Dissenting opinion of Judge Schwebel

Document Number
070-19841126-JUD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
070-19841126-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SCHWEBEL

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
SUMMARY

II.QUESTION OSFJURISDICTION
A. The jurisdictional issues 3
B. The question of whether Nicaragua has standing to maintain claims
under the Optional Clause

1. The essence of Nicaragua's claims of standing 4

2. The essence of United States denial of Nicaragua's standing 5

3. A State could not become party to the Optional Clause of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice without
being party to its Statute
4. Nicaragua never became party to the Protocol of Signature of the
Permanent Court orto its Statute and henceneverwasparty to the
Optional Clause
5. The effect of Article 36,paragraph 5, of this Court's Statute on a
declaration which was not binding under the Statute of the Per-
manent Court
6. The intentions of the drafters of Article 36, paragraph 5
7. The United States understanding of Article 36, paragraph 5, on
ratifying the Statute and adopting its declaration under Article
36, paragraph 2

8. The Court's interpretation of Article 36, paragrap5
9. The listings in thYearbooks of the Court
10. Listings in .Reportsof the Court
11. The conduct of the Parties
12. Conclusion
C. The question of whether the Court has jurisdiction over the United
States

1. Jurisdiction under the Optional Clause

(i)The Connally Reservation
(ii) The Vandenberg (Multilateral Treaty) Reservation

(iii) The "1984 notification" of the United States 91-116
2. Jurisdiction under the Treaty. of Friendship, Commerce and
Navigation 117-129 Standing of Nicaragua

Nicaragua lacks standing to invoke the Optional Clause not only
because it neverhas deposited adeclaration under Article 36,paragraph 2,
of this Court's Statute, but because it never became party to the Statute of
thePermanent Court ofInternational Justice within themeaning ofArticle
36, paragraph 5, of this Court's Statute. The Protocol of Signature of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice required that it be
ratified and that an instrument of ratification be deposited with the Sec-
retary-General of the Leagueof Nations. No such deposit was made. Thus
Nicaragua was held by the League Secretariat and Permanent Court of
International Justice Registry never to have become party to the Protocol,
the Optional Clause which was an integral part of that Protocol, or to the
Statute. (Paras. 3-13.)
The intention of the drafters of the Statute of the InternationalCourt of
Justice, in respect of Article 36, paragraph 5, was to ensure that declara-
tions made under Article 36 of the Permanent Court of International
Justice Statute "and whch are still in force" shall be deemed to be

acceptances of the compulsory jurisdiction of this Court. The travaux
préparatoiresdemonstrate that by the term, "still in force" was meant
declarations which bound declarants to the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
Permanent Court of International Justice and which remain in force. The
intention was to maintain in effect declarations whichwerein effect,but it
was not to give effect for the first time to a declaration which, like Nica-
ragua's,had never come into force. That meaning is expressed as precisely
by the French text as by the English of Article 36, paragraph 5. In pro-
posing a draftingamendment to theoriginal text, the French delegation at
San Francisco apparently had not Nicaraguan but French interests in
view, namely, to make it perfectly clear that declarations which, like the
French, had expired, were not embraced by the terms of Article 36,para-
graph 5. Nicaragua's Declaration was not of a duration which had not
expired, because it was never "inspired". (Paras. 14-24.)

The four cases of this Court interpreting Article 36,paragraph 5, show

that the Court has always interpreted that Article only to embrace decla-
rations which had been binding under the Permanent Court of Interna-
tionalJustice Statute. (Paras. 26-40.)The fact that Nicaragua was listed in
the Yearbooks of this Court as bound by the Optional Clause is not
dispositive, particularlybecause the listings were accompanied by foot- notes which indicated that Nicaragua had not deposited its instrument of
ratification with the League, i.e., that it had not fulfilled a condition
precedent to being covered by Article 36,paragraph 5. Listings in reports
of this Court tothe General Assembly and in other publications lead tono
other conclusion. (Paras. 41-52.)

The conduct of Nicaragua, of other States, and of the Court, of its
Registry and the Secretary-General of the United Nations neither estab-
lishes nor confirms that Nicaragua is bound by the Optional Clause.
Beforetheseproceedings, Nicaragua never expresslystated that it believed
itself to be bound. It evaded the clear occasion to do so when Honduras
so maintained during the Arbitral Award Made by the King of Spain on
23December1906case. It rather gave the impression to the United States
and Honduras that it did not believe itself to be bound. Nicaragua never
queried or othenvise reacted to the footnotes in the Yearbook listings. In
all, its conduct, and that of other actors, is neither consistent with nor
clearly supportive of Nicaragua's position. (Paras. 53-61 .)

Jurisdiction overthe United States
There is ground for questioning whether the United States 1946adher-
ence to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction under the Optional Clause is
valid, in viewof its self-judgingproviso, the "Connally Reservation". But

that ground is not now pursued since the United States does not invoke it.
(Paras. 64-66.)
The Vandenberg"multilateral treaty" Reservationbars the Court from
assumingjurisdiction overthe United States in acasein which multilateral
treaties are pleaded and in which al1parties to the treaties affected by the
decision are not also parties to the case. It is plain from Nicaragua's
pleadings that Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvador will necessarily be
affected by the decision in the case.They are not parties.The Court evades
applying the reservation by holdings which conflict with any reasonable
interpretation of its terms and object. However, it is not clear that al1of
Nicaragua's claims should be barred, since it invokes customary interna-
tional law, which may not be pre-empted on al1relevant counts by the
terms of the treaties on which Nicaragua relies. (Paras. 67-90.)

While failing to apply the Vandenberg Reservation, the Court does
apply another provision of the United StatesDeclaration, that requiring it
to give six months' notice of its termination. The Court might be able to

justify sodoing if it equally appliedtheVandenbergReservationand other
elements of the United States Declaration.
A considerable case can be made out for the contention that, in viewofState practiceconcerningthe Optional Clause, al1declarants areentitled to
terminate or modify their declarations at any time with immediate effect.
But evenif that caseisnot accepted, and if theUnited States rather isheld
to its sixmonths' notice proviso,it does not follow that its notification of
April 1984 purporting to modify its declaration is ineffective vis-à-vis

Nicaragua. It may be ineffective erga omnes.But since Nicaragua, by the
intendment of its unconditional declaration of 1929, at any time could
terminate (or modify) that declaration with immediateeffect,reciprocally
the United Statescould terminate (or modify) its declaration with imme-
diate effect. The jurisprudence of the Court in respect of reciprocity
furnishes support for this approach, as do precedents of termination of
acceptances of the Court's jurisdiction. Moreover, the Indonesian case
demonstrates that the United Nations and the Court accepted Indonesian
withdrawal from the Organization and from the Statute on 24 hours'
notice, which indicates that such withdrawal from declarations macle
under the Statute is permissible. (Paras. 91 -116.)

Finally, the Court does not havejurisdiction over the United States in
respect of the claimscontainedinNicaragua's Application - whch alleges
acts of aggression and intervention by the United States - on the basis of
the Parties' bilateral Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation.
That Treaty is a purely commercialagreement, whose terms do not relate
to the use or misuse of force in international relations. Moreover, Nica-
ragua failed to comply with the procedural prerequisites of invocation of
the Court's jurisdiction under the Treaty. (Paras. 117-134.)

1. TheApplication in thiscase iswithout precedentin thehistory of the
International Court of Justice and the Permanent Court of International

Justice. It is unprecedented in its substance, because never before has a
State come to the Court requesting it to adjudge and declare that another
State has the duty to cease and desist immediatelyfrom the use of force
against it. It is procedurally unprecedented as well, and not, of course,
because thedefendant, the United States, challenges thejurisdiction of the
Court, for that is the characteristic response of States summoned to this
Court as Defendants. It is procedurally without precedent because the
standing of the Applicant, of Nicaragua itself to maintain suit in reliance
upon the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction under the Optional Clause is at
issue ;because theUnited States purports to have modifiedthe scopeof its
adherence to the Court's compulsory jurisdiction under the Optional
Clause on which Nicaragua relies before the filing of Nicaragua's Appli-
cation, so as to exclude the very class of case brought ;and because the
United States further pleads a reservation to the terms of its adherence to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction of a lund which the Court earlierhas
not had cause to adjudge. Thus the Court has been faced with multiple

preliminary objections to itsjurisdiction and to the admissibility of the
case which it has never passed upon before in the course of its long and
complexhstory ofjurisdictional controversy. The response of theCourt to
theseobjections necessarilyis of exceptionalimportance,not only because
of the significance of the case but because the issues ofjurisdiction and
admissibility whichit raises have profound implicationsfor the natureand
extent of the Court'sjurisdiction and for the character of the Court as the
principaljudicial organ of the United Nations.

2. 1 regret to be obliged to dissent from the Judgment,of the Court,
which 1find to be in error on the principal questions ofjurisdiction which

thecaseposes. In viewof myconclusionthat the Court lacksjurisdiction to
adjudicateupon the merits of the case, 1have not found it necessary to cet
out my views on questions of admissibility, one or more of which, not
possessing,in the words of Article 79,paragraph 7, of the Rules of Court,
"in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character",
may in any event arise at the stage of the merits. Nevertheless, the Court's
Judgmentrequired a separate vote on the admissibility of theApplication.
While1do not agree with al1of theCourt's holdings on admissibility, at the
presentstage 1do not find thecontentions of theUnited Statesconcerning
theinadmissibility of thecase to be convincing.Accordingly, 1 havejoined
the Court in voting that the Application is admissible, by which 1mean
that, if the Court hadjurisdiction - as in my view it does not - the case

currently would appear to be admissible. 1so conclude without prejudice
to any consideration of questions of admissibility which may arise at the
stage of the merits of the case.

II. QUESTION SF JURISDICTION

A. The Jurisdictional Issues

3. Thejurisdictional issuesin thecaseturn, first, on whetherNicaragua
has standing to file an Application relying, as it does, on its alleged

acceptance of thecompulsoryjurisdiction of the Court under Article 36of
the Statute, by which,Nicaragua has made clear, it means by operation of
Article 36,paragraph 5,of the Statute ;second, if it has such standing, on
whether the terms of United States adherence to the Court's compulsory
jurisdiction under the Optional Clause in force on the day on which
Nicaragua filed its Application afford the Court jurisdiction over the
parties and the claims made ; and third, on whether, in any event, the
Court hasjurisdiction over some or al1of Nicaragua's claims by reason of
thefact that Nicaragua and theUnited States areparty to abilateralTreaty
of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 1956, which provides for
submission of disputesas to the interpretationor application of theTreaty,not satisfactorily adjusted by diplomacy, to theCourt. Each of these three
large issuesin turn subsumes a number of questions, which willbe stated
and dealt with in their turn.

B. The Questionof Whether Nicaragua Hus Standing to Maintain
Claims under the Optional Clause
1. The essenceof Nicaragua'sclaims of standing

4. Nicaragua in its Application refers to the declarations made by
Nicaragua and by the United States "accepting the jurisdiction of the
Court asprovided forin Article 36ofthe Statute oftheInternational Court
of Justice ..." (introduction) and says no more than : "Both the United
States and Nicaragua have accepted the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
Court under Article 36 of the Statute of the Court" (para. 13).While the
United States filed a declaration under Article 36, paragraph 2, on 14
August 1946,which the United States (and Nicaragua) treat as valid and
generallyin force,Nicaragua has neverfiledadeclaration under Article 36,
paragraph 2, of the Statute. It relies on a declaration filed with the Sec-
retary-General of the League of Nations on 24 September 1929,uncon-
ditionally accepting thejurisdiction of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice without limit of time, and on the effect of Article 36, para-
graph 5, of the Statute, which reads as follows :

"Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice and whichare stillin force shallbe
deemed, as between the parties to the present Statute, to be accep-
tances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice for the period which they still haveto run and in accordance
with their terms."

Therationale of that reliance issummarized by Nicaragua in its Memorial
as follows :

"11. Nicaragua meets the conditions of the Article. It ratified the
United Nations Charteron 6September 1945and becamean Original
Memberof the United Nationson 24October 1945,when the Charter
came into force. Under Article 93 (1)of the Charter, it automatically
became a party to the Statute of the Court on the same date. On that
date, its declaration of 24 September 1929,accepting the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court without condition, was in effect.
Being of unlimited duration, it had not expired. Thus, when the
Charter and Statute entered into force, that declaration was, by the
terms of Article 36 (5),'deemed,asbetween the parties to the present Statute, to be [an]acceptance[]of the compulsoryjurisdiction' of this
Court.
12. The result followsfrom thelanguage of Article 36(5)and from

its purpose to maintain to the maximum extent the actual and poten-
tial jurisdiction of the Permanent Court for the newly established
International Court of Justice. The construction is confirmed by the
jurisprudence of the Court and by its practice, as well as by the
unbroken practice of the parties to this proceeding and other States
over a period of more than 30years, and by the substantially uniform
opinion of the most highly qualified publicists."

2. The essenceof the UnitedStates denial of Nicaragua'sstanding

5. The United Statesmaintains that Nicaragua lacksstanding to main-
tain its claims, because it has not adhered to thejurisdiction of the Court
under the Optional Clause. Not only has it not done so under Article 36,
paragraph 2 ;it has not done so by operation of Article 36, paragraph 5,
because the declaration which Nicaragua made on 24 September 1929
acceptingthejurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice
never came into force by reason of Nicaragua's failure to deposit its
instrument of ratification of theProtocol of Signature ofthe Statute ofthat
Court.That deposit was a necessary condition of bnnging its declaration
into force. Since the declaration - as officially attested by the Registry of
the Permanent Court of International Justice and the Secretariat of the
League of Nations - never came into force, it was never (contrary to the

Nicaraguan Memorial, para. 11) "in effect" ; "it had not expirer only
because it had never been inspired. A declaration never in forcecouldnot
"be deemed" to be an acceptance of the compulsoryjurisdiction of this
Court "for the period which" it "still" has "to run", because, since the
Nicaraguan Declaration neverbegan to run at all,it has no period in which
still to run. The United States maintains that Nicaragua never accepted
"nor intended to accept" anyobligation under the Protocol of Signature of
the Permanent Court. "Nicaragua's adherence to the Charter and subse-
quent conduct cannot constitute compliance with the requirements of the
present Court's Statute for acceptance of compulsory jurisdiction"
(Counter-Memorial, para. 31).

3. A State could not becomeparty tothe Optional Clauseof the Statute of
the Permanent Court of International Justice without being partyto its
Statute

6. On 13 December 1920,the Assembly of the League of Nations by
resolution unanimously declared its approval of the draft Statute of the
Permanent Court of International Justice "for adoption in the form of aProtocol duly ratified ..." (P.C.I.J., SeriesD,No. 1,p. 4).On 16December
1920,Members of the League signeda Protocol of Signatureby which they
declared "their acceptance of the adjoined Statute" of the Court. The
Protocol provided :

"The present Protocol ... issubjecttoratification. Each Powershall
send its ratification to the Secretary-General of the League of
Nations ; the latter shall take the necessary steps to notify such
ratification to the other signatory Powers. The ratification shall be
deposited in the archives of the Secretary of the League of Nations."
(Ibid., p. 5, emphasis supplied.)

The Protocol of Signaturehad twoparts. Section "A" contained the text of
the Protocol itself, part of which hasjust been quoted. Section "B" of the
Protocol of Signature read as follows :

"B. OPTIONAL CLAUSE
The undersigned, being dulyauthorized thereto, further declare, on
behalf of their Government that, from this date, they accept as com-
pulsory ipsofacto and without special convention, thejurisdiction of
the Court in conformity withArticle 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute of
the Court, under the following conditions :" (Ibid., p. 6.)

Thereafter, the text of the Statute followed (ibid., pp. 7 ff.).
7. Thus it will be observed that the Protocol of Signature, in a single
instrument, comprised both the Protocol itself and the form of declara-
tions by which States could adhere to the Optional Clause. When a State
signedadeclaration under the Optional Clause,it signedone section of the
Protocol of Signature, but that declaration did not take effect - it did not
bind the State making it to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction under the
Optional Clause - unless or until that Statehad ratified the Protocol of
Signature of which the declaration was a part. Article 36,paragraph 2, of

the Statute itself provided that a State could make a declaration accepting
the Optional Clause "either when signingor ratifying theProtocolto which
the present Statute is adjoined, or at a later moment ...". But it was
recognized throughout the life of the Permanent Court that a State could
not become aparty to the Statute unless itbecameaparty to the Protocol ;
and it couldnot become aparty to the Optional Clause whichwas apart of
the Protocol unless it became party to the Protocol. Those conclusions
wereofficiallyaffirmed more than onceby the LegalAdviser of the League
of Nations in communications to various States - and with specific
reference to Nicaragua (see the Counter-Memorial of the United States,
Anns. 4,6,12,23). As Manley O. Hudson put it in ThePermanent Courtof
International Justice (1934), page 388 :

"Clearly, the 'optional clause'does not stand on any independent
basis ; it is only a suggested form of the declaration which Article 36
permits to be made at the time of signing or ratifying the Protocol of Signature orata later moment.It isentirelysubsidiary to theProtocol
of Signature ; a State cannot become a party to the optional clause
unless it has become or becomes a party also to the Protocol of
Signature, andaState whichisnot effectivelyaparty to the latter does
not make abindingdeclaration by merelysigningthe'optional clause'
even without conditions."

4. Nicaragua never became party to the Protocol of Signature of the Per-
manent Courtor to its Statute and henceneverwasparty to the Optional
Clause

8. On 24 September 1929,Nicaragua's authorized representative made
a declaration under the Optional Clause in the following terms :

"On behalf of theRepublic ofNicaragua 1recognizeas compulsory
unconditionally thejurisdiction of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice." (I.C.J. Yearbook 1982-1983,p. 79 ; Registry's trans-
lation from the French.)
It had not by that dateratifiedand deposited its instrument of ratification
of the Protocol of Signature of the Court's Statute and so was not, on

making a declaration under the Optional Clause, a party either to the
Statute or to the Optional Clause. On 29 November 1939,Nicaragua, by
telegram, notified the Secretariat of the League of Nations that it had
ratified the Protocol of Signature and that the instrument of ratification
was to follow. In fact, the instrument appears never to have been sent and
certainly never was received by the League of Nations.
9. At the hearings on provisional measures in this case, Nicaragua
endeavoured to give the impression that it had ratified the Protocol and
had sent, or might have sent, the instrument of ratification, maintaining
that, as the Order of the Court of 10May 1984,at paragraph 19,recounts,
"There are quite obvious reasons why this ratification may not have
reached Geneva at the time". At the hearings at the current stage of the
proceedings, the Agent of Nicaragua indicated that the instrument of
ratification, if sent, may have been lost at sea during the Second World

War (Hearing of 8 October 1984). In its Memorial, Nicaragua acknow-
ledges that it never depositedtheinstrument of ratification to the Protocol
of Signature (e.g., at para. 44, - "The footnote shows that Nicaragua's
failuretodeposititsinstrument ofratification of the Protocol of Signature
of the Permanent Court was well known" - as well as Annex 1, which
declares that "no evidence" has been uncovered indicating that the instru-
ment of ratification "was forwarded to Geneva"). Moreover, Nicaragua
wasofficially and specificallyinformed by theActing LegalAdviser of the
League of Nations, by letter of 16 September 1942,that the League had
never received the instrument of ratification of the Protocol of Signature,
"the deposit of which is necessary to bring the obligation effectively intobeing. Perhaps that instrument was lost on the way" (League of Nations
Archives, File No. 3C/ 17664/1589, published in the United States
Counter-Memorial, Ann. 26 ; translation by this Court's Registry).

10. Thus the last Yearbook of the Court published before the Second

World War, the FifteenthAnnual Report (June 15th 1938-June15th1939),
in recording the facts respecting "the Optional Clause annexed to the
Statute of the Court" (at p. 37), provides a list of 53 "States which had
signedthe Optional Clause" (at p. 39).Nicaraguaisamong them. It further
pravides a list entitled:"The followinghad signed .. .but had not ratified
the Protocol of Signature of the Statute" (ibid.,p. 40).Nicaragua is among
three States so listed. It finally provides a list of 39 "States bound by the
Clause7'on 15June 1939 (ibid.).Nicaragua is not on that list. It was this
Yearbook to which the delegates at the San Francisco Conference on
International Organization could have had recourse when they amended
and adopted what was the Statute of the Permanent Court to transform it
into the Statute of the International Court of Justice. The Sixteenth Report
(June 15th 1939-December 31st 1945),published after the San Francisco
Conference,records, with respect to "The special protocol, annexed to the
'Protocol of Signature of the Statute' ... known as the 'Optional Clause' "
similar data. There is a list of States whch had signed the Optional Clause

"but had not ratified the Protocol of Signature of the Statute" and
Nicaragua is on that list (p. 50). There is a list of "States bound by the
Clause" and Nicaragua is not on that list (ibid.).A footnote to the entry
concerning Nicaragua, however, refers to page 331,where the following
information is recorded :

''3.PROTOCOL OF SIGNATURE OF THE STATUTE OF THE COUR?

Geneva, December 16th, 1920
According to a telegram dated November 29th, 1939,addressed to
the League of Nations, Nicaragua had ratified the Protocol, and the
instrument of ratification was to follow. The latter however has not
yet been deposited."

11. Thepublication of theseentries in the sameYearbookdemonstrates
the continuing conclusion, which the law of treaties and the provisions of
the Protocol dictated and of which Nicaragua had been officially
informed, that the sending of a telegram announcing ratification of the
Protocol coupled with failure to deposit the instrument of ratification of
the Protocol with the Secretary-General of the League, could not consti-
tute Nicaragua a party to the Protocol, to the Statute or to the Optional
Clauseof theCourt. It isincontestable that, in theconsistent interpretation
of the Registry of the Court as well as the Secretariat of the Leaguewhich

had mandatory depositaryfunctionsin respect of the Protocol,Nicaragua
never became party to the Protocol ;hence, never party to the Statute ;hence, never party to the Optional Clause of the Statute, by which Statute
and Clause Nicaragua never was - in the definitive term officially
employed - "bound".
12. The conclusion that Nicaragua was never bound was in accordance

with the jurisprudence of the Court. Thus, in the case relating to the
TerritorialJurisdictionof the International Commissionof the River Oder,
P.C.I.J., SeriesA, No. 23, the questionarose of the effect of the Barcelona
Convention of20April1921 relating to the régimeof navigablewaterways
of international concern. The Court observed that that Convention con-
tained provisions
"differing in no way from the clauses generally inserted in interna-

tional conventions of this nature ; such provisions clearly make the
coming into force of the Convention as regards each of the Parties
depend upon ratification" (at p. 21).
Thus the Court in respect of a convention which, just as the Court's
Protocol of Signatureprovided, specified that itis "subject toratification",
whose instrument of ratification "shall be transrnitted to the Secretary-
General of the League of Nations, who will notify the receipt" to other

signatories, held that a convention which a Statehad not ratified had not
corne "into force" for it. Appraising this and other cases, Dr. Hans Blix
concluded that,
"what the courts have established with increasing clarity is merely
that in law theprocedure of ratification is not a ceremonial formality
but an act by which a State becomes bound by a treaty" ("The
Requirement of Ratification", British YearBook ofInternationalLaw

1953(1954), pp. 352, 370).

Dr. Blix observed that

"there is no doubt that if an international agreement expressly stipu-
lates for entry into force by signature or ratification or some other
manner, the prescribed procedure must be complied with" (ibzd.,
p. 352).

The reason is that : "Parties to international compacts must know when
they become irrevocably bound by the compacts." (Ibid., p. 356.) That
contemporaryinternational law on this question is what the Court in the
TerritorialJurisdictionof the International Commissionof the River Oder
caseheld it to beis demonstrated by the terms of Article 14of the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties, which provides that :

"1. The consent of a Stateto be bound by a treaty is expressed by
ratification when :
(a) the treaty provides for such consent tobe expressed by means of
ratification ;.. ."Article 16of the Vienna Convention further provides that instruments of
ratification

"establish the consent of a State to be bound by a treaty upon :

(a) their exchange between the contracting States ;
(b) their deposit with the depositary ;or
(c) their notification to the contracting States or to the depositary, if
so agreed".

In thecasebefore the Court, itcouldnot be clearer that it was never agreed
that notification by Nicaragua would suffice. On the contrary, deposit of
the instrument of ratification was required by the Protocol of Signature
and insisted upon by the depositary who, in default of deposit, notified
Nicaragua that it was not bound.
13. However,whileit cannot bedenied - and Nicaragua itself does not
deny - that its Declaration of 1929 never bound it to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice (and thisfact
is repeatedly recognized by the Court in today's Judgment), Nicaragua
maintains that the matter does not rest there. While it did not do soat the
stage of provisional measures, it now contends that its ratification of the

United Nations Charter and its appended Statute of this Court was suf-
ficient to givelife to adeclaration which othenvisehad been and remained
inoperative. The Court, inits Order of 10May 1984,and 1,in my dissent to
that Order, were prepared to consider that argument as affording a pos-
siblebasis for the Court'sjurisdiction in this case. Butwhilethe Court now
accepts that argument as affording a definitive basis of jurisdiction, on
analysis which the time afforded at the stage of provisional measures did
not admit, 1have concluded that that argument is utterly inadequate. Nor
do 1 accept the allied argument that the conduct of this Court and its
Registry and of the United Nations, and of Nicaragua and other States,
endows Nicaragua with a standingand the Court with ajurisdiction which
the operation of the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 5, does not
engender.

5. The effect of Article 36, paragraph 5, of this Court'sStatute on a decla-

ration which was not bindingunder the Statute of the Permanent
Court

14. Nicaragua concedes that its 1929Declaration, at the time immedi-
atelyprior to its ratification of the United Nations Charter, lacked "bind-
ing force" (Nicaraguan Memorial, para. 178,E). The Court,in paragraph
26of today'sJudgment, holds that "the declaràtion made by Nicaragua in
1929had not acquired binding force prior to such effect as Article 36,
paragraph 5, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice mightproduce". The critical question accordingly is : despite the acknowledged
fact that Nicaragua's 1929Declaration lacked binding force, is it a decla-
ration which, in the terms and meaning of Article 36, paragraph 5, of the
Statute, was "made under Article 36of the Statute of the Permanent Court
of International Justice and which" is "still in force" ?

15. Nicaragua maintains that Article 36, paragraph 5 :

"does not speak of parties to the Statute of the Permanent Court but
of declarations accepting itsjurisdiction. Such a declaration made by
a State not aparty to the Statute and that by its terms had not expired
was a declaration 'in force' .. .it 'remained in an imperfect but not
invalid state' ; ...The effect of Article 36 (5),in the case of Nicara-
gua, was to make its ratification of the Statute of this Court ... the
equivalent ofratification of theold Statute - theact that perfectedthe
declaration . ..That is the significance of the use of the language
'deemed. ..to be acceptances of the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
International Court of Justice. ..' " (Memorial, paras. 13, 14.)

Does this imaginativeconstruction of Article 36, paragraph 5, withstand
analysis ?
16. In the first place, it is beyond dispute that, in the understanding of
international law, "in force" means, and equates with, "bound". One need
look no further than the provisions of the Vienna Convention on the Law
ofTreaties, Articles 2(1) (b),24,25 and 84.Article 24in particular makes it
crystal clear that a "treaty enters into forceassoon asconsent tobe bound

by thetreaty has been established ...". Asthe late SirHumphrey Waldock
put it, in his capacity of Special Rapporteur of the International Law
Commission on the law of treaties, "the basic rule" is that "the entry into
force of the treaty automatically makes it binding upon the parties"
(Yearbook of theInternational Law Commission, 1962,Vol. II,p. 71). It is
undeniable that an instrument of ratification establishing Nicaragua's
consent to be bound by the Statute of the Permanent Court was never
received by the depositary ; rather, its failure to become so bound was
established by the depositary, the Secretary-General of the League of
Nations, and by that Court's Registry ;consequently, the Statute of the
Permanent Court never entered into force for it. The question which then
arises is : despite that conclusion of fact and law, did its declaration
accepting the jurisdiction of the Permanent Court enter into force ?

17. To answer that question requires a reviewof the drafting history of
Article 36, paragraph 5, and of the meaning attached to that article by
those who were concerned with its acceptance, and, as well, of the judg-
ments of this Court interpreting Article 36,paragraph 5. It also requires a

consideration of the effect of the treatment of Nicaragua's Declaration of 1929in the Yearbooks of the two Courts, the Reports of this Court to the
General Assembly, and elsewhere, and of the conduct of the Parties.

6. The intentions of the drafters of Article 36,paragraph 5

18. In the eyes of the drafters of the Statute of the Court, what was
Article 36, paragraph 5, designed to acheve ? The Committee of Jurists
which, in preparation for the San Francisco Conference, met in Washng-
ton on 14April 1945,had beforeit the following observation of the United
Kingdom :
"One question which will arise in connection with Article 36, is

what action should be taken concerning the existing acceptances of
the 'optional clause', by whicha number of countries have, subject to
certain reservations,bound themselvesto accept thejurisdiction of the
Court as obligatory.Should these acceptances be regarded as having
automatically come to an end or should some provision be made for
continuing them in force with perhaps a provision by which those
concerned could revise or denounce them." (Documentsof the United
Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco,
1945, Vol. XIV, p. 318 ;emphasis supplied.)

In response, the subcommittee took a straightforward position
"The subcommittee calls attention to the fact that many nations
have heretofore accepted compuIsolyjurisdiction under the 'optional
clause'.The subcommittee believes that provision should be made at
the San Francisco Conference for a special agreement for continuing
these acceptancesin force for the purpose of this Statute." (Ibid.,

p. 289 ; emphasis supplied.)
Let us apply these seminal statements of the purpose of what came to be
Article 36,paragraph 5,to the facts and question at issue.The intention of
the drafters of Article 36,paragraph 5, in addressing existing acceptances
under the Optional Clauseby which States were"bound", was to deal with
the fact that "many nations have heretofore accepted compulsory juris-
diction under the 'Optional Clause' ".It was clear that Nicaragua was not

among suchnations. It wasclearby, interalia,the terms of theYearbook of
the Permanent Court, which listed Nicaragua as a State which was not
bound by compulsoryjurisdiction under the Optional Clause (supra,para.
11).Moreover, the Committee of Jurists contemplated that what came to
be Article 36,paragraph 5, would be tantamount to a special agreement
"continuing these acceptances in force for the purpose of this Statute".
That phrase imports that declarations, to be continued in force, were in
force. Nicaragua's was not.
19. In pursuance of this purpose of the Committee of Jurists, a Report
of 31 May 1945 to Commission IV (Judicial Organization) of the San
Francisco Conference proposed to add to Article 36 of the Statute the
following provision : "Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice and whch are stillinforceshall be
deemed as between the parties to the present Statute to have been
made under this Article and shall continue to apply, in accordance

with their terms." (Documentsof the United Nations Conferenceon
International Organization, Vol. XIII, p. 558.)
With reference to a text of this substance,the British representative at San
Francisco three days earlier had said :

"If the Comrnittee decides to retain the optional clause, it could
provide for the continuing validity of existing adherencesto it. Since
forty members of the United Nations are bound by it, compulsory
jurisdiction would to this extent be a reality." (Ibid.,p. 227;emphasis
supplied.)

Thus it appears that what was sought was the "continuing validity" of
adherencesby whch States were "bound" under the Statute of the Per-
manent Court. At that juncture, the corresponding French text of what
came to be Article 36, paragraph 5, read :
"Les déclarations encore en vigueur, faites en application de l'ar-

ticle 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale
seront considérées,en cequi concerne les rapports réciproques des
parties au présent Statut, comme ayant été faitesen application du
présent article, et continueront à s'appliquer, conformément aux
conditions qu'elles stipulent." (Ibid., p. 565.)
Thereafter, on 5 June 1945,the French representative proposed the fol-
lowing alternative wording :

"Les déclarationsfaitesen application de l'article36du Statut dela
Cour permanente de Justice internationale pour une durée quin'est
pas encoreexpiréeseront considéréesd , ans les rapports entre parties
au présent Statut, comme comportant acceptation de lajuridiction
obligatoirede la Cour internationale de Justicepour la durée et dans
les conditions expriméespar ces déclarations." (Ibid., p. 486.)

The "Proposals by the Delegation of France Relating to Article 36 of the
Statute of the International Court of Justice" which havejust been repro-
duced in their French version wereduplicatedin the Englishtext proposed
by France as follows :

"Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justiceand which arestillin forceshall be
deemed, as between the parties to the present Statute, as including
acceptance of compulsoryjurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice for the time and under the conditions expressed in these
declarations." (Ibid., p. 485.)

The French representative, who thus proposed (on thepoint at issuein the instant case) to maintain the English text unchanged, on 7 June 1945
understandably explained hisproposed recasting of the French text onlyof
Article 36,paragraph 5 - then numbered as Article 36, paragraph 4 - as

follows :
"The French Representative stated that the changes suggested by
him in paragraph (4)were not substantive ones, but were intended to
improve the phraseology." (Zbid.,pp. 284, 290.)

The Committee at the meeting of 7June thereupon unanimously adopted
the text of Article 36,paragraph 5,inthe terms in whch they appear in the
Statute (ibid., p. 284). The relevant report of 9 June 1945observes :

"In a sense. . the new Court may be looked upon as the successor
to the old Court which is replaced. The succession will be explicitly
contemplated in some of the provisions of the new Statute, notably in
Article 36, paragraph 4, and Article 37. Hence, continuity in the
progressive development of thejudicial process will be amply safe-
guarded.

A new paragraph 4 [now 51was inserted to preserve declarations
made under Article 36 of the old Statute for periods of time whch

have not expired, and to make these declarations applicable to the
jurisdiction of the new Court." (Zbid.,pp. 307, 314, 328.)

The French text of that latter passage reads :

"On a inséré un nouveauparagraphe 4 afin de maintenir les décla-
rations formulées d'après l'article 36 de l'ancien Statut pour des
périodesqui n'ont pas encore expiréet pour rendre ces déclarations
applicables à la juridiction de la nouvelle Cour." (Zbid.,p. 348.)

Thereafter, the text ofArticle 36,paragraph 5,remained unchanged. Little
further light is shed upon its meaning by the San Francisco travaux pré-
paratoires.
20. However, the illumination provided by the San Francisco proceed-
ings is bright enough. For it is clear that the new paragraph, as the San
Franciscorecords state, "was inserted topreserve declarations made under
Article 36of theold Statute for periods of timewhichhavenot expired, and
tomake these declarations applicableto thejurisdiction of the new Court"
(emphasis supplied). The purpose of Article 36, paragraph 5, was not to
invest nugatoq declarations whichwereneverin effectwith initial force, it

was "to preserve" declarations in force under thePermanent Court for the
new Court - declarations by which States were, as the Committee of
Jurists put it, "bound".

21. Moreover, theFrench text of Article 36,paragraph 5,was designed,
and was clearly stated by its author to be, substantively identical to the English.Indeed, France itself apparently proposed to maintain the English
text asit was,and thiswas accepted. Article 36,paragraph 5,wasinitially a
British proposal. France proposed a revised text which it indicated was
substantively the same as the English. The motivations of the French
amendment arenot altogetherclear. The Court appears to believe that its
purpose was, by the operation of Article 36, paragraph 5, to maintain in
force not only declarations of the Permanent Court which were in force,

but togiveeffectto declarations whichhad been made but whch neverhad
come into force. It seems likelier that the French amendment may have
been stimulated by the perception that the phrase in English, "and which
are still in force"- initially translated "encore en vigueur" (a phrase
which, as the Nicaraguan Memorial points out at paragraph 17is char-
acteristic of treaty usage but not declarations which are "unilateral acts")
- wouldbe morepreciselytranslated if "still inforce" wererendered "pour
une durée quin'est pas encore expirée" because the latter phrase empha-
sizedthecontinuing validity ofdeclarations whichhad not yet expired. But
that change did not change the meaning of the English text so as to
embrace declarations which had never come into force, because a decla-
ration of a duration whch has not yet expired must nevertheless be a
declaration which initially was "inspired". TheFrench text may wellhave
been meant to make the clearer that declarations in force under the Per-
manent Court's Statute which have not by their terms expired should be

"preserved" (asit wasput in the English text of the rapporteur's report) or
"maintained" ("afin de maintenir") asit wasput in the French, but there is
no indication of the French amendment being designed to give life to a
declaration which had never come into force. The Nicaraguan Memorial
argues, in paragraph 48, that there was in fact only one such declaration,
that of Nicaragua. Can it be plausibly maintained that the object of the
French amendment was togiveforcefor thefirst time to Nicaragua's 1929
Declaration ?Or may it be more plausibly argued that Francehad French,
rather than Nicaraguan, interests in view ?

22. The trueclueto the object of the French delegation in proposing its
amendment to the French text of Article 36,paragraph 5,may be found in
thejoint dissent of threejudges ofthis Courtinthe AerialIncidentcase,the
probative passage from which is quoted below at paragraph 34. That
passage infers that France moved its amendment in order to make clear

beyond a doubt that Article 36,paragraph 5,did not embracedeclarations
of aduration whichhadexpired.France's declaration wasprecisely of that
character. On the day in San Francisco on which France moved its
amendment, there wasno French Declaration stillin forcewhichhad been
made under Article 36of the Statute of thePermanent Court.There wasno
French Declaration "en application de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour
permanente de Justice internationale pour une duréequi n'est pas encore
expirée",for the pertinent reason that the last French Declaration under
the Permanent Court's Statute had been renewed for five years, from 25April 1936(P.C.I.J., Fijteenth Annual Report, p. 221). Accordingly it had
expired in 1941.Apparently Francedid not wish the possibility to remain
of its being revived by the operation of Article 36, paragraph 5, and to
make that point still clearer - it was clear in the English text and the

original French but not so precisely and fully expressed in the original
French as it was by the terms of the French amendment - France moved
its amendment. This explanation, while not certain, surely is far more
plausible - and probable - than that advanced by Nicaragua and
accepted by the Court.

23. While it is clear that the intention at San Francisco in drafting
Article 36,paragraph 5, was to preserve declarations under the Statute of
the Permanent Court which werein force, theFrench text of the Article is,

with some strain, capable of the broader interpretation which the Court
givesit,namely, thatit ismeant to giveforce to declarations whichby their
own terms had not expired (even if they never had come into force). The
French text is also more than capable of supporting the narrower inter-
pretation setout in thepreceding paragraphs, whichisfully consistent with
the English text ; and, since the original English text remained unchanged,
since it was indeed apparently accepted by the French delegation itself as
the correct English version of its own amendment, and since the French
representative declared that his amendment was not substantive, there is
every reason to conclude that France itself attached the narrower inter-
pretation to what it described asan amendment designed "to improve the
phraseology". But let us assume, arguendo,what has not been and cannot

be shown,namely, that thebroader meaning is the meaning which France
meant toattach toArticle 36,paragraph 5.Under the lawof treaties, where
two authoritative texts in two languages differ, which is to be taken as
governing ? Article 33,paragraph 4, of the Vienna Convention on the Law
of Treaties provides that,

"when a comparison of the authentic texts discloses a difference of
meaning ..., the meaning which best reconciles the texts, having
regard to the object and purpose of the treaty, shall be adopted".

Now it has been shown that the object and purpose of Article 36, para-

graph 5, of the Statute was to "continue" or to "preserve" declarations
made under the Optional Clause of the Statute of the Permanent Court by
which Statesparty to that Statute were "bound" (supra, para. 18).That is,
the object and purpose are expressed by the narrower interpretation only.
Moreover, if one takes the narrower ground which is held by the English
text, it is also quite reasonably understood to be held by the French text ;
that is to Say,both texts can be "best reconciled" on this narrower ground.
But if one ascribes thebroader interpretation to the French text, then one
must leave the English text - not to speak of the texts in the three otherauthentic languages, the Spanish of which was attached to Nicaragua's
ratification - out of account. For it is undeniable that the meaning which
attaches to the English text,and to the Spanish, Russian and Chinese texts,
is that Article 36, paragraph 5, encompassesonly declarations whch are
"still" in force, a term which surelyimports that such declarations came

intoforcein thefirst place.Accordingly, by dint of application of the rules
of the lawof treaties governinginterpretation of differentlanguage texts,it
is not possible to sustain the contention that Article 36,paragraph 5,was
meant to give force to ineffectivedeclarations.
24. In sum, the San Francisco proceedings do not support two key
contentions of Nicaragua in respect of Article 36, parilgraph 5 : the pur-
pose of that provision was not, as Nicaragua's Mernorial contends, "to
maintain to the maximum extent the actual and potential jurisdiction of
the PermanentCourt" but onlyits actualjurisdiction ;and that purpose is
expressed as preciselyby the French text, wbich must on thisissue be read
consistently with the English to relate only to declarations which were in
force under the Statute of the Permanefit Court, i.e., declarations which
bound the declarant States, of which Nicaragua was not one.

7. The UnitedStates understandingof Article 36,pa~tigraph5, on ratifying
the Statute and adoptingits declarat@nunder4rticle 36,paragraph 2

25. The United States, in ratifying the Statute, and in adhering to the

Optional Clause, interpreted Article 36, paragraph 5, as embracing only
those declarations which werein force under the Statute of the Permanent
Court.The United Statesfurther appearsto haveunderstood that Article
36,paragraph 5,did not embraceNicaragua's Declaration of 1929.These
conclusions are supported by the following passages from the United
States Counter-Memorial :

"79. The United States understanding, both at the San Francisco
Conference and in making its own declaration for the new Court
under Article 36 (2), was also that Article 36 (5) applied only to
declarations in force for the Permanent Court. The United States
specifically understood that Nicaragua was not one of those States
that would be deemed to have accepted this Court's compulsory
jurisdiction for purposes of reciprocity under Article 36 (2).

80. The United Statesdelegation to the SanFrancisco Conference
reported theproceedings to the President on 26June 1945,and acopy
of this report was submitted to the Senate on 9July 1945.The Report
describedArticle 36(5)as'maintaininginforcewith respect to the new
Court, declarations made under the old Statute whereby many States577 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO. P.SCHWEBEL)

acceptedthe compulsoryjurisdiction of the old Court'. Report to the
President, at p. 124(italics added).

81. Green H. Hackworth, the principal legal adviser to the U.S.

delegation at San Francisco and later a member of this Court,
described Article 36 (5) in similar terms. In testimony before the
Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1945asit considered United
States membership in the United Nations, Judge Hackworth ex-
plained that Article 36(5) wasintended to address the concern that -

'states that had acceptedcompulsoryjurisdiction under thepresent

Court [the Permanent Court] would no longer be bound by their
acceptance if a new Court were set up. That was taken care of by a
provision in the Statute in article 36, that those states which had
accepted compulsoryjurisdictionfor the Permanent Courtof Inter-
national Justice would now substitute the proposed International
Courtunderthesameterms.' ReporttothePresident,at p. 338(italics
added).

82. In the Senate hearings the following year on whether the
United States should accept the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, this
understanding wasmade evenmore explicit.CharlesFahy, then Legal
Adviser to the Department of State, and, as Solicitor General of the
United States,formerly a member of the United States delegation to
SanFrancisco, told the Senate Foreign Relations Committee that the
proposed United Statesdeclaration would bemade only on condition
of reciprocity:

'As to particular states1think the situation as you point out is
clear, that this resolution makes Ourdeclaration reciprocal ;that is,
only with respect to states which accepted similar jurisdiction.
Declarations of the following 19 states thus came into force :
Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Denmark, Domini-
can Republic, Haiti, India, Iran, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Panama, El Salvador, South Africa, United
Kingdom, Uruguay ...' (Hearings before a Subcommittee of the
Committee on Foreign Relationsof the United States Senate on S.
Res. 196,77th Cong., 2d Sess.July 11, 1946,pp. 141-142.)

83. The second paragraph quoted here,which listed 'the 19[States]
...whosedeclarations continue in force', describedthe classof States
which by virtue of Article 36 (5) could satisfy the requirement of
reciprocity in theproposed United Statesdeclaration. Nicaragua was
not included among these States ...

84. In its Report approving the proposa1 for a United States declaration under article 36 (2), the Senate Foreign Relations Com-
mittee also adopted this view of Article 36 (5). The Report stated :

'The San Francisco Conference added an additional paragraph
toarticle 36of the statute, according towhichdeclarationsaccepting
thejurisdictionoftheoldCourt,andremaininginforce, aredeemed to
remain inforce as among theparties tothepresent statutefor such

period as theystillhavetorun.Nineteen declarations are currently in
force underthisprovision.'(Report of the Senate Committee on For-
eign Relations on Compulsory ~urisdictionof theInternational Court
ofJustice,S. Rept. No. 1835, 79th Cong., 2d Sess.at p. 105(25July
1946)(italics added).)

85. In sum, the United States delegation to San Francisco, the
Department of State, and the Senateal1understood (a)that Article 36
(5) applied only to declarations that were in force under the Perma-
nent Court's Statute asof the date of adherence to this Court's Statute
and (2) that Nicaragua's declaration did not fa11within this cate-
gory."

8. The Court's interpretationof Article 36, paragraph5

26. Article 36,paragraph 5,has been directly interpreted or incidentally
addressed, in four prior judgments of this Court. None of them support
Nicaragua's thesis that its ratification of the Statute of this Court - or
relevant conduct - operated to perfect and give legal force to its Decla-
ration of 1929.Rather, the terms and tenor of thosejudgments indicate the
contrary.

27. Theprincipaljudgment inpoint wasgivenin thecaseconcerningthe
Aerial Incidentof27July 1955(Israelv.Bulgaria),Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959,page 127.Israel relied on Bulgaria's Decla-
ration of 29 July 1921,which had come into force under the Statute of the

Permanent Court (ibid., p. 129).Bulgaria objected that Article 36, para-
graph 5,was inapplicable to it (ibid.,p. 131).The Courtfoundfor Bulgaria
on the ground that, by the time that itjoined the United Nations in 1955
and becameparty to the Court's Statute, the Permanent Court had ceased
to exist and a declaration in force vis-à-visthat Court could not be revived
to apply to this Court. In so holding, the Court declared :

"Article 36, paragraph 5, considered in its application to States
signatories of the Statute, effects a simple operation :it transforms
their acceptanceof the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court
into an acceptanceof the compulsoryjurisdiction of the International
Court of Justice." (Ibid., p. 137 ; emphasis supplied.)It continued :

"Article 36,paragraph 5, governed the transfer from one Court to
the other of still-existing declarations ;in so doing, it maintained an
existing obligation while modifying its subject-matter." (I.C.J. Re-
ports 1959, p. 138 ; emphasis supplied.)

The Court further explained the meaning of Article 36, paragraph 5, in
these terms :
"Consent to the transfer to the International Court of Justice of a
declaration acceptingthejurisdiction of the PermanentCourt may be
regarded as effectively given by a State which, having been repre-

sented at the San Francisco Conference, signed and ratified the
Charter and thereby accepted the Statute in which Article 36, para-
graph 5, appears ...

The declarationsto whichArticle 36,paragraph 5, refers createdfor
the States whichhad made them the obligationto recognizethejuris-
diction of the Permanent Court of International Justice. At the time
when the new Statute was drawn up, it was anticipated - and events
confirmed this - that the Permanent Court would shortly disappear
and these undertakings consequently lapse. It was sought to provide
for this situation. to avoid. as far as it was vossible. such a result bv
substituting for the compulsoryjurisdiction if the Permanent Cou;,
which was to come to an end, the compulsory jurisdiction of the
International Court of Justice. This was the purpose of Article 36,
paragraph 5.Thisprovision effected, as between the States to whichit
applied, the transfer to the new Courtof the compulsoryjurisdiction of

the old. It thereby laid upon the States to which it applied an obli-
gation, the obligation to recognize, ipso facto and without special
agreement, thejurisdiction of the new Court. This constituted a new
obligation whichwas,doubtless, no more onerous than theobligation
which was to disappear but it was nevertheless a new obligation."
(Ibid., pp. 142-143 ; emphasis supplied.)

28. These quotations demonstrate that the Aerial Incident case strik-
ingly and decisivelycuts against Nicaragua's thesis. If, as the Court there
said, the purpose of Article 36,paragraph 5,is to transform "acceptance of
the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court intoan acceptance of
the compulsory jurisdiction" of this Court, then Nicaragua is excluded by
the fact that it never accepted the former'scompulsoryjurisdiction. When
this Court speaks of "acceptance of"its compulsoryjurisdiction, it means
"binding itself tomthisCourt'sjurisdiction. Canit be seriouslymaintained
that what the Court means when it speaks of "acceptance" of its compul-
soryjurisdiction, or "acceptance" of the Permanent Court'sjurisdiction, is
something less, such as non-acceptance ? Thus, when the Court says, as it
did in theAerial Incident case,that Article 36,paragraph 5,effects asimple operation :it "transforms ... acceptance of thecompulsoryjurisdiction of
thePermanentCourt into anacceptance of thecompulsoryjurisdiction of"
this Court, the Court could only have meant that Article 36,paragraph 5,
exclusivelyreferred to declarations made under the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court which accepted, that is, bound the declarant to, that Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction. If, as the Court in AerialIncidentheld,Article 36,
paragraph 5,"maintained an existingobligation", there must havebeen an
obligation in existence. But Nicaragua had no obligation in existence in

respect of the Permanent Court's jurisdiction, and it has acknowledged
that fact. If, again, as the Court says, the declarations to which Article 36,
paragraph 5,refers created'"the obligation to recognize thejurisdiction of
the Permanent Court.. ." then Nicaragua is outside the reach of that
provision since it never undertook an obligation to recognize thejurisdic-
tion of that Court. If the purpose of Article 36, paragraph 5, was, as the
Court says, "to substitute" for the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Perma-
nent Court the compulsory jurisdiction of this Court, Nicaragua is
excluded by reason of not having effectively adhered to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court. If its purpose, as the Court says,was
to "transfer to the new Court. .. the compulsoryjurisdiction of the old",
then Nicaragua fails by reason of its failure to adhere to that older juris-
diction.

29. The Court added :

"the clear intention whch inspired Article 36, paragraph 5, was to
continue in being something which was in existence, to preserve
existingacceptances,toavoidthat thecreation of anew Court should
frustrate progress already achieved ;it isnot permissible to substitute
for this intention to preserve, to secure continuity, an intention to
restore legalforce to undertakings which haveexpired : it isone thing
to preserve an existingundertakingby changingits subject-matter ;it
is quite another to revive an undertaking which has already been
extinguished" (I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 145).

Thus the Court emphasized preservation,continuity. It excluded reviving
anundertaking whichhasalreadybeenextinguished. How then can Article
36,paragraph 5,be interpreted to givelife to an undertaking which never
came into force at al1 ?
30. In viewof theseholdings of theCourtinthe AerialIncidentcase,it is
remarkabletofind that theCourt's Order of 10May 1984relieson thiscase
and some of these very passages (it cites p. 142 of the Judgment) to
conclude that the absence of Nicaragua's "effective ratification" of the
Permanent Court's Protocol of Signature may not have excluded the
operation of Article 36, paragraph 5, that it may not have prevented the

transfer to the present Court of its 1929 Declaration "as a result of theconsent" thereto of Nicaragua by its acceptance of this Court's Statute
including Article 36, paragraph 5 (Order of 10 May 1984,I.C.J. Reports
1984,p. 179,para. 25).SincetheCourt's holdingsin theAerialIncidentcase
run counter to the thrust of the Court's Order of 10 May 1984,one is
entitled to ask :on what basis does the Court there rely upon and speci-
fically cite the Aerial Incident Judgment ? Moreover, today's Judgment,
whileendeavouring to distinguish thefacts at bar inthe AerialIncidentcase
from the instant case, renews (with a suggestivelack of vigour) its reliance
upon the Judgment in the Aerial Incident case and so givesfresh point to

this question. The most one can do in Nicaragua's support is to take out of
contexta fewpassages, notably, asthe Court does, a singlesentence found
on page 142 of the Judgment :

"Consent to the transfer to the International Court of Justice of a
declaration accepting thejurisdiction of the Permanent Court may be

regarded as effectively given by a State which, having been repre-
sented at the San Francisco Conference, signed and ratified the
Charter and thereby accepted the Statute in which Article 36, para-
graph 5, appears."
But it is absolutely clear that, by this, the Court meant a declaration
accepting thejurisdiction of thePermanent Court whichwasinforce under
the Statute of that Court. Why ? Not only because Article 36,paragraph 5,
sayssoin those terms, but because the Court says so,and on the very same
page :

"The declarations to which Article 36,paragraph 5, refers, created
for the States which had made them the obligation to recognize the
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice." (I.C.J.
Reports 1959, pp. 142-143.)

Now it is admitted on al1 sides, including that of Nicaragua, that its
Declaration of 1929 never imposed on Nicaragua "the obligation to
recognize the jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International
Justice".
31. In this regard, it isinstructive to observe that counsel forNicaragua
have conceded that the Court's Judgment in the Aerial Incident case does
not support Nicaragua's thesis. That is to Say,Nicaragua's own counsel
have in effect concluded that any reliance by this Court in this case on the
Judgment in that case would be misplaced. Thus Professor Chayes
declared that :

"the majority opinion in Aerial Incidentreally has no significance at
al1for the present dispute. ..Nothing in the opinion, either in hold-
ing or in considered obiterdictum, excludes or is even faintly incon-
sistent with the position taken by Nicaragua :namely, that its decla-
ration was 'in force' withinthe meaning of Article 36(5)when Nica- ragua became an original Member of the United Nations in 1945."
(Hearing of 8 October 1984.)

Now Professor Chayes is plainly wrong in arguing that nothing in the
majority opinion "is even faintly inconsistent" with the position taken by
Nicaragua : that has been shown by the foregoing quotations from the
Court's Judgment. But that is beside the immediate point, which is :was
and is the Courtjustifiedin relyingon or citing theCourt's Judgment in the
Aerial Incident case as support for the Article 36, paragraph 5, thesis that
is made out in Nicaragua's favour ? Nicaragua's distinguished counsel

recognizesthat it wasand isnotjustified when he affirms that that opinion
has "no significance at al1for the present dispute ...".

32. Professor Chayes continues that, "The matter is different with the
dissenters" (ibid.). He points out that thejoint dissenting opinion in the
Aerial Incident case of Judges Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, Wellington Koo
and Sir Percy Spender maintained that the purpose of Article 36, para-
graph 5,was "to ensurecontinuity between theold Court and the new" and
"to preserve to the greatest extent possible.. .the state of affairs with
respect to compulsory jurisdiction that existed under the Permanent
Court . . .(ibid.).In this,heisquite right. Butforthe reasons setout above,
this does not advance his case.
33. The joint dissenting opinion held :

"The forma1and, in effect, insignificant changes in the Statute of
the new Court werenot to be perrnitted to stand in the wayof the then
existing compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court being taken
overby the InternationalCourt. It was specificallycontemplated that
the continuity of the two Courts should be given expression by
recognizing the continuity of the compulsoryjurisdiction at that time
existing." (I.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 159.)
Thus the dissenters affirmed that the intention of Article 36,paragraph 5,
was todono more than transfer "the then existingcompulsoryjurisdiction
of the Permanent Court" (by which Nicaragua had never accepted to be
bound). Theyfurther recalled that Article 36,paragraph 5,stemmedfroma
British proposa1 to "provide for the continuing validity of existing adher-
ences" to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Permanent Court (ibid., p.

160).Nicaragua had no such adherence. The object of Article 36, para-
graph 5,as the dissenters sawit, was that none of the "existing declarations
of acceptance" should disappear with the dissolution of the Permanent
Court ; what was sought was "the maintenance of the entire group of
declarations of acceptances which were still in force.. ." (ibid,). That
object, however,would excludeNicaragua, whosedeclaration wasnot and
never had been in force.

34. Thejoint dissenters proceeded to interpret the phrase of Article 36,
paragraph 5, "which are still in force" as only meaning the exclusion ofsome 14declarations of acceptance which "had already expired" and the
inclusion, irrespective of the dissolution of the Permanent Court, of "al1
the declarations the duration of which has not expired" (I.C.J. Reports
1959, p. 161).They cited the French text in support of that conclusion
(ibid.,pp. 161-162),stating :

"At the Conference of San Francisco there were present a number
of States thathadin thepast made Declarations of Acceptance which,
not having been renewed, had lapsed and were therefore no longer in
force. Thisapplied,for instance, to the Declarationsof China, Egypt,
Ethiopia, France,Greece, Peru, Turkey and Yugoslavia. It wasclearly
necessary, by inserting the expression 'which are still in force', to
exclude those States from the operation of paragraph 5. That inter-
pretation is supported by the French text which is as authoritative as
the English text and whch is even more clear and indisputable than
the latter. The words 'pourunedurée quin'estpas encoreexpirée'(fora
duration which has not yet expired) must be regarded as determining
the true meaning of the English text in question. The fact that the
Chinese, Russian and Spanish texts of that paragraphapproximate to
the English text does not invalidate or weaken theobviousmeaning of
the French text. Those three texts were translated from the English
version, whereas the French text was that of one of the two officia1
working languages adopted at the San Francisco Conference. How-

ever, while the French text removes any doubt whatsoever as to the
meaning of these words, there is in effect no reasonable doubt about
them also sofar as the English text isconcerned.There is no question
here of givingpreference to the French text. Both texts have the same
meaning. The French text is no more than an accurate translation of
the English text as generally understood. Or, rather, in so far as it
appears that the final version was first formulated in the French
language, the English text is no more than an accurate translation
from the French." (Ibid., pp. 161-162 ; emphasis supplied.)
They observed that thephrase "in force" asfound elsewherein the Statute,

refers to the element of time (ibid., p. 163).They also pointed out that,
"Retroactive operation of a provision ought not to be assumed without
good cause . .."(ibid.,p. 164).Article 36,paragraph 5,did not lapse on the
dissolution of the Permanent Court ; it was rather designed to render that
dissolution irrelevant in the matter of the transfer of declarations. They
then concluded, in the passage on which counsel for Nicaragua place great
emphasis, that the words, "which are still in force" refer "to the declara-
tions themselves .. ."(ibid.).
"So long astheperiod of timeofdeclarations made under Article 36
of the Statute of the Permanent Court stillhas to run at the time when

the declarant State concerned becomes a party to the Statute of the
International Court of Justice, those declarations fa11within the pur-
view of Article 36, paragraph 5, of the new Statute and 'shall be deemed to be acceptances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the
International Court for the period which they still have to run and in
accordance with their terms'." (Ibid, pp. 164-165.)

But - and this is critical to and destructive of Nicaragua's construction -
there is no indication whatsoever in this passage (or elsewhere in their
opinion) that,in sayingthis, thedissenters viewedadeclaration whichhad,
unlike Bulgaria's,never come into force at al1to have a period of time in
which still to run.
35. It should be added that, at a much later point in thejoint dissenting
opinion, the three distinguished dissenters took up the contention of a few
of their colleagues that Article 36,paragraph 5, refers only to declarations

which contain a time-limit of their validity, and thus does not embrace
declarations, such as that of Bulgaria, whose duration was unlimited. In
rebutting that contention, they said :
"Moreover, if the interpretation contended for had been adopted
by the Court in the present case, its result would be to invalidate, as
from the date of the Judgment of the Court, the existing declarations
of a number of States - such as Colombia, Haiti, Nicaragua and

Uruguay." (Ibid, p. 193.)
Nicaragua can derive cornfort from that quotation. But there is no reason
to conclude that, in including it, the dissenters had investigated whether
Nicaragua's 1929Declaration, listed inthe Court's Yearbook,actually had
ever come into force.

36. In sum, whileNicaragua arguablymay find ameasure of supportin

selected passages of the joint dissent in the Aerial Incident case, that
support is very limited. Moreover, the dissenters were speaking for them-
selves as dissenters, not for the Court. Counsel for Nicaragua appreciate
that, but maintain that the Templeof Preah Vihear case and Barcelona
Traction"wholeheartedly" adopt the principlesespoused by the dissenters
in Aerial Incident (Hearing of 8 October 1984).Let us turn to those cases,
but firstconsider whether, as Nicaraguan counsel contend, United States
arguments in acompanionAerial Incident caselend support toNicaragua's
thesis.

37. Counsel for Nicaragua argued that, in the proceedings which the
United States brought against Bulgaria in connection with the latter's
shooting down of an Israeli civilaircraft on which there werepassengers of
United States nationality, the United States espoused the very interpre-

tation of Article 36,paragraph 5,for which Nicaragua now argues (Hear-
ing of 8 October 1984).It is true that the United States argument in that
case parallels the argument of the joint dissenters in Aerial Incident.
However, the United States expressly affirmed that the declaration of
Bulgariathere at issuecame into force in 1921(as did the United Kingdomin another cornpanion case) '. (I.C.J. Pleadings,Aerial Incident of 27July
1955 (Israel v. Bulgaria; United States of America v. Bulgaria; United
Kingdomv.Bulgaria),p. 312.)The United Statesconstruction ofArticle 36,
paragraph 5,wasbased, inter alia,on "acceptance of thejurisdiction of the
Permanent Court" (ibid.,pp. 317-318).That was one obligation ; Article
36, paragraph 5, entailed "a new and additional obligation. . ."(ibid., p.
318).The United States relied on the San Francisco negotiating lustory to
establish that the purpose of Article 36, paragraph 5, was "to preserve"
declarations (ibid.,pp. 319-320).Article 36,paragraph 5,was included "to
prevent retrogression with respect to international judicial jurisdic-

tion ..." (ibid.,p. 320) - but the United States gave no hint of construing
Article 36,paragraph 5,soas to expand thatjurisdiction by givinglife to a
declaration which had never come into force. Article 36,paragraph 5,was
meanb the United States argued, "not to lose the effectiveness of decla-
rations made under the optional clause of the old Statute" (ibid.),but it
does not follow that it wasintended to validate declarations which had not
come into effect. Thus, it is clear that these United States arguments give
no nourishment to the Nicaraguan thesis, because they al1addressed the
situation - which is not Nicaragua's but was Bulgaria's - in which the
declarant State had ratified the Protocol of Signature and therefore had
brought its declaration under the Optional Clause into force.

38. The next significant reference to Article 36, paragraph 5, in the
Court's jurisprudence was that of Judge Philip C. Jessup, in his separate
opinion in the South WestAfrica (Ethiopiav.SouthAfrica, Liberiav.South
Africa), Preliminary Objections,Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962,pages 319,
415 :

"It was clearly the intention in the drafting of the Statute of the
International Court of Justice to preserve for the new Court just as
much as possible of the jurisdiction which appertained to the old
Court. For this purpose, Article 36(5)provided for the transfer of the
obligations assumed by States which madedeclarations under Article
36 of the old Statute, and Article 37 provided for a similar transfer
where a 'treaty or convention' had contained a provision for the
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court."

'The British Memorial puts the matter precisely :

tional, and was made on July 29, 1921,when theinstrument of Bulgaria's ratifica-
tion of the Protocol of Signature of the Permanent Court of International Justice
was deposited, and became effective as to the jurisdiction of the International
Court of Justice by virtue of..Article 36 (5) of the Statute of the Court, on the
date of Bulgaria's admission to membership of the United Nations." (I.C.J.
Pleuding referred to above, p. 331.) 586 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO . P.SCHWEBEL)

Again, there is the emphasis on preservation of the jurisdiction which
"appertained tothe old Court". JudgeJessup clearlywasspeaking of, ashe
specifies, "the obligations assumed by States which made declarations
under Article 36 of the old Statute", of ajurisdiction which was effective
and in force, not a jurisdiction to be brought initially into effect by
operation of Article 36, paragraph 5.
39. Nicaraguan counsel suggested that the three major opinions to be
considered by the Court in reaching the currentJudgment are those of (a)
the Court in Aerial Incident ; (6) the joint dissent in that case; and (c)
Barcelona Traction.Nicaraguan counsel views Barcelona Tractionas in
effect, though not in terms, overturning the Court's judgment in Aerial
Incident and as accepting the dissenters' rationale in that case(Hearing of
8October 1984).However, in Barcelona Traction,the Court,in interpret-
ing Article 37, decidedly did not overrule Aerial Incident ; and, even if it
had, it would have thereby lent no support to Nicaragua's thesis, not only

because thejoint dissentingopinion inAerial Incident lends it solittle, but
because both the Court and Judge Tanaka in his separate opinion in
Barcelona Tractionemphasized that the purpose of Article 37,like Article
36,paragraph 5,was tomaintain continuity between thejurisdiction given
to the Permanent Court and that given to the new Court. Thus the Court
stressed that Article 37 was "not intended to create any new obligatory
jurisdiction that had not existed before .. ."Rather the point was "pre-
serving the existing conventional jurisdiction . . .(Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited, Preliminary Objections,Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1964, pp. 6, 34). In Barcelona Traction,the treaty at issue
affordingjurisdiction to the Permanent Court had come into force. Thus
the analogy is with Bulgaria's initially effectiveadherence to the Perma-
nent Court's compulsory jurisdiction in Aerial Incident, it is not with
Nicaragua's initially ineffectiveadherence in thecurrent case.And why,by
the way, does Nicaragua try to make so much of Barcelona Tractionwhen

on analysis it offers it so litt?eEssentially because Nicaragua contends
that it overrules the Court's Judgment in Aerial Incident. Nicaragua's
exposition of Barcelona Traction,while lending scant support to its posi-
tion, thus underscores how dubious issuch reliance of the Court as there is
upon the Aerial Incident case. If the Aerial Incident Judgment lends sup-
port to Nicaragua's theory, why should Nicaragua argue that Barcelona
Traction overruled the Court's Judgment in Aerial Incident ?

40. Let us finally advert to the case concerning the Temple of Preah
Vihear,Preliminary ObjectionsJ ,udgment, I.C.J. Reports 1961,page 17.In
its Order of 10 May 1984,the Court relied on this case as well (without
specifying any page or passage) to support its conclusion that the absence of Nicaragua's effectiveratification of the Protocol of Signature might not
have excluded the operation of Article 36, paragraph 5. In today's Judg-
ment, the Court cites the Templecase anew,apparently with regard to the
alleged reality of Nicaragua's consent to be bound by the Court's com-
pulsoryjurisdiction. In the Templecase, the Court held that the intention
of Article 36, paragraph 5, was to provide a means whereby,

"within certain lirnits,existingdeclarations in acceptanceof the com-
pulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice
would become ipsojure transformed into acceptancesof the compul-
soryjurisdiction of the present Court .. ."(at p. 25;see also, p. 28;
emphasis supplied).

That isnot a holding whch helps Nicaragua, sinceits declaration did not
accept the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court. Once again it
may be observed that when the Court speaks of "acceptances" of this
Court's compulsory jurisdiction, and, in the same sentence, speaks of
declarations "in acceptance" of the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Perma-
nent Court,itincontestablyinterpretsArticle 36,paragraph 5,toreferonly
to declarations which bound the declarants - in both Courts. The Court
does not assign one meaning to the term "accept" in this Court, and
another meaning to that term in the Permanent Court, and in the same
sentence. Furthermore, in the Temple case, the Court reaffirmed the
rationale of its Judgment in the Aerial Incident case. It observed that
Thailand in the Temple case endeavoured to apply that rationale in its

favour, maintaining that its Declaration of 1940 had lapsed with the
dissolution of the Permanent Court and could not have been renewed bya
later declaration of 1950which purported to renew it. It held that Thai-
land's 1950Declaration, which wasmeant to be an effectiveacceptance of
thisCourt's compulsoryjurisdiction under the Optional Clause,wasa new
and independent instrument not made under Article 36,paragraph 5, not
only because that provision did not contemplate the making of new
declarations but because it was concerned with the preservation of decla-
rations for the period which they still had to run. Thus the Court treated
Thailand's 1950 Declaration as intended to be made under Article 36,
paragraph 2,and effectiveassuch.The Court expresslyput asidequestions
of revival of lapsed or spent instruments and questions of error, for in the
Templecase the Court concludedthat there was no factor which impaired
the reality of the consent which Thailand intended to give in 1950.The
Court observed that, in thecase of declarations under the Optional Clause
ofthisCourt, the "only formalityrequired" isthedeposit of theacceptance
with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The Court accordingly

concluded that Thailand's acceptance could not be defeated by some
defect whch didnot involve"a mandatory legalrequirement" (ibid.,p. 34).
Thus the Court, in the Temple case, interpreted as a "mandatory legal
requirement" that act which is most closely analogous to the act which
Nicaragua failed to perform in this case, deposit of its instrument of ratification of the Protocol of Signature of the Permanent Court with the
League Secretary-General.

9. The listings in the Yearbooks of the Court

41. While it is not disputed that the responsible officials of the League
of Nations and the Registry of the Permanent Court did not regard
Nicaragua as party to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction by reason of its
1929 Declaration, the Yearbooks of this Court are not so clear, as was
amply expounded in the pleadings of the Parties.
42. Those pleadings and thefacts which they interpret need not be fully
recapitulated. The essential points that may be derived from them appear
to be the following :

- The Yearbooksof this Court,from the outset of the lifeof thisCourt to
the present day, have listed Nicaragua as party to the Court's compulsory
jurisdiction. For example, the first Yearbook so lists Nicaragua, with a
footnote stating :

"Declaration made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court and deemed to be still in force(Article 36,paragraph 5,of
the Statute of the present Court)." (Yearbook 1946-1947,p. 111.)

- However, those Yearbookshave always contained, in terms or refer-
entially, a footnote. In the first Yearbook, that footnote to the text of
Nicaragua's 1929Declaration refers to the telegram of 20November 1939
informing the League that Nicaragua's instrument of ratification of the
Protocol of Signature of the Court's Statute was to follow, concluding :
"Notification concerning the deposit of the said instrumenthasnot, how-
ever, been received in the Registry." (Ibid., p. 210.) Beginning with the
Yearbook 1955-1956,the footnote has concluded : "It does not appear,
however, that the instrument of ratification was ever received by the
League of Nations." (At p. 218.)
- The footnote's inclusion is incompatible with the thesis that Nicara-

gua'sratification of the United Nations Charter and Statute of this Court
and theconsequent operation of Article 36,paragraph 5,weresufficient to
bring into effect a declaration which otherwise was ineffective to bind
Nicaragua to the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court. Why ?
Nicaragua claims that the operation of Article 36,paragraph 5,combined
with the existence ofits 1929Declaration which wasnot binding on it, and
itsratification of theCharterand the Court's Statute whichisbinding on it,
was and issufficient to givelife toits 1929Declaration. Let us assume that
that is so.What then isthe point of the footnote ? According toNicaragua,589 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO. P.SCHWEBEL)

it makes no difference at al1whether its instrument of ratification of the
Permanent Court's Protocol was or was not received, because, evenif not
received,Nicaragua became party to this Court's compulsoryjurisdiction
byoperation ofArticle36,paragraph 5,uponitsratification of theCharter.
Ttmaintains that its being solisted in the Yearbooksoshows.But whythen
should the Registry have said anything at al1about non-receipt of the
instrument ofratification sinceit wasabsolutelyirrelevant,onNicaragua's
argument, to the operation of Article 36, paragraph 5 ? Clearly only
because the Registry did not think that it wasirrelevant. Rather, it thought
that possible non-receipt was wholly relevant ; and it thought that it

warned States about the uncertainty in Nicaragua's position by including
the footnote. When the first Yearbook(and immediatelysucceeding Year-
books) were composed,it was not definitively established whether or not
the Secretariat of the League had received the instrument of ratification
which Nicaragua in 1939affirmed it would send ;it was only later that it
wasestablishednot onlythat this Court's Registryhad notbeennotified of
such deposit, but that in fact deposit never had been made.

43. Now let us turn to the second Yearbook.That Yearbook ornits the
footnote, but, on page 127,it refers to the priorYearbookin which Nica-
ragua'sdeclaration - and the footnote - arefound. Butit contains moreof
interest and probative value,namely, the text of the Pact of Bogota.Bythe
terms of Article XXXI of that Pact, "In conformity with Article 36,

paragraph 2, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice", the
Partiesaccept compulsoryjurisdiction unconditionally under that Article
inrelation toanyotherAmericanState, in thepreciseterms of the Optional
Clause. Under Article XXXII of the Pact of Bogota, moreover, whenever
the conciliation or arbitration procedures prescribed by the Pact do not
lead toa solution,eitherparty to adispute shallbe entitled tohaverecourse
to the International Court of Justice and, "The Court shall have general
compulsoryjunsdiction in accordance withArticle 36,paragraph 1,of the
said Statute". A reservation to the Pact of BogotabyNicaragua isfound at
page 143of that Yearbook,whichStatesthat Nicaragua's acceptance of the
foregoingmay not prejudiceitsposition in respect of any arbitral decision
which it has attacked. Thus Nicaragua generally accepted the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction under Article 36,paragraph 2,vis-à-visany other
AmericanState, and under Article 36,paragraph 1,as well,subject to this
reservation, which obviously related to the King of Spain's contested
arbitral award of 1906.This may suggest that Nicaragua did not regard

itselfothenvise as being bound to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction by
reason of the operation of Article 36,paragraph 5.Why ? Becauseother-
wiseNicaragua's reservation to the Pact of Bogotamakeslittle sense.Why
should Nicaragua make this reservation to the Court's compulsory juris-
diction under Article 36,paragraph 2, and Article 36,paragraph 1(and to theother means ofpacific settlementprovided for in thePact of Bogota),if
othenvise Nicaragua was bound, and believed itself to be bound, by the
Court's compulsory jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 5, in terms
which ornitted the reservation ? Nothing in the 1929Declaration hints at
that reservation. It should be noted, moreover, that, in the King of Spain

case which is discussed below, Nicaragua invoked its reservation to the
Pact of Bogota (I.C.J.Pleadings,ArbitralAwardMade by theKing ofSpain
on 23 December1906(Hondurasv. Nicaragua),Vol. 1,pp. 132-133).Thus
the content of the Yearbook1947-1948itself givesground for questioning
whether Nicaragua regarded itself as bound by the force of operation of
Article 36, paragraph 5.

44. The footnote of the Yearbookof 1946-1947,which wasincorporated
by reference in subsequent editions, was revived and revised with the
Yearbookfor 1955-1956,and maintained in al1subsequent Yearbooks,in
the following terms :

"According to atelegram dated November 29th, 1939,addressed to
the League of Nations, Nicaragua had ratified the Protocol of Sig-
nature of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice
(December 16th, 1920), and the instrument of ratification was to
follow.It doesnot appear, however,that theinstrument ofratification
was ever received by the League of Nations." (P. 195.)

The reintroduction of a footnote apparently stemmed from correspon-
dence among the then Registrar,Julio Lopez-Olivan, Judge Hudson, and
the Director of the European Headquarters of the United Nations,
Adriaan Pelt, which was not brought to the attention of the Court at the
time it deliberated upon provisional measures and issued its Order of 10
May 1984.This correspondence is in the Court's archives ;some of it was
found by the United Statesand by NicaraguainJudge Hudson's papers at
Harvard Law School.That correspondence is enlightening. The published
elements of it demonstrate that:

(a) JudgeHudson believed that Nicaragua's ratification oftheCharter did
not subject it to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction in the event of the
League's not having received the instrument of ratification ;
(b) Nicaragua's instrument of ratification was never received by the Sec-
retariat of the League of Nations ;
(c) the Registrarconcludedthat Nicaragua was not bound by this Court's
compulsory jurisdiction by reason of the operation of Article 36,
paragraph 5.

Thus his letter to Judge Hudson of 2 September 1955concludes :

"1do not think one could disagree with the viewyou express when you Saythat it would be difficult to regard Nicaragua's ratification of
the Charter of the UnitedNations as affecting that State'sacceptance
of the compulsoryjurisdiction. If the Declaration of September 24th,
1929,was in fact ineffective by reason of failure to ratify the Protocol
of Signature, 1think it is impossible to Saythat Nicaragua's ratifica-
tion of the Charter could make it effective and therefore bring into
play Article 36, paragraph 5, of the Statute of the present Court."

