Separate Opinion of Judge Nagendra Singh

Document Number
070-19841126-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
070-19841126-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE NAGENDRA SINGH

While 1 have voted for the jurisdiction of the Court on both counts,
namely under the Optional Clause ofArticle 36,paragraphs 2and 5,of the
Statute of the Court, aswell asunder Article 36,paragraph 1,of the Statute
on the basis of Article XXIV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Friendship,
Commerce and Navigation of21January 1956,I have feltal1alongin those
proceedings that the jurisdiction of the Court resting upon the latter,
namely the Treaty, provides a clearer and a firmer ground than thejuris-
diction based on the former, that is, the Optional Clause. The reasons are
obvious, since the acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction by both the
Applicant, Nicaragua, and the Respondent, the United States, presents
severallegaldifficulties to be resolvedandin respect ofwhichthere isroom
for differing views.For example, there aretheproblems of the "imperfect"
acceptance of thejurisdiction byNicaragua ;and of thecertainly unwilling
response from the United States as revealed by its Declaration of 6 April
1984intended to bar theCourt'sjurisdiction in relation to anydispute with
any Central American State for aperiod of twoyears. Furthermore,thereis
alsothe plea of multilateral treaty reservation of the United States, as well

as the question of reciprocity in relation to six months' notice of termi-
nation stipulated in the United States Declaration of 14August 1946.The
Court's consideration of al1these legal obstacles to its own jurisdiction
under the Optional Clause has been both thorough and careful, and 1do
agree with the Court's finding, but it does represent one way of looking at
the picture and of interpreting the legal situation. There could, therefore,
also be the rival way of looking at it, and hence my preference for basing
the Court's jurisdiction on Article XXIV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of
Friendship,Commerce and Navigation of 1956.This,for me,takespriority
on an overall consideration of the case at this stage, when the Court is
solelyconcerned about its ownjurisdiction in the matter. Though there are
certain objections raised by the United States to the application of Article
XXIV of that Treaty, they are not of such gravity asto bar thejurisdiction
of the Courtonany clear or categorical basis.TheCourthas effectivelyand
adequately dealt with the United States objections of basing the Court's
jurisdiction on that Treaty and hence it is not necessary for me to repeat
them here. 1would, however,liketodraw attention tothe followingaspects
which appear to merit mention, and provide the raison d'êtreof this
opinion.

(i)The United Stateshas asserted that under clause 1ofArticle XXIVit
wasnecessary forNicaragua to enter into negotiations and to makeefforts
to adjust the dispute by diplomacy. The Respondent maintains that nosuch efforts wereevermade, and eventhough there werenegotiations with
Nicaragua this dispute was never raised. It is therefore argued by the
United States that the mandatory provision of clause 1of Article XXIV
has not been fulfilled and hence Nicaragua could not invoke thejurisdic-

tion of the Court under the Treaty. However, if the wording of the com-
promissory clause of the Treaty is examined, it would appear that nego-
tiations or representations affecting the operation of thepresent Treaty are
not prescribed as a condition precedent to invoking thejurisdiction of the
Court. The Treaty clearly States that if a party does choose to make
representations affecting the operation of the Treaty the other party is
obliged to "accord sympathetic consideration" and "afford adequate
opportunity for consultation". However, it does not make it obligatory
that such representations must be made and negotiations on the matter
affecting the operation of the Treaty must take placebefore proceeding to
the Court. It would appear to be the intention that due weight should be
given to "sympathetic consideration" and "opportunity for consultation"
ifa party wereto make representations on a matter affecting the operation
of the Treaty. There is, however, no binding obligation to negotiate. The
above conclusion would appear to be clearlyjustified from the wording of
clause 1 of Article XXIV, whch is reproduced below :

"Each Party shall accord sympathetic consideration to, and shall
afford adequate opportunity for consultation regarding, such repre-
sentations as the other Party may make with respect to any matter
affecting the operation of the present Treaty." (Emphasis added.)

The second objection of the United States is that, in accordance with
subclause 2 of Article XXI, it is essential that the dispute must not have
been satisfactorily adjusted by diplomacy. In other words, resort to a
diplomatic move to settle the dispute would appear to be a condition
essential before subrnitting the case to the International Court of Justice.
Similarly,parties must not have agreed to settlement by someother pacific
means. Both these conditions appear to be satisfied because every effort
has been made to settle the dispute by diplomacy inasmuch as Nicaragua
has referred it to the Security Council. Furthermore, the dispute is before
the Contadora Group, which is essentially a diplomatic process to resolve
the problems of the area. In short, therefore, it could not be asserted that
the dispute has not been referred to diplomatic methods for settlement.
The United Nations Security Council is an organ which is essentially
engaged in diplomatic methods for settling disputes. It is also true that
neither the Contadora process nor the Security Council have been able to
resolve the dispute by diplomacy. Again, the Parties have not resorted to

any other pacific means for the settlement of the dispute. In the circum-
stances, the allegation made by the United States that Nicaragua in its
negotiations has never raised the application or interpretation of the
Treaty would appear to have no relevance to thejurisdiction of the Courtbecause negotiations have not been specificallyprescribed asa sinequanon
for the Parties to proceed to the Court. Thereare several treaties which do
categorically specify negotiations as a condition precedent to resorting to
the International Court of Justice. For example, the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons of 1973has the followingjurisdictional clause. Article 13,para-
graph 1,of the Treaty is reproduced below :

"Any dispute between two or more States Parties concerning the
interpretation or application of this Convention whichisnot settledby
negotiation shall, at the request of one of them, be submitted to
arbitration. If within six months from the date of request for arbi-
tration the parties are unable to agree on the organization of the
arbitration, any one of those parties may refer the dispute to the
International Court of Justice by request in conformity with the
Statute of the Court." (Emphasis added.)

In the aforesaid Treaty, which wascited by the United States in the United
States Diplornaticand ConsularStaff in Tehrancase (1C.J.Reports1980),it
would appear that thejurisdictional clause made negotiations an essential
condition before proceeding to arbitration ;and alapse ofsixmonthsfrom
the date of the request forarbitration acondition precedent to referring the
dispute to the International Court of Justice. The words "which is not
settled by negotiation" have the same importance as the words "not
satisfactorily adjusted by diplomacy" which occur in the 1956Treaty of
Friendship, Commerce and Navigation. There is no reference to negotia-

tion in theTreaty under consideration. In thecircumstancestheconditions
necessary under Article XXIV for the case to be brought to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice have been fulfilled.
(ii) It is of course true that the field of the jurisdiction of the Court
conferred by the Treaty is restricted to and limited by the words "dispute
as to the interpretation or application of the present Treaty". Thus Nica-
ragua would have to citethe specificarticles and provisions of theTreaty of
1956 and demonstrate the point of dispute in order that the Court may
exercisejurisdiction in the matter. The Court has listed in the Judgment
(para. 82)the various articles of theTreaty which, according to Nicaragua,
have been violated by the military and pararnilitary activities of theUnited
States. These articles need not be repeated here. However, it appears
essential to point out that there is in addition a specificprovision, namely
Article XXI, which deals with items like the maintenance or restoration of
international peace and security or measures necessary to protect the
essential security interests of the Parties. The Court may well have to
consider at some stage whether Article XXI of the Treaty falls within the
purview of the Treaty or is excluded from it. Clause 1 of the said Article
reads as follows "The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of mea-
sures ...

(c) regulating the production of or traffic in arms, ammunition and
implements of war, ortraffic in other materialscarried on directly
or indirectly for the purpose of supplying a rnilitary establish-
ment ;
(d) necessary to fulfil the obligation of a Party for themaintenance or
restoration of international peace and security, or necessary to
protect its essential security interests."

