Separate opinion of Judge Sette-Cama

Document Number
070-19860627-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
070-19860627-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SETTE-CAMARA

Since 1 have voted against subparagraph (1) of paragraph 292 of the
Judgment, 1feelmyselfobliged to append this separate opinion stating my
reasons.
During the previous proceedings relating to thejurisdiction and admis-
sibility of the Nicaraguan Application of 9 April 1984,the multilateral
treaty reservation attached to the 26 August 1946United States Declara-
tion of Acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction under Article 36, para-

graph 2,of the Statute was subjected to thorough and detailed discussion,
leading to the decision of the Court in theJudgment of 26November 1984.
The two Parties in their arguments examined the reservation in al1 its
aspects, and weighed al1possible interpretations of its rather nebulous
wording and the consequences of its application.
It should be recalledthat the reservation iscontained inproviso(c) to the
Declaration, which excludes from the operation of the clause

"disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) al1parties to
the treaty affected by the decision are also parties to the case before
the Court, or (2) the United States of America specially agrees to
jurisdiction" (I.C.J. Yearbook 1984-1985, p. 100).

Five member States have appended a similar reservation to their Decla-
rations of Acceptance, namely, ElSalvador, India, Malta, Pakistan and the
Philippines. However,only the reservations of Pakistan and Malta include

the wording appearing in the United States reservation "al1parties to the
treaty affected by the decision". The reservations of ElSalvador, India and
the Philippines exclude disputes arising from the interpretation or appli-
cation of a multilateral treaty unless al1the parties to the treaty are also
parties in the case before the Court (I. C.J. Yearbook1984-1985, pp. 75,78
and 92 respectively). Of course the latter version of the reservation is
broader in scope, because, if the multilateral treaty reservation were to be
applied as it appears in the Indian, Philippine and Salvadorian formu-
lations,al1the States parties to a multilateral convention would have to
appear before the Court together with the original parties in the case. 1t is
difficult to seehowthe reservation could apply to universal treaties suchas
the Charter of the United Nations, or even treaties of a regional ambit,
such asthe Charter of theOrganization ofAmerican States - both incause
in the Nicaraguan Application - because that would amount to bringing
before the Court the entire membership of the United Nations, and the
regional organization itself. The multilateral treaty reservation has been widely criticized by publi-
cists ever since the 1946United StatesDeclaration wasdeposited with the
Secretary-General of the UnitedNations. Indeed severalwriters, including
some eminent American scholars, have considered it ambiguous, redun-
dant and superfluous. Counsel for the United States recognizedthe doubts
connected with the ambiguity of its formulation (hearing of 15 October
1984,afternoon) :

"As the United Statesindicated in its Counter-Memorial, scholars
discussingthereservation at the timeofitsinclusion in thedeclaration

disagreed about whether the reservation required the presence before
the Court of al1treaty parties, or only of those treaty parties that
would be affected by the Court's decision."

Moreover, at that time, there werealso doubts asto the unclear wording
of the proviso, especially as to whether it referred to "the treaty affected"
or to "al1parties affected".

In the present casethe United States, whileparticipating in its previous
stages,has had the opportunity toclarify itsconstruction of themeaning of
the reservation. The United States Counter-Memorial contended in para-
graph 252 (p. 105) :

"The Court may, therefore, exercisejurisdiction over Nicaragua's
claims consistent with the multilateral treaty reservation only if al1
treaty parties affected by a prospective decision of the Court are also
parties to the case."

And in paragraph 253 (p. 105)it spelled out the "specific concerns"
behind the reservation :

"The multilateral treaty reservation reflects three specific con-
cerns :(1) the United States does not wish to have its legalrights and
obligations under multilateral treaties adjudicated with respect to a
multilateral dispute unless the rights and obligations of al1 the treaty
parties involved in that dispute will also be adjudicated ;(2) adjudi-
cation of bilateral aspects of a multilateral dispute is potentially
unjust in so far asabsent States may have solepossession of facts and
documents directly relevant to the rights of the parties to the adju-

dication interse ; and (3)adjudication of bilateral aspects of a mul-
tilateral dispute will inevitably affect the legal rights and practical
interests of the absent States." This threefold description of the reasons inspiring the reservation is not
altogether convincing. As to the first point, it would indeed be extraordi-
nary if a State making a declaration of acceptance of the Court's juris-
diction were to append to it reservations to protect the rights and interests
of third States.
In his separate opinion to the Judgment of 26 November 1984Judge
Ruda rightly observes :

"it does not seemlogical that a State submitting a declaration accept-
ing the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, but excluding certain
matters affecting its own interestsfrom thejurisdiction, should act on
behalf of third States" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 456, para. 22).
The second point is equally unpersuasive. The "sole possession of facts
and documents" by a third State is outside the competence of the Court to

appraise.And this specificknowledgehas nothing to do withparticipation
in a multilateral treaty. It ispossible that a State which isnot aparty to the
treaty rnight possess such "facts and documents". Thirdly, it is certainly
not true that "adjudication ofbilateral aspects of amultilateraldispute will
inevitablyaffect the legalrights and practical interests of the absent States"
(emphasis added). It might, or rnight not, affect them. In the November
1984 Judgment the Court itself gave a specific example of a possible
situation in which there would be no third State affected by the deci-
sion :

"By way of example we may take the hypothesis that if the Court
were to decide to reject the Application of Nicaragua on the facts,
there would be no third State's claim to be affected." (I.C.J. Reports
1984, p. 425, para. 75.)
In the Judgment of 26 November 1984the Court dealt extensivelywith
the multilateral treaty reservation in paragraphs 72 to 76 (I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 424-426).Having recognized the obscurity of the wording of the
proviso, and referred to the difficulties of interpretation which can be
traced back to its drafting, and having weighed up the meaning of similar

reservations onthepart of other States, the Court found, in paragraph 73,
that in no waycould the reservation bar adjudication, because Nicaragua's
Application relied not only on conventional law but also on violation of a
number of principles of customary and general international law, such as
the non-use of force, non-intervention, respect for the independence and
territorial integrity of States and freedom of navigation. These principles
are valid and binding in themselves,evenif they havebeen enshrined in the
provisions of multilateral treaties. The Court observes that the States to
which the argument of the United States refers, the neighbours of Nica-
ragua, namely, Costa Rica, Honduras and El Salvador, have al1made
declarations ofacceptance of theCourt'sjurisdiction and could at any timeinstitute proceedings against Nicaragua if they felt their rights and inter-
ests to be injeopardy. Theycouldalso resort to theincidentalprocedure of
intervention under Article 62 or 63 of the Statute (I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 425).Indeed, when considering the Declaration of Intervention filed by
El Salvador on 15August 1984 - whch was rejected as untimely, because
of the fact that the Court was entertaining thejurisdictional phase of the
proceedings -, theCourt did preserve the rightsof ElSalvador to intervene
on the merits. But El Salvador did not use these rights. Nor did Honduras
and Costa Rica. the onlv States that could ~ossibiv be affected bv a
decision of the court in Checurrent case.

The 1984Judgment emphasized in paragraph 75 that :"it is only when
the general lines of thejudgment to be given become clear that the States
'affected'could be identified" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 425).

Therefore the question whether other States are affected by the Judg-
ment could onlybe finally settled during the merits phase of theJudgment.
That iswhy the Court, consideringthat the formerprocedure ofjoinder of
preliminary objections to the merits has been done away with as from the
1972 revision of the Rules of Court, decided to resort to Article 79,
paragraph 7,of thepresent Rules.The Rulewas used for the first time, and
the Court found that

"the objection based on the multilateral treaty reservation of the
United States Declaration of Acceptance does not possess, in the
circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary character, and
that consequently it does not constitute an obstacle for the Court
to entertain the proceedings instituted by Nicaragua under the
Application of 9 April 1984" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 425-426,
para. 76).