45. The opinion of the then Registrar, Sr.Lopez-Olivan, is ofparticular
interest. Lopez-Olivan was the last Registrar of the Permanent Court,and
obviously wasfamiliar with its workings and the processes of adherence to
its compulsoryjurisdiction. He was a member of the delegation (together
with the Court's President and Judge Hudson) which represented the
Permanent Court of International Justice at the SanFrancisco Conference
(seeP.C.I.J., Sixteenth Report, p. 12).And he later served as this Court's
second Registrar. Thus there is everyreason to presume that he was fully
farniliar with the intentions of the drafters of Article 36,paragraph 5, and
that he was in a unique position to interpret the result of the failure of
Nicaragua to transmit to the League its instrument of ratification of the
Protocol of Signature. Moreover, his interpretation - manifested
cautiously but still manifested in the revised footnote inserted in the
Yearbook 1955-1956and thereafter - is entitled to the greater weight in
the light of the fact that, when the Court itself subsequentlycame to inter-

pret Article 36, paragraph 5, it interpreted it in ways wholly consistent
with the interpretation of Lopez-Olivan. The Registrar understandably
did not take it upon himself in 1955 to delete Nicaragua's declaration
from the Yearbook, an act which would have been particularly delicate
at a time when litigation between Nicaragua and Honduras over the
arbitral award of the King of Spain loomed and when it was uncertain
what the jurisdictional basis of such litigation might be. He contented
himself with reintroducing and revising the footnote which was suffi-
cient to place on guard any reader interested in the question of whether
Nicaragua was effectively a party to the Court's compulsory jurisdic-
tion. He left it to the Court to draw legal conclusions from the facts so
presented.
46. But the Registrar did take one further step. With the Yearbook
1956-1957,Sr.Lopez-Olivan introduced the followingcaveat in presenting
the Yearbook'srecital of declarations made under Article 36 (including

Nicaragua's) :
"The textsof declarations setout in thisChapter arereproduced for
convience of reference only. The inclusion of a declaration made by
any State should not be regarded as an indication of the view enter-
tainedbythe Registryor,afortiori, by the Court, regarding thenature,
scope or validity of the instrument in question." (At p. 207.) Itcannot be shown thatthe inclusion of thisnewproviso was stimulated by
the uncertain status of Nicaragua's declaration, but it is a sensible specu-
lation. Whatever the origins of the provision, which appearsin subsequent

Yearbooks,it servesto place the listing of Nicaragua in the Yearbookin its
appropriate context.

47. The Court's Yearbooksare instructive in a further aspect as well.At
page 188 of the Yearbook 1955-1956 one finds the following in bold
letters :"List of States which recognize the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
InternationalCourt of Justice or which are stillboundby their declarations
accepting the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice." (Emphasis supplied.) Nicaragua is listed thereunder,
together with the reintroduced footnote. The meaning to be attached to
this heading, Nicaragua and the Court appear to maintain, is that "still
bound" means - in Nicaragua's unique case - "never bound" by the

Permanent Court's jurisdiction but bound by this Court's jurisdiction.
Does Nicaragua - or the Court - treat the French text of the Yearbook
more seriously ?The French Yearbookfor 1955-1956,at page 182,provides
a "Liste analytique des Etats qui reconnaissent comme obligatoire la
juridiction de la Cour internationale de Justice ou qui sont encore liéspar
leur acceptation de lajuridiction de la Cour permanente de Justice inter-
nationale." (Emphasis supplied.) How can the meaning whch this phrase
of the Yearbook - "encore liés" - imports to Article 36, paragraph 5, be
reconciled with the meaning which the Court attributes to the French text
of Article 36,paragraph 5 ? The Court at paragraph 30of its Judgment in
the instant case finds it significant that the English text of Article 36,
paragraph 5, does not specify that declarations must be "binding". Then

what explanation can the Court offer for the terms of this heading of the
Yearbook which specifies "still bound" as the meaning of Article 36,
paragraph 5 ?As noted, these questions arenot posed by the terminology
of this issue of the Yearbookonly. For example, the Yearbook 1946-1947
containing the first version of thefootnote similarlycontains, at page 221,
a "List of States whichhave recognized the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
InternationalCourt of Justice or which are still bound by their acceptance
of the Optional Clause of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice .. .".

IO. Listings in Reports of the Court to the GeneralAssembly

48. Since 1968,the Court has submitted a brief annual report to the
General Assemblyof theUnited Nations. Thatreport hasincluded a list of
States bound by the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction. Nicaragua always
has been included in that list. Does that fact establish as a matter of law
that Nicaragua isparty to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, and does it
estop the Court from holding that it is not ? 49. In adopting theCourt's Reportsto the General Assembly, thejudges
ofthe Court do not investigate thefactsthat liebehind a list of Stateswhich
arepresented as havingacceptedtheCourt's compulsoryjurisdiction. That
list is submitted by the Registry and is routinely accepted by the Court.
How routinely is demonstrated by the Report of theInternational Courtof
Justice,1August 1982-31July 1983(A/38/4), which,at page 1,contains the
following entry :

"8. There are now 47 States which recognize (a number of them
with reservations) the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in
accordance with declarations filed under Article 36, paragraph 2, of

the Statute. They are : Australia, Austria, Barbados, Belgium, Bot-
swana, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Democratic Kampuchea,
Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, El Salvador, Finland, Gam-
bia, Haiti, Honduras, India, Israel, Japan, Kenya, Liberia, Liechtcn-
stein, Luxembourg, Malawi, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico,Netherlands,
New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Phil-
ippines, Portugal, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland,
Togo, Uganda, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ire-
land, United States of America and Uruguay. The texts of the decla-
rations filed by these States appear in Chapter IV, Section II, ofI.C.J.
Yearbook 1982-1983."

It willbe observed that Nicaragua is thus listed asa State which has filed a
declaration "under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute". When this
Court speaks of "the Statute", it speaks of its Statute. But the fact is that
Nicaragua has never filed a declaration under Article 36, paragraph 2, of
the Court's Statute. It does not claim that it has. Rather, it claims that it is
bound to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction by reason of a declaration
filed under the Statute of the Permanent Court and by the operation of
Article 36, paragraph 5, of this Court's Statute. But that is not what the
aforesaid Report says.Can it bemaintained that, although what the Report
says is inaccurate, it nevertheless has become the law because it is con-
tained in a Report to the General Assembly ?

50. In the Report of the International Court of Justice, 1 August 1983-
31 July 1984 (A/39/4), the following entry is found :

"7. There are now 47 States which recognize (a number of them
with reservations) the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in
accordance with declarations filed under Article 36,paragraphs 2and
5, of the Statute. They are :Australia, Austria, Barbados, Belgium,
Botswana, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Democratic Kampuchea,
Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, El Salvador, Finland, Gam-
bia, Haiti, Honduras, India, Israel, Japan, Kenya, Liberia, Liechten-
stein, Luxembourg, Malawi, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico,Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Panama,

Philippines, Portugal, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzer-
land, Togo, Uganda, United Kingdom of Great Britian and Northern
Ireland, United States of America and Uruguay. The texts of the
declarations filed by these States appearin Chapter IV, Section II, of
I.C.J. Yearbook 1983-1984."

Thus theerror whichwaspublished inlast year'sReporthas been dealt with
in this year's Report, as is understandable in view of the fact that that
Reportwaswritten and adopted wellafter thecommencement of proceed-
ings in the current case. However, the error of stating that Nicaragua has
recognized the compulsory jurisdiction of this Court under Article 36,
paragraph 2,is found in the Reportsof theCourt to theGeneral Assembly
in al1reports from 1August 1973through that of 1983,that is,in 9reports

out of the 16 rendered to the General Assembly to date.

51. Thus, it isdemonstrable - anddemonstrated - that when the Court
provides information in an administrativecapacity,not onlymay iterrand
repeatedly err, but that it cannot be thought to be making ajudgment in
law or of legal effect. There is an obvious difference between the admin-
istrative acts and thejudicial acts of the Court. The administrative acts of
the Court - and particularly inconsistent acts of this character - cannot
reasonably be taken as either establishing the law or estopping the Court
from holding what the law is. Indeed, if the current Report of the Court
were to be treated as dispositive, what would be the point of the Court's
receiving extensive memorials, having substantial hearings and writing a

judgment on the very issue? It could rather treat what otherwise is a
question of considerable complexity as perfectly simple, as one resolved
not by last year's Report but by this year's.

52. In sum, while the reader on the run may have gained the impression
from the Court's Yearbooksand Reporrs that Nicaragua is bound to the
Court'scompulsoryjurisdiction, if not under Article 36,paragraph 2,then
by operation ofArticle 36,paragraph 5,that is not a lawyerlikeconclusion
which follows from a careful analysis of the relevant documentation, and
still lessof the relevant law. Nor is it a conclusion which follows from the
annually published collection of Signatures, Ratifications, Acceptances,
Accessions, etc., concerningtheMultilateral-Conventions,andAgreements in

respect of which the ~ecretaty-General acts as Depositary, to which the
Court, in paragraph 36of its Judgment, alsoascribes "particular weight".
Those reports state that, "Al1data and footnotes concerning these decla-
rations" of acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction are reprinted from the
Court's Yearhook,and, when that- Yearhookruns the footnote to Nicara-
gua'sdeclaration, so does the derivative volume of the Secretary-General.
See,e.g.,Multilateral TreatiesDeposited withthe Secretary-General,Status
us ut 31 Decemher 1982,pages 24 and 27, note 54. 11. The conductof,theParties
53. Nicaragua argues that, in any event, its Declaration of 1929 is
effectiveto conferjurisdictionon the Court in the present proceeding "for
an entirely separate and independent reason", namely :

"(i) Nicaragua's conduct over the past 38 years unequivocally mani-
fests its consent to be bound by the Court's compulsoryjurisdic-
tion. Such an expression of consent overcomes any forma1defect
in Nicaragua's ratification of the Protocol of Signature.
(ii) The conduct of the United States during the past 38years, like the
conduct of the other States that have declared their acceptance of
the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, constitutes an acceptance of
and acquiescence in the effectiveness of Nicaragua's 1929decla-
ration and a waiver of any forma1defect in Nicaragua's ratifica-
tion of the Protocol of Signature." (Nicaraguan Memorial, para.
85.)

54. That contention is unpersuasive for two reasons. First, the conduct
in question actually is ambiguous not unequivocal, and it cannot on the
part of the United States reasonably be interpreted to constitute acquies-
cencein the effectivenessof Nicaragua's 1929Declaration. Second, evenif
the course of the Parties' conduct were more consistent and more favour-
ableto Nicaragua's positionthan itis,it isimplausibleto arguethat a State
may become party to the Optional Clause of the Statute not by the deposit
of a declaration with the Secretary-General of the United Nations pur-
suant to Article 36,paragraphs 2and 4, not by the operation of Article 36,
paragraph 5, but by conduct extraneous to those provisions. The ambi-
guities of Nicaragua's behaviour byno means establish the reality of its
consent ; if Nicaragua had wished to ensure that its consent were real, it

needed merely to file a declaration under Article 36, paragraphs 2 and 4.
But in any event, the deposit of an instrument of ratification is no mere
optional formality ;aspointed out in paragraph 12of thisopinion, wherea
treaty exclusivelyprovides for that means of ratification (as did the Pro-
tocol of Signature) no other is permitted ;in the words of the Temple of
Preah Vihearcase,it was,likedeposit of adeclaration isunder thisCourt's
Article 36, paragraph 4, "a mandatory legal requirement".

55. Since, despite the foregoing considerations, the Court nevertheless
givesweightto what it appears to find asa sufficiently consistentcourse of
conduct of those concerned, comment on that conduct is in order.
56. It isofcourse true that theCourt's Yearbooksand Reports(and those
of the Secretary-General and national authorities) listed Nicaragua as
party to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction. Much ismade of the fact that

such listings were never protested. But what does the lack of protest indicate? Arguably, on Nicaragua's part, an intent to be bound ; and
arguably, on Nicaragua's part - by reason of its failure to challenge or
otherwise react to the footnote - an intent not to be bound. As for the
United States,and thrd States generally, since they didnot have litigation
with Nicaragua actively in view, they had no reason to protest what, on
analysis, rnight have been seen as a questionable listing.

57. Moreover, Nicaragua's conduct in and in connection with the King
ofSpain casestrongly suggeststhat Nicaragua wasnot seento be bound by
the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, by itself, by Honduras or by the
United States. Honduras was anxious to bringNicaraguabefore the Court
in thehope that theCourt would uphold theKing of Spain'sarbitral award
of 1906 which awarded to Honduras territory of which Nicaragua had

remained in occupation. Honduras engaged Manley O. Hudson as its
leading counsel. That was what prompted hm to make the inquiry of the
Registrar which led to the re-introduction of the footnote in the Yearbook
1955-1956.In the light of his correspondence with the Registrar, Hudson
wasconfirmedinhis viewthat, if Honduras invoked its own submission to
theCourt's compulsoryjurisdiction and Nicaragua's declaration of 1929,it
was unlikely that the Court would find that it hadjurisdiction over Nica-
ragua. Thus Honduras sought thegood officesof theUnited States inorder
topersuadeNicaragua to conclude aspecial agreement subrnitting thecase
to the Court. In that connection, Honduras sent to the United States a
memorandum of 15June 1955which declared :

"Nicaragua has refused until now to recognize the compulsory
jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice so that the Court
could take cognizance of and resolve the case which Honduras has
consideredfilingagainstNicaragua.Nicaragua has suggested that the
twocountries signa kind of specialprotocol to submit theproblem to

the Court so that it could declare whether or not the award is valid."
(United States Counter-Memorial, Ann. 34, p. 2.)
Thereafter, in a conversation of 21 December 1955between Nicaragua's
Ambassador to the United States, Guillermo Sevilla-Sacasa,and officiais
of the Department of State, it was said, according to a memorandum of

conversation then drawn up which the United States has submitted in
evidence, that :
"Reference was made to the fact that the matter had not been
previously referred to the Court because Nicaragua had never agreed
to submit to compulsoryjurisdiction.
Ambassador Sevilla-Sacasa indicated that an agreement between

the two countries would have to be reached to overcome this diffi-
culty." (Ibid., p. 4 and App. K thereto at p. 2.)The problem was finally taken to the Organization of American States,

which succeeded in persuading Nicaragua and Honduras to conclude a
special agreement submitting the case to the Court. Nevertheless, there are
indications that Honduras remained uncertain whether Nicaragua would
in fact appear. (See,for example, therepeated statements in the Honduran
Application seeking ajudgment "whether the Government of Nicaragua
appears or not" (I.C.J. Pleadings,ArbitralAwardMadebytheKingofSpain
on 23 December 1906, Vol. 1(e.g., at p. IO).)Perhaps this explains why
Honduras didnot exclusivelyrelyon the terms of the specialagreement ;it
also made the claim that Nicaragua's telegram to the League was tanta-
mount to ratification and that Nicaragua thus was bound under the
Optional Clause by operation of Article 36, paragraph 5 (ibid., pp. 8-9).
More than that, it was in Honduras' interest to seek to establish jurisdic-
tion in this way, sinceit could then make a claimfor damages forunlawful
occupation of itsterritory which the terms of the special agreement did not
admit.

58. Conversely, it was not in Nicaragua's interest in the King of Spain
case to accept Honduras' argument that it was bound by operation of
Article 36, paragraph 5, since then it might have been held liable for
damages. That may be why it carefully refrained from doingwhat it could
so easily and plausibly have done :squarely stated to the Court that it
agreed with Honduras that it was bound to the Court's compulsoryjuns-
diction by reason of its 1929Declaration and the operation of Article 36,
paragraph 5. In fact, what Nicaragua said was the following :

"It goes without saying that the competence of the International
Court of Justice to settle this dispute meets with no contradiction
from Nicaragua. It was,moreover, expresslyadmitted by both Parties
in the Agreement of June 21st and 22nd, 1957, .. .reproduced in the
Resolution of the Organization of American States, ... Nicaragua
agreeswith Honduras. ..in ascribingto that instrumentthe character

of a special agreement.
2. TheCourt will also note that, with the agreement of the Parties,
thepresent dispute isdefined in the said Resolution and in the various
documents as a dispute 'existing between them with respect to the
Arbitral Award handed down by His Majesty the King of Spain on
December 23rd, 1906'and not asconcerninga claimfor the execution
of the decision or for denunciation of its breach.
It is true that the Honduran Foreign Minister, in a Declaration
annexed to the Agreement ofJuly 21st, 1957 . .expressed his explicit
wish that the Arbitral Award .. .be carried out and its view that
'Nicaragua'sfailure to comply with that arbitral decision constitutes,
under Article 36of the Statute of theInternationalCourt ofJustice (?)
and, in accordance with the principles of international law, a breach
of an international obligation'.
But Nicaragua at the same time expressed the equally clear inten-
tion of answering the claim of Honduras, not only 'opposing theexceptions that it considers appropriate in order to impugn the vali-
dity of the Arbitral Award of December 23rd, 1906,and its compul-
sory force', but also 'invoking al1 those rights that may be in its
interest',maintaininginparticular 'that itsboundarieswith Honduras
continue in the same legal status as before the issuance of the above-
mentioned Arbitral Award' ...

It was expressly understood in the Agreement of July 21st, 1957,
that each Government 'in the exercise of its sovereignty and in
accordance with the procedures underlined in this instrument, shall
present the matter in this Agreement as it deems pertinent'.

3. We should add that it may be only by inadvertence that Hon-
duras presented the first claim set forth in its submissionsas coming
within the category of disputes covered by Article 36, 2 (c), of the
Statute of the International Court ofJustice. The presentdisputeinno
way concerns the existence of any fact which, if established, would
constitute abreach of an international obligation.There isin this case
no dispute as to the existence of the exercise of Nicaraguan sover-
eigntyoverpart of thedisputed territory ;on theother hand, there isa
disagreement over the existence of an obligation upon Nicaragua to
agree to execute an alleged Arbitral Award against which it has for
years formulated much serious and detailed criticism, expressing
readinessfromthe outset to acquiescein theopinion of arbitersin this
matter.
4. Similarly, Nicaragua can only express surprise that Honduras
should have invoked Article VI of the Pact of Bogota, ratified by the
two Parties to the present dispute and according to which the proce-
dures provided in that Pact 'may not be applied to matters already
settled by arrangement between the Parties or by arbitral award'.

For itis well known that Nicaragua, when signing the said Treaty,
made an explicit reservation reading as follows :
'TheNicaraguan Delegation, on givingits approval to the Amer-
icanTreaty on PacificSettlement(Pact of Bogota),wishesto record
expressly that no provisions contained in the said Treaty may
prejudice any position assumed by the Government of Nicaragua
with respect to arbitral decisions the validity of which it has con-
tested on the basis of the principles of international law, which
clearly permit arbitral decisions to be attacked when they are

adjudged to be nul1or invalidated. Consequently,the signature of
the Nicaraguan Delegation to the Treaty in question cannot be
alleged as an acceptance of any arbitral decisions that Nicaragua
has contested and the validity of which is not certain.' 599 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTiVITIES (DISS .P.SCHWEBEL)

It is true that, according to the Resolution of the Organization of
American States of July 5th, 1957, mentioned above, Nicaragua's
agreement to the method of settlement proposed implied its aban-
donment of thereservationattached to the Bogota Pact, but obviously
that abandonment was motivated solely by the assured conviction
that the whole of the dispute was going to be submitted to the Inter-
national Court of Justice and that it would be at variance with the

undoubted intention of the Parties to interpret it as a recognition of
the validity of the Award of December 23rd, 1906,or as waiving the
assertion of Nicaragua's complaints before the Court.
In these circumstances and subject to what may be said on this
matter in the Reply, Nicaragua will Sayno more on this question of
jurisdiction." (I.C.J. Pleadings,Arbitral Award Madeby the King of
Spain on 23December1906,Vol. 1,pp. 131-133.The translation from
the French is the Registry's.)

59. It follows that, in the one case before the instant casein which the
question of whetherNicaragua was bound under the Optional Clause was
explicitlyraised,Nicaraguaremainedsignificantly silent. It didnot answer
that question positively ; it did not answer it directl; rather it contented
itself with answers which channelled the case away from the Optional
Clause and towards exclusive reliance on the special agreement. That is
hardly theconduct of aState which harboursand manifeststhe belief that
it is bound under the Optional Clause.
60. There are other events as well which weaken Nicaragua's claim of
consistent conduct showing that it was, and believed itself to have been,
bound under the Optional Clause. Notably, after San Francisco, the

Nicaraguan Foreign Minister made a substantial report to Nicaragua's
Congress on the Conference,the Charter and the Statute of the Court.He
spoke about the attachment of Latin American States to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court. But he said not a word which evenhinted that he
regarded Nicaragua as bound by that compulsoryjurisdiction.

61. It is suggested by the Court that, if Nicaragua were a defendant in
this Court, and sought to deny its recognition of the Court's compulsory
jurisdiction in reliance on Article 36, paragraph 5, the Court would pro-
bably reject that argument ; and that, accordingly, since it would hold
Nicaragua to what it sees as the appearance of its being bound under the
Optional Clause,itshouldholdtheUnited States to that appearance in this

case. In my view, that does not follow. As the Court indicated in the
Anglo-ZranianOil Co. case (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952, pp. 93, 105-
107), the declarant State in making a declaration under the Optional
Clause has a special knowledge of its own situation and intentions. Nica-
ragua is chargeable with knowing not onlythe equivocationsreferred to in
preceding paragraphs, but, above all, of the footnotes and what they
implied.There is ample indication that, al1along, Nicaragua might have
known of the possibility of its maintaining that it was not bound, despitethe Yearbook and other publications apparently holding it out as bound.
Thus the Court should not countenance Nicaragua having it both ways :

being able to plead that it is bound under the Optional Clause, as in this
case,-butavoiding such a plea, as inthe King of spain case. However, were
the United States bringing an application against Nicaragua, these con-
siderations might well not impair the reliance of the United States on the
appearance of Nicaragua being bound because, in view of Nicaragua's
having taken no public, clear and unambiguous step to correct an appear-
ance of being bound, Nicaragua cannot be heard to deny the truth of an
appearance in whichit solong acquiesced. In short, Nicaragua may wellbe
in no position to deny, after almost 40 years, what it has tolerated despite
the ambiguities of which it had special knowledge. But the United States
and other States were and are not in the same knowledgeable position

(even if the United States may be said in the 1950s to have had some
knowledge of the situation) ; they were not charged with a like duty of
sensitivity to Nicaragua's position ;and thus they could rely on appear-
ances which Nicaragua peculiarly knew, or should have known, to be
questionable.

12. Conclusion

62. In light of the foregoing facts and analysis, it is concluded that
Nicaragua manifestly is without standing to maintain suit before this
Court on the basis of the contention that it is party to the Court's com-
pulsoryjurisdiction by operation of Article 36,paragraph 5,of the Statute,
or on the basis of conduct. In viewof that conclusion,Nicaragua's Appli-
cation, in so far as it relies - and it largely and essentially relies - on
Article 36, paragraph 2, and Article 36, paragraph 5, should have been
dismissed.

C. The Question of Whetherthe Court Has Jurisdiction overthe United
States

I. Jurisdiction under the Optional Clause

63. Nevertheless let us assume, contrary to what 1believe to be mani-
fest, that Nicaragua isparty to thecompulsoryjurisdiction of the Court. 1s
the United States subject in this case to the Court's compulsoryjurisdic-
tion under its declaration of 26 August 1946 ? That question gives rise to
the following subsidiary questions :

- 1s the United States declaration of 26 August 1946valid ?
- If it isvalid, doesits Vandenberg multilateral treaty reservation to the
Court's compulsoryjurisdiction operate so as to exclude al1or some of
Nicaragua's claims ? - If it is valid, does the United States Note of 6April 1984 - the "1984
notification" - operate to exclude Nicaragua's claims ?

(i) The ConnallyReservation

64. It iswellknown that Judge Lauterpacht, in his dissentingopinion in
the Interhandel case (Judgment,I. C.J. Reports 1959,pp. 6,95), concluded
that the United States Declaration of 26 August 1946is invalid by reason
of its incorporation of the automatic, self-judging proviso known as the
"Connally Reservation". The United States thereby reserved from the
Court'sjurisdiction :

"(b) disputes with regard to matters which are essentially within the
domestic jurisdiction of the United States of America as deter-
mined by the United States of America".

He reached a similar conclusion earlier in respect of a French self-judging
reservation in the case of Certain Norwegian Loans (Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1957, p. 34). Judge Lauterpacht in the Interhandel case summa-
rized his position in these terms :
"(a) the reservation in question, whle constituting an essential part
of theDeclaration ofAcceptance, iscontrary toparagraph 6ofArticle

36 of the Statute of the Court ;it cannot, accordingly, be acted upon
by the Court ; which means that it is invalid ;
(b) that, irrespective of its inconsistency with the Statute, that
reservation by effectively conferring upon the Government of the
United States the right to determine with finality whether in any
particular case it is under an obligation to accept thejurisdiction of
the Court, deprives the Declaration of Acceptance of the character of
a legal instrument, cognizable before ajudicial tribunal, expressing
legal rights and obligations ;
(c) that reservation, being an essential part of the Declaration of
Acceptance, cannot be separated from it so as to remove from the
Declaration the vitiating element of inconsistency with the Statute

and of the absence of a legal obligation. The Government of the
United States, not having in law become a Party, through the pur-
ported Declaration of Acceptance, to the system of the Optional
Clause of Article 36 (2) of the Statute, cannot invoke it as an appli-
cant ; neither can it be cited before the Court as defendant by
reference to its Declaration of Acceptance." (I.C.J. Reports 1959,
pp. 101-102.)

65. In testimony before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations in
1960,I agreed with Judge Lauterpacht's position (CompulsotyJurisdiction,
International Courtof Justice, Hearings beforethe Committee on Foreign
Relations, UnitedStates Senate, Eighty-Sixth Congress,Second Session,on
S. Res. 94, 1960,pp. 191,202-203). 1continue to seegreat force in it, while
appreciating the argument that, since declarations incorporating self-judging provisions apparently have been treated as valid, certainly by the
declarants, for many years, the passage of time may have rendered Judge
Lauterpacht's analysis lesscompelling today than it waswhen made. Were
hisposition to beapplied to the instant case, the result would be that there

is no valid adherence by the United States to the Optional Clause in
existence and that, accordingly, in so far as Nicaragua relies on that
adherence, its Application must be dismissed.

66. However, 1 do not rest my conclusions in this case on that basis,
essentially but not exclusivelyfor the reason that the United States itself
has treated its adherence to the Court's jurisdiction by means of its
Declaration of 26August 1946asvalid in thiscase and otherwise. 1Saythis
without prejudice to my position in such subsequent pleadings in this case
as there may be which are relevant, taking note, in that connection, of the
followingstatement which isfound as note 1topage9 of the United States
Counter-Memorial :

"On the basis of Nicaragua's pleadings to date, the United States
has determined not to invoke proviso 'b'to the United States 1946
declaration (the so-called 'Connally Reservation').This determina-
tion is without prejudice to the rights of the United States under that
proviso in relation to any subsequent pleadings, proceedings, or cases
before this Court."

Moreover, for other reasons, in any event 1 conclude that Nicaragua
cannot maintain its claims against the United States in reliance upon its
Declaration of 26 August 1946.

(ii) The Vandenberg(Multilateral Treaty) Reservation

67. The Vandenberg Rese~ation-or multilateral treatyreservation-to
the United States adherence to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction of 14
August 1946withholds from thejurisdiction of the Court :

"(c) disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless(1) al1parties
to the treaty affected by thedecision are also parties to the case
before the Court, or (2) the United States of America specially
agrees to jurisdiction".

The United States maintains that, since Nicaragua essentially bases its
Application on alleged violation by the United States of its treaty obliga-
tions under the United NationsCharter, the Charter of theOrganization of
American States and twoother inter-American treaties, the Court isbound
to give effect to this exception from itsjurisdiction. It contends that. in
viewof Nicaraguan claims that El Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica are
acting inconcert with the United States, and in viewof thefactual situation
obtaining in Central America which is rooted in Nicaraguan acts of sub-version and aggressionagainst its neighbours, those States willnecessarily
be "affected" by anyjudgment which the Court renders on the merits of
Nicaragua's claims. While acknowledging that Nicaragua requests judg-
ment for allegedviolations of customary international lawas well astreaty
law, the United States argues that Nicaragua's claimsare sointegrally and
essentially governed by the specifictreaty provisions wluch it invokes that
the Court cannot decide upon the merits of those claims while excluding
those treaty provisions ; Nicaragua's claims of violation of customary

international law are no more than paraphrases of these preclusive treaty
standards. Nicaragua maintains that themultilateral treaties reservation is
mere surplusage ; that the records of Senate debate indicate that it was
addressed to a non-existent problem ;and that in any event, even if the
reservation were to be applied, it could not debar its claims under cus-
tomary international law, which it contends, exists on the points at issue
quite apart from the treaty provisions on whichit has relied.(Amuch fuller
summary of the Parties'contentions in this regard is found in paras. 68-71
of the Court's Judgment.)

68. In disposing of the multilateral treaty reservation, the Court arrives
at the following conclusions :
(a) El Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica, being bound by the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction, are freeto institute proceedings against Nica-

ragua if they should find that they rnight be affected by the future
decision oftheCourt. Moreover, theyarefree to resort to the incidental
procedure of intervention. Thus there is no question of their needing
the protection of the multilateral treaties reservation.
\,) It is for the Court to determine which arethe States "affected" within
themeaning of the reservation. Butit is "only when thegeneral linesof
the judgment to be given have come clear that the States 'affected'
couldbe identified. Bywayofexamplewemay take the hypothesis that
if the Court were to decide to reject the Application of Nicaragua on
the facts, there would be no third States that could claim to be

affected."
(c) The question of which States are affected is a matter of substance
relating to the merits of the case, "obviously" not a jurisdictional
problem. The Court must therefore availitself of Article 79,paragraph
7, of the Rules of Court and declare that the objection based on the
reservation "does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an
exclusivelypreliminary character" and that consequently it does not
constitute an obstacle for the Court to consider the merits of Nicara-
gua's Application. At the same time, the Court holds, the Rules of
Court as revised have done away with the procedural technique for-
merly available ofjoinder of preliminary objections to the merits.

(d) Moreover, the reservation could not bar adjudication by the Court of al1Nicaragua's claims,since those claims embrace principles of cus-
tomary international law. The fact that such principles have been
codified or embodied in multilateral conventions does not mean that
they have ceased to exist as customary international law.

69. In my view, conclusions (a), (b) and (c) are misconceived. Conclu-
sion (d) raises substantial and difficult questions which are discussed
below. My reasons for so maintaining are the following :
70. With respect to (a),it may be observed that the multilateral treaties
reservation excludes from the scope of United States submission to the
Court's compulsory jurisdiction disputes arising under a multilateral
treaty unless "al1parties to the treaty affected by the decision are also
parties to thecase before theCourt" (emphasis supplied). The only Parties
now before the Court are Nicaragua and the United States. The fact that
third States affected by the decision might, if they choose, institute pro-
ceedingsin separate cases againstNicaragua, or might seekto intervene in
the current case,isbeside the point of the reservation. It may be that those

States, or some of them, will choose not to institute proceedings against
Nicaragua - none have todate - and that is their perfect right. Equally, it
isunknown whether they willseektointervene (a process which, as Orders
of the Court rendered in recent timesin respect of attempted interventions
of Malta, Italy and El Salvador demonstrate, is in any event problema-
tical). Butwhat isdeterminative, in application - rather than evasion - of
the multilateral treaty reservation is the answer to a simple question of
fact : are al1parties to the multilateral treaties at issue affected by the
decisionalsoparties to the casebefore the Court ?Obviously,now,they are
not. The United States has not specially agreed to jurisdiction. Thus the
reservation, which by its nature was meant to take effect at the jurisdic-
tional phase of the proceedings, applies, and must be applied. But what is
less obvious is which are the parties "affected".

71. In respect to (b), the Court rightly holds that it is for the Court to
determine which are the States "affected" within the meaning of the
reservation. But the Court concludes that it is only "when the general lines
of thejudgment to be givenhave become clear" that the States "affected"
couldbeidentified. It goeswithout saying that, if that identification can be
made only at that late stage, after the parties have been required fully to
brief and argue the merits, the reservation could not fully serve the pur-
poses of ajurisdictional bar which it was designed to serve. The Court's
inference accordingly isthat the reservation isincapable of application at a
jurisdictional stage of the proceedings. In my view,such an interpretation

of themultilateral treaty reservation is unacceptable. It isnot the function
of the Court to interpret the reservations of States to their adherences to
the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction so asto lead, ifnot "to aresult wluchis
manifestly absurd or unreasonable" (Vienna Convention on the Law ofTreaties, Art. 32), then to a result which denies a reservation its obvious
object. Rather, the Court is obliged, in accordance with its consistent
jurisprudence, to give effect to "the close and necessary link that always
exists between ajurisdictional clause and reservations to it" (AegeanSea
Continental Shelf;Judgment, I.C.J. Reports1978,p. 33). It is not free to
sever that link by an interpretation of a reservation which deprives it of its
point. Moreover, the Court's interpretation is inconsonant with the terms

of the Court's Statute and inconsistent with the pleadings of the Parties in
this case.
72. The Court's interpretation of the multilateral treaty reservation is
inconsonant with the terms of Article 62 of its Statute, which pro-
vides :

"1. Should a State consider that it has an interest of a legal nature
which may be affected by the decision in the case, it may submit a
request to the Court to be permitted to intervene.
2. It shall be for the Court to decide upon this request."

It will be observed that Article 62, like the multilateral treaty reservation,
employs the verb "to affect" inits past participle, "affected". In one sense,
Article62ismorenarrowly cast than the reservation, because itisconfined
to "an interest of a legal nature which may be affected", whereas the

reservation speaks of parties to the treaty "affected by the decision" -
which admits of being affected not only legally but politically, economi-
cally,militarily, and othenvise. In another sense,Article 62ismore broadly
cast, because it covers cases in which a State's legal interest "may be"
affected, whereas the reservation simply States :"affected". But what is
instructive in answering the immediate question are two facts relating to
Article 62 :first, it provides Statutorydemonstration of the use of the very
term "affected" to which the Court in this case finds itself unable to give
operative significance at this stage of the proceedings. And second, in the
history of theinterpretation of Article 62by thePermanent Court and this
Court, it has never before been suggested, still lessheld by the Court, that
Article62could not be applied because it wasonly afterthe general linesof
thejudgment tobe givenhavebecomeclear thattheCourt could determine
whether a State actually has an interest that may be or is affected by the
judgment.

73. The Court's interpretation of the multilateral treaties reservation is
inconsistent with the pleadings of the Parties in the case;whichthemselves
quite clearly demonstrate which are the States whose interests are to be
affected by the Court'sjudgment on the merits. The pleadings of Nicara-
gua are particularly probative, for it is Nicaragua's Application and its
precise claims in which it sets out what the Court is requested to adjudge
and declare which frame the issuesof the case.Nicaragua, whilemaking its
claimsagainst theUnited States alone, has made it clear that otherCentral
American States in addition to itself are involved in the dispute. The veryfirst numbered paragraph of its Application claims that the United States
has installed more than "10,000 mercenaries ... in more than ten base
campsin Honduras alongtheborder with Nicaragua .. .".Thisaccusation
is elaborated in Annex A to the Nicaraguan Application, in its introduc-
toryparagraphs and innumbered paragraphs 1,2,5,6,7,8,9, 10,11, 13, 14,
17,20, 22 and 23. Nicaragua has also alleged that there are 2,000 United
States-supported "mercenaries" operating against it from Costa Rica (af-
fidavit of Nicaraguan Foreign Minister d'Escoto Brockmann, Exhibit II,

para. 5, submitted during the oral proceedings on provisional measures)
and thatthe Government of CostaRica is actingin concert with theUnited
States (affidavit of Luis Carrion, Exhibit 1,para. 4, also submitted at the
stage of provisional measures). Moreover, in the recent oral argument in
this phase of the proceedings,the Agent of Nicaragua alleged that, in this
dispute,the United Stateshas bases, radar stations, spyplanes,spy shps -
the armies of El Salvador and Honduras at its service. . ."(Hearing of
8 October 1984) ;that is to say, Nicaragua has alleged that the United
States acts in concert with Honduras and El Salvador. It is accordingly
plain that, if the pleadings of Nicaragua are to be accepted for these
purposes asaccurate,and ifNicaragua werein a decision of theCourt to be
accorded the remedies whch it seeks, Honduras, Costa Rica and El Sal-
vador necessarily would be "affected" by the Court's decision.Point (g)of
what Nicaragua in its Application (at para. 26) requests the Court to
adjudge and declare makes this particularly clear. Nicaragua requeststhat
the Court hold that the United States

"is under a particular duty to cease and desist immediately . ..from
al1support of any kind - including the provision of training, arms,

ammunition, finances, supplies, assistance, direction or any other
form of support - to any nation. ..engaged or planning to engagein
military or paramilitary actions in or against Nicaragua. .."

It is a fact that the United States is heavily engaged in supporting Hon-
duras and ElSalvador with training,arms,finances, etc.Nicaragua itselfin
its Application and pleadings alleges that Honduras and El Salvador are
engaged in military or paramilitary actions in or against Nicaragua, in
concert with the United States. Honduras and El Salvador,in their com-
munications to the Court, maintain that actually it is Nicaragua which
has engaged and is engaging in a variety of acts of direct and indirect
aggression against them, including armed attacks. (See the letter of
18April1984 from theGovernment of Hondurasto the Secretary-General
of theUnitedNations containingobservations on the then pending request
for provisional measures, as wellas the Court's Order of 10May 1984,my
dissenting opinion, p. 199 ; and see El Salvador's Declaration of Inter-
vention of 15August 1984,in which it alleges, inter alia hat it "considers
itselfunder the pressure of an effective armed attack on the part of
Nicaragua. ..". It there protested "the aggression of which it is a victimthrough subversiondirected by Nicaragua. . ."It claimed that, "Nicara-
gua has been converted into a base from which the terrorists seek the

overthrow of the popularly elected Government of Ournation. They are
directed, armed, supplied and trained by Nicaragua. .." (at paras. 1and
III).) In short, Nicaragua seeks ajudgment from the Court requiring the
United Statesto ceaseand desist from actions which Nicaragua claims are
unlawfully directed against Nicaragua, with the assistance of Honduras,
Costa Rica and El Salvador, whereas the United States, Honduras and El
Salvador claim that these very actions are conducted in collective self-
defence against Nicaraguan acts of aggression. The judgment which the
Court reaches on this critical point accordingly must "affect" not only the
United States but Hondurasand ElSalvador, and - in viewofNicaragua's
allegations - Costa Rica as well. If the Court takes the facts as alleged in
Nicaragua's pleadings as true - which the Court is entitled to do for

purposes of deciding whether Nicaragua presents a cause of action over
which the Court has jurisdiction or which is admissible - then it neces-
sarilyfollows that Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvador mustbe affected
by a decision of the Court in this case,whatever that decision turnsout to
be. Nicaragua's Agent indeedmaintained that Nicaragua has no objection
"to a participation of El Salvador" in this case, indeed, "no objection to a
participation of other States" (Hearing of 8 October 1984).This suggests
that Nicaragua itself has recognized that, at least within the compass of
Article 63,ElSalvador, Honduras and CostaRica willbe "affected" by any
decision of the Court in this case. El Salvador itself has sought to intervene
under Article 63 of the Statute ;the Court has inferred in its Order of
4 October 1984 the propriety of such intervention on the merrits ; and

Honduras and Costa Rica, while not seeking to intervene,have also sent
communications to the Court or to the Secretary-General which demon-
strate their concern about how adjudication of this case would affect
them.

74. The conclusion to which the particulars of the pleadings of the
Parties lead is supported by the principles of international law. If Nica-
ragua's charges are true - if the acts against it which it alleges the United
States istaking or supporting are in fact taking place, if they are unlawful,
and if Hondurasand Costa Rica are knowingly lendingtheir territory and
El Salvador islending its resources to the commission of these acts - then
Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvador also stand in violation of their

international obligations.Indeed, evenif the acts of Honduras, Costa Rica
and El Salvador themselvesdo not giverise to international responsibility,
then aid or assistance by Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvador to the
United States for the commission of the acts of the United States consti-
tutes an internationally wrongful act on the part of those three States.
Theseelementalaspects of accepted international laware illustrated in the
draft articleson State Responsibility which my eminent colleague, Judge
Ago,prepared and which the International Law Commissionhasadopted.
Article 27 of that draft provides : "Aid orAssistance by a State to Another State for the Commission
of an Internationally WrongfulAct

Aid or assistanceby a State to another State, if it is establishedthat
it is rendered for the commission of an internationally wrongful act,
carried out by the latter, itself constitutes an internationally wrongful
act, even if, taken alone, such aid or assistance would not constitute
the breach of an international obligation." (Yearbook of the Interna-
tional Law Commission 1978,Vol. II, Part Two, p. 99.)

The cornrnentary to that article demonstrates how established are these
principles of international law in doctrine and practice (pp. 99-105). It
followsfrom theseprinciples, and fromthe pleadings of Nicaragua, that, if
the Court should sustain Nicaragua's claims,Honduras, Costa Rica and El
Salvador necessarily will be affected by the Court's judgment in the
case.
75. Nor isit persuasive to argue,asthe Court does,that ifitshould reject
Nicaragua's Application, there would be no third States thai could claim to
be affected by the judgment in the case. That is like saying that, if in a
national court, citizen "A" isindicted on charges of terrorism involvingthe
smuggling of narcotics and arms, and foreigners "B", "C" and "Dm,who
are situated abroad, are named in the charges as unindicted co-conspira-
tors, and if the court finds citizen "A" not guilty, then foreigners "B", "C"
and "D" are not affected by thejudgment - not affected legally,econom-
ically, morally or othenvise. Indeed, the case before this Court is an a
fortiori case, because, while in the hypothetical case, the foreigners, not
being within the territorialjurisdiction of the forum, are not, or probably
are not, subject to its law, in the case before this Court the situation is
fundamentally otherwise. While, by the terms of Article 59 of the Court's

Statute, the decision of the Court has no binding force except between the
Parties andin respect of that particular case,and while,inpoint of fact, the
only Parties before the Court are Nicaragua and the United States,
nevertheless al1States are subject to the same law to which they are sub-
ject, international law.Thus thecertainty of States which are deeply impli-
cated in the pleadings of the Applicant being affected by the judgment
of the Court in this case is the clearer.

76. Let us assume, however, contrary to the foregoing considerations,
that the Court is correct in a holding which had the effect of rendering the
multilateral treaty reservation of the United Statesinoperative, at anyrate
in thejurisdictional phase of the proceedings in which it was designed to
operate. Let usassumethat itisright inconcluding that "it isonlywhen the
general lines of the judgment to be given become clear that the States
'affected' couldbe identified". What follows from that portentous con-
clusion ? In the Court's view, apparently it follows, for this and other
reasons, that the multilateral treaty reservation "does not constitute an
obstacle for the Court to entertain the proceedings instituted by Nica-
ragua. ..". My conclusion is the opposite. 77. In his notable dissent in the Interkandel case, Judge Sir Hersch
Lauterpacht observed that :
"Invalidity, in the contemplation of the law, is nothing else than
inherent incapacity to produce legal results ...

The United States of America has accepted the obligations of
Article 36(2)of the Statute on condition that in any particular case it
isfortheGovernment of theUnited States of America, and not forthe
International Court of Justice, to determine whether a matter is
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of the United States of
America. That condition, covering as it does a potentially all-com-
prehensive category of disputes relating to matters essentially within
domestic jurisdiction, has replaced - in addition to another wide
reservation in theAmericanDeclaration ofAcceptancerelating to the

interpretation of multilateral treaties - the traditional formula
requinng the consent of the Senate, or of the Government of the
United States ofAmerica, to the submission of anyparticulardispute
to the international tribunal. This Court, whose jurisdiction is
grounded solelyand exclusivelyin theconsent of the defendant State,
must respect that essential condition of the Declaration of Accep-
tance.

Any decision of the Court which arrogates to it a competence

denied toit by the expressterms of thejurisdictional instrument relied
upon by the parties disturbs the continuity of the established juris-
prudence of the Court. That jurisprudence has been based on the
accepted principle of international law that the jurisdiction of the
Court is based invariably on the consent of the parties, given in
advance orin relation to aparticulardispute ...Butthe Courthasnot
assumedjurisdiction - and cannot properly do so - ifjurisdiction is
expressly denied to it." (Interkandel, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959,
pp. 104, 107, 114-115.)

Judge Lauterpacht then considered the question whether, although the
Connally Reservation

"is invalid - the Declaration of Acceptance may, apart from that
reservation, be treated asotherwisesubsistent and giveneffect by the
Court. In the caseconcerning CertainNonvegian Loans1gavereasons
in my separate opinion - which must be read as forming part of the
present Opinion - why that question must be answered in the nega-
tive.These reasons included the generalprinciple oflawgoverning the
subject, namely, theprinciple that acondition which,having regard to
theintention oftheparty making it,is essential to and goesto theroots
of themain obligation, cannot beseparated from it. This isnot amere refinement of private law, or of any municipal system thereof, but -
asal1generalprinciples oflaw - a maximbased on common senseand
equity. A party cannot be held to be bound by an obligation divested

of a condition without which that obligation would never have been
undertaken." (Ibid., pp. 116-117.)

In hisseparate opinion in the Certain Nonvegian Loanscase, Judge Lau-

terpacht, in discussing whether it was possible to sever a French self-
judging proviso from the French declaration accepting the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court, concluded :
"The Court cannot properly uphold the validity of the Acceptance
as a whole and at the same time treat as non-existent any such

far-reaching,articulate and deliberatelimitation of itsjurisdiction. To
do so would run counter to the established practice of the Court -
which, in turn, is in accordance with a fundamental principle of
international judicial settlement - that the Court will not uphold its
jurisdiction unless the intention to confer it has been proved beyond
reasonable doubt. The Court certainly cannot assumejurisdiction if
there is a clearly expressed intention to deny it in specified circum-
stances. This means that it would not be possible for the Court to
disregard that part of the reservation in question which claims for the
State concerned the right to determine its application. It is not pos-
sible for the Court to do otherwise than to regard this particular part
of the reservation, so specifically formulated, as constituting an

essential and not severable part of the instrument of acceptance."
(Case of Certain Nonvegian Loans, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957,
pp. 58-59.)
78. It cannot be maintained that the Senate of the United States
attached the same importance to the Vandenberg multilateral treaties
Reservation as it attached to the Connally Reservation.Indeed, the Senate

debate in the course of which the Vandenberg Reservation was added
suggests that the Senators concerned were under the impression that the
objective which the Vandenberg Reservation was meant to ensure was
alreadywritten into the Statute by thedoctrine and practice of reciprocity.
(See the Congressional Record, Proceedings andDebates of the 79th Con-
gress,Second Session,1August 1946,p. 10618.)They nevertheless added
the Vandenberg Reservation with a viewto being "doubly assured" (ibid.)
that the Court could not entertain a dispute involving the United States
arising under a multilateral convention unless al1parties to the treaty
affected by the decision werealsoparties to thecase before the Court.That
was the Senate'sintention. That intention is clearly reflected in the words

of the reservation whichwereincorporated into the text of thedeclaration.
That is what proviso (c) of the United States reservations to the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction says. While there may be room for questioning whether the United States wasof theviewthat this proviso wasessential to
its declaration, nevertheless 1 do not believe that the Court is free to
disregard or sever it on the ground of its relative unimportance. It is a
safeguard which, after deliberation, and in the absence of a recommen-
dationsupporting itsinclusion fromtheDepartment of State, the Senateof
the United States nevertheless decided to require. In my view,it accord-
inglyfollowsthat itwouldnot be appropriatefor the Court tofind that that

reservation isinherentlyinoperative at thestage at whichitwasdesigned to
operate, i.e., in a limited sense, invalid, by finding, as Judge Lauterpacht
put it, that is has "an inherent incapacity to produce legal results" ;
however,once the Court sofinds - asit in effect does for present purposes
in today'sjudgment - it also follows that it must treat the whole of the
United States Declaration of 14August 1946as invalid. If for that reason
the United States declaration as a whole is invalid, then it cannot be
invoked by Nicaragua to sustain thejurisdiction of the Court.
79. As for (c), the Court's third reason for not giving effect to the

multilateral treaty reservation, it is difficult to express a definitive view
because of the compressed character of the Court's reasoning.After hold-
ing - in my view,wrongly - that "obviously" the question of what States
may be "affected" is not ajurisdictional problem, the Court States,first,
that "the procedural techniqueformerly available ofjoinder ofpreliminary
objections to the merits has been done away with . . ."and second, that
"the Court hasno choicebut to availitself ofArticle 79,paragraph 7,of the
present Rules of Court", and

"declare that the objection based on the multilateral treaty reserva-
tion of the United StatesDeclaration ofAcceptance does not possess,
in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary character,

and that consequentlyit does not constitute an obstacle for the Court
to entertain the proceedings instituted byNicaragua under theAppli-
cation of 9 April 1984" (Judgment, para. 76).
80. Thisholding of the Court may be understood in more than one way.

It can be interpreted as meaning that, since the United States objection
based on the reservation does not possess an exclusively preliminary
character, it does not constitute - at this stage of the proceedings - an
obstacle for the Court to entertain the case instituted by Nicaragua. From
this it follows that this United States objection, not possessing an "exclu-
sively" preliminary character, necessarily possesses some preliminary
character, and that that character will be addressed, as a preliminary and
jurisdictional question, at the stage of the merits, at which time the Parties
can plead further, inter alia othequestion ofwhich States,ifany, are to be

affected by anyjudgment which the Court may render on themerits of the
case. If this is what the Court means, while it would hardly constitute an
application of the multilateral treaty reservation as it must have been
intended that it would be applied - at thejurisdictional stage - othenvise
this would be a tenable holding. 81. However, the Court confounds this interpretation by holding that
"the procedural technique formerly available ofjoinder of the preliminary
objections to the merits has been done awaywith sincethe 1972revision of
the Rules. . ."By this, the Court appears to hold that, at the stage of the
merits, the United States preliminary objection based on the multilateral

treaty reservation may not be argued and may not be found to bar the
claims,or someof theclaims, ofNicaragua. If thisisindeed what the Court
means to Say - and whatever it means, its words are subject to this
construction - then the Court will have sunk the multilateral treaty
reservation without a trace by useof a watertight device :on the one hand,
by holding that, since it is not of an exclusivelypreliminary character, it
cannot be giveneffectat thejurisdictional stageof the proceedings ;on the
other hand, by holding that that preliminary objection cannot be taken up
at thestage of the merits, sincethejoinder of preliminary objections to the
merits "has been done away with". That would be an extraordinary pro-
cedure, whichcould be used not only to vitiate this reservation but al1sorts
of reservations, on the ground that they may not be applied by way of
preliminary objection since they are not of an exclusively preliminary
character, and may not be addressed at the stage of the merits, on the

ground that the revisedrules excludejoining preliminary objections to the
merits.

82. The pertinent passages of Article 79 of the Rules of Court on
"Preliminary Objections" read as follows :
"6. In order to enable theCourt to determineits jurisdiction at the
preliminary stage of the proceedings, the Court, whenevernecessary,

may request theparties to argue al1questions of law and fact, and to
adduce al1evidence, which bear on the issue.
7. After hearing the parties, the Court shall giveits decision in the
form of a judgment, by which it shall either uphold the objection,
reject it, or declare that the objection does not possess, in the cir-
cumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary character. If the
Court rejects the objection or declares that it does not possess an
exclusivelypreliminary character, it shall fix time-limits for the fur-
ther proceedings.
8. Any agreement between theparties that an objection submitted
under paragraph 1of this Article be heard and determined within the
framework of the merits shall be given effect by the Court."

83. It is plain the Court may treat a preliminary objection in three
ways : (a) uphold it ; (b)reject it; (c)"declare that the objection does not
possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary char-
acter". In that latter event, the Court shall fix time-limits for the further
proceedings, a provision which imports that, at those proceedings, an
objection which does not possess an exclusivelypreliminary character, but
therefore somepreliminary character, willbe taken up. 1am unable to see
that paragraph 8 prejudices ths interpretation ; rather, it supplies analternative route to the sameterminus. 1am confirmed in theseconclusions
by an article whch a former distinguished President of the Court, Judge
Eduardo Jiménezde Aréchaga,wrote on "The Amendments to the Rules
of Procedure of the InternationalCourt of Justice" whch waspublished in

the American Journal of International Law for January 1973,Volume 67,
page 1.Judge JiménezdeAréchagaobsemed that, inrevisingits rules,there
was majority recognition of the need to :

"(3) regulate preliminary objections so asto settle them as soon as
feasible and avoid the delay and expense involved in a double dis-
cussion of the same question at both the preliminary stage and the
stage of the merits" (ibid.).

Accordingly, what isnow paragraph 6of Article 79wasintroduced, with a
viewtowardsinducing theCourt todetermine al1prelirninary objections at
the preliminary stage of the proceedings, if possible. Where, however, a
preliminary objection so relates to the merits that its argument at the

preliminary stage would entai1arguing the whole of the case at that stage,
orwheretheCourt doesnot findit necessary - or desirable - torequire the
Parties at the preliminary stageto argue al1questions of law and fact, and
to adduce al1evidence, which bear upon the issue :"It would then be for
the Respondent to raise such a defense at the stage of the merits, if it so
wished." (Ibid., p. 17.)
84. Now in the instant case the Court has not invoked or applied
paragraph 6 of Article 79 of its Rules. It has not requested the Parties to
argue al1questions of lawand fact, and to adduce al1evidence, which bear
upon the issueof whether Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvadorare to be
affected by the Court's judgment in the case. If it had done so, it would
have required, if not the argument of the whole of the case, then the
argument of the essence of the defence to the case. That being so - and
having failed to sustain the objection of the United States invoking the

multilateral treaties reservation on the pleadings, as, in my view,the Court
should have - it followsthat, at thestage of the merits, the United States is
free to raise its defence based on that reservation in bar to the Court's
proceeding with the case. That, at any rate, is in my understanding of the
Rules and of what the Court's pertinent holding in this caseshould mean,
but 1am not able to Saythat that is what the Court does mean.

85. Let us finally, in respect of the multilateral treaty reservation,
address point (d), the Court's holding that Nicaragua's claims embrace
customary as wellas treaty law and to that extent are not debarred by the
reservation even if that reservation were to be applied.

86. Assuming application of the resemation, there are two possibilities.
The first would be to dismiss the case (except in so far as it may have a
bilateral treaty basis), on the ground that Nicaragua's claimsare so inte-6 14 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTiVITIES (DISS .P. SCHWEBEL)

grally and essentially bound up with the treaty provisions on whch they
rely that, ifthose provisions cannot be pleaded, there is no case which the
Court can consider. The second would be to retain the case in so far as
Nicaragua can make out a casedivorced from the terms of those treaties, a
case which is based on customary international law. In its Application,
Nicaragua claims violation not only of the four treaties but of "funda-
mental rules of general and customary international law ..." (para.
14).

87. Nicaragua attempts to meet the United States reliance on the reser-

vation by arguing that, even if that proviso can be and is applied, it leaves
its claims under customary international law intact. It observes that there
isnothing to prevent a Statefrom pleading simultaneously in conventional
and customary law. Some of its claims are exclusively cast in terms of
customary law. But in any event, Nicaragua argues, even if one were to
accept the United Statescontention that al1of the Nicaraguan claims are
variations of the obligations encompassed by the provisions of Article 2,
paragraph 4, of the United Nations Charter, those provisions are de-
claratory of international law ;the obligations of Article 2,paragraph 4 -

and corresponding and complementary obligations of the Charter of the
Oganization of American States - exist in customary international law
even if those treaty provisions cannot be relied upon as such. In reply, the
United States argues that, on analysis, al1of Nicaragua's claims - cus-
tomary and treaty-based - arein substance the same ; theone set merely
paraphrases theother ;and no relevant customaryinternational law exists
apart from the treatiesinvoked by Nicaragua. Moreover, theUnited States
maintains, the Court cannot properly adjudicate the customary interna-
tional law claims which Nicaragua makes when the limitations contained
in the United States declaration preclude the Court from applying the

specific,governinglegal standardsto which the Parties have agreed in the
treaties in force between them.

88. In myview,thereisabroad butnot necessarilycomplete substantive
equivalence between the claims which Nicaragua makes under conven-
tional and under customary international law (as appears from a com-
parison of those claims). Furthermore, contemporary international law
governing the useofforceininternational relations isessentiallycomposed

of Article 2, paragraph 4, and Article 51 of the United Nations Charter.
Are those provisions also part of contemporary customary international
law ? Article 2, paragraph 6, of the United Nations Charter provides :

"The Organization shall ensure that States which arenot members of the United Nations act in accordance with these Principles sofar as

may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and
security."

Whilethere islittle agreement on the scope ofjus cogens,it is important to
recall that in the International Law Commission and at the Vienna Con-
ference on the Law of Treaties there was general agreement that, ifjus
cogenshas any agreed core, it is Article 2, paragraph 4. Moreover, Article
52 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties provides :

"A treaty isvoidifits conclusion has beenprocured by thethreat or
use of force in violation of the principles of international law em-
bodied in the Charter of the United Nations."

That isnot to Saythat Article 2,paragraph 4, and Article 51of theCharter

occupy the wholefieldof the useofforcein international relations. It isnot
to Say,for example, that necessarily there is no scope to self-defence or to
protection of nationals apart from Article 51 and Article 2, paragraph 4.
But it is to Saythat Article 2,paragraph 4, is the supreme and pre-emptive
statement of the law in the field which it does occupy. Moreover, while
Article 2,paragraph 4,hadits antecedents in theCovenant of the Leagueof
Nations, the Kellogg-Briand Pact, and the Nuremberg principles and
judgments, it is difficult to conclude that it was merely a codification of
customary international law ;on the contrary, the Charter was viewed at
thetime of its adoption asa revolutionary advance in respect of thelegality
ofthe useof force and ofresort to warin international relations, and, ifone
speaksnot of doctrinebut of reality,Article 2,paragraph 4, stillrepresents
more preachment than practice in the affairs of States. Thus, 1am inclined
to think that itcannot simplybe said that customaryinternational law,asit
had evolvedby 1945,equated with the content of Article 2, paragraph 4 ;

and it can even less be said that, if Article 51 is removed, the bounds of
self-defence in customary international law equate with its terms. May it
nevertheless be argued that, as a result of the ratification of the United
Nations Charter (including Art. 2, para. 6) by virtually every Statein the
world, and by virtue of general agreement that Article 2, paragraph 4, of
that Charter isjus cogens,the provisions of Article 2, paragraph 4, have
been subsequently imported into customary international law ? Surely
Switzerland, which has not yetjoined the United Nations, or Indonesia,
whichfor a timewithdrew from theUnited Nations, wereand areas bound
by the prescriptions ofArticle 2,paragraph 4,asare theStates Members of
theUnited Nations. That isapowerful and probably correct argument, but
it-runs into the profound difficulty that the practice of States does not
demonstrate that Article 2, paragraph 4, in fact reflects customary inter-
national law. Finally, since Article 2, paragraph 4, and Article 51 (and
variations upon their themes as they appear in the OAS Charter) are the

specificand governinglegal standards towhichthe Parties in thiscasehave agreed, 1have some difficulty in seeing how the Court can proceed to
adjudicate Nicaragua's claims if, byapplication of the multilateral treaty
reservation, reliance on those standards is excluded. Such adjudication
would be an unreal, artificial, highly constricted - and yet unduly uncon-
strained - process, in which the Court could be confronted with pro-
foundly sensitive questions, such as :what is the scope of self-defence in
international law if the provisions of Article 51 are left entirely out of
consideration ?

89. Nevertheless, there are aspects of the instant case - such asfreedom
of navigation on the high seas - on which customary international law
indisputably existed before the treaties on which Nicaragua relies came
into force. It is by no means clear that those treaties establish preclusive
legal standards governing that freedom, though they may do so with
respect to the use of force which impairs that freedom.

90. More than this, the question of to what extent the claims of Nica-

raguaembody claims under customary international lawwhich subsists or
exists,evenif the treaties on which Nicaragua reliesare left out of account,
isa delicate and complex question, which has not been fully argued by the
Parties. Aspects of it may relate to the merits of the case. In viewof these
considerations, and of the fact that the haste withwhichthe Court hasdealt
with aspects of the current case, from the moment of its filing through the
issuance of today's Judgment, has not afforded me the time sufficiently
to consider this difficult question, 1 feel bound to reserve my position
upon it.

(iii) The "1984 notification" of the United States

91. It is clear that, if the Court were to give effect to the United States
Note of 6April 1984 - the "1984notification" - purporting to modify the
terms of its 1946Declaration with immediate effect so asto exclude, for a
period of two years, 'disputes with any Central American State or arising
out of or related to events in Central America", the claims of Nicaragua
would be debarred in so far as they rely on the United States declaration
accepting the Court's compuisory jurisdiction. The Court declines to give
such effect to the 1984notification, on the following grounds :

(a) Whether the 1984notification is classified as a termination or modi-
fication of the 1946Declaration does not matter, for it is intended to
secure a partial and temporary termination of the United States obli-
gation to subjecr itself to the Court's jurisdiction in the specified
respects.

(b) Declarations accepting the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, whileuni-
lateral, do notleavethe declarant free to amend the scopeand content of its commitments as it pleases. The principle of good faith governs.
Since the United States Declaration of 1946formally and solemnly
provides that anychangeshouldtake effect only after sixmonths have
elapsedfrom the date of notice, the United States must be held to this

undertaking.

(c) The notion of reciprocity is concerned with the scope and substanceof
commitmentsentered into under the Optional Clause, and not with the
forma1conditions of their duration.
(d) Reciprocitycannot be invoked in order to excuse departure from the
terms of a State's own declaration ; it can only take advantage of an
express restriction in the declaration of the other Party to the case.
Thus the United States cannot rely upon the claimed right of Nica-
ragua to revoke its declaration at any time.
(e) Nicaragua in any event has not reserved such a right but, if it has that
right, it could only be exercised on reasonable notice. Thus, if the

United States may reciprocally invoke such a right, it also can do so
only on reasonable notice, which is absent in this case.

(fl Nor is it clear that a State can invoke considerations of reciprocity
before the Court is seised of a case.
92. 1 am essentially in agreement with point (a).1do not believe that it

can be persuasively argued that, since the United States Declaration of
1946excludes termination on less than six months' notice, but not modi-
fication,the United States may freelymodify its declaration, at any rate in
the manner in which the 1984notification purports to do. The Court is
right to hold that that notification is tantamount to a limited, suspensive
termination.
93. Point (b)of the Court's conclusions is not altogetherself-evident,as
distinguished colleagues'opinionsin this case show. Nevertheless, for my
part, and forthe purposes of thiscase, 1am prepared to accept it, subject to
one critical caveat which the Court's judgment does not meet : that the
principle of good faith interpretation be applied equally to al1elements of
the United Statesdeclaration. The United States may quite reasonably be

held to the provision of no terrnination on less than six months' notice,
provided that the Court is held to respect for the multilateral treaty
reservation which that declaration embodies. The relevant report of the
SenateCornmitteeonForeignRelations tellinglyprovides - as counsel for
Nicaragua stressed - that the six months' termination proviso "has the
effect of a renunciation of anyintention to withdraw Ourobligation in the
faceof a threatened legalproceeding" (79thCongress, 2nd Session,United
States Senate, Report No. 1835,p. 5). But that report also contains other
conditions respecting the United States declaration, which are set out
below. If al1those conditions are respected, then it would be right to hold
the United States to that renunciation. But if those otherconditions are not
respected - and the Court's Judgment does not respect them - on what ground may the Court selectivelychoose the elements of the United States
declaration to which the United States is to be held ?

94. 1do not find myself in agreement with the holdings of the Court
summarized in points (c), (d),(e) and (f, though 1 recognize that those

holdings are not unfounded. Before setting out my conclusions on these
points, it willbe convenient to placethe United StatesDeclaration of 1946
in its context, to showwhat were the intentions of the Government of the
United Statesin adopting it, and to contrast the situation as it obtained in
respect of the Optional Clause in 1946with present reality.
95. When the declaration was under considerationin the United States
Senate. the Committee on Foreign Relations took care to describe the
scopeofthejurisdiction to be confverredunder thedeclarationas "carefully
definedand limited". In thefirst place, it said, there is "a generallimitation
ofjurisdiction to legal disputes". Then a "second major limitation on the
jurisdiction conferredarisesfrom thecondition ofreciprocity ...specified
in the resolution ..." and in the language of the Statute and by practice in
pursuance of it. A third limitation is to disputes arisingin the future. Of
this limitation and the effect of reciprocity, the Senate Report declared
that :

"any limitation imposed by a state in its grant ofjurisdiction thereby
alsobecomesavailableto any other state with which it might become
involved in proceedings, even though the second state had not speci-
ficallyimposedthelimitation. Thus, for example, if the United States
limited its grant ofjurisdiction to cases'hereafter arising'ths country
would be unable to institute proceedings regarding earlier disputes,
eventhough the defendant state might not haveinterposed this reser-
vation." (Report No. 1835,p. 5.)

Thus it will be observed that, when the United States filed its declaration
embracing "al1legal disputes hereafter arising", subject to specified limi-
tations, it understood that reciprocity embraces temporal limitations. A
fourth limitation concerns freedom to entrust disputes to other tribunals.
A fifth limitation excludes matters essentiallywithin the domestic juris-
diction of the United States. The Report then declares :

"The resolution provides that the declaration should remain in
force for a period of 5 years and thereafter until6 months following
notice of termination. The declaration might, therefore, remain in
force indefinitely. The provision for 6 months' notice of termination
after the 5-yearperiodhastheeffect of arenunciation of anyintention
to withdraw our obligation in the face of a threatened legal proceed-
ing." (Ibid.)619 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISS .P. SCHWEBEL)

Consideration of theReport on thefloor of the Senate emphasized that, by
adhering to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction in these terms, the United
States would vitally contribute to the general acceptance of the Court's
effectivecompulsoryjurisdiction. A discordant and contentious note was
struck by Senator Connally's proposa1 on the floor to add his famous
reservation, which carried, over energetic opposition. But another crip-

plingreservation, whichwould have endeavoured to confine the sourcesof
law to be applied in cases to which the United States is party to treaties, in
the absence of prior agreement as to what are the applicable sources of
international law, was defeated. The Vandenberg Reservation was easily
accepted. The provision for six months' notice attracted no criticism in
floor debate.
96. In introducing the proposed declaration, the Senate Committee on
Foreign Relations recalled to the Senate that the Optional Clause in the
days of the Permanent Court had achieved at one time the acceptance of
the very great majority of the States then independent :

"Under this provision some 44 states, including 3 of the 5 states
now permanent members of the Security Council (Great Britain,
France, and China), at one time or another deposited declarations
accepting this jurisdiction."(Report No. 1835, p. 8.)

In 1946,declarations by which States reserved the right to terminate their
declarations on notice were few and to modify them at any time were
unknown. A term of years, together with a notice period, was the pattern
which the 1928 General Act for the Pacific Settlement of International
Disputes had adopted, which a large number of Stateshad followed, and
which the United States embraced. The unconditional declaration which
was indefinite in duration because it specified no term of years or notice
period, of which Nicaragua's 1929Declaration is an example, was uncom-
mon in 1946and is almost extinct today. The seven such declarations that
stillexist weremade in the optimistic if transient days of the League when
it was believed that universal and effectivecompulsory jurisdiction of the
Court was burgeoning.

97. However, the contemporary situation isunlike that whichprevailed
in 1929or 1946.Today, only 47 of the 162Statesparty to the Statute are
bound under the Optional Clause. Of the 47 declarations now in effect,

only 19 are not expressly subject either to unilateral termination or to
modification on notice. The SovietUnion has never adhered to the Court's
compulsory jurisdiction under the Optional Clause ; neither China nor
France currently adhere. The only Permanent Member of the Security
Council party to the Optional Clause other that the United States is the
United Kingdom, which has reserved "the right at any time ... and with
effect from the moment of .. .notification, either to add to, amend or
withdraw" any of its extensivereservations, and thisin adeclaration which
has been made "until such time as notice may be given to terminate" it.Many other leading States, including Algena, Argentina, Brazil, the Fed-
eral Republic of Germany, Italy, Poland and the other States of Eastern
Europe, Senegal,and Syriado not adhere to the Optional Clause. Thus it is
clear that the expectations in the light of which the Senate gaveits consent
and the President filed the declaration of the United States have not been
fulfilled.

98. Does it follow, in part because of the failure of these expectations,
that the United States is entitled to exercisewhat subsequent practice may
be said tohave recognizedtobe an inherent right to terminate adeclaration
on notice, despite the presence of a termination clause providing for a
period of notice ? In my view,a considerablecase can be madeoutfor that
conclusion, asdistinguished colleaguesshowin theiropinions. Butin order
topass upon the 1984notification of the United States,it is not necessary,
in my view, for the Court to take a position on that question.

99. Nor is the Court required to take a position on the allied question of
whether declarations under the Optional Clause are subject to the provi-
sions of the lawof treaties regulating the termination of treatiesor, rather,
to a sui generisrégime.The Court appears nevertheless to incline towards
the view that the law of treaties governs declarations, if only by analogy.
Myownviewisthat the argumentfora suigenerisrégimeismuch stronger.

That is because of thenature of declarations under the Optional Clause -
unilateral as they are, not subject to negotiation, reservations to whch are
not subject to agreement. Their nature differs substantially from that of
treaties. The Court's treatment of such declarations is suggestive,notably
in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case Cjurisdiction),Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1952, pages 93, 105,where the Court held :

"the text of the Iranian Declaration is not a treaty text resultingfrom
negotiations between two or more States. It is the result of unilateral
drafting by the Government of Iran . . ."

The Court thus held that a rule of the interpretation of treaties for which
the United Kingdom argued did not govern the interpretation of the
Iranian Declaration (ibid., pp. 102-107).The Court has more than once
described declarations under the Optional Clause as "unilateral" (Certain

Norwegian Loans, Judgment, Z.C.J. Reports 1957,pp. 9, 23 ; Barcelona
Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J.Reports 1964,pp. 6,29). Buteven if,contrary to this view,
rules for the termination or suspension of treaties were to be directly
applied, or by analogy were to be applied, to the legal effectivenessof the
United States suspension of elements of its 1946Declaration, the United
States still would be able to argue, and with much reason, that a "funda-
mental change of circumstances .. .has occurred with regard to those
existing at the time of the conclusion" of the declaration within themeaning ofArticle 62of the Vienna Convention on the LawofTreaties. An
essential basis of the United Statesconsent tobe bound by itsdeclaration,
itmay be maintained, wasitsperception that that declaration wouldbeone
of a near universal number of effective declarations. But the impact of
non-adherence to the Optional Clause by the large majority of States,
including so many of the more influential States, and the effect of the
widespread making of reservations permitting declarants to modify or
terminate their declarations at will, has been radically to transform the
extent of the obligations still to be performed by the United States under
its declaration, should it not be seen as retaining the unfettered right to

modify or suspend it.
100. This is a substantial argument. Moreover, even if one does not
resort to rebus sic stantibus, there is another substantial argument for
treating declarations made under the Optional Clause as inherently ter-
minable, even if they are regarded as subject to the law of treaties on
termination. It was expressedby SirHumphrey Waldock in hiscapacity as
Special Rapporteur of the International Law Commission on the Law of
Treaties in the following terms :

"It isonly necessary to look at the texts of the large number of such
treaties collected in the United Nations publication 'Systematic Sur-
vey of Treaties for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes,
1928-48'to seehow almost invariably they are concluded either for a
fixedterm orfor renewable termssubject to aright ofdenunciation, or
aremade terminable upon notice. ..If theproportion of instruments
containing no provision regarding their duration or termination is
somewhat greater among declarations under the 'optional clause' of
the Statute of theInternational Court of Justice (or of the Permanent
Court), the general picture is the same. Out of the thirty-seven decla-
rations listed in the Court's Yearbook for 1961-2,eight contain no
statement as to their duration or termination, and al1the others are

made for a limited period or made terminable upon notice. It is true
that in 1938,when Paraguay, which then had a declaration of this
kind,denounced itin a letter tothe Secretary-General, sixStates made
reservations with regard to the denunciation ; and that the Para-
guayan declaration was retained in the list of optional clause accep-
tances in the Yearbook of the Court until the year 1959-60,though
with an explanatory footnote mentioning the reservations. But the
declaration has now been removed from the list, ... Moreover, even
before the Paraguayan denunciation, Colombia had 'corrected'
in 1937an unlimited and unconditional declaration of 1932by res-
tricting it to disputes arising out of facts subsequent to 6 January
1932. Taken as a whole, State practice under the optional clause,
and especially the modern trend towards Declarations terminable
upon notice, seemonly to reinforce the clear conclusion to be drawn
from treaties of arbitration, conciliation and judicial settlement, that -these treaties are regarded as essentially of a terminable character."
Yeurhook of the International Law Commission, 1963, Vol. II,
p. 68.)

In oralargument, thedistinguishedcounsel of the United States,Professor

McDougal, further recalled that Waldock in the foregoing report had also
concluded that the constituent instruments of international organizations
are impliedly terminable upon notice (ibid p..69). A primary example
which Sir Humphrey cited as confirming the existence of a general pre-
sumption in favour of a right of withdrawal in this class of treaty is the
United Nations Charter. Professor McDougal then submitted :

"It isfamiliar knowledge that the Statute of theCourt, including its
component obligations, are now a part of the comprehensive United
Nations system. If the authors of the Charter in 1945and the Special
Rapporteur of the International Law Commission in 1963thought
there was inherent power to withdraw from the Charter itself, surely
they thoughtthat a modification ortermination ofparticipation in the
Optional Clause system was authorized." (Hearing of 16 October

1984,morning.)

101. In viewof the foregoingconsiderations, a considerable case can be
made out for viewing declarations under the Optional Clause as not
governed by the law of treaties, and as inherently terminable ;or, in the
alternative, if governed by the law of treaties, then terminable as a special
class of treaty which by itsnature is terminable ; or, in any event, termin-
able where a fundamental change of circumstances has occurred. Never-
theless, in the present proceedings, 1believe that the preferred position is
that every proviso of the United States 1946 Declaration is to be given
effect. The Court should have given effect to the multilateral treaty reser-
vation and to theintention that gaverise to it. If it had, it would be right to
giveeffect to the termination clause of the declaration and to theintention
that gave rise to it. However, where the Court finds that it is unclear

whether any Statesareaffected, orcouldbe affected, under the multilateral
treaty reservation, the Court, to be consistent, could equally hold that it is
unclear that the six months' termination provision debars modification.
Moreover, if the Court is to give effect to these provisions of the United
States Declaration of 1946, then it equally must give effect to the reci-
procity provision - a provision, it should be recalled, which was under-stood by the United States Senate to embrace temporal elements of the
declaration under the Optional Clause.

102. The Declaration of 1929by whichNicaragua nowmaintainsthat it
isbound provides :"On behalf of theRepublic of Nicaragua 1recognizeas

compulsory unconditionally the jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of
International Justice." That declaration thus contains no limit of time ;its
duration is indefinite. Does the declaration accordingly mean that Nica-
ragua is bound to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction in perpetuity ? Or
does "unconditionally" rather mean that Nicaragua has setno condition of
time, that the duration of its declaration is indefinite until such time as it
may set whatever lirnit it chooses to it ?