It does appear necessary to ascertain the intention of the Parties to the
Treaty as to whether the application of measures under Article XXI of the
Treaty are excluded from or fa11within the purview of theTreaty.As faras
Nicaragua is concerned, it is difficult to discern the intention because in
the Memorial it has not referred to Article XXI, and in the oral hearings
thisTreatyhas been invoked summarily in onelineand not fullydealtwith.
However,asfaras the United States isconcerned,it would appear that the
provisions of Article XXI, paragraph 1 (c) and (d),are excluded from the
purview of the Treaty. This would appear to be a legitimate conclusion to
draw from the Counter-Memorial of the Respondent (para. 179). How-
ever,inthe oral hearings thisTreaty wasnot mentioned at al1by the United
States. It would appearthat clause 1ofArticle XXI of the Treaty isworded
rather ambiguously. It states "the present Treaty shall not preclude the
application of measures", which in relation to subclauses (c)and (d)would
apply to obligations for the maintenance of international peace and secu-
rity or protection of essential security interests. The words "shall not
preclude the application of measures" would stand to mean that the
present Treaty shall permit the application of "necessary measures" and

therefore such measures would be within the purview of the Treaty ; at
least to the extent that there may obviously be a question whether or not
certain measures are,for example, truly "necessary" within the meaning of
paragraph (d).And what, furthermore, is intended by the qualifying term,
the "application" of measures ? If the intention was to exclude these
matters from the purview of theTreaty, the word "preclude" alone should
have been used, and not preceded by the word "not". To Say that "the
present Treaty shall not preclude the application of measures" would
amount to saying that the present Treaty expressly sanctions the applica-
tion of measures such as those mentioned in subclauses (c) and (d).This
ambiguity in clause 1of Article XXI of theTreatyhas to be read with the
Counter-Memorial of the United States to get the intention of the Party,
which is that such measures as specified in subclauses (c) and (d) are
altogether excluded from the purview of the Treaty. However, this infer-
encedoes not appear to be borneout by the useof thewords "not preclude
the application of measures". The question therefore arises whether the
Court hasjurisdiction in relation to the interpretation and application of
Article XXI, which is an integral part of the Treaty ; or whether it has no 448 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEP . P. NAGENDRA SINGH)

jurisdiction because the intention of one of the Parties wasto exclude from
the purview of the Treaty items (c)and (d)of clause 1of the said Article. In
this context it is indeed significant that thejurisdictional clause of Article
XXIVof the Treaty, does not specifythe exclusionofArticle XXI from the
Court's jurisdiction. If the intention of both Parties was to exclude from
the Court's purview that aspect of the Treaty which relates to clause 1of
Article XXI, a provision to that effect would have been helpful even if it is
not regarded as strictly necessary for implementing that purpose. How-
ever,asstated before, it willbe for the Court to decide on this aspect when
it proceeds to the next phase of the case.
(iii) A noteworthy feature of thejurisdiction based on the 1956Treaty,
established under Article 36, paragraph 1,of the Statute, is that it is not
subject to the multilateral treaty reservation of the United States which is

applicable to the Court'sjurisdiction under the Optional Clause of Article
36, paragraph 2, of the Statute. Thus under the Treaty basis the Court
wouldbefreetoapplyfor purposes ofinterpretationand application of the
Treaty the wholesphere of international law,asdefined in Article 38of the
Statute, namely both customary and conventional law as well as the gen-
eralprinciples ofinternational law(videArt. 38,paras. (a),(6)and (c)of the
Statute).On theother hand, themultilateral treaty reservation operating in
relation to the Court's jurisdiction based on the Optional Clause under
Article 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute would confinetheapplicable lawfor
purposes of adjudication of the dispute to customary law as well as the
general principles of international law(Art. 38,para. 1(b)and (c))and not
to conventional treaty law (Art. 38, para. 1 (a)), unless State Parties

affected by the decision of the Court were also present in the proceed-
ings.
However, 1do fullyendorse the conclusion reached by the Courtthat the
multilateral treaty reservation of the Respondent does not possess "an
exclusivelypreliminary character" and remains inapplicable at thisjuris-
dictional stage of the case, and hence under Article 79,paragraph 7, of the
Rules, the Court has affirmed its ownjurisdiction under Article 36,para-
graph 2, of the Statute and proceeded to fix time-limits for the further
proceedings on the merits of the case. In short, the Court has held that the
multilateral treaty reservation of the United States has not barred its
jurisdiction for the simplereason that at thisstageit isnot possible to name
with any precision or firmness the States whose presence is necessary to

enable the Court to proceed further with the case. In this connection it is
worth pointing out that there are several States which have made reser-
vations of the "Vandenberg" type which is described by the Court as the
multilateral treaty reservation of the United States added to its Declara-
tion of 1946under Article 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute. Proviso "(c)" of
the United States Declaration which embodies the multilateral treaty
reservation provides that the United States acceptance of the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction shall not extend to :

"disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) al1parties to thetreaty affected by thedecisionare alsoparties to thecasebefore the
Court, or (2) the United States of America specially agreed to juris-
diction. .."(emphasis added).

The key words of the aforesaid reservation are "affected by the deci-
sion", whichdeprive the reservation ofits preliminary character because at
the presentjurisdictional stageit isnot possible to come to any conclusion
as to which, if any, of the States parties to a multilateral treaty would be
affected by the decision of the Court. It is indeed significant to observe
here that the same observation could not be made in relation to the other
Vandenberg-type reservations such as those made by India and the Phi-

lippines. The reservation made by India on 18 September 1974is to the
effect that the Government of India accepts thejurisdiction of the Court
over al1disputes other than :
"(7) disputes concerning the interpretation or application of a mul-
tilateral treaty unless al1the parties to the treaty are alsoparties
to the case before the Court or Government of India specially
agree to jurisdiction".

The reservation of the Philippines, made on 18January 1972,issimilarly
worded, statingthat the Court'sjurisdiction would not extend to any legal
dispute

"(d) arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) al1parties to the
treaty are also parties to the case before the Court, or (2) the
Republic of the Philippines specially agrees to jurisdiction".

It will appear from the wording of the reservations of India and the
Philippines that they both clearly maintain their essentially preliminary
character and would therefore unambiguously act as a bar to the jurisdic-
tion of the Court at the very start. This would be so because their meaning
isclear and theapplication issimpleand straightfonvard, asopposed to the
Vandenberg reservation of the United States type which poses several
problemsconcerningthe determination of "States affected by the decision
of the Court". The first question thatanses relates to who is tojudge which
States are affected by the decision of the Court ?1sit to be the decision of
the Respondent - the United States - which made the reservation, in
which event if would appear to take the objections of the Connally reser-
vation, or is it to be left to the States concerned who regard themselves as
affected by the decision of the Court, or isit fortheCourt itself to decide ?

The reservations of India and the Philippines do not pose such problems
andcannot bedescribed as "not exclusivelyprelirninary" soasto becaught
by the provisions of Article 79, paragraph 7, of the Rules of Court, which
are found applicable here in relation to the United States reservation to
render it ineffective. It may be observed that the words used by a State in making a reser-
vation under Article 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute must be such asclearly
and unequivocally to spell out the application of the reservation in a
straight and simple manner and not raise questions which are ambiguous
and therefore create confusion as to the intention of the State making the
reservation. TheVandenbergreservation of the United States,by theuseof
the words "States parties to a treaty affected by the decision", has intro-
duced an element which spells ambiguity in the application of the reser-
vation inasmuch as the Court isleftwith no optionbut to conclude that the

said reservation cannot act as a bar to thejurisdiction of the Court at this
stage of the case. It is quite clear that the decision of the Court at the
present stage is not even in sight. The merits of the case have to be argued
first by the Parties and at thisstageit is not evenknown which multilateral
treaties will have to be invoked by the Court's decision, and hence the
inherent difficulty in applying the said United States reservation at the
present phase of the case. The Court has therefore been indeed correct in
coming to the conclusion that the Vandenberg reservation of the Respon-
dent is "not exclusivelypreliminary" and hence cannot debar the Court
today as it proceeds to pronounce itsjurisdiction in the case.
(iv) Another helpful feature of the 1956 Treaty-basedjurisdiction of the
Court under Article 36, paragraph 1,of the Statute is that it compels the
Parties to come to the Court, invoking legal principles and adopting legal
procedures which would helpfully place legallimits to the presentation of
this sprawling dispute, which could otherwise easily take a non-legal
character by including political issues and thus raising the problem of
sorting out what isjusticiable as opposed to non-justiciable matters being
brought before the Court. Invoking the Treaty base would indeed help to
specify and legally channelize the issues of the dispute. For example, the
Applicant will have to present specific violations of the provisions of the

Treaty, thus involving their interpretation and application in the adjudi-
cation of the dispute. Thus, whle the Treaty would help the judicial
process to run on the right legal lines, thejurisdiction of the Court under
the Optional Clause could possibly open the door to limitless considera-
tions, presenting problems in adjudication.