The decision of the Court to apply Rule 79, paragraph 7, 1 submit, is
sound and logical. It is only when the general lines of the Judgment to be
givenbecomeclear that theStates "affected" can be identified, iftheyexist
at all. Its a curious situation : the finding as to whether there are third
States parties to the multilateral treaties in question "affected" by the
decision, and which they are, can be established only expostfacto. At the
same time the reservation, although not having an exclusivepreliminary
character, remains a preliminary objection tojurisdiction. at least in sofar
asoneof the sourcesof the lawto be applied willbe the multilateral treaties
invoked by Nicaragua in its Application of 9 April 1984.

In these circumstances, the Court feels itself under the obligation to
ascertain whether itsjurisdiction is limited by virtue of the reservation in
question (para. 47 of the present Judgment) and does so in a lengthy and
exhaustive manner in paragraphs 47 to 56 of the Judgment. It shouldbe noted that this is a sui generisprocedural situation, because
although the jurisdictional phase of the case has been closed with the
Judgment of 26 November 1984,one question of a preliminary character
(albeit not "exclusively" so) was left pending, and the decision on that
question should determine the law applicable and hence the whole struc-
ture of the Judgment.

TheCourtstarts itsexamination of theproblem byrestricting the fieldto
which the reservation could be applied, in relation to both the multilateral

treaties involved and the States whch might potentially be affected. Since
Nicaragua has recognized that the duties and obligations arising from the
MontevideoConvention on the Rights and Duties of States of 26 Decem-
ber 1933,and the Havana Convention on the Rights and Duties ofStates in
the Event of Civil Strife of 20 February 1928have been subsumed by the
Charter of the Organization of American States, the Court considers

"that it will be sufficient to examine the position under the two
Charters [theCharter of the United Nations and the Charter of the
Organization of American States], leaving aside the possibility that
the dispute might be regarded as 'arising'under either or both of the
other two conventions" (para. 47 of the Judgment).

On the other hand, in spite of the fact that the United States, in the
jurisdictional proceedings, had listed Costa Rica, Honduras and El Sal-
vador as States that could be "affected", the Court confines its consider-
ation to El Salvador, because :
"It is primarily for the benefit of El Salvador, and to help it to
respond to an alleged armed attack by Nicaragua, that the United

Statesclaimsto beexercisingaright ofcollectiveself-defence,whichit
regards as a justification of its own conduct towards Nicaragua."
(Para. 48.)
1haveno objection to thecriteria chosen by theCourt to restrict thearea
of application of the multilateral treaty reservation. In some ways it sim-

plifiesthe problem, although it isundeniable that Honduras - from whose
territory the contras operate - is as involved in the dispute as El Salvador,
to say the least. But the crux of thequestion is that the whoieof the United
States argument rests on the use of the right of collective self-defence. El
Salvador, in its Declaration of Intervention of 15August 1984,told the
Court that itconsidered itself the victimof an armed attack by Nicaragua,
and that it had asked the United States to exerciseon its behalf the right of
collective self-defence.

In paragraph 292, subparagraph (2), the Court

"Rejects thejustification of collective self-defence maintained by
the United States of America in connection with the military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua the subject of this
case."

The justification of collective self-defence, belatedly invoked by the
United States during the proceedings onjurisdiction and admissibility in
1984, if valid. should retroact at least to December 1981when the above-
mentioned activities actually began. Obviously the rejection of the Court

covers equally the same period. Therefore, collective self-defence never
justified such activitiesand the decision of theCourt in nowaychanges the
nature and character of the acts of the United States. They were not
justified bycollectiveself-defenceand they continue not tobe so. Hence,if
there isno change in the actual situation, 1do not seehow El Salvador can
claim to be "affected" by the decision of the Court. In its argument
Nicaragua neverplaced in issuethe right of ElSalvador to receivefrom the
United States al1kind of assistance, military or otherwise (Memorial of
Nicaragua, p. 193,para. 371).Therefore, ElSalvador's rightsin thisrespect
cannot be affected by a decision of the Court in favour of Nicaragua. The
decision of the Court in paragraph 292,subparagraphs (3),(4),(5),(6), (7),
(8). (9), (10) and (1l), 1 submit, could in no way affect the rights or

obligations of El Salvador. The same can be said of the provision in
subparagraph (l2), calling on the United States to cease and desist imme-
diately from the acts in question. El Salvador preserves its rights of
receiving full support from the United States for its defence. But it can
hardly be argued that El Salvador can claim a right to the continuance of
direct or indirect military or paramilitary actions of the United States
against Nicaragua, which are unrelated in any way to the territory of El
Salvador. As for subparagraphs (13) and (14) - obligation in respect of
reparation to be paid by the United States -, (15) - form and amount of
reparation, to be settled by the Court - and (16) - callingon the Parties to
settle the dispute by peaceful means -, they have nothing to do with El
Salvador. Therefore the decision of the Court as it stands in the operative
part of the Judgment could in no way "affect" El Salvador such as to

warrant application of the multilateral treaty reservation. In thissense 1do
not concur with paragraph 51 of the reasoning. Nor do 1 agree with the
argument contained in paragraph 53.The distinction between "adversely"
affectingand otherwise, is irrelevant and beside the point. Nothing in the
operative clause of the Judgment could, 1submit, "affect" the rights or
obligations of El Salvador either "adversely" or "favourably".

Likewise, 1 disagree with the conclusion in paragraph 56 that the Court
is debarred from applying the Charter of the United Nations, as a mul-
tilateral treaty.
Paragraph 55of the Judgment discusses the same problem of the appli-

cation of the multilateral treaty reservation inrelation tothe Charter of the
Organization of American States, and especially in regard to Articles 18and 20 dealing with non-intervention and the non-use of force. The Court
concludes that it rnust regard itself as without cornpetence to deal with
either of the two clairns of breach of the OAS Charter. As to the alleged
violation of Article 18 ofthe OAS Charter by the United States interven-
tion in the interna1or external affairs of Nicaragua, a subject disposed of
by subparagraph (3) of the operative part, 1fail to see by what stretch of

imagination such a decision could be said to affect El Salvador.

The so-called Vandenberg Arnendrnent applies to disputes under mul-
tilateral treaties which are also rnultilateral disputes. The current case is
between the Applicant - Nicaragua - and the Respondent - the United
States of Arnerica.AnyotherState whichhas any reason to consider that it
might beaffected by aJudgrnent of theCourt,and whichhasjurisdictional
links with the Parties in the case, and with the Applicant in particular. is
free to initiate proceedings of its ownor to intervene under Articles 62and
63of the Statute. The only relevance of the multilateral treaty reservation
in the rnerits phase of the proceedings is, 1subrnit, that the Court cannot
ignore the problern of third States parties to multilateral treaties which
might be affected by the Judgrnent, and should deal with it in the proper
terrns, narnely that they are free to cornebefore the Court to defend their

rights and interests if they so desire.

Of course the Courtcannot ignore the existenceof acertain generalized
conflict in the Central Arnerican area. JudgeRuda, in hisseparate opinion
appended to the Novernber 1984 Judgment, dealt with it in these
words :

"It is true that there is a cornplex and generalized conflict arnong
Central American countries, but not the whole conflict, with al1its
economic, social, political and security aspects, is subrnitted to the
Court, only the claims of Nicaragua against the United States. Nica-
ragua has not presented any claims against Honduras, El Salvador
and Costa Rica." (I.C.J. Reports 1984,p. 457, para. 24.)