103. To argue, in the abstract, that a State in accepting the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction unconditionally has accepted it in perpetuity, is
implausible. To argue, concretely, that a State which unconditionally
accepted the Court's jurisdiction in 1929 is bound in perpetuity - even
vis-à-vis States that have made declarations in which they have reserved

the right to modify or terminate at notice, or, indeed vis-à-vis that large
majority of States which have never adhered to the Optional Clause but
could at any time adhere with the profoundest restrictions simply with the
purpose of bringing suit against a State which has unconditionally
adhered, and thereafter terminate acceptance - is lessplausible still.That
obvious conclusion is reinforced by the practice of States. The practice is
not large in the nature of the question. Nor is it unambiguous. But on
balance it establishes that a small number of States, such asColombia and
Paraguay, have succeeded in freeing themselvesof unconditional subrnis-
sions to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction. There are no cases in which
States in that position have been effectively held to their unconditional
adherences. In sum, asShabtai Rosenne,writing in 1965,put it in TheLaw
and Practiceof the International Court :

"it is sometimes argued that the essential objection to the unilateral
denunciation of a declaration accepting the compulsoryjurisdiction,
is that these declarations are governed by the law of treaties which in
principle does not permit unilateral denunciation, with the possible
exception supplied by the doctrine of rebussicstantibus.But . ..that
view cannot easily be reconciled with the picture which emerges
from close analysis of the jurisprudence on the compulsory juris-
diction ...
The question whether declarations of the type herebeing discussed
can be withdrawn or denounced must, ... largely be relegated to the
realm of theory. Moreover, with the exception of a few - not more

than seven - of the pre-War declarations accepting the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court which are now applicable to the present Court by virtue of Article 36(5)of the present Statute, States
have developed the practice of protecting themselves by inserting a
reservation of the right to withdraw, andthe practical problem isnow
limited. As far as those seven declarations are concerned, it is sub-
mitted that it would be singularlyunreal to apply to them an inflexible
rule said to derivefrom the general lawof treaties and disallowing the
right of unilateral denunciation. The dissolution of the League of
Nations and thePermanent Court and thefar-reaching changesin the

international community and its organization which that dissolution
mirrors, are sufficient to allow those States to withdraw their decla-
rations made in those far off days when the compulsory jurisdiction
was[in]its infancy, and whichare todayapplicable by virtue ofArticle
36 (5) of the Statute." (Vol. 1,pp. 416-417 ;footnotes omitted.)

104. It follows that Nicaragua, if its 1929Declaration binds it at all, is
free to terminate its acceptance. 1sit free to do so at any time, or only on

"reasonable notice" ? In the light of the practice in making declarations
adhering to the Optional Clause, so many of whichpermit termination or
modification not on "reasonable notice" or after a prescribed period but
immediately, the reasonable response to ths reasonable question is that
Nicaragua has the right to terminate its declaration on immediate notice.
That conclusion is reinforced by the experience of withdrawal from in-
definite adherences to the Court's compulsory jurisdiction by States such
as Colombia and Paraguay, withdrawals which did not entai1a period of
reasonable notice. (It strains the facts to suggest that, since some States
protested Paraguay'saction, and itsdeclaration wasretained in the Court's
Yearbooksfor some years, with a footnote, that is tantamount to imposi-
tion of a period of reasonable notice on Paraguay's termination.)

105. The case of Indonesia is particularly instructive. On 31 December
1964, Indonesia announced that it would withdraw from the United
Nations as of 1January 1965.It confirmed that decision in a communi-
cation of 20 January 1965(doc. A/5857). The United Nations acquiesced
in that decision. Indonesian withdrawal, on 24 hours' notice, was given
effect,legallyand practically. Indonesia ceased to be listed as a member of
the Organization. Indonesia was not assessed for any financial contribu-

tions for the whole of 1965(see the Report of the Cornrnitteeon Contribu-
tions, General Assernbb, Officia1Records: Twentieth Session, supplement
No. 10 (A/6010), pp. 1,2, 3). Subsequently, from September 1966,Indo-
nesia resumed participation in the United Nations, and it was agreed by
al1concerned that what had been treated as Indonesia's legally effective
withdrawal from the United Nations would be regarded retroactively not
as a withdrawal but "a cessation of CO-operation" (General Assembly,
Twenty-First Session, OfficialRecords, 1420thPlenary Meeting, pp. 1-2).625 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO . P.SCHWEBEL)

A payment of 10per cent of the amount for which Indonesia would have
been assessed for its contributions to the regular budget for the period of

Indonesian withdrawal was agreed upon. (Contributions of Indonesia for
theyears 1965and 1966,ReportoftheSecretary-General,doc. A/C.5/ 1097,
pp. 1, 2 ; and doc. A/6630, p. 3.)
106. Upon its withdrawal on 24hours'notice from the United Nations,
Indonesian withdrawal from the Statute of the Court, an integral part of
the Charter, likewise had the same legal and temporal effect. This was
reflected in the Yearbooksof the Court. Thus the Yearbook1964-1965,in
listing the States Members of the United Nations which ipsofacto are
parties to the Statute, has a footnote after the entry respecting Indonesia
(whichembraced 1964)observing that Indonesia notified withdrawalas of
1January 1965(at p. 27). The Yearbook 1965-1966, in listing the States
Members of the United Nations, and hence parties to the Statute, simply

omits Indonesia (p. 26). However, the Yearbook 1966-1967 States that,
among the States Members of the United Nations on 31 July 1967, was
Indonesia (p. 29).There is no indication that the Court,any more than the
United Nations, imposed a period of reasonable time upon the effective-
ness of Indonesia's notice of withdrawal. Now, if a State can withdraw
from the Statute of theCourt on 24hours' notice,rnaynot a State withdraw
from a declaration accepting the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction under
that Statute on 24 hours' notice ?

107. If Nicaragua could have so acted with immediate effect, rnay the
United States reciprocally do so ? The Court concludes that it rnaynot, on
two grounds : first, that reciprocity does not apply to temporal reserva-

tions or conditions but only to substantive reservations ;and second, that,
in any event, the United States cannot invoke and have the benefit of a
right which Nicaragua has but which Nicaragua itself did not invoke
before filing its Application.
108. The second point rnay be summarily addressed. Clearly, if Nica-
ragua itself - assuming it to have the right of unilateral termination of a
declaration which is assumed to be in force - exercised that right before it
filed its Application, then it could not file an application based on the
Optional Clause with any colourable basis ofjurisdiction. It would have
itself terminated the jurisdiction it proposed to invoke before invoking
it.
109. The question ofwhether reciprocity applies to temporal conditions

is a more substantial question, on which authorities are divided. In my
view,there is no persuasive reason, apriorior having regard to thepractice
of theCourt, to exclude temporal conditionsfrom the reach of reciprocity.
1so conclude for four reasons.

110. First, temporal conditions rnay be no less important than other
conditions.They rnayexcludejurisdictionjust assurelyasrnaysubstantive
reservations to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction. Sincereciprocity is so
closelytied to considerations of mutuality and of the sovereignequality of Statesbefore the law and before the Court, 1seeno reason in principle to
exclude temporal conditions from the scope of application of recipro-
city.
1 11. Second, theCourt hasmore than once entertained argument about
the application of reciprocity ratione temporis. It has never held that
reciprocity does not apply to temporal conditions. On the contrary, both

opposingStatesin thesecasesand the Courtappearto have assumed that it
did or might. See, Phosphatesin Morocco,Judgment, 1938, P.C.I.J., Series
A/ B, No. 74,page 22 ; Electricity CompanyofSofia and Bulgaria,P.C.I.J.,
Judgment, 1939,Series A/B, No. 77,page 81 ; and the Anglo-Iranian Oil
Co.case,I.C.J. Reports 1952,pages 93, 103,and the analysis of those cases
by Waldock tothis effectin "Decline of the Optional Clause", British Year
Book of International Law 1955-1956(1957),Vol. XXXII, pages 258-261.
See also, case concerning Right of PassageoverIndian Territory,Prelimi-
nary Objections,Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957,pages 125, 143-144.As
Helmut Steinberger concluded in "The International Court of Justice7',
which is found in the volume on Judicial Settlement of International Dis-
putes (1974) edited by Hermann Mosler and Rudolf Bernhardt :

"The Court in several cases has confirmed the wide operational
scopeof thecondition ofreciprocityand statedthatjurisdiction under
the optional clause is conferred on the Court 'only to the extent to
which the twodeclarations coincide in confernng it'.That goesforthe
jurisdiction ratione temporis as well as for the jurisdiction ratione
materiae." (At pp. 216-217 ; footnotes omitted.)

112. Third, the United States,in drafting its Declaration of 14August
1946, made it clear that it did regard the safeguard of reciprocity as
applying to temporal conditions (supra, para. 95).
113. Fourth, the contrary result may produce inequality and inequity.
As Waldock so emphatically put it in his article on the "Decline of the
Optional Clause" :
"There is, ... another aspect of reciprocityin regard to time-limits
. which seems to deserve attention, since it may well assume impor-

tance in view of the increasing number of declarations which are
immediately terminable on notice to the Secretary-General. Reci-
procity would seem to demand that in any given pair of States each
should have the sarneright astheother toterminate thejuridical bond
existing between them under the Optional Clause.This is so even in
the ordinary case where State A's declaration is without time-limit
while State B'sisfora period of fiveor ten years. StateBat the end of
theperiod maychoosewhether to renewor to terminate its obligations
towards State A under the Optional Clause. StateA may reasonably
contend that, while not retracting its general acceptance of the
Optional Clause, it also is entitled at the end of the period to choose
whether or not to continue its particular obligationstowards State B.
It is one thing to hold that a unilateral declaration made without time-limit binds the State concerned indefinitely toward other States
whichhavemade similardeclarations. It isquite another thingtohold
that such aunilateraldeclaration isbinding indefinitely towardsother
States which have not undertaken the same commitment. The in-
equality in the positions of the two States under the Optional Clause,
if the principle of reciprocity is not applied to time-limits, becomes '
absolutely inadmissible when State A's declaration is without time-
limit while that of State Bis immediately terminable on notice to the
Secretary-General. It would be intolerable that State B should always
be able, merely by giving notice, to terminate at any moment its
liability to compulsoryjurisdiction vis-à-visState A, whilst the latter
remained perpetually bound to submit to the Court's jurisdiction at
thesuit of State B.TheCourt has not yethad occasion to examine this

aspect of the operation of reciprocity in relation to time-limits. In the
light, however, of its interpretation of the condition of reciprocity in
regard to reservations, the Court, it is believed, must hold that under
theOptional Clauseeach State,withrespect to anyother State,has the
sameright to terminate itsacceptance of compulsoryjurisdiction asis
possessed by that other State." (Loc. cit., pp. 278-279.)

114. It is no less clear that what is critical in the application of the
Optional Clause is that jurisdiction must subsist as of the date of seisin of

the Court. That is axiomatic, and is made the clearer by the Court's
Judgments in the Nottebohrncase, Prelirninary Objection,Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1953,pages 111, 122-123 ;and in the Right of PassageoverIndian
Territorycase, 1.C.J. Reports 1957, pages 142-144.
115. Since the United States exercised its reciprocal right to modify or
partially suspend elements of its Declaration of 14August 1946by a Note
deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations on 6 April
1984,sinceNicaragua filedits Application in thiscaseon 9April 1984,and
sinceit is clear and isnot disputed that the Application of Nicaragua falls
within the terms of the exclusions effected by the United States Note of
6 April, it follows that the Court is without jurisdiction to entertain the
claims which Nicaragua makes, in so far as they are based on the decla-
rations of the Parties under Article 36, paragraph 2, and Article 36,para-
graph 5, of the Court's Statute.
116. It must be acknowledged that to take this broad view of recipro-
city, which would not give effect to the 1984notification of the United
States erga ornnes,but would regard the United States as having been
empowered reciprocally and immediately to terminate its declaration
vis-à-vis Nicaragua, involves a construction of reciprocity which, being
appliedbeforeacase isfiled in the Court, givesrise to complications.Once
the Court isseisedof acase, the scopeof thedeclarations of theparties can

becompared, but, before seisin,thesituation ismuch morecomplex. In my
view,that is adrawback of my analysis but not a fatal drawback.After all,629 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISS O.P.SCHWEBEL)

paragraphs 2and 5,ofthe Statute. If Nicaragua "had intended to proceed"
upon the basis of the Treaty with the United States, "it would expressly
have so stated". Accordingly, in "these circumstances" - which are not
unlike those in Certain Nonvegian bans - "the Court would not be

justified in seekingabasisforitsjurisdiction differentfromthat which" the
Nicaraguan Government "itself set out initsApplication and by reference
to which the case has been presented by both Parties to the Court".
Therefore, in so far as Nicaragua relies upon the Treaty to establish
jurisdiction in this case, there is ground for holding that its Application
should be dismissed.
119. However,theCourt, for reasonsthat arenot altogetherclear, seems
in this case to have another understanding of the import of its holding in
Certain Norwegian Loans. It accordingly turns to a second prelirninary
consideration which also presents a considerablejurisdictional barrier to
Nicaraguan invocation of the Treaty.

Article XXIV of the Treaty provides :
"1. EachPartyshallaccordsympatheticconsideration to,and shall
afford adequate opportunity for consultation regarding, such repre-
sentations as the other Party may make with respect to any matter
affecting the operation of the present Treaty.
2. Any dispute between the Parties as to the interpretation or

application of thepresent Treaty,not satisfactorilyadjusted by diplo-
macy, shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice, unless
the Parties agree to settlement by some other pacific means."

Paragraph 2 of this Article permits either Party unilaterally to seise the
Court of a dispute over "the interpretation or application of the present

Treaty,not satisfactorilyadjusted by diplomacy ...".Inits Application in
UnitedStates Diplornaticand ConsularStaff in Tehran,the United States
invoked an identical provision of itsTreaty ofAmity, Economic Relations
and Consular Rights with Iran, and the Court in its Judgment held that
such a clause provides for "a right of unilateral recourse to the Court"
which "establishes thejurisdiction of the Court as compulsory for such
disputes" unless the Parties agree to settlement by some other means
(1.C.J.Reports1980,p. 27).In that case,however, there wasno question of
initially determining whether the dispute could or could not be satisfac-
torily adjusted by diplomacy, since, as the Court observed, Iran refused to
negotiate. But,in thecurrent case,not onlyhaveNicaragua and theUnited
States engaged in direct negotiations between them, which are actively
continuing over their largerdisputes, but Nicaragua does not allegethat it

has ever claimed, before or during those negotiations or otherwise, that
there is any dispute between it and the United States over the interpre-
tation or application of the Treaty. Suchclaims for thefirst time appear in
the Nicaraguan Memorial. For its part, the United States denies that there
has been any effort to adjust by diplomacy any dispute with Nicaraguaover the interpretation or application of the Treaty, particularly because
Nicaragua hasnot even made representations under the Treaty that could
give rise to a dispute. Nicaragua has not challenged these United States
allegations. There is no reason to suppose that Nicaragua failed to invoke
the Treaty because of an unwillingness to charge the United States with
violation of its international obligations. It rather appears- that it did not
occur to Nicaragua - despite its allegations about the conduct of the
United Statesto which the Court alludes - that the actions of whichit was

complaining were violations of this Treaty. In these circumstances, it
appears to follow that Nicaragua has not discharged the procedural
prerequisites for invocation of Article XXIV (2) of the Treaty. For this
reason as well,the Court should have held that theTreaty does not furnish
a basis of jurisdiction which sustains the Application of Nicaragua.

120. If, however, with the Court, we lightly vault these barriers rather
than demolish them, let us examinewhether Nicaragua's invocation of the
Treaty issufficient to establish anymeasure of the Court'sjurisdiction over
the claimswhichNicaragua's Application setsout. To what extent, if at all,
isthe substance or are the provisions of the Treaty relevant to Nicaragua's
claims ?

121. In its Application, Nicaragua claims that the United States has
breached

"express obligations under the Charter of the United Nations, the
Charter ofthe Organization ofAmerican States andother multilateral
treaties, andhas violated fundamental rules of general and customary
international law ..." (para. 14).

Not a word is said, in terms or in substance, about violation of a bilateral
commercial treaty. Rather, the gravamen of Nicaragua's Application is
that the United States is "using rnilitary force against Nicaragua and
intervening in Nicaragua's interna1affairs .. ."(para. 1).However, in the
precise claims on which Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and
declare, there are two points that arguably may be said to bear upon the

Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation, though this is nowhere
alleged in the Application. Paragraph (e) reads :

"That the United States, in breach of its obligation under general
and customary international law, has infringed and is infringing the
freedom of the high seas and interrupting peaceful maritime com-
merce."(It will be observed that this claim does not relate to the Treaty, or any
treaty, but to customary international law.) And paragraph (g) con-
cludes :

"That, in viewof itsbreaches of theforegoing legal obligations,the
United States is under a particular duty to cease and desist immedi-
ately :

from al1 efforts to restrict, block or endanger access to or from
Nicaraguan ports."

122. The Treaty is one of a large number of similar treaties which the
United States has concluded. The purpose and scope of these "FCN"
treaties was summarized by a commentator who had a leading role in their
negotiation as follows :

"[FCN] treaties are not political in character. Rather, they are
fundamentally economic and legal. Moreover, though 'commerce'
and 'navigation' complete the title and accurately describe part of
theircontent, theirconcernnowadaysis only secondarilywithforeign
trade and shipping. They are 'commercial' in the broadest sense of
that term ; and they are above-al1 treaties of 'establishment', con-
cerned with theprotection ofpersons, natural andjuridical, and of the
property andinterests of suchpersons.They define thetreatment each
country owes the nationals of the other ; their rights to engage in
business and otheractivitieswithintheboundaries of theformer ; and
the respect due them, their property and their enterprises." (Herman
Walker, "Modern Treaties of Friendship, Commerce and Naviga-
tion", Minnesota Law Review, Vol. 42 (1958), p. 806.)

123. How does Nicaragua purport to link the grave and sweeping
charges of its Application with the commercial particularities of the
Treaty? Nicaragua proceeds in its Memorial not by establishing,
demonstrating or even indicating in any detail that its claims under its
Application entai1 violation by the United States of provisions of the
Treaty. It rather contents itself with "simply" identifying those provi-

sions of the Treaty which it claims are contravened. It concentrates such
argument as it offers on one clause of the Treaty. It submits that, "for
example", Article XIX, paragraph 1,provides : "1. Between the territories
of the two Parties, there shall be freedom of commerce and navigation."
Nicaragua maintains that, "The activities of the United States clearly
violate this provision" (Nicaraguan Memorial, para. 167).It contends :

"172. It is obvious that the military and paramilitary operations directed and maintained in and against Nicaragua by the United
-States - including the mining of Nicaraguan ports and territorial
waters, as well as attacks on Nicaragua's airports, and rnilitary oper-
ationsthat endanger and limit trade and trafficonland - are designed
to paralyze the freedom of commerce and navigation, thus defined
and guaranteed in Article XIX (1) of the Treaty."

124. 1sthis argument consistent with the purpose of Article XIX, para-
graph 1,of the Treaty, as indeed of the Treaty as a whole ? The Treaty as
a whole has nothing to do with the use of force in international relations,
or rights to be free ofsuch use - and correspondingly,prima facie, little or
nothing to dowithNicaragua's claimsin thiscase. It isapurely commercial
treaty "based in general upon the principles of national and most-
favoured-nation treatment" (preamble). ArticleXIX, paragraph 1,mirrors
that commercialconcern, as isclearwhen it isconsidered in thecontext of
the whole article of which it is part, which reads :

"1. Betweentheterritories of the twoParties there shall be freedom

of commerce and navigation.
2. Vessels under the flag of either Party, and carrying the papers
required by its law in proof of nationality, shall be deemed to be
vesselsof that Party both on thehigh seasand within theports, places
and waters of the other Party.

3. Vessels of either Party shall have liberty, on equal terms with
vesselsof the other Party andon equal terms with vesselsof any third
country, to come with their cargoes to al1ports, places and waters of
such other Party open to foreign commerce and navigation. Such
vessels and cargoes shall in al1respects be accorded national treat-
ment and most-favored-nation treatment within theports, places and
waters of such other Party ; but each Party may reserve exclusive
rights and privileges to its own vessels with respect to the coasting

trade, inland navigation and national fisheries.

4. Vesselsof eitherParty shallbe accorded national treatment and
most-favored-nation treatment by the other Party with respect to the
right to carryal1products that may becarried by vesse1toor from the
territories of such other Party ; and such products shall be accorded
treatment no lessfavorable than that accorded likeproducts carried in
vesselsof such other Party, with respect to :(a) duties and charges of
al1kinds, (b) the administration of the customs, and (c) bounties,
drawbacks and other privileges of this nature. 5. Vessels of either Party that are in distress shall be permitted to
take refuge in the nearest port or haven of the other Party, and shall
receive friendly treatment and assistance.

6. The term 'vessels',as used herein, means al1types of vessels,

whether privately owned or operated, orpublicly owned or operated ;
but this term does not, except with reference to paragraphs 2and 5of
the present Article, include fishing vessels or vessels of war."

It is difficult to see the relevance of such provisions to the claims of un-
lawful use of force made by Nicaragua in its Application. The obligations
created for the United States by this article essentially relate to treatment
of Nicaraguan vesselsin United States waters. It is only by taking para-
graph 1of Article XIX out ofthe context of that article and of theTreaty as
a whole that one can argue that it is relevant to the claim of mining of
Nicaraguan ports. 1s the Court justified in reaching out to make that
argument ? The jurisprudence of the Court suggests that it is not. The
Court rather in the past has held that :"It isnot enough for the claimant

Government to establish a remote connection between the facts of the
claim and the Treaty" upon whose compromissory clause it relies (Amba-
tielos,Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953,p. 18).

125. The other articles which Nicaragua cites ascontravened by activi-
ties of the United States are Articles XIV, paragraph 2 ; XVII, paragraph
3 ; XIX, paragraph 3 ; XX ; and 1 of the Treaty. These clauses pro-
vide :

Article XIV, paragraph 2 :

"Neither Party shall impose restrictions or prohibitions on the
importation of anyproduct of theotherParty, oron theexportation of
any product to the territories of the other Party, unless the importa-
tion of the likeproduct of,or the exportation of the likeproduct to, al1
third countries is similarly restricted or prohibited."

Article XVII, paragraph 3 :
"Neither Party shall impose any measure of a discriminatory
naturethat hinders or preventstheimporter or exporter ofproducts of

either country from obtaining marine insurance on such products in
companies of either Party."

Article XIX, paragraph 3 :
"Vessels of either Party shall have liberty, on equal terms with
vesselsof the other Party and on equal terms with vesselsof any third country, to come with their cargoes to al1ports, places and waters of

such other Party open to foreign commerce and navigation. .."

Article XX :

"There shall be freedom of transit through the territories of each
Party by the routes most convenient for international transit :

(a) for nationals of the other Party, together with their baggage ;
(b) for other persons, together with their baggage, en route to or from
the territories of such other Party ; and
(c) for products of any origin en route to or from the territories of
such other Party. . ."

Nicaragua maintains - with respect to the foregoing articles - that the
military and paramilitary activities which it alleges are carried on by the
United States cannot be seen as "equitable treatment to the persons,
property and enterprises and other interests" of Nicaraguan nationals and
companies (Memorial, para. 174).
126. But the foregoing Treaty provisions on which Nicaragua relies -
without pleading the facts that relate such reliance to the claims set out in
its Application - concern the treatment of the nationals of one Party, or
goods or property of those nationals, or the vessels of one Party, in the
territory of the other Party.Theyconcern marine insurance,freetransit of

nationals, etc. It is obvious on their face that these provisions have no
relationship to the claims of direct and indirect aggression made out in
Nicaragua's Application. Article 1of the Treaty, on which Nicaragua also
relies, and which provides that,

"Each Party shall at al1times accord equitable treatment to the
persons, property, enterprises and other interests of nationals and
companies of the other Party",
setsout thebroad principle of equitable treatmentin the light of which the

Treaty's detailed operative provisions are to be read, but it does not deal
with problems of the use or misuse of force in international relations.

127. In addition to the foregoing articles of the Treaty, the Court also
takes account of "the references in the Preamble to peace and friendship".
The Preamble to the Treaty provides :

"The United States of America and the Republic of Nicaragua,
desirous of strengthening the bonds of peace and friendship tradi-
tionally existing between them and of encouraging closer economic
and cultural relations between their peoples, and being cognizant of
the contributions which may be made towards these ends by arran-
gements encouraging mutually beneficial investments, promoting mutually advantageous commercial intercourse and othenvise estab-

lishing mutual rights and privileges, have resolved to conclude a
Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation, based in general
upon the principles of nationaland of most-favored-nation treatment
unconditionally accorded, . ."
Thus the preamble, if it were to be thought to have any legal effect,
emphasizes the commercial purposes of the Treaty. In any event, the
provisions of a preamble are not generally regarded as givingrise to legal
obligations as the terms of the body of a treaty do or may. The Vienna

Convention on the LawofTreaties provides that thepreamble ispart of the
context of a treaty and that a treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in
accordancewiththe ordinary meaning to be givento the terms ofthe treaty
"in their context and in the light of its object and purpose" (Art. 32).
Having regard to the context of this treaty among a score of commercial
FCN treaties, and in the light of its commercial objects and purpose, the
Treaty's preambular reference to strengthening the bonds of peace and
friendship does not appear to provide an additional basis for relating
the claims set out in the Application of Nicaragua to the terms of the
Treaty.
128. There is another provision of the Treaty which merits comment,
because it indicates that the Application of Nicaragua does not fa11within
the scope of the Treaty. Article XXI (1) of the Treaty provides :

"1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of mea-
sures :

(c) regulating the production of or traffic in arms, ammunition and
implements of war, ortraffic inother materials carried on directly
or indirectly for the purpose of supplying a military establish-
ment ;
(dj necessary to fulfill the obligations of a Partyfor the maintenance

or restoration of international peace and security, or necessary to
protect its essential security interests ; ..."

Now it cannot be argued - and Nicaragua did not argue, nor does the
Court hold - that, since the Treaty "shall not preclude the application of
measures" regulating the production of or traffic in arms, or measures
which are necessary to fulfil theobligations of a Party for the maintenance

of international peace and security or to protect its essential security
interests, theseveryexclusionsentitlethe Court to assumejurisdiction over
claims based on the Treaty that relate to traffic in arms or to the main-
tenance of international peace and security or essential security interests.
It is clear that, where a treaty excludes from its regulated reach certain
areas, those areas do not fa11within thejurisdictional scope of the treaty.That ths preclusion clause is indeed an exclusion clause is demonstrated
not onlyby its terms but byits travauxpréparatoiresw , hichwere appended
to the United States pleadings in the case of UnitedStates Diplornaticand

Consular Staff in Tehran. A list of a score of Treaties of Friendship,
Commerce and Navigation, including that with Nicaragua, is found at
page 233, which is followed by a "Memorandum on Dispute Settlement
Clause in Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with China"
which contains the following paragraph :

"The compromissory clause ... is limited to questions of theinter-
pretation or application of ths treaty ; Le.,it isa special not a general
compromissory clause. It applies to a treaty on the negotiation of
whichthere isvoluminous documentationindicating the intent of the
parties. This treaty deals with subjects which are common to a large
number of treaties, concluded over a longperiod of time by nearly al1
nations. Much of the general subject-matter - and in some cases
almost identical language - has been adjudicated in the courts of this
and other countries. The authorities for the interpretation of this
treaty are, therefore, to a considerable extent established and well
known. Furthermore, certain important subjects,notablyimmigration,
traffic in military supplies,and the 'essentialinterestsof the country in
timeofnational emergency',are specificallyexceptedfrom thepurviewof

the treaty. In viewof the above, it is difficult to conceivehow Article
XXVIII could result in this Government's being impleaded in a
matter in which it rnight be embarrassed." (At p. 235 ;emphasis
supplied.)

A second memorandum, entitled "Department of State Memorandum on
Provisions in Commercial Treaties relating to the International Court of
Justice", similarly concludes, first with respect to the scope of the juris-
diction accorded to theCourt under FCN treaties, and secondwithrespect
to national security clauses :

"This paper [ofthe Department of State] .. points out anumber of
the features which in its view make the provision satisfactory ...

These include the fact that the provision is limited to differences
arising immediately from the specific treaty concerned, that such
treaties deal with familiar subject-matter and are thoroughly docu-
mented in the records of the negotiation, that an established body of
interpretation already exists for much of the subject-matter of such treaties, and that suchpurely domestic matters as immigration policy
and militaty security are placedouiside the scope of such treaties by
specificexceptions." (Ibid., p. 237 ;emphasis supplied.)

Article XXI of the Treaty thus serves to indicate that the parties to the
Treaty acted to exclude from its scope the kind of claim ("restoration of
international peace and security" and protection of "essential security
interests") which Nicaragua seeks to base upon it.

129. Nevertheless, the Court concludes that

".. .it isquite clearfor the Court that, on the basis alone of the Treaty
of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 1956,Nicaragua and
the United States of America are bound to accept the compulsory
jurisdiction of this Court over claims presented by the Applica-
tion of Nicaragua in so far as they imply violations of provisions of
this treaty" (Judgment, para. 111).
The difficulty with that conclusion is that, on analysis, the claims pre-
sented by thisApplication of Nicaragua imply no violations of thatTreaty.

Not onlydoes theApplication fail to refer to the Treaty ;it isplain that the
Treaty itself cannot plausibly be interpreted to afford the Court jurisdic-
tion "to entertain the Application filed by Nicaragua on 9April 1984".It
rnightfurnish basis for another Application, but not for the one before the
Court.

(Signed) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SCHWEBEL

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
SUMMARY

II.QUESTION OSFJURISDICTION
A. The jurisdictional issues 3
B. The question of whether Nicaragua has standing to maintain claims
under the Optional Clause

1. The essence of Nicaragua's claims of standing 4

2. The essence of United States denial of Nicaragua's standing 5

3. A State could not become party to the Optional Clause of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice without
being party to its Statute
4. Nicaragua never became party to the Protocol of Signature of the
Permanent Court orto its Statute and henceneverwasparty to the
Optional Clause
5. The effect of Article 36,paragraph 5, of this Court's Statute on a
declaration which was not binding under the Statute of the Per-
manent Court
6. The intentions of the drafters of Article 36, paragraph 5
7. The United States understanding of Article 36, paragraph 5, on
ratifying the Statute and adopting its declaration under Article
36, paragraph 2

8. The Court's interpretation of Article 36, paragrap5
9. The listings in thYearbooks of the Court
10. Listings in .Reportsof the Court
11. The conduct of the Parties
12. Conclusion
C. The question of whether the Court has jurisdiction over the United
States

1. Jurisdiction under the Optional Clause

(i)The Connally Reservation
(ii) The Vandenberg (Multilateral Treaty) Reservation

(iii) The "1984 notification" of the United States 91-116
2. Jurisdiction under the Treaty. of Friendship, Commerce and
Navigation 117-129 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. SCHWEBEL

[Traduction]

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Paragraphes
RÉSUMÉ

II.QUESTION SE COMPETENCE
A. Les questions juridictionnelles
B. Le Nicaragua a-t-il qualité pour agir en vertu de la clause faculta-
tive ?

1. Principaux arguments sur lesquels le Nicaragua fonde sa qualité
pour agir
2. Principaux arguments par lesquels les Etats-Unis contestent la
qualitépour agir du Nicaragua
3. Un Etat ne pouvait pas adhérer à la disposition facultative du
Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale sans être
partie audit Statut
4. Le Nicaragua, n'étant jamais devenu partie au protocole de
signature de la Cour permanente nià son Statut, n'ajamais été
partie àla disposition facultative
5. L'effetde l'article36,paragraphe 5, du Statut de la Cour sur une
déclaration qui n'avaitpas caractère obligatoire dans le cadre du
Statut de la Cour permanente

6. Les intentions des rédacteurs de l'article 36, paragra5he
7. L'interprétation de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, donnée par les
Etats-Unis lorsde laratification du Statut et de l'adoption de leur
déclaration surla base de l'article 36, paragraphe 2
8. L'interprétationdonnéepar la Cour de l'article36, paragraphe 5
9. Les indications des Annuaires de la Cour
10. Les indications des Rapports de la Cour à l'Assemblée générale
11. La conduite des Parties
12. Conclusion

C. La Cour a-t-elle compétenceà l'égard desEtats-Unis ?

1. Lajuridiction en vertu de la clause facultative 63

i) La réserveConnally 64-66
ii) La réserverelative aux traités multilatéraux (rVanden-
ber& 67-90
iii) La<<notification de 1984 des Etats-Unis 91-116

2. La compétenceen vertu du traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de
navigation 117-129 Standing of Nicaragua

Nicaragua lacks standing to invoke the Optional Clause not only
because it neverhas deposited adeclaration under Article 36,paragraph 2,
of this Court's Statute, but because it never became party to the Statute of
thePermanent Court ofInternational Justice within themeaning ofArticle
36, paragraph 5, of this Court's Statute. The Protocol of Signature of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice required that it be
ratified and that an instrument of ratification be deposited with the Sec-
retary-General of the Leagueof Nations. No such deposit was made. Thus
Nicaragua was held by the League Secretariat and Permanent Court of
International Justice Registry never to have become party to the Protocol,
the Optional Clause which was an integral part of that Protocol, or to the
Statute. (Paras. 3-13.)
The intention of the drafters of the Statute of the InternationalCourt of
Justice, in respect of Article 36, paragraph 5, was to ensure that declara-
tions made under Article 36 of the Permanent Court of International
Justice Statute "and whch are still in force" shall be deemed to be

acceptances of the compulsory jurisdiction of this Court. The travaux
préparatoiresdemonstrate that by the term, "still in force" was meant
declarations which bound declarants to the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
Permanent Court of International Justice and which remain in force. The
intention was to maintain in effect declarations whichwerein effect,but it
was not to give effect for the first time to a declaration which, like Nica-
ragua's,had never come into force. That meaning is expressed as precisely
by the French text as by the English of Article 36, paragraph 5. In pro-
posing a draftingamendment to theoriginal text, the French delegation at
San Francisco apparently had not Nicaraguan but French interests in
view, namely, to make it perfectly clear that declarations which, like the
French, had expired, were not embraced by the terms of Article 36,para-
graph 5. Nicaragua's Declaration was not of a duration which had not
expired, because it was never "inspired". (Paras. 14-24.)

The four cases of this Court interpreting Article 36,paragraph 5, show

that the Court has always interpreted that Article only to embrace decla-
rations which had been binding under the Permanent Court of Interna-
tionalJustice Statute. (Paras. 26-40.)The fact that Nicaragua was listed in
the Yearbooks of this Court as bound by the Optional Clause is not
dispositive, particularlybecause the listings were accompanied by foot- Qualitépour agir du Nicaragua

Le Nicaragua n'a pas qualité pour invoquer la clause facultative, non
seulement parce qu'il n'ajamais déposéde déclaration en applicationde

l'article36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour actuelle, mais aussiparce
qu'iln'estjamais devenupartieau Statut de la Courpermanentede Justice
internationale ausensdel'article36,paragraphe 5,du Statut delaCour. Le
protocole de signature du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice inter-
nationale devait êtreratifié, etun instrument de ratification devait être
déposé auprès du Secrétaire généra dle la Sociétédes Nations. Nul dépôt
de cegenre n'a été faitA. ussi,le Secrétariatde la Sociétédes Nations et le
Greffe de la Cour permanente considéraient-ils le Nicaragua comme
n'étant jamaisdevenu partie au protocole, ni à la disposition facultative
qui en faisait partie intégrante,ni au Statut de la Cour (par. 3-13).

Lesrédacteursdu Statut de la Courpermanente de Justice entendaient,
par l'article 36,paragraphe 5, faire en sorte que les déclarations faites en
application de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente (<pour une
durée qui [n'était] pas encoreexpirée ))soient considéréescomme com-
portant acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour actuelle. Les
travaux préparatoires montrent que l'expression (faites pour une durée
qui n'estpas encore expirée ))désigne lesdéclarations en vertudesquelles
lesEtats étaientliéspar lajuridiction obligatoire dela Courpermanente et
quiétaient encoreenvigueur.Lebut recherchéétaitdepréserverl'effetdes
déclarationsexistantes, et non pas de donner effet pour la première fois à
des déclarations qui, commecelle du Nicaragua, n'étaient jamais entrées

en vigueur. Cette intention est exprimée aussi précisémenptar le texte
français quepar letexte anglaisde l'article36,paragraphe 5.La délégation
française àla conférencede San Francisco, en proposant un amendement
de forme au texte initial, n'avait apparemment pas en vue les intérêts du
Nicaragua, mais ceux de la France, et entendait préciserque les déclara-
tions qui, comme celle de la France, étaient arrivées à expiration ne
tombaient pas sous le coup des dispositions de l'article 36, paragraphe 5.
Ladéclaration duNicaraguan'avaitpasété faite pour uneduréequin'était
pas encore expirée,puisque cette duréen'avaitjamais commencé à courir
(par. 14-24).

Lesquatre affaires àl'occasion desquellesla Cour adéjàeu àinterpréter
l'article6, paragraphe 5, montrent que la Cour a toujours considéréque
cette disposition vise uniquement les déclarationsqui avaient force obli-
gatoire dans le cadre du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice inter-
nationale (par. 26-40).Le fait que leNicaragua est citédans les Annuaires
de la Cour actuelle parmi les Etats liés par laclause facultative n'est pas notes which indicated that Nicaragua had not deposited its instrument of
ratification with the League, i.e., that it had not fulfilled a condition
precedent to being covered by Article 36,paragraph 5. Listings in reports
of this Court tothe General Assembly and in other publications lead tono
other conclusion. (Paras. 41-52.)

The conduct of Nicaragua, of other States, and of the Court, of its
Registry and the Secretary-General of the United Nations neither estab-
lishes nor confirms that Nicaragua is bound by the Optional Clause.
Beforetheseproceedings, Nicaragua never expresslystated that it believed
itself to be bound. It evaded the clear occasion to do so when Honduras
so maintained during the Arbitral Award Made by the King of Spain on
23December1906case. It rather gave the impression to the United States
and Honduras that it did not believe itself to be bound. Nicaragua never
queried or othenvise reacted to the footnotes in the Yearbook listings. In
all, its conduct, and that of other actors, is neither consistent with nor
clearly supportive of Nicaragua's position. (Paras. 53-61 .)

Jurisdiction overthe United States
There is ground for questioning whether the United States 1946adher-
ence to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction under the Optional Clause is
valid, in viewof its self-judgingproviso, the "Connally Reservation". But

that ground is not now pursued since the United States does not invoke it.
(Paras. 64-66.)
The Vandenberg"multilateral treaty" Reservationbars the Court from
assumingjurisdiction overthe United States in acasein which multilateral
treaties are pleaded and in which al1parties to the treaties affected by the
decision are not also parties to the case. It is plain from Nicaragua's
pleadings that Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvador will necessarily be
affected by the decision in the case.They are not parties.The Court evades
applying the reservation by holdings which conflict with any reasonable
interpretation of its terms and object. However, it is not clear that al1of
Nicaragua's claims should be barred, since it invokes customary interna-
tional law, which may not be pre-empted on al1relevant counts by the
terms of the treaties on which Nicaragua relies. (Paras. 67-90.)

While failing to apply the Vandenberg Reservation, the Court does
apply another provision of the United StatesDeclaration, that requiring it
to give six months' notice of its termination. The Court might be able to

justify sodoing if it equally appliedtheVandenbergReservationand other
elements of the United States Declaration.
A considerable case can be made out for the contention that, in viewofdécisif,surtout s'ilest tenu compte de ceque ceslistessont assorties d'une
note de bas de page indiquant que le Nicaragua n'a pas déposé son
instrument de ratification auprès de la Sociétédes Nations - autrement
dit, qu'il n'apasrempliunecondition nécessairepour entrerdans lechamp

d'application de l'article 36, paragraphe 5. Les indications qui figurent
dans les rapports de la Cour à l'Assembléegénérale etdans d'autres
publications ne mènent pas à une conclusion différente (par. 41-52).
La conduitedu Nicaragua,desautres Etats, de la Cour, de sonGreffeet
du Secrétairegénérad le l'organisation des Nations Unies n'établitni ne
confirme que le Nicaragua soit liépar la clause facultative. Avant la
présente instance, le Nicaragua n'avaitjamais déclaré expressémentqu'il
s'estimaitlié.Ilaéludéuneoccasion évidentedelefairequand leHonduras
a soutenucette thèsedans l'affairede la Sentencearbitralerendueparleroi
d'Espagne le23 décembre 1906,donnant plutôt à penser aux Etats-Unis
et au Honduras qu'il ne se considérait pas comme liépar la clausefacul-
tative. Le Nicaragua n'a jamais contesté ni commentéd'autre façon les
notes de bas de page ajoutées aux indications de l'Annuaire.Dans l'en-
semble, sa conduite, comme celle des autres parties intéressées, n'estpas
compatible avec la thèse qu'il soutient aujourd'hui et elle ne la confirme

pas (par. 53-61).

La compétence à l'égarddes Etats-Unis

Il y aurait lieu de s'interroger sur la validitéde l'acceptation par les
Etats-Unis, en 1946,de lajuridiction obligatoiredelaCourconformément
à la clause facultative, compte tenu de la réservediscrétionnaire, dite
réserveConnally O,dont elle est assortie. Mais ce motif n'a pasà être
considéré,puisqueles Etats-Unis ne l'invoquent pas (par. 64-66).
La réserveVandenberg, relative aux traités multilatéraux, exclut la
compétencede la Cour à l'égarddes Etats-Unis dans les instances où est
invoqué un traité multilatéral etoù toutes les parties au traité que la
décisionconcerne ne sont pas égalementparties à l'affaire. Il ressort des
écrituresdu Nicaragua que la décisionde la Cour en l'espèceconcernera
nécessairementle Honduras, le Costa Rica et El Salvador. Or ces Etats ne

sont pas partiesà l'instance. La Cour élude l'application de cette réserve
par lebiais de considérationscontrairesàtoute interprétation raisonnable
de ses termes et de son objet. Il n'est pas certain cependant que toutes les
demandesnicaraguayennesseraient excluespar l'application de la réserve
Vandenberg, car le Nicaragua invoque le droit international coutumier,
quine coïncidepas sur tous leschefsavec les termesdestraités auxquels il
fait appel (par. 67-90).
Bien qu'écartant laréserveVandenberg, la Cour applique une autre
disposition de la déclaration des Etats-Unis, à savoir celle qui prévoit
un préavisde six mois pour y mettre fin. La Cour pourrait mieuxjustifier
cette décisionsi elle acceptait égalementla réserveVandenberg ainsi que
d'autres éléments de la déclaration des Etats-Unis.
On pourrait fort bien soutenirque, vulapratique desEtats concernant laState practiceconcerningthe Optional Clause, al1declarants areentitled to
terminate or modify their declarations at any time with immediate effect.
But evenif that caseisnot accepted, and if theUnited States rather isheld
to its sixmonths' notice proviso,it does not follow that its notification of
April 1984 purporting to modify its declaration is ineffective vis-à-vis

Nicaragua. It may be ineffective erga omnes.But since Nicaragua, by the
intendment of its unconditional declaration of 1929, at any time could
terminate (or modify) that declaration with immediateeffect,reciprocally
the United Statescould terminate (or modify) its declaration with imme-
diate effect. The jurisprudence of the Court in respect of reciprocity
furnishes support for this approach, as do precedents of termination of
acceptances of the Court's jurisdiction. Moreover, the Indonesian case
demonstrates that the United Nations and the Court accepted Indonesian
withdrawal from the Organization and from the Statute on 24 hours'
notice, which indicates that such withdrawal from declarations macle
under the Statute is permissible. (Paras. 91 -116.)

Finally, the Court does not havejurisdiction over the United States in
respect of the claimscontainedinNicaragua's Application - whch alleges
acts of aggression and intervention by the United States - on the basis of
the Parties' bilateral Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation.
That Treaty is a purely commercialagreement, whose terms do not relate
to the use or misuse of force in international relations. Moreover, Nica-
ragua failed to comply with the procedural prerequisites of invocation of
the Court's jurisdiction under the Treaty. (Paras. 117-134.)

1. TheApplication in thiscase iswithout precedentin thehistory of the
International Court of Justice and the Permanent Court of International

Justice. It is unprecedented in its substance, because never before has a
State come to the Court requesting it to adjudge and declare that another
State has the duty to cease and desist immediatelyfrom the use of force
against it. It is procedurally unprecedented as well, and not, of course,
because thedefendant, the United States, challenges thejurisdiction of the
Court, for that is the characteristic response of States summoned to this
Court as Defendants. It is procedurally without precedent because the
standing of the Applicant, of Nicaragua itself to maintain suit in reliance
upon the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction under the Optional Clause is at
issue ;because theUnited States purports to have modifiedthe scopeof its
adherence to the Court's compulsory jurisdiction under the Optional
Clause on which Nicaragua relies before the filing of Nicaragua's Appli-
cation, so as to exclude the very class of case brought ;and because the
United States further pleads a reservation to the terms of its adherence toclause facultative, tout Etat déclarant a la faculté de dénoncer ou de
modifier sa déclaration à tout moment, aveceffet immédiat.Mais, mêmesi
l'on n'accepte pas cette idée,et si l'on considère que les Etats-Unis sont

obligésde respecter leur clause de préavisde six mois, il ne s'ensuit pas
que leur notification d'avril 1984visant à modifier leur déclaration soit
sans effet à l'égarddu Nicaragua. Cette notification est peut-être inopé-
rante erga omnes. Mais, étant donné quele Nicaragua peut, aux termes
de sa déclaration sans condition de 1929,dénoncer (ou modifier) cette
déclaration à tout moment et avec effet immédiat,les Etats-Unis, à titre
de réciprocité, pouvaient dénoncer (ou modifier) leur déclaration avec
effet immédiat. La jurisprudence de la Cour en matière de réciprocité
milite en faveur de cette conception, de mêmeque les cas antérieurs de
dénonciation de l'acceptation de lajuridiction de la Cour. En outre, le cas
de l'Indonésie démontrequel'organisation des Nations Unies et la Cour
ont acceptéleretrait del'Indonésiede l'organisation et du Statut moyen-
nant un préavisde vingt-quatre heures,ce qui indique que de tels retraits
des déclarations faites aux termes du Statut sont admissibles (par. 91-

116).
Enfin, la Cour n'a pas compétence a l'égarddes Etats-Unis pour ce qui
est des demandes - relatives à de prétendus actes d'agression et d'inter-
vention commis par les Etats-Unis - que le Nicaragua, dans sa requête,
formule sur la base du traité bilatéral d'amitié,de commerce et de navi-
gation conclu entre les Parties. Ce traité est un instrument de caractère
purement commercial, dont les dispositions sont sans rapport avec l'em-
ploi ou l'abus de la force dans les relations internationales. De plus, le
Nicaragua n'a pas respectéles conditions de procédureprévuesdans ledit
traité pour invoquer la compétence de la Cour (par. 117-134).

1. La requêteen la présenteespèceest sansprécédentdans l'histoire de

la Cour internationale de Justice et de la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale. Elle est sans précédentpar son objet, car il n'était encore
jamais arrivé qu'un Etat demandât à la Cour de dire etjuger qu'un autre
Etat avait le devoir de mettre fin et de renoncer immédiatement à
toute utilisation de la force contre lui. C'est également une innovation
surleplan delaprocédure - non pas évidemmentparceque lesEtats-Unis,
Etat défendeur,déclinentla compétencedela Cour,car c'est là laréaction
normale d'Etats contre lesquelsuneinstance est engagée,maisparceque la
qualité du Nicaragua, Etat demandeur, pour intenter une instance en
invoquant lajuridiction obligatoirede la Cour en application de la clause
facultative, est en caus; parce que lesEtats-Unis affirmentavoir,avantle
dépôt dela requête nicaraguayenne,modifiéla portéede leur acceptation
de lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour conformément à la clause facul-
tative,qu'invoque le Nicaragua, en vue d'exclure la catégoriemêmedans

laquellerentre l'espèceprésente ;etparce que les Etats-Unis invoquent en the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction of a lund which the Court earlierhas
not had cause to adjudge. Thus the Court has been faced with multiple

preliminary objections to itsjurisdiction and to the admissibility of the
case which it has never passed upon before in the course of its long and
complexhstory ofjurisdictional controversy. The response of theCourt to
theseobjections necessarilyis of exceptionalimportance,not only because
of the significance of the case but because the issues ofjurisdiction and
admissibility whichit raises have profound implicationsfor the natureand
extent of the Court'sjurisdiction and for the character of the Court as the
principaljudicial organ of the United Nations.

2. 1 regret to be obliged to dissent from the Judgment,of the Court,
which 1find to be in error on the principal questions ofjurisdiction which

thecaseposes. In viewof myconclusionthat the Court lacksjurisdiction to
adjudicateupon the merits of the case, 1have not found it necessary to cet
out my views on questions of admissibility, one or more of which, not
possessing,in the words of Article 79,paragraph 7, of the Rules of Court,
"in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character",
may in any event arise at the stage of the merits. Nevertheless, the Court's
Judgmentrequired a separate vote on the admissibility of theApplication.
While1do not agree with al1of theCourt's holdings on admissibility, at the
presentstage 1do not find thecontentions of theUnited Statesconcerning
theinadmissibility of thecase to be convincing.Accordingly, 1 havejoined
the Court in voting that the Application is admissible, by which 1mean
that, if the Court hadjurisdiction - as in my view it does not - the case

currently would appear to be admissible. 1so conclude without prejudice
to any consideration of questions of admissibility which may arise at the
stage of the merits of the case.

II. QUESTION SF JURISDICTION

A. The Jurisdictional Issues

3. Thejurisdictional issuesin thecaseturn, first, on whetherNicaragua
has standing to file an Application relying, as it does, on its alleged

acceptance of thecompulsoryjurisdiction of the Court under Article 36of
the Statute, by which,Nicaragua has made clear, it means by operation of
Article 36,paragraph 5,of the Statute ;second, if it has such standing, on
whether the terms of United States adherence to the Court's compulsory
jurisdiction under the Optional Clause in force on the day on which
Nicaragua filed its Application afford the Court jurisdiction over the
parties and the claims made ; and third, on whether, in any event, the
Court hasjurisdiction over some or al1of Nicaragua's claims by reason of
thefact that Nicaragua and theUnited States areparty to abilateralTreaty
of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 1956, which provides for
submission of disputesas to the interpretationor application of theTreaty, outre une réserveà leur acceptation delajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour
d'un genre sur lequel celle-cin'a pas eujusqu'ici l'occasionde statuer. La
Cour avait donc à considérerde multiples exceptions préliminaires à sa
compétenceet àla recevabilitéde l'instance, dont elle n'avaitjamais euà
connaître au cours de sonhistoire longue et complexe en fait de différends
juridictionnels. Aussi, la réactionde la Courdevant cesexceptions est-elle
d'une signification exceptionnelle, non seulement àcause de l'importance
de l'espèce elle-même,mais ausspiarce que lesquestions de compétenceet
de recevabilitéque l'affaire soulèveauront deprofondes répercussions sur

la nature et la portéede lajuridiction de la Cour, ainsi que sur sa qualité
d'organe judiciaire principal de l'organisation des Nations Unies.
2. Je suis au regret de devoir me dissocier de l'arrêtde la Cour, que
j'estime erroné sur les principales questions de compétenceque pose la
présenteaffaire.Ma conclusion étantquela Cour n'apas compétencepour
juger de l'affaire aufond,je n'aipasjugénécessaired'exposermesvues sur
lesquestions derecevabilité,dont une ou plusieurs - qui ne présententpas
dans les circonstances de l'espèceun caractère exclusivement prélimi-
naire - pour reprendre les termes de l'article 79, paragraphe 7, du
Règlementde la Cour - pourraient d'ailleurs seposer lors de la procédure
sur le fond. Cependant, l'arrêtde la Cour exigeait un vote distinct sur la

recevabilitéde la requête.Or, bien que n'acceptant pas toutes les conclu-
sions de la Cour sur ce sujet,je n'estime pas convaincants au stade actuel
les arguments desEtats-Unis sur l'irrecevabilitéde l'instance. C'estpour-
quoije me suisjoint à la Cour en votant en faveur de la recevabilitéde la
requête,par quoij'entends que, silaCour étaitcompétente - cequ'àmon
avis elle n'est pas - l'instance paraîtrait actuellement recevable. Cette
conclusion ne préjugepas néanmoins ma position sur les questions de
recevabilitéqui pourront se poser lors de la procédure sur le fond.

II. QUESTION SE COMPÉTENCE

A. Les questionsjuridictionnelles

3. Les questions juridictionnelles qui se posent en l'espècesont, pre-
mièrement, de savoir si le Nicaragua a qualité pour déposerune requête
fondéesurlefait qu'ilaurait acceptélajuridiction obligatoire dela Cour en
application de l'article36du Statut, par quoi leNicaragua entend, comme
ill'a précisé, enpplication du paragraphe 5decet article ;deuxièmement,
à supposer que leNicaragua ait qualitépour agir, de savoir siles termes de

l'acceptation par les Etats-Unisde lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour au
titre de laclause facultative, telleque cette acceptation était envigueura
datedu dépôtdelarequêtenicaraguayenne,donnait compétence àla Cour
à l'égarddes parties et des demandes formulées ;et, troisièmement, de
savoirsi,en tout étatdecause,la Cour acompétencepour connaîtredetout
ou partie desdemandes du Nicaragua du fait que cepays et les Etats-Unis
sont parties au traitébilatéral d'amitié,de commerce et de navigation denot satisfactorily adjusted by diplomacy, to theCourt. Each of these three
large issuesin turn subsumes a number of questions, which willbe stated
and dealt with in their turn.

B. The Questionof Whether Nicaragua Hus Standing to Maintain
Claims under the Optional Clause
1. The essenceof Nicaragua'sclaims of standing

4. Nicaragua in its Application refers to the declarations made by
Nicaragua and by the United States "accepting the jurisdiction of the
Court asprovided forin Article 36ofthe Statute oftheInternational Court
of Justice ..." (introduction) and says no more than : "Both the United
States and Nicaragua have accepted the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
Court under Article 36 of the Statute of the Court" (para. 13).While the
United States filed a declaration under Article 36, paragraph 2, on 14
August 1946,which the United States (and Nicaragua) treat as valid and
generallyin force,Nicaragua has neverfiledadeclaration under Article 36,
paragraph 2, of the Statute. It relies on a declaration filed with the Sec-
retary-General of the League of Nations on 24 September 1929,uncon-
ditionally accepting thejurisdiction of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice without limit of time, and on the effect of Article 36, para-
graph 5, of the Statute, which reads as follows :

"Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice and whichare stillin force shallbe
deemed, as between the parties to the present Statute, to be accep-
tances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice for the period which they still haveto run and in accordance
with their terms."

Therationale of that reliance issummarized by Nicaragua in its Memorial
as follows :

"11. Nicaragua meets the conditions of the Article. It ratified the
United Nations Charteron 6September 1945and becamean Original
Memberof the United Nationson 24October 1945,when the Charter
came into force. Under Article 93 (1)of the Charter, it automatically
became a party to the Statute of the Court on the same date. On that
date, its declaration of 24 September 1929,accepting the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court without condition, was in effect.
Being of unlimited duration, it had not expired. Thus, when the
Charter and Statute entered into force, that declaration was, by the
terms of Article 36 (5),'deemed,asbetween the parties to the present 1956,qui prévoitque les différendsquant à son interprétation ou à son
application qui ne pourraient pas êtreréglés d'une manière satisfaisante
par lavoiediplomatique serontportés devantla Cour. Chacune decestrois

grandes questions soulève divers problèmes,qui seront énoncéset exami-
néstour à tour.

B. Le Nicaragua a-t-il qualitépour agir en vertu
de la clausefacultative?
1. Principaux argumentssur lesquels le Nicaragua fondesa qualitépour

agir
4. Dans sarequête, leNicaragua renvoie auxdéclarationspar lesquelles
lui-mêmeet lesEtats-Unis <<ont acceptélajuridiction de la Cour dans les
conditions prévues à l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour internationale de
Justice... (introduction), après quoi il se contente d'ajoute:<<les Etats-

Unis et le Nicaragua ont acceptélajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour en
vertu del'article36de sonStatut )(par. 13).Alorscependant quelesEtats-
Unis ont déposéle 14 août 1946une déclaration en application de l'ar-
ticle36,paragraphe 2,du Statut,qu'eux-même(setleNicaragua) considèrent
comme valide et généralement envigueur, leNicaragua, pour sa part, n'a
jamais déposé dedéclaration surlabase delamême disposition.Ils'appuie
sur une déclaration déposéa euprèsdu Secrétairegénérad l e la Sociétdes
Nations le 24 septembre 1929,par laquelle il acceptait inconditionnelle-
ment et sans limite de duréela compétencede la Cour permanente de
Justiceinternationale, ainsi que sur lejeu de l'article 36,paragraphe 5, du
Statut, dont le texte est le suivant

<(Lesdéclarationsfaitesenapplicationdel'article36du Statut dela

Cour permanente de Justice internationalepour une durée quin'est
pas encore expiréeseront considéréesd ,ans les rapports entre parties
au présentStatut, comme comportant acceptation de lajuridiction
obligatoire dela Courinternationalede Justicepour la duréerestant à
courir d'aprèsces déclarations et conformément àleurs termes. >)

Dans son mémoire, leNicaragua résumeen ces termes les raisons pour
lesquelles il invoque ces instruments :

<<11. Le Nicaragua satisfait aux conditions de cet article. Ayant
ratifié laChartedesNations Unies le6 septembre 1945,ilest devenu
Membre originaire des Nations Unies le 24 octobre 1945,date d'en-

tréeen vigueurde la Charte. En vertu de l'article93,paragraphe 1,de
la Charte, ilest devenuautomatiquement partieauStatut dela Cour à
la mêmedate. A cette date, sa déclaration du 24 septembre 1929,
acceptant sanscondition lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour perma-
nente, étaiten vigueur. Etant de duréeillimitée, elle n'étatas expi-
rée.En conséquence,lors de l'entréeen vigueur de la Charte et du
Statut, cettedéclarationétait,aux termesdel'article36,paragraphe 5, Statute, to be [an]acceptance[]of the compulsoryjurisdiction' of this
Court.
12. The result followsfrom thelanguage of Article 36(5)and from

its purpose to maintain to the maximum extent the actual and poten-
tial jurisdiction of the Permanent Court for the newly established
International Court of Justice. The construction is confirmed by the
jurisprudence of the Court and by its practice, as well as by the
unbroken practice of the parties to this proceeding and other States
over a period of more than 30years, and by the substantially uniform
opinion of the most highly qualified publicists."

2. The essenceof the UnitedStates denial of Nicaragua'sstanding

5. The United Statesmaintains that Nicaragua lacksstanding to main-
tain its claims, because it has not adhered to thejurisdiction of the Court
under the Optional Clause. Not only has it not done so under Article 36,
paragraph 2 ;it has not done so by operation of Article 36, paragraph 5,
because the declaration which Nicaragua made on 24 September 1929
acceptingthejurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice
never came into force by reason of Nicaragua's failure to deposit its
instrument of ratification of theProtocol of Signature ofthe Statute ofthat
Court.That deposit was a necessary condition of bnnging its declaration
into force. Since the declaration - as officially attested by the Registry of
the Permanent Court of International Justice and the Secretariat of the
League of Nations - never came into force, it was never (contrary to the

Nicaraguan Memorial, para. 11) "in effect" ; "it had not expirer only
because it had never been inspired. A declaration never in forcecouldnot
"be deemed" to be an acceptance of the compulsoryjurisdiction of this
Court "for the period which" it "still" has "to run", because, since the
Nicaraguan Declaration neverbegan to run at all,it has no period in which
still to run. The United States maintains that Nicaragua never accepted
"nor intended to accept" anyobligation under the Protocol of Signature of
the Permanent Court. "Nicaragua's adherence to the Charter and subse-
quent conduct cannot constitute compliance with the requirements of the
present Court's Statute for acceptance of compulsory jurisdiction"
(Counter-Memorial, para. 31).

3. A State could not becomeparty tothe Optional Clauseof the Statute of
the Permanent Court of International Justice without being partyto its
Statute

6. On 13 December 1920,the Assembly of the League of Nations by
resolution unanimously declared its approval of the draft Statute of the
Permanent Court of International Justice "for adoption in the form of a ACTIV~TÉSMILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP.DISS.SCHWEBEL) 564

(considéréed ,ans lesrapportsentre parties au présentStatut, comme
comportant acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire ))de la Cour.
12. Cette conséquence résulte du libelléde l'article 36, para-

graphe 5, et de son objet, qui était de préserver au maximum la
juridiction effectiveetpotentielledelaCourpermanente enfaveur de
la Cour internationale de Justice qui venait d'êtrecrééeC . ette inter-
prétationest confirméepar lajurisprudence et lapratique de la Cour,
par lapratique ininterrompue desParties àla présenteinstanceet des
autres Etats depuisplus de trente ans, et par l'opinion pratiquement

unanime des plus éminents publicistes. )>

2. Principaux argumentspar lesquels lesEtats-Unis contestent la qualité
pour agir du Nicaragua

5. Les Etats-Unis affirment que le Nicaragua n'apas qualité pour faire
valoir sesdemandes,parce qu'iln'apas acceptélajuridiction dela Cour en
vertu de la clausefacultative. Il ne l'a pas acceptéeconformément à l'ar-
ticle 36, paragraphe 2 ;et il ne l'a pas acceptée non plus par le jeu de

l'article36,paragraphe 5,attendu quela déclarationdu24septembre 1929
par laquelle il reconnaissait la juridiction de la Cour permanente n'est
jamais entréeen vigueur,leNicaraguan'ayant pas déposéd'instrument de
ratification du protocole de signature du Statut de ladite Cour. Ce dépôt
était une conditionnécessairede l'entréeen vigueur de la déclaration.La
déclaration n'ayant jamais pris effet - comme en ont officiellement
témoigné leGreffe delaCourpermanente etleSecrétariatdela Société des

Nations -, ellen'ajamais (contrairement à ce qui est dit dans le mémoire
du Nicaragua, par. 11)été <en vigueur ))et si<(elle n'était pas expirée)>,
c'est seulement faute d'avoir jamais pris effet. Une déclaration jamais
entréeen vigueurne saurait être (<considérée )commecomportant accep-
tation de la juridiction obligatoire de la présente Cour (pour la durée
restant àcourir ))car,commeladéclarationnicaraguayennen'avaitjamais

commencé à courir, il ne lui restait aucune duréeà courir. Les Etats-Unis
soutiennent que le Nicaragua n'a jamais accepté (<ni voulu accepter ))
d'obligation en vertu du protocole de signature de la Cour permanente.
(<Ni l'adhésiondu Nicaragua à laCharte ni soncomportementultérieurne
peuvent valoir souscription aux conditions que met le Statut de la Cour
actuelle à l'acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire. (Contre-mémoire,
par. 31.)

3. UnEtat nepouvaitpas adhérer à ladispositionfacultativeduStatut de la
Courpermanente deJustice internationale sans êtrepartie audS ittatut

6. Le 13décembre1920,l'Assembléede la SociétédesNations déclara
par une résolution unanime qu'elle approuvait le projet de Statut de la
Cour permanente de Justice <<pour adoption sous forme de protocoleProtocol duly ratified ..." (P.C.I.J., SeriesD,No. 1,p. 4).On 16December
1920,Members of the League signeda Protocol of Signatureby which they
declared "their acceptance of the adjoined Statute" of the Court. The
Protocol provided :

"The present Protocol ... issubjecttoratification. Each Powershall
send its ratification to the Secretary-General of the League of
Nations ; the latter shall take the necessary steps to notify such
ratification to the other signatory Powers. The ratification shall be
deposited in the archives of the Secretary of the League of Nations."
(Ibid., p. 5, emphasis supplied.)

The Protocol of Signaturehad twoparts. Section "A" contained the text of
the Protocol itself, part of which hasjust been quoted. Section "B" of the
Protocol of Signature read as follows :

"B. OPTIONAL CLAUSE
The undersigned, being dulyauthorized thereto, further declare, on
behalf of their Government that, from this date, they accept as com-
pulsory ipsofacto and without special convention, thejurisdiction of
the Court in conformity withArticle 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute of
the Court, under the following conditions :" (Ibid., p. 6.)

Thereafter, the text of the Statute followed (ibid., pp. 7 ff.).
7. Thus it will be observed that the Protocol of Signature, in a single
instrument, comprised both the Protocol itself and the form of declara-
tions by which States could adhere to the Optional Clause. When a State
signedadeclaration under the Optional Clause,it signedone section of the
Protocol of Signature, but that declaration did not take effect - it did not
bind the State making it to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction under the
Optional Clause - unless or until that Statehad ratified the Protocol of
Signature of which the declaration was a part. Article 36,paragraph 2, of

the Statute itself provided that a State could make a declaration accepting
the Optional Clause "either when signingor ratifying theProtocolto which
the present Statute is adjoined, or at a later moment ...". But it was
recognized throughout the life of the Permanent Court that a State could
not become aparty to the Statute unless itbecameaparty to the Protocol ;
and it couldnot become aparty to the Optional Clause whichwas apart of
the Protocol unless it became party to the Protocol. Those conclusions
wereofficiallyaffirmed more than onceby the LegalAdviser of the League
of Nations in communications to various States - and with specific
reference to Nicaragua (see the Counter-Memorial of the United States,
Anns. 4,6,12,23). As Manley O. Hudson put it in ThePermanent Courtof
International Justice (1934), page 388 :

"Clearly, the 'optional clause'does not stand on any independent
basis ; it is only a suggested form of the declaration which Article 36
permits to be made at the time of signing or ratifying the Protocol of dûment ratifié... (C.P.J.I. sérieD no 1, p. 7). Le 16novembre 1920,les
Membresdela Société desNations signèrentunprotocolede signaturepar

lequel ils déclaraient <reconnaître le Statut ci-joint i)de la Cour. Ce
protocole contenait les dispositions suivantes :
<<Leprésentprotocole ..seraratifié.Chaque Puissanceadresserasa
ratification au Secrétaire généradle la Société desNations, par les
soins duquel il en sera donné avis à toutes les autres Puissances

signataires. Les ratificationsresterontdéposéesdans les archives du
Secrétariatde la Société des Nations. (Ibid., p. 7. Les italiques sont
de moi.)
Leprotocole de signaturecomprenait deuxparties. La sectionA contenait
le texte du protocole lui-mêmequi vient d'êtrecité en partie.La section B

étaitainsi libellé:
<<B. DISPOSITION FACULTATIVE

Les soussignés,dûment autorisés,déclarent enoutre, au nom de
leur gouvernement, reconnaître dès à présent commeobligatoire, de
plein droit et sans convention spéciale,la juridiction de la Cour
conformément a l'article 36,paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour et
dans les termes suivants. i(Ibid., p. 8.)

Puis venait le texte du Statut (ibid.,p. 13et suiv.).
7. Ainsi leprotocole de signature comprenait, dans un instrument uni-
que,leprotocole lui-même etletextedela déclarationpar laquelle lesEtats
pouvaient accepter la disposition facultative. Quand un Etat signait une
déclarationd'adhésion à la disposition facultative, il signait donc une des
sections du protocole de signature, mais cette déclaration ne prenait pas
effet - elle n'obligeait pas 1'Etatsignataireà accepter lajuridiction obli-
gatoire de la Cour en application de la disposition facultative - tant que
cet Etat n'avait pas ratifiéle protocole de signature, dont la déclaration

faisaitpartie. L'article36,paragraphe 2,du Statut lui-même prévoyaiqtue
les Etats pouvaient faire une déclaration d'acceptation de la disposition
facultative <<soit lors de la signature ou de la ratification du protocole
auquel le présent acteestjoint, soit ultérieurement ..i)Mais il a étéadmis
pendant toute la duréede la Cour permanente qu'un Etat ne pouvait pas
devenir partie au Statut àmoins de devenir partie au protocole, et qu'il ne
pouvait pas adhérer à la disposition facultative, qui faisait partie du pro-
tocole, àmoins de devenir partie à celui-ci. Ces conclusions ont étécon-
firmées officiellementet plus d'une fois par le conseillerjuridique de la
Société desNations dans sescommunications àdivers Etats - notamment

avec mention expresse du Nicaragua (voir le contre-mémoire des Etats-
Unis, annexes 4,6,12 et 23).CommeledisaitManley O. Hudson dans The
Permanent Courtof International Justice(1934),page 338 :
Il est clair que la <<disposition facultative )) n'a aucune base
indépendante.Ce n'est qu'une modalitépour la déclarationque l'ar-

ticle36autorise à faireau moment de signerou de ratifier leprotocole Signature orata later moment.It isentirelysubsidiary to theProtocol
of Signature ; a State cannot become a party to the optional clause
unless it has become or becomes a party also to the Protocol of
Signature, andaState whichisnot effectivelyaparty to the latter does
not make abindingdeclaration by merelysigningthe'optional clause'
even without conditions."

4. Nicaragua never became party to the Protocol of Signature of the Per-
manent Courtor to its Statute and henceneverwasparty to the Optional
Clause

8. On 24 September 1929,Nicaragua's authorized representative made
a declaration under the Optional Clause in the following terms :

"On behalf of theRepublic ofNicaragua 1recognizeas compulsory
unconditionally thejurisdiction of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice." (I.C.J. Yearbook 1982-1983,p. 79 ; Registry's trans-
lation from the French.)
It had not by that dateratifiedand deposited its instrument of ratification
of the Protocol of Signature of the Court's Statute and so was not, on

making a declaration under the Optional Clause, a party either to the
Statute or to the Optional Clause. On 29 November 1939,Nicaragua, by
telegram, notified the Secretariat of the League of Nations that it had
ratified the Protocol of Signature and that the instrument of ratification
was to follow. In fact, the instrument appears never to have been sent and
certainly never was received by the League of Nations.
9. At the hearings on provisional measures in this case, Nicaragua
endeavoured to give the impression that it had ratified the Protocol and
had sent, or might have sent, the instrument of ratification, maintaining
that, as the Order of the Court of 10May 1984,at paragraph 19,recounts,
"There are quite obvious reasons why this ratification may not have
reached Geneva at the time". At the hearings at the current stage of the
proceedings, the Agent of Nicaragua indicated that the instrument of
ratification, if sent, may have been lost at sea during the Second World

War (Hearing of 8 October 1984). In its Memorial, Nicaragua acknow-
ledges that it never depositedtheinstrument of ratification to the Protocol
of Signature (e.g., at para. 44, - "The footnote shows that Nicaragua's
failuretodeposititsinstrument ofratification of the Protocol of Signature
of the Permanent Court was well known" - as well as Annex 1, which
declares that "no evidence" has been uncovered indicating that the instru-
ment of ratification "was forwarded to Geneva"). Moreover, Nicaragua
wasofficially and specificallyinformed by theActing LegalAdviser of the
League of Nations, by letter of 16 September 1942,that the League had
never received the instrument of ratification of the Protocol of Signature,
"the deposit of which is necessary to bring the obligation effectively into de signature ou à une date ultérieure.Elle est entièrement subordon-
néeau protocole de signature ; un Etat ne peut devenir partie à la
dispositionfacultativeque s'ilest devenu ou devientégalementpartie
auprotocole de signature,et un Etat quin'estpas effectivementpartie
àce dernier ne fait pas de déclaration ayant force obligatoire en se
bornant à signer la disposition facultative )),même sans condi-
tions.

4. Le Nicaragua,n'étantjamaisdevenupartieauprotocoledesignature dela
Courpermanente ni à son Statut, n'ajamais été partie à la disposition
facultative

8. Le 24 septembre 1929,le représentantofficiel du Nicaragua fit une
déclarationen vertu de la disposition facultative, qui était libelléeen ces
termes :

t<Au nom de la Républiquedu Nicaragua,je déclare reconnaître
comme obligatoireet sanscondition lajuridiction de la Cour perma-
nente de Justice internationale. ))(C.I.J. Annuaire 1982-1983,p. 78.)

A cette date, le Nicaragua, n'ayant ni ratifiéle protocole de signature du
Statut de la Courni déposésoninstrument deratification, n'était partie ni
auStatut ni àlaclausefacultative.Parun télégramme datédu 29novembre
1939,le Nicaragua avisale Secrétariatde la SociétédesNations qu'il avait
ratifiéle protocole de signature et que l'instrument de ratification devait
suivre.Enfait, ilsembleque cetinstrument nefutjamais envoyé,etiln'a en
tout casjamais étéreçu par la Société des Nations.

9. Au cours des audiencessur les mesures conservatoires,leNicaragua
s'estefforcéde donner l'impression qu'il avait ratifié le protocole et qu'il
avait envoyé, oupouvait avoir envoyé,son instrument de ratification, en
faisant valoir que,commeledit l'ordonnance dela Cour du 10mai 1984au
paragraphe 19 :t<Il y a desraisons parfaitement évidentesqui expliquent
quecetteratification ne soitpeut-être pas parvenue àGenève àl'époque. ))
Au cours desplaidoiriesdans la phase actuelle de la procédure,l'agentdu
Nicaragua a déclaréque l'instrument de ratification, à supposer qu'il eût

étéenvoyé,s'était peut-être perdu enmer pendant la seconde guerre
mondiale (audiencedu 8 octobre 1984).Dans son mémoire,le Nicaragua
reconnaît n'avoirjamais déposé d'instrumentde ratification du protocole
de signature (voir, par exemple, par. 44 : (Cette note montre qu'on
n'ignorait pas que le Nicaragua n'avait pas déposé son instrumentde
ratification du protocole de signature de la Cour permanente )>ainsi que
l'annexe1aumémoire,oùilestditquelesrecherchesn'ont pas révélé à ce
jour de document attestant que l'instrument de ratification tait été
transmis à GenèveD). De plus, le Nicaragua fut officiellement et expres-
sémentavisépar une lettre du conseillerjuridique par intérimdela Société

desNations datée du 16septembre 1942que la Société n'avaitjamais reçubeing. Perhaps that instrument was lost on the way" (League of Nations
Archives, File No. 3C/ 17664/1589, published in the United States
Counter-Memorial, Ann. 26 ; translation by this Court's Registry).

10. Thus the last Yearbook of the Court published before the Second

World War, the FifteenthAnnual Report (June 15th 1938-June15th1939),
in recording the facts respecting "the Optional Clause annexed to the
Statute of the Court" (at p. 37), provides a list of 53 "States which had
signedthe Optional Clause" (at p. 39).Nicaraguaisamong them. It further
pravides a list entitled:"The followinghad signed .. .but had not ratified
the Protocol of Signature of the Statute" (ibid.,p. 40).Nicaragua is among
three States so listed. It finally provides a list of 39 "States bound by the
Clause7'on 15June 1939 (ibid.).Nicaragua is not on that list. It was this
Yearbook to which the delegates at the San Francisco Conference on
International Organization could have had recourse when they amended
and adopted what was the Statute of the Permanent Court to transform it
into the Statute of the International Court of Justice. The Sixteenth Report
(June 15th 1939-December 31st 1945),published after the San Francisco
Conference,records, with respect to "The special protocol, annexed to the
'Protocol of Signature of the Statute' ... known as the 'Optional Clause' "
similar data. There is a list of States whch had signed the Optional Clause

"but had not ratified the Protocol of Signature of the Statute" and
Nicaragua is on that list (p. 50). There is a list of "States bound by the
Clause" and Nicaragua is not on that list (ibid.).A footnote to the entry
concerning Nicaragua, however, refers to page 331,where the following
information is recorded :

''3.PROTOCOL OF SIGNATURE OF THE STATUTE OF THE COUR?

Geneva, December 16th, 1920
According to a telegram dated November 29th, 1939,addressed to
the League of Nations, Nicaragua had ratified the Protocol, and the
instrument of ratification was to follow. The latter however has not
yet been deposited."