(v) There is also the objection raised by the United States whch relates
to the pleadings of Nicaragua inasmuch as the oral hearings before the
Court do not bring out thejurisdiction of the Court based on theTreaty of
1956,except by way of a single line in which Nicaragua's Agentmentions
this Treaty in verybald terms. The result has been that the United States,
too, in the oral hearings has totally ignored the Treaty because it had not
been gone into by Nicaragua. Furthermore, Nicaragua has not mentioned
the Treaty of 1956in itsApplication but has inserted a clause reservingthe
right tosupplement theApplication of 9April1984 orto amend it at a later
stage. Nicaragua has relied on this clause, and in its written Memorial
dated 30 June 1984has stated that it "respectfully requests the Court to451 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEPO. P.NAGENDRA SINGH)

consider that Nicaragua is exercising the right to invoke 'theTreaty of
Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 1956between Nicaragua and
the United States" (Nicaragua's Memorial, para. 164, note 3). On that
basis Nicaragua has in its Memorial devoted Chapter III, paragraphs

163-175,to the aforesaidTreaty, attempting to establish thejurisdiction of
the Court under Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute. As a result the
United States Counter-Memorial deals with this Treaty at length and
answers the points that have been raised by Nicaragua (Chap. II, paras.
167-183,of the United States Counter-Memorial). In short, while the oral
hearings have almost totally neglected the Treaty asa base ofjurisdiction,
the Parties have properly dealt with this aspect in the Memorial and the
Counter-Memorial. It isfelt that Nicaragua, having reservedthe right in its
Application to supplement or amend it, was in a legal position to invoke
the Treaty in its Memorial. Again, as both the Applicant and the Respon-
dent have dealt with thejurisdiction of the Court as based on the Treaty in
the written pleadings, it was not possible for the Court to ignore that base
in its calculations in search of its ownjurisdiction. No tribunal can afford
to ignore the written pleadings and to pay sole attention to the oral
hearings. In fact, both the written pleadings and the oral hearingsconsti-

tute the right and left foot in the presentation of the case and the Court
would therefore bejustified in relying on the Treaty-basis of thejurisdic-
tion since it has been pleaded by both the Parties at length in the written
proceedings. It could perhaps be argued that the neglect of the Treaty in
the oral hearings should have provoked a question from the Court so that
the Parties werenot taken by surprise asto theCourt's reliance on the legal
validity of the base of its jurisdiction provided by the Treaty. However,
these can hardly be said to be valid reasons preventing the Court from
relying on the Treaty, which, as stated earlier,has been fully discussed by
both the Parties in their written pleadings.
It is in viewof the aforesaid reasons that 1have corne to the conclusion
that thejurisdiction of the Court as based on the Treaty of 1956is clear,
convincing and reliable.

(Signed) NAGENDRA SINGH.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE NAGENDRA SINGH

While 1 have voted for the jurisdiction of the Court on both counts,
namely under the Optional Clause ofArticle 36,paragraphs 2and 5,of the
Statute of the Court, aswell asunder Article 36,paragraph 1,of the Statute
on the basis of Article XXIV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Friendship,
Commerce and Navigation of21January 1956,I have feltal1alongin those
proceedings that the jurisdiction of the Court resting upon the latter,
namely the Treaty, provides a clearer and a firmer ground than thejuris-
diction based on the former, that is, the Optional Clause. The reasons are
obvious, since the acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction by both the
Applicant, Nicaragua, and the Respondent, the United States, presents
severallegaldifficulties to be resolvedandin respect ofwhichthere isroom
for differing views.For example, there aretheproblems of the "imperfect"
acceptance of thejurisdiction byNicaragua ;and of thecertainly unwilling
response from the United States as revealed by its Declaration of 6 April
1984intended to bar theCourt'sjurisdiction in relation to anydispute with
any Central American State for aperiod of twoyears. Furthermore,thereis
alsothe plea of multilateral treaty reservation of the United States, as well

as the question of reciprocity in relation to six months' notice of termi-
nation stipulated in the United States Declaration of 14August 1946.The
Court's consideration of al1these legal obstacles to its own jurisdiction
under the Optional Clause has been both thorough and careful, and 1do
agree with the Court's finding, but it does represent one way of looking at
the picture and of interpreting the legal situation. There could, therefore,
also be the rival way of looking at it, and hence my preference for basing
the Court's jurisdiction on Article XXIV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of
Friendship,Commerce and Navigation of 1956.This,for me,takespriority
on an overall consideration of the case at this stage, when the Court is
solelyconcerned about its ownjurisdiction in the matter. Though there are
certain objections raised by the United States to the application of Article
XXIV of that Treaty, they are not of such gravity asto bar thejurisdiction
of the Courtonany clear or categorical basis.TheCourthas effectivelyand
adequately dealt with the United States objections of basing the Court's
jurisdiction on that Treaty and hence it is not necessary for me to repeat
them here. 1would, however,liketodraw attention tothe followingaspects
which appear to merit mention, and provide the raison d'êtreof this
opinion.

(i)The United Stateshas asserted that under clause 1ofArticle XXIVit
wasnecessary forNicaragua to enter into negotiations and to makeefforts
to adjust the dispute by diplomacy. The Respondent maintains that no OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. NAGENDRA SINGH

[Traduction]

Bien que j'aie votépour la compétencede la Cour sur les deux chefs,
c'est-à-diresurlabase de laclausefacultative de l'article36,paragraphes 2

et 5, du Statut de la Cour, et sur la base de l'article 36, paragraphe 1,du
Statut et de l'article XXIV,paragraphe 2, du traitéd'amitié,de commerce
et de navigation du 21janvier 1956,j'ai toujours penséque ce dernier, à
savoir le traité,fondait la compétencede la Cour de manière plus claire et
plus solide que la clause facultative. Les raisons en sont évidentes,car
l'acceptation de lacompétencede la Courpar ledemandeur, leNicaragua,
et par ledéfendeur,lesEtats-Unis, soulèveplusieursproblèmesjuridiques,
qui peuvent donner lieu à des points de vue différents. Parexemple, il y a
lesproblèmesposéspar l'acceptation imparfaite )de lajuridiction de la
Cour par le Nicaragua, et par la réticence desEtats-Unis expriméedans
leur déclarationdu 6 avril 1984,destinée à exclure de lajuridiction de la
Cour tout différendavecun Etat d'Amériquecentrale pendant unepériode

de deux ans. Ily a aussi l'exception tiréepar les Etats-Unis de leur réserve
relativeaux traitésmultilatéraux,etla question de la réciprocitéapplicable
au préavis de six mois prévu dans leur déclaration du 14 août 1946.
L'analysequefait la Cour de tous cesobstaclesjuridiques à sacompétence
sur la base de la clause facultative est approfondie et détaillée, ejte suis
d'accord avec ses conclusions, mais elle ne représente qu'un pointde vue
sur la question et une manière d'interpréter la situation juridique. On
pourrait donc adopterune perspective différente,etc'estpour cetteraison
queje préfèrel'article XXIV,paragraphe 2, du traitéd'amitié,de com-
merceet de navigation de 1956commebase de compétence.Cepoint, pour
moi, passe avant toute considérationgénéralede l'espèce à ce stade de la
procédure, où laCour a seulement à se soucier de sa propre compétence.

