer leur thèse selon laquelle leurs actesà l'égarddu
Nicaragua sejustifiaient par l'article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies,
thèsequi est à la base de toute leur argumentation en l'espèce.Les Etats-
Unis ont décidéde riepas participer à la procédure surle fond mais ilsont

clairement indiqué lors de la phase de la compétenceet de la recevabilité
sur quellesbases reposait l'argumentation qu'ilsopposaient à la requêtedu
Nicaragua. Ainsi donc les Etats-Unis ont considéréque la question du
droit applicable sous-tendait entièrement leur défense.
Si le défautde compétencepar l'effet de la réserve relative auxtraités
multilatéraux suppose que le droit conventionnel multilatéral ne s'ap-
plique pas, on ne peut considérerl'insistanceà appliquer le droit conven-
tionnel multilatéral que comme un abandon de la position défendue à
propos de cette réserve.Compte tenu de laconvergence de vuesdes Parties
sur la question du droit applicable et par respect de la primauté de la
Chartedes Nations Unies,je pense que les Etats-Unis doivent êtreconsi-
déréscommeayant renoncé à leur exception fondée surla réserve relative
aux traités multilatérauxquiconcerne à la foisla compétencede la Cour et

le droit applicable. Le comportement des Etats-Unis qui vient d'être
exposépermet de conclure à un tel abandon et c'est là la seule explication
possible de leur ferme adhésionà la Charte des Nations Unies et àd'autres
traitésmultilatéraux..lconvient de rappeler que lesEtats-Unis ont déclaréconstitute the lex interpartes, and Nicaragua's claims cannot be adjudi-
cated by referring to some other, unagreed sources of law" (United States

Counter-Memorial, para. 320).

According to the Judgment of 26 November 1984,the Court hasjuris-
diction to adjudicate Nicaragua's claims based on customary international
law and the bilateral Treaty of 1956.What remains to be decided in the
merits phase on the question of the multilateral treaty reservation is
whether or not the Court is also competent to entertain the proceedings
with respect to Nicaragua's claims based on multilateral treaties and, as a
corollary thereof,what lawwillbe the applicable law. Sincethe question of
the applicable law cannot be treated independently of the multilateral
treaty reservation, the unequivocal attitude maintained by the United

States with respect to the applicable law can only be taken as waiverof the
multilateral treaty reservation. The assumption ofwaiver does not alter the
position of the Court, which has already entertained jurisdiction over the
present proceedings. Suchbeing the case,whilethe Court remains seisedof
the case as before, the rights and obligations of the Parties are subject to
both the multilateral treaty law and the related principles of customary
international law as well as rules derived from the bilateral Treaty of
1~5-..
There is no legal barrier to prevent the United States from givingeffect
to the waiver, since, according to the text df the multilateral treaty reser-
vation, the United States can always specially agree to jurisdiction. It is
also to be noted that Nicaragua has not complained in the Court of any

third State or States. It did not question the right of ElSalvador to receive
from the United States assistance, military or otherwise (Nicaraguan
Memorial, para. 193). The Court has likewise made clear in its 1984
Judgment on jurisdiction and admissibility of Nicaragua's Application
that "the rights of no other State may be adjudicated in theseproceedings"
(I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 436,para. 98).Whether or not they willbe affected
in any manner by the decision to be given, it might be appropriate to refer
to Article 59 of the Statute, which provides that a decision will have no
binding force except between the parties and in respect of the particular
case. In fact, on the question whether or not Nicaragua has acted in such a

way as to amount to resort to the threat or use of force against its neigh-
bours, the Court in the present Judgment considers the evidence to be
insufficient or inconclusive. Consequently no third party would be in al1
certainty affected thereby.

Before concluding, it may be said that the treatment of the rnultilateral
treaty reservation invoked by the United Stateshas followed a zigzagpath
for which a careful mapping would be necessary. Failure to do so will
confound the issuesresulting in contradictionsand inconsistencies, as can
bedemonstrated by theconflict between the United States stand in respect
ofjurisdiction and its stand in respect of the applicable law.They need to
be re-aligned and given comprehensiveappraisal in accordance with logic ACTIVITÉISMILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP.IND. NI) 210

que «ces traitésconstituent la lex interpartes,et [que] la Cour ne saurait
donc statuer sur les demandes du Nicaragua en se référant à d'autres
sources de droit, non acceptéespar les Etats susmentionnés (contre-
mémoiredes Etats-Unis, par. 320).