11. Thepublication of theseentries in the sameYearbookdemonstrates
the continuing conclusion, which the law of treaties and the provisions of
the Protocol dictated and of which Nicaragua had been officially
informed, that the sending of a telegram announcing ratification of the
Protocol coupled with failure to deposit the instrument of ratification of
the Protocol with the Secretary-General of the League, could not consti-
tute Nicaragua a party to the Protocol, to the Statute or to the Optional
Clauseof theCourt. It isincontestable that, in theconsistent interpretation
of the Registry of the Court as well as the Secretariat of the Leaguewhich

had mandatory depositaryfunctionsin respect of the Protocol,Nicaragua
never became party to the Protocol ;hence, never party to the Statute ;l'instrument de ratification du protocole de signature, <<dont le dépôtest
nécessairepour faire naître effectivement l'obligation. Peut-être cet ins-
trument s'est-il perdu en cours de route ? )>(Archives de la Sociétédes
Nations, dossier no3C/ 17664/1589,reproduit dans lecontre-mémoiredes
Etats-Unis, annexe 26.)
10. C'est ainsi que le dernier annuaire de la Cour permanente publié
avant la seconde guerre mondiale - le QuinzièmeRapport annuel (15juin
1938-15juin 1939) -, consignant les faits relatifsà la <Disposition facul-
tative annexée au Statut de la Cour )) (p. 31), comprenait une liste de
cinquante-trois <<Etats qui avaient souscrit à la disposition facultative

(p. 39) ;le Nicaragua figurait sur cette liste. Ce rapport comprenait égale-
ment une listeintitulée :<<Avaient souscrit ..maissans que leprotocole de
signature du Statut ait étératifié (ibid.,p. 33) ; le Nicaragua est l'un des
trois Etats énumérédsans cette liste. Lerapport comprenait enfin une liste
des trente-neuf <<Etats liés)) au 15juin 1939 (ibid.) ; le Nicaragua ne
figurait pas sur cette liste. C'est cetannuaire que les délégué s la confé-
rence de San Francisco sur l'organisation internationale pouvaient con-
sulter quand ilsmodifièrentet adoptèrent leStatut de la Courpermanente
pour en faire le Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice. Le Seizième

Rapport(15juin 1939-31décembre1945),publiéaprèslaconférence de San
Francisco, contient des indications analogues, concernant le << protocole
spécialjoint au <(protocole de signature du Statut )>...intitulé<<disposi-
tion facultative D. On y trouve la liste des Etats ayant souscrit à la clause
facultative <mais sans que le protocole de signature du Statut ait été
ratifiéO, et leNicaragua figuresur cette liste (p. 43). On ytrouve aussi une
liste des <<Etats liés))par la disposition facultative, où le Nicaragua ne
figure pas (ibid.).Toutefois, une note de bas de page concernant le Nica-
ragua renvoie à la page 323, où l'on trouvel'indication suivante :

<3. PROTOCOLE DE SIGNATURE DU STATUT DE LA COUR
Genève, 16 décembre1920

Suivant un télégrammeen date du 29 novembre 1939,adressé à la
Société des Nations, le Nicaragua a ratifié le protocole, l'instrument
de ratification devant suivre. Le dépôtde celui-ci n'a cependant pas
encore eu lieu. ))

11. La publication de ces diverses rubriques dans le mêmeannuaire
conduit à une seuleconclusion, qui est dictéepar le droit des traitéset par
les dispositions du protocole, et dont le Nicaragua avait été officiellement
informé : l'envoid'un télégrammeannonçant la ratification du protocole,
sansque l'instrument du protocole fût déposé auprèsdu Secrétairegénéral
de la Sociétédes Nations, ne faisait pas du Nicaragua un Etat partie au

protocole, ni au Statut, ni à la clause facultative. Il est incontestable que,
selonl'interprétationconstante du Greffe dela Cour et du Secrétariatdela
Société desNations, dépositaire obligatoiredessignatures du protocole,le
Nicaragua n'estjamais devenu partie à celui-ci; ni, par conséquent, au
Statut ; ni, par conséquent, a la clause facultative du Statut - et que lehence, never party to the Optional Clause of the Statute, by which Statute
and Clause Nicaragua never was - in the definitive term officially
employed - "bound".
12. The conclusion that Nicaragua was never bound was in accordance

with the jurisprudence of the Court. Thus, in the case relating to the
TerritorialJurisdictionof the International Commissionof the River Oder,
P.C.I.J., SeriesA, No. 23, the questionarose of the effect of the Barcelona
Convention of20April1921 relating to the régimeof navigablewaterways
of international concern. The Court observed that that Convention con-
tained provisions
"differing in no way from the clauses generally inserted in interna-

tional conventions of this nature ; such provisions clearly make the
coming into force of the Convention as regards each of the Parties
depend upon ratification" (at p. 21).
Thus the Court in respect of a convention which, just as the Court's
Protocol of Signatureprovided, specified that itis "subject toratification",
whose instrument of ratification "shall be transrnitted to the Secretary-
General of the League of Nations, who will notify the receipt" to other

signatories, held that a convention which a Statehad not ratified had not
corne "into force" for it. Appraising this and other cases, Dr. Hans Blix
concluded that,
"what the courts have established with increasing clarity is merely
that in law theprocedure of ratification is not a ceremonial formality
but an act by which a State becomes bound by a treaty" ("The
Requirement of Ratification", British YearBook ofInternationalLaw

1953(1954), pp. 352, 370).

Dr. Blix observed that

"there is no doubt that if an international agreement expressly stipu-
lates for entry into force by signature or ratification or some other
manner, the prescribed procedure must be complied with" (ibzd.,
p. 352).

The reason is that : "Parties to international compacts must know when
they become irrevocably bound by the compacts." (Ibid., p. 356.) That
contemporaryinternational law on this question is what the Court in the
TerritorialJurisdictionof the International Commissionof the River Oder
caseheld it to beis demonstrated by the terms of Article 14of the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties, which provides that :

"1. The consent of a Stateto be bound by a treaty is expressed by
ratification when :
(a) the treaty provides for such consent tobe expressed by means of
ratification ;.. ." Nicaragua n'a donc jamais étép , our employer le terme formel officielle-
ment utilisé, (<lié))par le Statut ni par la clause facultative.

12. Cette conclusion est conforme à lajurisprudence de la Cour. Dans
l'affaire de la Juridiction territorialede la Commission internationale de

l'Oder,C.P.J.I. sérieA no23,la question s'étant poséd ee l'effetà donner à
la convention de Barcelone du 20 avril 1921sur le régimedes voies navi-
gables d'intérêitnternational, la Cour a fait observer que cette convention
contenait des dispositions

(<qui ne diffèrent en rien des clauses généralementinséréesdans les
conventionsinternationales de cegenre et quifont clairementdépen-
drede la ratification l'entréeen vigueur de la convention à l'égardde
chacune des parties (p. 21).

On voit donc que, concernant une convention qui, exactement comme le
protocole de signature de la Cour, disposait qu'elle était (<sujette à rati-
fication oet que lesinstruments de ratification (<seront transmis au Secré-
taire généralde la Société des Nations, qui en notifiera la réception )>aux

autres signataires,la Cour a considéréqu'une conventionnon ratifiéepar
un Etat n'étaitpas entrée en vigueur pour cet Etat. Analysant cette
affaire parmi d'autres, Hans Blix concluait que

((ce que les tribunaux ont établi avec une clarté de plus en plus
évidente,c'est tout simplement qu'en droit la procédurede ratifica-
tion n'estpas uneformalitéde pure cérémoniem , aisun acte par lequel
1'Etatse déclareliépar un traité ((<The Requirement of Ratifica-
tion O, British Year Book of International Law, 1953 (1954),
p. 370).

Comme le dit cet auteur,

(ilne fait aucun doute que, siun accord international prévoitexpres-
sémentqu'il entre en vigueur après signature ou ratification ou de
toute autre manière, la procédure prévuedoit êtrerespectée >)(ibid.,
p. 352).

La raison en est la suivante : Les parties aux pactes internationaux
doivent savoir à quel moment elles deviennent irrévocablement liéespar
ces instruments. ))(Ibid., p. 356.) Et le fait que le droit international
contemporain en lamatièreest bien cequela Cour a dit dans l'affairede la
Juridiction territorialedelaCommissioninternationale del'Oderest démon-

trépar les termes de l'article 14de laconvention de Vienne sur ledroitdes
traités, qui dispose :
(<1. Leconsentementd'un Etat à êtreliéparun traités'exprimepar

la ratification :
a) lorsque le traité prévoit que ce consentement s'exprime par la
ratification..))Article 16of the Vienna Convention further provides that instruments of
ratification

"establish the consent of a State to be bound by a treaty upon :

(a) their exchange between the contracting States ;
(b) their deposit with the depositary ;or
(c) their notification to the contracting States or to the depositary, if
so agreed".

In thecasebefore the Court, itcouldnot be clearer that it was never agreed
that notification by Nicaragua would suffice. On the contrary, deposit of
the instrument of ratification was required by the Protocol of Signature
and insisted upon by the depositary who, in default of deposit, notified
Nicaragua that it was not bound.
13. However,whileit cannot bedenied - and Nicaragua itself does not
deny - that its Declaration of 1929 never bound it to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice (and thisfact
is repeatedly recognized by the Court in today's Judgment), Nicaragua
maintains that the matter does not rest there. While it did not do soat the
stage of provisional measures, it now contends that its ratification of the

United Nations Charter and its appended Statute of this Court was suf-
ficient to givelife to adeclaration which othenvisehad been and remained
inoperative. The Court, inits Order of 10May 1984,and 1,in my dissent to
that Order, were prepared to consider that argument as affording a pos-
siblebasis for the Court'sjurisdiction in this case. Butwhilethe Court now
accepts that argument as affording a definitive basis of jurisdiction, on
analysis which the time afforded at the stage of provisional measures did
not admit, 1have concluded that that argument is utterly inadequate. Nor
do 1 accept the allied argument that the conduct of this Court and its
Registry and of the United Nations, and of Nicaragua and other States,
endows Nicaragua with a standingand the Court with ajurisdiction which
the operation of the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 5, does not
engender.

5. The effect of Article 36, paragraph 5, of this Court'sStatute on a decla-

ration which was not bindingunder the Statute of the Permanent
Court

14. Nicaragua concedes that its 1929Declaration, at the time immedi-
atelyprior to its ratification of the United Nations Charter, lacked "bind-
ing force" (Nicaraguan Memorial, para. 178,E). The Court,in paragraph
26of today'sJudgment, holds that "the declaràtion made by Nicaragua in
1929had not acquired binding force prior to such effect as Article 36,
paragraph 5, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice might L'article 16delaconvention deVienneprévoitenoutreque lesinstruments
de ratification

établissent le consentement d'un Etat à êtreliépar un traité au
moment :

a) de leur échangeentre les Etats contractants ;
b) de leur dépôt auprèsdu dépositaire ; ou
c) deleurnotification aux Etatscontractants ou au dépositaire,s'ilen
est ainsi convenu )).

Or, dans la présente affaire, il n'a de toute évidencejamais étéadmis
qu'une simple notification émanant du Nicaragua serait suffisante. Au
contraire,le dépôtde l'instrument de ratification, exigépar leprotocole de
signature, a étéréclamépar le dépositaire, qui, à défaut de dépôt de
l'instrument, a avisé leNicaragua qu'il n'étaitpas lié.

13. Toutefois, s'ilest certain- et leNicaragua lui-même neprétendpas
le contraire - que le Nicaragua n'ajamais étéliépar lajuridiction obli-
gatoire de la Cour permanente en vertu de sa déclarationde 1929(ce que
confirme à plusieurs reprises le présent arrêtde la Cour), le Nicaragua
soutient quela question ne s'arrêtepas là :bien que silencieux à cesujet au
stade des mesures conservatoires, il affirme maintenant que saratification
de la Charte des Nations Unies et du Statut de la Cour actuelle, qui lui est
jointe en annexe, a suffià insuffler vià unedéclaration qui,sanscela,était
et serait restéesans effet. Dans son ordonnance du 10mai 1984,la Cour -

comme moi-même,dans mon opinion dissidente - se montrait disposée à
considérerque cetargumentpouvait permettre de fondersacompétenceen
l'espèce. Mais,alors que la Cour admet maintenant que cet argument
fonde solidementsacompétence,je conclusaprèsune analyse qui avait été
rendue impossible par les délais fixés au stadedes mesures conservatoires
que cet argument est absolument sans valeur. Etje n'accepte pas non plus
l'argument connexe selon lequel la conduite de la Cour et de son Greffe,
ainsi que de l'organisation des Nations Unies, du Nicaragua et d'autres
Etats, conféraitau Nicaragua la qualiténécessairepour agir et à la Cour

une compétence qui ne découlent pas de l'application de l'article 36,
paragraphe 5.

5. L'effet de l'article36,paragraphe5, du Statut de la Cour sur une décla-
ration quin'avait pascaractère obligatoiredans le cadredu Statut de la
Courpermanente

14. LeNicaragua reconnaît que sadéclarationde 1929,immédiatement
avant sa ratification de la Charte des Nations Unies, n'avait pas <(force

obligatoire ))(mémoiredu Nicaragua, par. 178, al. E). Et la Cour, au
paragraphe 26de son arrêtd'aujourd'hui, conclutque << ladéclarationfaite
par le Nicaragua de 1929n'avait pas acquis force obligatoire, antérieure-
ment à l'effet éventuelde l'article 36, paragraphe 5, du Statut de la Courproduce". The critical question accordingly is : despite the acknowledged
fact that Nicaragua's 1929Declaration lacked binding force, is it a decla-
ration which, in the terms and meaning of Article 36, paragraph 5, of the
Statute, was "made under Article 36of the Statute of the Permanent Court
of International Justice and which" is "still in force" ?

15. Nicaragua maintains that Article 36, paragraph 5 :

"does not speak of parties to the Statute of the Permanent Court but
of declarations accepting itsjurisdiction. Such a declaration made by
a State not aparty to the Statute and that by its terms had not expired
was a declaration 'in force' .. .it 'remained in an imperfect but not
invalid state' ; ...The effect of Article 36 (5),in the case of Nicara-
gua, was to make its ratification of the Statute of this Court ... the
equivalent ofratification of theold Statute - theact that perfectedthe
declaration . ..That is the significance of the use of the language
'deemed. ..to be acceptances of the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
International Court of Justice. ..' " (Memorial, paras. 13, 14.)

Does this imaginativeconstruction of Article 36, paragraph 5, withstand
analysis ?
16. In the first place, it is beyond dispute that, in the understanding of
international law, "in force" means, and equates with, "bound". One need
look no further than the provisions of the Vienna Convention on the Law
ofTreaties, Articles 2(1) (b),24,25 and 84.Article 24in particular makes it
crystal clear that a "treaty enters into forceassoon asconsent tobe bound

by thetreaty has been established ...". Asthe late SirHumphrey Waldock
put it, in his capacity of Special Rapporteur of the International Law
Commission on the law of treaties, "the basic rule" is that "the entry into
force of the treaty automatically makes it binding upon the parties"
(Yearbook of theInternational Law Commission, 1962,Vol. II,p. 71). It is
undeniable that an instrument of ratification establishing Nicaragua's
consent to be bound by the Statute of the Permanent Court was never
received by the depositary ; rather, its failure to become so bound was
established by the depositary, the Secretary-General of the League of
Nations, and by that Court's Registry ;consequently, the Statute of the
Permanent Court never entered into force for it. The question which then
arises is : despite that conclusion of fact and law, did its declaration
accepting the jurisdiction of the Permanent Court enter into force ?

17. To answer that question requires a reviewof the drafting history of
Article 36, paragraph 5, and of the meaning attached to that article by
those who were concerned with its acceptance, and, as well, of the judg-
ments of this Court interpreting Article 36,paragraph 5. It also requires a

consideration of the effect of the treatment of Nicaragua's Declaration of internationale deJustice ))La questioncritique est donc celle-ci :nonobs-
tant lefait reconnu que la déclaration nicaraguayennede 1929n'avait pas
forceobligatoire, s'agit-ild'unedéclarationqui,selonlalettre et l'esprit de
l'article 36, paragraphe 5, du Statut, a été faite en applicationde l'ar-
ticle36du Statut delaCourpermanente deJusticeinternationale pour une

durée quin'est pas encore expirée ))?
15. Le Nicaragua soutient que l'article 36, paragraphe 5 :
((ne parle pas des parties au Statut de la Cour permanente, mais des
déclarationsacceptantlajuridiction de celle-ci.Une telledéclaration,

faite par un Etat qui n'était pas partie au Statut et qui n'était pas
encore expirée conformément à ses termes, était une déclaration en
vigueur ... elle(constituait un instrument imparfait mais non pas
invalide...j)L'effetde l'article36, paragraphe 5, dans le cas du Nica-
ragua, a été de fairede sa ratificationdu Statut de la présenteCour ...
l'équivalentd'une ratification de l'ancien Statut, c'est-à-dire un acte
parachevant sa déclaration ...Telle est la signification des termes
(considéré s..comme comportant acceptation de lajuridiction obli-

gatoire de la Cour internationale de Justice ..)) (Mémoire, par. 13
et 14.)
Cetteinterprétation audacieusedel'article36,paragraphe 5,résiste-t-elle à
l'analyse ?

16. Tout d'abord, il est indiscutable que, dans l'acception qu'ilsont en
droit international, lesmots ((en vigueur ))signifient êtrelié jet en sont
l'équivalent. 11suffit à cet égardde se reporter aux dispositions des ar-
ticles2,paragraphe 1 b),24,25 et 84dela conventionde Viennesurledroit
des traités. L'article24, en particulier, précise qu'~un traité entre en
vigueur dès que le consentement à êtreliépar le traité a été étab li.))
Commele disait sir Humphrey Waldock, parlant en qualitéde rapporteur
spécialde la Commissiondu droit international pour le droit des traités,

<la règle fondamentale j)est que <l'entréeen vigueur du traité rend
automatiquement celui-ci obligatoire pour les parties >> (Annuaire de la
Commission du droit international,1962,vol. II, p. 81). Il est par ailleurs
hors de doute que le dépositairen'ajamais reçu d'instrument de ratifica-
tion attestant le consentement du Nicaragua à êtreliépar le Statut de la
Cour permanente : au contraire, ce dépositaire, c'est-à-dire le Secrétaire
générad l e la SociétédesNations, et le Greffe de la Cour permanente ont
constatéque le Nicaragua n'était paslié.En conséquence,leStatut de la

Courpermanente n'estjamais entréen vigueur à l'égarddu Nicaragua. La
questionqui sepose alorsestla suivante :malgrécetteconstatation de fait
et de droit, se peut-il que la déclaration nicaraguayenne acceptant la
juridiction de la Cour permanente soit entrée envigueur ?
17. IIconvient,pour répondre à cettequestion,d'examiner la genèsede
l'article36,paragraphe 5,lesensdonné àcettedisposition par ceuxquiont
contribué à son acceptation, et les arrêtsdans lesquels la Cour l'a inter-
prétée. Il convient aussi de tenir compte des indications relatives à la

déclaration nicaraguayenne que l'on trouve dans les annuaires des deux 1929in the Yearbooks of the two Courts, the Reports of this Court to the
General Assembly, and elsewhere, and of the conduct of the Parties.

6. The intentions of the drafters of Article 36,paragraph 5

18. In the eyes of the drafters of the Statute of the Court, what was
Article 36, paragraph 5, designed to acheve ? The Committee of Jurists
which, in preparation for the San Francisco Conference, met in Washng-
ton on 14April 1945,had beforeit the following observation of the United
Kingdom :
"One question which will arise in connection with Article 36, is

what action should be taken concerning the existing acceptances of
the 'optional clause', by whicha number of countries have, subject to
certain reservations,bound themselvesto accept thejurisdiction of the
Court as obligatory.Should these acceptances be regarded as having
automatically come to an end or should some provision be made for
continuing them in force with perhaps a provision by which those
concerned could revise or denounce them." (Documentsof the United
Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco,
1945, Vol. XIV, p. 318 ;emphasis supplied.)

In response, the subcommittee took a straightforward position
"The subcommittee calls attention to the fact that many nations
have heretofore accepted compuIsolyjurisdiction under the 'optional
clause'.The subcommittee believes that provision should be made at
the San Francisco Conference for a special agreement for continuing
these acceptancesin force for the purpose of this Statute." (Ibid.,

p. 289 ; emphasis supplied.)
Let us apply these seminal statements of the purpose of what came to be
Article 36,paragraph 5,to the facts and question at issue.The intention of
the drafters of Article 36,paragraph 5, in addressing existing acceptances
under the Optional Clauseby which States were"bound", was to deal with
the fact that "many nations have heretofore accepted compulsory juris-
diction under the 'Optional Clause' ".It was clear that Nicaragua was not

among suchnations. It wasclearby, interalia,the terms of theYearbook of
the Permanent Court, which listed Nicaragua as a State which was not
bound by compulsoryjurisdiction under the Optional Clause (supra,para.
11).Moreover, the Committee of Jurists contemplated that what came to
be Article 36,paragraph 5, would be tantamount to a special agreement
"continuing these acceptances in force for the purpose of this Statute".
That phrase imports that declarations, to be continued in force, were in
force. Nicaragua's was not.
19. In pursuance of this purpose of the Committee of Jurists, a Report
of 31 May 1945 to Commission IV (Judicial Organization) of the San
Francisco Conference proposed to add to Article 36 of the Statute the
following provision : Cours, dans les Rapports de la Cour à l'Assemblée généralee,t dans
d'autres publications, ainsi que du comportement des Parties.

6. Les intentions des rédacteursde l'article36,paragraphe 5

18. Queldevait êtrel'objetdel'article36,paragraphe 5,dans l'espritdes
rédacteurs du Statut de la Cour? Le comité de juristes qui avait été
convoquéle 14avril 1945 à Washingtonpour préparer laconférencede San
Francisco était saisi de l'observation suivante du Royaume-Uni :

((Une question qui se posera à propos de l'article 36 est celle des
mesures à prendre au sujet des acceptations existantes de la ((dispo-
sition facultative>) par lesquelles plusieurs pays ont, sous certaines

réserves,acceptédese soumettre à lajuridiction obligatoirede la Cour.
Ces acceptations doivent-elles êtreconsidéréescomme ayant auto-
matiquement pris fin ou faut-il prévoir des dispositions pour les
maintenir en vigueur en spécifiantpeut-êtreque les intéresséspour-
raient les reviser ou les dénoncer. >)(Documentsde la Conférence des
Nations Uniessur l'organisation internationale,San Francisco, 1945,
vol. XIV, p. 318. Les italiques sont de moi.)

Le sous-comitéadopta une position nette :

((Le sous-comitéattire l'attention sur le fait que plusieurs Nations
ont jusqu'ici acceptéla clause de«compétence obligatoir» e.Le sous-
comitéestime que la conférencede San Francisco devrait prévoirun
accord spécialpour maintenir ces acceptations envigueuraux fins du
présent Statut. ))(Ibid., p. 290. Les italiques sont de moi.)

Appliquons auxfaits et à laquestion àl'étudecesdéclarationsrelatives aux
objectifs du texte qui devait devenir l'article 36,paragraphe 5. Confrontés
aux acceptations existantes de la disposition facultative par laquelle cer-

tains Etats s'étaientliés, lesrédacteursvoulaient tenir compte de ce que
((plusieurs Nations ont jusqu'ici accepté laclause de ((compétenceobli-
gatoire ». Il est clair que leNicaragua n'était pasdu nombre. Cela résultait
notammentde l'annuaire dela Cour permanente, où IeNicaragua étaitcité
parmi les Etats non liéspar lajuridiction obligatoire en vertu de la dis-
position facultative (voir ci-dessus par. 11).De surcroît, dans l'esprit du
comitéde juristes, le texte qui allait devenir l'article 36, paragraphe 5,

devait constituer l'équivalentd'un accord spécial <(pour maintenir ces
acceptations en vigueur, aux fins du présentStatut O, ce qui suppose que,
pour êtremaintenues en vigueur, lesdéclarations devaientêtreen vigueur.
Tel n'étaitpas le cas de la déclaration du Nicaragua.
19. Un rapport du 31mai 1945,adressé à la commission IV (organisa-
tionjudiciaire) dela conférencedeSanFranciscoproposait, pour atteindre
l'objectif fixépar le comitéde juristes, de compléterainsi l'article 36 du

Statut (texte anglais) : "Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice and whch are stillinforceshall be
deemed as between the parties to the present Statute to have been
made under this Article and shall continue to apply, in accordance

with their terms." (Documentsof the United Nations Conferenceon
International Organization, Vol. XIII, p. 558.)
With reference to a text of this substance,the British representative at San
Francisco three days earlier had said :

"If the Comrnittee decides to retain the optional clause, it could
provide for the continuing validity of existing adherencesto it. Since
forty members of the United Nations are bound by it, compulsory
jurisdiction would to this extent be a reality." (Ibid.,p. 227;emphasis
supplied.)

Thus it appears that what was sought was the "continuing validity" of
adherencesby whch States were "bound" under the Statute of the Per-
manent Court. At that juncture, the corresponding French text of what
came to be Article 36, paragraph 5, read :
"Les déclarations encore en vigueur, faites en application de l'ar-

ticle 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale
seront considérées,en cequi concerne les rapports réciproques des
parties au présent Statut, comme ayant été faitesen application du
présent article, et continueront à s'appliquer, conformément aux
conditions qu'elles stipulent." (Ibid., p. 565.)
Thereafter, on 5 June 1945,the French representative proposed the fol-
lowing alternative wording :

"Les déclarationsfaitesen application de l'article36du Statut dela
Cour permanente de Justice internationale pour une durée quin'est
pas encoreexpiréeseront considéréesd , ans les rapports entre parties
au présent Statut, comme comportant acceptation de lajuridiction
obligatoirede la Cour internationale de Justicepour la durée et dans
les conditions expriméespar ces déclarations." (Ibid., p. 486.)

The "Proposals by the Delegation of France Relating to Article 36 of the
Statute of the International Court of Justice" which havejust been repro-
duced in their French version wereduplicatedin the Englishtext proposed
by France as follows :

"Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justiceand which arestillin forceshall be
deemed, as between the parties to the present Statute, as including
acceptance of compulsoryjurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice for the time and under the conditions expressed in these
declarations." (Ibid., p. 485.)

The French representative, who thus proposed (on thepoint at issuein the (<Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice and whichare stillinforce shallbe
deemed as between the parties to the present Statute to have been
made under this Article and shall continue to apply, in accordance
with their terms. ))(Documentsde la Conférence des Nations Uniessur

l'organisation internationale, vol. XIII, p. 558.)
Au sujet d'un textede mêmesubstance, le représentant du Royaume-Uni
avait dit trois jours plus tôt :

<(Silecomitédécidaitde conserverla clausefacultative, ilpourrait
prévoir la prolongation de la validitédes adhésionsactuelles. Etant
donné que quarante Membres des Nations Unies sont fiéspar cette

clause, la compétence obligatoireserait dans cette mesure mêmeune
réalité. (Ibid., p. 231. Les italiques sont de moi.)
IIapparaît doncque lebut recherchéétaitla prolongation delavalidité ))

des adhésionspar lesquelles des Etats se trouvaient << liés en vertu du
Statut de la Cour permanente. A ce stade, le texte français correspondant
du futur article 36, paragraphe 5, était ainsi conçu :
Les déclarations encoreen vigueur,faites en application de I'ar-

ticle 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
seront considérées, en ce qui concerne les rapports réciproques des
parties au présentStatut, comme ayant étéfaites en application du
présentarticle, etcontinueront a s'appliquer conformémentaux con-
ditions qu'ellesstipulent. )) (Ibid., p. 565.)

Par la suite,lereprésentantde la France proposa en remplacement letexte
suivant :

<<Lesdéclarationsfaitesenapplication del'article36du Statut dela
Cour permanente de Justice internationale pour une duréequi n'est
pas encore expiréeseront considéréesd ,ans lesrapports entre parties
au présentStatut, comme comportant acceptation de la juridiction
obligatoire de la Cour internationale de Justice pour la duréeetdans
les conditions expriméespar ces déclarations. ))(Ibid., p. 486.)

Les (Modifications du texte de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice proposéespar le délégué de la France ))dont le texte
français est reproduit ci-dessus seprésentaient comme suit dansleur ver-

sion anglaise :
(<Declarations made under Article 36of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice and which are stillinforceshallbe

deemed, as between the Parties to the present Statute, as including
acceptance of compulsoryjurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice for the time and under the conditions expressed in these
declarations. ))(Ibid., p. 485.)

On comprend donc que le représentantde la France, qui entendait main- instant case) to maintain the English text unchanged, on 7 June 1945
understandably explained hisproposed recasting of the French text onlyof
Article 36,paragraph 5 - then numbered as Article 36, paragraph 4 - as

follows :
"The French Representative stated that the changes suggested by
him in paragraph (4)were not substantive ones, but were intended to
improve the phraseology." (Zbid.,pp. 284, 290.)

The Committee at the meeting of 7June thereupon unanimously adopted
the text of Article 36,paragraph 5,inthe terms in whch they appear in the
Statute (ibid., p. 284). The relevant report of 9 June 1945observes :

"In a sense. . the new Court may be looked upon as the successor
to the old Court which is replaced. The succession will be explicitly
contemplated in some of the provisions of the new Statute, notably in
Article 36, paragraph 4, and Article 37. Hence, continuity in the
progressive development of thejudicial process will be amply safe-
guarded.

A new paragraph 4 [now 51was inserted to preserve declarations
made under Article 36 of the old Statute for periods of time whch

have not expired, and to make these declarations applicable to the
jurisdiction of the new Court." (Zbid.,pp. 307, 314, 328.)

The French text of that latter passage reads :

"On a inséré un nouveauparagraphe 4 afin de maintenir les décla-
rations formulées d'après l'article 36 de l'ancien Statut pour des
périodesqui n'ont pas encore expiréet pour rendre ces déclarations
applicables à la juridiction de la nouvelle Cour." (Zbid.,p. 348.)

Thereafter, the text ofArticle 36,paragraph 5,remained unchanged. Little
further light is shed upon its meaning by the San Francisco travaux pré-
paratoires.
20. However, the illumination provided by the San Francisco proceed-
ings is bright enough. For it is clear that the new paragraph, as the San
Franciscorecords state, "was inserted topreserve declarations made under
Article 36of theold Statute for periods of timewhichhavenot expired, and
tomake these declarations applicableto thejurisdiction of the new Court"
(emphasis supplied). The purpose of Article 36, paragraph 5, was not to
invest nugatoq declarations whichwereneverin effectwith initial force, it

was "to preserve" declarations in force under thePermanent Court for the
new Court - declarations by which States were, as the Committee of
Jurists put it, "bound".

21. Moreover, theFrench text of Article 36,paragraph 5,was designed,
and was clearly stated by its author to be, substantively identical to thetenir tel quel le texte anglais sur le point en cause ici, ait expliquéen ces
termes, le 7juin 1945,le remaniement qu'ilproposait du texte français de
l'article 36, paragraphe 5 - alors paragraphe 4 :

<Lereprésentantdela France déclarequeleschangements dont ila
proposél'introduction au paragraphe 4 ne visaient pas le fond, mais
tendaient à améliorerla rédaction. 1)(Ibid., p. 284, 290.)

Sur quoi le comitéadopta à l'unanimité, à la séance du 7 juin, le texte de
l'article 36, paragraphe 5, tel qu'il figure dans le Statut (ibid., p. 284). On
peut lire dans le rapport du 9juin 1945 :

<En un certain sens, par conséquent,la nouvelle Cour peut être
considérée commele successeur de l'ancienne. Cette succession sera
explicitement viséedans certaines des dispositionsdunouveau Statut,
notamment àl'article36,paragraphe 4, et à I'article37.On peut donc
dire que la continuité du développementprogressif de la procédure
judiciaire sera largement sauvegardée.

On ainséré un nouveau paragraphe 4[devenuensuiteparagraphe 51
afin de maintenir les déclarations formulées d'aprèsl'article 36 de
l'ancien Statut pour despériodes quin'ont pas encore expiréet pour
rendre ces déclarations applicables à la juridiction de la nouvelle
Cour. >)(Ibid., p. 348.)

En anglais:
(<A new paragraph 4 was inserted to preserve declarations made

under Article 36of the old Statute for periods of time which have not
expired, and to make these declarations applicable to thejurisdiction
of the new Court. ))(Ibid., p. 328.)
Par la suite, le libelléde l'article 36, paragraphe 5, resta inchangé,et les

travaux préparatoires de San Francisco n'en éclairent pas davantage le
sens.
20. Lesindications qu'on peut en tirer suffisent néanmoins.Il apparaît
eneffet quelenouveau paragraphe << aété inséré >)commeilest dit dans les
documents de San Francisco, <pour préserverles déclarations faites en
vertu del'article36de l'ancien Statutpour une duréequin'était pas encore
expirée,et de rendre ces déclarations applicables à la juridiction de la
nouvelle Cour >)(les italiques sont de moi). L'objet de l'article 36, para-

graphe 5, n'étaitdonc pas demettre rétroactivement envigueur des décla-
rations dénuéesde valeur etjamais entréesen vigueur ; il étaitde <pré-
server >)à l'intention de la nouvelle Cour les déclarations qui étaient en
vigueur à l'époquede la Cour permanente - cellespar lesquelles les Etats
étaient <<liés)),comme le dit le comitéde juristes.
21. Qui plus est, letexte françaisétait conçu,selon lesdéclarations sans
équivoque de son auteur, comme essentiellement identique au texte English.Indeed, France itself apparently proposed to maintain the English
text asit was,and thiswas accepted. Article 36,paragraph 5,wasinitially a
British proposal. France proposed a revised text which it indicated was
substantively the same as the English. The motivations of the French
amendment arenot altogetherclear. The Court appears to believe that its
purpose was, by the operation of Article 36, paragraph 5, to maintain in
force not only declarations of the Permanent Court which were in force,

but togiveeffectto declarations whichhad been made but whch neverhad
come into force. It seems likelier that the French amendment may have
been stimulated by the perception that the phrase in English, "and which
are still in force"- initially translated "encore en vigueur" (a phrase
which, as the Nicaraguan Memorial points out at paragraph 17is char-
acteristic of treaty usage but not declarations which are "unilateral acts")
- wouldbe morepreciselytranslated if "still inforce" wererendered "pour
une durée quin'est pas encore expirée" because the latter phrase empha-
sizedthecontinuing validity ofdeclarations whichhad not yet expired. But
that change did not change the meaning of the English text so as to
embrace declarations which had never come into force, because a decla-
ration of a duration whch has not yet expired must nevertheless be a
declaration which initially was "inspired". TheFrench text may wellhave
been meant to make the clearer that declarations in force under the Per-
manent Court's Statute which have not by their terms expired should be

"preserved" (asit wasput in the English text of the rapporteur's report) or
"maintained" ("afin de maintenir") asit wasput in the French, but there is
no indication of the French amendment being designed to give life to a
declaration which had never come into force. The Nicaraguan Memorial
argues, in paragraph 48, that there was in fact only one such declaration,
that of Nicaragua. Can it be plausibly maintained that the object of the
French amendment was togiveforcefor thefirst time to Nicaragua's 1929
Declaration ?Or may it be more plausibly argued that Francehad French,
rather than Nicaraguan, interests in view ?

22. The trueclueto the object of the French delegation in proposing its
amendment to the French text of Article 36,paragraph 5,may be found in
thejoint dissent of threejudges ofthis Courtinthe AerialIncidentcase,the
probative passage from which is quoted below at paragraph 34. That
passage infers that France moved its amendment in order to make clear

beyond a doubt that Article 36,paragraph 5,did not embracedeclarations
of aduration whichhadexpired.France's declaration wasprecisely of that
character. On the day in San Francisco on which France moved its
amendment, there wasno French Declaration stillin forcewhichhad been
made under Article 36of the Statute of thePermanent Court.There wasno
French Declaration "en application de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour
permanente de Justice internationale pour une duréequi n'est pas encore
expirée",for the pertinent reason that the last French Declaration under
the Permanent Court's Statute had been renewed for five years, from 25 anglais. D'ailleurs,il apparaît quela France elle-même proposa de garder
tel quel le texte anglais, et que cette proposition fut acceptée.L'article36,
paragraphe 5,avait en effetétéprésent él'originepar leRoyaume-Uni, et
c'est la France qui avait proposé un texte revisé,identique en substance,

selon elle,au texte anglais. Les motifs quiinspiraient l'amendement fran-
çaisnesont pasparfaitement clairs.La Coursemblecroire qu'ilavaitpour
objet non seulement de maintenir en vigueur, par l'application de l'ar-
ticle 36,paragraphe 5,les déclarations existantes à l'égardde la Courper-
manente, mais aussi de donner effet à des déclarations qui avaient été
faites maisn'étaientjamais entrées envigueur.IIsembleplusprobable que
l'amendement françaisvint de l'idéeque l'expressionanglaise <which are

stillinforce))- initialement traduite par <(encoreen vigueur )(expression
qui, est-il dit au paragraphe 17du mémoirenicaraguayen, est caractéris-
tiquedu styledestraités,maisnon pas desdéclarations,lesquellessont des
<(actes unilatéraux )))- serait traduite avec plus de précisionpar (pour
une durée quin'est pas encore expirée ))cette dernière tournure permet-
tant de souligner le maintien en vigueur des déclarations non encore
arrivées à expiration. Mais cette modification n'étendait pas le sens du

texte anglais aux déclarationsjamais entrées envigueur, car les déclara-
tions faites pour une durée qui n'est pas encore expiréedoivent nécessai-
rement être des déclarationsdont la duréea commencé à courir. Le texte
français avait peut-être pourbut de mieux faire ressortir que les déclara-
tions en vigueur dans le cadre du Statut de la Cour permanente et faites
pour une durée non encore expirée d'après leurstermes devaient être
<préservées ))(<(preserved )),dans le texte anglais du rapporteur) ou

<maintenues ))(<<afin de maintenir )),dans le texte français), mais rien
n'indiquequeladélégationfrançaiseentendaitdonner vieauxdéclarations
qui n'étaient jamais entrées envigueur. Le Nicaragua soutient, au para-
graphe 48 de son mémoire,qu'iln'y avait en fait qu'une déclarationde ce
genre :la sienne. Peut-on prétendreque le but de l'amendement français
était defaireentreren vigueurpour lapremièrefoisla déclarationfaitepar
leNicaragua en 1929 ? N'est-ilpasplusplausible quela France avait envue
ses propres intérêtse ,t non pas ceux du Nicaragua ?

22. La véritable indication du but visépar la délégation françaiseen
proposant sonamendementau texte français del'article 36,paragraphe 5,
se trouve sans doute dans l'opinion dissidente communejointe par trois
juges à l'arrêtde la Cour dans l'affaire de l'Incidentaérien,dont lepassage
décisif estcité plus loin au paragraphe 34 et dont les auteurs laissaient
entendre que la France avait présenté son amendement afin de préciser

sansaucun doute possible que l'article36,paragraphe 5,ne concernait pas
lesdéclarationsdont laduréeétaie txpirée.Telétait précisémen lt casdela
déclarationfrançaise. Lejour oulaFrance présentasonamendement à San
Francisco, il n'existait pas de déclaration française faite pour une durée
non encore expirée en application de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour
permanente. Iln'existaitpasdedéclarationfrançaisefaite << enapplication
de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale

pour une durée quin'estpas encoreexpirée O,pour la bonne raison quelaApril 1936(P.C.I.J., Fijteenth Annual Report, p. 221). Accordingly it had
expired in 1941.Apparently Francedid not wish the possibility to remain
of its being revived by the operation of Article 36, paragraph 5, and to
make that point still clearer - it was clear in the English text and the

original French but not so precisely and fully expressed in the original
French as it was by the terms of the French amendment - France moved
its amendment. This explanation, while not certain, surely is far more
plausible - and probable - than that advanced by Nicaragua and
accepted by the Court.

23. While it is clear that the intention at San Francisco in drafting
Article 36,paragraph 5, was to preserve declarations under the Statute of
the Permanent Court which werein force, theFrench text of the Article is,

with some strain, capable of the broader interpretation which the Court
givesit,namely, thatit ismeant to giveforce to declarations whichby their
own terms had not expired (even if they never had come into force). The
French text is also more than capable of supporting the narrower inter-
pretation setout in thepreceding paragraphs, whichisfully consistent with
the English text ; and, since the original English text remained unchanged,
since it was indeed apparently accepted by the French delegation itself as
the correct English version of its own amendment, and since the French
representative declared that his amendment was not substantive, there is
every reason to conclude that France itself attached the narrower inter-
pretation to what it described asan amendment designed "to improve the
phraseology". But let us assume, arguendo,what has not been and cannot

be shown,namely, that thebroader meaning is the meaning which France
meant toattach toArticle 36,paragraph 5.Under the lawof treaties, where
two authoritative texts in two languages differ, which is to be taken as
governing ? Article 33,paragraph 4, of the Vienna Convention on the Law
of Treaties provides that,

"when a comparison of the authentic texts discloses a difference of
meaning ..., the meaning which best reconciles the texts, having
regard to the object and purpose of the treaty, shall be adopted".

Now it has been shown that the object and purpose of Article 36, para-

graph 5, of the Statute was to "continue" or to "preserve" declarations
made under the Optional Clause of the Statute of the Permanent Court by
which Statesparty to that Statute were "bound" (supra, para. 18).That is,
the object and purpose are expressed by the narrower interpretation only.
Moreover, if one takes the narrower ground which is held by the English
text, it is also quite reasonably understood to be held by the French text ;
that is to Say,both texts can be "best reconciled" on this narrower ground.
But if one ascribes thebroader interpretation to the French text, then one
must leave the English text - not to speak of the texts in the three otherdernière déclaration française faite dans le cadre du Statut de la Cour
permanente avait étérenouveléepour cinq ans le 25 avril 1936(C.P.J.Z.,
Quinzième Rapport annuel,p. 221). Elle étaitdonc arrivée à expiration en
1941.Apparemment, la France ne souhaitait pas voir subsister une pos-

sibilitéde faire renaître cette déclaration par application de l'article 36,
paragraphe 5, et c'estpour rendre ce point plus clair encore - car il était
déjàclair dans letexte anglais et dans letextefrançais original, encore que
ce fût moins précisémentet moins pleinement exprimédans le texte fran-
çaisoriginalque dans l'amendement français - quela France présenta son
amendement. Sicette explication n'est pas absolument certaine, elle est à
coup sûr bien plus plausible - et probable - que celle qu'a proposéele
Nicaragua et que la Cour a acceptée.

23. Bienqu'ilsoit certain qu'à San Francisco l'intention des rédacteurs
de l'article 36,paragraphe 5,était depréserver lesdéclarations envigueur
faites en vertu du Statut de la Cour permanente, le texte français seprête à
la rigueur à l'interprétation pluslarge qu'en fait la Cour, à savoir qu'il
s'agissait de faire entrer en vigueur des déclarations qui n'étaient pas
littéralementexpiréesd'après leurspropres termes (mêmesiellesn'étaient
jamais entrées en vigueur). Ce texte se prête toutaussi bien à I'interpré-
tation plus restrictive donnée au paragraphe précédent,qui est tout à fait

conforme au texte anglais ; et, l'original anglais étant resté inchangé,la
délégationfrançaise elle-mêmel'ayant apparemment adopté comme ver-
sion anglaise correcte de son propre amendement, et le représentant de la
France ayant déclaréque son amendement (<ne visait pas le fond ))tout
porte à conclure que la France elle-mêmeattribuait cette interprétation
restrictive à ce qu'elle présentait comme une modification destinée à
(<améliorer larédaction D.Mais supposons un instant - ce qui n'a pas été
démontréet ne peut d'ailleurspas l'être - que le senslarge aitétéceluique

la France voulait attribuer à l'article 36, paragraphe 5. Selon le droit des
traités,quand deux versions faisant foi diffèrent, quelle est celle qui doit
l'emporter ? L'article 33, paragraphe 4, de la concention de Vienne sur le
droit des traitésapporte la réponse :

(<lorsque la comparaison des textes authentiques fait apparaître une
différencede sens ...on adoptera lesensqui, compte tenu de l'objetet

du but du traité,concilie le mieux ces textes o.

Or ilvientd'êtredémontré quel'objetet lebut de l'article36,paragraphe 5,
du Statut étaient de << maintenir )),ou de << préserver lesdéclarations
faites en vertu de la disposition facultative du Statut de la Cour perma-
nente, par lesquelles les Etats parties à ce Statut étaient (liés )(ci-dessus
par. 18).Autrement dit, l'objet et le but étaientceux qui correspondent à
l'interprétationrestrictive du texte. De plus, si l'on retient cette interpré-
tation restrictive du texte anglais, il est toàtfait raisonnable de conclure

que c'est aussi celle du texte français ; autrement dit, que c'est cette
interprétation qui << concilie le mieux les deux textes. Si par contre on
interprète le texte français de façon large, il faut alors écarter le texteauthentic languages, the Spanish of which was attached to Nicaragua's
ratification - out of account. For it is undeniable that the meaning which
attaches to the English text,and to the Spanish, Russian and Chinese texts,
is that Article 36, paragraph 5, encompassesonly declarations whch are
"still" in force, a term which surelyimports that such declarations came

intoforcein thefirst place.Accordingly, by dint of application of the rules
of the lawof treaties governinginterpretation of differentlanguage texts,it
is not possible to sustain the contention that Article 36,paragraph 5,was
meant to give force to ineffectivedeclarations.
24. In sum, the San Francisco proceedings do not support two key
contentions of Nicaragua in respect of Article 36, parilgraph 5 : the pur-
pose of that provision was not, as Nicaragua's Mernorial contends, "to
maintain to the maximum extent the actual and potential jurisdiction of
the PermanentCourt" but onlyits actualjurisdiction ;and that purpose is
expressed as preciselyby the French text, wbich must on thisissue be read
consistently with the English to relate only to declarations which were in
force under the Statute of the Permanefit Court, i.e., declarations which
bound the declarant States, of which Nicaragua was not one.

7. The UnitedStates understandingof Article 36,pa~tigraph5, on ratifying
the Statute and adoptingits declarat@nunder4rticle 36,paragraph 2

25. The United States, in ratifying the Statute, and in adhering to the

Optional Clause, interpreted Article 36, paragraph 5, as embracing only
those declarations which werein force under the Statute of the Permanent
Court.The United Statesfurther appearsto haveunderstood that Article
36,paragraph 5,did not embraceNicaragua's Declaration of 1929.These
conclusions are supported by the following passages from the United
States Counter-Memorial :

"79. The United States understanding, both at the San Francisco
Conference and in making its own declaration for the new Court
under Article 36 (2), was also that Article 36 (5) applied only to
declarations in force for the Permanent Court. The United States
specifically understood that Nicaragua was not one of those States
that would be deemed to have accepted this Court's compulsory
jurisdiction for purposes of reciprocity under Article 36 (2).

80. The United Statesdelegation to the SanFrancisco Conference
reported theproceedings to the President on 26June 1945,and acopy
of this report was submitted to the Senate on 9July 1945.The Report
describedArticle 36(5)as'maintaininginforcewith respect to the new
Court, declarations made under the old Statute whereby many Statesanglais - sans parler des trois autres textes officiels, dont l'espagnol qui

étaitjoint à la ratification du Nicaragua. Il est en effet indéniable que le
sensdu texte anglais,ainsiquedestextesespagnol, russe etchinois, estque
l'article36,paragraphe 5,ne s'applique qu'aux déclarations toujours (still)
envigueur,cequisous-entendassurémentquelesdéclarationsen question
étaienten vigueur au départ. Par conséquent,sil'on appliqueles règlesdu
droitdestraitéssurl'interprétation destextesrédigésen plusieurs versions,
l'idéeque l'article 36,paragraphe 5, avait pour objet de donner vie à des
déclarations dénuéed se valeur n'est pas soutenable.
24. Enrésumé,les travaux de SanFranciscone confirmentpas lesdeux
arguments essentielsdu Nicaragua àpropos de l'article36,paragraphe 5 :
cettedisposition n'avaitpas pour objet,contrairement à cequi est affirmé
dans le mémoirenicaraguayen, de (maintenir dans toute la mesure du
possible ..la compétence,réelleet virtuelle,dela Courpermanente O,mais

seulement sa compétenceeffective ;et cet objet est expriméde façon tout
aussiprécisepar letextefrançais,quidoit êtreinterprétésur cepoint, de la
mêmefaçon que le texte anglais, comme ne se rapportant qu'aux décla-
rations qui étaient en vigueur dans le cadre du Statut de la Cour perma-
nente,c'est-à-direauxdéclarations quiliaient les Etats déclarants,dont le
Nicaragua ne faisait pas partie.

7. L'interprétation deI'article36,paragraphe5, donnéepar lesEtats-Unis
lorsde la ratificationdu Statut et de l'adoptionde leur déclaration sur la
base de l'article6,paragraphe 2

25. Les Etats-Unis, lorsqu'ils ont ratifié leStatut et adhéré à la clause
facultative, interprétaient l'article 36, paragraphe 5, comme s'appliquant
uniquementauxdéclarationsalors en vigueuren vertu du Statut delaCour
permanente ;et ilsconsidéraient apparemment que cette disposition était
inapplicable à la déclaration du Nicaragua de 1929.C'estcequiressortdes
passages suivants du contre-mémoire des Etats-Unis :

<<79. L'interprétation donnéepar les Etats-Unis, tant à la confé-
rencede San Francisco qu'aumoment de faire envertu del'article36,
paragraphe 2, leur propre déclaration visant la nouvelle Cour, con-
sistait aussi dire que l'article 36, paragraphe 5, s'applique unique-
ment aux déclarations qui étaienten vigueur pour la Cour perma-
nente. Les Etats-Unis tenaient en particulier pour certain que le

Nicaragua n'étaitpasl'un desEtats réputésavoiracceptélajuridiction
obligatoire de la Cour actuelle aux fins de la réciprocitéau sens de
l'article36, paragraphe2.
80. La délégationdesEtats-Unisa la conférencede SanFrancisco
rendit compte au Président du déroulement des travaux le26juin
1945,etunecopiedecerapport fut présentéeauSénatl9 ejuillet 1945.
Selon ce rapport, l'article 36, paragraphe 5, avait pour objet de
(maintenir en vigueur à l'égardde la nouvelle Cour les déclarations,577 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO. P.SCHWEBEL)

acceptedthe compulsoryjurisdiction of the old Court'. Report to the
President, at p. 124(italics added).

81. Green H. Hackworth, the principal legal adviser to the U.S.

delegation at San Francisco and later a member of this Court,
described Article 36 (5) in similar terms. In testimony before the
Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1945asit considered United
States membership in the United Nations, Judge Hackworth ex-
plained that Article 36(5) wasintended to address the concern that -

'states that had acceptedcompulsoryjurisdiction under thepresent

Court [the Permanent Court] would no longer be bound by their
acceptance if a new Court were set up. That was taken care of by a
provision in the Statute in article 36, that those states which had
accepted compulsoryjurisdictionfor the Permanent Courtof Inter-
national Justice would now substitute the proposed International
Courtunderthesameterms.' ReporttothePresident,at p. 338(italics
added).

82. In the Senate hearings the following year on whether the
United States should accept the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, this
understanding wasmade evenmore explicit.CharlesFahy, then Legal
Adviser to the Department of State, and, as Solicitor General of the
United States,formerly a member of the United States delegation to
SanFrancisco, told the Senate Foreign Relations Committee that the
proposed United Statesdeclaration would bemade only on condition
of reciprocity:

'As to particular states1think the situation as you point out is
clear, that this resolution makes Ourdeclaration reciprocal ;that is,
only with respect to states which accepted similar jurisdiction.
Declarations of the following 19 states thus came into force :
Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Denmark, Domini-
can Republic, Haiti, India, Iran, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Panama, El Salvador, South Africa, United
Kingdom, Uruguay ...' (Hearings before a Subcommittee of the
Committee on Foreign Relationsof the United States Senate on S.
Res. 196,77th Cong., 2d Sess.July 11, 1946,pp. 141-142.)

83. The second paragraph quoted here,which listed 'the 19[States]
...whosedeclarations continue in force', describedthe classof States
which by virtue of Article 36 (5) could satisfy the requirement of
reciprocity in theproposed United Statesdeclaration. Nicaragua was
not included among these States ...

84. In its Report approving the proposa1 for a United Statesfaites en vertu de l'ancien Statut, par lesquelles de nombreux Etats
avaient acceptélajuridiction obligatoire de l'ancienne Cour (Rap-
port au Président,p. 124; italique ajouté).
81. Green H. Hackworth,principal conseillerjuridique de la délé-
gation des Etats-Unis à San Francisco, et par la suite membre de la
Cour,présentait l'article36,paragraphe 5,dans destermesanalogues.
En 1945, déposant devant la commision des affaires étrangères du
Sénat,quiexaminaitalorsla question de l'adhéstion des Etats-Unis à

l'organisation desNations Unies, M.Hackworthexpliqua que l'objet
de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, était deréglerle problème suivant :
les Etats qui ont acceptélajuridiction obligatoire sous le régime
de la Cour actuelle[laCour permanente] ne seront plus tenus par
leur acceptation si une nouvelle Cour est créée.Pour réglerle

problème, il est prévu à l'article 36 du Statut que les Etats ayant
accepté lajuridiction obligatoird ee la Courpermanente de Justice
internationale substitueront désormais à celle-cilafuture Courinter-
nationaledanslesmêmes conditions )(RapportauPrésident,p. 388 ;
italique ajouté.)

82. L'année suivante,lors des auditions du Sénat relatives à l'op-
portunité d'une acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire de la Court
par les Etats-Unis, cette interprétation fut rendue encore plus expli-
cite. CharlesFahy,quiétait alorsconseillerjuridique du département
d'Etat et, en qualité de Solicitor general des Etats-Unis, ancien
membre de leur délégation à San Francisco, déclara à la commission
des affaires étrangères du Sénatque la déclaration envisagéepar les
Etats-Unis serait sous condition de réciprocité :

<(Vis-à-visd7Etatsdéterminés,je croisque,comme vous lefaites
observer, la situation est claire:cette résolution rend notre décla-
ration réciproque, c'est-à-dire applicable aux seuls Etats qui ont
accepté unejuridiction semblable.

Lesdéclarationsdesdix-neuf Etats suivantssont ainsientréesen
vigueur : Afrique du Sud, Australie, Bolivie, Brésil, Canada,
Colombie, Danemark, Haïti, Inde, Iran, Luxembourg, Nouvelle-
Zélande, Norvège, Panama, Pays-Bas, El Salvador, République
dominicaine, Royaume-Uni et Uruguay ...>)(Auditions d'unesous-
commission de la commission des affaires étrangèrd eu Sénatdes
Etats-Unis sur la résolution196 du Sénat,77e Congrès,2e session,
Il juillet 1946,p. 141-142.)

83. Le deuxièmeparagraphe précité, qui énumère ((les dix-neuf
[Etats] ...dont les déclarations restent en vigueur )>,visait la caté-
gorie des Etats qui, en vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, pouvaient
satisfaireà la condition de réciprocité inscritedans le projet de dé-

claration des Etats-Unis. Le Nicaragua ne comptait pas parmi ces
Etats. ...
84. Dans son rapport approuvant le projet de déclaration des declaration under article 36 (2), the Senate Foreign Relations Com-
mittee also adopted this view of Article 36 (5). The Report stated :

'The San Francisco Conference added an additional paragraph
toarticle 36of the statute, according towhichdeclarationsaccepting
thejurisdictionoftheoldCourt,andremaininginforce, aredeemed to
remain inforce as among theparties tothepresent statutefor such

period as theystillhavetorun.Nineteen declarations are currently in
force underthisprovision.'(Report of the Senate Committee on For-
eign Relations on Compulsory ~urisdictionof theInternational Court
ofJustice,S. Rept. No. 1835, 79th Cong., 2d Sess.at p. 105(25July
1946)(italics added).)

85. In sum, the United States delegation to San Francisco, the
Department of State, and the Senateal1understood (a)that Article 36
(5) applied only to declarations that were in force under the Perma-
nent Court's Statute asof the date of adherence to this Court's Statute
and (2) that Nicaragua's declaration did not fa11within this cate-
gory."

8. The Court's interpretationof Article 36, paragraph5

26. Article 36,paragraph 5,has been directly interpreted or incidentally
addressed, in four prior judgments of this Court. None of them support
Nicaragua's thesis that its ratification of the Statute of this Court - or
relevant conduct - operated to perfect and give legal force to its Decla-
ration of 1929.Rather, the terms and tenor of thosejudgments indicate the
contrary.

27. Theprincipaljudgment inpoint wasgivenin thecaseconcerningthe
Aerial Incidentof27July 1955(Israelv.Bulgaria),Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959,page 127.Israel relied on Bulgaria's Decla-
ration of 29 July 1921,which had come into force under the Statute of the

Permanent Court (ibid., p. 129).Bulgaria objected that Article 36, para-
graph 5,was inapplicable to it (ibid.,p. 131).The Courtfoundfor Bulgaria
on the ground that, by the time that itjoined the United Nations in 1955
and becameparty to the Court's Statute, the Permanent Court had ceased
to exist and a declaration in force vis-à-visthat Court could not be revived
to apply to this Court. In so holding, the Court declared :

"Article 36, paragraph 5, considered in its application to States
signatories of the Statute, effects a simple operation :it transforms
their acceptanceof the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court
into an acceptanceof the compulsoryjurisdiction of the International
Court of Justice." (Ibid., p. 137 ; emphasis supplied.) Etats-Unis surlabase de l'article36,paragraphe 2,la commission des
affaires étrangèresdu Sénatadopta elle aussi cette interprétation de
l'article 36, paragraphe 5. On pouvait lire dans le rapport :

(La conférencede San Franciscoa ajouté à l'article36du Statut
un paragraphe en vertu duquel les déclarations d'acceptation de
l'ancienne Courqui restaient en vigueur étaient réputées le demeurer,
danslesrapportsentrepartiesauStatut,pour ladurée restant àcourir.
Cette disposition concerne actuellemed nitx-neuf déclarations)>(Rap-
port de la commission des affaires étrangère dsu Sénatsur lajuridic-
tion obligatoirede la CourinternationaledeJustice, rapportdu Sénat
no 1835, 79eCongrès, 2e session, p. 105,25juillet 1946 ;italique
ajouté.)

85. En somme, la délégationdes Etats-Unis à San Francisco, le
département d7Etatet leSénatconsidéraienttous :a)que l'article36,
paragraphe 5, s'appliquait uniquement aux déclarations qui étaient

en vigueur en vertu du Statut de la Cour permanente à la date de
l'adhésionau Statut de la Cour actuelle ; b) que la déclaration du
Nicaragua ne relevait pas de cette catégorie. >)

8. L'interprétation donné par la Cour dei'article36,paragraphe 5

26. La Cour a déjàeu, dans quatre de ses arrêts, à interpréter directe-
ment l'article 36,paragraphe 5, ou àévoquerincidemment la question. Et
aucun de ces arrêtsne confirme la thèsedu Nicaragua selon laquelle sa
ratification du Statut de la Cour actuelle - ou son comportement en la
matière - aurait eupour effetdeparacheversadéclarationde 1929etdelui
donner force légale.Considérésdans leur lettre et dans leur esprit, ces
arrêtsvont mêmeen sens contraire.
27. La principale de ces décisions est cellerendue dans l'affaire de
l'Incident aériendu 27juillet 1955 (Israël c. Bulgarie)(exceptionsprélimi-
naires, arrêtC, .I.J. Recueil 1959,p. 127).Israël invoquait en l'espèceune

déclarationbulgare du 29juillet 1921qui étaitentréeen vigueur en vertu
du Statut de la Cour permanente (ibid.,p. 129).La Bulgarie objectait que
l'article 36, paragraphe 5, lui étaitinapplicable (ibid., p. 131).La Cour a
donné raison à la Bulgarie au motif que, au moment où cet Etat était
devenu Membredes Nations Unies, en 1955,etpartie au Statut de la Cour,
laCourpermanente avait cesséd'exister,etqu'une déclaration quiavait été
en vigueur pour la Cour permanente ne pouvait êtreremise en vigueur en
vue de son application à la Cour actuelle. Comme l'a dit la Cour :

<L'article 36, paragraphe 5, considérédans son application aux

Etats signataires du Statut, effectue une opération simple :il trans-
forme leur acceptationde lajuridiction obligatoire dela Courperma-
nente en une acceptationde lajuridiction obligatoirede la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice. )(Ibid., p. 137. Les italiques sont de moi.)It continued :

"Article 36,paragraph 5, governed the transfer from one Court to
the other of still-existing declarations ;in so doing, it maintained an
existing obligation while modifying its subject-matter." (I.C.J. Re-
ports 1959, p. 138 ; emphasis supplied.)

The Court further explained the meaning of Article 36, paragraph 5, in
these terms :
"Consent to the transfer to the International Court of Justice of a
declaration acceptingthejurisdiction of the PermanentCourt may be
regarded as effectively given by a State which, having been repre-

sented at the San Francisco Conference, signed and ratified the
Charter and thereby accepted the Statute in which Article 36, para-
graph 5, appears ...

The declarationsto whichArticle 36,paragraph 5, refers createdfor
the States whichhad made them the obligationto recognizethejuris-
diction of the Permanent Court of International Justice. At the time
when the new Statute was drawn up, it was anticipated - and events
confirmed this - that the Permanent Court would shortly disappear
and these undertakings consequently lapse. It was sought to provide
for this situation. to avoid. as far as it was vossible. such a result bv
substituting for the compulsoryjurisdiction if the Permanent Cou;,
which was to come to an end, the compulsory jurisdiction of the
International Court of Justice. This was the purpose of Article 36,
paragraph 5.Thisprovision effected, as between the States to whichit
applied, the transfer to the new Courtof the compulsoryjurisdiction of

the old. It thereby laid upon the States to which it applied an obli-
gation, the obligation to recognize, ipso facto and without special
agreement, thejurisdiction of the new Court. This constituted a new
obligation whichwas,doubtless, no more onerous than theobligation
which was to disappear but it was nevertheless a new obligation."
(Ibid., pp. 142-143 ; emphasis supplied.)

28. These quotations demonstrate that the Aerial Incident case strik-
ingly and decisivelycuts against Nicaragua's thesis. If, as the Court there
said, the purpose of Article 36,paragraph 5,is to transform "acceptance of
the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court intoan acceptance of
the compulsory jurisdiction" of this Court, then Nicaragua is excluded by
the fact that it never accepted the former'scompulsoryjurisdiction. When
this Court speaks of "acceptance of"its compulsoryjurisdiction, it means
"binding itself tomthisCourt'sjurisdiction. Canit be seriouslymaintained
that what the Court means when it speaks of "acceptance" of its compul-
soryjurisdiction, or "acceptance" of the Permanent Court'sjurisdiction, is
something less, such as non-acceptance ? Thus, when the Court says, as it
did in theAerial Incident case,that Article 36,paragraph 5,effects asimpleLa Cour poursuivait :
(([Ll'article 36, paragraphe 5, a ...réglé le transfert d'une Cour à

l'autre dedéclarationsencoreexistantes ;cefaisant, ila maintenu une
obligation existante en en modifiant l'objet. ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1959,
p. 138. Lesitaliques sont de moi.)
Et elle précisait encorecomme suit cette disposition du Statut :

<(Le consentement au tranfert à la Cour internationale de Justice
d'une déclarationacceptant lajuridiction dela Courpermanente peut

êtreconsidérc éommeeffectivementdonnépar un Etat qui,représenté
à la conférencede San Francisco, a signéet ratifié laCharte et a ainsi
accepté leStatut où figure l'article 36, paragraphe 5. ...

Les déclarations auxquelles se réfère l'artic3 l6, paragraphe 5,
créaientpour les Etats qui les avaient souscrites l'obligation de recon-

naîtrelajuridiction delaCourpermanentedeJustice internationale.Au
moment de l'élaboration du nouveau Statut, on a envisagé comme
prochaine - et l'événement l'c aonfirmé - la disparition de la Cour
permanenteet,par suite,lacaducitédecesengagements.Ona cherché
à pourvoir à cette situation, à éviterdans la mesure du possible ce
résultat,ensubstituant àlajuridiction obligatoiredelaCourpermanente
qui allait disparaître lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour internatio-
nale de Justice. Tel est l'objet de l'article36, paragraphe 5. Celui-ci

effectue entre les Etats auxquels il est applicable le transfertà la
nouvelle Courde lajuridiction obligatoirede l'ancienne.Ce faisant, il
met a la charge des Etats auxquels il s'applique une obligation,
l'obligation de reconnaître de plein droit et sans convention spéciale
lajuridiction delanouvelleCour. C'est là uneobligation nouvellequi,
sans doute, n'est pas plus lourde que l'obligation qui va disparaître,
maisc'estnéanmoinsuneobligationnouvelle. ))(Ibid.,p. 142-143.Les
italiques sont de moi.)

28.Ces citations montrent que l'affairede l'Incidentaériencontredit de
façonmanifesteet décisivelathèsedu Nicaragua. Si,commel'a dit alorsla
Cour, le but de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, étaitde transformer 1'<a <ccep-

tation de lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour permanente en une accep-
tation de lajuridiction obligatoire ))de la Cour actuelle, le Nicaragua est
exclu de son application par le fait qu'il n'ajamais accepté lajuridiction
obligatoire de la Cour permanente. Lorsque la Cour actuelle vise l' ( (-
ceptation de ))sajuridiction obligatoire, elle entend en effet une accepta-
tion de ladite juridiction qui <(lie))le déclarant :peut-on sérieusement
soutenir que, lorsque la Cour parle d'<<acceptation de sa juridiction
obligatoire, ou d'<(acceptation de lajuridiction de la Cour permanente,

elle entend par là un engagement moindre - par exemple, une non- operation :it "transforms ... acceptance of thecompulsoryjurisdiction of
thePermanentCourt into anacceptance of thecompulsoryjurisdiction of"
this Court, the Court could only have meant that Article 36,paragraph 5,
exclusivelyreferred to declarations made under the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court which accepted, that is, bound the declarant to, that Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction. If, as the Court in AerialIncidentheld,Article 36,
paragraph 5,"maintained an existingobligation", there must havebeen an
obligation in existence. But Nicaragua had no obligation in existence in

respect of the Permanent Court's jurisdiction, and it has acknowledged
that fact. If, again, as the Court says, the declarations to which Article 36,
paragraph 5,refers created'"the obligation to recognize thejurisdiction of
the Permanent Court.. ." then Nicaragua is outside the reach of that
provision since it never undertook an obligation to recognize thejurisdic-
tion of that Court. If the purpose of Article 36, paragraph 5, was, as the
Court says, "to substitute" for the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Perma-
nent Court the compulsory jurisdiction of this Court, Nicaragua is
excluded by reason of not having effectively adhered to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court. If its purpose, as the Court says,was
to "transfer to the new Court. .. the compulsoryjurisdiction of the old",
then Nicaragua fails by reason of its failure to adhere to that older juris-
diction.

29. The Court added :

"the clear intention whch inspired Article 36, paragraph 5, was to
continue in being something which was in existence, to preserve
existingacceptances,toavoidthat thecreation of anew Court should
frustrate progress already achieved ;it isnot permissible to substitute
for this intention to preserve, to secure continuity, an intention to
restore legalforce to undertakings which haveexpired : it isone thing
to preserve an existingundertakingby changingits subject-matter ;it
is quite another to revive an undertaking which has already been
extinguished" (I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 145).

Thus the Court emphasized preservation,continuity. It excluded reviving
anundertaking whichhasalreadybeenextinguished. How then can Article
36,paragraph 5,be interpreted to givelife to an undertaking which never
came into force at al1 ?
30. In viewof theseholdings of theCourtinthe AerialIncidentcase,it is
remarkabletofind that theCourt's Order of 10May 1984relieson thiscase
and some of these very passages (it cites p. 142 of the Judgment) to
conclude that the absence of Nicaragua's "effective ratification" of the
Permanent Court's Protocol of Signature may not have excluded the
operation of Article 36, paragraph 5, that it may not have prevented the

transfer to the present Court of its 1929 Declaration "as a result of theacceptation ? Ainsi, lorsque la Cour dit, comme elle l'a fait en l'affairede
l'Incident aérien, que l'article 36, paragraphe 5, effectue une opération
simple - ([transformerune]acceptation delajuridiction obligatoire de la
Cour permanente en une acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire de la
Cour actuelle -, elle ne peut avoir d'autre propos que d'affirmer que
l'article36,paragraphe 5,visait exclusivementles déclarations faitesdans
le cadre du Statut de la Cour permanente par lesquellesle déclarant avait

accepté la juridiction obligatoire de ladite Cour, c'est-à-dire en vertu
desquelles il était liépar cettejuridiction. Si, comme la Cour l'a dit dans
l'arrêt renduen l'affairede l'Incident aérien,l'article 36,paragraphe 5,<<a
maintenu une obligation existante O,encore fallait-il qu'une telle obliga-
tion existât;et tel n'étaitpas lecas pour le Nicaragua, qui n'avait aucune
obligation existante relativement à lajuridiction de la Cour permanente,
comme il l'a lui-même reconnu. Si, comme l'a dit égalementla Cour, les
déclarationsenvisagées àl'article 36,paragraphe 5,créaient (<l'obligation
de reconnaître lajuridiction de la Cour permanente ..)>,cette disposition

nepeut pasnon plus viser leNicaragua,puisque celui-cin'ajamais souscrit
l'obligation de reconnaître lajuridiction de la Cour permanente. Sile but
de l'article36,paragraphe 5,était,comme l'adit la Cour, de ((substituer r)
lajuridiction obligatoire delaCour actuelle àcelledela Courpermanente,
le Nicaragua se trouve écartéde son champ d'application, faute d'avoir
affectivementconsenti à lajuridiction obligatoirede la Cour permanente.
Et si son but, comme l'a dit la Cour, était d'effectuer (le transfert à la
nouvelleCourde lajuridiction obligatoire del'ancienne )),leNicaragua en
est exclu, pour n'avoir pas consenti à cettejuridiction antérieure.

29. La Cour ajoutait encore :
(<l'intention biencertaine quia inspirél'article36,paragraphe 5,a été
de continuer ce qui existait, de maintenir les acceptations existantes,
d'éviterque la création d'une Cour nouvelle ne rendît caduc un

progrèsaccompli ; àcetteintention de maintien, de continuité,on ne
peut substituer celle de redonner force de droit à des engagements
expirés ;autre chose est maintenir un engagement existant en en
modifiant l'objet, autre chose faire revivre un engagement déjà
éteint (C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 145).

C'estdonc l'exigencedemaintien, de continuité, qu'affirmaitla Cour. Elle
excluait la possibilitéde remettre en vigueur un engagementéteint. Com-
mentserait-ilalorspossibled'interpréter l'article 36,paragraphe 5,comme
faisant entrer en vigueur un engagement qui ne l'a jamais été ?
30. Devant lesprononcésdela Cour dans l'affairedel'Incident aérieni,l
est étonnantde constater que l'ordonnance du 10mai 1984s'appuie sur la
mêmeaffaire, et sur certains des passages mêmesque je viens de citer

(l'ordonnance mentionne la page 142de l'arrêt)pour conclure que l'ab-
sence de (<ratification effective ))du protocole de signature de la Cour
permanente par le Nicaragua n'empêchepas forcément de faire jouer
l'article36,paragraphe 5,etne fait pas forcémentobstacleau transfert à laconsent" thereto of Nicaragua by its acceptance of this Court's Statute
including Article 36, paragraph 5 (Order of 10 May 1984,I.C.J. Reports
1984,p. 179,para. 25).SincetheCourt's holdingsin theAerialIncidentcase
run counter to the thrust of the Court's Order of 10 May 1984,one is
entitled to ask :on what basis does the Court there rely upon and speci-
fically cite the Aerial Incident Judgment ? Moreover, today's Judgment,
whileendeavouring to distinguish thefacts at bar inthe AerialIncidentcase
from the instant case, renews (with a suggestivelack of vigour) its reliance
upon the Judgment in the Aerial Incident case and so givesfresh point to

this question. The most one can do in Nicaragua's support is to take out of
contexta fewpassages, notably, asthe Court does, a singlesentence found
on page 142 of the Judgment :

"Consent to the transfer to the International Court of Justice of a
declaration accepting thejurisdiction of the Permanent Court may be

regarded as effectively given by a State which, having been repre-
sented at the San Francisco Conference, signed and ratified the
Charter and thereby accepted the Statute in which Article 36, para-
graph 5, appears."
But it is absolutely clear that, by this, the Court meant a declaration
accepting thejurisdiction of thePermanent Court whichwasinforce under
the Statute of that Court. Why ? Not only because Article 36,paragraph 5,
sayssoin those terms, but because the Court says so,and on the very same
page :

"The declarations to which Article 36,paragraph 5, refers, created
for the States which had made them the obligation to recognize the
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice." (I.C.J.
Reports 1959, pp. 142-143.)

Now it is admitted on al1 sides, including that of Nicaragua, that its
Declaration of 1929 never imposed on Nicaragua "the obligation to
recognize the jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International
Justice".
31. In this regard, it isinstructive to observe that counsel forNicaragua
have conceded that the Court's Judgment in the Aerial Incident case does
not support Nicaragua's thesis. That is to Say,Nicaragua's own counsel
have in effect concluded that any reliance by this Court in this case on the
Judgment in that case would be misplaced. Thus Professor Chayes
declared that :

"the majority opinion in Aerial Incidentreally has no significance at
al1for the present dispute. ..Nothing in the opinion, either in hold-
ing or in considered obiterdictum, excludes or is even faintly incon-
sistent with the position taken by Nicaragua :namely, that its decla-
ration was 'in force' withinthe meaning of Article 36(5)when Nica- du fait du
Cour actuelle de la déclaration nicaraguayenne de 1929,
consentement >donnépar le Nicaragua en acceptant le Statut de la Cour
actuelle, où figure l'article 36,paragraphe5 (ordonnance du 10mai 1984,
C.I.J. Recueil1984,p. 179,par. 25).Vu que lesprononcésde la Cour dans
l'arrêt enl'affairede l'Incident aérienvont dans un sens contrairàceluide
l'ordonnance du 10 mai 1984,on peut se poser la question : sur quelles
bases la Cour, dans cette ordonnance, invoque-t-elle et mentionne-t-elle
expressément cet arrêt? De même,l'arrêt rendu aujourd'hui,tout en
s'efforçant de distinguer lesfaitsde l'affaire de l'Incident aérien deceux de
l'espèce actuelle,fait à nouveau état(avec un laconisme révélateur)de
l'arrêt rendudansladite affaire de l'Incident aérien,conférantainsià cette

question une nouvelle acuité.A cet égard, lemieux qu'on puisse faire en
faveur de la thèsenicaraguayenne est de prendre hors decontextequelques
extraits de l'arrêt,notamment, commele fait la Cour,une seulephrase, à la
page 142 :
<Le consentement au transfert à la Cour internationalede Justice

d'une déclarationacceptant lajuridiction de la Courpermanente peut
êtreconsidérécommeeffectivement donnépar en Etat qui,représenté
à la Conférencede SanFrancisco,a signéet ratifiélaCharte et a ainsi
acceptéle Statut où figure l'article 36, paragraphe 5. >>

Mais il est absolument évidentque,ens'exprimant ainsi, la Cour pensait à

une déclaration d'acceptation de lajuridiction de la Cour permanente en
vigueur dans lecadre du Statut deladite Cour. Pourquoi ?Non seulement
parce que l'article 36, paragraphe 5, le dit textuellement, mais parce que
c'est aussi ce que dit la Cour,à cette mêmepage de l'arrêt :
<(Les déclarationsauxquelles se réfère l'article36, paragraphe 5,
créaientpour lesEtats qui lesavaient souscrites l'obligation de recon-

naître la juridiction de la Cour permanente de Justice internatio-
nale. (C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 142-143.)
Or il est admis par tous les intéressés,y compris le Nicaragua, que la
déclarationde 1929n'ajamais imposé àcet Etat <<l'obligation de recon-
naître lajuridiction de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale >>.