Certes, lesEtats-Unis ont élevcertainesobjections contre l'application de
l'article XXIV de ce traité.mais elles ne sont Dasd'une forcetelle au'elles
puissent exclure la compétencede la Cour de manière certaine et catégo-
rique. LaCour ad'ailleursrépondude manièreconvaincante et appropriée
à ces objections des Etats-Unis, et je n'yreviendrai pas ici. Je m'arrêterai
cependant à quelques aspects de la question, qui me paraissent mériter
attention et qui sont la raison d'êtrede la présente opinion.

i) Les Etats-Unis soutiennent qu'aux termes de l'article XXIV, para-
graphe 1,le Nicaragua étaittenu d'entreprendre des négociations et d'es-

sayerde réglerledifférendparla voiediplomatique. Ilsfont valoir que riensuch efforts wereevermade, and eventhough there werenegotiations with
Nicaragua this dispute was never raised. It is therefore argued by the
United States that the mandatory provision of clause 1of Article XXIV
has not been fulfilled and hence Nicaragua could not invoke thejurisdic-

tion of the Court under the Treaty. However, if the wording of the com-
promissory clause of the Treaty is examined, it would appear that nego-
tiations or representations affecting the operation of thepresent Treaty are
not prescribed as a condition precedent to invoking thejurisdiction of the
Court. The Treaty clearly States that if a party does choose to make
representations affecting the operation of the Treaty the other party is
obliged to "accord sympathetic consideration" and "afford adequate
opportunity for consultation". However, it does not make it obligatory
that such representations must be made and negotiations on the matter
affecting the operation of the Treaty must take placebefore proceeding to
the Court. It would appear to be the intention that due weight should be
given to "sympathetic consideration" and "opportunity for consultation"
ifa party wereto make representations on a matter affecting the operation
of the Treaty. There is, however, no binding obligation to negotiate. The
above conclusion would appear to be clearlyjustified from the wording of
clause 1 of Article XXIV, whch is reproduced below :

"Each Party shall accord sympathetic consideration to, and shall
afford adequate opportunity for consultation regarding, such repre-
sentations as the other Party may make with respect to any matter
affecting the operation of the present Treaty." (Emphasis added.)

The second objection of the United States is that, in accordance with
subclause 2 of Article XXI, it is essential that the dispute must not have
been satisfactorily adjusted by diplomacy. In other words, resort to a
diplomatic move to settle the dispute would appear to be a condition
essential before subrnitting the case to the International Court of Justice.
Similarly,parties must not have agreed to settlement by someother pacific
means. Both these conditions appear to be satisfied because every effort
has been made to settle the dispute by diplomacy inasmuch as Nicaragua
has referred it to the Security Council. Furthermore, the dispute is before
the Contadora Group, which is essentially a diplomatic process to resolve
the problems of the area. In short, therefore, it could not be asserted that
the dispute has not been referred to diplomatic methods for settlement.
The United Nations Security Council is an organ which is essentially
engaged in diplomatic methods for settling disputes. It is also true that
neither the Contadora process nor the Security Council have been able to
resolve the dispute by diplomacy. Again, the Parties have not resorted to

any other pacific means for the settlement of the dispute. In the circum-
stances, the allegation made by the United States that Nicaragua in its
negotiations has never raised the application or interpretation of the
Treaty would appear to have no relevance to thejurisdiction of the Courtde tel n'aétéfait, et que,bien qu'ily ait eu desnégociationsentre eux et le
Nicaragua, cedifférendn'yajamais étéévoquéL . es Etats-Unis affirment
doncqueladispositionimpérativedel'article XXIV,paragraphe 1,n'apas

été observée,et que pour cetteraison leNicaragua nepeut pas invoquer la
juridiction delaCour envertu du traité. Cependant,la lecturedu libelléde
la clause compromissoire du traité montre que les négociationsou les
représentations relativesà l'application du traité ne sont pas prescrites
comme une condition préalable àremplir avant de pouvoir invoquer la
compétencede laCour. Letraitéditbien que, sil'une desparties choisit de
faire des représentations concernant une application, l'autre partie les
<<examinera avecbienveillance )et <prendra des mesures adéquatespour
permettredesconsultations à cepropos o.Maisiln'imposepasl'obligation
defaire cesreprésentationset de tenirdesnégociationssurl'application du
traité avant que lelitige ne soit porté devantla Cour. L'intention de ses
auteurs semble avoir étéde veiller, au cas où une des parties choisirait de

faire des représentations sur une question concernant l'application du
traité,àce que l'autre partie donne toute l'importance voulueà l'examen
bienveillant de ces représentations et aux mesures à prendre pour per-
mettre desconsultations.Cependant, iln'ya pas d'obligation de négocier.
Ces conclusions me semblent clairement résulter du texte mêmede l'ar-
ticleXXIV, paragraphe 1 :

<<Chacunedes deux parties examineraavecbienveillance lesrepré-
sentations que l'autre partieourra faire au sujet de toute question
concernant l'application du présent traité etprendra des mesures
adéquates pour permettre des consultations à ce propos. )(Les ita-
liques sont de moi.)

La deuxièmeobjection des Etats-Unis est que, d'après l'articleXXIV,
paragraphe 2, il est indispensable que le différend n'ait paspu êtreréglé
d'une manièresatisfaisanteparla voiediplomatique. End'autres termes,le
recours a la diplomatie pour réglerle différend serait une condition
essentielleàremplir avant de porter l'affaire devant la Cour. De même, les
parties devraient ne pas avoir pu semettre d'accord sur un règlementpar
d'autres moyens pacifiques. Ces deux conditions semblent cependant
remplies, car tout paraît avoir été fait pourréglerle différendpar la voie
diplomatique, dans la mesure où le Nicaragua a portécelui-ci devant le
Conseil de sécurité.De plus, le différend a été soumis au groupede
Contadora, qui est essentiellementun effort diplomatique pour résoudre
les problèmes de cette partie du monde. En bref, il n'est pas exact d'af-

firmer que le différendn'a pas été soumisaux instances diplomatiques en
vued'unrèglement.LeConseildesécuritédes Nations Uniesest un organe
qui s'occupeessentiellementde lasolutiondiplomatiquedesdifférends.Et
ilest égalementexactque ni lesconsultationsde Contadora nileConseil de
sécuritén'ont pu résoudrlee différendpar ladiplomatie.Les Partiesn'ont
eu recours à aucune autre méthode pacifique pour le règlementdu diffé-
rend. Dans ces conditions, l'argument des Etats-Unis suivant lequel le
Nicaragua n'ajamais, au cours des négociations, soulevéle problème debecause negotiations have not been specificallyprescribed asa sinequanon
for the Parties to proceed to the Court. Thereare several treaties which do
categorically specify negotiations as a condition precedent to resorting to
the International Court of Justice. For example, the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons of 1973has the followingjurisdictional clause. Article 13,para-
graph 1,of the Treaty is reproduced below :

"Any dispute between two or more States Parties concerning the
interpretation or application of this Convention whichisnot settledby
negotiation shall, at the request of one of them, be submitted to
arbitration. If within six months from the date of request for arbi-
tration the parties are unable to agree on the organization of the
arbitration, any one of those parties may refer the dispute to the
International Court of Justice by request in conformity with the
Statute of the Court." (Emphasis added.)