We should abide by the categoric provision of Article 59 of the Statute,
which confines the binding force of the res judicata to the parties in the
case, and consequently bear in mind the fact that the expansion of the
effectsof theJudgment, soasto affect athird Party, constitutesa departure
frornthegeneral rule,and, likeanyexception, rnusttherefore befounded in
indisputable evidence.
For al1these reasons 1regret that the Court decided for the application
of the multilateral treaty reservation, thereby precluding recourse to the
Charter of the United Nations and the Charter of the Organization of
Arnerican States as sources of the law violated by the Respondent.
1recognize that States which voluntarily deposit declarations of accep-
tance of thejurisdiction of the Court, pursuant to Article 36,paragraph 2,
of the Statute, are free to append to the declaration whatever reservations199 MILITARY AND PARAMILlTARY ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. SETTE-CAMARA)

they deem necessary. But at the same time, the Court is free, and indeed
bound, to interpret declarations and appended reservations, as it has done
on many occasions.
1submit that the lawapplied by theJudgment wouldbeclearer and more

precise if we resorted to the specific provisions in issue, and that there is
nothing to prevent us from doing so.
The late regretted Judge Baxter has maintained the superiority of trea-
ties over other sources as evidence of law in very cogent terms :

"The most tellingargument for givingthe treaty that effect isthat it
is superior to al1other forms of evidenceof the law. In the first place,
the treaty isclear evidenceof the willof States, freeof the ambiguities
and inconsistencies characteristic of the patchwork of evidence of
State practice that is normally employed in proving the state of
international law."

And further :

"As one looksat the present state of international lawandattempts
to see into the future, it should be quite clear that treaty law will
increasingly gain paramountcy over customary international law."
(R. R. Baxter, "Treaties and Custom", CollectedCoursesof theHague
Academy of International Law, Vol. 129(1970-1),pp. 36 and 101.)

It isfor the reasons setout above that Ihavenochoicebut to voteagainst
subparagraph (1) of paragraph 292 of the Judgment. But I fully concur
with the restof theJudgment,as 1firmlybelievethat the non-use offorceas
well asnon-intervention - the latter asa corollary of equality of States and
self-determination - are not only cardinal principles of customary inter-
national law but could in addition be recognized as peremptory rules of

customary international law which impose obligations on al1States.

With regard to the non-use of force, the International LawCommission
in its commentaries on the final articles on the Law of Treaties said :

"the lawof the Charter concerning the prohibition of the use of force
in itself constitutes a conspicuous example of a rule in international
lawhaving thecharacter ofjus cogens"(InternationalLaw Commission
Yearbook, 1966, Vol.II, p. 247).

As far as non-intervention is concerned, in spite of the uncertainties
which stillprevail in thematter ofidentifyingnorms ofjus cogens,I submit
that the prohibition of intervention would certainly qualify as such, if the
test of Article 53 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties is
applied.A treatycontaining provisions by which States agree to intervene,
directly or indirectly, in theinterna1or external affairs of any other Statewould certainly fall within the purview of Article 53, and should conse-
quently be considered void as conflicting with a peremptory norm of
general internationallaw.

(Signed) JoséSETTE-CAMARA.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SETTE-CAMARA

Since 1 have voted against subparagraph (1) of paragraph 292 of the
Judgment, 1feelmyselfobliged to append this separate opinion stating my
reasons.
During the previous proceedings relating to thejurisdiction and admis-
sibility of the Nicaraguan Application of 9 April 1984,the multilateral
treaty reservation attached to the 26 August 1946United States Declara-
tion of Acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction under Article 36, para-

graph 2,of the Statute was subjected to thorough and detailed discussion,
leading to the decision of the Court in theJudgment of 26November 1984.
The two Parties in their arguments examined the reservation in al1 its
aspects, and weighed al1possible interpretations of its rather nebulous
wording and the consequences of its application.
It should be recalledthat the reservation iscontained inproviso(c) to the
Declaration, which excludes from the operation of the clause

"disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) al1parties to
the treaty affected by the decision are also parties to the case before
the Court, or (2) the United States of America specially agrees to
jurisdiction" (I.C.J. Yearbook 1984-1985, p. 100).

Five member States have appended a similar reservation to their Decla-
rations of Acceptance, namely, ElSalvador, India, Malta, Pakistan and the
Philippines. However,only the reservations of Pakistan and Malta include

the wording appearing in the United States reservation "al1parties to the
treaty affected by the decision". The reservations of ElSalvador, India and
the Philippines exclude disputes arising from the interpretation or appli-
cation of a multilateral treaty unless al1the parties to the treaty are also
parties in the case before the Court (I. C.J. Yearbook1984-1985, pp. 75,78
and 92 respectively). Of course the latter version of the reservation is
broader in scope, because, if the multilateral treaty reservation were to be
applied as it appears in the Indian, Philippine and Salvadorian formu-
lations,al1the States parties to a multilateral convention would have to
appear before the Court together with the original parties in the case. 1t is
difficult to seehowthe reservation could apply to universal treaties suchas
the Charter of the United Nations, or even treaties of a regional ambit,
such asthe Charter of theOrganization ofAmerican States - both incause
in the Nicaraguan Application - because that would amount to bringing
before the Court the entire membership of the United Nations, and the
regional organization itself. OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. SE'ITE-CAMARA

[Traduction /

Ayant votécontr'elesous-paragraphe 1du paragraphe 292de l'arrêtj,e
crois devoir en expliquer la raison dans la présente opinion indivi-
duelle.
Dans laphase pré:cédentd eeI'affaire, relatiàlacompétencede laCour
et àla recevabilitéde la requêtenicaraguayenne du 9 avril 1984,la réserve
relative aux traités multilatéraux figurantdans la déclaration d'accepta-

tion de lajuridiction de la Cour faite le26 août 1946par les Etats-Unis en
vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut a fait l'objet d'un examen
approfondi qui a conduit à la décision prisepar la Cour dans son arrêtdu
26 novembre 1984. Les deux Parties ont étudié laréservesous tous ses
aspects ;elles ont pesétoutes les interprétations possibles de sa rédaction
nébuleuse, ainsique les conséquencesqu'aurait son application.
Il faut rappeler que cette réservefigurà la clausec)de la déclarationet
stipule que cette dernière ne s'applique pas

<(aux différends résultant d'un traité multilatéral, à moins que
1) toutes les p,artiesau traité que la décisionconcerne soient égale-
ment parties à I'affaire soumiseà la Cour, ou que 2) les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique acceptent expressément la compétence de la Cour H
(C.I.J.Annuaire 1984-1985,p. 76).

Cinq Etats membres ont introduit une réserve analogue dans leur
déclaration d'acceptation :El Salvador, l'Inde, Malte, le Pakistan et les
Philippines. Cependant, en réalité, seules les réservefsormuléespar le
Pakistan et par Malte reprennent le libelléqui figure dans la réservedes
Etats-Unis, soit lei; mots (<toutes les parties au traité que la décision
concerne o.Les réserves formuléespar El Salvador, par l'Inde et par les
Philippines excluent de lacompétenceobligatoirede la Cour lesdifférends
auxquels peuvent donner lieu l'interprétation oul'application d'un traité

multilatéral,sauf si toutes les parties au traitésont égalementparties à
l'affaire portéedevant la Cour (C.I.J. Annuaire 1984-1985,p. 75, 80et 96
respectivement). Il va de soi que cette dernière version de la réservea une
portéeplus large,di1fait que sil'onappliquait la réserverelativeaux traités
multilatérauxtellequ'elle figuredans la formule de l'Inde, desPhilippines
et d'El Salvador, tous les Etats parties à une convention multilatérale
devraient comparaitre devant la Cour avec les parties à l'affaire. Il est
difficile de voir comment la réservepourrait s'appliquer à des traitésde
caractère universel tels que la Charte des Nations Unies, ou même à des
traités d'une portéerégionale telsque lachartedel'organisation desEtats
américains - l'une et l'autreétantinvoquéesdans la requêtedu Nicaragua

- car cela équivaudrait à amener devant la Cour l'ensembledes Membres The multilateral treaty reservation has been widely criticized by publi-
cists ever since the 1946United StatesDeclaration wasdeposited with the
Secretary-General of the UnitedNations. Indeed severalwriters, including
some eminent American scholars, have considered it ambiguous, redun-
dant and superfluous. Counsel for the United States recognizedthe doubts
connected with the ambiguity of its formulation (hearing of 15 October
1984,afternoon) :

"As the United Statesindicated in its Counter-Memorial, scholars
discussingthereservation at the timeofitsinclusion in thedeclaration

disagreed about whether the reservation required the presence before
the Court of al1treaty parties, or only of those treaty parties that
would be affected by the Court's decision."