31. Il est instructiàcet égardde remarquer que leconseildu Nicaragua
a concédéque l'arrêtde la Cour dans l'affaire de l'Incident aérienne
confirme pas lathèseduNicaragua.Autrement dit, leconseildu Nicaragua
alui-même concluquela Courauraittort dedonner àcet arrêtla valeur de
précédentdans la présenteespèce.Je cite M. Chayes :

(<[l'opinion] de la majorité dans l'affaire de l'Incident aérien esten
réalité dépourvue de toute signification pour le présentlitige...Rien
dans le raisonnement, sous forme de conclusion ou d'obiter dictum,
n'exclut ni n'est mêmetant soit peu inconciliable avec la position
adoptée en la présente espèce par le Nicaragua, à savoir que sa ragua became an original Member of the United Nations in 1945."
(Hearing of 8 October 1984.)

Now Professor Chayes is plainly wrong in arguing that nothing in the
majority opinion "is even faintly inconsistent" with the position taken by
Nicaragua : that has been shown by the foregoing quotations from the
Court's Judgment. But that is beside the immediate point, which is :was
and is the Courtjustifiedin relyingon or citing theCourt's Judgment in the
Aerial Incident case as support for the Article 36, paragraph 5, thesis that
is made out in Nicaragua's favour ? Nicaragua's distinguished counsel

recognizesthat it wasand isnotjustified when he affirms that that opinion
has "no significance at al1for the present dispute ...".

32. Professor Chayes continues that, "The matter is different with the
dissenters" (ibid.). He points out that thejoint dissenting opinion in the
Aerial Incident case of Judges Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, Wellington Koo
and Sir Percy Spender maintained that the purpose of Article 36, para-
graph 5,was "to ensurecontinuity between theold Court and the new" and
"to preserve to the greatest extent possible.. .the state of affairs with
respect to compulsory jurisdiction that existed under the Permanent
Court . . .(ibid.).In this,heisquite right. Butforthe reasons setout above,
this does not advance his case.
33. The joint dissenting opinion held :

"The forma1and, in effect, insignificant changes in the Statute of
the new Court werenot to be perrnitted to stand in the wayof the then
existing compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court being taken
overby the InternationalCourt. It was specificallycontemplated that
the continuity of the two Courts should be given expression by
recognizing the continuity of the compulsoryjurisdiction at that time
existing." (I.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 159.)
Thus the dissenters affirmed that the intention of Article 36,paragraph 5,
was todono more than transfer "the then existingcompulsoryjurisdiction
of the Permanent Court" (by which Nicaragua had never accepted to be
bound). Theyfurther recalled that Article 36,paragraph 5,stemmedfroma
British proposa1 to "provide for the continuing validity of existing adher-
ences" to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Permanent Court (ibid., p.

160).Nicaragua had no such adherence. The object of Article 36, para-
graph 5,as the dissenters sawit, was that none of the "existing declarations
of acceptance" should disappear with the dissolution of the Permanent
Court ; what was sought was "the maintenance of the entire group of
declarations of acceptances which were still in force.. ." (ibid,). That
object, however,would excludeNicaragua, whosedeclaration wasnot and
never had been in force.

34. Thejoint dissenters proceeded to interpret the phrase of Article 36,
paragraph 5, "which are still in force" as only meaning the exclusion of déclarationétaitinforce au sens de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, lors-
qu'il est devenu membre fondateur des Nations Unies en 1945. ))

(Audience du 8 octobre 1984.)
M. Chayes a certainement tort de dire que rien dans l'opinion majoritaire
n'est << tant soit peu inconciliable ))avec la position adoptéepar le Nica-
ragua :je l'aidémontréplushauten citant l'arrêtde la Cour. Mais là n'est
pas la questionpour l'instant. Laquestion estla suivante :la Cour était-elle

et est-ellefondée àtrouver dans sonarrêt enl'affairede l'Incident aérienun
précédent susceptibled'être invoqué ou mentionné à l'appui d'une inter-
prétation de I'article 36, paragraphe 5, qui soit favorable au Nicaragua ?
L'éminent conseildu Nicaragua reconnaît que ce n'est pas le cas, en
affirmant que cette opinion majoritaire ((est enréalitédépourvue de toute

signification pour le présent litige )>.
32. M. Chayes ajoute : ((Il en va différemment de l'opinion dissi-
dente o.Et il rappelle que Hersch Lauterpacht, Wellington Koo et Percy
Spenderavaient affirmé,dans leuropinion dissidente collectiveen l'affaire
de l'Incident aérien,que l'objet de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, était ((d'as-

surer la continuitéentre l'ancienne Cour et la nouvelle ))et<(de sauvegar-
der autant que possible, quant à la juridiction obligatoire, la situation
immédiatement préexistante à la disparition de la Cour permanente >).
Là-dessus, M. Chayes a tout à fait raison (cequi d'ailleurs,pour les motifs
que j'ai déjàexposés, ne luisert à rien).
33. Selon les auteurs de l'opinion dissidente collective :

(11ne fallait pas que les modifications formelles et, en fait, insi-
gnifiantes apportéespar le Statut de la nouvelle Cour pussent faire
obstacle à la reprise par la Cour internationalede lajuridiction obli-

gatoire, telle qu'elle existait alors, de la Cour permanente. On envi-
sageait précisémentque la continuitédes deux Cours trouverait son
expression dans la reconnaissance de la continuitéde la juridiction
obligatoire telle qu'elleexistait alors. ))(C.I.J. Recueil1959,p. 159.)

Ainsi ces trois juges affirmaient que le but de l'article 36, paragraphe 5,
était uniquement de transférer à la Cour actuelle <(lajuridiction obliga-
toire, telle qu'elle existait alors, de la Cour permanente ))(à laquelle le
Nicaragua n'avait jamais accepté d'êtretenu). Ils rappelaient mêmeque
l'article 36,paragraphe 5, avait son origine dans un texte britannique qui

tendait à <prévoirlaprolongation dela validitédesadhésionsactuelles ))à
lajuridiction obligatoire de la Courpermanente (ibid.,p. 160) - adhésion
que le Nicaragua n'a jamais donnée. Selon eux, l'objet de l'article 36,
paragraphe 5, étaitde faire qu'aucune des déclarations d'acceptation
existantes ne pût disparaître au moment de la dissolution de la Cour

permanente. Le but viséétait <(le maintien du groupe tout entier des
déclarations d'acceptation qui n'étaient pas encoreexpirées ))(ibid.)- but
qui ne peut s'appliquer au Nicaragua, dont la déclaration n'était pas à
l'époqueet n'avait jamais été envigueur.
34. Les troisjuges dissidents entreprenaient ensuite d'interpréter I'ex-

pression which are still in force, de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, commesome 14declarations of acceptance which "had already expired" and the
inclusion, irrespective of the dissolution of the Permanent Court, of "al1
the declarations the duration of which has not expired" (I.C.J. Reports
1959, p. 161).They cited the French text in support of that conclusion
(ibid.,pp. 161-162),stating :

"At the Conference of San Francisco there were present a number
of States thathadin thepast made Declarations of Acceptance which,
not having been renewed, had lapsed and were therefore no longer in
force. Thisapplied,for instance, to the Declarationsof China, Egypt,
Ethiopia, France,Greece, Peru, Turkey and Yugoslavia. It wasclearly
necessary, by inserting the expression 'which are still in force', to
exclude those States from the operation of paragraph 5. That inter-
pretation is supported by the French text which is as authoritative as
the English text and whch is even more clear and indisputable than
the latter. The words 'pourunedurée quin'estpas encoreexpirée'(fora
duration which has not yet expired) must be regarded as determining
the true meaning of the English text in question. The fact that the
Chinese, Russian and Spanish texts of that paragraphapproximate to
the English text does not invalidate or weaken theobviousmeaning of
the French text. Those three texts were translated from the English
version, whereas the French text was that of one of the two officia1
working languages adopted at the San Francisco Conference. How-

ever, while the French text removes any doubt whatsoever as to the
meaning of these words, there is in effect no reasonable doubt about
them also sofar as the English text isconcerned.There is no question
here of givingpreference to the French text. Both texts have the same
meaning. The French text is no more than an accurate translation of
the English text as generally understood. Or, rather, in so far as it
appears that the final version was first formulated in the French
language, the English text is no more than an accurate translation
from the French." (Ibid., pp. 161-162 ; emphasis supplied.)
They observed that thephrase "in force" asfound elsewherein the Statute,

refers to the element of time (ibid., p. 163).They also pointed out that,
"Retroactive operation of a provision ought not to be assumed without
good cause . .."(ibid.,p. 164).Article 36,paragraph 5,did not lapse on the
dissolution of the Permanent Court ; it was rather designed to render that
dissolution irrelevant in the matter of the transfer of declarations. They
then concluded, in the passage on which counsel for Nicaragua place great
emphasis, that the words, "which are still in force" refer "to the declara-
tions themselves .. ."(ibid.).
"So long astheperiod of timeofdeclarations made under Article 36
of the Statute of the Permanent Court stillhas to run at the time when

the declarant State concerned becomes a party to the Statute of the
International Court of Justice, those declarations fa11within the pur-
view of Article 36, paragraph 5, of the new Statute and 'shall besignifiant uniquement l'exclusiondesquelque quatorze déclarationsd'ac-
ceptation <(déjàexpirées >)et lemaintien, malgréla dissolution de la Cour
permanente, de <(toutes les déclarationsdont la duréen'est pas expirée>>
(C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p.161). A l'appui de cette conclusion, ils citaient la
version française du texte (ibid., p. 161-162),en indiquant :

<<A la conférence de San Francisco étaient présents un certain
nombre d'Etats qui avaient dans le passéfait des déclarations d'ac-
ceptation qui, faute d'avoir étérenouvelées, étaient devenues ca-

duques et n'étaient par conséquent plus en vigueur. Tel était,par
exemple, lecasdesdéclarationd se la Chine, de l'Egypte,de l'Ethiopie,
delaFrance,delaGrèce,du Pérou, delaTurquie etde laYougoslavie.
Il était clairement nécessaire d'exclure ces Etats du domaine du
paragraphe 5 en y insérant l'expression «which are still in force ».
Cette interprétation est appuyéepar le texte français, qui fait foi au
mêmetitre que le texte anglais et est encore plus clair et indiscutable

que celui-ci. Les mots <(pour un duréequi n'est pas encore expirée
doivent êtreconsidéréscomme déterminantle sensvéritabledu texte
anglais en question. Le fait que les texteschinois, russe et espagnol de
ce paragraphe se rapprochent de l'anglaisne contredit pas et n'affai-
blit pas le sens évident du texte français. Ces trois textes ont été
traduitsde l'anglais,tandisque le textefrançaisétaitceluide l'unedes
deux langues officielles adoptées à la conférencede San Francisco.

Toutefois, siletextefrançais enlèvetout doute quant à lasignification
decestermes, iln'yapas non plus effectivement dedoute raisonnable
a leur égardencequi concerne letexte anglais. Iln'estpas question ici
dedonner lapréférence au textefrançais.Les deux textes ont lemême
sens. Le français n'est que la traduction exacte de l'anglais tel qu'on
l'entend généralement ouplutôt, puisqu'il apparaît que la version
définitivead'abord été formuléeen français, letexte anglais n'estque

latraduction exacte du français. )(Ibid.,p. 161-162.Lesitaliques sont
de moi.)

Ils observaient qu'è,dans les autres dispositions du Statut, les mot inforce
se rapportent àla durée(ibid.,p. 163).Ils affirmaient aussi :<(On ne doit
pas, sans bonnes raisons, supposer qu'une disposition ait un effet rétroac-
tif))(ibid.,p.164). L'article 36, paragraphe 5,n'était pasdevenu caduc au
moment de la dissolution de la Cour permanente : il était au contraire
destiné a rendre cette dissolution sans effet sur le transfert des déclara-
tions. Enfin ils concluaient, dans le passage sur lequel le conseil du Nica-

ragua s'est appesanti, que les mots which are still in force visent <(les
déclarationselles-mêmes ))(ibid.) :
Pour autant que la durée des déclarations faites en vertu de

l'article36du Statut de la Courpermanente reste à courir au moment
où 1'Etat déclarant intéressédevient partie au Statut de la Cour
internationale de Justice, ces déclarations tombent sous le coup de
l'article 36, paragraphe 5, du nouveau Statut et <seront considérées deemed to be acceptances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the
International Court for the period which they still have to run and in
accordance with their terms'." (Ibid, pp. 164-165.)

But - and this is critical to and destructive of Nicaragua's construction -
there is no indication whatsoever in this passage (or elsewhere in their
opinion) that,in sayingthis, thedissenters viewedadeclaration whichhad,
unlike Bulgaria's,never come into force at al1to have a period of time in
which still to run.
35. It should be added that, at a much later point in thejoint dissenting
opinion, the three distinguished dissenters took up the contention of a few
of their colleagues that Article 36,paragraph 5, refers only to declarations

which contain a time-limit of their validity, and thus does not embrace
declarations, such as that of Bulgaria, whose duration was unlimited. In
rebutting that contention, they said :
"Moreover, if the interpretation contended for had been adopted
by the Court in the present case, its result would be to invalidate, as
from the date of the Judgment of the Court, the existing declarations
of a number of States - such as Colombia, Haiti, Nicaragua and

Uruguay." (Ibid, p. 193.)
Nicaragua can derive cornfort from that quotation. But there is no reason
to conclude that, in including it, the dissenters had investigated whether
Nicaragua's 1929Declaration, listed inthe Court's Yearbook,actually had
ever come into force.

36. In sum, whileNicaragua arguablymay find ameasure of supportin

selected passages of the joint dissent in the Aerial Incident case, that
support is very limited. Moreover, the dissenters were speaking for them-
selves as dissenters, not for the Court. Counsel for Nicaragua appreciate
that, but maintain that the Templeof Preah Vihear case and Barcelona
Traction"wholeheartedly" adopt the principlesespoused by the dissenters
in Aerial Incident (Hearing of 8 October 1984).Let us turn to those cases,
but firstconsider whether, as Nicaraguan counsel contend, United States
arguments in acompanionAerial Incident caselend support toNicaragua's
thesis.

37. Counsel for Nicaragua argued that, in the proceedings which the
United States brought against Bulgaria in connection with the latter's
shooting down of an Israeli civilaircraft on which there werepassengers of
United States nationality, the United States espoused the very interpre-

tation of Article 36,paragraph 5,for which Nicaragua now argues (Hear-
ing of 8 October 1984).It is true that the United States argument in that
case parallels the argument of the joint dissenters in Aerial Incident.
However, the United States expressly affirmed that the declaration of
Bulgariathere at issuecame into force in 1921(as did the United Kingdom comme comportant acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la
Cour internationalepour la durée restant à courir, d'après ces décla-
rations et conformément à leurs termes. )>(Ibid., p. 164-165.)

Mais - etc'estlàun point capital, quicontredit toute la thèsedu Nicaragua
- absolument rien dans cepassage(ni dans lereste de l'opinion) n'indique
quelesjuges dissidents, endisant cela,songeaient a unedéclarationdont, à
ladifférencedela déclarationbulgare, laduréene peut rester àcourir,pour
la simple raison qu'elle n'estjamais entrée en vigueur.
35. Il faut ajouter que, vers la fin de leur opinion, les trois juges en
question envisageaient l'argument de quelques-uns de leurscollèguesselon
quil'article36,paragraphe 5,visait uniquement lesdéclarations fixantune
limite àla duréedeleur validité, cequi n'étaitpas le cas de la déclaration
bulgare, dont la duréen'était paslimitéedans le temps. En réponse àcet
argument, ils affirmaient :

Au surplus, si elle avait été adoptéepar la Cour dans la présente
affaire, l'interprétation invoquéeaurait eu pour résultat d'annuler,à
dater de l'arrêtde la Cour, les déclarations existantes d'un certain
nombre d'Etats - tels que la Colombie, Haïti, le Nicaragua et l'Uru-
guay. »(Ibid., p. 193.)

Le Nicaragua peut trouver dans cette citation un certain appui pour sa
thèse. Mais rien ne permet de conclure que les trois juges dissidents, en
s'exprimant ainsi,se soient poséla question de savoir si la déclaration de
1929du Nicaragua, inscrite à l'Annuairede la Cour, étaitjamaisentréeen
vigueur.
36. En résumés ,ileNicaragua peut àla rigueur trouverquelque soutien

dans certains passages de l'opinion dissidente collective dans l'affaire de
l'Incidentaérien,cesoutien est bien limité.De plus, lestroisjuges parlaient
pour eux-mêmesd ,ans lecadre d'une opiniondissidente,et nonpasau nom
de la Cour. Le conseil du Nicaragua le reconnaît, mais affirme que les
arrêtsrendus dans lesaffaires du TempledePréahVihéaret delaBarcelona
Traction confirment sans réserve lesprincipes dégagés par lesjuges dissi-
dents dans l'affaire de l'Incident aérien(audience du 8 octobre 1984).
Voyonsdonc cesdeuxarrêts, maisennousdemandant toutd'abord s'ilest
vrai que, comme l'affirme le conseildu Nicaragua, les arguments avancés
par les Etats-Unis dans une autre affaire d'incident aérien confirment la
thèsenicaraguayenne.
37. Leconseildu Nicaragua prétend queles Etats-Unis, dans l'instance

qu'ils introduisirent contre la Bulgarie après que celle-ci eut abattu un
avion civilisraélientransportant des passagers de nationalitéaméricaine,
auraient précisémentadoptél'interprétationde l'article 36,paragraphe 5,
que le Nicaragua défend aujourd'hui (audience du 8 octobre 1984).Il est
vraiquel'argumentation desEtats-Unis dans cetteaffaireétaitparallèleau
raisonnement des juges dissidents dans l'affaire de l'Incident aérien. Mais
les Etats-Unis avaient expressémentaffirméque la déclaration bulgare en
questionétait entréeenvigueur en 1921(affirmation faite égalementpar lein another cornpanion case) '. (I.C.J. Pleadings,Aerial Incident of 27July
1955 (Israel v. Bulgaria; United States of America v. Bulgaria; United
Kingdomv.Bulgaria),p. 312.)The United Statesconstruction ofArticle 36,
paragraph 5,wasbased, inter alia,on "acceptance of thejurisdiction of the
Permanent Court" (ibid.,pp. 317-318).That was one obligation ; Article
36, paragraph 5, entailed "a new and additional obligation. . ."(ibid., p.
318).The United States relied on the San Francisco negotiating lustory to
establish that the purpose of Article 36, paragraph 5, was "to preserve"
declarations (ibid.,pp. 319-320).Article 36,paragraph 5,was included "to
prevent retrogression with respect to international judicial jurisdic-

tion ..." (ibid.,p. 320) - but the United States gave no hint of construing
Article 36,paragraph 5,soas to expand thatjurisdiction by givinglife to a
declaration which had never come into force. Article 36,paragraph 5,was
meanb the United States argued, "not to lose the effectiveness of decla-
rations made under the optional clause of the old Statute" (ibid.),but it
does not follow that it wasintended to validate declarations which had not
come into effect. Thus, it is clear that these United States arguments give
no nourishment to the Nicaraguan thesis, because they al1addressed the
situation - which is not Nicaragua's but was Bulgaria's - in which the
declarant State had ratified the Protocol of Signature and therefore had
brought its declaration under the Optional Clause into force.

38. The next significant reference to Article 36, paragraph 5, in the
Court's jurisprudence was that of Judge Philip C. Jessup, in his separate
opinion in the South WestAfrica (Ethiopiav.SouthAfrica, Liberiav.South
Africa), Preliminary Objections,Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962,pages 319,
415 :

"It was clearly the intention in the drafting of the Statute of the
International Court of Justice to preserve for the new Court just as
much as possible of the jurisdiction which appertained to the old
Court. For this purpose, Article 36(5)provided for the transfer of the
obligations assumed by States which madedeclarations under Article
36 of the old Statute, and Article 37 provided for a similar transfer
where a 'treaty or convention' had contained a provision for the
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court."

'The British Memorial puts the matter precisely :

tional, and was made on July 29, 1921,when theinstrument of Bulgaria's ratifica-
tion of the Protocol of Signature of the Permanent Court of International Justice
was deposited, and became effective as to the jurisdiction of the International
Court of Justice by virtue of..Article 36 (5) of the Statute of the Court, on the
date of Bulgaria's admission to membership of the United Nations." (I.C.J.
Pleuding referred to above, p. 331.) Royaume-Uni dans une autre affaire du mêmeordre1) (C.I.J. Mémoires,
Incident aériendu2 7juillet 1955(Israël c.Bulgarie ;Etats-Unis di- mlérique
c. Bulgarie ; Royaume-Uni c. Bulgarie), p. 312). L'interprétation donnée
par les Etats-Unis de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, était fondée,entre autres
choses,sur l'acceptation de lajuridiction de la Courpermanente ))(ibid.,
p. 317-318). C'étaitlà la première obligation. A cela, l'article 36, para-

graphe 5, ajoutait ((une obligation nouvelle et supplémentaire ))(ibid.,
p. 318) ; et les Etats-Unis rappelaient les négociationsde San Francisco
pour établirque l'objet de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, étaitde sauvegar-
der ))les déclarations(ibid., p. 319-320).L'article 36, paragraphe 5, avait
étéadopté,disaient-ils, ((afin d'éviterun recul de lajuridiction judiciaire
internationale )>(ibid., p. 320) - mais ils ne laissaient nulle part entendre

qu'ils interprétaient cette disposition comme pouvant étendrelajuridic-
tion de la Cour en donnant vie à des déclarations qui n'étaient jamais
entréesen vigueur. L'article 36, paragraphe 5, avait pour but, affirmaient
les Etats-Unis, de (<ne pas priver d'effetles déclarations faitesenvertu de
la disposition facultative de l'ancien Statut ))(ibid.) ;mais il ne s'ensuivait

pas que ce texte pût servir à rendre valides des déclarations qui n'avaient
jamais pris effet. Il est donc évidentque ces arguments des Etats-Unis
n'apportent aucun appui à la thèse nicaraguayenne, car ilsvisaient tous la
situation - qui était celle de la Bulgarie, mais qui n'est pas celle du
Nicaragua - d'un Etat déclarantayant ratifié leprotocole de signature et
ayant donc fait entrer en vigueur sa déclaration en vertu de la clause

facultative.
38. La deuxième allusion significative à I'article36, paragraphe 5, que
l'on trouve dans lajurisprudence de la Cour, figure dans l'opinion indi-
viduelle de Philip C. Jessup dans les affaires du Sud-Ouest africain (Ethio-
pie c.Afrique du Sud; Libériuc. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C. 1.J. Recueil 1962,page 415 :

((Les auteurs du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice ont
manifestement entendu sauvegarder pour la nouvelle Cour, dans

toute la mesure du possible, la juridiction conférée à l'ancienne. A
cettefin, I'article 36,paragraphe 5,prescrit letransfert des obligations
contractéespar les Etats ayant fait desdéclarations en application de
I'article 36 de l'ancien Statut et l'article 37 prescrit un transfert ana-
logue lorsqu7(cun traitéou une convention ))prévoitle renvoi à la
juridiction de la Cour permanente. ))

' Le mémoirede la Grande-Bretagne disait très précisémen t

La Bulgarie a acceptésans condition la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour le
29juillet 1921,en déposantson instrument de ratification du protocole de signa-
ture de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, et cette acceptation est
devenue effectiveà l'égardde lajuridiction de la Cour internationale deJusticeaux
termesde ...I'article36,paragraphe 5,du Statut de laCour, àladatede l'admission
de la Bulgarie comme Membre des Nations Unies. >(C.I.J. Mémoires,Incident
aériendu 27juillet 1955,p. 331 .) 586 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO . P.SCHWEBEL)

Again, there is the emphasis on preservation of the jurisdiction which
"appertained tothe old Court". JudgeJessup clearlywasspeaking of, ashe
specifies, "the obligations assumed by States which made declarations
under Article 36 of the old Statute", of ajurisdiction which was effective
and in force, not a jurisdiction to be brought initially into effect by
operation of Article 36, paragraph 5.
39. Nicaraguan counsel suggested that the three major opinions to be
considered by the Court in reaching the currentJudgment are those of (a)
the Court in Aerial Incident ; (6) the joint dissent in that case; and (c)
Barcelona Traction.Nicaraguan counsel views Barcelona Tractionas in
effect, though not in terms, overturning the Court's judgment in Aerial
Incident and as accepting the dissenters' rationale in that case(Hearing of
8October 1984).However, in Barcelona Traction,the Court,in interpret-
ing Article 37, decidedly did not overrule Aerial Incident ; and, even if it
had, it would have thereby lent no support to Nicaragua's thesis, not only

because thejoint dissentingopinion inAerial Incident lends it solittle, but
because both the Court and Judge Tanaka in his separate opinion in
Barcelona Tractionemphasized that the purpose of Article 37,like Article
36,paragraph 5,was tomaintain continuity between thejurisdiction given
to the Permanent Court and that given to the new Court. Thus the Court
stressed that Article 37 was "not intended to create any new obligatory
jurisdiction that had not existed before .. ."Rather the point was "pre-
serving the existing conventional jurisdiction . . .(Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited, Preliminary Objections,Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1964, pp. 6, 34). In Barcelona Traction,the treaty at issue
affordingjurisdiction to the Permanent Court had come into force. Thus
the analogy is with Bulgaria's initially effectiveadherence to the Perma-
nent Court's compulsory jurisdiction in Aerial Incident, it is not with
Nicaragua's initially ineffectiveadherence in thecurrent case.And why,by
the way, does Nicaragua try to make so much of Barcelona Tractionwhen

on analysis it offers it so litt?eEssentially because Nicaragua contends
that it overrules the Court's Judgment in Aerial Incident. Nicaragua's
exposition of Barcelona Traction,while lending scant support to its posi-
tion, thus underscores how dubious issuch reliance of the Court as there is
upon the Aerial Incident case. If the Aerial Incident Judgment lends sup-
port to Nicaragua's theory, why should Nicaragua argue that Barcelona
Traction overruled the Court's Judgment in Aerial Incident ?

40. Let us finally advert to the case concerning the Temple of Preah
Vihear,Preliminary ObjectionsJ ,udgment, I.C.J. Reports 1961,page 17.In
its Order of 10 May 1984,the Court relied on this case as well (without
specifying any page or passage) to support its conclusion that the absence Là encore, l'accent est missur la sauvegarde de lajuridiction conférée à
l'ancienne[Cour]o.Manifestement,Jessuppensait, commeilest d'ailleurs
précisédans le texte,aux (<obligationscontractéespar les Etats ayant fait
des déclarations en application de l'article 36 de l'ancien Statut, c'est-

à-direà une juridiction valable et effective,et non pas à une juridiction
n'existant pas avant l'entrée envigueur de l'article 36, paragraphe 5.
39. D'après le conseil du Nicaragua, les trois opinions majeures à
prendre en considération aux finsdu présent arrêtde la Cour seraient :
a) l'opinion majoritaire dans l'affaire de l'Incident aérie; b) l'opinion
dissidente collectivedans la mêmeaffaire ;c) I'opinion de la Cour dans
l'affaire de la Barcelona Traction. D'aprèslui, la Cour, dans son arrêt en
l'affaire de la Barcelona Traction, serait revenue en fait, sinon explicite-
ment, sur sonarrêtdans l'affairedel'Incidentaérien,et seserait alignéesur
l'opinion dissidente susmentionnée(audiencedu 8 octobre 1984).En réa-
lité,a Cour, en interprétant l'article 37 dans l'affaire de la Barcelona
Traction,n'est en rien revenue sur sa position dans l'affaire de l'Incident
aérien; et, mêmesi elle l'avait fait, cela n'ajouterait rienà la thèsedu
Nicaragua, d'abord parce que l'opinion dissidente collectivedans l'affaire

de l'inciden térienlui ajoute fort peu de chose, et ensuite parce que la
Cour, comme M.Tanaka dans son opinion individuelle en I'affairede la
Barcelona Traction,a bien soulignéque le but de l'article37,comme celui
de l'article36, paragraphe 5, étaitde maintenir la continuité entre la
juridiction donnée à la Courpermanente et celledonnée à la Cour actuelle.
Comme l'a dit la Cour, l'article a7n'avait pas pour objet de créerune
juridiction obligatoire nouvellequi n'aurait pas existéavant: son but était
de [conserver] la juridiction existante (Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited, exceptionspréliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1964, p. 34). Dans I'affaire de la Barcelona Traction, le traité donnant
juridiction à la Cour permanente était entré en vigueur. Si donc il y a
analogie, c'est avecleconsentement effectivement donne par la Bulgarie à
lajuridiction obligatoire de la Courpermanente dans l'affairede l'incident
aérien,etnon pas avecleconsentement dénué d'effetdu Nicaragua dans la

présente espèce. On peut d'ailleurs se poser la question : pourquoi le
Nicaragwa invoaue-t-il siabondamment I'affairede la Barcelona Traction.
qui, vue de près, luiapporte si peu d'arguments ? Essentiellement, parce
queleNicaragua affirme qu'en l'espèce laCour est revenuesursonarrêt en
l'affairedel'Incident aérien. Lerôle ainsionnépar leNicaragua à I'affaire
de la Barcelona Traction, tout en étant fort peu utile à sa cause, montre
donccombien estincertainela valeurdeprécédenq t uela Cour acru devoir
donner à l'arrêt surl'Incident aérien.Si en effet la décisionrendue dans
I'affairede l'Incident aérienconfirme la thèsedu Nicaragua, comment se
fait-il que celui-ci plaide que l'arrêtBarcelona Traction annule l'arrêt
Incident aérien ?
40. Voyons enfin l'affairedu Templede PréahVihéar,exceptionspréli-
minaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1961, page 17. Dans son ordonnance du
10 mai 1984,la Cour, pour conclure que le fait que le Nicaragua n'a pas

effectivement ratifiéle protocole de signature ne met pas forcémentobs- of Nicaragua's effectiveratification of the Protocol of Signature might not
have excluded the operation of Article 36, paragraph 5. In today's Judg-
ment, the Court cites the Templecase anew,apparently with regard to the
alleged reality of Nicaragua's consent to be bound by the Court's com-
pulsoryjurisdiction. In the Templecase, the Court held that the intention
of Article 36, paragraph 5, was to provide a means whereby,

"within certain lirnits,existingdeclarations in acceptanceof the com-
pulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice
would become ipsojure transformed into acceptancesof the compul-
soryjurisdiction of the present Court .. ."(at p. 25;see also, p. 28;
emphasis supplied).

That isnot a holding whch helps Nicaragua, sinceits declaration did not
accept the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court. Once again it
may be observed that when the Court speaks of "acceptances" of this
Court's compulsory jurisdiction, and, in the same sentence, speaks of
declarations "in acceptance" of the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Perma-
nent Court,itincontestablyinterpretsArticle 36,paragraph 5,toreferonly
to declarations which bound the declarants - in both Courts. The Court
does not assign one meaning to the term "accept" in this Court, and
another meaning to that term in the Permanent Court, and in the same
sentence. Furthermore, in the Temple case, the Court reaffirmed the
rationale of its Judgment in the Aerial Incident case. It observed that
Thailand in the Temple case endeavoured to apply that rationale in its

favour, maintaining that its Declaration of 1940 had lapsed with the
dissolution of the Permanent Court and could not have been renewed bya
later declaration of 1950which purported to renew it. It held that Thai-
land's 1950Declaration, which wasmeant to be an effectiveacceptance of
thisCourt's compulsoryjurisdiction under the Optional Clause,wasa new
and independent instrument not made under Article 36,paragraph 5, not
only because that provision did not contemplate the making of new
declarations but because it was concerned with the preservation of decla-
rations for the period which they still had to run. Thus the Court treated
Thailand's 1950 Declaration as intended to be made under Article 36,
paragraph 2,and effectiveassuch.The Court expresslyput asidequestions
of revival of lapsed or spent instruments and questions of error, for in the
Templecase the Court concludedthat there was no factor which impaired
the reality of the consent which Thailand intended to give in 1950.The
Court observed that, in thecase of declarations under the Optional Clause
ofthisCourt, the "only formalityrequired" isthedeposit of theacceptance
with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The Court accordingly

concluded that Thailand's acceptance could not be defeated by some
defect whch didnot involve"a mandatory legalrequirement" (ibid.,p. 34).
Thus the Court, in the Temple case, interpreted as a "mandatory legal
requirement" that act which is most closely analogous to the act which
Nicaragua failed to perform in this case, deposit of its instrument oftacle à l'application de l'article 36,paragraphe 5, a égalementinvoquécet
arrêt(sans dire au juste de quelle page ou de quel passage il s'agit).Dans

l'arrêt renduaujourd'hui, la Cour cite à nouveau son arrêt enl'affaire du
TempledePréahVihéar,relativement, semble-t-il, à la prétendueréalité du
consentement du Nicaragua à êtreliépar sajuridiction obligatoire. Dans
l'affaire du Templede PréahVihéar,la Cour avait conclu que l'article 36,
paragraphe 5, était destiné à établirune méthode par laquelle

dans certaines limites,lesdéclarations d'acceptationde lajuridiction
obligatoire de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale non
encore expirées setransformeraient ipsojure en acceptationsde la
juridiction obligatoire de la Cour actuelle ))(p. 25; voir aussi p. 28;
les italiques sont de moi)

-prononcé quine saurait aiderleNicaragua,puisquesadéclaration n'était
pas une acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour permanente.
Onremarquera làencoreque,lorsquela Courparle d'~acceptations dela
juridiction obligatoire de la Cour actuelle, et, dans la mêmephrase, de
déclarations d7<a <cceptation ))de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour
permanente, elle interprète incontestablement l'article 36, paragraphe 5,
commenevisant quelesdéclarationsliantlesEtats déclarants - quecesoit
à l'égardde l'une ou l'autre Cour. Elle n'attache pas, surtout dans une

même phrase,deux sens différentsau terme <(acceptation )),selon qu'il
s'agitdela Cour actuelleou dela Cour permanente. Enoutre, dans l'affaire
du Temple de PréahVihéar,la Cour confirmait le raisonnement qu'elle
avait auparavant suividans l'affairede l'Incidentaérien,raisonnement que
la Thaïlande s'efforçait de reprendre en sa faveur en maintenant que sa
déclarationde 1940avait été rendue caduque par la dissolution de la Cour
permanente et n'avait pas pu êtreremise en vigueur par une déclaration
postérieure,datant de 1950,qui visait à la renouveler. Selon la Cour, la
déclaration de 1950 de la Thaïlande, qui avait étéconçue comme une

acceptation effective de lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour actuelle en
vertu de la clausefacultative, étaitun instrument nouveau et indépendant
de l'article 36,paragraphe 5,non seulement parce que cette disposition ne
visait pas les déclarationsnouvelles, mais aussiparcequeson objet étaitla
sauvegarde desdéclarationsdontla duréen'étaitpas expirée.AinsilaCour
considéraitla déclaration thaïlandaise de 1950comme ayant été faiteen
vertu del'article36,paragraphe 2,etcomme étantentréeenvigueur en tant
que telle. Les questions de remise en vigueur des instruments expirésou
devenus caducs et les questions d'erreur se trouvaient expressément écar-
tées,puisque la Cour concluait qu'en l'espècerien ne viciait la réalitédu

consentement quelaThaïlande avaitvoulu donner en 1950.LaCour faisait
observer que, dans le cas des déclarations faites en vertu de la clause
facultative de la Cour actuelle, la<seuleformalitérequise )>étaitle dépôt
de l'acceptation auprès du Secrétairegénéraldes Nations Unies. Elle
concluait en conséquencequel'acceptation de laThaïlandene pouvait être
annuléepar une vicequi n'affectait pas une <<prescriptionjuridique impé-
rative ))(ibid., p. 34). Ainsi la Cour, dans l'affaire du Temple de Préah ratification of the Protocol of Signature of the Permanent Court with the
League Secretary-General.

9. The listings in the Yearbooks of the Court

41. While it is not disputed that the responsible officials of the League
of Nations and the Registry of the Permanent Court did not regard
Nicaragua as party to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction by reason of its
1929 Declaration, the Yearbooks of this Court are not so clear, as was
amply expounded in the pleadings of the Parties.
42. Those pleadings and thefacts which they interpret need not be fully
recapitulated. The essential points that may be derived from them appear
to be the following :

- The Yearbooksof this Court,from the outset of the lifeof thisCourt to
the present day, have listed Nicaragua as party to the Court's compulsory
jurisdiction. For example, the first Yearbook so lists Nicaragua, with a
footnote stating :

"Declaration made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court and deemed to be still in force(Article 36,paragraph 5,of
the Statute of the present Court)." (Yearbook 1946-1947,p. 111.)

- However, those Yearbookshave always contained, in terms or refer-
entially, a footnote. In the first Yearbook, that footnote to the text of
Nicaragua's 1929Declaration refers to the telegram of 20November 1939
informing the League that Nicaragua's instrument of ratification of the
Protocol of Signature of the Court's Statute was to follow, concluding :
"Notification concerning the deposit of the said instrumenthasnot, how-
ever, been received in the Registry." (Ibid., p. 210.) Beginning with the
Yearbook 1955-1956,the footnote has concluded : "It does not appear,
however, that the instrument of ratification was ever received by the
League of Nations." (At p. 218.)
- The footnote's inclusion is incompatible with the thesis that Nicara-

gua'sratification of the United Nations Charter and Statute of this Court
and theconsequent operation of Article 36,paragraph 5,weresufficient to
bring into effect a declaration which otherwise was ineffective to bind
Nicaragua to the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court. Why ?
Nicaragua claims that the operation of Article 36,paragraph 5,combined
with the existence ofits 1929Declaration which wasnot binding on it, and
itsratification of theCharterand the Court's Statute whichisbinding on it,
was and issufficient to givelife toits 1929Declaration. Let us assume that
that is so.What then isthe point of the footnote ? According toNicaragua, Vihéar,définissaitcomme une <prescription juridique impérative ))une
formalitéquasiidentique à cellequeleNicaragua n'apasaccompliedans la
présenteespèce, à savoir le dépôtde l'instrument de ratification du pro-
tocole de signature dela Courpermanente auprèsdu Secrétairegénérad le
la Société des Nations.

9. Les indicationsdes Annuaires de la Cour

41. S'ilest incontestable que lesresponsables de la Société desNations

et du Greffe de la Cour permanente ne considéraient pas le Nicaragua
comme étant partie à lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour en raison de sa
déclarationde 1929,les Annuaires de la Cour actuellesont moins clairs sur
ce point, et la question a étéamplement débattuepar les Parties.
42. Il est inutile de récapitulerici lesargumentsdes Parties sur cepoint,
etlesfaits qu'ilssont censésinterpréter.Onpeut résumer l'essentiec lomme
suit :

- LesAnnuairesdelaCour actuelle,depuislacréationdecelle-cijusqu'à
aujourd'hui, font figurer le Nicaragua dans la liste des Etats parties à la
juridiction obligatoire de la Cour. Par exemple le Nicaragua étaitclassé
commeteldans lepremier Annuaire, avec,enregard de sonnom, un renvoi
à une note de bas de page libelléecomme suit :

<Déclarationfaite en application de l'article 36 du Statut de la
Cour permanente et considéréecomme étantencore en vigueur (ar-
ticle 36,5, du Statut de la présente Cour) ))(Annuaire 1946-1947,
p. 106).

- Cependant, les mêmes Annuaires ont toujours été assortis, in extenso
ou par référence,d'une note de bas de page. Dans le premier Annuaire,
cette note, ajoutée à la déclaration du Nicaragua, portait mention du
télégramme du 29 novembre 1939faisant savoir à la Société desNations
quel'instrument nicaraguayenderatification du protocole de signature du
Statut de la Cour suivrait, et ajoutait: <Cependant, le dépôt decet ins-
trument n'a pas éténotifiéau Greffe. ))(Ibid., p. 206.) Depuis l'Annuaire

1955-1956cette note finit ainsi : Cependant, il semble que ledit instru-
ment de ratification ne soit jamais arrivé à la Sociétédes Nations.
(P. 188.)
- Laprésencedecettenote debas depage estincompatible avecla thèse
quivoudrait que laratification dela Charte et du Statut dela Cour actuelle
par le Nicaragua, et par conséquent l'applicationde l'article 36, paragra-
phe 5, ait suffà faire entrer en vigueur une déclarationqui n'avait pas
valeur suffisante pour soumettre le Nicaragua à lajuridiction obligatoire
dela Cour permanente. Quelleen estlaraison ?Le Nicaragua prétendque

l'application de l'article 36,paragraphe 5, combinée à l'existence de sa
déclarationde 1929,qui n'avait pas force obligatoire pour lui, et sa rati-
fication de la Charte et du Statut de la Cour - instruments, qui, au
contraire, ont pour lui force obligatoire suffisaient et suffisenàdonner589 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO. P.SCHWEBEL)

it makes no difference at al1whether its instrument of ratification of the
Permanent Court's Protocol was or was not received, because, evenif not
received,Nicaragua became party to this Court's compulsoryjurisdiction
byoperation ofArticle36,paragraph 5,uponitsratification of theCharter.
Ttmaintains that its being solisted in the Yearbooksoshows.But whythen
should the Registry have said anything at al1about non-receipt of the
instrument ofratification sinceit wasabsolutelyirrelevant,onNicaragua's
argument, to the operation of Article 36, paragraph 5 ? Clearly only
because the Registry did not think that it wasirrelevant. Rather, it thought
that possible non-receipt was wholly relevant ; and it thought that it

warned States about the uncertainty in Nicaragua's position by including
the footnote. When the first Yearbook(and immediatelysucceeding Year-
books) were composed,it was not definitively established whether or not
the Secretariat of the League had received the instrument of ratification
which Nicaragua in 1939affirmed it would send ;it was only later that it
wasestablishednot onlythat this Court's Registryhad notbeennotified of
such deposit, but that in fact deposit never had been made.

43. Now let us turn to the second Yearbook.That Yearbook ornits the
footnote, but, on page 127,it refers to the priorYearbookin which Nica-
ragua'sdeclaration - and the footnote - arefound. Butit contains moreof
interest and probative value,namely, the text of the Pact of Bogota.Bythe
terms of Article XXXI of that Pact, "In conformity with Article 36,

paragraph 2, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice", the
Partiesaccept compulsoryjurisdiction unconditionally under that Article
inrelation toanyotherAmericanState, in thepreciseterms of the Optional
Clause. Under Article XXXII of the Pact of Bogota, moreover, whenever
the conciliation or arbitration procedures prescribed by the Pact do not
lead toa solution,eitherparty to adispute shallbe entitled tohaverecourse
to the International Court of Justice and, "The Court shall have general
compulsoryjunsdiction in accordance withArticle 36,paragraph 1,of the
said Statute". A reservation to the Pact of BogotabyNicaragua isfound at
page 143of that Yearbook,whichStatesthat Nicaragua's acceptance of the
foregoingmay not prejudiceitsposition in respect of any arbitral decision
which it has attacked. Thus Nicaragua generally accepted the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction under Article 36,paragraph 2,vis-à-visany other
AmericanState, and under Article 36,paragraph 1,as well,subject to this
reservation, which obviously related to the King of Spain's contested
arbitral award of 1906.This may suggest that Nicaragua did not regard

itselfothenvise as being bound to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction by
reason of the operation of Article 36,paragraph 5.Why ? Becauseother-
wiseNicaragua's reservation to the Pact of Bogotamakeslittle sense.Why
should Nicaragua make this reservation to the Court's compulsory juris-
diction under Article 36,paragraph 2, and Article 36,paragraph 1(and toeffetà sa déclarationde 1929.Supposonsque tel soit lecas. Pourquoi alors
lanote de bas depage ?SelonleNicaragua, il est sansimportance que son
instrument deratification du protocole de la Cour permanente ait étéreçu
ou non, vu que, même s'il n'a pas étéreçu, le Nicaragua, en ratifiant la
Charte, est devenu partieà lajuridiction obligatoire de laCour actuelle par
lejeu de l'article 36,paragraphe 5,du Statut. Il en veut pour preuvele fait
qu'il soit classécomme tel dans l'Annuaire.Mais pourquoi, dans ces con-
ditions, leGreffe signalait-il que l'instrument de ratification n'avait appa-
remment pas étéreçu, si ce fait, comme le prétend le Nicaragua, était
absolument sans rapport avec l'application de l'article 36,paragraphe 5 ?

S'il lefaisait, c'eàl'évidenceparce qu'il nepensaifpas qu'iln'yavaitpas
de rapport. Bien au contraire, il estimait toutà fait pertinent le fait que
l'instrument deratification n'avait apparemment pas étéreçu, et ilpensait,
par cette note de bas de page, appeler l'attention des Etats sur les incer-
titudes entourant la position du Nicaragua. Lorsque le premier Annuaire
(et lesAnnuaires qui lesuivirentimmédiatement) a été rédigéi,l n'était pas
établià coup sûrsileSecrétariatdelaSociétédes Nations avait ou non reçu
l'instrument de ratification dont le Nicaragua avait annoncé l'envoi en
1939 ;cen'est queplus tard qu'il aétéétabli,non seulement que le Greffe
de la Cour n'avait pas été informé dece dépôt,mais qu'en fait le dépôt

n'avait jamais été effectué.
43. Voyons maintenant le deuxième Annuaire. Celui-ci ne contient pas
la note de bas de page susmentionnée,mais on y trouve, à la page 121,un
renvoi à l'Annuaireprécédent,où étaient reproduites et la déclaration du
Nicaragua et la note debas de page. Mais il renfermeune autre indication
intéressante et probante, à savoir le texte du pacte de Bogota. L'ar-
ticleXXXI du pactedispose en effet que, ((conformémentauparagraphe 2
de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice i)les Etats
parties reconnaissent comme obligatoire et sans conditions, à l'égardde
tout autre Etat américain, la juridiction de la Cour, dans des termes
identiques à ceux delaclausefacultative.Etl'article XXXII prévoitque, si

la procédurede conciliationou d'arbitrage prévue dans le pacte n'aboutit
pas à unesolution,toute partie audifférenda ledroit deporter la question
devantla Cour internationale de Justiceet que <la compétencede la Cour
sera obligatoire, conformément au paragraphe 1de l'article 36 du même
Statut i)Le Nicaragua a formulé une réserveau pacte de Bogota, réserve
dont letexte est reproduitàlapage 138de l'Annuairesusmentionnéetoù il
est dit que l'approbation du pacte de Bogota par le Nicaragua ne saurait
préjuger saposition à l'égarddes décisionsarbitrales contestées par lui.
Ainsi,leNicaragua a acceptédefaçongénérale lajuridiction obligatoire de
la Cour, en vertu de l'article 36,paragraphe 2,àl'égard de toutautre Etat
américain,demêmequ'envertu del'article 36,paragraphe 1,compte tenu

de ladite réserve,laquelle visait de toute évidencela sentence arbitrale
controverséerendue par leroi d'Espagne en 1906.On peut donc supposer
queleNicaragua nese considéraitpasliépar lajuridiction obligatoire de la
Courpar le jeu de l'article36,paragraphe 5.Pourquoi ? Parce que, dans le
cas contraire, la réserveformuléepar le Nicaragua au pacte de Bogota theother means ofpacific settlementprovided for in thePact of Bogota),if
othenvise Nicaragua was bound, and believed itself to be bound, by the
Court's compulsory jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 5, in terms
which ornitted the reservation ? Nothing in the 1929Declaration hints at
that reservation. It should be noted, moreover, that, in the King of Spain

case which is discussed below, Nicaragua invoked its reservation to the
Pact of Bogota (I.C.J.Pleadings,ArbitralAwardMade by theKing ofSpain
on 23 December1906(Hondurasv. Nicaragua),Vol. 1,pp. 132-133).Thus
the content of the Yearbook1947-1948itself givesground for questioning
whether Nicaragua regarded itself as bound by the force of operation of
Article 36, paragraph 5.

44. The footnote of the Yearbookof 1946-1947,which wasincorporated
by reference in subsequent editions, was revived and revised with the
Yearbookfor 1955-1956,and maintained in al1subsequent Yearbooks,in
the following terms :

"According to atelegram dated November 29th, 1939,addressed to
the League of Nations, Nicaragua had ratified the Protocol of Sig-
nature of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice
(December 16th, 1920), and the instrument of ratification was to
follow.It doesnot appear, however,that theinstrument ofratification
was ever received by the League of Nations." (P. 195.)

The reintroduction of a footnote apparently stemmed from correspon-
dence among the then Registrar,Julio Lopez-Olivan, Judge Hudson, and
the Director of the European Headquarters of the United Nations,
Adriaan Pelt, which was not brought to the attention of the Court at the
time it deliberated upon provisional measures and issued its Order of 10
May 1984.This correspondence is in the Court's archives ;some of it was
found by the United Statesand by NicaraguainJudge Hudson's papers at
Harvard Law School.That correspondence is enlightening. The published
elements of it demonstrate that:

(a) JudgeHudson believed that Nicaragua's ratification oftheCharter did
not subject it to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction in the event of the
League's not having received the instrument of ratification ;
(b) Nicaragua's instrument of ratification was never received by the Sec-
retariat of the League of Nations ;
(c) the Registrarconcludedthat Nicaragua was not bound by this Court's
compulsory jurisdiction by reason of the operation of Article 36,
paragraph 5.

Thus his letter to Judge Hudson of 2 September 1955concludes :

"1do not think one could disagree with the viewyou express whenn'aurait pas de sens.PourquoileNicaragua aurait-ilformulécette réserve à
lajuridiction obligatoire de laCour envertu del'article36,paragraphe 2,et
de l'article 36,paragraphe 1(et aux autres moyens de règlementpacifique
prévusdans lepacte de Bogota), s'ilétaitlié,et s'estimait lui-même lié,par
lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour en vertu de l'article 36,paragraphe 5,
en des termes nefaisant pas étatde la réserve ?Aucune allusion n'estfaite
dans la déclaration de 1929 à cette réserve.Et l'on remarque en outre
que, dans l'affaire de la Sentence arbitrale rendue par leroi d'Espagnele

23 décembre1906,qui est analyséeplusloin, le Nicaragua a invoqué cette
réserveau pacte de Bogota (C.I.J. Mémoires,Sentencearbitrale renduepar
le roi d'Espagne le 23 décembre1906 (Honduras c. Nicaragua), vol. 1,
p. 132-133).Ainsi la teneur mêmede l'Annuaire1947-1948amène à douter
que le Nicaragua s'estimait lui-même lié par le jeu de l'article 36, para-
graphe 5.
44. La note de bas de page de l'Annuaire 1946-1947, à laquelle ren-
voyaient les éditionssuivantes, réapparut sous une forme modifiéedans
l'Annuaire1955-1956,puis dans toutes les éditionsqui ont suivi, dans les
termes suivants :

(<Par télégrammedaté du 29 novembre 1939,adressé àla Société
des Nations, le Nicaragua avait ratifié le protocole de signature du
Statut de la Courpermanente de Justice internationale (16 décembre
1920), et l'instrument de ratification devait suivre. Cependant, il
semble que ledit instrument de ratification ne soitjamais arrivé àla
Société desNations. 1(P. 188.)

Cette réintroduction de la note de bas de page est due apparemment à un
échangede correspondance entre le Greffier de l'époque,Julio Lopez-
Olivan, Manley O. Hudson et Adriaan Pelt, directeur de l'Office des
Nations Unies à Genève, correspondance qui n'a pas été portée à la
connaissance de la Cour au moment où elle délibérait sur lademande de
mesures conservatoires et où elle a pris son ordonnance du 10mai 1984.

Cette correspondance se trouve dans les archives de la Cour ;le Gouver-
nement des Etats-Unis en a retrouvé une partie dans les archives de
Hudson à la facultéde droit de Harvard. L'ensemble estinstructif. Les
pièces publiéesdémontrent en effet :
a) que, selon Hudson, la ratification de la Charte par le Nicaragua ne
soumettait pas cet Etat à la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour si la

Sociétédes Nations n'avait pas reçu l'instrument de ratification ;
b) que l'instrument de ratification du Nicaragua n'avait jamais étéreçu
par le Secrétariatde la Sociétédes Nations ;
C) que,d'aprèsle Greffier,leNicaragua n'étaitpas soumis à lajuridiction
obligatoire de la Cour par application de l'article 36, paragraphe 5.

La lettre du Greffierà Hudson datée du 2 septembre 1955prenait fin sur
ces mots :
Je ne crois pas que l'onpuisse vous donner tort quand vous dites you Saythat it would be difficult to regard Nicaragua's ratification of
the Charter of the UnitedNations as affecting that State'sacceptance
of the compulsoryjurisdiction. If the Declaration of September 24th,
1929,was in fact ineffective by reason of failure to ratify the Protocol
of Signature, 1think it is impossible to Saythat Nicaragua's ratifica-
tion of the Charter could make it effective and therefore bring into
play Article 36, paragraph 5, of the Statute of the present Court."

45. The opinion of the then Registrar, Sr.Lopez-Olivan, is ofparticular
interest. Lopez-Olivan was the last Registrar of the Permanent Court,and
obviously wasfamiliar with its workings and the processes of adherence to
its compulsoryjurisdiction. He was a member of the delegation (together
with the Court's President and Judge Hudson) which represented the
Permanent Court of International Justice at the SanFrancisco Conference
(seeP.C.I.J., Sixteenth Report, p. 12).And he later served as this Court's
second Registrar. Thus there is everyreason to presume that he was fully
farniliar with the intentions of the drafters of Article 36,paragraph 5, and
that he was in a unique position to interpret the result of the failure of
Nicaragua to transmit to the League its instrument of ratification of the
Protocol of Signature. Moreover, his interpretation - manifested
cautiously but still manifested in the revised footnote inserted in the
Yearbook 1955-1956and thereafter - is entitled to the greater weight in
the light of the fact that, when the Court itself subsequentlycame to inter-

pret Article 36, paragraph 5, it interpreted it in ways wholly consistent
with the interpretation of Lopez-Olivan. The Registrar understandably
did not take it upon himself in 1955 to delete Nicaragua's declaration
from the Yearbook, an act which would have been particularly delicate
at a time when litigation between Nicaragua and Honduras over the
arbitral award of the King of Spain loomed and when it was uncertain
what the jurisdictional basis of such litigation might be. He contented
himself with reintroducing and revising the footnote which was suffi-
cient to place on guard any reader interested in the question of whether
Nicaragua was effectively a party to the Court's compulsory jurisdic-
tion. He left it to the Court to draw legal conclusions from the facts so
presented.
46. But the Registrar did take one further step. With the Yearbook
1956-1957,Sr.Lopez-Olivan introduced the followingcaveat in presenting
the Yearbook'srecital of declarations made under Article 36 (including

Nicaragua's) :
"The textsof declarations setout in thisChapter arereproduced for
convience of reference only. The inclusion of a declaration made by
any State should not be regarded as an indication of the view enter-
tainedbythe Registryor,afortiori, by the Court, regarding thenature,
scope or validity of the instrument in question." (At p. 207.) que l'on voit mal comment la ratification de la Charte des Nations
Unies par le Nicaragua pourrait se répercutersur l'acceptation de la

juridiction obligatoire par cet Etat. Sila déclarationdu 24 septembre
1929était enréalitédépourvued'effet faute de ratification du pro-
tocole de signature, ilme sembleinsoutenable que laratification de la
Charte par le Nicaragua ait pu donner effet à cette déclaration et
entraîner ainsi l'application de l'article36,paragraphe 5,du Statutde
la Cour actuelle. ))

45. L'opinion du Greffier de l'époque,Julio Lopez-Olivan, présente un

intérêp tarticulier. Dernier Greffier de la Cour permanente Julio Lopez-
Olivan étaitévidemment familiarisé avecson fonctionnement et avec le
mécanismedes adhésions à sajuridiction obligatoire. Il avait fait partie
(avec le Présidentde la Cour et Hudson) de la délégationqui avait repré-
sentélaCourpermanente àla conférencede San Francisco (voir C.P.J.I.,
Seizième Rapport, p. 12).Et il étaitensuitedevenuledeuxièmeGreffier de
laCour actuelle. Ilyadonc tout lieude supposer qu'ilconnaissait au mieux
les intentions des auteursde l'article 36,paragraphe 5,et qu'ilétaitmieux
placéque quiconque pour interpréter les conséquencesdu non-envoi à la

Société des Nations de l'instrument de ratification du protocole de signa-
ture par leNicaragua.Enfin,son interprétation - exprimée avecprudence,
mais exprimée malgrétout dans la note de bas de page de l'Annuaire
1955-1956 et des éditions ultérieures - a d'autant plus de poids que,
lorsque la Cour a eu àinterpréterl'article 36,paragraphe 5, ellel'afait de
façon parfaitement compatible avec l'interprétation de son ancien Gref-
fier.Celui-ci,en 1955,n'apaspris sur lui - et celan'arien de surprenant -
de rayer la déclaration du Nicaragua de l'Annuaire, ce qui eût étéparti-

culièrementdélicat à un moment où seprofilait le litigeentre leNicaragua
et le Honduras sur la sentence arbitrale rendue par le roi d'Espagne, sans
que l'on sût quelle serait en l'espècela base de compétence : il s'est
contenté de réintroduire, en la modifiant, la note de bas de page, ce qui
suffisait pour attirer l'attention de tout lecteur curieux de savoir si le
Nicaragua étaiteffectivement partie àlajuridiction obligatoire dela Cour.
Quant aux conclusions d'ordrejuridique desfaits ainsiprésentési,llaissait
à la Cour le soin de les tirer.

46. Mais le Greffier a fait quelque chose de plus. Avec l'Annuaire
1956-1957, il a fait précéderde la mise en garde suivante le texte des
déclarations faites en vertu de l'article 36 (dont celle du Nicaragua) :

(Les textes desdéclarationsénoncées dans cechapitresont repro-
duits uniquement pour la commodité du lecteur. L'inclusion de la
déclarationémanant d'un Etatquelconque ne saurait êtreconsidérée
comme l'indication des vues du Greffe ni, à fortiori, de celles de la

Cour, sur la nature, la portéeou la validitéde l'instrument en ques-
tion.))(P. 205-206.) Itcannot be shown thatthe inclusion of thisnewproviso was stimulated by
the uncertain status of Nicaragua's declaration, but it is a sensible specu-
lation. Whatever the origins of the provision, which appearsin subsequent

Yearbooks,it servesto place the listing of Nicaragua in the Yearbookin its
appropriate context.

47. The Court's Yearbooksare instructive in a further aspect as well.At
page 188 of the Yearbook 1955-1956 one finds the following in bold
letters :"List of States which recognize the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
InternationalCourt of Justice or which are stillboundby their declarations
accepting the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice." (Emphasis supplied.) Nicaragua is listed thereunder,
together with the reintroduced footnote. The meaning to be attached to
this heading, Nicaragua and the Court appear to maintain, is that "still
bound" means - in Nicaragua's unique case - "never bound" by the

Permanent Court's jurisdiction but bound by this Court's jurisdiction.
Does Nicaragua - or the Court - treat the French text of the Yearbook
more seriously ?The French Yearbookfor 1955-1956,at page 182,provides
a "Liste analytique des Etats qui reconnaissent comme obligatoire la
juridiction de la Cour internationale de Justice ou qui sont encore liéspar
leur acceptation de lajuridiction de la Cour permanente de Justice inter-
nationale." (Emphasis supplied.) How can the meaning whch this phrase
of the Yearbook - "encore liés" - imports to Article 36, paragraph 5, be
reconciled with the meaning which the Court attributes to the French text
of Article 36,paragraph 5 ? The Court at paragraph 30of its Judgment in
the instant case finds it significant that the English text of Article 36,
paragraph 5, does not specify that declarations must be "binding". Then

what explanation can the Court offer for the terms of this heading of the
Yearbook which specifies "still bound" as the meaning of Article 36,
paragraph 5 ?As noted, these questions arenot posed by the terminology
of this issue of the Yearbookonly. For example, the Yearbook 1946-1947
containing the first version of thefootnote similarlycontains, at page 221,
a "List of States whichhave recognized the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
InternationalCourt of Justice or which are still bound by their acceptance
of the Optional Clause of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice .. .".

IO. Listings in Reports of the Court to the GeneralAssembly

48. Since 1968,the Court has submitted a brief annual report to the
General Assemblyof theUnited Nations. Thatreport hasincluded a list of
States bound by the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction. Nicaragua always
has been included in that list. Does that fact establish as a matter of law
that Nicaragua isparty to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, and does it
estop the Court from holding that it is not ? Iln'estpas possible de prouver quel'inclusionde cette miseengardeait été
suscitéepar l'incertitudeentourantla valeurjuridique de la déclaration du
Nicaragua, mais on peut raisonnablementlesupposer.Quels que soienten

tout cas ses origines, cette mise en garde, qui apparaît dans les éditions
ultérieuresde l'Annuaire,sert à situer dans sonjuste contexte la présence
du Nicaragua dans les listes de l'Annuaire.
47. LesAnnuaires de la Cour sont instructifs à un autre titre encore. En
effet,à la page 188 de la version anglaise de l'Annuaire 1955-1956, on
trouve une rubrique intitulée, en caractères gras :<(List of States which

recognizethecompulsoryjurisdiction of the InternationalCourt ofJustice
or which are still bound by their declarations accepting the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice. ))(Les itali-
ques sont de moi.) Le nom du Nicaragua figure dans cette liste, avec, en
regard, un renvoi à lanote debas de page qui estalorsréintroduite. Selonla

thèseque le Nicaragua et la Cour semblent défendre, l'expression <still
bound )),en français <(encore liés )),signifierait- dans l'unique cas du
Nicaragua - ((never bound ))en français ((jamais liés ))par lajuridiction
de la Cour pemanente, mais liéspar la juridiction de la Cour actuelle. Le
Nicaragua - ou la Cour - traite-t-il avec plus de sérieuxla version
française de l'Annuaire ? On y trouve, à la page 182,la <<Liste analytique

des Etats qui reconnaissent comme obligatoire lajuridiction de la Cour
internationale de Justice ou qui sont encore liéspar leur acceptation de la
juridiction de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale. ))(Les itali-
quessont de moi.)Commentpeut-on concilierlesens quecetteexpression,
(encore liés ))donne à l'article 36,paragraphe 5,avecle sensque la Cour
donne au texte français de l'article36,paragraphe 5 ? Au paragraphe 30de

son arrêten l'espèce,la Cour juge révélateurque le texte anglais de l'ar-
ticle 36, paragraphe 5, ne précisepas que les déclarations doivent être
obligatoires (binding). Dans ces conditions, comment la Cour peut-elle
expliquerle titre donné àcette liste dans l'Annuaire,qui définit lesens de
l'article 36, paragraphe 5, par l'expression <(encore liés ))? Commeje l'ai
déjàdit,cen'estpas la terminologiede cetAnnuaire seulement qui soulève

ces questions. Par exemple, l'Annuaire 1946-1947,où l'on trouve la pre-
mièreversiondela note de bas de page, contient de la mêmemanière, à la
page 217, une << Liste des Etats qui ont reconnu comme obligatoire la
juridiction de la Cour internationale de Justice ou qui sont encore liéspar
leuradhésion à la Dispositionfacultative du Statut de la Courpermanente
de Justice internationale ... 1)

10. Les indications des Rapports de la Cour à I'Assemblée générale

48. Depuis 1968,la Cour soumetchaque année à l'Assembléegénérale
des Nations Unies un Rapport succinct, où l'on trouve une liste des Etats

liéspar lajuridiction obligatoirede laCour. LeNicaragua a toujoursfiguré
sur cette liste. Cette indication démontre-t-elleen droit que le Nicaragua
est partie à lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour, et empêche-t-ellela Cour
de dire qu'il ne l'est pas ? 49. In adopting theCourt's Reportsto the General Assembly, thejudges
ofthe Court do not investigate thefactsthat liebehind a list of Stateswhich
arepresented as havingacceptedtheCourt's compulsoryjurisdiction. That
list is submitted by the Registry and is routinely accepted by the Court.
How routinely is demonstrated by the Report of theInternational Courtof
Justice,1August 1982-31July 1983(A/38/4), which,at page 1,contains the
following entry :

"8. There are now 47 States which recognize (a number of them
with reservations) the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in
accordance with declarations filed under Article 36, paragraph 2, of

the Statute. They are : Australia, Austria, Barbados, Belgium, Bot-
swana, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Democratic Kampuchea,
Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, El Salvador, Finland, Gam-
bia, Haiti, Honduras, India, Israel, Japan, Kenya, Liberia, Liechtcn-
stein, Luxembourg, Malawi, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico,Netherlands,
New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Phil-
ippines, Portugal, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland,
Togo, Uganda, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ire-
land, United States of America and Uruguay. The texts of the decla-
rations filed by these States appear in Chapter IV, Section II, ofI.C.J.
Yearbook 1982-1983."

It willbe observed that Nicaragua is thus listed asa State which has filed a
declaration "under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute". When this
Court speaks of "the Statute", it speaks of its Statute. But the fact is that
Nicaragua has never filed a declaration under Article 36, paragraph 2, of
the Court's Statute. It does not claim that it has. Rather, it claims that it is
bound to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction by reason of a declaration
filed under the Statute of the Permanent Court and by the operation of
Article 36, paragraph 5, of this Court's Statute. But that is not what the
aforesaid Report says.Can it bemaintained that, although what the Report
says is inaccurate, it nevertheless has become the law because it is con-
tained in a Report to the General Assembly ?

50. In the Report of the International Court of Justice, 1 August 1983-
31 July 1984 (A/39/4), the following entry is found :

"7. There are now 47 States which recognize (a number of them
with reservations) the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in
accordance with declarations filed under Article 36,paragraphs 2and
5, of the Statute. They are :Australia, Austria, Barbados, Belgium,
Botswana, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Democratic Kampuchea,
Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, El Salvador, Finland, Gam-
bia, Haiti, Honduras, India, Israel, Japan, Kenya, Liberia, Liechten-
stein, Luxembourg, Malawi, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico,Netherlands, 49. En adoptant cesRapportsadressés à l'Assemblée générale, lesmem-

bres de la Cour ne vérifientpas les faits qui servent de base à la liste des
Etats réputésavoir acceptélajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour. Cette liste
leur est soumise par le Greffe, et ils l'acceptent automatiquement. La
preuve en est dans le Rapport de la Cour internationaledeJustice, ler août
1982-31juillet 1983 (A/38/4), qui contient à la page 1 le paragraphe
suivant :

8. Quarante-sept Etats reconnaissent actuellement comme obli-
gatoire la juridiction de la Cour en vertu de déclarations déposées
aux termes du paragraphe 2 de l'article 36 du Statut (un certain

nombre le font avec réserves). Il s'agit des Etats suivants: Australie,
Autriche, Barbade, Belgique, Botswana, Canada, Colombie, Costa
Rica, Danemark, Egypte, El Salvador, Etats-Unis d'Amérique,Fin-
lande, Gambie, Haïti, Honduras, Inde, Israël, Japon, Kampuchea
démocratique, Kenya, Libéria, Liechtenstein,Luxembourg, Malawi,
Malte, Maurice, Mexique, Nicaragua, Nigéria, Norvège, Nouvelle-
Zélande, Ouganda, Pakistan, Panama, Pays-Bas, Philippines, Por-
tugal, République dominicaine, Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne
et d'Irlande du Nord, Somalie, Soudan, Swaziland, Suède, Suisse,
Togo et Uruguay. On trouvera au chapitre IV (sect. II) de l'Annuaire
1982-1983 de la Cour le texte des déclarations déposéespar ces

Etats.
On constatera que le Nicaragua apparaît ainsi dans la liste des Etats qui
ont déposéune déclaration <aux termes du paragraphe 2 de l'article36du
Statut ))Or, lorsquela Courparle <du Statut ))elleseréfèrea sonStatut ;
et le fait est que le Nicaragua n'ajamais fait de déclaration auxtermes de

l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour. Le Nicaragua ne prétend
d'ailleurs pas le contraire: il prétendseulement êtreliépar lajuridiction
obligatoire de la Cour du fait d'une déclarationfaite aux termes du Statut
de la Cour permanente, et par application de l'article 36,paragraphe 5,du
Statut de la Cour actuelle. Mais ce n'est pas ce que dit le Rapport que je
viensdeciter.Soutiendra-t-onque, bien qu'étantinexactes, cesindications
ont acquis force de loi parce qu'ellesfigurent dans un rapport a l'Assem-
blée générale ?
50. Le Rapport de la Cour internationale de Justice, le7 août 1983-
31juillet 1984 (A/39/4) contient le paragraphe suivant :

7. Quarante-sept Etats reconnaissent actuellement comme obli-
gatoirelajuridiction de la Cour en vertu de déclarationsdéposées aux
termes des paragraphes 2 et 5 de l'article 36 du Statut (un certain
nombre le font avec réserves).Il s'agitdes Etats suivants :Australie,
Autriche, Barbade, Belgique, Botswana, Canada, Colombie, Costa

Rica, Danemark, Egypte, El Salvador, Etats-Unis d'Amérique,Fin-
lande, Gambie, Haïti, Honduras, Inde, Israël, Japon, Kampuchea
démocratique, Kenya, Libéna,Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malawi, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Panama,

Philippines, Portugal, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzer-
land, Togo, Uganda, United Kingdom of Great Britian and Northern
Ireland, United States of America and Uruguay. The texts of the
declarations filed by these States appearin Chapter IV, Section II, of
I.C.J. Yearbook 1983-1984."

Thus theerror whichwaspublished inlast year'sReporthas been dealt with
in this year's Report, as is understandable in view of the fact that that
Reportwaswritten and adopted wellafter thecommencement of proceed-
ings in the current case. However, the error of stating that Nicaragua has
recognized the compulsory jurisdiction of this Court under Article 36,
paragraph 2,is found in the Reportsof theCourt to theGeneral Assembly
in al1reports from 1August 1973through that of 1983,that is,in 9reports

out of the 16 rendered to the General Assembly to date.

51. Thus, it isdemonstrable - anddemonstrated - that when the Court
provides information in an administrativecapacity,not onlymay iterrand
repeatedly err, but that it cannot be thought to be making ajudgment in
law or of legal effect. There is an obvious difference between the admin-
istrative acts and thejudicial acts of the Court. The administrative acts of
the Court - and particularly inconsistent acts of this character - cannot
reasonably be taken as either establishing the law or estopping the Court
from holding what the law is. Indeed, if the current Report of the Court
were to be treated as dispositive, what would be the point of the Court's
receiving extensive memorials, having substantial hearings and writing a

judgment on the very issue? It could rather treat what otherwise is a
question of considerable complexity as perfectly simple, as one resolved
not by last year's Report but by this year's.

52. In sum, while the reader on the run may have gained the impression
from the Court's Yearbooksand Reporrs that Nicaragua is bound to the
Court'scompulsoryjurisdiction, if not under Article 36,paragraph 2,then
by operation ofArticle 36,paragraph 5,that is not a lawyerlikeconclusion
which follows from a careful analysis of the relevant documentation, and
still lessof the relevant law. Nor is it a conclusion which follows from the
annually published collection of Signatures, Ratifications, Acceptances,
Accessions, etc., concerningtheMultilateral-Conventions,andAgreements in

respect of which the ~ecretaty-General acts as Depositary, to which the
Court, in paragraph 36of its Judgment, alsoascribes "particular weight".
Those reports state that, "Al1data and footnotes concerning these decla-
rations" of acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction are reprinted from the
Court's Yearhook,and, when that- Yearhookruns the footnote to Nicara-
gua'sdeclaration, so does the derivative volume of the Secretary-General.
See,e.g.,Multilateral TreatiesDeposited withthe Secretary-General,Status
us ut 31 Decemher 1982,pages 24 and 27, note 54. Malte, Maurice, Mexique, Nicaragua, Nigéria, Norvège, Nouvelle-
Zélande, Ouganda, Pakistan, Panama, Pays-Bas, Philippines, Portu-
gal, République dominicaine, Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et
d'Irlande du Nord, Somalie,Soudan, Swaziland, Suède, Suisse,Togo
et Uruguay. On trouvera au chapitre IV (sect. II) de l'Annuaire1983-
1984 de la Cour le texte des déclarations déposéep sar ces Etats.))

Ainsi, l'erreurqui figurait dans leRapportdel'année dernièreaété réparée
dans le Rapport de cette année,ce qui secomprend facilement, vu que ce

derniera été rédigé et adoptébien aprèsl'ouverturedelaprésenteinstance.
Il reste que l'erreur consistantà indiquer dans les Rapports de la Cour à
l'Assembléegénérale que leNicaragua areconnu lajuridiction obligatoire
de la Cour actuelle en vertu de l'article 36,paragraphe 2, se retrouve dans
tous les Rapports publiés entre le ler août 1973 et le 31 juillet 1983,
c'est-à-diredans neuf Rapports,sur lesseizesoumis à l'Assembléegénérale
à cejour.
51. Ilest donc possiblededémontrer - etilest démontré - que,lorsque
la Cour fournit des renseignements de caractère administratif, non seule-
ment ellepeut commettre deserreurset lesrépéterm , aisellene saurait être
réputée faire un prononcéendroit ou ayant un effetjuridique. Il existeune

différenceévidenteentre l'action administrative de la Cour et son action
judiciaire. Sonactionadministrative - surtout lorsque,comme danscecas,
elle est entachéede contradictions - ne peut raisonnablement êtreconsi-
dérée comme établissanlte droit, ni comme empêchant laCour de déter-
miner la règlede droit. D'ailleurs, sison dernier Rapport avait une telle
valeur, pourquoi la Cour recevrait-elle des mémoiresminutieux, enten-
drait-elle des plaidoiries détailléeset rédigerait-elle unarrêt sur cette
question même ? Elle pourrait déciderque cette question extrêmement
complexe est enfait parfaitement simple, et la résoudre, non paspar son
Rapport de l'année dernière, maispar celui de cette année.
52. En somme,un lecteur hâtif desAnnuaireset desRapportsde la Cour

peut en retirer l'impression que le Nicaragua est liépar la juridiction
obligatoire de la Cour - sinon en vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du
moins en vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 5. Mais ce n'est pas là une
conclusion dejuriste, tiréed'une analysedétailléede la documentation en
la matière, et encore moins du droit applicable. Ce n'estpas non plus une
conclusion qu'on peut tirer du recueil intitulé Signatures, ratifications,
acceptations, adhésionse ,tc., relativesaux conventions et accordsmultilaté-
raux pour lesquelsle Secrétaire génére alerce lesfonctions de dépositaire,
auquel la Cour, au paragraphe 36 de l'arrêt,attache ((un poids particu-
lierD.Il est en effet précisdans cettepublication que (<toutes lesdonnées
etnotes concernant [les]déclarations >)d'acceptation delajuridiction dela

Cour sont tiréesde l'Annuairede la Cour, et,lorsque l'Annuaireajoute une
note de bas de page au mot ((Nicaragua D, il en est de mêmedans la
publication correspondante du Secrétairegénéral. (Voip rar exemple Trai-
tés multilatérauxpour lesquelsle Secrétaire général exerce lesfonctiod ns
dépositaire - Etat au 31 décembre1982, p. 25 et 27, note 54). 11. The conductof,theParties
53. Nicaragua argues that, in any event, its Declaration of 1929 is
effectiveto conferjurisdictionon the Court in the present proceeding "for
an entirely separate and independent reason", namely :

"(i) Nicaragua's conduct over the past 38 years unequivocally mani-
fests its consent to be bound by the Court's compulsoryjurisdic-
tion. Such an expression of consent overcomes any forma1defect
in Nicaragua's ratification of the Protocol of Signature.
(ii) The conduct of the United States during the past 38years, like the
conduct of the other States that have declared their acceptance of
the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, constitutes an acceptance of
and acquiescence in the effectiveness of Nicaragua's 1929decla-
ration and a waiver of any forma1defect in Nicaragua's ratifica-
tion of the Protocol of Signature." (Nicaraguan Memorial, para.
85.)