In the aforesaid Treaty, which wascited by the United States in the United
States Diplornaticand ConsularStaff in Tehrancase (1C.J.Reports1980),it
would appear that thejurisdictional clause made negotiations an essential
condition before proceeding to arbitration ;and alapse ofsixmonthsfrom
the date of the request forarbitration acondition precedent to referring the
dispute to the International Court of Justice. The words "which is not
settled by negotiation" have the same importance as the words "not
satisfactorily adjusted by diplomacy" which occur in the 1956Treaty of
Friendship, Commerce and Navigation. There is no reference to negotia-

tion in theTreaty under consideration. In thecircumstancestheconditions
necessary under Article XXIV for the case to be brought to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice have been fulfilled.
(ii) It is of course true that the field of the jurisdiction of the Court
conferred by the Treaty is restricted to and limited by the words "dispute
as to the interpretation or application of the present Treaty". Thus Nica-
ragua would have to citethe specificarticles and provisions of theTreaty of
1956 and demonstrate the point of dispute in order that the Court may
exercisejurisdiction in the matter. The Court has listed in the Judgment
(para. 82)the various articles of theTreaty which, according to Nicaragua,
have been violated by the military and pararnilitary activities of theUnited
States. These articles need not be repeated here. However, it appears
essential to point out that there is in addition a specificprovision, namely
Article XXI, which deals with items like the maintenance or restoration of
international peace and security or measures necessary to protect the
essential security interests of the Parties. The Court may well have to
consider at some stage whether Article XXI of the Treaty falls within the
purview of the Treaty or is excluded from it. Clause 1 of the said Article
reads as follows ACTIVITÉS MILITAIRESET PARAMILITAIRES (OP.IND. NAGENDRA SINGH) 446

l'application ou de l'interprétation du traité, sembledénué depertinence
pour ce qui concerne la compétence de la Cour, puisque les négociations
n'ontjamais étéstipuléescommeunecondition sine quanonde la saisinede
laCour. Ilexisteplusieurs traitésqui prévoientde manièrecatégoriqueque
lesnégociationssont un préalable indispensable à remplir avant de recou-
rir àla juridiction de la Cour internationale de Justice. Par exemple, la

convention de 1973sur la prévisionet la répressiondesinfractions contre
les personnesjouissant d'une protection internationale comprend à I'ar-
ticle 13,paragraphe 1,la clause dejuridiction suivante :
tTout différendentre deux ou plusieurs Etats parties concernant

l'interprétation oul'applicationde laprésenteconvention quin'estpas
réglépar voiedenégociationest soumis à l'arbitrage,àla demande de
l'und'entre eux.Si,dans lessixmois qui suivent la date de lademande
d'arbitrage, les parties ne parviennent pas à se mettre d'accord sur
l'organisation de I'arbitrage, l'unequelconque d'entre ellespeut sou-
mettre le différend à la Cour internationale de Justice, en déposant
une requête conformémentau Statut de la Cour. ))(Les italiques sont
de moi.)

Dans ce traité,qui fut citépar les Etats-Unis dans l'affaire du Personnel
diplomatique et consulairedeEs tats-Unisà Téhéran (C.I.J. Recueil1980),la
clause de juridiction faisait apparemment des négociationsun préalable
indispensable à l'arbitrage, au mêmetitre que ledélaide sixmois suivant la
date de la demande d'arbitrage pour soumettre ledifférend à la Cour. Les

termes (qui n'estpas réglé par voie de négociation ont la mêmeimpor-
tance que les mots (qui ne pourrait pas êtreréglé d'une manièresatisfai-
santepar Iavoiediplomatique ))dans le traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de
navigation de 1956. Il n'est pas question de négociationsdans ce dernier
traité.Par conséquent,les conditions poséespar l'article XXIVpour sou-
mettre l'affaireà la Cour internationale de Justice sont remplies.

ii) Il est vrai que le domaine de compétenceque le traitéconfère à la
Cour est restreint, étantlimitépar les mots (<différendquant à I'interpré-

tation ou a l'application du présenttraité o. Il faudra, pour que la Cour
puisse exercer sa compétence en la matière, que le Nicaragua cite les
articles et dispositionsparticulières du traitéde 1956qui sont en cause, et
expose lelitige lesconcernant. La Cour, dans sonarrêt(par. 82),énumère
lesdivers articles du traité qui, suivant le Nicaragua, ont évioléspar les
activités militaires etparamilitaires des Etats-Unis. Il n'y a pas lieu de
répéter icicesindications. Mais ilmeparaît essentiel de dire qu'ils'yajoute
une disposition particulière,àsavoir l'articleXXI, quiporte sur despoints
tels que le maintien ou le rétablissement de la paix et de la sécurité

internationales, ou les mesures nécessaires à la protection des intérêts
vitaux desparties. Il n'estpas impossible quela Cour soit,àun moment ou
un autre,conduite à examiner sila matièrede l'article XXIdu traitéentre
ou non dans le champ d'application de celui-ci. Le paragraphe 1 de cet
article se lit comme suit: "The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of mea-
sures ...

(c) regulating the production of or traffic in arms, ammunition and
implements of war, ortraffic in other materialscarried on directly
or indirectly for the purpose of supplying a rnilitary establish-
ment ;
(d) necessary to fulfil the obligation of a Party for themaintenance or
restoration of international peace and security, or necessary to
protect its essential security interests."

It does appear necessary to ascertain the intention of the Parties to the
Treaty as to whether the application of measures under Article XXI of the
Treaty are excluded from or fa11within the purview of theTreaty.As faras
Nicaragua is concerned, it is difficult to discern the intention because in
the Memorial it has not referred to Article XXI, and in the oral hearings
thisTreatyhas been invoked summarily in onelineand not fullydealtwith.
However,asfaras the United States isconcerned,it would appear that the
provisions of Article XXI, paragraph 1 (c) and (d),are excluded from the
purview of the Treaty. This would appear to be a legitimate conclusion to
draw from the Counter-Memorial of the Respondent (para. 179). How-
ever,inthe oral hearings thisTreaty wasnot mentioned at al1by the United
States. It would appearthat clause 1ofArticle XXI of the Treaty isworded
rather ambiguously. It states "the present Treaty shall not preclude the
application of measures", which in relation to subclauses (c)and (d)would
apply to obligations for the maintenance of international peace and secu-
rity or protection of essential security interests. The words "shall not
preclude the application of measures" would stand to mean that the
present Treaty shall permit the application of "necessary measures" and

therefore such measures would be within the purview of the Treaty ; at
least to the extent that there may obviously be a question whether or not
certain measures are,for example, truly "necessary" within the meaning of
paragraph (d).And what, furthermore, is intended by the qualifying term,
the "application" of measures ? If the intention was to exclude these
matters from the purview of theTreaty, the word "preclude" alone should
have been used, and not preceded by the word "not". To Say that "the
present Treaty shall not preclude the application of measures" would
amount to saying that the present Treaty expressly sanctions the applica-
tion of measures such as those mentioned in subclauses (c) and (d).This
ambiguity in clause 1of Article XXI of theTreatyhas to be read with the
Counter-Memorial of the United States to get the intention of the Party,
which is that such measures as specified in subclauses (c) and (d) are
altogether excluded from the purview of the Treaty. However, this infer-
encedoes not appear to be borneout by the useof thewords "not preclude
the application of measures". The question therefore arises whether the
Court hasjurisdiction in relation to the interpretation and application of
Article XXI, which is an integral part of the Treaty ; or whether it has no Le présent traité ne fera pas obstacle à l'application de me-
sures ...

c) concernantlaproduction oulecommerce des armes,des munitions
et du matérielde guerre, ou lecommerce d'autres produits lorsqu'il
a pour but direct ou indirect d'approvisionner des unités mili-
taires ;
d) nécessaires àl'exécution desobligationsde l'une ou l'autre partie
relatives au maintien ou au rétablissement de la paix et de la
sécuritéinternationales ou à la protection des intérêtsvitaux de
cette partie en ce qui concerne sa sécurité. ))