Moreover, at that time, there werealso doubts asto the unclear wording
of the proviso, especially as to whether it referred to "the treaty affected"
or to "al1parties affected".

In the present casethe United States, whileparticipating in its previous
stages,has had the opportunity toclarify itsconstruction of themeaning of
the reservation. The United States Counter-Memorial contended in para-
graph 252 (p. 105) :

"The Court may, therefore, exercisejurisdiction over Nicaragua's
claims consistent with the multilateral treaty reservation only if al1
treaty parties affected by a prospective decision of the Court are also
parties to the case."

And in paragraph 253 (p. 105)it spelled out the "specific concerns"
behind the reservation :

"The multilateral treaty reservation reflects three specific con-
cerns :(1) the United States does not wish to have its legalrights and
obligations under multilateral treaties adjudicated with respect to a
multilateral dispute unless the rights and obligations of al1 the treaty
parties involved in that dispute will also be adjudicated ;(2) adjudi-
cation of bilateral aspects of a multilateral dispute is potentially
unjust in so far asabsent States may have solepossession of facts and
documents directly relevant to the rights of the parties to the adju-

dication interse ; and (3)adjudication of bilateral aspects of a mul-
tilateral dispute will inevitably affect the legal rights and practical
interests of the absent States."de l'organisation des Nations Unies ou de cette organisation régionale.
La réserve relative aux traitésmultilatéraux a ététrèslargement criti-
quéepar les publicustes dès 1946 lorsque les Etats-Unis ont déposé leur
déclaration auprès du Secrétairegénéralde l'organisation des Nations
Unies. En effet, plusieurs auteurs, y compris d'éminents juristes améri-
cains, ont jugé qu'elleétait ambiguë, redondante et superflue. Le conseil
des Etats-Unis d'Aimériquea reconnu que la réservecontient une ambi-
guïtédans son libelléqui estune sourced'incertitudes (audience du 15oc-

tobre 1984,après-midi) :

<(Comme le:<Etats-Unis l'indiquaient dans leur contre-mémoire,
lesjuristes quiont étudiécetteréserveau momentoù ellea été ajoutée
à la déclaration n'étaientpas d'accord sur la question de savoir si la
réserve nécessitaitque toutes les parties au traité soient parties à
l'affaire soumise à la Cour,ou sine devaient êtreparties à cette affaire
que les parties au traité qui seraient concernéespar la décisionde la
Cour. ))

En outre. on avait à l'époque égalemend tes doutes sur le sens du libellé
peu clair de laclause, enparticulier pour cequi est de savoir si l'expression

que la décisionconcerne (((affected by the decision w)s'applique à
((parties ))ou à traitéo.
Dans le cas d'espèce, lesEtats-Unis, lorsqu'ils ont participéaux phases
précédentesde l'affaire, ont eu la possibilité d'éclaircirleur interpréta-
tion de la signification de la réserve.Dans leur contre-mémoire, au para-
graphe 252, les Etats-Unis soutiennent ce qui suit :

((La Cour ne pourrait donc exercer sajuridiction et statuer sur les
demandes du Nicaragua de manièreconforme à la réserverelativeaux
traitésmultilatéraux que si toutes les parties aux traitésviséspar la

décisionde la Cour étaient aussi parties à l'instance.))
préoccupations précises
Et au paragraphe 253 ils expliquent les
auxquelles répond la réserve :

((La réserverelativeaux traités multilatérauxrépond àtrois préoc-
cupations précises : 1) les Etats-Unis refusent qu'une juridiction se
prononce, à l'occasion d'un différendmultilatéral, sur les droits et
obligations juridiques découlant pour eux d'un traité multilatéral,
sans se prononcer aussi sur les droits et obligations de toutes les
parties audit tiraitémultilatéral qui sont intéresséesau mêmediffé-
rend ;2) une décisionjudiciaire sur les aspects bilatéraux d'un dif-
férendmultilaitéralrisque d'être injuste,dans la mesure où les Etats

absents peuvent êtreles seuls à connaître des faits et à posséderdes
documents prksentant un intérêt directpour les droits mutuels des
parties à I'instiince; 3) une décisionjudiciaire sur les aspects bilaté-
raux d'un différend multilatéral porte nécessairement atteinte aux
droits juridiques et aux intérêts pratiquesdes Etats absents. This threefold description of the reasons inspiring the reservation is not
altogether convincing. As to the first point, it would indeed be extraordi-
nary if a State making a declaration of acceptance of the Court's juris-
diction were to append to it reservations to protect the rights and interests
of third States.
In his separate opinion to the Judgment of 26 November 1984Judge
Ruda rightly observes :

"it does not seemlogical that a State submitting a declaration accept-
ing the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, but excluding certain
matters affecting its own interestsfrom thejurisdiction, should act on
behalf of third States" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 456, para. 22).
The second point is equally unpersuasive. The "sole possession of facts
and documents" by a third State is outside the competence of the Court to

appraise.And this specificknowledgehas nothing to do withparticipation
in a multilateral treaty. It ispossible that a State which isnot aparty to the
treaty rnight possess such "facts and documents". Thirdly, it is certainly
not true that "adjudication ofbilateral aspects of amultilateraldispute will
inevitablyaffect the legalrights and practical interests of the absent States"
(emphasis added). It might, or rnight not, affect them. In the November
1984 Judgment the Court itself gave a specific example of a possible
situation in which there would be no third State affected by the deci-
sion :

"By way of example we may take the hypothesis that if the Court
were to decide to reject the Application of Nicaragua on the facts,
there would be no third State's claim to be affected." (I.C.J. Reports
1984, p. 425, para. 75.)
In the Judgment of 26 November 1984the Court dealt extensivelywith
the multilateral treaty reservation in paragraphs 72 to 76 (I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 424-426).Having recognized the obscurity of the wording of the
proviso, and referred to the difficulties of interpretation which can be
traced back to its drafting, and having weighed up the meaning of similar

reservations onthepart of other States, the Court found, in paragraph 73,
that in no waycould the reservation bar adjudication, because Nicaragua's
Application relied not only on conventional law but also on violation of a
number of principles of customary and general international law, such as
the non-use of force, non-intervention, respect for the independence and
territorial integrity of States and freedom of navigation. These principles
are valid and binding in themselves,evenif they havebeen enshrined in the
provisions of multilateral treaties. The Court observes that the States to
which the argument of the United States refers, the neighbours of Nica-
ragua, namely, Costa Rica, Honduras and El Salvador, have al1made
declarations ofacceptance of theCourt'sjurisdiction and could at any time Cette description en troispoints des motifs qui inspirent la réserven'est

pasentièrementconvaincante. Encequi concerne lepremier point, ilserait
en effet extraordinaire qu'un Etat faisant une déclaration d'acceptation de
lajuridiction de laCour assortisse cettedéclaration de réservesdestinées à
protéger les droits letles intérêtsd'Etats tiers.
Dans son opinion individuelle concernant l'arrêtdu 26 novembre 1984,
M. Ruda fait observer àjuste titre que :

Il ne paraîtrait ...pas logique qu'un Etat faisant une déclaration
d'acceptation clelajuridiction obligatoire delaCour, maisenexcluant
de cette juridiction certaines questions affectant ses intérêtsa,gisse
pour le compte des Etats tiers (C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 456, par. 22).