54. That contention is unpersuasive for two reasons. First, the conduct
in question actually is ambiguous not unequivocal, and it cannot on the
part of the United States reasonably be interpreted to constitute acquies-
cencein the effectivenessof Nicaragua's 1929Declaration. Second, evenif
the course of the Parties' conduct were more consistent and more favour-
ableto Nicaragua's positionthan itis,it isimplausibleto arguethat a State
may become party to the Optional Clause of the Statute not by the deposit
of a declaration with the Secretary-General of the United Nations pur-
suant to Article 36,paragraphs 2and 4, not by the operation of Article 36,
paragraph 5, but by conduct extraneous to those provisions. The ambi-
guities of Nicaragua's behaviour byno means establish the reality of its
consent ; if Nicaragua had wished to ensure that its consent were real, it

needed merely to file a declaration under Article 36, paragraphs 2 and 4.
But in any event, the deposit of an instrument of ratification is no mere
optional formality ;aspointed out in paragraph 12of thisopinion, wherea
treaty exclusivelyprovides for that means of ratification (as did the Pro-
tocol of Signature) no other is permitted ;in the words of the Temple of
Preah Vihearcase,it was,likedeposit of adeclaration isunder thisCourt's
Article 36, paragraph 4, "a mandatory legal requirement".

55. Since, despite the foregoing considerations, the Court nevertheless
givesweightto what it appears to find asa sufficiently consistentcourse of
conduct of those concerned, comment on that conduct is in order.
56. It isofcourse true that theCourt's Yearbooksand Reports(and those
of the Secretary-General and national authorities) listed Nicaragua as
party to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction. Much ismade of the fact that

such listings were never protested. But what does the lack of protest Il. La conduite desParties
53. Le Nicaragua prétend que, en tout état de cause, sa déclarationde
1929apour effetdedonner compétence à laCour dans laprésenteinstance
pour une raison tout à fait distincteet indépendante O,qu'il exposedans
les termes suivants:

<(i) La conduite du Nicaragua depuis trente-huit ansdémontre sans
ambiguïtéson consentement à êtreliépar lajuridiction obliga-
toire de la Cour. Une telle manifestation de consentement pré-
vaut sur tout vice de forme dont pourrait êtreentachée la rati-
fication du protocole de signature par le Nicaragua.
ii) La conduite des Etats-Unis depuis trente-huit ans, de mêmeque
laconduite desautres Etatsqui ont déclaréaccepterlajuridiction

obligatoire de la Cour, vaut acceptation de la validité de la
déclarationde 1929du Nicaragua et acquiescement àcette vali-
dité, et renonciation à toute protestation pour vice de forme
contre la ratification du protocole de signature par le Nicara-
gua. (Mémoiredu Nicaragua, par. 85.)
54. L'argument n'estpas convaincant, pour deux raisons. La première

est que la conduite en question est en fait ambiguë et que, pour ce qui est
des Etats-Unis, on ne peut raisonnablement l'interpréter comme valant
acquiescement à la validitéde la déclaration nicaraguayenne de 1929.La
deuxième est que, même si la conduite des Parties était plus constante et
plus favorable àla thèsedu Nicaragua, on ne saurait soutenir qu'un Etat
peut devenir partie àlaclausefacultativedu Statut, non par ledépôtd'une
déclaration auprès du Secrétairegénéralde l'organisation des Nations
Unies, conformément à l'article 36,paragraphes 2 et 4, ni par application
del'article36,paragraphe 5,maispar desactesétrangers à cesdispositions.
Les ambiguïtésqui marquent le comportement du Nicaragua ne permet-
tent'en rien d'établirla réalitéde son consentement :si leNicaragua avait

voulu veillerà ce que son consentement fût réel,il lui suffisait de déposer
une déclarationen vertu de l'article 36, paragraphes 2 et 4. Quoi qu'il en
soitd'ailleurs,ledépôtd'un instrument de ratification n'est pas unesimple
formalité facultative :comme il est dit au paragraphe 12 de la présente
opinion, lorsqu'un traitéprévoit ce moyende ratification àI'exclusionde
tout autre (comme c'étaitlecas du protocole de signature), seul ce moyen
estautorisé.Pour reprendre lestermesde l'arrêtdans l'affairedu Templede
PréuhVihéur,ils'agitlà, comme dans lecasdu dépôtd'une déclarationen
vertu de l'article36,paragraphe 4,de laCour actuelle, d'une <(prescription
juridique impérative D.

55. Puisque,malgrélesconsidérationsqui précèdent,laCourattache du
poids à ce qu'elle semble tenir pour un comportement suffisamment
constant des-parties, ce comportement appelle quelques observations.
56. Certes, le Nicaragua figure comme Etat partie à lajuridiction obli-
gatoire de la Cour dans lesAnnuuire.~et lesRapportsde laCour(etdans les
recueils du Secrétairegénéralet de divers pays) ;et nombre d'arguments
sont tirés du faitque cette classification n'ajamais suscitéde protestation. indicate? Arguably, on Nicaragua's part, an intent to be bound ; and
arguably, on Nicaragua's part - by reason of its failure to challenge or
otherwise react to the footnote - an intent not to be bound. As for the
United States,and thrd States generally, since they didnot have litigation
with Nicaragua actively in view, they had no reason to protest what, on
analysis, rnight have been seen as a questionable listing.

57. Moreover, Nicaragua's conduct in and in connection with the King
ofSpain casestrongly suggeststhat Nicaragua wasnot seento be bound by
the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, by itself, by Honduras or by the
United States. Honduras was anxious to bringNicaraguabefore the Court
in thehope that theCourt would uphold theKing of Spain'sarbitral award
of 1906 which awarded to Honduras territory of which Nicaragua had

remained in occupation. Honduras engaged Manley O. Hudson as its
leading counsel. That was what prompted hm to make the inquiry of the
Registrar which led to the re-introduction of the footnote in the Yearbook
1955-1956.In the light of his correspondence with the Registrar, Hudson
wasconfirmedinhis viewthat, if Honduras invoked its own submission to
theCourt's compulsoryjurisdiction and Nicaragua's declaration of 1929,it
was unlikely that the Court would find that it hadjurisdiction over Nica-
ragua. Thus Honduras sought thegood officesof theUnited States inorder
topersuadeNicaragua to conclude aspecial agreement subrnitting thecase
to the Court. In that connection, Honduras sent to the United States a
memorandum of 15June 1955which declared :

"Nicaragua has refused until now to recognize the compulsory
jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice so that the Court
could take cognizance of and resolve the case which Honduras has
consideredfilingagainstNicaragua.Nicaragua has suggested that the
twocountries signa kind of specialprotocol to submit theproblem to

the Court so that it could declare whether or not the award is valid."
(United States Counter-Memorial, Ann. 34, p. 2.)
Thereafter, in a conversation of 21 December 1955between Nicaragua's
Ambassador to the United States, Guillermo Sevilla-Sacasa,and officiais
of the Department of State, it was said, according to a memorandum of

conversation then drawn up which the United States has submitted in
evidence, that :
"Reference was made to the fact that the matter had not been
previously referred to the Court because Nicaragua had never agreed
to submit to compulsoryjurisdiction.
Ambassador Sevilla-Sacasa indicated that an agreement between

the two countries would have to be reached to overcome this diffi-
culty." (Ibid., p. 4 and App. K thereto at p. 2.)Mais que signifiecette absence de protestation ?On peut y voir, de la part
du Nicaragua, une intention d'êtrelié ;mais,sil'on se rappelleque leNica-
ragua n'ajamais contesté la notede bas de page ou n'yajamais réagid'une
autre manière, on peut y voir aussi l'intention de ne pas êtrelié.Quant
aux Etats-Unis, et aux Etats tiers en générald,èslors qu'aucun litigeavec le
Nicaragua ne se profilait, ils n'avaient aucune raison de s'élevercontre ce
qui, à l'analyse,aurait pu leur apparaître comme une indication discutable.

57. Par ailleurs, le comportement du Nicaragua dans l'affaire de la
Sentence arbitrale renduepar le roi d'Espagne le23 décembre1906 et à
l'occasionde cette affaire donne belet bien à penser que leNicaragua ne se
tenait pas pour liépar lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour - façon de voir
que partageaient le Honduras et les Etats-Unis. Le Honduras était dési-
reux de citer le Nicaragua devant la Cour, dans l'espoir que celle-ci con-
firmerait la sentence arbitrale par laquelleleroi d'Espagne avait, en 1906,
attribuéau Honduras un territoire queleNicaragua continuait d'occuper ;
et il s'étaitassuréles services de Manley O. Hudson en tant que conseil

principal. C'estcequi incitaHudson à adresser au Greffier la demandede
renseignements qui devait aboutir àla réapparition de la note de bas de
page dans l'Annuaire 1955-1956. Cette correspondance avec le Greffier
confirma Hudson dans l'opinion que, sile Honduras invoquait sonpropre
acquiescement à lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour et la déclarationde
1929du Nicaragua, il étaitpeu probable que la Cour conclût qu'elleavait
compétence à l'égarddu Nicaragua. Le Honduras sollicita alors les bons
offices des Etats-Unis, afin de persuader le Nicaragua de conclure un
compromis pour la soumission de l'affaire à la Cour. Et l'on trouve,dans

un mémorandum en date du 15juin 1955,adresséaux Etats-Unis par le
Honduras, le passage suivant :
<Jusqu'ici leNicaragua a refuséde reconnaître lajuridiction obli-
gatoire de laCourinternationale deJustice, cequieûtpermis à celle-ci

de connaître de l'affaireque leHonduras pensait introduirecontre lui
et de statuer à ce sujet. Le Nicaragua a proposé que les deux pays
signent une sorte de protocole spécialpour soumettre l'affaire à la
Cour, afin que celle-ci puisse déclarer si la sentence est valide ou
non. ))(Contre-mémoiredes Etats-Unis, annexe 34, p. 2.)

Par la suite, un entretien de Guillermo Sevilla-Sacasa, ambassadeur du
Nicaragua aux Etats-Unis, avecdesreprésentants du départementd'Etat,
donna lieu, le 21 décembre 1955, aux propos suivants, selon une note
rédigéeaprès cet entretien et que les Etats-Unis ont présentéecomme
élémentde preuve :

<(Mention a été faitedece que l'affaire n'avaitpas étéantérieure-
ment soumise à laCour, parce que leNicaragua n'avaitjamais accepté
de se soumettre à lajuridiction obligatoire.
L'ambassadeur Sevilla-Sacasa a indiquéqu'il faudrait un accord
entre les deux pays pour surmonter cette difficulté. ))(Zbid.,p. 4, et
app. K, p. 2.)The problem was finally taken to the Organization of American States,

which succeeded in persuading Nicaragua and Honduras to conclude a
special agreement submitting the case to the Court. Nevertheless, there are
indications that Honduras remained uncertain whether Nicaragua would
in fact appear. (See,for example, therepeated statements in the Honduran
Application seeking ajudgment "whether the Government of Nicaragua
appears or not" (I.C.J. Pleadings,ArbitralAwardMadebytheKingofSpain
on 23 December 1906, Vol. 1(e.g., at p. IO).)Perhaps this explains why
Honduras didnot exclusivelyrelyon the terms of the specialagreement ;it
also made the claim that Nicaragua's telegram to the League was tanta-
mount to ratification and that Nicaragua thus was bound under the
Optional Clause by operation of Article 36, paragraph 5 (ibid., pp. 8-9).
More than that, it was in Honduras' interest to seek to establish jurisdic-
tion in this way, sinceit could then make a claimfor damages forunlawful
occupation of itsterritory which the terms of the special agreement did not
admit.

58. Conversely, it was not in Nicaragua's interest in the King of Spain
case to accept Honduras' argument that it was bound by operation of
Article 36, paragraph 5, since then it might have been held liable for
damages. That may be why it carefully refrained from doingwhat it could
so easily and plausibly have done :squarely stated to the Court that it
agreed with Honduras that it was bound to the Court's compulsoryjuns-
diction by reason of its 1929Declaration and the operation of Article 36,
paragraph 5. In fact, what Nicaragua said was the following :

"It goes without saying that the competence of the International
Court of Justice to settle this dispute meets with no contradiction
from Nicaragua. It was,moreover, expresslyadmitted by both Parties
in the Agreement of June 21st and 22nd, 1957, .. .reproduced in the
Resolution of the Organization of American States, ... Nicaragua
agreeswith Honduras. ..in ascribingto that instrumentthe character

of a special agreement.
2. TheCourt will also note that, with the agreement of the Parties,
thepresent dispute isdefined in the said Resolution and in the various
documents as a dispute 'existing between them with respect to the
Arbitral Award handed down by His Majesty the King of Spain on
December 23rd, 1906'and not asconcerninga claimfor the execution
of the decision or for denunciation of its breach.
It is true that the Honduran Foreign Minister, in a Declaration
annexed to the Agreement ofJuly 21st, 1957 . .expressed his explicit
wish that the Arbitral Award .. .be carried out and its view that
'Nicaragua'sfailure to comply with that arbitral decision constitutes,
under Article 36of the Statute of theInternationalCourt ofJustice (?)
and, in accordance with the principles of international law, a breach
of an international obligation'.
But Nicaragua at the same time expressed the equally clear inten-
tion of answering the claim of Honduras, not only 'opposing theLe problèmefut finalement porté devant l'Organisation des Etats améri-
cains, qui réussià persuader le Nicaragua et le Honduras de conclure un
compromis pour soumettre l'affaire à la Cour. Il ressort cependant de
certains élémentsdu dossier que le Honduras n'étaitpas sûr que le Nica-
ragua seprésenterait vraimentdevant la Cour (voirpar exemplelarequête,
où le Honduras prie à plusieurs reprises la Cour de statuer <tant en pré-
sencequ'en l'absencedu Gouvernement du Nicaragua >(C.I.J. Mémoires,

Sentencearbitrale renduepar le roi d'Espagne le23 décembre1906, vol. 1,
par exemple à la page 10)). Cela explique peut-êtreque le Honduras
n'invoquait pasuniquement lestermes du compromis, maissoutenait aussi
que, letélégramme adressé àla SociétédesNations par leNicaragua valant
ratification, cetEtat étaitliépar laclausefacultativeen vertu del'article36,
paragraphe 5 (ibid., p.8-9). Il étaitd'ailleurs de l'intétu Honduras de
chercher à établirde cette manière la compétence, puisque cela lui per-
mettait de demanderréparationpour occupation illégalede son territoire,
ce que le compromis lui interdisait.
58. Al'inverse, leNicaragua n'avaitpasintérê t accepter l'argument du
Honduras selon lequel il étaitliépar lejeu de l'article 36, paragraphe 5,
puisqu'ileût risquéalors d'êtrecondamné àverser des dommages-intérêts.
C'estpeut-être la raisonpour laquelle il se gardade faire ce qu'ilauraitpu
faire aisémentet plausiblement :déclarer sans ambages à la Cour qu'il
convenait êtreliépar la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour du fait de sa

déclarationde 1929et de l'application de l'article 36, paragraphe 5. Or le
Nicaragua déclara ce qui suit :

<<Ilvade soidèslorsque lacompétencedela Courinternationalede
Justice pour résoudreleprésentconflit nerencontrede sapart aucune
contradiction. Elle a étédu reste expressémentadmise par l'une et
l'autre Partiedansun accorddes 21et22juin 1957 ..reproduit dans la
résolutionde l'organisation des Etats américains. LeNicaragua est
d'accord avec le Honduras ...pour attribuer à cet acte valeur de
compromis.
2. La Cour constatera d'autre part que, de l'accord des Parties, le
différend actuelse trouve définidans ladite résolution ainsiquedans
lesdiversdocuments comme celui <qui existeentre ellesau sujetde la
décisionarbitrale prononcée le 23 décembre 1906 par S. M. le roi

d'Espagne )et non pas comme portant sur une demande d'exécution
de la décision oude dénonciation de sa violation.
Sans doute le ministre des affaires étrangères du Honduras a-t-il
dans une déclaration annexée à l'accord du 21juillet 1957 ..expres-
sément exprimé sondésird'obtenir que la décisionarbitrale ...soit
exécutée etque <<la non-exécution,par le Nicaragua, de ladite déci-
sion constitue au regard de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour interna-
tionale de Justic(?)et des règlesdedroit international une violation
d'un engagement international o.
Mais le Nicaragua a, de façon non moins nette, expriméau même
moment l'intention non seulement << de s'opposer à la requêteduexceptions that it considers appropriate in order to impugn the vali-
dity of the Arbitral Award of December 23rd, 1906,and its compul-
sory force', but also 'invoking al1 those rights that may be in its
interest',maintaininginparticular 'that itsboundarieswith Honduras
continue in the same legal status as before the issuance of the above-
mentioned Arbitral Award' ...

It was expressly understood in the Agreement of July 21st, 1957,
that each Government 'in the exercise of its sovereignty and in
accordance with the procedures underlined in this instrument, shall
present the matter in this Agreement as it deems pertinent'.

3. We should add that it may be only by inadvertence that Hon-
duras presented the first claim set forth in its submissionsas coming
within the category of disputes covered by Article 36, 2 (c), of the
Statute of the International Court ofJustice. The presentdisputeinno
way concerns the existence of any fact which, if established, would
constitute abreach of an international obligation.There isin this case
no dispute as to the existence of the exercise of Nicaraguan sover-
eigntyoverpart of thedisputed territory ;on theother hand, there isa
disagreement over the existence of an obligation upon Nicaragua to
agree to execute an alleged Arbitral Award against which it has for
years formulated much serious and detailed criticism, expressing
readinessfromthe outset to acquiescein theopinion of arbitersin this
matter.
4. Similarly, Nicaragua can only express surprise that Honduras
should have invoked Article VI of the Pact of Bogota, ratified by the
two Parties to the present dispute and according to which the proce-
dures provided in that Pact 'may not be applied to matters already
settled by arrangement between the Parties or by arbitral award'.

For itis well known that Nicaragua, when signing the said Treaty,
made an explicit reservation reading as follows :
'TheNicaraguan Delegation, on givingits approval to the Amer-
icanTreaty on PacificSettlement(Pact of Bogota),wishesto record
expressly that no provisions contained in the said Treaty may
prejudice any position assumed by the Government of Nicaragua
with respect to arbitral decisions the validity of which it has con-
tested on the basis of the principles of international law, which
clearly permit arbitral decisions to be attacked when they are

adjudged to be nul1or invalidated. Consequently,the signature of
the Nicaraguan Delegation to the Treaty in question cannot be
alleged as an acceptance of any arbitral decisions that Nicaragua
has contested and the validity of which is not certain.'Honduras ...en opposant les exceptions qu'iljugera bon pour con-
tester la validitéde la décisionarbitrale du 23 décembre1906et sa

force obligatoire >)mais encore de faire << valoir tous les droits qu'il
jugera appropriés pour la défensede ses intérêts O, continuant de
soutenir notamment (qu'en cequi concerne ses frontières avec le
Honduras, la situationjuridique est la mêmequ'avant leprononcéde
la décisionarbitrale )...
Or, il a étéexpressémententendu dans l'accord du 21juillet 1957
«que chaque gouvernementprésentera,dans lecadre de sa souverai-
neté et conformément aux dispositionsde cet instrument, l'aspectdu
différendqu'iljugera approprié )).

3. Ajoutons que ce ne peut êtrequepar inadvertance que le Hon-
duras présentela première demande formuléedans ses conclusions
comme entrant dans la catégoriede différendsvisés à l'article 36,
chiffre 2c), du Statut de la Courinternationale de Justice. Leprésent
différendne porte en aucune façon sur la réalitéde tout fait qui, s'il
était établi, constitueraitla violation d'un engagement international.
Iln'yaen l'espèceaucunecontestation surla réalité del'exercicedela

souverainetépar leNicaragua dans une partie du territoire litigieux ;
maisilyadésaccordsurl'existenced'une obligationquelconquepour
le Nicaragua de se prêter à l'exécutiond'une prétendue sentence
arbitrale contre laquelle il a formulé depuis des années unesériede
critiques graves et précises, sedéclarant dèsle début disposé à se
ranger sur ce point à l'opinion d'arbitres.
4. De même, leNicaragua ne peut que marquer sa surprise de
l'invocationfaite par le Honduras de l'article VI du Pacte de Bogota,
ratifiépar les deux Parties au présentlitige et aux termes duquel les
procédés qui ysont prévus <<nepourrontpas être appliquésaux affaires

déjàréglées par les Parties ou par une sentence arbitrale D.
En effet, il est bien connu que le Nicaragua accompagna sa signa-
ture dudit traitéd'une réserve expresse libellée comme suit :
<tLa délégationdu Nicaragua, en donnant son approbation au

traité américainde solutions pacifiques (pacte de Bogota), désire
que soit consigné expressémentdans le procès-verbal qu'aucune
disposition contenue dans le présenttraiténe pourra porter préju-
dice à la position adoptée par le Gouvernement du Nicaragua
concernant des sentences arbitrales dont il aurait contesté lavali-
dité en conformitéavec le droit international, qui permet claire-
ment la contestation des sentences arbitrales considéréescomme
nulles ou entachéesde vices. Par conséquent,la signature du pré-
sent traité par la délégationdu Nicaragua ne pourra pas être

interprétée commeentraînant acceptation des sentences arbitrales
que le Nicaragua ait contestées et dont la validitén'a pas été
vérifiée.)) 599 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTiVITIES (DISS .P.SCHWEBEL)

It is true that, according to the Resolution of the Organization of
American States of July 5th, 1957, mentioned above, Nicaragua's
agreement to the method of settlement proposed implied its aban-
donment of thereservationattached to the Bogota Pact, but obviously
that abandonment was motivated solely by the assured conviction
that the whole of the dispute was going to be submitted to the Inter-
national Court of Justice and that it would be at variance with the

undoubted intention of the Parties to interpret it as a recognition of
the validity of the Award of December 23rd, 1906,or as waiving the
assertion of Nicaragua's complaints before the Court.
In these circumstances and subject to what may be said on this
matter in the Reply, Nicaragua will Sayno more on this question of
jurisdiction." (I.C.J. Pleadings,Arbitral Award Madeby the King of
Spain on 23December1906,Vol. 1,pp. 131-133.The translation from
the French is the Registry's.)

59. It follows that, in the one case before the instant casein which the
question of whetherNicaragua was bound under the Optional Clause was
explicitlyraised,Nicaraguaremainedsignificantly silent. It didnot answer
that question positively ; it did not answer it directl; rather it contented
itself with answers which channelled the case away from the Optional
Clause and towards exclusive reliance on the special agreement. That is
hardly theconduct of aState which harboursand manifeststhe belief that
it is bound under the Optional Clause.
60. There are other events as well which weaken Nicaragua's claim of
consistent conduct showing that it was, and believed itself to have been,
bound under the Optional Clause. Notably, after San Francisco, the

Nicaraguan Foreign Minister made a substantial report to Nicaragua's
Congress on the Conference,the Charter and the Statute of the Court.He
spoke about the attachment of Latin American States to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court. But he said not a word which evenhinted that he
regarded Nicaragua as bound by that compulsoryjurisdiction.

61. It is suggested by the Court that, if Nicaragua were a defendant in
this Court, and sought to deny its recognition of the Court's compulsory
jurisdiction in reliance on Article 36, paragraph 5, the Court would pro-
bably reject that argument ; and that, accordingly, since it would hold
Nicaragua to what it sees as the appearance of its being bound under the
Optional Clause,itshouldholdtheUnited States to that appearance in this

case. In my view, that does not follow. As the Court indicated in the
Anglo-ZranianOil Co. case (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952, pp. 93, 105-
107), the declarant State in making a declaration under the Optional
Clause has a special knowledge of its own situation and intentions. Nica-
ragua is chargeable with knowing not onlythe equivocationsreferred to in
preceding paragraphs, but, above all, of the footnotes and what they
implied.There is ample indication that, al1along, Nicaragua might have
known of the possibility of its maintaining that it was not bound, despite ACTIVITÉS MILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES(OP.DISSS . CHWEBEL) 599

Il est vrai que, suivant la résolution de l'Organisation des Etats
américainsdu 5juillet 1957précitée, l'accord donnépar leNicaragua
au mode de règlementproposé impliquait de sa part l'abandon de la

réserveformuléeau pacte de Bogota, maisil est clair que cet abandon
était uniquementmotivépar la certitude acquise que lelitige allait en
sonentier êtredéféré a la Courinternationalede Justiceet qu'il serait
contraireà l'intention certaine des Parties de l'interpréter commeune
reconnaissance de la validitéde la sentence du 23 décembre1906ou
une renonciation à faire valoir ses griefs devant la Cour.

Dans ces conditions, sous réservede ce qui pourrait être dit à ce
sujet dans la réplique, leNicaragua ne reviendra plus sur cette ques-
tion de compétence. )(C.I.J. Mémoires,Sentencearbitralerenduepar
le roi d'Espagnele 23 décembre1906, vol. 1,p. 131-133.)

59. Ainsi, dans la seule affaire antérieurea la présente instance où la
question de savoir si le Nicaragua était liépar la clause facultative s'est
trouvée explicitement posée, leNicaragua a gardéun silencesignificatif. Il
n'apasrépondu àla question positivement ;il n'ya pasnon plus répondu
directement :ils'estborné àdesréponsesqui excluaient l'affairedu champ
d'application de la clause facultative pour la fonder exclusivement sur le
compromis. Ce n'est pas là le comportement d'un Etat qui nourrit et

exprime la conviction d'êtreliéen vertu de la clause facultative.
60. Ilyad'autres faitsencore qui affaiblissentl'argument du Nicaragua
selon lequel sa conduiteconstante prouverait qu'ilétait,et s'estimait être,
liépar la clause facultative. En particulier, après la conférencede San
Francisco, le ministre des affaires étrangères du Nicaragua présenta au
parlement nicaraguayenun rapport important sur la conférence,la Charte
et le Statut de la Cour. Il y faisait étatde l'attachement des Etats d'Amé-
riquelatine à lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour. Mais iln'ydisait pas un
motpouvant mêmedonner à penser qu'ilconsidéraitqueleNicaragua était
liépar cettejuridiction obligatoire.
61. La Cour semble d'avis que, si le Nicaragua, citédevant elle comme
Etat défendeur,cherchait à nier avoir reconnu lajuridiction obligatoire de

laCour par lejeu del'article36,paragraphe 5,ellerejetterait probablement
cet argument ; et qu'en conséquence, puisqu'elleretiendrait contre le
Nicaragua son acquiescement apparent à êtreliéen vertu de la clause
facultative, elle doit en l'espèceretenir la mêmeapparence contre les
Etats-Unis. Selon moi, cette conclusion ne tient pas. Comme l'a dit la
Cour dans l'affaire de l'Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (arrêtC, .I.J. Recueil 1952,
p. 105-107),1'Etatquifait une déclaration envertu de la clausefacultative
connaît pertinemment sa propre situation et ses propres intentions. Le
Nicaragua est censéconnaître, non seulement les ambiguïtésdont il est
question dans lesparagraphes qui précèdent, maissurtout les notes de bas
de page et ce qu'elles signifient. Les faits permettent de penser que le
Nicaragua a peut-être toujours étéconsciend te la possibilitéde prétendrethe Yearbook and other publications apparently holding it out as bound.
Thus the Court should not countenance Nicaragua having it both ways :

being able to plead that it is bound under the Optional Clause, as in this
case,-butavoiding such a plea, as inthe King of spain case. However, were
the United States bringing an application against Nicaragua, these con-
siderations might well not impair the reliance of the United States on the
appearance of Nicaragua being bound because, in view of Nicaragua's
having taken no public, clear and unambiguous step to correct an appear-
ance of being bound, Nicaragua cannot be heard to deny the truth of an
appearance in whichit solong acquiesced. In short, Nicaragua may wellbe
in no position to deny, after almost 40 years, what it has tolerated despite
the ambiguities of which it had special knowledge. But the United States
and other States were and are not in the same knowledgeable position

(even if the United States may be said in the 1950s to have had some
knowledge of the situation) ; they were not charged with a like duty of
sensitivity to Nicaragua's position ;and thus they could rely on appear-
ances which Nicaragua peculiarly knew, or should have known, to be
questionable.

12. Conclusion

62. In light of the foregoing facts and analysis, it is concluded that
Nicaragua manifestly is without standing to maintain suit before this
Court on the basis of the contention that it is party to the Court's com-
pulsoryjurisdiction by operation of Article 36,paragraph 5,of the Statute,
or on the basis of conduct. In viewof that conclusion,Nicaragua's Appli-
cation, in so far as it relies - and it largely and essentially relies - on
Article 36, paragraph 2, and Article 36, paragraph 5, should have been
dismissed.

C. The Question of Whetherthe Court Has Jurisdiction overthe United
States

I. Jurisdiction under the Optional Clause

63. Nevertheless let us assume, contrary to what 1believe to be mani-
fest, that Nicaragua isparty to thecompulsoryjurisdiction of the Court. 1s
the United States subject in this case to the Court's compulsoryjurisdic-
tion under its declaration of 26 August 1946 ? That question gives rise to
the following subsidiary questions :

- 1s the United States declaration of 26 August 1946valid ?
- If it isvalid, doesits Vandenberg multilateral treaty reservation to the
Court's compulsoryjurisdiction operate so as to exclude al1or some of
Nicaragua's claims ?n'êtrepas lié, malgré lesindications contraires de l'Annuaire et autres
publications. LaCour ne devrait donc paspermettreau Nicaragua dejouer

sur les deux tableaux, en s'affirmant lié en vertude la clause facultative,
commeenl'espèce,etenévitant unetelle affirmation,comme dans l'affaire
de la Sentence arbitrale renduepar le roi d'Espagnele 23 décembre1906.
Certes, silesEtats-Unis introduisaient une instancecontre leNicaragua, il
sepourrait bien que cesconsidérationsles autorisent à invoquer l'acquies-
cement apparent du Nicaragua à êtrelié,vu que leNicaragua, n'ayant pris
aucune mesure publique, claireet non ambiguë pour dissiper l'impression
qu'il est lié,ne saurait êtreadmisà nier la réalitéd'une apparence qu'ila si
longtemps tolérée.En un mot, le Nicaragua ne serait peut-être pas en
mesure de nier, après bientôt quarante ans, ce qu'il a tolérémalgréles
ambiguïtésdont il avait pertinemment connaissance. Mais ni les Etats-

Unis ni lesautresEtats n'étaientpas oune sont aussibien placéspour avoir
connaissance de ces ambiguïtés(même sil'onpeut dire que les Etats-Unis
avaient dans les annéescinquante une certaine idée de la situation) ;les
Etats-Unis et les autresEtats n'avaient pas lemêmedevoir deconnaître la
position du Nicaragua ;et, par conséquent,ilspouvaient fairefondsur des
apparences dont le Nicaragua savait pertinemment, ou aurait dû savoir,
qu'elles étaient discutables.

12. Conclusion

62. A la lumière des faits et des analyses ci-dessus, je conclus que le
Nicaragua n'amanifestement pas qualitépour ester devant la Cour en tant
que partie à lajuridiction obligatoire de celle-ci en vertu de l'article 36,
paragraphe 5, du Statut. Vu cette conclusion, la requêtedu Nicaragua,
dans la mesure où elle est fondée sur l'article 36, paragraphe 2, et l'ar-
ticle 36, paragraphe 5 - ce qu'elle est en grande partie et pour l'essen-
tiel -, devait êtrerejetée.

C. La Coura-t-elfe compétence à l'égard desEtats-Unis ?

1. La juridiction en vertude la clausefacultative

63. Supposons - contrairement àcequeje crois êtrel'évidence - que le
Nicaragua soit assujetti à lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour. Les Etats-
Unis sont-ils, en l'espèce,assujettis à cette juridiction en vertu de leur
déclarationdu 26 août 1946 ? Question qui soulève à son tour trois ques-
tions subsidiaires :

- La déclaration du 26 août 1946des Etats-Unis est-elle valide ?
- Si elle est valide, la réserveVandenberg à la juridiction obligatoire
de la Cour dans lecasdesaffaires mettant enjeu des traités multilatéraux,
qui fait partie de cette déclaration, exclut-elle en tout ou en partie les
demandes du Nicaragua ? - If it is valid, does the United States Note of 6April 1984 - the "1984
notification" - operate to exclude Nicaragua's claims ?

(i) The ConnallyReservation

64. It iswellknown that Judge Lauterpacht, in his dissentingopinion in
the Interhandel case (Judgment,I. C.J. Reports 1959,pp. 6,95), concluded
that the United States Declaration of 26 August 1946is invalid by reason
of its incorporation of the automatic, self-judging proviso known as the
"Connally Reservation". The United States thereby reserved from the
Court'sjurisdiction :

"(b) disputes with regard to matters which are essentially within the
domestic jurisdiction of the United States of America as deter-
mined by the United States of America".

He reached a similar conclusion earlier in respect of a French self-judging
reservation in the case of Certain Norwegian Loans (Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1957, p. 34). Judge Lauterpacht in the Interhandel case summa-
rized his position in these terms :
"(a) the reservation in question, whle constituting an essential part
of theDeclaration ofAcceptance, iscontrary toparagraph 6ofArticle

36 of the Statute of the Court ;it cannot, accordingly, be acted upon
by the Court ; which means that it is invalid ;
(b) that, irrespective of its inconsistency with the Statute, that
reservation by effectively conferring upon the Government of the
United States the right to determine with finality whether in any
particular case it is under an obligation to accept thejurisdiction of
the Court, deprives the Declaration of Acceptance of the character of
a legal instrument, cognizable before ajudicial tribunal, expressing
legal rights and obligations ;
(c) that reservation, being an essential part of the Declaration of
Acceptance, cannot be separated from it so as to remove from the
Declaration the vitiating element of inconsistency with the Statute

and of the absence of a legal obligation. The Government of the
United States, not having in law become a Party, through the pur-
ported Declaration of Acceptance, to the system of the Optional
Clause of Article 36 (2) of the Statute, cannot invoke it as an appli-
cant ; neither can it be cited before the Court as defendant by
reference to its Declaration of Acceptance." (I.C.J. Reports 1959,
pp. 101-102.)

65. In testimony before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations in
1960,I agreed with Judge Lauterpacht's position (CompulsotyJurisdiction,
International Courtof Justice, Hearings beforethe Committee on Foreign
Relations, UnitedStates Senate, Eighty-Sixth Congress,Second Session,on
S. Res. 94, 1960,pp. 191,202-203). 1continue to seegreat force in it, while
appreciating the argument that, since declarations incorporating self- - Sielleest valide, la note du 6 avril 1984des Etats-Unis exclut-elle les
demandes du Nicaragua ?

i) La réserveConnaliy

64. Comme on le sait, Lauterpacht, dans son opinion dissidente jointe
en l'affaire de l'lnterhandel (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 95),

concluait à la non-validité de la déclaration des Etats-Unis du 26 août
1946,au motif quecette déclaration est assortiede la réserveautomatique
et discrétionnaire dite <réserveConnally ))par laquelle les Etats-Unis
excluent de lajuridiction de la Cour :

«b) [les]différendsrelatifs à des questions relevant essentiellement
de la compétence nationale des Etats-Unis d'Amérique,telle
qu'elle est fixéepar les Etats-Unis d'Amérique )).
Lauterpacht était déjà parvenu à une conclusion analogue dans l'affaire

relative à Certains emprunts norvégien(sarrêt,C.I.J.Recueil 1957,p. 34), à
propos d'une réservediscrétionnaire française. Dans l'affaire de l'Inter-
handel, il résumaitsa position comme suit :
(<a) la réserveenquestion, tout en étantune partie essentielle de la

déclaration d'acceptation, est en contradiction avec le paragraphe 6
de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour ; la Cour ne peut donc pas
l'appliquer ;ce qui signifie qu'elle n'est pas valable ;
b) sans tenir compte de son incompatibilité avec le Statut, cette
réserve,en conféranteffectivement au Gouvernement desEtats-Unis
le droit de juger en dernier ressort si, dans une affaire particulière, il
est tenu d'accepter la compétencede la Cour, retire à la déclaration
d'acceptation le caractère d'un instrument juridique, exprimant des
droits et des obligationsjuridiques dont un tribunal judiciaire peut
connaître ;

c) cette réserve,étantun élément essentielde la déclaration d7ac-
ceptation, ne peut en êtreséparée afinde retirer de la déclaration
l'élémentqui la vicie la rendant incompatible avec le Statut, et lui
retire le caractère d'une obligationjuridique. Le Gouvernement des
Etats-Unis n'étant pas, par la prétendue déclaration d'acceptation
qu'il avait souscrite, devenu partie en droit au systèmede la clause
facultative de l'article36(2)du Statut, ne saurait l'invoquer enqualité
de demandeur ;non plus qu'il ne saurait êtrecitédevant la Cour
en vertu de sa déclaration d'acceptation. ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1959,

p. 101.)
65. Dans la dépositionquej'ai faite en 1960devant la commission des
affaires étrangèresdu Sénat,j'ai souscrit aupoint de vue de Lauterpacht
(CompulsoryJurisdiction, International Couro t fJustice, Hearings beforethe

Committee on ForeignRelations, UnitedStates Senate, Eighty-Sixth Con-
gress,Second Session,on S. Res. 94, 1960,p. 202-203).Je lejuge toujours
fort valable, sans méconnaîtrepour autant la valeur de l'argument selonjudging provisions apparently have been treated as valid, certainly by the
declarants, for many years, the passage of time may have rendered Judge
Lauterpacht's analysis lesscompelling today than it waswhen made. Were
hisposition to beapplied to the instant case, the result would be that there

is no valid adherence by the United States to the Optional Clause in
existence and that, accordingly, in so far as Nicaragua relies on that
adherence, its Application must be dismissed.

66. However, 1 do not rest my conclusions in this case on that basis,
essentially but not exclusivelyfor the reason that the United States itself
has treated its adherence to the Court's jurisdiction by means of its
Declaration of 26August 1946asvalid in thiscase and otherwise. 1Saythis
without prejudice to my position in such subsequent pleadings in this case
as there may be which are relevant, taking note, in that connection, of the
followingstatement which isfound as note 1topage9 of the United States
Counter-Memorial :

"On the basis of Nicaragua's pleadings to date, the United States
has determined not to invoke proviso 'b'to the United States 1946
declaration (the so-called 'Connally Reservation').This determina-
tion is without prejudice to the rights of the United States under that
proviso in relation to any subsequent pleadings, proceedings, or cases
before this Court."

Moreover, for other reasons, in any event 1 conclude that Nicaragua
cannot maintain its claims against the United States in reliance upon its
Declaration of 26 August 1946.

(ii) The Vandenberg(Multilateral Treaty) Reservation

67. The Vandenberg Rese~ation-or multilateral treatyreservation-to
the United States adherence to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction of 14
August 1946withholds from thejurisdiction of the Court :

"(c) disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless(1) al1parties
to the treaty affected by thedecision are also parties to the case
before the Court, or (2) the United States of America specially
agrees to jurisdiction".

The United States maintains that, since Nicaragua essentially bases its
Application on alleged violation by the United States of its treaty obliga-
tions under the United NationsCharter, the Charter of theOrganization of
American States and twoother inter-American treaties, the Court isbound
to give effect to this exception from itsjurisdiction. It contends that. in
viewof Nicaraguan claims that El Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica are
acting inconcert with the United States, and in viewof thefactual situation
obtaining in Central America which is rooted in Nicaraguan acts of sub- lequellesannéesécouléed sepuis l'analysede Lauterpacht peuventen avoir
affaibli le poids, puisque les déclarations assortiesde réservesdiscrétion-
naires sont apparemment depuis longtemps considéréescomme valables,
du moins par les Etats déclarants.Sil'onappliquait l'analyse àla présente
affaire, il faudrait conclure que l'adhésion desEtats-Unis à la clause
facultative n'est pas valable et'qu'en conséquence,dans la mesure où le
Nicaragua invoque cette adhésion,la requête nicaraguayenne doit être
rejetée.

66. Maisje nefonde pas mesconclusions enl'espèce surcette base, pour
la raison essentielle - mais non pas unique - que les Etats-Unis eux-
mêmes ont déclaréqueleuradhésion à lajuridictionde laCour par lejeu de
leur déclarationdu 26 août 1946est valable, que ce soit pour la présente
affaire ou en général.Je dis cela sans préjuger de ma position sur la
question pendant la suite éventuellede la procédure, et eu égard à la
déclarationci-après,qui figure en note à la page 9 du contre-mémoire des
Etats-Unis :

<Compte tenu despiècesdeprocéduredéposéep sar leNicaragua à
cejour, les Etats-Unis ont décidéde ne pas invoquer la réserve<< b) ))
de leur déclaration de 1946 (appelée << amendement ConnalIy D).
Cette décisiondoit cependant s'entendre sans préjudicede leur droit
d'invoquer ultérieurement ladite réserve à propos de tout acte de

procédure etde toute instance ou affaire devant la Cour. ))
De plus, et pour d'autres raisons, je conclus qu'en tout étatde cause le
Nicaragua ne peut tirer parti contre les Etats-Unis de leur déclaration du
26 août 1946.

ii) La réserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux(réserveVandenberg)

67. La réserveVandenberg - ou réserve relative auxtraités multilaté-
raux - dont est assortie la déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction
obligatoire de la Cour faite par les Etats-Unis le 14août 1946,dispose que
cettejuridiction ne s'étendpas :

<<c) aux différends résultantd'un traité multilatéral, à moins que
1)toutes les parties au traité que la décisionconcerne soient
égalementparties à l'affaire soumise à la Cour, ou que 2) les
Etats-Unis d'Amérique acceptentexpressémentla compétence
de la Cour )>.

Les Etats-Unis soutiennent que,puisque le Nicaragua fonde pour l'essen-
tiel sa requête surla prétendue violation, par les Etats-Unis, de leurs
obligations conventionnelles résultantde la Charte des Nations Unies, de
la charte de l'organisation de Etats américains et de deux autres traités
interaméricains, la Cour est tenue de donner effet à cette exclusion de
compétence. Etant donné qu'aux dires du Nicaragua, El Salvador, le

Honduras et Costa Rica agissent de concert avec les Etats-Unis, et vu la
situation de fait régnant enAmériquecentrale,quitrouve son originedansversion and aggressionagainst its neighbours, those States willnecessarily
be "affected" by anyjudgment which the Court renders on the merits of
Nicaragua's claims. While acknowledging that Nicaragua requests judg-
ment for allegedviolations of customary international lawas well astreaty
law, the United States argues that Nicaragua's claimsare sointegrally and
essentially governed by the specifictreaty provisions wluch it invokes that
the Court cannot decide upon the merits of those claims while excluding
those treaty provisions ; Nicaragua's claims of violation of customary

international law are no more than paraphrases of these preclusive treaty
standards. Nicaragua maintains that themultilateral treaties reservation is
mere surplusage ; that the records of Senate debate indicate that it was
addressed to a non-existent problem ;and that in any event, even if the
reservation were to be applied, it could not debar its claims under cus-
tomary international law, which it contends, exists on the points at issue
quite apart from the treaty provisions on whichit has relied.(Amuch fuller
summary of the Parties'contentions in this regard is found in paras. 68-71
of the Court's Judgment.)

68. In disposing of the multilateral treaty reservation, the Court arrives
at the following conclusions :
(a) El Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica, being bound by the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction, are freeto institute proceedings against Nica-

ragua if they should find that they rnight be affected by the future
decision oftheCourt. Moreover, theyarefree to resort to the incidental
procedure of intervention. Thus there is no question of their needing
the protection of the multilateral treaties reservation.
\,) It is for the Court to determine which arethe States "affected" within
themeaning of the reservation. Butit is "only when thegeneral linesof
the judgment to be given have come clear that the States 'affected'
couldbe identified. Bywayofexamplewemay take the hypothesis that
if the Court were to decide to reject the Application of Nicaragua on
the facts, there would be no third States that could claim to be

affected."
(c) The question of which States are affected is a matter of substance
relating to the merits of the case, "obviously" not a jurisdictional
problem. The Court must therefore availitself of Article 79,paragraph
7, of the Rules of Court and declare that the objection based on the
reservation "does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an
exclusivelypreliminary character" and that consequently it does not
constitute an obstacle for the Court to consider the merits of Nicara-
gua's Application. At the same time, the Court holds, the Rules of
Court as revised have done away with the procedural technique for-
merly available ofjoinder of preliminary objections to the merits.

(d) Moreover, the reservation could not bar adjudication by the Court ofles actes de subversion et d'agression commispar le Nicaragua contre ses
voisins, lejugement, quel qu'il soit, quela Cour portera sur le fond de la

demande nicaraguayenne ne peut pas ne pas (<concerner )ces Etats. Les
Etats-Unis, tout en reconnaissant que le Nicaragua allègue également
certainesviolations du droit international coutumier, soutiennent en effet
quelesdemandesnicaraguayennes sont entièrement etfondamentalement
régiespar les dispositions expresses des traitésqu'il invoque, à telle en-
seigneque la Courne saurait statuerau fond sur cesdemandes enexcluant
cesdispositions :lesdemandes du Nicaragua fondéessurdesviolationsdu

droit international coutumier ne font, selon les Etats-Unis, queparaphra-
serlesnormes conventionnelles dont l'application setrouve exclue.De son
côté, leNicaragua soutient que la réserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux
a simplement étésurajoutée ; que le procès verbal des délibérationsdu
Sénatindique qu'elle porte sur un problème fictif, et qu'en tout état de
cause, mêmeappliquée, cette réservedemeurerait sans effet sur les de-

mandes formuléesautitre du droitinternational coutumier, qui, d'après le
Nicaragua, régit lespoints en litige indépendamment des dispositions
conventionnelles invoquéespar lui.(On trouvera un résumé beaucoup plus
complet des arguments des Parties à ce sujet aux paragraphes 68 et 71 de
l'arrêtde la Cour.)
68. En se prononçant sur la question de la réserve relativeaux traités

multilatéraux, la Cour dégage les conclusionssuivantes :
a) El Salvador, le Honduras et le Costa Rica, étantliéspar lajuridiction
obligatoire de la Cour, sont libresd'intenter une action contre leNica-

ragua s'ilspensent que ladécisionfuturede la Cour peut lesaffecter. De
plus, ilspeuvent recourir à la procédure incidentede l'intervention. On
ne saurait donc dire qu'ils ont besoin d'être protégépsar la réserve
relative aux traités multilatéraux des Etats-Unis.
b) Ilappartient à la Courde déterminerquels sont lesEtats (<affectés ))au
sensde la réserve.Mais ((cen'estqu'àpartir du moment où lesgrandes

lignes de son arrêtse dessineraient qu'elle pourrait déterminer quels
Etats seraient affectés )>Ainsi, dans l'hypothèseoù la Cour déciderait
de rejeter la requêtedu Nicaragua sur la base des faits alléguésa ,ucun
Etat tiers ne pourrait se dire (<affecté )).

c) La question de savoir quels sont les Etats pouvant être ((affectés ))est
une question de substance qui relèvedu fond de l'affaire, et n'est <(de

toute évidence ))pas juridictionnelle. La Cour doit donc, en vertu de
l'article 79, paragraphe 7, de son Règlement déclarerque l'objection
tiréede la réserve <<n'a pas dans les circonstances de l'espèceun ca-
ractère exclusivement préliminaire )) et par conséquent n'est pas un
obstacle a ceque la Cour statue au fond sur la requêtenicaraguayenne.
En même temps,la Cour affirme que la revision du Règlement a

suppriméla procédurede la jonction au fond des exceptions prélimi-
naires.
d) Enfin, la réserve relative auxtraités multilatérauxne saurait empêcher al1Nicaragua's claims,since those claims embrace principles of cus-
tomary international law. The fact that such principles have been
codified or embodied in multilateral conventions does not mean that
they have ceased to exist as customary international law.

69. In my view, conclusions (a), (b) and (c) are misconceived. Conclu-
sion (d) raises substantial and difficult questions which are discussed
below. My reasons for so maintaining are the following :
70. With respect to (a),it may be observed that the multilateral treaties
reservation excludes from the scope of United States submission to the
Court's compulsory jurisdiction disputes arising under a multilateral
treaty unless "al1parties to the treaty affected by the decision are also
parties to thecase before theCourt" (emphasis supplied). The only Parties
now before the Court are Nicaragua and the United States. The fact that
third States affected by the decision might, if they choose, institute pro-
ceedingsin separate cases againstNicaragua, or might seekto intervene in
the current case,isbeside the point of the reservation. It may be that those

States, or some of them, will choose not to institute proceedings against
Nicaragua - none have todate - and that is their perfect right. Equally, it
isunknown whether they willseektointervene (a process which, as Orders
of the Court rendered in recent timesin respect of attempted interventions
of Malta, Italy and El Salvador demonstrate, is in any event problema-
tical). Butwhat isdeterminative, in application - rather than evasion - of
the multilateral treaty reservation is the answer to a simple question of
fact : are al1parties to the multilateral treaties at issue affected by the
decisionalsoparties to the casebefore the Court ?Obviously,now,they are
not. The United States has not specially agreed to jurisdiction. Thus the
reservation, which by its nature was meant to take effect at the jurisdic-
tional phase of the proceedings, applies, and must be applied. But what is
less obvious is which are the parties "affected".

71. In respect to (b), the Court rightly holds that it is for the Court to
determine which are the States "affected" within the meaning of the
reservation. But the Court concludes that it is only "when the general lines
of thejudgment to be givenhave become clear" that the States "affected"
couldbeidentified. It goeswithout saying that, if that identification can be
made only at that late stage, after the parties have been required fully to
brief and argue the merits, the reservation could not fully serve the pur-
poses of ajurisdictional bar which it was designed to serve. The Court's
inference accordingly isthat the reservation isincapable of application at a
jurisdictional stage of the proceedings. In my view,such an interpretation

of themultilateral treaty reservation is unacceptable. It isnot the function
of the Court to interpret the reservations of States to their adherences to
the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction so asto lead, ifnot "to aresult wluchis
manifestly absurd or unreasonable" (Vienna Convention on the Law of ACTIVITÉS MILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP.DISS .CHWEBEL) 604

la Cour de statuer sur toutes les demandes du Nicaragua, car celles-ci
sont égalementfondées surles principes du droit international coutu-
mier. Le fait que ces principes soient codifiésou incorporésdans des
conventions multilatérales ne signifie pas qu'ils cessent d'exister etde
s'appliquer en tant que principes de droit coutumier.

69. Les conclusions a), b) et c) sont, à mon avis, erronées.La conclu-
sion d) pose de difficiles questions defond, qui seront examinées ci-après.
Ma position s'appuie sur le raisonnement suivant.
70. A propos de a), on notera que la réserve relativeaux traitésmulti-
latérauxexclut du champ de l'acquiescement des Etats-Unis à lajuridic-
tion obligatoire de la Cour les différends qui découlentd'un traitémulti-
latéral,à moins que toutes les parties au traitéque la décisionconcerne
soient égalementparties àl'affaire soumise àla Cour ))(lesitaliquessont de

moi). Or seuls le Nicaragua et les Etats-Unis sont actuellement Parties à
l'instance - le fait que les Etats tiers concernéspar la décisionpuissent,
s'ils le veulent, intenter une action distincte contre le Nicaragua, ou
demander d'intervenir dans laprésenteespèce,estsansrapport avecl'objet
de la réserve.Peut-êtreces Etats, ou certains d'entre eux, décideront-ilsde
ne pas introduire d'instance contre le Nicaragua :aucun ne l'a fait à ce
jour, et c'est là leur droit le plus absolu. On ne sait pas davantage s'ils
chercheront à intervenir en recourant à une procédure dont l'issue (à en
juger par les récentesordonnances de la Cour dans le cas de Malte, de

l'Italie et d'El Salvador) esten tout étatde cause problématique. Mais la
considérationdéterminante pour appliquer la réserve relativeaux traités
multilatéraux - plutôt que pour l'éluder - reste la réponse à une simple
question de fait :toutes les parties aux traités multilatéraux invoqués que
la décisionconcerne sont-elles aussi parties à l'affaire devant la Cour ?
Visiblement, cette réponseest négative.D'autre part, les Etats-Unis n'ont
pas expressémentacceptélacompétencede la Cour en l'espèce. La réserve
qui, vu sa nature, doit prendre effet pendant la phasejuridictionnelle de la
procédure,est donc applicable, et doit êtreappliquée. Il est, par contre,

moins aiséde dire quels sont les Etats que la décision (concerne )).
71. S'agissant de b),la Cour a raison de dire que c'est à elle qu'il
appartient de déterminer quels sont les Etats <<affectés au sens de la
réserve. Elleconclut toutefois que <ce n'est qu'àpartir du moment où les
grandes lignes de son arrêt se dessineraient qu'elle pourrait déterminer
quelsEtats seraient <<affectéso. Orilvasansdireque, sisadécisionne peut
êtreprise qu'à ce stade, après que les Parties auront plaidé au fond, la
réserveperd sa nature d'exception préliminaire. La Cour en déduit que
cette réserve estinapplicable pendant la phasejuridictionnelle de la pro-

cédure.Je ne saurais souscrire à une telle interprétation de la réserve
relative aux traités multilatéraux.LaCour n'apas àinterpréterlesréserves
dont les Etats assortissent leur adhésion à lajuridiction obligatoire d'une
manièrequi, sielleneconduit pas <(à un résultat..manifestement absurde
ou déraisonnable (convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités,art. 32),
aboutit néanmoins à dénier àune réserve l'objet évidenp tour lequel elleaTreaties, Art. 32), then to a result which denies a reservation its obvious
object. Rather, the Court is obliged, in accordance with its consistent
jurisprudence, to give effect to "the close and necessary link that always
exists between ajurisdictional clause and reservations to it" (AegeanSea
Continental Shelf;Judgment, I.C.J. Reports1978,p. 33). It is not free to
sever that link by an interpretation of a reservation which deprives it of its
point. Moreover, the Court's interpretation is inconsonant with the terms

of the Court's Statute and inconsistent with the pleadings of the Parties in
this case.
72. The Court's interpretation of the multilateral treaty reservation is
inconsonant with the terms of Article 62 of its Statute, which pro-
vides :

"1. Should a State consider that it has an interest of a legal nature
which may be affected by the decision in the case, it may submit a
request to the Court to be permitted to intervene.
2. It shall be for the Court to decide upon this request."

It will be observed that Article 62, like the multilateral treaty reservation,
employs the verb "to affect" inits past participle, "affected". In one sense,
Article62ismorenarrowly cast than the reservation, because itisconfined
to "an interest of a legal nature which may be affected", whereas the

reservation speaks of parties to the treaty "affected by the decision" -
which admits of being affected not only legally but politically, economi-
cally,militarily, and othenvise. In another sense,Article 62ismore broadly
cast, because it covers cases in which a State's legal interest "may be"
affected, whereas the reservation simply States :"affected". But what is
instructive in answering the immediate question are two facts relating to
Article 62 :first, it provides Statutorydemonstration of the use of the very
term "affected" to which the Court in this case finds itself unable to give
operative significance at this stage of the proceedings. And second, in the
history of theinterpretation of Article 62by thePermanent Court and this
Court, it has never before been suggested, still lessheld by the Court, that
Article62could not be applied because it wasonly afterthe general linesof
thejudgment tobe givenhavebecomeclear thattheCourt could determine
whether a State actually has an interest that may be or is affected by the
judgment.

73. The Court's interpretation of the multilateral treaties reservation is
inconsistent with the pleadings of the Parties in the case;whichthemselves
quite clearly demonstrate which are the States whose interests are to be
affected by the Court'sjudgment on the merits. The pleadings of Nicara-
gua are particularly probative, for it is Nicaragua's Application and its
precise claims in which it sets out what the Court is requested to adjudge
and declare which frame the issuesof the case.Nicaragua, whilemaking its
claimsagainst theUnited States alone, has made it clear that otherCentral
American States in addition to itself are involved in the dispute. The veryétéconçueL . a Cour est tenue,conformément à saconstantejurisprudence,
de donner effet aux << liens étroitset nécessairesquiexistenttoujours entre
une clausejuridictionnelle et les réservesdont elle fait l'objet ))(Plateau
continental de la mer Egée,C.I.J. Recueil 1978, p. 33). 11ne lui est pas
loisible de rompre ce lien en donnant d'une réserveune interprétation qui
luiconfèreun sensqui la prive de sonobjet.L'interprétation dela Cour est

de surcroît incompatible avecles termes de son Statut, et en contradiction
avec les arguments des Parties dans la présente affaire.

72. L'interprétation donnéeparla Cour de la réserverelativeauxtraités
multilatérauxest incompatible avec l'article 62de son Statut, qui est ainsi
rédigé :

<<1. Lorsqu'un Etat estime que, dans un différend, un intérêt

d'ordre juridique est pour lui en cause, il peut adresser à la Cour
une requête, à fin d'intervention.
2. La Cour décide. ))

On notera que, dans la version anglaise de cet articlecomme dans cellede
la réserverelativeauxtraités multilatéraux,leterme <<affected estpassif.
En un sens,cependant,l'article62 estplus restrictif que laréserve,puisqu'il
ne s'applique qu'aux intérêts d'ordrejuridiquequi setrouvent <affected ))

(<<encause )))alors quela réserveviseengénérallesEtats <que ladécision
concerne ))(O affected )))- que ce soit sur un plan juridique, politique,
économique,militaire ou autre. Mais, dans un autre sens, l'article 62 est
d'application plus large, puisqu'ily suffit que 1'Etat<<considère ))que son
intérêtd'ordre juridique est en cause, alors que la réservefait mention
seulementdes Etats que la décision <concerne o.Mais deux faits intéres-
sant l'article 62 sontplusinstructifs pour cequi est de la question qui nous
occupe :lepremier est que cet article du Statut éclairede façon concluante

l'emploi de ce terme, << affected )),auquel la Cour s'estime incapable en
l'espècededonner effet au stade actuel de laprocédure.Lesecond est qu'il
ressort de l'interprétation de l'article 62 par la Cour permanente et par la
présenteCourqu'iln'ajamais étéavancéjusqu'ici, etmoinsencoresoutenu
par laCour,quel'article 62était inapplicableparce quela Cournepouvait
déterminer si un Etat avait effectivement un intérêtmis en cause - ou
susceptibled'êtremis encause - par sa décision qu'àpartir du moment où

les grandes lignes de son arrêtse seraient dessinées.
73. L'interprétation donnéeparlaCour dela réserverelativeauxtraités
multilatéraux est en contradiction avec les arguments des Parties, qui
montrent très clairement quels sont les Etats dont les intérêts seront
affectéspar le jugement au fond. Les affirmations du Nicaragua sont
particulièrement probantes àcet égard,carcesont lestermes de sarequête,
et les demandes énonçant ce qu'il prie la Cour de dire etjuger, qui cons-
tituent lecadredans lequel s'inscritla présenteaffaire.Or,leNicaragua, si

sesdemandes sont seulementadresséescontre les Etats-Unis, préciseque
d'autres Etats d'Amérique centrale,outre lui-même,sont mêlés à ce dif-first numbered paragraph of its Application claims that the United States
has installed more than "10,000 mercenaries ... in more than ten base
campsin Honduras alongtheborder with Nicaragua .. .".Thisaccusation
is elaborated in Annex A to the Nicaraguan Application, in its introduc-
toryparagraphs and innumbered paragraphs 1,2,5,6,7,8,9, 10,11, 13, 14,
17,20, 22 and 23. Nicaragua has also alleged that there are 2,000 United
States-supported "mercenaries" operating against it from Costa Rica (af-
fidavit of Nicaraguan Foreign Minister d'Escoto Brockmann, Exhibit II,

para. 5, submitted during the oral proceedings on provisional measures)
and thatthe Government of CostaRica is actingin concert with theUnited
States (affidavit of Luis Carrion, Exhibit 1,para. 4, also submitted at the
stage of provisional measures). Moreover, in the recent oral argument in
this phase of the proceedings,the Agent of Nicaragua alleged that, in this
dispute,the United Stateshas bases, radar stations, spyplanes,spy shps -
the armies of El Salvador and Honduras at its service. . ."(Hearing of
8 October 1984) ;that is to say, Nicaragua has alleged that the United
States acts in concert with Honduras and El Salvador. It is accordingly
plain that, if the pleadings of Nicaragua are to be accepted for these
purposes asaccurate,and ifNicaragua werein a decision of theCourt to be
accorded the remedies whch it seeks, Honduras, Costa Rica and El Sal-
vador necessarily would be "affected" by the Court's decision.Point (g)of
what Nicaragua in its Application (at para. 26) requests the Court to
adjudge and declare makes this particularly clear. Nicaragua requeststhat
the Court hold that the United States

"is under a particular duty to cease and desist immediately . ..from
al1support of any kind - including the provision of training, arms,

ammunition, finances, supplies, assistance, direction or any other
form of support - to any nation. ..engaged or planning to engagein
military or paramilitary actions in or against Nicaragua. .."

It is a fact that the United States is heavily engaged in supporting Hon-
duras and ElSalvador with training,arms,finances, etc.Nicaragua itselfin
its Application and pleadings alleges that Honduras and El Salvador are
engaged in military or paramilitary actions in or against Nicaragua, in
concert with the United States. Honduras and El Salvador,in their com-
munications to the Court, maintain that actually it is Nicaragua which
has engaged and is engaging in a variety of acts of direct and indirect
aggression against them, including armed attacks. (See the letter of
18April1984 from theGovernment of Hondurasto the Secretary-General
of theUnitedNations containingobservations on the then pending request
for provisional measures, as wellas the Court's Order of 10May 1984,my
dissenting opinion, p. 199 ; and see El Salvador's Declaration of Inter-
vention of 15August 1984,in which it alleges, inter alia hat it "considers
itselfunder the pressure of an effective armed attack on the part of
Nicaragua. ..". It there protested "the aggression of which it is a victim férend.Dèsleparagraphe 1de sarequête,ilest dit que les Etats-Unis ont
installé plusde <(10000 mercenaires ...dans plus de dix camps de base au
Honduras, lelong delafrontièreavecleNicaragua ...)Cette accusation est
développée à l'annexeA de la requête,dans lesparagraphes d'introduction
etdans ceuxportant lesnuméros1,2,5,6,7,8,9, 10,11, 13, 14,17,20,22 et
23. Le Nicaragua prétend égalementque 2000 <(mercenaires )),soutenus
par les Etats-Unis, opèrent contre son territoire, à partir du Costa Rica
(déclarationsous serment du ministre des affaires étrangèresdu Nicara-

gua, Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann, pièce II, paragraphe 5, présentéeau
cours de la procédure orale sur les mesures conservatoires) et que le
Gouvernement costaricien agit de concert avecles Etats-Unis (déclaration
sous serment de Luis Carrion, pièce1,paragraphe 4, présentéeégalement
lors de laprocédure oralesur lesmesures conservatoires). De plus,lorsdes
audiences qui viennent de se tenir, l'agent du Nicaragua a affirmé que,
dans cemêmedifférend, (lesEtats-Unis possèdent desbases, desstations
de radar, des avions espions, des bateaux espions, que les armées d'El
Salvador et du Honduras sont à leur service... (audience du 8 octobre

1984) - en d'autres termes, que les Etats-Unis agissent de concert avec le
Honduras et El Salvador. Il est en conséquencemanifeste que, si les faits
avancéspar leNicaragua sont tenuspour exactset silaCour décidede faire
droit aux demandes du Nicaragua, sa décisionconcernera nécessairement
lesintérêts du Honduras, du Costa Rica et d'El Salvador. Cela ressort avec
une clartéparticulièrede ceque leNicaragua demande à la Cour de direet
juger, au paragraphe 26, alinéa g), de sa requête :les Etats-Unis

ont ledevoir exprèsde mettre fin et de renoncerimmédiatement ..à
tout appui de quelque nature qu'il soit - y compris l'entraînement et

la fourniture d'armes,de munitions, de fonds, d'approvisionnements,
d'assistance, de direction ou toute autre forme de soutien - à toute
nation ..se livrant ou se disposant àse livrerà des actions militaires
ou paramilitaires au Nicaragua ou contre celui-ci ...

En effet les Etats-Unis fournissent un soutien actif au Honduras et à El
Salvador sous forme d'entraînement, d'armements, de crédits, etc. ; le
Nicaragua lui-même,dans sa requête et en plaidoirie, a affirméque le
Honduras et El Salvador se livrent, de concert avec les Etats-Unis, à des

actions militaires ou paramilitaires au Nicaragua ou contre celui-ci ;et le
Honduras et El Salvador, dans leurs communications à la Cour, ont
déclaréqu'en réalité c'estle Nicaragua qui s'est livréet qui se livre contre
eux à divers actes d'agression directe ou indirecte, y compris des agres-
sions armées. (Voirla lettre du Gouvernement du Honduras adresséele
18 avril 1984 au Secrétaire générad les Nations Unies, contenant les
observations de ce pays sur la demande en indication de mesures conser-
vatoires, alors pendante, ainsi que l'ordonnance du 10 mai 1984et mon
opinion dissidente, à la page 199 ; voir aussi aux paragraphes 1à III, la

déclarationd'intervention d'El Salvadordu 15août 1984,où il est affirmé,
entre autres choses, qu'El Salvador ((estime êtrel'objet d'une agressionthrough subversiondirected by Nicaragua. . ."It claimed that, "Nicara-
gua has been converted into a base from which the terrorists seek the

overthrow of the popularly elected Government of Ournation. They are
directed, armed, supplied and trained by Nicaragua. .." (at paras. 1and
III).) In short, Nicaragua seeks ajudgment from the Court requiring the
United Statesto ceaseand desist from actions which Nicaragua claims are
unlawfully directed against Nicaragua, with the assistance of Honduras,
Costa Rica and El Salvador, whereas the United States, Honduras and El
Salvador claim that these very actions are conducted in collective self-
defence against Nicaraguan acts of aggression. The judgment which the
Court reaches on this critical point accordingly must "affect" not only the
United States but Hondurasand ElSalvador, and - in viewofNicaragua's
allegations - Costa Rica as well. If the Court takes the facts as alleged in
Nicaragua's pleadings as true - which the Court is entitled to do for

purposes of deciding whether Nicaragua presents a cause of action over
which the Court has jurisdiction or which is admissible - then it neces-
sarilyfollows that Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvador mustbe affected
by a decision of the Court in this case,whatever that decision turnsout to
be. Nicaragua's Agent indeedmaintained that Nicaragua has no objection
"to a participation of El Salvador" in this case, indeed, "no objection to a
participation of other States" (Hearing of 8 October 1984).This suggests
that Nicaragua itself has recognized that, at least within the compass of
Article 63,ElSalvador, Honduras and CostaRica willbe "affected" by any
decision of the Court in this case. El Salvador itself has sought to intervene
under Article 63 of the Statute ;the Court has inferred in its Order of
4 October 1984 the propriety of such intervention on the merrits ; and

Honduras and Costa Rica, while not seeking to intervene,have also sent
communications to the Court or to the Secretary-General which demon-
strate their concern about how adjudication of this case would affect
them.

74. The conclusion to which the particulars of the pleadings of the
Parties lead is supported by the principles of international law. If Nica-
ragua's charges are true - if the acts against it which it alleges the United
States istaking or supporting are in fact taking place, if they are unlawful,
and if Hondurasand Costa Rica are knowingly lendingtheir territory and
El Salvador islending its resources to the commission of these acts - then
Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvador also stand in violation of their

international obligations.Indeed, evenif the acts of Honduras, Costa Rica
and El Salvador themselvesdo not giverise to international responsibility,
then aid or assistance by Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvador to the
United States for the commission of the acts of the United States consti-
tutes an internationally wrongful act on the part of those three States.
Theseelementalaspects of accepted international laware illustrated in the
draft articleson State Responsibility which my eminent colleague, Judge
Ago,prepared and which the International Law Commissionhasadopted.
Article 27 of that draft provides :arméeréellede la part du Nicaragua ...)),où El Salvador se plaint de
<l'agressiondont ilestvictimeen raison del'action subversiveque dirigele
Nicaragua ...O,et où il est dit que <<le Nicaragua est devenu une base à
partir de laquelle des terroristes s'efforcent de renverser le gouvernement
élupar la population de notre nation. Ces terroristes sont dirigés, armés,
approvisionnés et entraînéspar le Nicaragua o.)Autrement dit, le Nica-
ragua demande à la Cour un arrêtenjoignant aux Etats-Unis de mettre fin
et de renoncer aux actions collectivesqu'ilaffirme êtredirigéescontre lui,
alors que les Etats-Unis, le Honduras et El Salvador affirment que ces

mêmesactions sont des actes de légitime"éfensecollective contre les
agressions du Nicaragua. La décisionde la Cour sur ce point critique ne
pourra donc pas ne pas <<concerner )>le Honduras, El Salvadoret - vu les
allégationsdu Nicaragua - leCostaRica enplusdesEtats-Unis. Sila Cour
admet pour vraislesfaits alléguép sar leNicaragua - cequ'elle esten droit
de faire pour déterminer si le Nicaragua présente un motif d'action qui
relèvede sa compétence ouqui est recevable -, il s'ensuit inévitablement
aue les intérêts du Honduras. du Costa Rica et d'El Salvador ne Deuvent
pas ne pas êtremisen cause,quelle que soitla décisionque la Courprendra

en l'espèce.Et en effet l'agent du Nicaragua a affirmé que le Nicaragua
<<n'apas d'objection à laparticipation d'El Salvador à laprésenteaffaire,
voire qu'il <<n'a d'objection à la participation d'aucun autre Etat ))(au-
dience du 8octobre 1984).Le Nicaragua reconnaît ainsi que, du moins au
regard de l'article63,les intérêts d'El Salvador, du Honduras et du Costa
Rica se trouveront (<en cause )>quelle que soit la décisionque prendra la
Cour. D'ailleurs El Salvador a soumis une requête à fin d'intervention en
vertu de l'article63du Statut ;la Cour, dans l'ordonnance qu'ellearendue
récemment,a fait entrevoir la possibilité d'une telleintervention lors de la

procédure sur le fond ; et le Honduras et le Costa Rica, bien que ne
demandant pas à intervenir, ont envoyé,soit à la Cour, soit au Secrétaire
générald ,escommunications qui témoignentdeleur soucidevant leseffets
qu'aura pour eux la décisionque la Cour prendra en l'espèce.
74. La conclusion qui sedégagedu détaildes plaidoiries des Parties est
confirméepar les principes du droit international. Si en effet les accusa-
tions du Nicaragua sont fondées - les actions dirigéesà son encontre, que
lesEtats-Unis sont réputésmenerouappuyer,ont effectivement lieu,sices
activitéssont illicites, et si le Honduras et le Costa Rica prêtenten con-

naissance de cause leur territoire et El Salvador, ses ressources, à la réa-
lisation de ces actes - ces trois Etats violent eux aussi leurs obligations
internationales. Et même sliesagissements du Honduras, du Costa Rica et
d'El Salvador n'engagent pas par eux-mêmesla responsabilitéinternatio-
nale de ces Etats, l'aide ou l'assistance prêtéepar ces trois pays aux
Etats-Unis pour l'accomplissement des actes perpétréspar ces derniers
constitue un fait internationalement illicite. Ces notions élémentairesdu
droit international établi trouvent forme dans les projets d'articles sur la
responsabilité des Etats rédigéspar mon éminent collègue, M. Ago, et

adoptéspar la Commission du droit international, où l'article 27 se lit
comme suit : "Aid orAssistance by a State to Another State for the Commission
of an Internationally WrongfulAct

Aid or assistanceby a State to another State, if it is establishedthat
it is rendered for the commission of an internationally wrongful act,
carried out by the latter, itself constitutes an internationally wrongful
act, even if, taken alone, such aid or assistance would not constitute
the breach of an international obligation." (Yearbook of the Interna-
tional Law Commission 1978,Vol. II, Part Two, p. 99.)

The cornrnentary to that article demonstrates how established are these
principles of international law in doctrine and practice (pp. 99-105). It
followsfrom theseprinciples, and fromthe pleadings of Nicaragua, that, if
the Court should sustain Nicaragua's claims,Honduras, Costa Rica and El
Salvador necessarily will be affected by the Court's judgment in the
case.
75. Nor isit persuasive to argue,asthe Court does,that ifitshould reject
Nicaragua's Application, there would be no third States thai could claim to
be affected by the judgment in the case. That is like saying that, if in a
national court, citizen "A" isindicted on charges of terrorism involvingthe
smuggling of narcotics and arms, and foreigners "B", "C" and "Dm,who
are situated abroad, are named in the charges as unindicted co-conspira-
tors, and if the court finds citizen "A" not guilty, then foreigners "B", "C"
and "D" are not affected by thejudgment - not affected legally,econom-
ically, morally or othenvise. Indeed, the case before this Court is an a
fortiori case, because, while in the hypothetical case, the foreigners, not
being within the territorialjurisdiction of the forum, are not, or probably
are not, subject to its law, in the case before this Court the situation is
fundamentally otherwise. While, by the terms of Article 59 of the Court's

Statute, the decision of the Court has no binding force except between the
Parties andin respect of that particular case,and while,inpoint of fact, the
only Parties before the Court are Nicaragua and the United States,
nevertheless al1States are subject to the same law to which they are sub-
ject, international law.Thus thecertainty of States which are deeply impli-
cated in the pleadings of the Applicant being affected by the judgment
of the Court in this case is the clearer.

76. Let us assume, however, contrary to the foregoing considerations,
that the Court is correct in a holding which had the effect of rendering the
multilateral treaty reservation of the United Statesinoperative, at anyrate
in thejurisdictional phase of the proceedings in which it was designed to
operate. Let usassumethat itisright inconcluding that "it isonlywhen the
general lines of the judgment to be given become clear that the States
'affected' couldbe identified". What follows from that portentous con-
clusion ? In the Court's view, apparently it follows, for this and other
reasons, that the multilateral treaty reservation "does not constitute an
obstacle for the Court to entertain the proceedings instituted by Nica-
ragua. ..". My conclusion is the opposite. «Aide ou assistance d'unEtat à un autre Etat pour laperpétration
d'un fait internationalement illicite
L'aideoul'assistanced'un Etat à un autreEtat, s'ilest établiqu'elle

est prêtéepour la perpétration d'un fait internationalement illicite
réalisépar ce dernier, constitue elle aussi un fait internationalement
illicite,mêmesi,prise isolémenc t,ette aideouassistance ne constituait
pas la violation d'une obligation internationale. >)(Annuaire de la
Commission du droit international, 1978,vol. II, partie 2, p. 111 .)

Lecommentairequiaccompagne ceprojet d'articlemontre qu'il s'agitlà de
principes établisdu droitinternationaldans la doctrine et dans la pratique
(p. 111-118).Etildécoulede cesprincipeset desaffirmations du Nicaragua
que, sila Cour fait droit aux demandes de cet Etat, sa décisionconcernera
nécessairementle Honduras, le Costa Rica et El Salvador.