Il semblerait nécessairede s'assurer si les parties au traité avaientl'inten-
tion d'inclure la mise enŒuvredes mesures énumérées àl'articleXXI dans
lechampd'application du traité,ou au contraire delesenexclure.En cequi
concerne le Nicaragua, il est difficile de dire quelle était sonintention, car

l'article XXI n'étaitpas invoquédans son mémoire, etson agent ne lui a
consacréque quelques mots pendant la procédure orale, sans autres pré-
cisions.Pour lesEtats-Unis, il sembleque lesdispositionsduparagraphe 1,
alinéas c) et d), soient exclues du champ d'application du traité. C'est
la conclusion que l'on peut tirer, semble-t-il, de leur contre-mémoire
(par. 179).Cependant, le traité n'amêmepas été mentionnépar les Etats-
Unis au coursde laprocédureorale.Quant au texte mêmede l'articleXXI,

paragraphe 1,il est assezambigu. Il y est dit que << le présenttraiténe fera
pas obstacle à l'application de mesures ..)),ce qui, si on se réfère aux
alinéasc) et d), s'appliquerait aux obligations relatives au maintien de la
paix et dela sécuritéinternationales ou à la protection desintérêtsvitaux
des parties. Les mots (ne fera pas obstacle à l'application de mesures )>
signifieraientalorsque leprésent traitépermetl'applicationdes << mesures
nécessaires )),et par conséquent que ces mesures entrent dans le champ
d'application du traité, àcondition tout au moins que l'onsache si lesme-

sures en questionsont ou ne sontpas <(nécessaires ))au sens de l'alinéad).
De plus, que veut dire ce terme limitatif :l' (<plication de mesures ? Si
le but recherchéétait d'exclureces questions du champ d'application du
traité,lesmots (feraobstacle ))auraientétéutiliséssanslanégation <(ne ...
pas >).Dire que (<le présent traiténe fera pas obstacle à l'application de
mesures ... revient àdireque le traité sanctionne expressémentl'applica-
tion de mesures telles que celles mentionnées aux alinéas c) et d).Cette
ambiguïté de l'article XXI, paragraphe 1, est à rapprocher du contre-

mémoiredesEtats-Unis, sil'onveut comprendrel'intention decettepartie,
suivant laquelleles mesures énuméréesaux alinéas c) etd) sont exclues du
champ d'application du traité. Cependant, cette déduction ne semblepas
confirméepar l'utilisation desmots (ineferapasobstacle à l'application de
mesures o.Laquestion sepose doncde savoir silaCour acompétencepour
ce qui est de l'interprétation et de l'application de l'article XXI, qui fait
partie intégrante du traité,ou si ellen'apascompétence à cettefin,pour la
raison quel'intention de l'une desparties était d'exclureles alinéas c)et d)

du paragraphe 1 du champd'application du traité. Danscecontexte, il est 448 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEP . P. NAGENDRA SINGH)

jurisdiction because the intention of one of the Parties wasto exclude from
the purview of the Treaty items (c)and (d)of clause 1of the said Article. In
this context it is indeed significant that thejurisdictional clause of Article
XXIVof the Treaty, does not specifythe exclusionofArticle XXI from the
Court's jurisdiction. If the intention of both Parties was to exclude from
the Court's purview that aspect of the Treaty which relates to clause 1of
Article XXI, a provision to that effect would have been helpful even if it is
not regarded as strictly necessary for implementing that purpose. How-
ever,asstated before, it willbe for the Court to decide on this aspect when
it proceeds to the next phase of the case.
(iii) A noteworthy feature of thejurisdiction based on the 1956Treaty,
established under Article 36, paragraph 1,of the Statute, is that it is not
subject to the multilateral treaty reservation of the United States which is

applicable to the Court'sjurisdiction under the Optional Clause of Article
36, paragraph 2, of the Statute. Thus under the Treaty basis the Court
wouldbefreetoapplyfor purposes ofinterpretationand application of the
Treaty the wholesphere of international law,asdefined in Article 38of the
Statute, namely both customary and conventional law as well as the gen-
eralprinciples ofinternational law(videArt. 38,paras. (a),(6)and (c)of the
Statute).On theother hand, themultilateral treaty reservation operating in
relation to the Court's jurisdiction based on the Optional Clause under
Article 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute would confinetheapplicable lawfor
purposes of adjudication of the dispute to customary law as well as the
general principles of international law(Art. 38,para. 1(b)and (c))and not
to conventional treaty law (Art. 38, para. 1 (a)), unless State Parties

affected by the decision of the Court were also present in the proceed-
ings.
However, 1do fullyendorse the conclusion reached by the Courtthat the
multilateral treaty reservation of the Respondent does not possess "an
exclusivelypreliminary character" and remains inapplicable at thisjuris-
dictional stage of the case, and hence under Article 79,paragraph 7, of the
Rules, the Court has affirmed its ownjurisdiction under Article 36,para-
graph 2, of the Statute and proceeded to fix time-limits for the further
proceedings on the merits of the case. In short, the Court has held that the
multilateral treaty reservation of the United States has not barred its
jurisdiction for the simplereason that at thisstageit isnot possible to name
with any precision or firmness the States whose presence is necessary to

enable the Court to proceed further with the case. In this connection it is
worth pointing out that there are several States which have made reser-
vations of the "Vandenberg" type which is described by the Court as the
multilateral treaty reservation of the United States added to its Declara-
tion of 1946under Article 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute. Proviso "(c)" of
the United States Declaration which embodies the multilateral treaty
reservation provides that the United States acceptance of the Court's
compulsoryjurisdiction shall not extend to :

"disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) al1parties tocertainement significatif que la clause de juridiction, c'est-à-dire l'ar-
ticle XXlV du traité,ne précisepas que les questions visées à l'article XXI
sont exclues de la compétencede la Cour. Si l'intention des deux parties
étaitd'exclurede cettecompétencel'aspectdu traitérelatif àl'articleXXI,
paragraphe 1,une disposition àcet effet eût étutile, sansêtrenécessaireà

strictementparler. Cependant, commeje l'aidit plus haut, il appartiendra
à la Cour d'en déciderdans la prochaine phase de l'affaire.

iii) Un aspect intéressantde la compétencede la Cour sur la base du
traité de 1956, telle qu'elle est établiepar l'article 36, paragraphe 1, du
Statut, est qu'ellen'estpas soumise àla réservedes Etats-Unis relative aux
traités multilatéraux,qui s'applique au contraire à la compétencesur la

base de la clause facultative de l'article 36,paragraphe2, du Statut. Surla
base du traité,la Cour aurait donc liberté,pour l'interprétation et l'ap-
plication de celui-ci,d'appliquer l'ensembledu droit international tel qu'il
est défini àl'article 38 du Statut, c'est-à-dire le droit conventionnel et le
droit coutumier, en plus des principes générauxde droit international
(article 38, paragraphe 1, alinéasa), b) et c), du Statut). Par contre, la
réserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux, qui s'applique à la compétence
fondée sur la clause facultative de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut,
limiterait ledroit applicable pour lejugement du différend à la coutume et
aux principes générauxdu droit international (art. 38, par. 1 b) et c)) à

l'exclusiondu droit conventionnel (art. 38,par. 1a)),à moins que les Etats
que concerne la décisionde la Cour ne participent également àla procé-
dure.
Cependant,j'approuve laCour d'avoir concluquela réserverelative aux
traités multilatéraux formulée par ledéfendeurne possèdepas <(un carac-
tère exclusivementpréliminaire )>et demeure inapplicable à ce stade de
l'affaire, consacré à la compétence, et, partant de là, conformément à
l'article 79,paragraphe 7,du Règlement,de s'être déclaré coempétenteaux
termes de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut, puis d'avoir fixéles délais

pour lasuite de laprocéduresurlefond. En bref, la Cour aconsidéréquela
réservedes Etats-Unis relative aux traités multilatérauxn'excluait pas sa
compétence,pour la simple raison qu'à ce stade il n'étaitpas possible de
désigner avec précisionou certitude les Etats dont la présence serait
nécessairepour permettre àla Cour de poursuivre l'examende l'affaire. A
cepropos, on remarquera que plusieurs Etats ont formulédes réservesdu
type ({Vandenberg >> erme employépar la Cour pour définir laréserve
relativeauxtraitésmultilatérauxajoutée par lesEtats-Unis àladéclaration
qu'ils ont faite en 1946en vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut.