Le deuxième point est tout aussi peu convaincant. L'hypothèse selon
laquelle un Etat tiers peut êtrele seul (à connaîtredes faits et à posséder
des documents ))esl.une question qui échappe à la compétencede la Cour.
Et cette connaissance spécifiquen'a rien à voir avec la question d'une
participation à un traité multilatéral.Ilestpossible qu'un Etat qui n'estpas
partie au traitépuisse connaître des faits et posséder desdocuments de ce
genre. Troisièmement, il n'est certainement pas exact de dire qu'« une
décisionjudiciaire sur les aspects bilatéraux d'un différend multilatéral

porte nécessairementatteinte aux droitsjuridiques et aux intérêtspratiques
des Etats absents ))((lesitaliques sont de moi). Ilest possible qu'elle yporte
atteinte comme il est possible que ce ne soit pas le cas. Dans son arrêt de
novembre 1984, la Cour a fourni elle-mêmeun exemple concret d'une
situation dans laquelle aucun Etat tiers ne serait affecté par la déci-
sion :

«Ainsi, dans l'hypothèseoù la Cour décideraitde rejeter la requête
du Nicaragua !surla base des faits allégués,ucun Etat tiers ne pour-
rait se dire<(affecté.))(C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 425, par. 75.)

Dans l'arrêtdu 2.6novembre 1984, laCour a examinéde façon appro-
fondie la réserve relative aux traités multilatéraux aux paragraphes 72
à 76 (C.I.J. Recueir'1984, p. 424-426). Ayant reconnu les obscuritésque
présentelelibellédi:la réserveet mentionnélesdifficultésd'interprétation
qui remontent à son élaboration, et après l'avoir comparé au sens des
réservesanalogues qui ont été faites par d'autres Etats, la Cour conclut, au
paragraphe 73,que la réserve nesaurait en aucun cas empêcher laCour de
statuer puisque le Nicaragua, dans sa requête, invoque non seulement le
droit conventionnel mais aussi la violation d'un certain nombre de prin-

cipes du droit international généralet coutumier, comme ceux du non-
recours à la force, clela non-intervention, du respect de l'indépendance et
de l'intégritéterritoriale des Etats et de la liberté de navigation. Ces
principes sont valables et obligatoires en eux-mêmes, même s'ilo snt été
incorporés dans le:;dispositions de traitésmultilatéraux. La Cour relève
que les Etats auxquels l'argument des Etats-Unis s'applique, qui sont les
voisins du Nicaragua, à savoir le Costa Rica, le Honduras et El Salvador,institute proceedings against Nicaragua if they felt their rights and inter-
ests to be injeopardy. Theycouldalso resort to theincidentalprocedure of
intervention under Article 62 or 63 of the Statute (I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 425).Indeed, when considering the Declaration of Intervention filed by
El Salvador on 15August 1984 - whch was rejected as untimely, because
of the fact that the Court was entertaining thejurisdictional phase of the
proceedings -, theCourt did preserve the rightsof ElSalvador to intervene
on the merits. But El Salvador did not use these rights. Nor did Honduras
and Costa Rica. the onlv States that could ~ossibiv be affected bv a
decision of the court in Checurrent case.

The 1984Judgment emphasized in paragraph 75 that :"it is only when
the general lines of thejudgment to be given become clear that the States
'affected'could be identified" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 425).

Therefore the question whether other States are affected by the Judg-
ment could onlybe finally settled during the merits phase of theJudgment.
That iswhy the Court, consideringthat the formerprocedure ofjoinder of
preliminary objections to the merits has been done away with as from the
1972 revision of the Rules of Court, decided to resort to Article 79,
paragraph 7,of thepresent Rules.The Rulewas used for the first time, and
the Court found that

"the objection based on the multilateral treaty reservation of the
United States Declaration of Acceptance does not possess, in the
circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary character, and
that consequently it does not constitute an obstacle for the Court
to entertain the proceedings instituted by Nicaragua under the
Application of 9 April 1984" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 425-426,
para. 76).

The decision of the Court to apply Rule 79, paragraph 7, 1 submit, is
sound and logical. It is only when the general lines of the Judgment to be
givenbecomeclear that theStates "affected" can be identified, iftheyexist
at all. Its a curious situation : the finding as to whether there are third
States parties to the multilateral treaties in question "affected" by the
decision, and which they are, can be established only expostfacto. At the
same time the reservation, although not having an exclusivepreliminary
character, remains a preliminary objection tojurisdiction. at least in sofar
asoneof the sourcesof the lawto be applied willbe the multilateral treaties
invoked by Nicaragua in its Application of 9 April 1984.

In these circumstances, the Court feels itself under the obligation to
ascertain whether itsjurisdiction is limited by virtue of the reservation in
question (para. 47 of the present Judgment) and does so in a lengthy and
exhaustive manner in paragraphs 47 to 56 of the Judgment.ont tous trois fait des déclarations d'acceptation de la juridiction de la
Cour et qu'ils sont libres a tout moment de saisir la Cour d'une requête
introductive d'instance contre le Nicaragua s'ilspensent que leurs droits et
leurs intérêts sontmenacés.Il leur est aussi loisible de recourir aux pro-
céduresincidentesde l'intervention en vertu des articles 62 et 63 du Statut
(C.1.J. Recueil 1984,p. 425). De fait, lorsqu'elle a examinela déclaration
d'intervention déposéepar El Salvador le 15août 1984 - pour la rejeter
comme n'ayant pas étéprésentéaeu moment voulu, mais durant la phase

de la compétence -, la Cour a réservéle droit qu'avait cet Etat d'intervenir
au stade du fond. Or El Salvador n'apas fait usage de cedroit, pasplus que
leHonduras et leCo:çtaRica,seuls Etats susceptibles d'être <(affectés )par
une décisionde la Cour en la présente instance.
L'arrêtde 1984souligne au paragraphe 75 que <(ce n'est qu'à partir du
moment où les grandes lignesde sonarrêt sedessineraientqu'elle[laCour]
pourrait déterminer quels Etats seraient affectés ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 425).

Par conséquent, la question de savoir quels Etats pourraient être ((af-
fectés ))par l'arrêtn~e pouvait finalement êtreréglée que pendant la phase
concernant le fond. C'est pourquoi la Cour, considérant qu'il n'étaitplus
possible d'ordonner la jonction des exceptions préliminaires au fond
depuis la revision d~iRèglementde 1972,a décidéd'appliquer l'article 79,
paragraphe 7, de son Règlement actuel. C'est la première fois que cet
article a étéappliqué,et la Cour a déclaré

((que l'objection tiréede la réserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux
figurant dans la déclaration d'acceptation des Etats-Unis n'a pas,
dans les circonstances de l'espèce,un caractère exclusivement préli-
minaire et qu'en conséquence rien ne s'oppose à ce que la Cour
connaisse de l'instance introduitepar leNicaragua dans sarequêtedu

9 avril 1984 (C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 425-426, par. 76).