75. L'idée exprimép ear la Cour, endisant que, dans l'hypothèseoù elle
rejetterait la requête du Nicaragua, aucun Etat tiers ne pourrait se dire
affecté par l'arrêt,n'est pas plus convaincante. Autant dire, pour trans-

poser l'affairesur leplan interne, que siun individu A est accusédevant un
tribunal du pays dont il est ressortissant d'actes de terrorisme, avec trafic
d'armes et de stupéfiants, et que les individus B, C et D, ressortissants
étrangers se trouvant hors du ressort du tribunal, sont citéssans être
inculpés, ils neseront pas concernés - juridiquement, économiquement,
moralement ou de toute autre manière - par un jugement aux termes
duquel A est déclarénon coupable.Encorelaprésenteespèceva-t-elleplus
loin dans ce sens. Si en effet, dansnotre hypothétiqueexemple, les étran-
gers, qui se trouvent hors de la juridiction du tribunal, ne sont pas, ou

probablement pas, assujettis au droit appliquépar ce tribunal, il n'en va
absolument pas de mêmedans la présenteespèce.Il est vrai qu'aux termes
del'article59du Statut la décisionde la Cour n'estobligatoire que pour les
parties en litige et dans le cas qui a étédécidé,et que le Nicaragua et les
Etats-Unis sontenfait lesseulesParties àla présenteinstance ;iln'en reste
pas moins que tous les Etats sont assujettis au mêmedroit qu'eux, c'est-
à-dire au droit international. On peut donc dire, avec une certitude ren-
forcée,que l'arrêtde la Cour dans la présente affaire affectera des Etats
aussi profondément mis en cause par le requérant.

76. Supposons toutefois, en dépit desconsidérationsqui précèdent,que
la Cour araison de soutenir une thèsequi apour effet derendreinopérante
laréserverelative auxtraités multilatéraux, àtout lemoins durant laphase
juridictionnelle de laprocédure pourlaquelle ellea été conçue. Supposons
qu'elle a raison de conclure que ((ce n'est qu'àpartir du moment où les
grandes lignes de son arrêtse dessineraient qu'elle pourrait déterminer
quels Etats seraient affectés)>.Que peut-on déduire de cette étonnante
conclusion ? Pour la Cour, on peut en conclure apparemment que, pour
cette raison et pour d'autres, la réserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux
ne s'opposepas à ceque la Cour connaisse de l'instance introduite par le

Nicaragua ...))Ma conclusion est précisément à l'opposé. 77. In his notable dissent in the Interkandel case, Judge Sir Hersch
Lauterpacht observed that :
"Invalidity, in the contemplation of the law, is nothing else than
inherent incapacity to produce legal results ...

The United States of America has accepted the obligations of
Article 36(2)of the Statute on condition that in any particular case it
isfortheGovernment of theUnited States of America, and not forthe
International Court of Justice, to determine whether a matter is
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of the United States of
America. That condition, covering as it does a potentially all-com-
prehensive category of disputes relating to matters essentially within
domestic jurisdiction, has replaced - in addition to another wide
reservation in theAmericanDeclaration ofAcceptancerelating to the

interpretation of multilateral treaties - the traditional formula
requinng the consent of the Senate, or of the Government of the
United States ofAmerica, to the submission of anyparticulardispute
to the international tribunal. This Court, whose jurisdiction is
grounded solelyand exclusivelyin theconsent of the defendant State,
must respect that essential condition of the Declaration of Accep-
tance.

Any decision of the Court which arrogates to it a competence

denied toit by the expressterms of thejurisdictional instrument relied
upon by the parties disturbs the continuity of the established juris-
prudence of the Court. That jurisprudence has been based on the
accepted principle of international law that the jurisdiction of the
Court is based invariably on the consent of the parties, given in
advance orin relation to aparticulardispute ...Butthe Courthasnot
assumedjurisdiction - and cannot properly do so - ifjurisdiction is
expressly denied to it." (Interkandel, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959,
pp. 104, 107, 114-115.)

Judge Lauterpacht then considered the question whether, although the
Connally Reservation

"is invalid - the Declaration of Acceptance may, apart from that
reservation, be treated asotherwisesubsistent and giveneffect by the
Court. In the caseconcerning CertainNonvegian Loans1gavereasons
in my separate opinion - which must be read as forming part of the
present Opinion - why that question must be answered in the nega-
tive.These reasons included the generalprinciple oflawgoverning the
subject, namely, theprinciple that acondition which,having regard to
theintention oftheparty making it,is essential to and goesto theroots
of themain obligation, cannot beseparated from it. This isnot amere 77. Dans sa célèbreopinion dissidente en l'affaire de l'lnterhandel,
Hersch Lauterpacht faisait observer :

(<La nullitéendroit n'estpasautre choseque l'incapacité inhérente
de produire des effetsjuridiques.

Les Etats-Unis d'Amériqueont acceptéles obligations découlant
del'article36(2)du Statut, à lacondition quedanstout cas d'espèceil
appartiendrait au Gouvernement desEtats-Unis d'Amérique,et non
à la Cour internationale de Justice, de décidersi une affaire relevait
essentiellement de la compétence nationale des Etats-Unis d'Am&-

rique. Cette condition, quicouvre unecatégorievirtuellement exhaus-
tive de différendsrelatifs à des questions relevant essentiellement de
la compétence nationale, a remplacé - en sus d'une autre réserve
d'une portéeétenduefigurant dans la déclaration d'acceptation des
Etats-Unis et relative àl'interprétation des traités multilatéraux - la
formuletraditionnelle exigeant leconsentement du Sénatoudu Gou-
vernement des Etats-Unis d'Amériquepour soumettre tout différend
particulier à un tribunal international. La Cour, dont la compétence
se fonde uniquement et exclusivement sur le consentement de l'Etat

défendeur,doit respecter cette condition essentielle de la déclaration
d'acceptation.

Toute décisionde la Cour qui lui attribuerait une compétenceque
lui refusent les termes exprèsde l'instrument conférant lajuridiction
invoquéepar les parties interrompt la continuitéde lajurisprudence
constante de la Cour. Cette jurisprudence a eu pour base le principe
reconnu dedroitinternational que lacompétencede la Cour sefonde
invariablement sur leconsentement des parties donné àl'avance ou à

propos d'un différend déterminé ..Mais la Cour ne sereconnaît pas
compétente - et ellene saurait lefaire - quand la compétenceluiest
expressément refusée. )(Interhandel, arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil1959,p. 104,
107, 114et 115.)

Lauterpacht posait ensuite la question de savoir, si malgréla nullité en
l'espècede la réserveConnally :
(<elle peut, indépendamment de cette réserve,traiter la déclaration

d'acceptation commen'enexistantpas moins, et siellepeut luidonner
effet. Dans l'affaire concernant Certains emprunts norvégiens,j'ai
donné, dans mon opinion individuelle - qui doit êtreconsidérée
comme constituant une partie de la présente opinion - les raisons
pour lesquelles la réponse à cette question ne peut être quenégative.
Ellescomprennent leprincipe générad l e droit régissantla matière, à
savoir,leprincipe qui veut qu'une condition qui, euégard à l'intention
de la partie qui en est l'auteur, est un élément essentiedle l'obligation refinement of private law, or of any municipal system thereof, but -
asal1generalprinciples oflaw - a maximbased on common senseand
equity. A party cannot be held to be bound by an obligation divested

of a condition without which that obligation would never have been
undertaken." (Ibid., pp. 116-117.)

In hisseparate opinion in the Certain Nonvegian Loanscase, Judge Lau-

terpacht, in discussing whether it was possible to sever a French self-
judging proviso from the French declaration accepting the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court, concluded :
"The Court cannot properly uphold the validity of the Acceptance
as a whole and at the same time treat as non-existent any such

far-reaching,articulate and deliberatelimitation of itsjurisdiction. To
do so would run counter to the established practice of the Court -
which, in turn, is in accordance with a fundamental principle of
international judicial settlement - that the Court will not uphold its
jurisdiction unless the intention to confer it has been proved beyond
reasonable doubt. The Court certainly cannot assumejurisdiction if
there is a clearly expressed intention to deny it in specified circum-
stances. This means that it would not be possible for the Court to
disregard that part of the reservation in question which claims for the
State concerned the right to determine its application. It is not pos-
sible for the Court to do otherwise than to regard this particular part
of the reservation, so specifically formulated, as constituting an

essential and not severable part of the instrument of acceptance."
(Case of Certain Nonvegian Loans, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957,
pp. 58-59.)
78. It cannot be maintained that the Senate of the United States
attached the same importance to the Vandenberg multilateral treaties
Reservation as it attached to the Connally Reservation.Indeed, the Senate

debate in the course of which the Vandenberg Reservation was added
suggests that the Senators concerned were under the impression that the
objective which the Vandenberg Reservation was meant to ensure was
alreadywritten into the Statute by thedoctrine and practice of reciprocity.
(See the Congressional Record, Proceedings andDebates of the 79th Con-
gress,Second Session,1August 1946,p. 10618.)They nevertheless added
the Vandenberg Reservation with a viewto being "doubly assured" (ibid.)
that the Court could not entertain a dispute involving the United States
arising under a multilateral convention unless al1parties to the treaty
affected by the decision werealsoparties to thecase before the Court.That
was the Senate'sintention. That intention is clearly reflected in the words

of the reservation whichwereincorporated into the text of thedeclaration.
That is what proviso (c) of the United States reservations to the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction says. While there may be room for questioning principale et touche à la base mêmede cette obligation, ne saurait en
êtreséparée. Il ne s'agitpas icid'une simple subtilitéde droit privé ni
d'un systèmeinterne quelconque de ce droit mais - comme tous les
principes générauxde droit - d'une maxime fondéesurle senscom-
mun et l'équitéU . ne partiene peut êtreconsidéréecommeliéepar une
obligation si on en retire la condition sans laquelle cette obligation
n'aurait jamais étéassumée. ))(Ibid., p. 116-117.)

Dans son opinion individuelle en l'affaire des Emprunts norvégiens,Lau-
terpacht, s'interrogeant sur la possibilitéde dissocier une réserve discré-
tionnaire de l'ensemblede la déclaration française acceptant lajuridiction
obligatoire de la Cour, concluait en ces termes :

(<LaCourne peut normalement soutenir lavaliditéde l'acceptation
dansson ensemble et, en même temps,traiter commenon avenueune
limitation d'une aussi largeportée,enoncéeen termes aussi préciset
explicites. Ce serait contrairà la pratique établiede la Cour qui est,
de son côté,conforme au principe fondamental du règlementjudi-
ciaireinternational qui veut que la Courne sedéclarepas compétente
à moins que l'intention de lui conférer compétence n'aitétéétablie
sans aucun doute raisonnable. La Cour ne peut certainement pas
accepter compétences'ilexiste une intention clairement expriméede

la lui refuser dans descirconstances déterminéesC . ela signifiequ'elle
ne pourrait négligercette partie de la réserveen question qui réclame
pour 1'Etatle droit de fixer son application. Il est impossible que la
Cour fasse autrement que de regarder cet élémentparticulier de la
réserveformulée si expressément comme constituant un élément
essentiel non séparable de l'instrument d'acceptation. >)(Certains
emprunts norvégiens, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1957,p. 58-59.)

78. On ne saurait dire queleSénatdesEtats-Unisaitattaché à laréserve
Vandenberg la mêmeimportance qu'à la réserveConnally. Les débatsdu
Sénatau cours desquelslaréserveVandenbergaétéajoutée donnent même
à penser que lessénateurs avaientl'impressionque l'objectif viséétaitdéjà
consacrédans le Statut, en vertu de la doctrine et de la pratique de la
réciprocité. (VoirCongressional Record, Proceedings andDebates of the
79th Congress,Second Session, ler août 1946,p. 10618.)Ils n'en ont pas
moins ajoutéla réserveVandenberg pour être<< doublement sûrs (ibid.)

que la Cour ne pourrait connaître d'un différend découlant d'un traité
multilatéral,à moins que toutes les parties au traitéquela décisioncon-
cerne ne fussent égalementparties àl'affaire soumiseà la Cour. Lefait que
telle était bien l'intention du Sénat ressort sans ambiguïté des termes
mêmesde la réserve,tels qu'insérédsans le texte de la déclaration.C'est ce
qu'énoncela clauseconditionnelle c)desréservesjointes par lesEtats-Unis
à leur déclaration d'acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour.
Mêmesi l'on peut douter que cette clause fût pour les Etats-Unis un
élément essentied le leur déclaration,je ne pense pasque la Cour soit libre whether the United States wasof theviewthat this proviso wasessential to
its declaration, nevertheless 1 do not believe that the Court is free to
disregard or sever it on the ground of its relative unimportance. It is a
safeguard which, after deliberation, and in the absence of a recommen-
dationsupporting itsinclusion fromtheDepartment of State, the Senateof
the United States nevertheless decided to require. In my view,it accord-
inglyfollowsthat itwouldnot be appropriatefor the Court tofind that that

reservation isinherentlyinoperative at thestage at whichitwasdesigned to
operate, i.e., in a limited sense, invalid, by finding, as Judge Lauterpacht
put it, that is has "an inherent incapacity to produce legal results" ;
however,once the Court sofinds - asit in effect does for present purposes
in today'sjudgment - it also follows that it must treat the whole of the
United States Declaration of 14August 1946as invalid. If for that reason
the United States declaration as a whole is invalid, then it cannot be
invoked by Nicaragua to sustain thejurisdiction of the Court.
79. As for (c), the Court's third reason for not giving effect to the

multilateral treaty reservation, it is difficult to express a definitive view
because of the compressed character of the Court's reasoning.After hold-
ing - in my view,wrongly - that "obviously" the question of what States
may be "affected" is not ajurisdictional problem, the Court States,first,
that "the procedural techniqueformerly available ofjoinder ofpreliminary
objections to the merits has been done away with . . ."and second, that
"the Court hasno choicebut to availitself ofArticle 79,paragraph 7,of the
present Rules of Court", and

"declare that the objection based on the multilateral treaty reserva-
tion of the United StatesDeclaration ofAcceptance does not possess,
in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary character,

and that consequentlyit does not constitute an obstacle for the Court
to entertain the proceedings instituted byNicaragua under theAppli-
cation of 9 April 1984" (Judgment, para. 76).
80. Thisholding of the Court may be understood in more than one way.

It can be interpreted as meaning that, since the United States objection
based on the reservation does not possess an exclusively preliminary
character, it does not constitute - at this stage of the proceedings - an
obstacle for the Court to entertain the case instituted by Nicaragua. From
this it follows that this United States objection, not possessing an "exclu-
sively" preliminary character, necessarily possesses some preliminary
character, and that that character will be addressed, as a preliminary and
jurisdictional question, at the stage of the merits, at which time the Parties
can plead further, inter alia othequestion ofwhich States,ifany, are to be

affected by anyjudgment which the Court may render on themerits of the
case. If this is what the Court means, while it would hardly constitute an
application of the multilateral treaty reservation as it must have been
intended that it would be applied - at thejurisdictional stage - othenvise
this would be a tenable holding.de l'ignorerou de la dissocierdu reste de ladéclarationau motif qu'elle est
relativement peu importante. C'estune sauvegarde que leSénat desEtats-
Unis a résolu d'exiger,après délibération et malgré l'absence de recom-
mandation en ce sens de la part du départementd'Etat. Il s'ensuit, à mon
avis,qu'iln'appartient pas à la Cour dejuger cette réserveintrinsèquement
inapplicable dans la phasede la procédure pourlaquelle ellea été conçue,
c'est-à-dire, en un certain sens, nulle, en estimant, pour reprendre les
termes de M. Lauterpacht, qu'elle estdotée <<d'une incapacité inhérente à
produiredes effetsjuridiques D.Dèslorstoutefoisquela Cour seprononce

en ce sens - comme elle le fait dans l'arrêt renduce jour - il s'ensuit
également qu'elledevrait considérer la déclaration des Etats-Unis du
14 août 1946 dans son ensemble comme nulle. Et si la déclaration des
Etats-Unis dans son ensemble est nulle de ce chef, elle ne peut êtreinvo-
quéepar le Nicaragua pour affirmer la compétence de la Cour en l'es-
pèce.
79. Pour ce qui est du point c),c'est-à-dire de la troisièmeraison que la
Cour invoque pour ne pas donner effet à la réserve relativeaux traités

multilatéraux,ilm'est difficiled'exprimeruneopinion définitive,en raison
du caractère extrêmentsuccinct du raisonnement de la Cour. En effet la
Cour, aprèsavoir affirmé - àtort, selon moi- que, (detoute évidence D,
laquestion de savoirquels Etats pourraient être<< affectés))par sa décision
n'est pasd'ordrejuridictionnel, conclut d'abord qu'~il n'est plus possible
d'ordonner la jonction des exceptions préliminaires au fond ..D, puis
qu'elle<<n'ad'autre choixqued'appliquer l'article79,paragraphe 7,de son
Règlement actuel >> et

<<de déclarerque l'objection tiréede la réserve relativeaux traités
multilatéraux figurant dans la déclaration d'acceptation des Etats-
Unis n'a pas, dans les circonstances de l'espèce,un caractère exclu-
sivement préliminaireet qu'en conséquencerien ne s'oppose à ceque
la Cour connaisse de l'instance introduite par le Nicaragua dans sa

requêtedu 9 avril 1984 )(arrêt,par. 76).
80. Cette assertion peut s'entendre de plusieurs manières. Elle peut
signifier que, puisque l'exception que les Etats-Unis tirent de la réserve
relative aux traités multilatérauxne possèdepas un caractère (exclusive-

ment >préliminaire, ellenefaitpas obstacle, durant laphase actuelle de la
procédure, à ce que la Cour connaisse de l'affaire qui luia étsoumise par
leNicaragua. Decette premièreconstatation, ildécouleraitquel'exception
des Etats-Unis a forcément un certain caractère préliminaire, etque ce
caractère sera évoqué, à titre de question préliminaire etjuridictionnelle,
pendant la procédure surlefond où il sera notamment loisible aux Parties
dedébattreplus avantde la question de savoir quels Etats la décisionde la
Courpourrait concerner. Sicetteinterprétation estjuste, la position de la

Cour ne peut être tenue pour une application de la réserve relativeaux
traités multilatéraux conformes àceque ses auteurs avaient en vue, mais
elle reste défendable. 81. However, the Court confounds this interpretation by holding that
"the procedural technique formerly available ofjoinder of the preliminary
objections to the merits has been done awaywith sincethe 1972revision of
the Rules. . ."By this, the Court appears to hold that, at the stage of the
merits, the United States preliminary objection based on the multilateral

treaty reservation may not be argued and may not be found to bar the
claims,or someof theclaims, ofNicaragua. If thisisindeed what the Court
means to Say - and whatever it means, its words are subject to this
construction - then the Court will have sunk the multilateral treaty
reservation without a trace by useof a watertight device :on the one hand,
by holding that, since it is not of an exclusivelypreliminary character, it
cannot be giveneffectat thejurisdictional stageof the proceedings ;on the
other hand, by holding that that preliminary objection cannot be taken up
at thestage of the merits, sincethejoinder of preliminary objections to the
merits "has been done away with". That would be an extraordinary pro-
cedure, whichcould be used not only to vitiate this reservation but al1sorts
of reservations, on the ground that they may not be applied by way of
preliminary objection since they are not of an exclusively preliminary
character, and may not be addressed at the stage of the merits, on the

ground that the revisedrules excludejoining preliminary objections to the
merits.

82. The pertinent passages of Article 79 of the Rules of Court on
"Preliminary Objections" read as follows :
"6. In order to enable theCourt to determineits jurisdiction at the
preliminary stage of the proceedings, the Court, whenevernecessary,

may request theparties to argue al1questions of law and fact, and to
adduce al1evidence, which bear on the issue.
7. After hearing the parties, the Court shall giveits decision in the
form of a judgment, by which it shall either uphold the objection,
reject it, or declare that the objection does not possess, in the cir-
cumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary character. If the
Court rejects the objection or declares that it does not possess an
exclusivelypreliminary character, it shall fix time-limits for the fur-
ther proceedings.
8. Any agreement between theparties that an objection submitted
under paragraph 1of this Article be heard and determined within the
framework of the merits shall be given effect by the Court."

83. It is plain the Court may treat a preliminary objection in three
ways : (a) uphold it ; (b)reject it; (c)"declare that the objection does not
possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary char-
acter". In that latter event, the Court shall fix time-limits for the further
proceedings, a provision which imports that, at those proceedings, an
objection which does not possess an exclusivelypreliminary character, but
therefore somepreliminary character, willbe taken up. 1am unable to see
that paragraph 8 prejudices ths interpretation ; rather, it supplies an 81. La Cour fait toutefois échec à cette interprétation en affirmant

qu'<<il n'est plus possible d'ordonner lajonction des exceptions prélimi-
naires au fond depuis la revision du Règlementde 1972 ...))Cefaisant, elle
semble vouloir dire que, une fois ouverte la procédure sur le fond, l'ex-
ception préliminaire que les Etats-Unis tirent de la réserve relativeaux
traités multilatérauxne pourra ni êtreinvoquée, niêtreconsidéréecomme
un motif pour rejeter les demandes, ou certaines des demandes, du Nica-
ragua. Sic'est bienlà ce que la Cour a voulu dire - et, quelle que soit son
intention, les termes employés peuventêtreainsi compris - elle aura fait
disparaître àjamais la réserve relativeaux traités multilatérauxgrâce à un
procédé sansfaille, en soutenant d'une part que, puisqu'il ne s'agit pas

d'une exception de caractère exclusivement préliminaire,il ne peut y être
donnéeffet lors de la phase juridictionnelle de l'instance, et d'autre part
que l'exception préliminairene saurait êtreexaminéeau stade de la pro-
cédure surle fond, vu qu'il n'estplus possible d'ordonner << lajonction au
fond des objections préliminaires )>Argument singulier, qui pourrait ser-
vir à vider de leur effet, non seulement la réserve relative aux traités
multilatéraux,mais toutes sortes de réserves,en arguant qu'on ne peut les
fairejouer au titre d'exception préliminaire,parce qu'elles n'ont pas un
caractèreexclusivementpréliminaire,ni lesinvoquer pendant laprocédure
surlefond, parce que leRèglement reviséexclutlapossibilitédejoindre au

fond les exceptions préliminaires.
82. Les passages en cause de l'article 79 du Règlement de la Cour,
consacré aux << exceptions préliminaires O, sont les suivants :
<6. Pourpermettre à laCour de seprononcer sursacompétence au
stade préliminairedelaprocédure,laCour peut,le caséchéant,inviter

lesparties àdébattretous points de fait et de droit, età produiretous
moyens de preuve, qui ont trait à la question.
7. La Cour, aprèsavoirentendu lesparties, statue dans un arrêtpar
lequel elleretient l'exception,la rejette ou déclareque cette exception
n'apas dans les circonstances de l'espèceun caractère exclusivement
préliminaire.Si la Cour rejette l'exception ou déclarequ'elle n'apas
un caractère exclusivement préliminaire,elle fixe les délais pour la
suite,dela procédure.

8. La Cour donne effet à tout accord intervenu entre les parties et

tendant àce qu'une exception soulevéeen vertu du paragraphe 1du
présent articlesoit tranchéelors de l'examen au fond. ))
83. La Cour peut, on le voit, donner de trois façons différentes suite à
une exception préliminaire.Elle peut :a) la retenir;b) la rejeter; c)<dé-

clarer que cette exception n'a pas dans les circonstances de l'espèceun
caractère exclusivement préliminaire )).Dans ce dernier cas, elle fixe les
délaispour la suite de la procédure, ce qui sous-entend que c'estpendant
cetteprocédurequ'elleexaminera toute exception qui n'apas un caractère
exclusivement préliminaire, maisqui par là même,a un certain caractère
préliminaire.Je ne vois rien dans le libellédu paragraphe 8qui s'oppose àalternative route to the sameterminus. 1am confirmed in theseconclusions
by an article whch a former distinguished President of the Court, Judge
Eduardo Jiménezde Aréchaga,wrote on "The Amendments to the Rules
of Procedure of the InternationalCourt of Justice" whch waspublished in

the American Journal of International Law for January 1973,Volume 67,
page 1.Judge JiménezdeAréchagaobsemed that, inrevisingits rules,there
was majority recognition of the need to :

"(3) regulate preliminary objections so asto settle them as soon as
feasible and avoid the delay and expense involved in a double dis-
cussion of the same question at both the preliminary stage and the
stage of the merits" (ibid.).

Accordingly, what isnow paragraph 6of Article 79wasintroduced, with a
viewtowardsinducing theCourt todetermine al1prelirninary objections at
the preliminary stage of the proceedings, if possible. Where, however, a
preliminary objection so relates to the merits that its argument at the

preliminary stage would entai1arguing the whole of the case at that stage,
orwheretheCourt doesnot findit necessary - or desirable - torequire the
Parties at the preliminary stageto argue al1questions of law and fact, and
to adduce al1evidence, which bear upon the issue :"It would then be for
the Respondent to raise such a defense at the stage of the merits, if it so
wished." (Ibid., p. 17.)
84. Now in the instant case the Court has not invoked or applied
paragraph 6 of Article 79 of its Rules. It has not requested the Parties to
argue al1questions of lawand fact, and to adduce al1evidence, which bear
upon the issueof whether Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvadorare to be
affected by the Court's judgment in the case. If it had done so, it would
have required, if not the argument of the whole of the case, then the
argument of the essence of the defence to the case. That being so - and
having failed to sustain the objection of the United States invoking the

multilateral treaties reservation on the pleadings, as, in my view,the Court
should have - it followsthat, at thestage of the merits, the United States is
free to raise its defence based on that reservation in bar to the Court's
proceeding with the case. That, at any rate, is in my understanding of the
Rules and of what the Court's pertinent holding in this caseshould mean,
but 1am not able to Saythat that is what the Court does mean.

85. Let us finally, in respect of the multilateral treaty reservation,
address point (d), the Court's holding that Nicaragua's claims embrace
customary as wellas treaty law and to that extent are not debarred by the
reservation even if that reservation were to be applied.

86. Assuming application of the resemation, there are two possibilities.
The first would be to dismiss the case (except in so far as it may have a
bilateral treaty basis), on the ground that Nicaragua's claimsare so inte- cette interprétation; plutôt ouvrirait-ilà mon sens, une autre voie pour

parvenir au mêmebut. Cette conclusion est d'ailleurs corroborée par
l'opinion d'un ancien et éminent présidentde la Cour, M. Eduardo Jimé-
nez de Aréchaga, expriméedans un article sur ((Les amendements au
Règlement de la Cour internationale de Justice (American Journal of
International Law,janvier 1973,vol. 67, p. 1). M. Jiménezde Aréchaga
faisait observer en effet que, lors de la revision du Règlement,la majorité
de la Cour s'étaitaccordée à reconnaître qu'il y avait lieu :

3) de réglementer lesexceptions préliminairesde manière à en

déciderau plus tôt et àéviterlesfrais et délaisqu'entraîne undouble
examen des mêmespoints au stade de laprocédure préliminaire,puis
au stade de la procédure sur le fond ))(ibid.).

La disposition qui constitue aujourd'hui le paragraphe 6 de l'article 79 a
donc été introduitedans leRèglementpour inciterla Cour àstatuer, autant
que possible, sur toutes les exceptions préliminairesdèsla première phase
de la procédure.Si toutefois une exception préliminaire touche de si près
au fond que son examen pendant cette phase oblige à débattre de l'en-

semblede l'affaire,ou sila Cournejuge pas nécessaire - ou souhaitable -
d'inviter lesparties dès cette première phase à débattre tous les points de
fait et de droit età produire tous les moyens de preuve qui ont trait à la
question, ((ilappartientau défendeurdefaire valoir sesmoyens de défense
au stade de la procédure sur le fond, s'il le désire ))(ibid., p. 17).
84. Or, dans la présente espèce, la Cour n'a ni invoquéni appliqué
l'article79,paragraphe 6,de son Règlement. Ellen'apasinvitélesParties à
débattretous lespoints de fait et dedroit et à produiretous lesmoyens de

preuve qui ont trait à la question de savoir si sa décisionen l'espèce
pourrait affecter le Honduras, le Costa Rica et El Salvador. Si elle
l'avaitfait, elleaurait dû entendre,sinon lesarguments desdeux Partiessur
l'ensemblede l'affaire, du moins l'essentiel desarguments de 1'Etatdéfen-
deur. Cela étant,etpuisquela Cour n'apas, comme selonmoi elleaurait dû
lefaire,retenu l'exception tiréepar lesEtats-Unisde la réserverelativeaux
traitésmultilatéraux,ceux-ciseront libres, lors de laprocédure surlefond,
d'invoquer cette réservecomme moyen de défensepour empêcherla Cour
de poursuivre l'examen de l'affaire. Telle est du moins la façon dont je

comprends le Règlement, et lesens qu'il meparaît falloir attribuer à la
conclusion de la Cour en l'espèce - maisje ne sais si c'est bien ce que la
Cour a voulu dire.
85. Venons-en maintenant, pour achever cette analyse consacrée à la
réserveVandenberg, aupoint d),c'est-à-dire à laconclusion de la Cour que
lesdemandesduNicaragua, étantfondéessur ledroit coutumierenplus du
droit conventionnel, ne sont de ce fait pas exclues de sajuridiction par la
réserve,quand bien mêmeil y serait donnéeffet.
86. Asupposer quelaréservesoitappliquée,ilyauraitdeux possibilités.

La première serait de rejeter la requête(sauf dans la mesure où elle
reposerait sur un traité bilatéral),au motif que lesdemandes du Nicaragua6 14 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTiVITIES (DISS .P. SCHWEBEL)

grally and essentially bound up with the treaty provisions on whch they
rely that, ifthose provisions cannot be pleaded, there is no case which the
Court can consider. The second would be to retain the case in so far as
Nicaragua can make out a casedivorced from the terms of those treaties, a
case which is based on customary international law. In its Application,
Nicaragua claims violation not only of the four treaties but of "funda-
mental rules of general and customary international law ..." (para.
14).

87. Nicaragua attempts to meet the United States reliance on the reser-

vation by arguing that, even if that proviso can be and is applied, it leaves
its claims under customary international law intact. It observes that there
isnothing to prevent a Statefrom pleading simultaneously in conventional
and customary law. Some of its claims are exclusively cast in terms of
customary law. But in any event, Nicaragua argues, even if one were to
accept the United Statescontention that al1of the Nicaraguan claims are
variations of the obligations encompassed by the provisions of Article 2,
paragraph 4, of the United Nations Charter, those provisions are de-
claratory of international law ;the obligations of Article 2,paragraph 4 -

and corresponding and complementary obligations of the Charter of the
Oganization of American States - exist in customary international law
even if those treaty provisions cannot be relied upon as such. In reply, the
United States argues that, on analysis, al1of Nicaragua's claims - cus-
tomary and treaty-based - arein substance the same ; theone set merely
paraphrases theother ;and no relevant customaryinternational law exists
apart from the treatiesinvoked by Nicaragua. Moreover, theUnited States
maintains, the Court cannot properly adjudicate the customary interna-
tional law claims which Nicaragua makes when the limitations contained
in the United States declaration preclude the Court from applying the

specific,governinglegal standardsto which the Parties have agreed in the
treaties in force between them.

88. In myview,thereisabroad butnot necessarilycomplete substantive
equivalence between the claims which Nicaragua makes under conven-
tional and under customary international law (as appears from a com-
parison of those claims). Furthermore, contemporary international law
governing the useofforceininternational relations isessentiallycomposed

of Article 2, paragraph 4, and Article 51 of the United Nations Charter.
Are those provisions also part of contemporary customary international
law ? Article 2, paragraph 6, of the United Nations Charter provides :

"The Organization shall ensure that States which arenot members sontentièrementet essentiellement liéesauxdispositionsconventionnelles
sur lesquelles elles sont fondées, et que par conséquent, si ces disposi-
tions ne peuvent êtreinvoquées, iln'y a pas d'affaire devant la Cour. La

seconde serait de poursuivre l'instance à condition que le Nicaragua ait
un motif d'action qui ne soit pas fondé sur ces dispositions convention-
nelles, c'est-à-dire un motif d'action qui relève du droit international
coutumier. Et le Nicaragua, dans sa requête,affirmeen effet qu'ily a vio-
lation non seulement des quatre traitésqui y sont cités, mais aussi des
(règlesfondamentales du droit international généralet coutumier ...t)
(par. 14).
87. Le Nicaragua essaie donc d'opposer à la réservedes Etats-Unis
l'argument que, même sicette clause conditionnellepeut êtreet est appli-
quée,sesgriefsfondéssurledroit internationalcoutumier n'en demeurent
pas moins entiers. Il fait observer que rien n'empêcheun Etat d'invoquer
simultanémentledroitconventionnel et ledroit coutumier, et quecertains
de ses griefs reposent exclusivement sur ce dernier. De toute manière,

ajoute-t-il, mêmesi l'on accepte l'affirmation des Etats-Unis que tous les
chefs de demande du Nicaragua sont des variantes des obligationsénon-
cées à l'article2,paragraphe 4, de la Charte des Nations Unies, ilresteque
ces dispositionssont déclaratoiresdu droit international ; les obligations
découlantdel'article 2,paragraphe 4 - et lesobligationscorrespondantes
et complémentairesde la charte de l'Organisation des Etats américains -
existent endroit internationalcoutumier, même sliesdispositions conven-
tionnelles pertinentes ne peuvent êtreinvoquéesen tant que telles. A ces
arguments, lesEtats-Unisrépondent qu'ilapparaît à l'analysequetous les
chefs de demande du Nicaragua, qu'ils soient dits fondés sur le droit
coutumier ou sur des traités,sont dans leur essenceles mêmes ;qu'ilssont
essentiellement équivalents ; que les uns ne font que paraphraser les

autres ; et qu'il n'existepas de droit international coutumierapplicableen
dehorsdes traitésinvoquéspar le Nicaragua. Les Etats-Unis soutiennent
en outre que la Cour ne peut régulièrementstatuer sur les griefs du
Nicaraguafondéssurledroit coutumier,puisque leslimitationscontenues
dans la déclarationdes Etats-Unis lui interdisent d'appliquer les normes
juridiques dont lesPartiessont expressémentconvenuesdans lestraitésen
vigueur entre elles.
88. A mon avis,ilexiste une équivalencede substance générale - sinon
nécessairementcomplète - entre lesdemandes du Nicaragua fondéessur
ledroitconventionnel etsesdemandesfondéessurledroitcoutumier(ainsi
qu'ilressort de la comparaison de ces demandes).De plus, le droit inter-
national contemporain applicable à l'utilisation de la force dans les rela-

tions internationales se compose essentiellement de l'article 2, para-
graphe 4,et del'article51dela Charte desNations Unies. Cesdispositions
font-elles égalementpartie du droit international coutumier contempo-
rain ? Acet égardl'article 2, paragraphe 6, de la Charte des Nations Unies
dispose :

<L'Organisationfait en sorteque lesEtatsqui ne sont pas membres of the United Nations act in accordance with these Principles sofar as

may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and
security."

Whilethere islittle agreement on the scope ofjus cogens,it is important to
recall that in the International Law Commission and at the Vienna Con-
ference on the Law of Treaties there was general agreement that, ifjus
cogenshas any agreed core, it is Article 2, paragraph 4. Moreover, Article
52 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties provides :

"A treaty isvoidifits conclusion has beenprocured by thethreat or
use of force in violation of the principles of international law em-
bodied in the Charter of the United Nations."

That isnot to Saythat Article 2,paragraph 4, and Article 51of theCharter

occupy the wholefieldof the useofforcein international relations. It isnot
to Say,for example, that necessarily there is no scope to self-defence or to
protection of nationals apart from Article 51 and Article 2, paragraph 4.
But it is to Saythat Article 2,paragraph 4, is the supreme and pre-emptive
statement of the law in the field which it does occupy. Moreover, while
Article 2,paragraph 4,hadits antecedents in theCovenant of the Leagueof
Nations, the Kellogg-Briand Pact, and the Nuremberg principles and
judgments, it is difficult to conclude that it was merely a codification of
customary international law ;on the contrary, the Charter was viewed at
thetime of its adoption asa revolutionary advance in respect of thelegality
ofthe useof force and ofresort to warin international relations, and, ifone
speaksnot of doctrinebut of reality,Article 2,paragraph 4, stillrepresents
more preachment than practice in the affairs of States. Thus, 1am inclined
to think that itcannot simplybe said that customaryinternational law,asit
had evolvedby 1945,equated with the content of Article 2, paragraph 4 ;

and it can even less be said that, if Article 51 is removed, the bounds of
self-defence in customary international law equate with its terms. May it
nevertheless be argued that, as a result of the ratification of the United
Nations Charter (including Art. 2, para. 6) by virtually every Statein the
world, and by virtue of general agreement that Article 2, paragraph 4, of
that Charter isjus cogens,the provisions of Article 2, paragraph 4, have
been subsequently imported into customary international law ? Surely
Switzerland, which has not yetjoined the United Nations, or Indonesia,
whichfor a timewithdrew from theUnited Nations, wereand areas bound
by the prescriptions ofArticle 2,paragraph 4,asare theStates Members of
theUnited Nations. That isapowerful and probably correct argument, but
it-runs into the profound difficulty that the practice of States does not
demonstrate that Article 2, paragraph 4, in fact reflects customary inter-
national law. Finally, since Article 2, paragraph 4, and Article 51 (and
variations upon their themes as they appear in the OAS Charter) are the

specificand governinglegal standards towhichthe Parties in thiscasehave des Nations Unies agissent conformément à ces principes dans la
mesure nécessaireau maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinternatio-
nales. >)

Certes,laportée dujus cogensestdiscutée.Maisilimporte de rappeler que
la Commission du droit international et la conférence de Vienne sur le
droit destraitéssesontaccordées àconsidérerque,s'ilest une clef devoûte
reconnue du jus cogens, c'est l'article 2, paragraphe 4, de la Charte. Au
surplus, l'article 52 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités
dispose :

<Est nul tout traitédont la conclusion a étobtenuepar la menace
oul'emploide laforce enviolationdesprincipesde droitinternational
incorporésdans la Charte des Nations Unies. )>

Cela ne signifiepas quel'article 2,paragraphe 4, et l'article 51de laCharte
soient seuls applicables àl'utilisation de la force dans les relations inter-
nationales. Cela ne signifie pas forcément, par exemple, qu'en dehors de
l'article51et del'article 2,paragraphe 4,iln'existeaucune règleapplicable
à la légitimedéfenseou à laprotection desressortissants.Maiscela signifie
quel'article 2,paragraphe 4, est la règlede droit suprêmeetprédominante

dans la matière dont il traite. De plus, s'il est vrai que l'article 2, para-
graphe 4, tire ses origines du pacte de la Sociétédes Nations, du pacte
Kellogg-Briand et desprincipesetjugements de Nuremberg, on ne saurait
soutenir pour autant qu'il soit une simple codification du droit interna-
tional coutumier ; au contraire, il était tenàl'époqueoù il a été adopté,
pour un progrèsrévolutionnaireauregarddelalégalité del'utilisation dela
forceet du recours à la guerre dans les relations internationales, et, si l'on
considèrenon pas la doctrinemais lesfaits,l'article2,paragraphe 4,relève
davantage du vŒu que de la pratique dans les affaires des Etats. Aussi
suis-je enclinà penser qu'on ne peut se contenter de dire que le droit
international coutumier, tel qu'ilavaitpris forme en 1945,seramenait à la

teneur de l'article 2, paragraphe 4, et qu'on peut encore moins affirmer
que, si l'article 51 est exclu, les limites de la légitime défense endroit
international coutumier se ramènent néanmoins à ses termes. Peut-on
prétendre que, vu que la Charte des Nations Unies a étératifiée par
presque tous les Etats et qu'il y a accord général sur le fait que l'article2,
paragraphe 4, est une règledejus cogens,ces dispositions ont été ultérieu-
rement incorporées dans le droit international coutumier ? Et que la
Suisse,qui n'a jamais fait partie de l'organisation des Nations Unies, ou
l'Indonésie, qui s'est retirée de l'organisation et en est restée éloignée
pendant un temps, étaient et sont aussi liéespar les règlesénoncées à

l'article 2, paragraphe 4, que les Etats Membres de l'organisation des
Nations Unies ? C'est là un argument de poids, mais qui se heurte à une
difficultéde taille:c'est qu'ilne ressort pas de la pratique des Etats que
l'article 2, paragraphe 4, reflète effectivement le droit international cou-
tumier. Enfin, puisque l'article2, paragraphe 4, et l'article 51 (et leurs agreed, 1have some difficulty in seeing how the Court can proceed to
adjudicate Nicaragua's claims if, byapplication of the multilateral treaty
reservation, reliance on those standards is excluded. Such adjudication
would be an unreal, artificial, highly constricted - and yet unduly uncon-
strained - process, in which the Court could be confronted with pro-
foundly sensitive questions, such as :what is the scope of self-defence in
international law if the provisions of Article 51 are left entirely out of
consideration ?

89. Nevertheless, there are aspects of the instant case - such asfreedom
of navigation on the high seas - on which customary international law
indisputably existed before the treaties on which Nicaragua relies came
into force. It is by no means clear that those treaties establish preclusive
legal standards governing that freedom, though they may do so with
respect to the use of force which impairs that freedom.

90. More than this, the question of to what extent the claims of Nica-

raguaembody claims under customary international lawwhich subsists or
exists,evenif the treaties on which Nicaragua reliesare left out of account,
isa delicate and complex question, which has not been fully argued by the
Parties. Aspects of it may relate to the merits of the case. In viewof these
considerations, and of the fact that the haste withwhichthe Court hasdealt
with aspects of the current case, from the moment of its filing through the
issuance of today's Judgment, has not afforded me the time sufficiently
to consider this difficult question, 1 feel bound to reserve my position
upon it.

(iii) The "1984 notification" of the United States

91. It is clear that, if the Court were to give effect to the United States
Note of 6April 1984 - the "1984notification" - purporting to modify the
terms of its 1946Declaration with immediate effect so asto exclude, for a
period of two years, 'disputes with any Central American State or arising
out of or related to events in Central America", the claims of Nicaragua
would be debarred in so far as they rely on the United States declaration
accepting the Court's compuisory jurisdiction. The Court declines to give
such effect to the 1984notification, on the following grounds :

(a) Whether the 1984notification is classified as a termination or modi-
fication of the 1946Declaration does not matter, for it is intended to
secure a partial and temporary termination of the United States obli-
gation to subjecr itself to the Court's jurisdiction in the specified
respects.

(b) Declarations accepting the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction, whileuni-
lateral, do notleavethe declarant free to amend the scopeand contentvariantes, tellesqu'elles figurentdansla charte de l'Organisation des Etats

américains)sont les normes juridiques formellement acceptéespar les
Parties à la présente affaire,j'ai du mal à concevoir comment la Cour
pourra statuer sur les demandes du Nicaragua si, par lejeu de la réserve
relative aux traités multilatéraux,ces normes ne peuvent êtreinvoquées.
Une décisionprisedans ce sensconstituerait un processus irréel, artificiel,
éminemment rigide - encorequ'indûment libre -, oùla Cour setrouverait
aux prises avecdes questions extrêmement délicates :par exemple,quelle
estla portéedelalégitimedéfenseen droit international, silesdispositions
de l'article 51 sont totalement écartées ?
89. Il reste vrai que certains aspects de la présenteaffaire, tels que la
libertéde navigation en haute mer, étaient incontestablement régispar le

droit internationalcoutumieravant l'entrée envigueurdestraitésinvoqués
par leNicaragua. Il est cependant loin d'être certainque cestraitésposent
en la matière des normes ayant primauté en droit, mêmesi cela semble
devoir être le cas pour les emplois de la force qui sont de nature à porter
atteinte à cette liberté.
90. Surtout, la question de savoir si les demandes formuléespar le
Nicaragua sontfondéessur desrèglesde droit international coutumierqui
existent ou subsistent mêmesil'onécartelestraitésinvoquéspar 1'Etatest
une question délicate et complexe,dont les Parties n'ont pas débattu à
fond. Il se peut que, par certains côtés, la question relèvedu fond de

l'affaire.Cela étant,et comptetenu du fait que lahâte que la Cour a mise à
traiter certains aspects de la présente affaire, depuis l'introduction de
l'instancejusqu'auprononcédu présentarrêt,ne m'apas laisséleloisir de
réfléchirà cette difficilequestion,j'estime devoir réserverma position à ce
sujet.

iii)La «notificationde 1984» des Etats-Unis

91. Il est évident que,si la Cour acceptait la validitéde la note des
Etats-Unis du 6avril 1984 - la<<notification de 1984 )>- visantà modifier
lestermesdeleurdéclarationde 1946aveceffetimmédiatenexcluant pour

une périodede deux ans les<<différendsavecl'unquelconquedes Etats de
l'Amériquecentrale ou découlantd'événements en Amériquecentrale ou
s'yrapportant )),les demandes du Nicaragua seraient irrecevablesdans la
mesureoù elless'appuient sur ladéclarationpar laquellelesEtats-Unis ont
acceptélajuridiction obligatoire delaCour. Mais la Cour refusededonner
un tel effetà la notification de 1984,pour les motifs suivants :

a) Le fait de voir dans la notification de 1984une dénonciationou une
modification de la déclarationde 1946est sans conséquence,car cette
notification viseà réaliserune dénonciation partielle et temporaire de
l'obligation desEtats-Unis de se soumettre à lajuridiction de la Cour
dans les cas qui y sont spécifiés.
b) Bien que les déclarationsd'acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire de
la Cour soient de caractère unilatéral,cela ne signifie pas que 1'Etat of its commitments as it pleases. The principle of good faith governs.
Since the United States Declaration of 1946formally and solemnly
provides that anychangeshouldtake effect only after sixmonths have
elapsedfrom the date of notice, the United States must be held to this

undertaking.

(c) The notion of reciprocity is concerned with the scope and substanceof
commitmentsentered into under the Optional Clause, and not with the
forma1conditions of their duration.
(d) Reciprocitycannot be invoked in order to excuse departure from the
terms of a State's own declaration ; it can only take advantage of an
express restriction in the declaration of the other Party to the case.
Thus the United States cannot rely upon the claimed right of Nica-
ragua to revoke its declaration at any time.
(e) Nicaragua in any event has not reserved such a right but, if it has that
right, it could only be exercised on reasonable notice. Thus, if the

United States may reciprocally invoke such a right, it also can do so
only on reasonable notice, which is absent in this case.

(fl Nor is it clear that a State can invoke considerations of reciprocity
before the Court is seised of a case.
92. 1 am essentially in agreement with point (a).1do not believe that it

can be persuasively argued that, since the United States Declaration of
1946excludes termination on less than six months' notice, but not modi-
fication,the United States may freelymodify its declaration, at any rate in
the manner in which the 1984notification purports to do. The Court is
right to hold that that notification is tantamount to a limited, suspensive
termination.
93. Point (b)of the Court's conclusions is not altogetherself-evident,as
distinguished colleagues'opinionsin this case show. Nevertheless, for my
part, and forthe purposes of thiscase, 1am prepared to accept it, subject to
one critical caveat which the Court's judgment does not meet : that the
principle of good faith interpretation be applied equally to al1elements of
the United Statesdeclaration. The United States may quite reasonably be

held to the provision of no terrnination on less than six months' notice,
provided that the Court is held to respect for the multilateral treaty
reservation which that declaration embodies. The relevant report of the
SenateCornmitteeonForeignRelations tellinglyprovides - as counsel for
Nicaragua stressed - that the six months' termination proviso "has the
effect of a renunciation of anyintention to withdraw Ourobligation in the
faceof a threatened legalproceeding" (79thCongress, 2nd Session,United
States Senate, Report No. 1835,p. 5). But that report also contains other
conditions respecting the United States declaration, which are set out
below. If al1those conditions are respected, then it would be right to hold
the United States to that renunciation. But if those otherconditions are not
respected - and the Court's Judgment does not respect them - on what déclarantsoit libre de modifierà son grél'étendue et la teneurde ses
engagements. Leprincipe de la bonne foi commande. Etantdonnéque
la déclarationde 1946des Etats-Unis dispose de manière formelle et
solennelle que tout changement ne prendra effet qu'après l'expiration
d'un préavisde six mois, les Etats-Unis sont tenus de respecter cet

engagement.
c) La notion de réciprocitéporte sur l'étendueet la substance des enga-
gements contractés en vertu de la clause facultative, et non sur les
conditions formelles relativesà leur durée.
d) La réciprociténe peut pas êtreinvoquéepar un Etatpour s'écarterdes
termes de sa déclaration,à moins qu'il ne puisse se prévaloird'une
restriction expresse dans la déclarationde l'autre partie au différend.
Les Etats-Unis ne peuvent donc pas se prévaloirdu droit présumédu
Nicaragua de dénoncer sa déclaration à tout moment.
e) LeNicaragua nes'estd'ailleurspasréservé un teldroit et, s'illepossède,
il ne pourrait l'exercer qu'après un préavisraisonnable. Si donc les
Etats-Unis peuvent invoquer un tel droit, par voiede réciprocité,seln
peuvent le faire eux aussi qu'avecun préavisraisonnable, ce qui n'est
pas le cas en l'espèce.

fl Enfin iln'estpas certain qu'unEtat puisseinvoquer laréciprocitavant
la saisine de la Cour.
92. Je suis d'accord pour l'essentiel avec lemotif a). Je ne pense pas
qu'onpuisse soutenir que, du fait que la déclarationde 1946exclut- sauf
préavisinférieur àsixmois - la dénonciation, maispasla modification, les
Etats-Unis sont libres de modifier leur déclarationà tout le moins de la

manièredont la notification de 1984vise à lefaire. La Cour a donc raison
de conclure que cette notification est équivalente à une dénonciation
limitée,de caractère suspensif.
93. Le motif b) ne va pas de soi, comme le montrent les opinions en
l'espècedeplusieurs de nos éminentscollègues.Néanmoins,pour ma part,
et aux fins de laprésente affaire,je suisprêt souscrire,sousune réserve
essentielle, que ne comporte pas l'arrêtde la Cour :c'est que l'interpré-
tation du principe de la bonne foi devrait êtreappliquée de la même
manière à tous les élémentsde la déclaration des Etats-Unis. Il serait
parfaitement raisonnable d'exigerdes Etats-Unis qu'ilsrespectent la dis-
position excluant la dénonciation sauf préavisde six mois, si la Cour
respectait la réserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux contenuedans la
mêmedéclaration.Lerapport de la commission desaffaires étrangèresdu

Sénat,cela est vrai, montre sans l'ombre d'un doute que, comme l'a
souligné le conseildu Nicaragua, la disposition relative au préavisde six
mois <équivaut à renoncer à toute intention de se dégagerde notre obli-
gation devant une menace d'action judiciaire ))(79eCongrès,2e session,
SénatdesEtats-Unis, ReportNo. 1835,p. 5).Mais cerapport fait aussiétat
d'autres conditions relativesà la déclaration des Etats-Unis, qui sont
indiquéesci-dessous.Sitoute cesconditions étaientrespectées,il n'estque
juste de tenir les Etats-Unis pour obligés d'observercette renonciation. ground may the Court selectivelychoose the elements of the United States
declaration to which the United States is to be held ?

94. 1do not find myself in agreement with the holdings of the Court
summarized in points (c), (d),(e) and (f, though 1 recognize that those

holdings are not unfounded. Before setting out my conclusions on these
points, it willbe convenient to placethe United StatesDeclaration of 1946
in its context, to showwhat were the intentions of the Government of the
United Statesin adopting it, and to contrast the situation as it obtained in
respect of the Optional Clause in 1946with present reality.
95. When the declaration was under considerationin the United States
Senate. the Committee on Foreign Relations took care to describe the
scopeofthejurisdiction to be confverredunder thedeclarationas "carefully
definedand limited". In thefirst place, it said, there is "a generallimitation
ofjurisdiction to legal disputes". Then a "second major limitation on the
jurisdiction conferredarisesfrom thecondition ofreciprocity ...specified
in the resolution ..." and in the language of the Statute and by practice in
pursuance of it. A third limitation is to disputes arisingin the future. Of
this limitation and the effect of reciprocity, the Senate Report declared
that :

"any limitation imposed by a state in its grant ofjurisdiction thereby
alsobecomesavailableto any other state with which it might become
involved in proceedings, even though the second state had not speci-
ficallyimposedthelimitation. Thus, for example, if the United States
limited its grant ofjurisdiction to cases'hereafter arising'ths country
would be unable to institute proceedings regarding earlier disputes,
eventhough the defendant state might not haveinterposed this reser-
vation." (Report No. 1835,p. 5.)

Thus it will be observed that, when the United States filed its declaration
embracing "al1legal disputes hereafter arising", subject to specified limi-
tations, it understood that reciprocity embraces temporal limitations. A
fourth limitation concerns freedom to entrust disputes to other tribunals.
A fifth limitation excludes matters essentiallywithin the domestic juris-
diction of the United States. The Report then declares :

"The resolution provides that the declaration should remain in
force for a period of 5 years and thereafter until6 months following
notice of termination. The declaration might, therefore, remain in
force indefinitely. The provision for 6 months' notice of termination
after the 5-yearperiodhastheeffect of arenunciation of anyintention
to withdraw our obligation in the face of a threatened legal proceed-
ing." (Ibid.) A~IVITÉS MILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP.DISS .CHWEBEL) 618

Mais, si elles ne sont pas respectées - et l'arrêtde la Cour ne les respecte
pas - surquellebase la Cour peut-elle déterminer,de manière sélective,les
élémentsde la déclaration des Etats-Unis que ceux-ci sont tenus de res-
pecter ?
94. Je suis en désaccord avec les motifs c), d), e) et f), bien que je

reconnaisse qu'ils ne sont pas dénuésde tout fondement. Mais, avant
d'exposer mes conclusions sur ces différentsmotifs, il me paraît utile de
situer la déclaration de 1946 des Etats-Unis dans son contexte, afin de
montrer quellesétaientlesintentions du Gouvernement des Etats-Unis en
l'adoptant, et decomparer la situation de la clausefacultative en 1946avec
la réalitéde nos jours.
95. Lorsque leprojet de déclarationfut soumisau SénatdesEtats-Unis,

la commission des affaires étrangèresprit soin de décrire laportéede la
juridiction conférée par la déclarationcomme soigneusement définie et
limitée D. En premier lieu, déclara-t-elle, ((une limitation générale est
imposée à lajuridiction sur lesdifférendsd'ordrejuridique D.Ensuite, une
seconde limitation majeure à la compétence de la Cour résultede la
condition de la réciprocité )),telle que poséedans << la résolution ))de la
commission, dans les termes du Statut et dansla pratique y afférente.Une

troisième limitation tenait au fait que l'obligation n'avait trait qu'aux
différendsfuturs. Apropos decettelimitation et de l'effetde la réciprocité,
le rapport du Sénat précisait :

((toutelimitation imposéepar un Etat enreconnaissant sajuridiction
devient ipsofacto accessible à tout autre Etat auquelpourrait l'oppo-
serun procès,même sicedeuxièmeEtat n'apas expressémentprévu la
même limitation. Ainsi,si les Etats-Unis d'Amériquerestreignaient,
par exemple,la compétence octroyéeauxdifférends ((qui s'élèveront
à l'avenirO, ilsne pourraient introduire aucuneinstance relative àdes
litiges antérieurs, mêmesi 1'Etat défendeur n'a pas formulé cette
réserve. >)(Report No. 1835, p. 5.)

Onobservera donc que,lorsque lesEtats-Unis déposèrentleurdéclaration,
applicable à (tous les différendsd'ordrejuridique qui s'élèveront à l'ave-
nir >)sousla réservedelimitations dûment spécifiées,ils entendaient que la

réciprocité s'appliqueraitaux clauses de caractère temporel. Une qua-
trième limitation concernait la faculté de soumettre des différends à
d'autres tribunaux. Une cinquièmelimitation excluait les questions rele-
vant essentiellement de la compétencenationale des Etats-Unis. Le rap-
port précise surce point :

(La résolution disposeque la déclaration demeurera en vigueur
pour une duréede cinq ans et, par la suite,jusqu'à l'expiration d'un
préavisde six mois. La déclaration pourrait donc rester en vigueur
indéfiniment.La disposition relative au préavisde six mois, une fois
expirée la périodede cinq ans, équivaut à renoncer à toute intention

de se dégagerde notre obligation devant une menace d'action judi-
ciaire. (Ibid.)619 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISS .P. SCHWEBEL)

Consideration of theReport on thefloor of the Senate emphasized that, by
adhering to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction in these terms, the United
States would vitally contribute to the general acceptance of the Court's
effectivecompulsoryjurisdiction. A discordant and contentious note was
struck by Senator Connally's proposa1 on the floor to add his famous
reservation, which carried, over energetic opposition. But another crip-

plingreservation, whichwould have endeavoured to confine the sourcesof
law to be applied in cases to which the United States is party to treaties, in
the absence of prior agreement as to what are the applicable sources of
international law, was defeated. The Vandenberg Reservation was easily
accepted. The provision for six months' notice attracted no criticism in
floor debate.
96. In introducing the proposed declaration, the Senate Committee on
Foreign Relations recalled to the Senate that the Optional Clause in the
days of the Permanent Court had achieved at one time the acceptance of
the very great majority of the States then independent :

"Under this provision some 44 states, including 3 of the 5 states
now permanent members of the Security Council (Great Britain,
France, and China), at one time or another deposited declarations
accepting this jurisdiction."(Report No. 1835, p. 8.)

In 1946,declarations by which States reserved the right to terminate their
declarations on notice were few and to modify them at any time were
unknown. A term of years, together with a notice period, was the pattern
which the 1928 General Act for the Pacific Settlement of International
Disputes had adopted, which a large number of Stateshad followed, and
which the United States embraced. The unconditional declaration which
was indefinite in duration because it specified no term of years or notice
period, of which Nicaragua's 1929Declaration is an example, was uncom-
mon in 1946and is almost extinct today. The seven such declarations that
stillexist weremade in the optimistic if transient days of the League when
it was believed that universal and effectivecompulsory jurisdiction of the
Court was burgeoning.

97. However, the contemporary situation isunlike that whichprevailed
in 1929or 1946.Today, only 47 of the 162Statesparty to the Statute are
bound under the Optional Clause. Of the 47 declarations now in effect,

only 19 are not expressly subject either to unilateral termination or to
modification on notice. The SovietUnion has never adhered to the Court's
compulsory jurisdiction under the Optional Clause ; neither China nor
France currently adhere. The only Permanent Member of the Security
Council party to the Optional Clause other that the United States is the
United Kingdom, which has reserved "the right at any time ... and with
effect from the moment of .. .notification, either to add to, amend or
withdraw" any of its extensivereservations, and thisin adeclaration which
has been made "until such time as notice may be given to terminate" it.Lors de la discussion du rapport au Sénat,il fut soulignéque les Etats-
Unis, en adhérant en ces termes à lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour,
apporteraient une contribution vitale à l'acceptation généralede la juri-
dictionobligatoire effectivedela Cour. Unenote discordante etpolémique

résultade la proposition, faite par lesénateur Connally en séance,d'ajou-
ter sa fameuse réserve,qui rencontra une opposition énergique. Mais une
réserveencoreplusparalysante, en cequ'elle visait àrestreindre auxtraités
les sources de droit applicables aux affaires auxquelles les Etats-Unis
seraient partie, sauf accord préalable sur les sources applicables de droit
international, fut repoussée. Quant à la réserveVandenberg, elle fut
adoptéesansdifficulté,et laclauserelativeau préavisde sixmoisnesuscita
aucune critique.
96. En présentant la déclaration proposée,la commission des affaires
étrangèresrappela au Sénatque,sous le régimede la Cour permanente, la
clause facultative avait recueillià un moment l'acceptation de la très
grande majorité des Etats alors indépendants :

Quarante-quatre Etats, dont trois des cinq membrespermanents
actuels du Conseil de sécurité (France, Grande-Bretagne et Chine)
déposèrent à un moment ou à un autre des déclarations acceptant
cettejuridiction. (Report No. 1835, p. 8.)

En 1946,rares étaientles Etats qui seréservaientledroit de dénoncer leur
déclarationpar notification, et aucunne seréservaledroit de la modifier à
toutmoment.L'énoncéd'une duréedéterminéeen années,avecpériodede
préavis, tel qu'adopté en 1928 dans l'Acte général pour lerèglement
pacifiquedesdifférendsinternationaux, était lemodèlesuivipar un grand
nombre d'Etats. et que reprenaient les Etats-Unis. Le type de déclaration
sanscondition, d'une durée indéterminée,c'est-à-dire ne spécifiant aucun
nombre d'années ni périodede préavis,dont la déclaration du Nicaragua

de 1929est un exemple, était inhabituel en 1946.11a aujourd'hui presque
disparu : les sept déclarations de ce type encore existantes remontent à
l'époque optimiste, mais éphémèred ,e la Société des Nations, où l'on
croyait à l'essor de lajuridiction obligatoire universelle et effective de la
Cour mondiale.
97. Mais la situation, de nosjours, est fort différente de ce qu'elleétait
en 1929 ou en 1946. A ce jour, sur cent soixante-deux Etats parties au
Statut, quarante-sept sont liéssur labase de laclausefacultative. Et,sur les
quarante-sept déclarations aujourd'hui en vigueur, dix-neuf seulementne
sont pas expressément sujettes, soit à dénonciation unilatérale, soit à
modification moyennant préavis.L'Union soviétiquen'ajamais adhéré à
lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour surla base de la clausefacultati;ni

la Chine ni la France n'y adhèrent actuellement. Le seul membre perma-
nent du Conseil de sécurité,autre que les Etats-Unis, qui soit partieà la
clause facultative, est le Royaume-Uni, qui s'est réservéle droit << de
compléter,modifier ou retirer à tout moment, par voie de notification...
l'une ou l'autre de ses réservesfort importantes- et cela dans une décla-Many other leading States, including Algena, Argentina, Brazil, the Fed-
eral Republic of Germany, Italy, Poland and the other States of Eastern
Europe, Senegal,and Syriado not adhere to the Optional Clause. Thus it is
clear that the expectations in the light of which the Senate gaveits consent
and the President filed the declaration of the United States have not been
fulfilled.

98. Does it follow, in part because of the failure of these expectations,
that the United States is entitled to exercisewhat subsequent practice may
be said tohave recognizedtobe an inherent right to terminate adeclaration
on notice, despite the presence of a termination clause providing for a
period of notice ? In my view,a considerablecase can be madeoutfor that
conclusion, asdistinguished colleaguesshowin theiropinions. Butin order
topass upon the 1984notification of the United States,it is not necessary,
in my view, for the Court to take a position on that question.

99. Nor is the Court required to take a position on the allied question of
whether declarations under the Optional Clause are subject to the provi-
sions of the lawof treaties regulating the termination of treatiesor, rather,
to a sui generisrégime.The Court appears nevertheless to incline towards
the view that the law of treaties governs declarations, if only by analogy.
Myownviewisthat the argumentfora suigenerisrégimeismuch stronger.

That is because of thenature of declarations under the Optional Clause -
unilateral as they are, not subject to negotiation, reservations to whch are
not subject to agreement. Their nature differs substantially from that of
treaties. The Court's treatment of such declarations is suggestive,notably
in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case Cjurisdiction),Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1952, pages 93, 105,where the Court held :

"the text of the Iranian Declaration is not a treaty text resultingfrom
negotiations between two or more States. It is the result of unilateral
drafting by the Government of Iran . . ."

The Court thus held that a rule of the interpretation of treaties for which
the United Kingdom argued did not govern the interpretation of the
Iranian Declaration (ibid., pp. 102-107).The Court has more than once
described declarations under the Optional Clause as "unilateral" (Certain

Norwegian Loans, Judgment, Z.C.J. Reports 1957,pp. 9, 23 ; Barcelona
Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J.Reports 1964,pp. 6,29). Buteven if,contrary to this view,
rules for the termination or suspension of treaties were to be directly
applied, or by analogy were to be applied, to the legal effectivenessof the
United States suspension of elements of its 1946Declaration, the United
States still would be able to argue, and with much reason, that a "funda-
mental change of circumstances .. .has occurred with regard to those
existing at the time of the conclusion" of the declaration within theration stipuléevalide <jusqu'à ce qu'il soit donnénotification de [son]
abrogation O. Nombreux sont les grands pays - notamment l'Algérie,
l'Argentine, le Brésil,la République fédérale d'Allemagne, l'Italie, la
Pologne et les autres Etats d'Europe orientale, le Sénégalelta Syrie - qui
n'adhèrentpas à laclausefacultative. Il estdonc évidentquelesespoirs qui
motivaient l'acceptation du Sénatet le dépôtde la déclarationdes Etats-
Unis par le Président n'ontpas étécomblés.
98. En résulte-t-il,en raison notamment de cette réalité,que les Etats-
Unis sont habilités à exercer ce que la pratique ultérieuresemble avoir

reconnu comme un droit inhérent,c'est-à-dire la possibilitéde dénoncer
une déclaration avec effet immédiat,malgré l'existenced'une clause de
préavis ? A mon sens,il existe de très solidesarguments en faveur de cette
conclusion, comme le montrent mes distingués collègues dansleurs opi-
nions. Je pense cependant que la Cour n'étaitpas obligéede prendre
position sur cette question pour écarter la notification de 1984des Etats-
Unis.
99. Ellen'avait pasnon plus àprendre position sur la question connexe
de savoir si les déclarations faites sur la base de la clause facultative

relèventdesdispositionsdu droit des traitésrelatives àladénonciation,ou
d'un régimesui generis. La Cour semble incliner à penser que les décla-
rations relèventdu droit des traités,ne serait-ce que par analogie. Person-
nellement, j'estime que la thèsedu régimesui generisest beaucoup plus
solide, du fait de la nature des déclarations faites au titre de la clause
facultative - unilatérales,non soumises à dénonciation, assorties de ré-
servesnon contractuelles. La nature des déclarationsest donc fondamen-
talement différentede celle des traités. D'ailleurs,la façon dont la Cour
traite ses déclarationsest instructive, en particulier dans l'affaire de'An-

glo-Iranian Oil Co. (compétence, C.I.J. Recueil 1952 p,. 105),où elle s'ex-
primait comme suit :

<<le texte de la déclaration de l'Iran n'est pas un texte contractuel
résultant de négociationsentre deux ou plusieurs Etats. Il résulte
d'une rédaction unilatéralepar le Gouvernement de l'Iran ..>)

EtlaCourconcluait quelarègledel'interprétation destraitésinvoquéepar
le Royaume-Uni ne s'appliquait pas à l'interprétation de la déclaration

iranienne (ibid., p. 102-107).La Cour a ainsi affirméplusieurs fois le
caractère <unilatéral >)des déclarations faites sur la base de la clause
facultative (Certainsemprunts norvégiens,arrê Ct.,I.J. Recueil 1957,p. 2;
Barcelona Traction,Lighi and PowerCompany,Limited, exceptions préli-
minaires, arrêtC , .I.J. Recueil 1964,p. 29). Même d'ailleurs sic ,ontraire-
ment à ces conclusions, c'étaientles règlesde dénonciationou de suspen-
sion des traités quidevaient déterminer lavaleur juridique de l'acte par
lequel les Etats-Unis ont suspendu l'effet de certains élémentsde leur
déclarationde 1946,les Etats-Unis pourraient encore soutenir, non sans

raison, qu'~un changement fondamentalde circonstances ..s'estproduit
par rapport àcellesqui existaient au moment de la conclusion >)du traité,meaning ofArticle 62of the Vienna Convention on the LawofTreaties. An
essential basis of the United Statesconsent tobe bound by itsdeclaration,
itmay be maintained, wasitsperception that that declaration wouldbeone
of a near universal number of effective declarations. But the impact of
non-adherence to the Optional Clause by the large majority of States,
including so many of the more influential States, and the effect of the
widespread making of reservations permitting declarants to modify or
terminate their declarations at will, has been radically to transform the
extent of the obligations still to be performed by the United States under
its declaration, should it not be seen as retaining the unfettered right to

modify or suspend it.
100. This is a substantial argument. Moreover, even if one does not
resort to rebus sic stantibus, there is another substantial argument for
treating declarations made under the Optional Clause as inherently ter-
minable, even if they are regarded as subject to the law of treaties on
termination. It was expressedby SirHumphrey Waldock in hiscapacity as
Special Rapporteur of the International Law Commission on the Law of
Treaties in the following terms :

"It isonly necessary to look at the texts of the large number of such
treaties collected in the United Nations publication 'Systematic Sur-
vey of Treaties for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes,
1928-48'to seehow almost invariably they are concluded either for a
fixedterm orfor renewable termssubject to aright ofdenunciation, or
aremade terminable upon notice. ..If theproportion of instruments
containing no provision regarding their duration or termination is
somewhat greater among declarations under the 'optional clause' of
the Statute of theInternational Court of Justice (or of the Permanent
Court), the general picture is the same. Out of the thirty-seven decla-
rations listed in the Court's Yearbook for 1961-2,eight contain no
statement as to their duration or termination, and al1the others are

made for a limited period or made terminable upon notice. It is true
that in 1938,when Paraguay, which then had a declaration of this
kind,denounced itin a letter tothe Secretary-General, sixStates made
reservations with regard to the denunciation ; and that the Para-
guayan declaration was retained in the list of optional clause accep-
tances in the Yearbook of the Court until the year 1959-60,though
with an explanatory footnote mentioning the reservations. But the
declaration has now been removed from the list, ... Moreover, even
before the Paraguayan denunciation, Colombia had 'corrected'
in 1937an unlimited and unconditional declaration of 1932by res-
tricting it to disputes arising out of facts subsequent to 6 January
1932. Taken as a whole, State practice under the optional clause,
and especially the modern trend towards Declarations terminable
upon notice, seemonly to reinforce the clear conclusion to be drawn
from treaties of arbitration, conciliation and judicial settlement, thatau sensde l'article62de la convention de Vienne sur ledroit des traités.Un
motif essentiel du consentement des Etats-Unis à êtreliéspar leur décla-
ration étaiten effet lesentiment quecette déclaration s'intégreraitdans un
systèmequasi universel de déclarationseffectives. Et la non-adhésion à la
clause facultative de la grande majoritédes Etats, notamment parmi les
plus influents, ainsi quelapratique généraliséd ees réservesquipermettent
aux déclarantsde modifier ou de dénoncer leur déclaration à leur gré,ont

eu pour effet de transformer radicalement la portéedes obligations qu'il
incombe encore aux Etats-Unis d'exécuteren vertu de leur déclaration,
dans l'hypothèse oùon leur dénierait le droit de la modifier ou de la
sus~endre librement.
100. C'est là un argument fondamental. De plus, mêmesans recourir
au principe rebus sic stantibus, un autre argument important commande
que l'on considère les déclarations faites au titre de la clause facultative
comme susceptibles de dénonciationau grédu déclarant,mêmesi on leur
applique à cet égard le droit des traités. Cet argument a étéexprimé
de la façon suivante par sir Humphrey Waldock, parlant en qualité de
rapporteur de la Commission du droit international pour le droit des
traités:

Il suffit de parcourir le texte des nombreux traités de ce type qui
ont étérassemblésdans la publication des Nations Unies intitulée
Systematic Surveyof Treatiesfor thePacificSettlementofInternational
Disputes, 1928-48 pour constater que presque toujours ces instru-
ments sont conclus soit pour une période déterminées ,oit pour des
périodes tacitement renouvelables, avec droit de dénonciation, ou
qu'ils peuvent être dénoncép sar notification ..Si la proportion des
instruments qui ne contiennent aucune disposition relative à leur
durée ou à leur extinction est un peu plus élevéedans le cas des
déclarations faitesen vertu de la clause facultative 1du Statut de la
Cour internationale de Justice (ou de la Cour permanente), la situa-

tion généraleest cependant la même.Sur trente-sept déclarations
dont la liste figure dans l'Annuairede la Courpour 196 1-1962,huit ne
contiennent aucune indication concernantladurée de leurvaliditéou
leur extinction et toutes les autres sont faites pour une périodedéter-
minéeou précisentexpressémentqu'ilpeut êtremis fin à leur validité
par notification.Il est vrai que lorsqu'en 1938le Paraguay, qui avait
fait une déclaration de cette nature, a dénoncéledit instrument par
une lettre au Secrétairegénérals,ixEtats ont fait desréservestouchant
la dénonciation,et la déclarationdu Paraguay a étémaintenuedans la
liste des acceptations de la clause facultative publiée dans l'Annuaire
de la Cour, et celajusqu'en 1959-1960 ;toutefois unenote explicative

de bas de page mentionnait les réserves.Depuis, la déclaration a été
rayéede la liste...De plus, en 1937,avant mêmela dénonciation du
Paraguay, la Colombie avait (rectifié))une déclaration de durée
illimitéeet inconditionnelle faite en 1932, de manière à restreindre
l'application de cet acte aux différends relatifs à des faits survenus -these treaties are regarded as essentially of a terminable character."
Yeurhook of the International Law Commission, 1963, Vol. II,
p. 68.)

In oralargument, thedistinguishedcounsel of the United States,Professor

McDougal, further recalled that Waldock in the foregoing report had also
concluded that the constituent instruments of international organizations
are impliedly terminable upon notice (ibid p..69). A primary example
which Sir Humphrey cited as confirming the existence of a general pre-
sumption in favour of a right of withdrawal in this class of treaty is the
United Nations Charter. Professor McDougal then submitted :

"It isfamiliar knowledge that the Statute of theCourt, including its
component obligations, are now a part of the comprehensive United
Nations system. If the authors of the Charter in 1945and the Special
Rapporteur of the International Law Commission in 1963thought
there was inherent power to withdraw from the Charter itself, surely
they thoughtthat a modification ortermination ofparticipation in the
Optional Clause system was authorized." (Hearing of 16 October

1984,morning.)

101. In viewof the foregoingconsiderations, a considerable case can be
made out for viewing declarations under the Optional Clause as not
governed by the law of treaties, and as inherently terminable ;or, in the
alternative, if governed by the law of treaties, then terminable as a special
class of treaty which by itsnature is terminable ; or, in any event, termin-
able where a fundamental change of circumstances has occurred. Never-
theless, in the present proceedings, 1believe that the preferred position is
that every proviso of the United States 1946 Declaration is to be given
effect. The Court should have given effect to the multilateral treaty reser-
vation and to theintention that gaverise to it. If it had, it would be right to
giveeffect to the termination clause of the declaration and to theintention
that gave rise to it. However, where the Court finds that it is unclear

whether any Statesareaffected, orcouldbe affected, under the multilateral
treaty reservation, the Court, to be consistent, could equally hold that it is
unclear that the six months' termination provision debars modification.
Moreover, if the Court is to give effect to these provisions of the United
States Declaration of 1946, then it equally must give effect to the reci-
procity provision - a provision, it should be recalled, which was under- après le 6janvier 1932.Il semble que, dans son ensemble, la pratique
suiviepar les Etats en ce qui concernela clause facultative et notam-
ment la tendance actuelle qui consiste à préfèrerles déclarations
sujettes àdénonciationpar notification autorisent à conclure encore
plus nettement que les traités d'arbitrage,de conciliation et de règle-
ment judiciaire doivent êtreconsidéréscomme étantessentiellement

susceptibles de dénonciation. 1)(Annuaire de la Commission dudroit
international, 1963, vol. II, p. 71.)

M. McDougal, l'éminent conseil desEtats-Unis, a rappelé dans sa plai-
doirie que sir Humphrey Waldock, dans le rapport précité,concluait en
outre que les actes constitutifs des organisations internationales sont
implicitement sujets à dénonciation par notification (ibid., p. 72). Et la
Charte des Nations Unies étantun exemplemajeur citépar sir Humphrey
comme confirmant l'existence d'une présomptiongénéraleen faveur du
droit de retrait lorsqu'ils'agitde cette catégoriede traités, M.McDougal a
ajouté :

<<Il est universellement admis que le Statut de la Cour, y com-
pris les obligations qu'il implique, font maintenant partie du sys-
tème généraldes Nations Unies. Si les architectes de la Charte,
en 1945, et le rapporteur spécialde la Commission du droit inter-
national, en 1963,estimaient qu'il existait une faculté inhérentede
se retirer de la Charte elle-même, ils devaientcertainement juger
autorisée la modification ou la dénonciation de la participation au
système de la clause facultative. ))(Audience du 16 octobre 1984,
matin.)