Cette réserve <(c))>,dans la déclaration des Etats-Unis, dispose que I'ac-
ceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour par les Etats-Unis ne
s'applique pas aux
<(différendsrésultantd'un traitémultilatéral,à moins que 1)toutes les thetreaty affected by thedecisionare alsoparties to thecasebefore the
Court, or (2) the United States of America specially agreed to juris-
diction. .."(emphasis added).

The key words of the aforesaid reservation are "affected by the deci-
sion", whichdeprive the reservation ofits preliminary character because at
the presentjurisdictional stageit isnot possible to come to any conclusion
as to which, if any, of the States parties to a multilateral treaty would be
affected by the decision of the Court. It is indeed significant to observe
here that the same observation could not be made in relation to the other
Vandenberg-type reservations such as those made by India and the Phi-

lippines. The reservation made by India on 18 September 1974is to the
effect that the Government of India accepts thejurisdiction of the Court
over al1disputes other than :
"(7) disputes concerning the interpretation or application of a mul-
tilateral treaty unless al1the parties to the treaty are alsoparties
to the case before the Court or Government of India specially
agree to jurisdiction".

The reservation of the Philippines, made on 18January 1972,issimilarly
worded, statingthat the Court'sjurisdiction would not extend to any legal
dispute

"(d) arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) al1parties to the
treaty are also parties to the case before the Court, or (2) the
Republic of the Philippines specially agrees to jurisdiction".

It will appear from the wording of the reservations of India and the
Philippines that they both clearly maintain their essentially preliminary
character and would therefore unambiguously act as a bar to the jurisdic-
tion of the Court at the very start. This would be so because their meaning
isclear and theapplication issimpleand straightfonvard, asopposed to the
Vandenberg reservation of the United States type which poses several
problemsconcerningthe determination of "States affected by the decision
of the Court". The first question thatanses relates to who is tojudge which
States are affected by the decision of the Court ?1sit to be the decision of
the Respondent - the United States - which made the reservation, in
which event if would appear to take the objections of the Connally reser-
vation, or is it to be left to the States concerned who regard themselves as
affected by the decision of the Court, or isit fortheCourt itself to decide ?

The reservations of India and the Philippines do not pose such problems
andcannot bedescribed as "not exclusivelyprelirninary" soasto becaught
by the provisions of Article 79, paragraph 7, of the Rules of Court, which
are found applicable here in relation to the United States reservation to
render it ineffective. AC~VITES MILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP.IND. NAGENDRA SINGH) 449

parties au traitéque la décision concernesoient égalementparties à
l'affaire soumise à la Cour, ou que 2) les Etats-Unis d'Amérique
acceptent expressémentla compétencede la Cour ..))(Les italiques
sont de moi.)

Les mots clefs du texte sont <(que la décisionconcerne )),qui ôtent à
cette réserveson caractère préliminaire, puisqu'iln'est pas possible, au
stade actuel dela procéduresur la compétence,de dire quels sont lesEtats
parties à un traité multilatéralque pourrait éventuellementconcerner la

décisionde la Cour. Il est bon de noter ici que la mêmeobservation ne
s'appliqueraitpas aux autres réservesdu typeVandenberg, tellesque celles
faites par l'Inde et les Philippines. La réserveindienne du 18 septembre
1974dispose que le Gouvernement de l'Inde accepte lajuridiction de la
Cour pour tous les différends autresque :

((7) les différendsrelatifs à l'interprétationou à l'application d'un
traitémultilatéral, à moins que toutes les parties au traiténe
soient égalementparties à l'affairedont la Cour est saisieouque
leGouvernement indien n'accepte spécialementlajuridiction de
la Cour o.

La réservedes Philippines, en date du 18janvier 1972,est rédigée en
termes similaires, et exclut la juridiction de la Cour pour les différends
d'ordrejuridique :

<(d) ...auxquels peut donner lieu un traité multilatéral,sauf si
1) toutes les parties au traité sont égalementparties à l'affaire
portée devant laCour ou 2) si la République des Philippines
accepte expressément lajuridiction de la Cour ».

Le libelléde ces deux réservestraduit clairement leur caractère essen-
tiellement préliminaire,et il est donc hors de doute qu'elles excluraient
d'entrée la compétence de la Cour. En effet leur signification est claire, et
leur application simple et directe, au contraire de la réserveVandenberg

desEtats-Unis, qui soulèveplusieursproblèmesrelatifs à la définition des
Etats <(que concerne la décisionde la Cour ))La première question qui se
pose à cesujet estde savoirqui serajuge desEtatsque la décision concerne.
Sera-celedéfendeur,c'est-à-dire lesEtats-Unis, auteurs de la réserve - ce
qui serait en fait ouvrirla porte l'application de la réserveConnally ?Ou
bien en laissera-t-on lesoin aux Etats qui considèrentque la décisionde la
Cour peut lesconcerner ? Ou sera-ce à la Cour elle-même de décider ? Les
réservesde l'Inde et desPhilippinesne soulèventpasde pareils problèmes,

et on ne peut pas dire qu'elles n'aientpas <(un caractère exclusivement
préliminaire H :aussine tombent-elles pas souslecoup desdispositions de
l'article79,paragraphe 7,du Règlementde la Cour, qui, au contraire, sont
applicables à la réservedes Etats-Unis et la rendraient inopérante. It may be observed that the words used by a State in making a reser-
vation under Article 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute must be such asclearly
and unequivocally to spell out the application of the reservation in a
straight and simple manner and not raise questions which are ambiguous
and therefore create confusion as to the intention of the State making the
reservation. TheVandenbergreservation of the United States,by theuseof
the words "States parties to a treaty affected by the decision", has intro-
duced an element which spells ambiguity in the application of the reser-
vation inasmuch as the Court isleftwith no optionbut to conclude that the

said reservation cannot act as a bar to thejurisdiction of the Court at this
stage of the case. It is quite clear that the decision of the Court at the
present stage is not even in sight. The merits of the case have to be argued
first by the Parties and at thisstageit is not evenknown which multilateral
treaties will have to be invoked by the Court's decision, and hence the
inherent difficulty in applying the said United States reservation at the
present phase of the case. The Court has therefore been indeed correct in
coming to the conclusion that the Vandenberg reservation of the Respon-
dent is "not exclusivelypreliminary" and hence cannot debar the Court
today as it proceeds to pronounce itsjurisdiction in the case.
(iv) Another helpful feature of the 1956 Treaty-basedjurisdiction of the
Court under Article 36, paragraph 1,of the Statute is that it compels the
Parties to come to the Court, invoking legal principles and adopting legal
procedures which would helpfully place legallimits to the presentation of
this sprawling dispute, which could otherwise easily take a non-legal
character by including political issues and thus raising the problem of
sorting out what isjusticiable as opposed to non-justiciable matters being
brought before the Court. Invoking the Treaty base would indeed help to
specify and legally channelize the issues of the dispute. For example, the
Applicant will have to present specific violations of the provisions of the

Treaty, thus involving their interpretation and application in the adjudi-
cation of the dispute. Thus, whle the Treaty would help the judicial
process to run on the right legal lines, thejurisdiction of the Court under
the Optional Clause could possibly open the door to limitless considera-
tions, presenting problems in adjudication.