A mon avis, la décisionprise par la Cour d'appliquer l'article 79,para-
graphe 7, est bonne et logique. Ce n'était qu'apartir du moment où les

grandes lignes de I'arrêt se dessineraient que la Cour pourrait déterminer
quels Etats seraient., le cas échéant, affectés o. C'est là une curieuse
situation : la question de savoir si des Etats tiers, parties aux traités
multilatéraux en cause, sont <(affectés ))par la décisionet celle de savoir
qui sont ces Etats inepeuvent êtretranchées qu'après coup. En même
temps. la réserve,bien que n'ayant pas un caractéreexclusivement préli-
minaire, demeure une objection préliminaire à la compétence, dans la
mesure tout au moins où l'unedes sourcesdedroit àappliquer est lestraités
multilatéraux invocluéspar le Nicaragua dans sa requêtedu 9 avril

1984.
Dans ces conditions, la Cour s'estime obligéede rechercher si sa
compétencese trouve limitéepar l'effet de la réserve enquestion (para-
graphe 47 du présentarrêt)et elle le fait de façon approfondie etcomplète
aux paragraphes 47 à 56 de I'arrêt. It shouldbe noted that this is a sui generisprocedural situation, because
although the jurisdictional phase of the case has been closed with the
Judgment of 26 November 1984,one question of a preliminary character
(albeit not "exclusively" so) was left pending, and the decision on that
question should determine the law applicable and hence the whole struc-
ture of the Judgment.

TheCourtstarts itsexamination of theproblem byrestricting the fieldto
which the reservation could be applied, in relation to both the multilateral

treaties involved and the States whch might potentially be affected. Since
Nicaragua has recognized that the duties and obligations arising from the
MontevideoConvention on the Rights and Duties of States of 26 Decem-
ber 1933,and the Havana Convention on the Rights and Duties ofStates in
the Event of Civil Strife of 20 February 1928have been subsumed by the
Charter of the Organization of American States, the Court considers

"that it will be sufficient to examine the position under the two
Charters [theCharter of the United Nations and the Charter of the
Organization of American States], leaving aside the possibility that
the dispute might be regarded as 'arising'under either or both of the
other two conventions" (para. 47 of the Judgment).

On the other hand, in spite of the fact that the United States, in the
jurisdictional proceedings, had listed Costa Rica, Honduras and El Sal-
vador as States that could be "affected", the Court confines its consider-
ation to El Salvador, because :
"It is primarily for the benefit of El Salvador, and to help it to
respond to an alleged armed attack by Nicaragua, that the United

Statesclaimsto beexercisingaright ofcollectiveself-defence,whichit
regards as a justification of its own conduct towards Nicaragua."
(Para. 48.)
1haveno objection to thecriteria chosen by theCourt to restrict thearea
of application of the multilateral treaty reservation. In some ways it sim-

plifiesthe problem, although it isundeniable that Honduras - from whose
territory the contras operate - is as involved in the dispute as El Salvador,
to say the least. But the crux of thequestion is that the whoieof the United
States argument rests on the use of the right of collective self-defence. El
Salvador, in its Declaration of Intervention of 15August 1984,told the
Court that itconsidered itself the victimof an armed attack by Nicaragua,
and that it had asked the United States to exerciseon its behalf the right of
collective self-defence.

In paragraph 292, subparagraph (2), the Court

"Rejects thejustification of collective self-defence maintained by
the United States of America in connection with the military and On doit souligner qu'il y avait là une situation procédurale sui generis,
étantdonnéque, bien que laphase de l'instance relative àlacompétencese

fût achevéepar l'arirêd tu 26 novembre 1984,une question de caractère
préliminaire(mêmesi elle n'étaitpas exclusivement de caractère pré-
liminaire) n'avaitpas été tranchée ; or la décisionsurcette question devait
définirle droit applicable et par conséquent dicter toute la structure de
l'arrêt.
Lorsqu'elle s'attaque au problème, la Cour commence par délimiterle
champ d'application éventuelde la réserve,tant en ce qui concerne les
traitésmultilatérauxpertinentsquelesEtatsqui pourraient êtreconcernés.
EtantdonnéqueleNicaragua a reconnu que lesdevoirs etobligations visés
dans la convention de Montevideo du 26 décembre 1933concernant les
droits et devoirsdes Etats et dans laconvention de La Havane du 20février

1928concernant les droits et devoirs des Etats en cas de luttes civilesont
étérepris dans la charte de l'organisation des Etats américains, laCour
considère comme
<(suffisant d'examiner la situation par rapport aux deux chartes [la

Charte des Nations Unies et la charte de l'organisation des Etats
américains],sarisrechercher siledifférendpeutêtreconsidérécomme
«résultant de l'une ou de l'autre de ces conventions,ou des deux
(paragraphe 47 de l'arrêt).

D'autre part, bien que les Etats-Unis aient mentionné, au cours de la
phasesur lacompétence, leCosta Rica,le Honduras et ElSalvadorcomme
étant des Etats susceptibles d'être<< affectés>),la Cour s'est bornée à
examiner le cas d'El Salvador, car :

C'est essentiellement au profit d'El Salvador, et pour l'aider à
riposter àune a.gressionarméedont il aurait étévictime de la part du
Nicaragua, que lesEtats-Unis prétendentexercer un droit de légitime
défensecollective dans lequel ils voient lajustification de leur com-
portement a 1'é:gard du Nicaragua. (Par. 48.)

Je n'ai riencontre les critères retenus par la Cour pour restreindre le
champ d'application de la réserve relative auxtraités multilatéraux. A
certains égards, cela simplifieleproblème,encore qu'ilsoitindéniableque
le Honduras - pays à partir du territoire duquel opèrent lescontras - est
pour le moins autaint engagédans ce différendqu'El Salvador. Mais le
point capital est que toute l'argumentation des Etats-Unis repose sur
l'exercice du droit de légitime défense collective.Dans sa déclaration
d'intervention en da.tedu 15août 1984,El Salvadora fait savoir àla Cour
qu'il seconsidérait commela victime d'une agressionarméede la part du
Nicaragua et qu'ilavait demandéaux Etats-Unis defairejouer àsonprofit

le droit de légitimedéfensecollective.
Au paragraphe 2'92,sous-paragraphe 2, la Cour :
<Rejette lajiustification de légitimedéfensecollective avancéepar
les Etats-Unis d'Amérique relativement aux activités militaireset paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua the subject of this
case."

The justification of collective self-defence, belatedly invoked by the
United States during the proceedings onjurisdiction and admissibility in
1984, if valid. should retroact at least to December 1981when the above-
mentioned activities actually began. Obviously the rejection of the Court

covers equally the same period. Therefore, collective self-defence never
justified such activitiesand the decision of theCourt in nowaychanges the
nature and character of the acts of the United States. They were not
justified bycollectiveself-defenceand they continue not tobe so. Hence,if
there isno change in the actual situation, 1do not seehow El Salvador can
claim to be "affected" by the decision of the Court. In its argument
Nicaragua neverplaced in issuethe right of ElSalvador to receivefrom the
United States al1kind of assistance, military or otherwise (Memorial of
Nicaragua, p. 193,para. 371).Therefore, ElSalvador's rightsin thisrespect
cannot be affected by a decision of the Court in favour of Nicaragua. The
decision of the Court in paragraph 292,subparagraphs (3),(4),(5),(6), (7),
(8). (9), (10) and (1l), 1 submit, could in no way affect the rights or

obligations of El Salvador. The same can be said of the provision in
subparagraph (l2), calling on the United States to cease and desist imme-
diately from the acts in question. El Salvador preserves its rights of
receiving full support from the United States for its defence. But it can
hardly be argued that El Salvador can claim a right to the continuance of
direct or indirect military or paramilitary actions of the United States
against Nicaragua, which are unrelated in any way to the territory of El
Salvador. As for subparagraphs (13) and (14) - obligation in respect of
reparation to be paid by the United States -, (15) - form and amount of
reparation, to be settled by the Court - and (16) - callingon the Parties to
settle the dispute by peaceful means -, they have nothing to do with El
Salvador. Therefore the decision of the Court as it stands in the operative
part of the Judgment could in no way "affect" El Salvador such as to

warrant application of the multilateral treaty reservation. In thissense 1do
not concur with paragraph 51 of the reasoning. Nor do 1 agree with the
argument contained in paragraph 53.The distinction between "adversely"
affectingand otherwise, is irrelevant and beside the point. Nothing in the
operative clause of the Judgment could, 1submit, "affect" the rights or
obligations of El Salvador either "adversely" or "favourably".