101. Compte tenu de ce qui précèdej,e crois qu'il existede très solides
raisons de considérerque les déclarations faites sur la base de la clause
facultative ne sont pas régiespar le droit des traités,mais impliquent une

faculté inhérentede dénonciation ;ou que subsidiairement, si elles sont
régiespar le droit des traités,elles peuvent êtredénoncées entant que
catégorieparticulière de traités, susceptibles de dénonciation par leur
nature même ; et que,en toute hypothèse,ellespeuvent être dénoncéesen
cas de changement fondamental de circonstances. Néanmoins, en lapré-
senteprocédure,je crois que le mieux étaitde donner effet àchacune des
conditions de la déclaration des Etats-Unis de 1946.La Cour aurait dû
donner effet àla réserve relative auxtraités multilatéraux età l'intention
qui la motivait. Siellel'avait fait, il eût éténormalqu'elledonne effetà la
clause de dénonciation et à l'intention qui la motivait. Mais si la Cour ne
jugeait pas possible de déterminersi des Etats étaientconcernés, oupou-
vaient êtreconcernés,aux termes de la réserve relative auxtraitésbilaté-

raux, elle devait, en toute logique, conclure que la condition des six mois
poséepour ladénonciation n'interdisait pasnettement la modification. De
plus, si la Cour donnait effetà ces dispositions de la déclarationde 1946,stood by the United States Senate to embrace temporal elements of the
declaration under the Optional Clause.

102. The Declaration of 1929by whichNicaragua nowmaintainsthat it
isbound provides :"On behalf of theRepublic of Nicaragua 1recognizeas

compulsory unconditionally the jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of
International Justice." That declaration thus contains no limit of time ;its
duration is indefinite. Does the declaration accordingly mean that Nica-
ragua is bound to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction in perpetuity ? Or
does "unconditionally" rather mean that Nicaragua has setno condition of
time, that the duration of its declaration is indefinite until such time as it
may set whatever lirnit it chooses to it ?

103. To argue, in the abstract, that a State in accepting the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction unconditionally has accepted it in perpetuity, is
implausible. To argue, concretely, that a State which unconditionally
accepted the Court's jurisdiction in 1929 is bound in perpetuity - even
vis-à-vis States that have made declarations in which they have reserved

the right to modify or terminate at notice, or, indeed vis-à-vis that large
majority of States which have never adhered to the Optional Clause but
could at any time adhere with the profoundest restrictions simply with the
purpose of bringing suit against a State which has unconditionally
adhered, and thereafter terminate acceptance - is lessplausible still.That
obvious conclusion is reinforced by the practice of States. The practice is
not large in the nature of the question. Nor is it unambiguous. But on
balance it establishes that a small number of States, such asColombia and
Paraguay, have succeeded in freeing themselvesof unconditional subrnis-
sions to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction. There are no cases in which
States in that position have been effectively held to their unconditional
adherences. In sum, asShabtai Rosenne,writing in 1965,put it in TheLaw
and Practiceof the International Court :

"it is sometimes argued that the essential objection to the unilateral
denunciation of a declaration accepting the compulsoryjurisdiction,
is that these declarations are governed by the law of treaties which in
principle does not permit unilateral denunciation, with the possible
exception supplied by the doctrine of rebussicstantibus.But . ..that
view cannot easily be reconciled with the picture which emerges
from close analysis of the jurisprudence on the compulsory juris-
diction ...
The question whether declarations of the type herebeing discussed
can be withdrawn or denounced must, ... largely be relegated to the
realm of theory. Moreover, with the exception of a few - not more

than seven - of the pre-War declarations accepting the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court which are now applicable to theelledevait égalementdonner effet à la condition de réciprocité - laquelle
commeje l'ai déjàdit, devait, dans l'intention du Sénatdes Etats-Unis,
s'étendreaux éléments temporelsde la déclarationfaite sur la base de la
clause facultative.
102. La déclaration de 1929 par laquelle le Nicaragua se prétend
aujourd'hui liéest ainsirédigée :<<Au nom dela RépubliquedeNicaragua,
je déclarereconnaître commeobligatoireetsanscondition lajuridiction de
la Courpermanente de Justiceinternationale. )>Cette déclarationne com-

porte donc aucune limite de temps ; sa duréeest indéterminée. Faut-il en
conclure que leNicaragua est lié àperpétuitépar lajuridiction obligatoire
de la Cour ? Ou bien faut-il comprendre par (<sans condition >)que le
Nicaragua n'apas fixéde condition de temps etque la duréede validitéde
sa déclaration restera indéterminée jusqu'au moment ou il décideraéven-
tuellement de la limiter ?
103. Prétendre,dans l'abstrait, qu'un Etat, en acceptant sans condition
la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, l'accepte à perpétuité,n'est pas

plausible. Soutenir, concrètement, qu'un Etat qui a entendu à la fin des
annéesvingt accepter sans condition la juridiction de la Cour est lié à
perpétuité - même àl'égarddes Etats qui ont fait des déclarations en se
réservant expressémentle droit de les modifier ou de les dénoncerpar
notification, ou, mieux encore, à l'égardde la majorité des Etats qui,
n'ayantjamais adhéré à la clause facultative, pourraientà tout moment y
adhérersous les plus sévèresrestrictions et dans la seule intention d'en-
gager une action contre un Etat ayant adhérésanscondition, pour ensuite
dénoncerleur acceptation - est encore moins plausible. Cette conclusion
évidenteest renforcéepar la pratique des Etats. Celle-ci n'est pas abon-

dante sur cette question, ni dénuéede toute ambiguïté. Mais, enfin de
compte, elleétablit qu'un petitnombre d'Etats - commela Colombie, ou
le Paraguay - ont réussià se dégager d'uneacceptation sans condition de
lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour. Et il n'existe aucun exemple d'Etat
placédans cettesituation qui ait étéeffectivement tenu a sonadhésion sans
condition. En bref, comme le disait Rosenne en 1965dans The Law and
Practice of the International Court :

(<on prétend parfois que l'objection essentielle à la dénonciation

unilatéraled'une déclaration d'acceptation de lajuridiction obliga-
toire tienà ceque ces déclarations sontrégiespar le droit des traités,
qui, en principe, n'autorise pas une dénonciation unilatérale,à l'uni-
queexceptionprèsdérivée de lathéorierebussicstantibus.Mais ..une
telle vue s'accorde difficilement avecla situation qui ressort d'une
analyse attentive de lajurisprudence concernant lajuridiction obli-
gatoire...
La question de savoir si les déclarationsdu type ici envisagé peu-
vent êtreretiréesou dénoncéesrelève,par conséquent,de supputa-

tions en grande partie théoriques.De plus, à l'exception de quelques
déclarations - sept au plus - de la période d'avant-guerre acceptant
lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour permanente, quisont aujourd'hui present Court by virtue of Article 36(5)of the present Statute, States
have developed the practice of protecting themselves by inserting a
reservation of the right to withdraw, andthe practical problem isnow
limited. As far as those seven declarations are concerned, it is sub-
mitted that it would be singularlyunreal to apply to them an inflexible
rule said to derivefrom the general lawof treaties and disallowing the
right of unilateral denunciation. The dissolution of the League of
Nations and thePermanent Court and thefar-reaching changesin the

international community and its organization which that dissolution
mirrors, are sufficient to allow those States to withdraw their decla-
rations made in those far off days when the compulsory jurisdiction
was[in]its infancy, and whichare todayapplicable by virtue ofArticle
36 (5) of the Statute." (Vol. 1,pp. 416-417 ;footnotes omitted.)

104. It follows that Nicaragua, if its 1929Declaration binds it at all, is
free to terminate its acceptance. 1sit free to do so at any time, or only on

"reasonable notice" ? In the light of the practice in making declarations
adhering to the Optional Clause, so many of whichpermit termination or
modification not on "reasonable notice" or after a prescribed period but
immediately, the reasonable response to ths reasonable question is that
Nicaragua has the right to terminate its declaration on immediate notice.
That conclusion is reinforced by the experience of withdrawal from in-
definite adherences to the Court's compulsory jurisdiction by States such
as Colombia and Paraguay, withdrawals which did not entai1a period of
reasonable notice. (It strains the facts to suggest that, since some States
protested Paraguay'saction, and itsdeclaration wasretained in the Court's
Yearbooksfor some years, with a footnote, that is tantamount to imposi-
tion of a period of reasonable notice on Paraguay's termination.)

105. The case of Indonesia is particularly instructive. On 31 December
1964, Indonesia announced that it would withdraw from the United
Nations as of 1January 1965.It confirmed that decision in a communi-
cation of 20 January 1965(doc. A/5857). The United Nations acquiesced
in that decision. Indonesian withdrawal, on 24 hours' notice, was given
effect,legallyand practically. Indonesia ceased to be listed as a member of
the Organization. Indonesia was not assessed for any financial contribu-

tions for the whole of 1965(see the Report of the Cornrnitteeon Contribu-
tions, General Assernbb, Officia1Records: Twentieth Session, supplement
No. 10 (A/6010), pp. 1,2, 3). Subsequently, from September 1966,Indo-
nesia resumed participation in the United Nations, and it was agreed by
al1concerned that what had been treated as Indonesia's legally effective
withdrawal from the United Nations would be regarded retroactively not
as a withdrawal but "a cessation of CO-operation" (General Assembly,
Twenty-First Session, OfficialRecords, 1420thPlenary Meeting, pp. 1-2). applicables àla Cour actuelleenvertu del'article36,paragraphe 5,du
présent Statut, les Etats ont pris l'habitude de se protéger par une
réserveleur conférant un droit de retrait, de sorte que, sur le plan
pratique, le problème est aujourd'hui limité.En ce qui concerne les
sept déclarations précitées, j'estimequ'il serait singulièrementirréa-
liste de leur appliquer une règlerigideprétendument dérivée du droit
généraldes traités, qui leur dénierait la faculté d'une dénonciation
unilatérale. La dissolution de la Sociétédes Nations et de la Cour

Dermanente. et les mutations considérablesde la communautéinter-
nationale et de sonorganisation quetraduit cettedissolution, sont des
raisons suffisantes pour permettre àces Etats de retirer des déclara-
tions remontant aux jours lointains où la juridiction obligatoire en
étaità ses débuts,et qui sont aujourd'hui applicables par l'effet de
l'article36,paragraphe 5,du Statut. ))(Vol.1,p. 416-417 ;notes debas
de page omises.)

104. Il s'ensuit qu'il est loisibleau Nicaragua, sitoutefois ilest liépar sa
déclarationde 1929,de dénoncerson acceptation. Est-il libre de le faire à
tout moment, ou seulement moyennant un (préavisraisonnable )? A la
lumière de la pratique afférente aux déclarationsd'adhésion àla clause
facultative, dont un grand nombre autorisent la dénonciation ou la modi-
fication, non pas aprèsun préavis raisonnable >)ouun délaispécifiém , ais
immédiatement, la réponse raisonnable à cette question raisonnable est
que le Nicaragua a le droit de mettre fin immédiatement à sa déclaration

par voie de notification. Cette conclusion est renforcéepar la pratique
suivie par des Etats comme la Colombie ou le Paraguay pour retirer des
adhésionsde duréeindéterminée à lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour,
retraits effectuéssans préavisraisonnable. (Ce serait solliciter les faits que
deprétendre que les protestations de quelques Etats contre cette décision
et lemaintien de la déclarationdu Paraguay dans les Annuaires de la Cour
pendant quelques années,avecune note de bas de page, équivalaient à im-
poser une périodede préavis raisonnable à la dénonciationdu Paraguay.)
105. Le cas de l'Indonésieest particulièrement instructif. Le 31décem-

bre 1964, l'Indonésieannonça qu'elle se retirait de l'organisation des
Nations Unies à compter du lejanvier 1965.Elle confirma cette décision
par une communication du 20 janvier 1965 (doc. A/5857). Les Nations
Unies acquiescèrent à cette décision,dans la pratique, et ce retrait de
l'Indonésie, notifié avevcingt-quatre heures de préavis,reçut effetjuridi-
quement et pratiquement. L'Indonésie fut retirée de la liste des Etats
Membres de l'organisation ; il ne lui fut pas demandé de contribu-
tion financière pour l'année1965. (Rapport du comité des contributions,
Assembléegénéralev,ingtième session,documentsofficiels, supplément no10
(A/6010), p. 1, 2 et 3.) En septembre 1966, l'Indonésiereprit sa place

aux Nations Unies, et il fut décidéque ce qui avait ététraitécomme un
retraitjuridiquement valable des Nations Unies serait considéré rétroac-
tivement, non pas comme un retrait, mais comme une << cessation de
collaboration )) (Assembléegénérale, vingt eu tnième session, documents625 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO . P.SCHWEBEL)

A payment of 10per cent of the amount for which Indonesia would have
been assessed for its contributions to the regular budget for the period of

Indonesian withdrawal was agreed upon. (Contributions of Indonesia for
theyears 1965and 1966,ReportoftheSecretary-General,doc. A/C.5/ 1097,
pp. 1, 2 ; and doc. A/6630, p. 3.)
106. Upon its withdrawal on 24hours'notice from the United Nations,
Indonesian withdrawal from the Statute of the Court, an integral part of
the Charter, likewise had the same legal and temporal effect. This was
reflected in the Yearbooksof the Court. Thus the Yearbook1964-1965,in
listing the States Members of the United Nations which ipsofacto are
parties to the Statute, has a footnote after the entry respecting Indonesia
(whichembraced 1964)observing that Indonesia notified withdrawalas of
1January 1965(at p. 27). The Yearbook 1965-1966, in listing the States
Members of the United Nations, and hence parties to the Statute, simply

omits Indonesia (p. 26). However, the Yearbook 1966-1967 States that,
among the States Members of the United Nations on 31 July 1967, was
Indonesia (p. 29).There is no indication that the Court,any more than the
United Nations, imposed a period of reasonable time upon the effective-
ness of Indonesia's notice of withdrawal. Now, if a State can withdraw
from the Statute of theCourt on 24hours' notice,rnaynot a State withdraw
from a declaration accepting the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction under
that Statute on 24 hours' notice ?

107. If Nicaragua could have so acted with immediate effect, rnay the
United States reciprocally do so ? The Court concludes that it rnaynot, on
two grounds : first, that reciprocity does not apply to temporal reserva-

tions or conditions but only to substantive reservations ;and second, that,
in any event, the United States cannot invoke and have the benefit of a
right which Nicaragua has but which Nicaragua itself did not invoke
before filing its Application.
108. The second point rnay be summarily addressed. Clearly, if Nica-
ragua itself - assuming it to have the right of unilateral termination of a
declaration which is assumed to be in force - exercised that right before it
filed its Application, then it could not file an application based on the
Optional Clause with any colourable basis ofjurisdiction. It would have
itself terminated the jurisdiction it proposed to invoke before invoking
it.
109. The question ofwhether reciprocity applies to temporal conditions

is a more substantial question, on which authorities are divided. In my
view,there is no persuasive reason, apriorior having regard to thepractice
of theCourt, to exclude temporal conditionsfrom the reach of reciprocity.
1so conclude for four reasons.

110. First, temporal conditions rnay be no less important than other
conditions.They rnayexcludejurisdictionjust assurelyasrnaysubstantive
reservations to the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction. Sincereciprocity is so
closelytied to considerations of mutuality and of the sovereignequality of officiels,1420eséanceplénière,p. 1-2). Il fut convenu en outre que l'In-
donésie paierait 10pour cent des contributions qu'elle eût étéappelée à
acquitter au titre du budget ordinaire pour sa périodede non-participa-
tion. (Contributionsde 171ndonésiepoulresexercices1965 et 1966,Rapport
du Secrétairegénéral, doc. A/C.5/ 1097, p. 1 et 2 ;et doc. A/6630, p. 3.)
106. En même tempsque l'Indonésieseretirait des Nations Unies avec
un préavisde vingt-quatre heures, il étaitmis finàson adhésionau Statut
de la Cour, qui fait partie intégrantede la Charte, avec les mêmes effets
juridiques et temporels. C'est ce que l'on constate en consultant les
Annuaires de la Cour. L'Annuaire 1964-1965 accompagnait la liste des
Etats Membres des Nations Unies qui sont ipsofacto parties au Statut
d'une note relative à l'Indonésie(pour 1964)indiquant que l'Indonésie
avait notifiéson retraià compter du lerjanvier 1965(p. 27). L'Annuaire

1965-1966omettait simplement l'Indonésiedans la liste des Etats Mem-
bres des Nations Unies et par conséquentparties au Statut (p. 26). Par
contre, l'Annuaire 1966-1967 mentionnait l'Indonésie parmi les Etats
Membres des Nations Unies au 31juillet 1967(p. 29). Rien n'indique que
la Cour, pas plus que les Nations Unies, ait imposé un délai raisonnable
avant dedonner effet à la notification de retrait de l'Indonésie.Sidonc un
Etat peut dénoncer son adhésionau Statut de la Cour avec un préavisde
vingt-quatre heures, un Etat ne peut-il égalementdénoncer,avec un préa-
vis de vingt-quatre heures, une déclaration d'acceptation de lajuridiction
obligatoire faite en vertu de ce Statut?
107. Si le Nicaragua pouvait agir ainsi, les Etats-Unis avaient-ils, par
voiederéciprocité, lemêm droit? LaCour conclut à lanégativepour deux
raisons : tout d'abord, parce que le principe de réciprociténe s'applique-
rait pas aux réservesou conditions de caractère temporel, mais seulement
aux réservesde fond ;ensuite parce que, en tout état de cause, les Etats-
Unis ne pourraient invoquer et exercer un droit que le Nicaragua détient

mais qu'il n'a pas lui-mêmeinvoqué avant de déposer sa requête.
108. La deuxièmeraison ne résistepas à une brève analyse.Il estévident
en effet que, si le Nicaragua- en supposant qu'ileût le droit de dénoncer
unilatéralement une déclaration supposée envigueur - avait exercé ce
droit avant de déposer sa requête, iln'aurait eu aucun titre plausible de
juridiction pour intenter une action sur la base de la clause facultative,
puisqu'il aurait lui-même décliné la compétencedont il entendait se pré-
valoir avant de l'invoquer effectivement.
109. La question de savoir si le principe de réciprocités'applique aux
conditions decaractèretemporel estun problèmeplus sérieux,et qui divise
les auteurs. A mon avis,il n'ya pas de raison déterminante, à priori ou au
vu de la pratique de la Cour, d'exclure les conditions de temps de l'ap-
plication du principe de réciprocité.Cette conclusion s'appuie sur les
quatre raisons suivantes.

110. Premièrement, lesconditions de temps peuvent n'êtrepas moins
importantesque les autres. Ellespeuvent exclure la compétencetout aussi
sûrement que des réservesde fond surlajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour.
La réciprocitéétantsi étroitementliée à desconsidérations de symétrieet Statesbefore the law and before the Court, 1seeno reason in principle to
exclude temporal conditions from the scope of application of recipro-
city.
1 11. Second, theCourt hasmore than once entertained argument about
the application of reciprocity ratione temporis. It has never held that
reciprocity does not apply to temporal conditions. On the contrary, both

opposingStatesin thesecasesand the Courtappearto have assumed that it
did or might. See, Phosphatesin Morocco,Judgment, 1938, P.C.I.J., Series
A/ B, No. 74,page 22 ; Electricity CompanyofSofia and Bulgaria,P.C.I.J.,
Judgment, 1939,Series A/B, No. 77,page 81 ; and the Anglo-Iranian Oil
Co.case,I.C.J. Reports 1952,pages 93, 103,and the analysis of those cases
by Waldock tothis effectin "Decline of the Optional Clause", British Year
Book of International Law 1955-1956(1957),Vol. XXXII, pages 258-261.
See also, case concerning Right of PassageoverIndian Territory,Prelimi-
nary Objections,Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957,pages 125, 143-144.As
Helmut Steinberger concluded in "The International Court of Justice7',
which is found in the volume on Judicial Settlement of International Dis-
putes (1974) edited by Hermann Mosler and Rudolf Bernhardt :

"The Court in several cases has confirmed the wide operational
scopeof thecondition ofreciprocityand statedthatjurisdiction under
the optional clause is conferred on the Court 'only to the extent to
which the twodeclarations coincide in confernng it'.That goesforthe
jurisdiction ratione temporis as well as for the jurisdiction ratione
materiae." (At pp. 216-217 ; footnotes omitted.)

112. Third, the United States,in drafting its Declaration of 14August
1946, made it clear that it did regard the safeguard of reciprocity as
applying to temporal conditions (supra, para. 95).
113. Fourth, the contrary result may produce inequality and inequity.
As Waldock so emphatically put it in his article on the "Decline of the
Optional Clause" :
"There is, ... another aspect of reciprocityin regard to time-limits
. which seems to deserve attention, since it may well assume impor-

tance in view of the increasing number of declarations which are
immediately terminable on notice to the Secretary-General. Reci-
procity would seem to demand that in any given pair of States each
should have the sarneright astheother toterminate thejuridical bond
existing between them under the Optional Clause.This is so even in
the ordinary case where State A's declaration is without time-limit
while State B'sisfora period of fiveor ten years. StateBat the end of
theperiod maychoosewhether to renewor to terminate its obligations
towards State A under the Optional Clause. StateA may reasonably
contend that, while not retracting its general acceptance of the
Optional Clause, it also is entitled at the end of the period to choose
whether or not to continue its particular obligationstowards State B.
It is one thing to hold that a unilateral declaration made withoutd'égalité souveraine des Etats au regard du droit et de la Cour,je ne vois
aucune raison de principe d'exclure lesconditions de temps du champ
d'application du principe de réciprocité.
111. Deuxièmement, la Cour a eu plusieurs fois à connaître d'argu-
ments touchant l'application rationetemporisduprincipe deréciprocité,et
ellen'ajamais conclu que cedernier ne s'appliquait pas aux conditions de
temps. Bien au contraire, tant les Etats parties à ces affaires que la Cour
semblent avoirsupposéqueleprincipe s'appliquait oupouvait s'appliquer,
à cesconditions. VoirPhosphates duMaroc, arrêt, 1938 C,.P.J.I. sérieA/B
no74,page 22 ; Compagnied'électricité de Sofia et deBulgarie, arrêt, 1939,

C.P.J.I. sérieA/B no 77, page 81 ;Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., C.I.J. Recueil
1952, page 103, ainsi que l'analyse de ces affaires par Waldock dans
(<Declineof the Optional Clause D,British YearBook ofInternationalLaw,
1955-1956(1957),vol. XXXII, pages 258-261. Voir aussiDroit depassage
sur territoire indien,exceptionspréliminaires, arrêC t,.I.J. Recueil 1957,
pages 143-144.Commeconclut H. Steinberger (<< The International Court
of Justice ))dans Judicial Settlement of International Disputes, 1974,ou-
vrage publiésous la direction de H. Mosler et R. Bernhardt) :

(La Cour a confirmédans plusieurs espècesle large champ opé-
rationnel delacondition deréciprocitéetaaffirmé que lacompétence
sur la base de la clausefacultative n'estconférée à la Cour (<que dans
la mesure où les deux déclarations coïncidentpour la lui conférer D.
Cela vaut pour la compétencerationetemporiscommepour la compé-

tence rationemateriae. )(P.216-217 ;notes de bas de page omises.)
112. Troisièmement,lorsque les Etats-Unis ont rédigé leur déclaration
du 14août 1946,ils ont indiqué clairementqu'ilsentendaient que le prin-
cipe de réciprocité s'appliquait aux conditiond se temps (supra,par. 95).

113. Quatrièmement, un résultatcontraire serait source d'inégalité et
d'iniquité. Commelesoulignait Waldockdanssonétudesur ledéclinde la
clause facultative ((<Decline of the Optional Clause 1)):
(<Il y a...un autre aspect de la réciprocité,touchant les limites de
temps, qui semble mériterl'attention, puisqu'il est susceptible de

prendre de l'importance du fait de la multiplication des déclarations
sujettesà dénonciation immédiatepar voie de notification au Secré-
taire généralL. a réciprocitésemble commander que, dans tout couple
d7Etatsconsidéréc ,hacun ait le mêmedroit de dénoncer lelienjuri-
dique résultantde la clause facultative. Cela vaut mêmedans le cas
usuel où la déclaration de 1'Etat A ne comporte aucune limite de
temps,alorsquecellede l'Etat Best souscritepour unepériodedecinq
ou dixans. Al'expirationdecetteperiode, l'Etat Bpeut choisir, soitde
renouveler,soitdedénoncersesobligationsenvers l'EtatAenvertu de

la clause facultative. L'Etat A peut raisonnablement soutenir que,
sans revenir sur son acceptation générale de la clause facultative, il a
aussi la faculté, auterme de la période,de déciderde poursuivre ou
non sesobligations particulières envers 1'EtatB. Si on peut soutenir time-limit binds the State concerned indefinitely toward other States
whichhavemade similardeclarations. It isquite another thingtohold
that such aunilateraldeclaration isbinding indefinitely towardsother
States which have not undertaken the same commitment. The in-
equality in the positions of the two States under the Optional Clause,
if the principle of reciprocity is not applied to time-limits, becomes '
absolutely inadmissible when State A's declaration is without time-
limit while that of State Bis immediately terminable on notice to the
Secretary-General. It would be intolerable that State B should always
be able, merely by giving notice, to terminate at any moment its
liability to compulsoryjurisdiction vis-à-visState A, whilst the latter
remained perpetually bound to submit to the Court's jurisdiction at
thesuit of State B.TheCourt has not yethad occasion to examine this

aspect of the operation of reciprocity in relation to time-limits. In the
light, however, of its interpretation of the condition of reciprocity in
regard to reservations, the Court, it is believed, must hold that under
theOptional Clauseeach State,withrespect to anyother State,has the
sameright to terminate itsacceptance of compulsoryjurisdiction asis
possessed by that other State." (Loc. cit., pp. 278-279.)

114. It is no less clear that what is critical in the application of the
Optional Clause is that jurisdiction must subsist as of the date of seisin of

the Court. That is axiomatic, and is made the clearer by the Court's
Judgments in the Nottebohrncase, Prelirninary Objection,Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1953,pages 111, 122-123 ;and in the Right of PassageoverIndian
Territorycase, 1.C.J. Reports 1957, pages 142-144.
115. Since the United States exercised its reciprocal right to modify or
partially suspend elements of its Declaration of 14August 1946by a Note
deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations on 6 April
1984,sinceNicaragua filedits Application in thiscaseon 9April 1984,and
sinceit is clear and isnot disputed that the Application of Nicaragua falls
within the terms of the exclusions effected by the United States Note of
6 April, it follows that the Court is without jurisdiction to entertain the
claims which Nicaragua makes, in so far as they are based on the decla-
rations of the Parties under Article 36, paragraph 2, and Article 36,para-
graph 5, of the Court's Statute.
116. It must be acknowledged that to take this broad view of recipro-
city, which would not give effect to the 1984notification of the United
States erga ornnes,but would regard the United States as having been
empowered reciprocally and immediately to terminate its declaration
vis-à-vis Nicaragua, involves a construction of reciprocity which, being
appliedbeforeacase isfiled in the Court, givesrise to complications.Once
the Court isseisedof acase, the scopeof thedeclarations of theparties can

becompared, but, before seisin,thesituation ismuch morecomplex. In my
view,that is adrawback of my analysis but not a fatal drawback.After all, qu'une déclaration unilatérale stipuléesans limite de temps lie 1'Etat
déclarant indéfinimentenvers les Etats auteurs de déclarationsana-
logues, c'est tout autre chose d'affirmer qu'une telle déclarationuni-
latéralele lierait indéfiniment envers les Etats qui n'ont pas pris le
même engagement. L'inégalitd ée situation des deux Etats au regard
de laclausefacultative, cas d'exclusiondes limites de temps du champ

de la réciprocité, devientabsolument inadmissible lorsque la décla-
ration de 1'EtatA est indéterminée, alorsque celle de 1'Etat B est
sujetteà dénonciation immédiatepar voie de notification au Secré-
taire général.Il serait intolérableque 1'EtatB ait toujours la faculté,
par simple notification, de dénoncer à tout moment son assujettisse-
ment à lajuridiction obligatoire vis-à-vis de 1'EtatA, tandis que ce
dernier resterait perpétuellementtenu des'ysoumettre encasd'action
engagéepar 1'EtatB. La Cour n'a pas eu encore àse pencher sur cet
aspect du jeu de la réciprocitépour ce qui concerne les limites de
temps. A la lumière,cependant,de son interprétation de la condition
de réciprocité à propos des réserves, laCour devrait, selon nous,
conclure que, sur la base de la clause facultative, chaque Etat a, par
rapport à tout autre Etat, le mêmedroit de dénoncerson acceptation
de la juridiction obligatoire que celui que détient cet autre Etat.
(Loc. cit., p. 278-279.)

114. Il n'est pas moins clair que ce qui est déterminant pour l'applica-
tion de laclausefacultative est la nécessique la compétence subsiste àla
date de saisinede la Cour. Cela est manifeste, eta érendu onne peut plus
évidentpar les arrêtsde la Cour dans l'affaire Nottebohm (exceptionpré-
liminaire, arrêtC. I. J. Recueil 1953,p. 122-123)et dans l'affaire du Droit
de passage sur territoire indienC.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 142-144).
115. Vuque les Etats-Unis ont exercéleur droit réciproquede modifier
ou de suspendre partiellement certains éléments de leur déclaration du
14août 1946en vertu de la note remise au SecrétairegénéraldesNations

Unies le 6 avril 1984,que le Nicaragua a déposé sa requête en l'espècele
9 avril 1984,etqu'il est évidentetnoncontestéquela requêtedu Nicaragua
s'inscritdans lechamp des exclusions poséespar la note de Etats-Unis du
6 avril, il s'ensuit que la Cour n'a pas compétence pour connaître des
demandes présentéespar le Nicaragua, en ce qu'ellessont fondées surles
déclarationsfaitespar les Parties autitre de l'article36,paragraphes 2et,
du Statut de la Cour.
116. Il faut reconnaître qu'une conception aussi généralede la récipro-
cité, suivant laquellela notification des Etats-Unis de 1984n'aurait pas
effet erga omnes mais leur donnerait pouvoir, réciproquement et immé-
diatement, de dénoncer leur déclarationvis-à-vis du Nicaragua, résulte
d'une interprétation de la réciprocitédont l'application, une fois la Cour
saisied'une instance, est sourcede complications. Si,eneffet, ilestpossible
de comparer la portéedes déclarations desparties, aprèsque la Cour a été
saisie, la situation antérieuràla saisine est beaucoup plus complexe. A

mon sens,c'estlà un défautde mon analyse, maisqui n'estpas fatal.Aprèstout, avant l'avisconsultatif sur les Réserves à la conventionpour lapré-
vention etla répressiondu crime degénocide,le droit régissant la formula-
tion des réservesaux traitésétaitrelativement clair et simple. C'est pour

favoriser une adhésion plus large aux traitésque la Cour a adoptésur la
formulation des réservesune position souple qui, en contrepartie de la
latitude ainsi offerte, se traduit, dans le systèmedes relations convention-
nelles,par une complication extrême, que la conventionde Vienne sur le
droit des traitésa avaliséeenfaisant sien leraisonnement de la Cour. Etje
pense que, dans l'intérêt du maintien et de l'accroissement du nombre
d'adhésions a lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour, celle-ciaurait dû, dans
laprésente affaire,faire preuve dela mêmesouplessedans l'application du
principe de réciprocitéaux déclarations faites en vertude la clause facul-
tative.

2. La compétence en vertu dturaité d'amitié d,e commerceet de navigation

117. Dans sa requête,le Nicaragua invoquait pour toute base de com-
pétenceles déclarationspar lesquellesla République duNicaragua etles
Etats-Unis d'Amériqueont acceptéla juridiction de la Cour dans les
conditions prévues à l'article 36 du Statut..)> (introduction). Mais, au
paragraphe 177 de son mémoire, il invoque un ((chef de compétence
complémentaire >> ,savoirletraitéd'amitié,decommerceet denavigation
que lesEtats-Unis d'Amériqueet la Républiquedu Nicaragua ont signéle
21janvier 1956,qui est entréen vigueur en 1958 et qui est toujours en

vigueur. Une première question sepose donc :l'Etat qui n'apas invoqué
une base de compétence possibledans sa requête peut-il l'invoquer ulté-
rieurement ?
118. La réponse qui résultede la maigrejurisprudence de la Cour sur
cette question est négative. C'estdans ce sens qu'a conclu la Cour dans
l'affaire relative Certains emprunts norvégienso,ù la France, Etat requé-
rant, prétendait invoquer comme base de compétence deux traitésqu'elle
n'avait pas mentionnésdans sa requête, mais seulementlors de la procé-
dure sur les exceptions préliminaires :

SileGouvernement français avait vouluprocéder surcettebase, il
l'aurait expressément déclaré.
Ainsi qu'on l'adéjà montré,la requêtedu Gouvernement français
sefonde clairement et précisément surles déclarationsde la Norvège
et de la France aux termes de l'article 36, paragraphe 2,du Statut.

Dans ces conditions, la Cour ne saurait rechercher, pour établir sa
compétence,un fondement autre que celui que le Gouvernement
françaisa lui-mêmeénoncd éans sarequête,et surlequell'affaireaété
plaidée devant la Cour par les deux Parties. )>(Certains emprunts
norvégiens, arrêt,C.1.J. Recueil 1957, p. 24-25.)

De même,la requêtedu Nicaragua se fonde ((clairement ))sinon aussi
précisément, surles déclarations faitespar les Etats-Unis et le Nicaragua629 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISS O.P.SCHWEBEL)

paragraphs 2and 5,ofthe Statute. If Nicaragua "had intended to proceed"
upon the basis of the Treaty with the United States, "it would expressly
have so stated". Accordingly, in "these circumstances" - which are not
unlike those in Certain Nonvegian bans - "the Court would not be

justified in seekingabasisforitsjurisdiction differentfromthat which" the
Nicaraguan Government "itself set out initsApplication and by reference
to which the case has been presented by both Parties to the Court".
Therefore, in so far as Nicaragua relies upon the Treaty to establish
jurisdiction in this case, there is ground for holding that its Application
should be dismissed.
119. However,theCourt, for reasonsthat arenot altogetherclear, seems
in this case to have another understanding of the import of its holding in
Certain Norwegian Loans. It accordingly turns to a second prelirninary
consideration which also presents a considerablejurisdictional barrier to
Nicaraguan invocation of the Treaty.

Article XXIV of the Treaty provides :
"1. EachPartyshallaccordsympatheticconsideration to,and shall
afford adequate opportunity for consultation regarding, such repre-
sentations as the other Party may make with respect to any matter
affecting the operation of the present Treaty.
2. Any dispute between the Parties as to the interpretation or

application of thepresent Treaty,not satisfactorilyadjusted by diplo-
macy, shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice, unless
the Parties agree to settlement by some other pacific means."

Paragraph 2 of this Article permits either Party unilaterally to seise the
Court of a dispute over "the interpretation or application of the present

Treaty,not satisfactorilyadjusted by diplomacy ...".Inits Application in
UnitedStates Diplornaticand ConsularStaff in Tehran,the United States
invoked an identical provision of itsTreaty ofAmity, Economic Relations
and Consular Rights with Iran, and the Court in its Judgment held that
such a clause provides for "a right of unilateral recourse to the Court"
which "establishes thejurisdiction of the Court as compulsory for such
disputes" unless the Parties agree to settlement by some other means
(1.C.J.Reports1980,p. 27).In that case,however, there wasno question of
initially determining whether the dispute could or could not be satisfac-
torily adjusted by diplomacy, since, as the Court observed, Iran refused to
negotiate. But,in thecurrent case,not onlyhaveNicaragua and theUnited
States engaged in direct negotiations between them, which are actively
continuing over their largerdisputes, but Nicaragua does not allegethat it

has ever claimed, before or during those negotiations or otherwise, that
there is any dispute between it and the United States over the interpre-
tation or application of the Treaty. Suchclaims for thefirst time appear in
the Nicaraguan Memorial. For its part, the United States denies that there
has been any effort to adjust by diplomacy any dispute with Nicaraguaconformément à l'article 36,paragraphes 2 et 5,du Statut. SileNicaragua
<(avait vouluprocéder surlabasedu traitéconclu aveclesEtats-Unis, << il
l'aurait expressémentdéclaré D.En conséquence,dans <(cesconditions -
qui nesont pas sansrappeler cellesde l'affaire relative à Certainsemprunts
norvégiens - <(la Cour ne saurait rechercher, pour établir sa compétence,
un fondement autre que celui que >)le Gouvernement nicaraguayen << a
lui-mêmeénoncé dans sarequête,etsurlequell'affaireaété plaidée devant
la Cour par les deux Parties o.Dansla mesure où le Nicaragua invoque le
traitéde 1956pour établir la compétence enl'espèce,il apparaît donc que

sa requête devraitêtrerejetée.
119. Toutefois la Cour, pour des raisons qui ne sont pas parfaitement
claires, semble retenir dans la présente espèceune autre interprétation
de sa décision dans l'affaire relative à Certains emprunts norvégiens.
Elle envisage en conséquence une deuxièmeconsidération préliminaire,
qui oppose elle aussi un sérieuxobstacle à l'établissementde la compé-
tence.
L'articleXXIV du traitéde 1956dispose :

((1. Chacune des deux parties examinera avec bienveillance les
représentationsque l'autrepartie pourra faireau sujet de toute ques-
tion concernant l'application du présenttraitéet prendra des mesures

adéquatespour permettre des consultations à ce propos.
2. Tout différend qui pourrait s'éleverentre les parties quant à
l'interprétation ou l'application du présent traité etqui ne pourrait
êtrerégléd'une manière satisfaisante par la voie diplomatique sera
portédevant la Courinternationalede Justice, à moins que lesparties
ne conviennent de le réglerpar d'autres moyens pacifiques. ))

Le paragraphe 2 de cet article autorise les parties au traité à saisir unila-
téralement laCour de tout différend <<quant à l'interprétation ou à l'ap-
plication du présenttraitéet qui ne pourrait pas être réglé d'une manière
satisfaisante parla voiediplomatique ...>)LesEtats-Unis, dans leur requête
en l'affaire du Personnel diplomatique et consulaire deE stats-Unis a Téhé-
ran,avaient invoquéune disposition identique du traitéd'amitié,de com-

merce et de droits consulaires qu'ilsavaient signé avecl'Iran, et, dans son
arrêt,la Cour avait conclu qu'une clause qui << prévoit la compétence
obligatoire de la Cour pour connaître de ces différends ))donne le <<droit
de s'adresser unilatéralement à la Cour )),à moins que les parties ne
conviennent de les réglerpar quelque autre méthode (C.I.J. Recueil1980,
p. 27).Mais,en l'occurrence,iln'était pasquestionde déterminerau départ
siledifférend pouvait oune pouvait pas êtreréglé de manière satisfaisante
par lavoiediplomatique,puisque,commela Cour lefaisait observer, l'Iran

refusait de négocier.Dansla présenteespèce,au contraire, non seulement
le Nicaragua et les Etats-Unis ont entamé directement entre eux des
négociations surleursdifférendsconsidérés dans leur ensemble, lesquelles
négociationsse poursuivent activement, mais encore le Nicaragua ne dit
pas avoirjamais prétendu, avant ou pendant lesdites négociations,ou de
toute autre manière, qu'il existeentre lui et les Etats-Unis un différendover the interpretation or application of the Treaty, particularly because
Nicaragua hasnot even made representations under the Treaty that could
give rise to a dispute. Nicaragua has not challenged these United States
allegations. There is no reason to suppose that Nicaragua failed to invoke
the Treaty because of an unwillingness to charge the United States with
violation of its international obligations. It rather appears- that it did not
occur to Nicaragua - despite its allegations about the conduct of the
United Statesto which the Court alludes - that the actions of whichit was

complaining were violations of this Treaty. In these circumstances, it
appears to follow that Nicaragua has not discharged the procedural
prerequisites for invocation of Article XXIV (2) of the Treaty. For this
reason as well,the Court should have held that theTreaty does not furnish
a basis of jurisdiction which sustains the Application of Nicaragua.

120. If, however, with the Court, we lightly vault these barriers rather
than demolish them, let us examinewhether Nicaragua's invocation of the
Treaty issufficient to establish anymeasure of the Court'sjurisdiction over
the claimswhichNicaragua's Application setsout. To what extent, if at all,
isthe substance or are the provisions of the Treaty relevant to Nicaragua's
claims ?

121. In its Application, Nicaragua claims that the United States has
breached

"express obligations under the Charter of the United Nations, the
Charter ofthe Organization ofAmerican States andother multilateral
treaties, andhas violated fundamental rules of general and customary
international law ..." (para. 14).

Not a word is said, in terms or in substance, about violation of a bilateral
commercial treaty. Rather, the gravamen of Nicaragua's Application is
that the United States is "using rnilitary force against Nicaragua and
intervening in Nicaragua's interna1affairs .. ."(para. 1).However, in the
precise claims on which Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and
declare, there are two points that arguably may be said to bear upon the

Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation, though this is nowhere
alleged in the Application. Paragraph (e) reads :

"That the United States, in breach of its obligation under general
and customary international law, has infringed and is infringing the
freedom of the high seas and interrupting peaceful maritime com-
merce."quant à l'interprétationou à l'application du traitéde 1956.C'est dans le
mémoiredu Nicaragua que les griefs apparaissent pour la première fois.
Quant aux Etats-Unis, ils nient qu'il y ait eu quelque tentative que ce fût
pour réglerpar la voie diplomatique un quelconque différend avec le

Nicaragua quant à l'interprétation ou à l'application de ce traitévu, en
particulier, que le Nicaragua n'a mêmepas fait, en vertu du traité, de
représentations susceptibles de donner lieu àun différend.Le Nicaragua
n'apas récusé cesallégationsdesEtats-Unis. Riennepermetcependant de
supposer que le silence du Nicaragua quant au traités'explique par son
refus d'accuserlesEtats-Unis de violer leursobligationsinternationales. Il
semble plutôt qu'ilne lui soitpas venu à l'esprit- en dépit desallégations
concernant le comportement des Etats-Unis auxquelles la Cour fait allu-
sion - que les actes dont il seplaignait constituaient des violations de ce
traité.Dans cesconditions, ilparaît s'ensuivrequeleNicaraguan'a pas mis
en Œuvreles procédurespréalablesvoulues pour invoquerl'article XXIV,
paragraphe 2,du traité. Pourcemotif aussi, laCour aurait dû conclureque

le traité n'offre pas de base de compétence à l'appui de la requêtedu
Nicaragua.
120. Si toutefois, comme le fait la Cour, on franchit allègrement ces
obstacles,au lieu de lesrenverser, ilreste examiner si lefait d'invoquer le
traité suffià établir de quelque manière que ce soit la compétencede la
Cour pour connaître des demandes énoncéesdans la requête nicara-
guayenne. Dans quelle mesure le traité,par son objet ou dans ses dispo-
sitions, se rapporte-t-il aux demandes du Nicaragua, si tant est qu'il s'y
rapporte ?
121. Le Nicaragua, dans sa requête, affirmaitque les Etats-Unis ont
violéleurs

<<obligations expressesen vertu de laCharte des Nations Unies, de la
charte de l'organisation des Etats américainsetd'autres traitésmul-
tilatéraux, ainsi que des règlesfondamentales du droit international
général et coutumier ...)(par. 14).

Rienn'était dit, explicitementou implicitement,de la violation d'un traité
commercial bilatéral. Bien au contraire, le fondement de la requête du
Nicaragua étaitque les Etats-Unis (<font usage de la forcemilitaire contre
le Nicaragua et inte~ennent dans les affaires intérieures de ce pays..>>
(par. 1). Cependant, parmi les conclusions précises que le Nicaragua
demandait à la Cour de lui adjuger,figurent deux points dont on pourrait

éventuellementsoutenir qu'ilsconcernent le traité d'amitié, decommerce
et de navigation, bien que cette imputation ne figure nulle part dans la
requête. L'alinéa e) est ainsi rédigé:

(<Que les Etats-Unis, en violation de leurs obligationsen vertu du
droit international général et coutumier, ont enfreint et enfreignent
la liberté des mers et interrompent le commerce maritime paci-
fique.(It will be observed that this claim does not relate to the Treaty, or any
treaty, but to customary international law.) And paragraph (g) con-
cludes :

"That, in viewof itsbreaches of theforegoing legal obligations,the
United States is under a particular duty to cease and desist immedi-
ately :

from al1 efforts to restrict, block or endanger access to or from
Nicaraguan ports."

122. The Treaty is one of a large number of similar treaties which the
United States has concluded. The purpose and scope of these "FCN"
treaties was summarized by a commentator who had a leading role in their
negotiation as follows :

"[FCN] treaties are not political in character. Rather, they are
fundamentally economic and legal. Moreover, though 'commerce'
and 'navigation' complete the title and accurately describe part of
theircontent, theirconcernnowadaysis only secondarilywithforeign
trade and shipping. They are 'commercial' in the broadest sense of
that term ; and they are above-al1 treaties of 'establishment', con-
cerned with theprotection ofpersons, natural andjuridical, and of the
property andinterests of suchpersons.They define thetreatment each
country owes the nationals of the other ; their rights to engage in
business and otheractivitieswithintheboundaries of theformer ; and
the respect due them, their property and their enterprises." (Herman
Walker, "Modern Treaties of Friendship, Commerce and Naviga-
tion", Minnesota Law Review, Vol. 42 (1958), p. 806.)

123. How does Nicaragua purport to link the grave and sweeping
charges of its Application with the commercial particularities of the
Treaty? Nicaragua proceeds in its Memorial not by establishing,
demonstrating or even indicating in any detail that its claims under its
Application entai1 violation by the United States of provisions of the
Treaty. It rather contents itself with "simply" identifying those provi-

sions of the Treaty which it claims are contravened. It concentrates such
argument as it offers on one clause of the Treaty. It submits that, "for
example", Article XIX, paragraph 1,provides : "1. Between the territories
of the two Parties, there shall be freedom of commerce and navigation."
Nicaragua maintains that, "The activities of the United States clearly
violate this provision" (Nicaraguan Memorial, para. 167).It contends :

"172. It is obvious that the military and paramilitary operations(Grief qui, on le remarquera, ne se rapporte pas au traité de 1956,ni à
aucun traité,mais au droit international coutumier.) Et l'alinéa g) con-
clut :

<<Que, vu ces violations des obligations juridiques susvisées, les
Etats-Unis ont le devoir exprèsde mettre fin et de renoncer immé-
diatement :

à toute tentative visant à restreindre, bloquer ou rendre périlleux
l'accès auxports du Nicaragua, à l'arrivéeou en partance de ces
ports. ))

122. Le traitéde 1956s'inscritdans toute une sériede traités analogues
conclus par les Etats-Unis. L'objet et la portéede ces traités d'amitié,de
commerceet denavigationétaientainsirésumés parun commentateur, qui
ajouéun rôle prépondérantdans leur négociation :

(<Lestraitésd'amitié,de commerce et de navigation nesont pas par
nature politiques, mais au contraire essentiellement économiques et
juridiques. De plus, bien que les termes << commerce ))et (<naviga-
tion >)figurent dans leur titre et qualifient exactement une partie de
leurcontenu, cen'est qu'àtitre secondaire qu'ilsont trait de nosjours

au commerce extérieuret àlanavigation. Ilssont (<commerciaux ))au
sens le plus large du terme et constituent avant tout des traités
d'<<établissement >> ,isant la protection des personnes, physiques ou
morales, ainsi que des biens et des intérêtsde ces personnes. Ils
définissent letraitement que chaque pays s'engage à réserveraux
ressortissants de l'autre, le droit de ces derniers à se livrerà des
activités commercialeset autres surle territoire du premier pays, etle

respect qui leur est dû, ainsi qu'à leurs biens et àleurs entreprises. )>
(Herman Walker, (Modern Treaties of Friendship, Commerce and
Navigation O,Minnesota Law Review, vol. 42 (1958), p. 806.)

123. Comment le Nicaragua allait-il rapporter les graves accusations
très généraleq su'il faisait dans sa requêteaux clauses commerciales par-
ticulièresdu traité ? Il s'abstient, dans son mémoire,d'établir,de démon-
trer ou mêmed'indiquer avec quelque détail quels sont les chefs de
demande énoncés dans sarequêtequicorrespondraient à desviolations des
dispositions du traité par les Etats-Unis :il se contente de signaler les
dispositions du traitéqui, selon lui, seraient violées,en axant son argu-

mentation - si tant est qu'il y en ait une - sur une seule disposition du
traité.Après avoir rappelé que, (<par exemple )),l'article XIX, paragra-
phe 1,dispose :<<Il y aura libertéde commerce et de navigation entre les
territoires des deux parties ))le Nicaragua soutient que << les activitésdes
Etats-Unis violent manifestement cette diposition ))(mémoiredu Nicara-
gua, par. 167).Et il ajoute :

<<172. Il est évidentque les opérationsmilitaires et paramilitaires directed and maintained in and against Nicaragua by the United
-States - including the mining of Nicaraguan ports and territorial
waters, as well as attacks on Nicaragua's airports, and rnilitary oper-
ationsthat endanger and limit trade and trafficonland - are designed
to paralyze the freedom of commerce and navigation, thus defined
and guaranteed in Article XIX (1) of the Treaty."

124. 1sthis argument consistent with the purpose of Article XIX, para-
graph 1,of the Treaty, as indeed of the Treaty as a whole ? The Treaty as
a whole has nothing to do with the use of force in international relations,
or rights to be free ofsuch use - and correspondingly,prima facie, little or
nothing to dowithNicaragua's claimsin thiscase. It isapurely commercial
treaty "based in general upon the principles of national and most-
favoured-nation treatment" (preamble). ArticleXIX, paragraph 1,mirrors
that commercialconcern, as isclearwhen it isconsidered in thecontext of
the whole article of which it is part, which reads :

"1. Betweentheterritories of the twoParties there shall be freedom

of commerce and navigation.
2. Vessels under the flag of either Party, and carrying the papers
required by its law in proof of nationality, shall be deemed to be
vesselsof that Party both on thehigh seasand within theports, places
and waters of the other Party.

3. Vessels of either Party shall have liberty, on equal terms with
vesselsof the other Party andon equal terms with vesselsof any third
country, to come with their cargoes to al1ports, places and waters of
such other Party open to foreign commerce and navigation. Such
vessels and cargoes shall in al1respects be accorded national treat-
ment and most-favored-nation treatment within theports, places and
waters of such other Party ; but each Party may reserve exclusive
rights and privileges to its own vessels with respect to the coasting

trade, inland navigation and national fisheries.

4. Vesselsof eitherParty shallbe accorded national treatment and
most-favored-nation treatment by the other Party with respect to the
right to carryal1products that may becarried by vesse1toor from the
territories of such other Party ; and such products shall be accorded
treatment no lessfavorable than that accorded likeproducts carried in
vesselsof such other Party, with respect to :(a) duties and charges of
al1kinds, (b) the administration of the customs, and (c) bounties,
drawbacks and other privileges of this nature. dirigées et poursuivies auNicaragua et contre celui-ci par les Etats-

Unis, et notamment le minage des ports etdes eaux territoriales du
Nicaragua,ainsi que lesattaquescontre lesaéroportsdu Nicaragua et
les opérationsmilitaires qui menacent et restreignent le commerce et
les transports terrestres, sont destinéesàparalyser le commerce et la
navigation, tels qu'ils sont définiset garantis à l'article XIX, para-
graphe 1,du traité. ))

124. Cet argument s'accorde-t-il avec le but de l'article XIX, para-
graphe 1,du traité,etd'ailleursde l'ensembledu traité ? Letraité,prisdans
son ensemble, n'a en effet rien à voir avec l'emploi de la force dans les
relations internationales, ni avecledroit d'êtreà l'abri d'un tel emploi- et

par conséquentiln'adeprime abord rien oupasgrand-chose àvoir avecles
griefs exposésen l'espècepar le Nicaragua. Il s'agit d'un traitépurement
commercial, (<fondé,d'unefaçon générale, sur les principes du traitement
national et de la nation la plus favorisée ))(préambule).Et l'article XIX,
paragraphe 1,ne fait que refléter cecaractèrecommercial du traité, comme
onpeut leconstater sionfait unelecturecomplète del'article,qui estlibellé
comme suit :

<1. Il y aura libertéde commerce et de navigation entre les terri-
toires des deux parties.

2. Les navires battant pavillon de l'une des deux parties et munis
desdocuments que leur législationexigecommepreuve de leur natio-
nalité serontconsidéréscomme étant des navires de cette partie, en
haute mer aussi bien que dans les ports, les mouillages et les eaux de
l'autre partie.
3. Les navires de l'une des deux parties pourront librement, dans
lesmêmesconditions que les navires de l'autre partie et les navires de
tout pays tiers, se rendre avec leur cargaison dans tous les ports,
mouillageset eaux de cette autrepartiequisont ouverts au commerce
international et à la navigation internationale. Lesdits navires, ainsi

que leur cargaison, bénéficierontà tous égards, dans les ports, les
mouillages et les eaux de cette autre partie, du traitement national et
du traitement de la nation la plus favorisée.Toutefois, chacune des
deux parties pourra réserver à ses propres navires des droits et pri-
vilègesexclusifsen ce qui concerne lecabotage, la navigation fluviale
et les pêcheriesnationales.
4. Chacune desdeuxparties accorderaaux navires de l'autrepartie
letraitement national etletraitement de la nation la plus favoriséeen
cequi concerne ledroitdetransporter, à destination ouenprovenance
de sesterritoires, tous les articles qui peuvent êtreacheminéspar voie

maritime ;lesdits articles bénéficierontd'un traitement non moins
favorable queceluiqui estaccordéauxarticlessimilairestransportés à
bord de navires de la premièrepartie en cequi concerne : a)lesdroits
et taxes de toute nature,b) les formalités douanières, etc)les primes,
drawbacks et autres avantages de mêmeordre. 5. Vessels of either Party that are in distress shall be permitted to
take refuge in the nearest port or haven of the other Party, and shall
receive friendly treatment and assistance.

6. The term 'vessels',as used herein, means al1types of vessels,

whether privately owned or operated, orpublicly owned or operated ;
but this term does not, except with reference to paragraphs 2and 5of
the present Article, include fishing vessels or vessels of war."

It is difficult to see the relevance of such provisions to the claims of un-
lawful use of force made by Nicaragua in its Application. The obligations
created for the United States by this article essentially relate to treatment
of Nicaraguan vesselsin United States waters. It is only by taking para-
graph 1of Article XIX out ofthe context of that article and of theTreaty as
a whole that one can argue that it is relevant to the claim of mining of
Nicaraguan ports. 1s the Court justified in reaching out to make that
argument ? The jurisprudence of the Court suggests that it is not. The
Court rather in the past has held that :"It isnot enough for the claimant

Government to establish a remote connection between the facts of the
claim and the Treaty" upon whose compromissory clause it relies (Amba-
tielos,Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953,p. 18).

125. The other articles which Nicaragua cites ascontravened by activi-
ties of the United States are Articles XIV, paragraph 2 ; XVII, paragraph
3 ; XIX, paragraph 3 ; XX ; and 1 of the Treaty. These clauses pro-
vide :

Article XIV, paragraph 2 :

"Neither Party shall impose restrictions or prohibitions on the
importation of anyproduct of theotherParty, oron theexportation of
any product to the territories of the other Party, unless the importa-
tion of the likeproduct of,or the exportation of the likeproduct to, al1
third countries is similarly restricted or prohibited."

Article XVII, paragraph 3 :
"Neither Party shall impose any measure of a discriminatory
naturethat hinders or preventstheimporter or exporter ofproducts of

either country from obtaining marine insurance on such products in
companies of either Party."

Article XIX, paragraph 3 :
"Vessels of either Party shall have liberty, on equal terms with
vesselsof the other Party and on equal terms with vesselsof any third 5. Les navires de l'une des deux parties qui se trouveront en
détressepourront chercher refugedans leport ouhavreleplusproche
de l'autrepartie ;ilsbénéficieront d'un traitement amical et recevront
assistance.
6. Au sensdu présent traité,leterme navires )doit s'entendre des
navires de tous genres, qu'ils soient propriétéprivéeou publique ou
que leur exploitation soit privéeou publique ; toutefois, ce terme ne

visepas, sauf en ce qui concernel'application des paragraphes 2 et 5
du présent article,les bateaux de pêcheni les bâtiments de guerre. ))

Il est difficile de voir un rapport entre ces dispositions et les accusations
d'emploi illicite de la force formuléesdans la requêtedu Nicaragua. Les
obligations que créecet article pour les Etats-Unis touchent essentielle-
ment letraitement desnavires nicaraguayens dans leseaux des Etats-Unis.
Et c'est seulement en isolant le paragraphe 1 de l'article dans lequel il

figure, et de l'ensemble du traité, qu'il est possible de voir dans cette
disposition un rapport avec le grief visant le minage des ports nicara-
guayens. La Cour est-elle fondée à solliciter ainsi le texte?La réponsequi
résultedelajurisprudence de la Cour est négative. Aucontraire, la Cour a
affirmédans lepassé : <11nesuffitpas quelegouvernementquiprésentela
réclamationétablisseun rapport lointain entre lesfaits de laréclamationet
le traité ))dont il invoque la clause compromissoire. (Ambatielos, fond,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1953,p. 18).

125. Les autres articles qui,d'après leNicaragua, seraient violéspar les
activitésdes Etats-Unis, sont l'article XIV,paragraphe 2, l'article XVII,
paragraphe 3,l'article XIX,paragraphe 3, l'articleXX et l'article premier.
Ces articles sont libelléscomme suit :

Article XIV, paragraphe 2 :

Aucune des deux parties n'interdira ou ne restreindra l'importa-
tion d'un produit de l'autre partie ou l'exportation d'un produit des-
tinéaux territoires de l'autre partie à moins que l'importation d'un
produit similaire provenant de tout pays tiers ou l'exportation d'un
produit similaire à destination detout pays tiers ne soient, de lamême
manière. interdites ou restreintes.

Article XVII, paragraphe 3 :

<(Aucune des deux parties n'imposera de mesures de caractère
discriminatoire ayant pour effet d'empêcherdirectement ou indirec-
tement lesimportateurs ou lesexportateurs de produits originaires de
l'un oul'autre pays d'assurer lesdits produitscontre les risques mari-

times auprès de compagnies de l'une ou l'autre partie. ))

Article XIX, paragraphe 3 :
<(Lesnavires de l'une desdeux parties pourront librement, dans les
mêmes conditions que lesnavires del'autrepartie etlesnavires detout country, to come with their cargoes to al1ports, places and waters of

such other Party open to foreign commerce and navigation. .."

Article XX :

"There shall be freedom of transit through the territories of each
Party by the routes most convenient for international transit :

(a) for nationals of the other Party, together with their baggage ;
(b) for other persons, together with their baggage, en route to or from
the territories of such other Party ; and
(c) for products of any origin en route to or from the territories of
such other Party. . ."

Nicaragua maintains - with respect to the foregoing articles - that the
military and paramilitary activities which it alleges are carried on by the
United States cannot be seen as "equitable treatment to the persons,
property and enterprises and other interests" of Nicaraguan nationals and
companies (Memorial, para. 174).
126. But the foregoing Treaty provisions on which Nicaragua relies -
without pleading the facts that relate such reliance to the claims set out in
its Application - concern the treatment of the nationals of one Party, or
goods or property of those nationals, or the vessels of one Party, in the
territory of the other Party.Theyconcern marine insurance,freetransit of

nationals, etc. It is obvious on their face that these provisions have no
relationship to the claims of direct and indirect aggression made out in
Nicaragua's Application. Article 1of the Treaty, on which Nicaragua also
relies, and which provides that,

"Each Party shall at al1times accord equitable treatment to the
persons, property, enterprises and other interests of nationals and
companies of the other Party",
setsout thebroad principle of equitable treatmentin the light of which the

Treaty's detailed operative provisions are to be read, but it does not deal
with problems of the use or misuse of force in international relations.

127. In addition to the foregoing articles of the Treaty, the Court also
takes account of "the references in the Preamble to peace and friendship".
The Preamble to the Treaty provides :

"The United States of America and the Republic of Nicaragua,
desirous of strengthening the bonds of peace and friendship tradi-
tionally existing between them and of encouraging closer economic
and cultural relations between their peoples, and being cognizant of
the contributions which may be made towards these ends by arran-
gements encouraging mutually beneficial investments, promoting pays tiers, serendre avecleurcargaison dans tous lesports, mouillages
et eaux de cette autre partie qui sont ouverts au commerce interna-
tional et à la navigation internationale ...))

Article XX :
<<Il y aura libertéde transit à travers les territoires de chacunedes
deux parties par les itinérairesqui conviennent le mieux au transit

international :
a) pour les nationaux de l'autre partie ainsi que leurs bagages ;
b) pour lesnationaux d'autres paysetleurs bagages, quisont en route
vers les territoires de cette autre partie ou qui en viennent ; et
c) pour lesproduits, de quelque origine que cesoit,enprovenance ou
à destination des territoires de cette autre partie ...

Au sujet de ces dispositions, le Nicaragua affirme que les activités mili-
taires et paramilitaires qui, prétend-il, sont menéespar les Etats-Unis, ne
peuvent êtreconsidéréescomme constituant un <traitement équitable
[accordé aux]biens, entreprises et autres intérêts >)des nationaux et des

sociétésdu Nicaragua (mémoire nicaraguayen, par. 174).
126. Or, ces dispositions du traité que le Nicaragua invoque - sans
argumenter le rapport entre lesdites dispositions et les griefs exposésdans
sa requête - concernent le traitement des nationaux d'une partie, ou des
marchandises ou des biens appartenant à ces nationaux, ou des navires
d'une partie, surleterritoire de l'autrepartie ;ellesont trait auxassurances
maritimes, à la libertéde transit des nationaux, etc. Et il est évident que,
telles qu'elles sont rédigées, cesdispositions sont sans rapport avec les
accusations d'agression directe ou indirecte formulées dans la requêtedu

Nicaragua. L'article premier du traité,que leNicaragua invoque aussi - et
qui est libellécomme suit :
(<Chacune desdeux parties accordera, en tout temps, un traitement
équitableaux nationaux et aux sociétésde l'autre partie, ainsi qu'à

leurs biens, entreprises et autres intérêts O,
pose leprincipegénéraldu traitement équitable, à la lumièreduquel ilfaut
lire les dispositions énoncées de façon circonstanciéedans le dispositif du
traité ;mais il ne traite pas des problèmes de l'emploi oude l'abus de la

force dans les relations internationales.
127. Outre les articles précitésdu traité,la Cour prend égalementen
considération (les mentions de la paix et de l'amitié,que l'on trouve dans
le préambule )).Or le préambule du traitédispose :

(<Les Etats-Unis d'Amériqueet la Républiquede Nicaragua, dési-
reux de resserrer les liens de paix et d'amitiéqui unissent tradition-
nellement les deux pays et de favoriser entre leurspeuples respectifs
l'établissementde relations économiqueset culturelles plus étroites ;
étant,d'autre part,conscients du rôle quepeuventjouer, à cesfins,des
arrangements visant à encourager les investissements mutuellement mutually advantageous commercial intercourse and othenvise estab-

lishing mutual rights and privileges, have resolved to conclude a
Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation, based in general
upon the principles of nationaland of most-favored-nation treatment
unconditionally accorded, . ."
Thus the preamble, if it were to be thought to have any legal effect,
emphasizes the commercial purposes of the Treaty. In any event, the
provisions of a preamble are not generally regarded as givingrise to legal
obligations as the terms of the body of a treaty do or may. The Vienna

Convention on the LawofTreaties provides that thepreamble ispart of the
context of a treaty and that a treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in
accordancewiththe ordinary meaning to be givento the terms ofthe treaty
"in their context and in the light of its object and purpose" (Art. 32).
Having regard to the context of this treaty among a score of commercial
FCN treaties, and in the light of its commercial objects and purpose, the
Treaty's preambular reference to strengthening the bonds of peace and
friendship does not appear to provide an additional basis for relating
the claims set out in the Application of Nicaragua to the terms of the
Treaty.
128. There is another provision of the Treaty which merits comment,
because it indicates that the Application of Nicaragua does not fa11within
the scope of the Treaty. Article XXI (1) of the Treaty provides :

"1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of mea-
sures :

(c) regulating the production of or traffic in arms, ammunition and
implements of war, ortraffic inother materials carried on directly
or indirectly for the purpose of supplying a military establish-
ment ;
(dj necessary to fulfill the obligations of a Partyfor the maintenance

or restoration of international peace and security, or necessary to
protect its essential security interests ; ..."

Now it cannot be argued - and Nicaragua did not argue, nor does the
Court hold - that, since the Treaty "shall not preclude the application of
measures" regulating the production of or traffic in arms, or measures
which are necessary to fulfil theobligations of a Party for the maintenance

of international peace and security or to protect its essential security
interests, theseveryexclusionsentitlethe Court to assumejurisdiction over
claims based on the Treaty that relate to traffic in arms or to the main-
tenance of international peace and security or essential security interests.
It is clear that, where a treaty excludes from its regulated reach certain
areas, those areas do not fa11within thejurisdictional scope of the treaty. profitables, à favoriser les échanges commerciauxdans leur intérêt
commun et àcréerdesdroits et des privilègesréciproques,ont décidé
de conclure un traité d'amitié,de commerce et de navigation fondé,
d'une façon générales ,ur lesprincipes du traitement national et de la
nation la plus favorisée,sans clause conditionnelle ...))

Ainsi, le préambule, à supposer qu'on lui attribue un effet juridique,
souligne les objectifs commerciaux du traité.En toute hypothèse,les dis-
positions d'un préambule ne sont pas en général considéréecsomme
créatricesd'obligations juridiques au mêmetitre que les dispositions du
traité proprement dit. Aux termes de la convention de Vienne sur le droit
destraités,lepréambuled'un traitéest une composante de son contexte,et

tout traitédoit êtreinterprétéde bonne foi, suivant le sens ordinaire à
attribuer à sestermes << dans leurcontexteet àla lumièrede sonobjet et de
son but (art.32): Eu égardau contexte du traitéconsidéréqui s'inscrit
parmi une vingtaine de traitéscommerciaux d'amitié,de commerce et de
navigation, et compte tenu du caractère commercial de son objet et de son
but, la mention des dispositions du préambule visant le resserrement des
liens de paix et d'amitiéne semble pas fournir de liens entre les griefs
exposésdans la requêtedu Nicaragua et les termes dudit traité.
128. Il est une autre disposition du traitéde 1956qui mériteque l'ons'y

arrête,car elle indique que la requêtedu Nicaragua n'entre pas dans le
champ d'application du traité. L'article XXI, paragraphe 1, du traité
dispose en effet :
((1. Le présent traiténe fera pas obstacle à l'application de me-
sures :

c) concernant la production oulecommercedes armes,desmunitions
et du matérielde guerre, ou lecommerced'autres produits lorsqu'il
a pour but direct ou indirect d'approvisionner des unités mili-
taires ;
d) nécessaires àl'exécutiondes obligations de l'une ou l'autre partie
relatives au maintien ou au rétablissement de la paix et de la

sécurité internationales ou à la protection des intérêtsvitaux de
cette partie en ce qui concerne sa sécurité ..))
Or on ne saurait prétendre - et d'ailleurs leNicaragua, pas plus que la
Cour, neprétend - que, pour laraison que letraité (<ne fera pas obstacle à
l'application de mesures ))concernant la production ou le commerce des

armes, ou de mesures nécessaires à l'exécutiondes obligations de l'une ou
l'autre partie relatives au maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinternatio-
nalesou àlaprotection desintérêtsvitaux decette partie encequiconcerne
sa sécurité, cesexclusionsmême autorisent la Cour à statuer surdes griefs
fondéssur le traitéqui ont trait au commerce des armesou au maintien de
la paix et de la sécurité internationales, ou à la protection des intérêts
vitaux en matièrede sécurité.Il est évidentque, lorsqu'un traitéexclut deThat ths preclusion clause is indeed an exclusion clause is demonstrated
not onlyby its terms but byits travauxpréparatoiresw , hichwere appended
to the United States pleadings in the case of UnitedStates Diplornaticand

Consular Staff in Tehran. A list of a score of Treaties of Friendship,
Commerce and Navigation, including that with Nicaragua, is found at
page 233, which is followed by a "Memorandum on Dispute Settlement
Clause in Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with China"
which contains the following paragraph :

"The compromissory clause ... is limited to questions of theinter-
pretation or application of ths treaty ; Le.,it isa special not a general
compromissory clause. It applies to a treaty on the negotiation of
whichthere isvoluminous documentationindicating the intent of the
parties. This treaty deals with subjects which are common to a large
number of treaties, concluded over a longperiod of time by nearly al1
nations. Much of the general subject-matter - and in some cases
almost identical language - has been adjudicated in the courts of this
and other countries. The authorities for the interpretation of this
treaty are, therefore, to a considerable extent established and well
known. Furthermore, certain important subjects,notablyimmigration,
traffic in military supplies,and the 'essentialinterestsof the country in
timeofnational emergency',are specificallyexceptedfrom thepurviewof

the treaty. In viewof the above, it is difficult to conceivehow Article
XXVIII could result in this Government's being impleaded in a
matter in which it rnight be embarrassed." (At p. 235 ;emphasis
supplied.)

A second memorandum, entitled "Department of State Memorandum on
Provisions in Commercial Treaties relating to the International Court of
Justice", similarly concludes, first with respect to the scope of the juris-
diction accorded to theCourt under FCN treaties, and secondwithrespect
to national security clauses :

"This paper [ofthe Department of State] .. points out anumber of
the features which in its view make the provision satisfactory ...

These include the fact that the provision is limited to differences
arising immediately from the specific treaty concerned, that such
treaties deal with familiar subject-matter and are thoroughly docu-
mented in the records of the negotiation, that an established body of
interpretation already exists for much of the subject-matter of suchses dispositions certains sujets, ces sujets ne relèventpas du champ d'ap-
plication de la clausejuridictionnelle du traité.Et le fait que cette clause
soit bien une clause d'exclusion ne ressort pas seulement de ses termes,
mais aussi des travaux préparatoires du traité,dont le compterendu était
joint en annexe aux écritures des Etats-Unis dans l'affaire du Personnel
diplomatique et consulaire desEtats-Unis à Téhéran(C.I.J. Mémoires,
annexe 50,p. 233).On trouve en effet dans cettedocumentation une liste

d'une vingtaine de traités d'amitié,de commerce et de navigation, y com-
pris celui conclu avec le Nicaragua, suivie d'un (<Mémorandum sur la
clause relative au règlementdesdifférendsfigurant dans le traitéd'amitié,
de commerce et de navigation conclu avec la Chine ))qui contient le
paragraphe suivant :

(<La clausecompromissoire ..est limitéeaux questionsintéressant
l'interprétation ou l'application dudit traité,c'est-à-dire qu'ils'agit
d'uneclausecompromissoire spécialeetnon pas générale. Elle viseun
traitédontla négociationa donnélieu à une documentation volumi-
neuse précisant l'intention des parties. Ce traité porte sur des ques-
tionsqui sont communes àun trèsgrandnombre de traités,conclusau
cours d'une longue période par pratiquement tous les pays. Une
bonne partie de ce qui fait généralement l'objetdu traité et, dans

certains cas, sous un énoncé quasi identique, adonné lieu à des
décisionsjudiciaires rendues par les tribunaux desEtats-Unis mêmes
et d'autres pays. Les sources faisant autorité pour l'interprétation
dudit traité sont donc dans une large mesure bien établies et bien
connues. En outre, il est expressément précisé que certaines questions
importantes,notamment l'immigration, lecommercedefournituremili-
taire et «les intérêtv sitaux dupays en période de crise national )e
n'entrentpas danslechamp d'application dutraité.Vucequiprécède,il
estdifficiled'imaginercomment l'articleXXVIII pourraitfaire courir

au Gouvernement desEtats-Unis lerisque d'une actionjudiciaire au
sujet d'une question de nature à le gêner. )(P. 235.Les italiques sont
de moi.)
Un deuxième mémorandum, intitulé (<Mémorandum du département

d'Etat sur les dispositions du traité de commerce relatives à la Cour
internationale de Justice )>conclut de même,tant en ce qui concerne la
portéedelacompétencereconnue àla Cour envertudestraitésd'amitié,de
commerce et de navigation, que pour ce qui est des clauses d'exclusion en
matière de sécurité nationale :

ce document [dudépartement d'Etat] ...dégageun certain nombre,
d'éléments qui,a son avis, rendent la disposition satisfaisante ...Il
s'agitnotamment du fait quela disposition est limitéeaux différends
qui s'élèveraient très précisémeanu t sujet du traitéintéressé,du fait
aussi que ces traitésportent sur des questions bien connues au sujet
desquelles les comptes rendus de la négociationdonnent une infor-
mation détaillée,du fait qu'il existe déjàde nombreux précédents treaties, and that suchpurely domestic matters as immigration policy
and militaty security are placedouiside the scope of such treaties by
specificexceptions." (Ibid., p. 237 ;emphasis supplied.)

Article XXI of the Treaty thus serves to indicate that the parties to the
Treaty acted to exclude from its scope the kind of claim ("restoration of
international peace and security" and protection of "essential security
interests") which Nicaragua seeks to base upon it.

129. Nevertheless, the Court concludes that

".. .it isquite clearfor the Court that, on the basis alone of the Treaty
of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 1956,Nicaragua and
the United States of America are bound to accept the compulsory
jurisdiction of this Court over claims presented by the Applica-
tion of Nicaragua in so far as they imply violations of provisions of
this treaty" (Judgment, para. 111).
The difficulty with that conclusion is that, on analysis, the claims pre-
sented by thisApplication of Nicaragua imply no violations of thatTreaty.

Not onlydoes theApplication fail to refer to the Treaty ;it isplain that the
Treaty itself cannot plausibly be interpreted to afford the Court jurisdic-
tion "to entertain the Application filed by Nicaragua on 9April 1984".It
rnightfurnish basis for another Application, but not for the one before the
Court.

(Signed) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL. concernant l'interprétation d'un bon nombre des questions visées
dans ces traitéset du fait que des questionsrelevant de la compétence
nationale comme la politique d'immigration et la sécurité militaire
sont exclues du champ d'applicationde ces traités par desréserves
expresses. (Ibid.,p. 237. Les italiques sont de moi.)

Il ressort donc de l'article XXI du traité de 1956 que les parties à cet
instrument entendaient exclure de son champ d'application le type de
demandes (<<rétablissementde la paix et de la sécuritéinternationales ))et
protection des << intérêtsvitaux ...en ce qui concerne [la] sécurité ))) à
l'appui desquelles le Nicaragua tente d'invoquer ledit traité.

129. La Cour n'en conclut pas moins :
<(il est toutà fait clair pour la Cour que, sur la seule base du traité
d'amitié,de commerce et de navigation de 1956,le Nicaragua et les

Etats-Unis d'Amériquesont tenus d'accepter la juridiction obliga-
toire de la Cour quant aux demandes présentéespar le Nicaragua
dans sa requête,dans la mesure ou ellesimpliquent desviolationsdes
dispositions de ce traité ))(arrêt, par. 111).

La difficulté estici que les griefs exposésdans la présente requêtd eu
Nicaragua sont, à l'analyse, sans rapport avec une quelconque violation
des dispositions de cetraité.Non seulement la requêtene citepas le traité,
mais il est certain que letraitélui-mêmene saurait êtreinterprétédf eaçon
plausible comme donnant compétence à la Cour pour (<connaître de la
requêtedéposéepar le Nicaragua le 9 avril 1984 )).Il pourrait offrir une
base decompétencepour une autre requête, maisnon pas pour celledontla

Cour se trouve saisie.

(Signé)Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of Judge Schwebel

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