Selon l'arrêtdu ;!6 novembre 1984,la Cour est compétente pour con-
naître des griefs du Nicaragua fondéssurle droit international coutumier
et le traité bilatéralde 1956.Ce qu'il fallait encore trancher au stade du
fond, à propos de 1.aréserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux,c'étaitla
question de savoir si la Cour était aussi compétente pour connaître des
griefs du Nicaragua fondéssur des traités multilatérauxet, par voie de
conséquence,quel serait le droit applicable. Vu que la question du droit
applicable ne pouv,ait êtrerégléeindépendamment de la réserve relative
aux traités multilatéraux, l'attitude non équivoqueadoptéepar les Etats-
Unis au sujet du clroit applicable ne pouvait êtretenue que pour une
renonciation à la réserverelative auxtraités multilatéraux.Cette hypothèse
de la renonciation riemodifiait pas la position de la Cour, laquelle s'était
déjàdéclaréecompktente pour connaître de la présente instance.Dans ces

conditions, et puisque la Cour demeurait saisie de l'affaire, lesdroits et
obligations des Parties étaient subordonnés aussi bien au droit conven-
tionnel multilatéral et aux principes pertinents du droit international
coutumier qu'aux règlesdécoulant du traité bilatéralde 1956.
Aucun obstacle juridique n'empêchaitles Etats-Unis de tirer les consé-
quences de leur renonciation puisque, aux termes mêmede la réserve
relative aux traités multilatéraux,ils pouvaient toujours accepter expres-
sémentla compétencede la Cour. IIest à noter aussi que le Nicaragua n'a
pas formulédevant la Cour de griefscontre un Etat tiers ou des Etats tiers.
IIn'apas mis en cause ledroit d'El Salvadorde recevoir une aide, militaire
ou autre. de la part des Etats-Unis (mémoiredu Nicaragua, par. 193).De
même,la Cour a pirécisé dans son arrêtde 1984sur sa compétenceet la
recevabilitéde la requêtedu Nicaragua que dans la présenteinstance ...

les droits d'aucun autre Etat ne peuvent faire l'objet d'une décision ))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 436, par. 98). Que la décisionqui serait rendue
affecte ou non d'autres Etats,d'une manièreou d'une autre, il étaitpeut-
être appropriéde rappeler que l'article 59du Statut dispose qu'une déci-
sion de la Cour n'estobligatoire quepour lesparties en litige et dans le cas
qui a étédécidé D.'ailleurs,pour cequi est de savoir si lecomportement du
Nicaragua équivaut à un recours à la menace ou à l'emploi de la force
contre sesvoisins, la Cour considèredans le présentarrêt queleséléments
de preuve sont insuffisants ou non probants. En conséquence, aucun Etat
tiers ne serait indubitablement affectépar son arrêt.
Avant de conclu.re,je dirai qu'on a fait suivre à la réserve relativeaux
traités multilatéraux invoquéepar les Etats-Unis un cheminement com-
pliquéet que debonisrepèressont nécessaires, adéfautde quoi leschoses se
compliquent, ce qui entraîne contradictions et incohérences. J'en veux

pour preuve l'attitude contradictoire adoptée par les Etats-Unis à propos
de la compétence et du droit applicable. Il faut réaligner lespositions
adoptéespar les Etats-Unis et porter sur elles un jugement d'ensemble,and good sense. For the foregoing reasons, 1regret that 1cannot cast an
affirmative vote for subparagraph (1) of paragraph 292 in the operative
part of the Judgment, which finds the multilateral treaties invoked by
Nicaragua as not applicable because of the multilateral treaty reservation
of the United States. As to the other subparagraphs in which customary
international law and provisions of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce
and Navigation signed on 21January 1956are taken as bases, 1havevoted
infavour on the understandingthat relevant rules of themultilateraltreaty
law are, where appropriate, not precluded from being applied as bases in
support of the findings.

(Signed) NI Zhengyu.215 MILITAR'Y AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO . P.ODA)

A. Applicability of the "Vandenberg Reservation"
4. The present case was submitted by Nicaragua with a request for the

Court to adjudge and declare :
"(a) That the United States, in recruiting, training, arming, equip-

ping, financing, supplying and otherwise encouraging, support-
ing, aiding, and directing military and paramilitary actions in
and against Nicaragua, has violated and is violating its express
charter and treatyobligations to Nicaragua and, inparticular, its
charter and treaty obligations under :

- Article 2 (4) of the United Nations Charter ;

- Articles 18 and 20 of the Charter of the Organization of
American States ;
- Article 8 of the Convention on Rights and Duties of
States ;
- Article 1,Third, of the Convention concerningthe Duties and
Rights of States in the Event of Civil Strife."