(v) There is also the objection raised by the United States whch relates
to the pleadings of Nicaragua inasmuch as the oral hearings before the
Court do not bring out thejurisdiction of the Court based on theTreaty of
1956,except by way of a single line in which Nicaragua's Agentmentions
this Treaty in verybald terms. The result has been that the United States,
too, in the oral hearings has totally ignored the Treaty because it had not
been gone into by Nicaragua. Furthermore, Nicaragua has not mentioned
the Treaty of 1956in itsApplication but has inserted a clause reservingthe
right tosupplement theApplication of 9April1984 orto amend it at a later
stage. Nicaragua has relied on this clause, and in its written Memorial
dated 30 June 1984has stated that it "respectfully requests the Court to On observera aussiquelestermesutiliséspar lesEtats pour formulerune
réserveau titrede l'article36,paragraphe 2,du Statut doivent êtreclairs et
sans équivoque,et indiquer les conditions de l'application de la réservede
manièredirecte et simple, sans laisser placeàaucune ambiguïténi laisser
en doute les intentions de l'Etat qui en est l'auteur. Or la résemeVanden-
berg, par les mots toutes les parties au traitéquela décisionconcerneD,
introduit dans sonapplication un élémentd'ambiguïtéquine laissed'autre
choix à la Cour que de conclure que cette réservene peut pas exclure sa
compétenceau présentstadede l'affaire. Ilestcertain en effet qu'à cestade
iln'estpas possible de sefaireune idée,mêmelointaine,de ladécisionde la
Cour. Les Parties devront d'abord plaider au fond, et, pour lemoment, on
ignore même quelssont les traités multilatérauxqui seront invoquésdans
la décisionde la Cour, d'où la difficulté intrinsèqueque soulève l'appli-

cation decette réservedes Etats-Unisau présentstade del'affaire.LaCour
a donc tout à fait raison de conclure que la réserve Vandenberg du
défendeur, n'ayant pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaire D, ne
peut à ce stade lui interdire de se déclarer compétente.

iv) La compétencede la Cour sur la base du traitéde 1956et de l'ar-
ticle 36,paragraphe 1,du Statut présente unautre avantage : c'estqu'elle
obligera les Partiesà invoquer et àappliquer des principes et des procé-
duresjuridiques de nature à circonscrire la présentation de ce différend
multiforme, qui, sans cela, risquerait fort de prendre un caractère extra-
juridique et de faire intervenir des questions d'ordre politique, soulevant
ainsi le problème de déterminer,parmi les questions soumises à la Cour,

celles qui relèvent ou non de la fonction judiciaire. Le fait de fonder la
compétencede la Cour sur le traitécontribuerait certainement à préciser
les questions sur lesquelles porte le différend, àles maintenir dans un
cadrejuridique. Par exemple, le demandeur devra invoquer desviolations
précisesdes dispositions du traité, pour que la Cour puisse statuer sur
l'interprétation et l'applicationde cesdispositions. Le traité contribuerait
donc à canaliser le processus judiciaire en lui conservant un caractère
proprementjuridique, alorsqu'une compétence fondéesur la clause facul-
tative pourrait ouvrirla porte desconsidérationsdetoute espècedans la
présentation des problèmes soumis à la Cour.
v) Enfin vient l'objection soulevépar lesEtats-Unis contre lafaçon de
plaider du Nicaragua, celui-cin'ayant pas parlépendant laprocédureorale

de la compétence sur la base du traitéde 1956, àl'exception d'une seule
ligne unique, où l'agent du Nicaragua mentionnait le traitéen termes très
succincts.Lerésultatestque lesEtats-Unis sont euxaussirestéstotalement
silencieuxau sujetdecetraitédans laprocédureorale,leNicaragua n'étant
pas entrédans le détail.De plus, le Nicaragua n'avait pas mentionné le
traitéde1956dans sarequête, oùfiguraitseulementuneclause par laquelle
il se réservait ledroit de compléter oude modifier ultérieurement ladite
requête.C'estsur cetteclause que leNicaragua s'estappuyépour, dans son
mémoireen datedu 30juin 1984, (([demander]respectueusement à laCour451 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEPO. P.NAGENDRA SINGH)

consider that Nicaragua is exercising the right to invoke 'theTreaty of
Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 1956between Nicaragua and
the United States" (Nicaragua's Memorial, para. 164, note 3). On that
basis Nicaragua has in its Memorial devoted Chapter III, paragraphs

163-175,to the aforesaidTreaty, attempting to establish thejurisdiction of
the Court under Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute. As a result the
United States Counter-Memorial deals with this Treaty at length and
answers the points that have been raised by Nicaragua (Chap. II, paras.
167-183,of the United States Counter-Memorial). In short, while the oral
hearings have almost totally neglected the Treaty asa base ofjurisdiction,
the Parties have properly dealt with this aspect in the Memorial and the
Counter-Memorial. It isfelt that Nicaragua, having reservedthe right in its
Application to supplement or amend it, was in a legal position to invoke
the Treaty in its Memorial. Again, as both the Applicant and the Respon-
dent have dealt with thejurisdiction of the Court as based on the Treaty in
the written pleadings, it was not possible for the Court to ignore that base
in its calculations in search of its ownjurisdiction. No tribunal can afford
to ignore the written pleadings and to pay sole attention to the oral
hearings. In fact, both the written pleadings and the oral hearingsconsti-

tute the right and left foot in the presentation of the case and the Court
would therefore bejustified in relying on the Treaty-basis of thejurisdic-
tion since it has been pleaded by both the Parties at length in the written
proceedings. It could perhaps be argued that the neglect of the Treaty in
the oral hearings should have provoked a question from the Court so that
the Parties werenot taken by surprise asto theCourt's reliance on the legal
validity of the base of its jurisdiction provided by the Treaty. However,
these can hardly be said to be valid reasons preventing the Court from
relying on the Treaty, which, as stated earlier,has been fully discussed by
both the Parties in their written pleadings.
It is in viewof the aforesaid reasons that 1have corne to the conclusion
that thejurisdiction of the Court as based on the Treaty of 1956is clear,
convincing and reliable.

(Signed) NAGENDRA SINGH.de considérerqu'ilexercecedroit, ..pour invoquer ..le traitéd'amitié,de
commerceet denavigation entre leNicaragua et lesEtats-Unis )(mémoire
duNicaragua,par. 164,note 3).Surcette base, leNicaragua aconsacré àce
traitélechapitre III, paragraphes 163à 175,deson mémoire,pour essayer
d'établirla compétencede laCour envertu del'article36,paragraphe 1,du
Statut. Les Etats-Unis, dans leur contre-mémoire (chap.II,par. 167-183),

ont à leur tour traitélonguement de cetraité,en réponseaux argumentsdu
Nicaragua. En bref, si les Parties, dans leurs plaidoiries, ont presque
totalementpassésoussilencela base de compétencequepouvaitconstituer
le traité,elles avaient examiné la question comme il convient dans leur
mémoire et leur contre-mémoire.Or j'estime que le Nicaragua, s'étant
réservé dans sa requêtele droit de compléter oude modifier celle-ci,était
juridiquement fondé àinvoquer le traitédans son mémoire. Et, ledeman-
deur et ledéfendeurayant l'unetl'autre évoqué dans laprocédureécritela
question de la compétencefondéesur le traité, laCourne pouvait négliger
ce titre de juridiction dans ses considérations sur la compétence. Aucun
tribunal ne peut se permettre d'écarter laprocédure écrite etde ne prêter
attention qu'à laprocédure orale. Procédure écriteet procédure orale sont
indissociables dans laprésentationde l'affaire,et ilestjustifiéde lapart de
la Courde proclamer sacompétencesur labase du traité, puisquelesdeux

Parties l'ont évoquélonguement dans leurs écritures. Peut-êtrepensera-
t-on que lesilencedesParties pendant laprocédure oraleaurait dû susciter
unequestion delapart de laCour, de tellesorte quelesParties ne soientpas
surprises par la décisionde retenir le traité commebase de compétence.
Mais on ne peut pas dire que ce soient là des raisons valables pour
empêcherla Courde s'appuyer sur letraité, puisque la question, commeje
viens de le dire, a été amplement discutépar les deux Parties dans leurs
pièces écrites.

C'est pour les raisons ci-dessus que je suis amené à conclure que la
compétencede laCour sur labase du traitéde 1956estclaire, convaincante
et solide.

(Signé N)AGENDRA SINGH.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Nagendra Singh

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