Likewise, 1 disagree with the conclusion in paragraph 56 that the Court
is debarred from applying the Charter of the United Nations, as a mul-
tilateral treaty.
Paragraph 55of the Judgment discusses the same problem of the appli-

cation of the multilateral treaty reservation inrelation tothe Charter of the
Organization of American States, and especially in regard to Articles 18 paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci qui font l'objet de la
présenteinstance.

A la supposer valable, la justification de légitime défense collective,

invoquéetardivement par les Etats-Unis en 1984durant la phase sur la
compétenceetlarec:evabilitéa ,urait uneffet rétroactifremontant au moins
à décembre1981,époque à laquelle lesactivitéssusmentionnéesont effec-
tivement commence. Ilest clairque lerejetde laCour s'applique également
à la même période.En conséquence, la légitimedéfensecollective n'a
jamaisjustifié ces activités et la décisionde la Cour ne modifie en aucune
manière la nature et le caractère des actes des Etats-Unis. Ces actes
n'étaientpasjustifiéspar lalégitimedéfensecollectiveetilscontinuent ane
pas l'êtreS. idonc la situation de fait n'a subiaucun changement, je ne vois
pascomment ElSalvador peut sedire ((affecté par ladécisionde laCour.
Dans son argumentation, le Nicaragua n'ajamais mis en cause le droit

d'El Salvadord'obtenir des Etats-Unis toute espèce d'assistance,militaire
ou autre (mémoire du Nicaragua, par. 371). Par conséquent, les droits
d'El Salvador à cet égard nesauraient êtreaffectéspar une décisionde
la Cour en faveur du Nicaragua. Les décisionsde la Cour énoncées au
paragraphe 292,sous-paragraphes 3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10et 11,ne mesemblent
pouvoir affecter en rien ni les droits ni les obligations d'El Salvador. On
peut en dire autant du sous-paragraphe 12, aux termes duquel il est
demandéaux Etats-Unis de mettre immédiatementfin et de renoncer aux
actes en question. El Salvador garde le droit qui est le sien de recevoir le
plein appui des Etats-Unis pour assurer sa défense. Maison ne pourrait

guèresoutenir qu'El Salvadorpeut prétendre à un droit à la poursuite par
les Etats-Unis d'activités militairesou paramilitaires, directes ou indi-
rectes, contre leNicaragua, qui n'auraient aucun rapport avec le territoire
d'El Salvador.Quant aux sous-paragraphes 13et 14(obligation pour les
Etats-Unis de réparer),15(formes et montant decette réparation, à régler
par la Cour) et 16(rappel aux deux Parties de l'obligation qui leur incombe
de réglerle différendpar des moyens pacifiques), ils n'ont rien àvoir avec
El Salvador. En conséquence, la décisionde la Cour telle qu'elle est
énoncée dans ledispositif de l'arrêtne saurait en aucune faqon affecter 1)
El Salvador au point de justifier l'application de la réserve relative aux
traitésmultilatéraur;. C'estpourquoi je ne puis accepter le paragraphe 5 1

des motifs de l'arrêt.Je ne puis accepter non plus l'argument énoncéau
paragraphe 53. La distinction entre les conséquences ((adverses ))et les
autres est hors de ]propos,sans rapport avec la question. A mon avis,
aucune clausedu dispositif de l'arrêtne saurait affecter >lesdroits ou les
obligations d'El Salvador, que ce soit à son détriment ou en sa faveur.
De même,je rejette la conclusiondu paragraphe 56,selon laquelle il est
exclu que la Cour applique la Charte des Nations Unies en tant que traité
multilatéral.
Leparagraphe 55de l'arrêt traite dumêmeproblèmede l'application de
la réserve relativeaulxtraités multilatérauxen ce qui concerne la chartede
l'organisation des E:tatsaméricains,en particulier lesarticles 18et 20,quiand 20 dealing with non-intervention and the non-use of force. The Court
concludes that it rnust regard itself as without cornpetence to deal with
either of the two clairns of breach of the OAS Charter. As to the alleged
violation of Article 18 ofthe OAS Charter by the United States interven-
tion in the interna1or external affairs of Nicaragua, a subject disposed of
by subparagraph (3) of the operative part, 1fail to see by what stretch of

imagination such a decision could be said to affect El Salvador.

The so-called Vandenberg Arnendrnent applies to disputes under mul-
tilateral treaties which are also rnultilateral disputes. The current case is
between the Applicant - Nicaragua - and the Respondent - the United
States of Arnerica.AnyotherState whichhas any reason to consider that it
might beaffected by aJudgrnent of theCourt,and whichhasjurisdictional
links with the Parties in the case, and with the Applicant in particular. is
free to initiate proceedings of its ownor to intervene under Articles 62and
63of the Statute. The only relevance of the multilateral treaty reservation
in the rnerits phase of the proceedings is, 1subrnit, that the Court cannot
ignore the problern of third States parties to multilateral treaties which
might be affected by the Judgrnent, and should deal with it in the proper
terrns, narnely that they are free to cornebefore the Court to defend their

rights and interests if they so desire.

Of course the Courtcannot ignore the existenceof acertain generalized
conflict in the Central Arnerican area. JudgeRuda, in hisseparate opinion
appended to the Novernber 1984 Judgment, dealt with it in these
words :

"It is true that there is a cornplex and generalized conflict arnong
Central American countries, but not the whole conflict, with al1its
economic, social, political and security aspects, is subrnitted to the
Court, only the claims of Nicaragua against the United States. Nica-
ragua has not presented any claims against Honduras, El Salvador
and Costa Rica." (I.C.J. Reports 1984,p. 457, para. 24.)

We should abide by the categoric provision of Article 59 of the Statute,
which confines the binding force of the res judicata to the parties in the
case, and consequently bear in mind the fact that the expansion of the
effectsof theJudgment, soasto affect athird Party, constitutesa departure
frornthegeneral rule,and, likeanyexception, rnusttherefore befounded in
indisputable evidence.
For al1these reasons 1regret that the Court decided for the application
of the multilateral treaty reservation, thereby precluding recourse to the
Charter of the United Nations and the Charter of the Organization of
Arnerican States as sources of the law violated by the Respondent.
1recognize that States which voluntarily deposit declarations of accep-
tance of thejurisdiction of the Court, pursuant to Article 36,paragraph 2,
of the Statute, are free to append to the declaration whatever reservations ACTIVITÉS MILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP. IND.SETTE-CAMARA) 198

portent sur la non.-intervention et le non-emploi de la force. La Cour
conclut qu'elle doit seconsidérercomme sanscompétencepour connaître
des deuxgriefs affé:rentà la violation de la chartede I'OEA.Pour cequi est

de la violation alléguée del'article 18de la charte de 1'OEApar suite de
l'intervention des E.tats-Unisdans lesaffaires intérieuresouextérieuresdu
Nicaragua - question dont traite lesous-paragraphe 3du dispositif -je ne
vois absolument pas par quel détourdel'imagination on pourrait affirmer
qu'une décisiondans ce sens serait susceptible d'affecter El Salvador.
L'amendement dit amendementVandenberg )concerne lesdifférends
portant sur des tra.itésmultilatéraux qui constituent égalementdes diffé-
rends multilatéraur;.En la présenteespèce,il s'agitd'un différend mettant
aux prises ledemandeur - leNicaragua - et ledéfendeur - les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique.Tout autre Etat qui serait fondé à considérerqu'il pourrait
êtreaffectépar un arrêtde la Cour, et qui aurait des liensjuridictionnels