One of Nicaragua's main allegationsis that the United States has violated
the rules of international law under several multilateral treaties which, in
one way or another, prohibit the "threat or use of force" and "interven-
tion".
5. Unlike sorrie older principles of international law, the particular
principle concerriing "threat or use of force" emerged in parallel with the

birth of the United Nations towards the end of the Second World War,
when the move to outlaw war in general was successfully made. The
principle of non-intervention, incontrast, hasa long history of application
since Emer de Vattel wrote in 1758as follows :

"It clearly follows from the liberty and independence of Nations
that each has the right to govern itself as it thinks proper, and that no
one of thenl has the least right to interfere in the government of
another." (The Law ofNations, Classicsof International Law,Trans.,
p. 131.)

Yet in ages previous to our own, some attempts were made to justify
intervention witliin the framework of international law in time of peace,
even though it could eventually be tantamount to resort to war (which in
itself was not then deemed illegal).The dual system of international lawin
timeof peace anti international lawin time ofwar was abandoned with the
emergence of the outlawry of war and the principle of non-intervention, 1. Je me suisprononcé enfaveur du sous-paragraphe 1du dispositif de
l'arrêt maisen bonne logique,comme laCour yreconnaît l'applicabilitéde
la <(réserveVandenberg )),elle n'aurait dèslors pas dû continuer à con-
naître delarequêteduNicaragua dans lamesureoùcelle-ciétaitfondéesur
l'article36,paragraphe 2,du Statut (voirci-après lapremière partie).Dans
lamêmemesure, maispour d'autres raisons quej'exposerai, je penseque la
Cour aurait dû dire en plus que ledifférenddont elleétaitsaisien'étaitpas
justiciable (voir ci-après la deuxième partie).
2. A mon avis,la Cour ne pouvait demeurer saisiede cette affaire qu'en
ce qui concerne les violations du traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de navi-

gation de 1956,conclu entre les deux Parties, qui auraient étécommises
par les Etats-Unis. Partant de ce point de vue, j'ai votépour le sous-
paragraphe 7 maiscontre le sous-paragraphe 6parce qu'ilaurait suffi que
la Cour fonde sa décisionsur le sous-paragraphe 7, et contre lesous-para-
graphe 8 parce que la décisionde la Cour qui y figure concerne un man-
quement à des obligations erga omnes découlant du droit international
coutumieret quecette décisionn'apassa placedans l'arrêtJ .e n'aipas non
plus pu voter pour lesous-paragraphe 10parcequej'estime quelaCour fait
erreur quand elle établit une relation entre les attaques des Etats-Unis
contre le territoire du Nicaragua et le traitéde 1956,et qu'en fondant son
raisonnement sur (le but et l'objet ))de ce traité, ellea outrepassé la
compétenceque lui donne la clause compromissoire qu'il contient. Sij'ai

votécontre le sous-paragraphe 11,c'est parce que les attaques contre le
territoire du Nicaragua ne peuvent pas à mon avis êtreliées à un man-
quement au traitéde 1956 ;quant à l'embargo généraslur lecommerce, il
ne doit pas êtreconsidéré commeun tel manquement (voir ci-après la
troisièmepartie).
3. J'aiétécontraintde voter contre les sous-paragraphes 2,3,4,5,9, 12
et 13pourla simpleraison quej'ai estimé, commeje l'aiditplus haut, quela
Cour n'aurait dûseprononcer sur cesquestions en laprésenteaffairequesi
cesquestions avaient relevéde la clausecompromissoire du traitéde 1956.
Toutefois, celane veut pas dire queje soisendésaccord avectouslesmotifs
dedroit exposéspar la Courau sujet des principes de la non-intervention,

de l'interdiction de l'emploide la force et du respect de la souveraineté.Il
est certain que ces principes doivent êtrerespectéspar le Nicaragua non
moins que par les Etats-Unis d'Amérique. En particulier, lefait que j'ai
votécontre lesous-paragraphe 9 ne doit pas êtreinterprétécomme impli-
quant queje suiscontre lesconclusions de la Cour sur la question qui yest
traitée.avec logique et bon sens. Pour les raisons que j'ai exposées,je n'ai mal-
heureusement pas pu voter pour le sous-paragraphe 1 du dispositif de
l'arrêt(par.92),où laCour dit que lestraitésmultilatérauxinvoquéspar le
Nicaragua ne sont pas applicables en raison de la réservedes Etats-Unis.
J'ai votépour les autres sous-paragraphes, qui se fondent sur le droit
international coutumier et lesdispositions du traitéd'amitié,de commerce
et de navigation du21janvier 1956,étant entendu que rien n'empêche, le
cas échéant,de fonder sur les règlespertinentes du droit conventionnel
multilatéral les con~clusionsénoncéesdans ces sous-paragraphes.

(Signé N)I Zhengyu.

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Separate opinion of Judge Ni

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