avec les Parties, en particulier avec le demandeur, est libre d'intenter une
instanceen son nom propre ou d'intervenir en vertu desarticles 62et 63du
Statut. A mon avis, la seule pertinence de la réserve relative aux traités
multilatéraux au stade du fond est que la Cour ne saurait négligerle
problème des Etats tiers parties aux traités multilatéraux qui seraient
susceptibles d'être affectép sar l'arrêt,et qu'elle devrait en tenir dûment
compte, en reconnaissant que ces Etats sont libres d'ester devant la Cour
pour défendre leurs droits et leurs intérêtss'ils lejugent bon.
Evidemment, la Cour ne saurait ignorer l'existence d'un certain conflit
généralisé en Amériquceentrale. Dans l'opinion individuelle qu'ilajointe
à l'arrêtde novembre 1984, M. Ruda a traité de cette question dans les

termes suivants :
(Certes, il y a parmi les pays d'Amérique centrale un conflit
complexeet gé.néralisé m,aisce n'estpas ceconflit dans son ensemble,
sous tous ses iispects économiques, sociaux, politiques et militaires,

qui est soumis à la Cour : cesont seulement les demandes dirigéespar
leNicaragua contre les Etats-Unis. LeNicaragua n'a formulé aucune
demandecontre le Honduras, El Salvador ou le Costa Rica. (C.I.J.
Recueil 1984, p. 457, par. 24.)
Nous devons nous en tenir aux termes catégoriques de l'article 59 du

Statut, qui limitenit la force obligatoire de la chose jugée auxparties en
litige. et nous dev,ons donc nous rappeler que c'est déroger à la règle
généraleque d'étendrel'effetde l'arrêtet deprétendre qu'un Etat tiers est
affecté O,cequi comme toute exception doit êtrefondée surdes preuves
indiscutables.
Pour tous ces mlotifs,je regrette que la Cour ait décidéd'appliquer la
réserverelative auxtraités multilatéraux,empêchantpar là l'invocation de
la Charte des Nations Unies et de la charte de l'organisation des Etats
américains en tant que sources du droit violépar le défendeur.
Je reconnais que les Etats qui présentent de leur propre grédes décla-
rationsd'acceptation delajuridiction de laCour,aux termes de l'article36,

paragraphe 2,du Statut, sont libres d'assortir leurdéclaration desréserves199 MILITARY AND PARAMILlTARY ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP. SETTE-CAMARA)

they deem necessary. But at the same time, the Court is free, and indeed
bound, to interpret declarations and appended reservations, as it has done
on many occasions.
1submit that the lawapplied by theJudgment wouldbeclearer and more

precise if we resorted to the specific provisions in issue, and that there is
nothing to prevent us from doing so.
The late regretted Judge Baxter has maintained the superiority of trea-
ties over other sources as evidence of law in very cogent terms :

"The most tellingargument for givingthe treaty that effect isthat it
is superior to al1other forms of evidenceof the law. In the first place,
the treaty isclear evidenceof the willof States, freeof the ambiguities
and inconsistencies characteristic of the patchwork of evidence of
State practice that is normally employed in proving the state of
international law."

And further :

"As one looksat the present state of international lawandattempts
to see into the future, it should be quite clear that treaty law will
increasingly gain paramountcy over customary international law."
(R. R. Baxter, "Treaties and Custom", CollectedCoursesof theHague
Academy of International Law, Vol. 129(1970-1),pp. 36 and 101.)

It isfor the reasons setout above that Ihavenochoicebut to voteagainst
subparagraph (1) of paragraph 292 of the Judgment. But I fully concur
with the restof theJudgment,as 1firmlybelievethat the non-use offorceas
well asnon-intervention - the latter asa corollary of equality of States and
self-determination - are not only cardinal principles of customary inter-
national law but could in addition be recognized as peremptory rules of

customary international law which impose obligations on al1States.

With regard to the non-use of force, the International LawCommission
in its commentaries on the final articles on the Law of Treaties said :

"the lawof the Charter concerning the prohibition of the use of force
in itself constitutes a conspicuous example of a rule in international
lawhaving thecharacter ofjus cogens"(InternationalLaw Commission
Yearbook, 1966, Vol.II, p. 247).

As far as non-intervention is concerned, in spite of the uncertainties
which stillprevail in thematter ofidentifyingnorms ofjus cogens,I submit
that the prohibition of intervention would certainly qualify as such, if the
test of Article 53 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties is
applied.A treatycontaining provisions by which States agree to intervene,
directly or indirectly, in theinterna1or external affairs of any other State ACTIVITÉS MILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP. IND. SETTE-CAMARA) 199

qu'ilsjugent nécessaires. Maisen même tempsla Cour peut et doit même
interpréter ces déclarations etles réservesqui les accompagnent, comme
elle l'a fait en de nombreuses occasions.
Je suisd'avisque ledroit appliquédans l'arrêtaurait été plus clairetplus
précissi nous en avions citédes règlesspécifiques, ceque rien ne nous
empêchaitde faire.
Richard Baxter avait défendu la primauté des traités surles autres
sources du droit, en des termes fort éloquents :

L'argument le plus convaincant dans ce sens est que le traité
l'emporte sur toutes les autres sources du droit. En premier lieu, le
traitémanifeste clairement la volontédes Etats et il est exempt des
ambiguïtés et incohérences qui caractérisent les faits hétérogènes

témoignant de: la pratique des Etats usuellement invoquée pour
démontrer l'étatdu droit international.
Et de poursuivre :

<<Quand on considèrel'étatactuel du droit international et qu'on
cherche à discerner son avenir, il est manifeste que le droit conven-
tionnel l'emportera de plus en plus sur le droit international coutu-

mier. (R. R. Baxter, <<Treaties and Custom )>,Recueildes coursde
IAcadémiede droit internationa[de La Haye, vol. 129(1970-1),p. 36
et 101.)

C'estpour lesraisons énoncées plus hautqueje n'ai eud'autre choixque
de voter contre le sous-paragraphe 1du paragraphe 292 de l'arrêt. Mais
j'approuve entièrement le reste de l'arrêt,car je suis convaincu que le
non-emploi de la force, ainsi que le principe de non-intemention - ce
dernier étantle corollaire de l'égalité des Etats et du droit à l'autodeter-
mination --non seuilementsont des principes cardinaux du droit interna-
tional coutumier mais encore peuvent êtreconsidéréscomme des règles
impérativesdu droit international coutumier qui imposent des obligations

à tous les Etats.
En ce qui concerne le non-emploi de la force, la Commission du droit
international a déclarédans sescommentaires concernant son projet défi-
nitif d'articles sur le droit des traité:

<(que le droit clela Charte concernant l'interdiction de l'emploide la
force constitue en soi un exemple frappant d'une règlededroit inter-
national qui relèvedujus cogens )(Annuairedela Commissiondudroit
international,1966,vol. II, p. 270).

Pour ce qui est d~ela non-intervention, malgré lesincertitudes qui exis-
tent encore quant àl'identificationdes normes dejus cogens,j'estime que la
prohibition de 1'ini.erventionrentre assurément dans cette catégorie de
normes, sil'onapplique lecritèrede l'article53de laconvention de Vienne
sur le droit des trai1.éU.n traitécontenant des dispositions par lesquelles
des Etats conviendraient d'intervenir, directement ou indirectement, danswould certainly fall within the purview of Article 53, and should conse-
quently be considered void as conflicting with a peremptory norm of
general internationallaw.

(Signed) JoséSETTE-CAMARA.les affaires intérieuresou extérieuresde tout autre Etat tomberait indu-
bitablement souslecoup de l'article53et serait donc considérécommenul
pour la raison qu'il serait en conflit avec une norme impérativedu droit
international général.

(Signé)JoséSETTE-CAMARA.

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Separate opinion of Judge Sette-Cama

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