Separate Opinion of Judge Jiménez de Aréchaga

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063-19820224-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
063-19820224-JUD-01-00-EN
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SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA*

PART1. INTERPRETATIO OFNTHE SPECIAL AGREEMENT

1. The Parties'Submissions

1. The Partiespresented different viewsas to the role to be performed
by the Court inthis case.Tunisiacontended that thetask of the Court was,
first,to determine the principlesand rules of international law applicable
to thisdelimitation andthen, as a second question, to identify and indicate
thepractical method or methods to be followed for that delimitation,and
to do sowith suchclarity and in such detail "as to enable theexperts of the
twocountries to delimit these areas without any difficulties". For Tunisia,
the role of the experts consists "in the substantial but technical task of
constructing the line of delimitation and establishingthe boundary line".
This is tobe done within a period of threemonths and, during thisperiod,
the Parties are to conclude an agreement providing legal sanction to
the line arrived at by the experts on the basis of the Judgment of the
Court.
2. Libya, on its part, advanced a morerestrictive viewof the role of the
Court, and, consequently, a much larger viewof the task of the experts. It

contended that the application by the Parties and their experts of the
principlesand rules set forth in the Judgment could not be restricted to a
meremechanical plotting of CO-ordinatesor drawing oflinesfrompoint to
point. According to Libya, the Court was "invited to indicate the consi-
derations and factors which should be taken into account" but not "to
indicate averv~recisemethod of delimitation". sincethis would be. for al1
intents and Pu&oses "the same as taking ovérthe task of drawing the
line".
In support of this view Libya recalled that Article 3 of the Special
Agreement mentions the need of a further "agreement" between the Par-
ties, and pointed out that this instrument is to be interpreted against the
background of the fundamental principlethat delimitation is to be settled
by agreement.
3. The divergence of views of the Parties as to the degree of precision

which the judgment of the Court should possess was reflected in their
respectivefinal Submissions, that isto Say,in what they asked the Court to
adjudge and declare. In consonance with its interpretation of the Special
Agreement, Libya framedits Submissionsin suchbroad andgeneral terms
that their acceptance would still have left wide room for substantive

*A synoptical table of contents appears at the endnegotiations and for substantial disagreements between the Parties. The
adoption by the Court of Submissions framed in such terms would not
haveadvancedthesettlement of thedispute to anygreatextent,nor would
it havecomplied with therequirement of thesecondsectionofparagraph 1
of the Special Agreement, namely :
"to clarify thepractical method for theapplication of theseprinciples
and rules in this specific situation, so as to enable the experts of the
two countries to delimit these areas without any difficulties".

The Tunisian Submissions were, on the contrary, very precise but they
asked the Court to endorse and adopt certain methods of delimitation
which, for reasons of substance, the Court could not accept.
4. What then had to be done in view of this lack of correspondence
between the Parties' Submissionsand the task assigned to theCourt in the
SpecialAgreement ?The Courthas followedits establishedjurisprudence

to the effect that, inrder to determine the precise points which require
decision in the operative part of a judgment, when the case has been
brought by Special Agreement,
"it is rather to the terms of this agreement than to the submissions of
the Parties that the Court must have recourse in establishing the
precisepoints whichithasto decide" ('Lotus" case,P.C.I.J., SeriesA,
No. 10, p. 12). (Cf. also Serbian Laans case, P.C.I.J., Series A,
Nos. 20121, p. 47 ; River Odercase, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23, p. 18
and Minquiers andEcrehos case, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p.52.)

2. The Role of the Court and the Subsequent Role
of the Experts

5. 1concur with theJudgmentinpreferring the Tunisian interpretation
of theSpecialAgreement astothe roleof theCourt and thesubsequent role
of the experts. Butths conclusion is not, in my view,one to be based on

minor exegeticalpoints such as whether one or two questions have been
put to the Court or whether the words '~vecprécision"are to be read into
the French translation of the text of the Special Agreement or, finally,
whether there is a real distinction between "practical method of delimi-
tation" and "practical method for the application of principles and rules
that may be applied for the delimitation".
6. There is a more fundamental reason for preferring the Tunisian
interpretation of the SpecialAgreement in respect to the role of theCourt.
The Libyan interpretation envisages the role of the experts as that of
diplomaticrepresentatives whowillnegotiatethefinaldelimitation within
a vague and very general framework of pronouncementsfrom the Court
described as mere indications or "guidance". Thus, the Libyan interpre-
tation of the Special Agreement, combined with the broad submissions Libya presented, would in fact have made the implementation of the
Court's Judgment depend upon the subsequent agreement of the Par-
ties.
7. Confronted with a situation in a case where there were two possible
interpretations of a SpecialAgreement, one of them making theJudgment
dependent on a subsequent agreement of theParties,thePermanent Court
decided :

"it is hardly possible to suppose that the Parties intended to adopt a
clause which would be incompatible with the Court's function ; as,
accordingly, ifit ispossible toconstrueparagraph 2ofArticle 2of the
Special Agreement in such a way as to enable the Court to fulfil its
task, whilst respecting the fundamental conception on which that
paragraph is based, such a construction is the one which must be
preferred ;
Whereas it is certainly incompatible with the character of the
judgments rendered by theCourt and with thebinding forceattached
to them by Articles 59 and 63, paragraph 2, of its Statute, for the
Court to render a judgment which either of the Parties may render
inoperative." (FreeZones of UpperSavoy andtheDistrictof Gex,Order
of 6 December 1930,P.C.Z.J.,Series A, No. 24, p. 14.)

And in the finalJudgment in that case, thePermanentCourt reiterated the
same position :

"Aftermatureconsideration,theCourtmaintains its opinion that it
would be incompatible with the Statute, and with its position as a
Court of Justice, to giveajudgment which wouldbe dependent for its
validity on the subsequent approval of the Parties." (FreeZones of
UpperSavoy andthe District of Gex, Judgment, 1932, P.C.1.J., Series
A/B, No. 46, p. 161.)
8. In the light of these pronouncements it must be concluded that, in
making the choicebetween the two conflictinginterpretations of the Spe-

cialAgreement, theone to bepreferred is that whichiscompatible with the
character ofjudgments rendered by the Court and with the binding force
attached to them by Articles 59 and 63, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
It would certainly be incompatible with the Statute and with the Court's
position as a Court of Justice to accept an interpretation of the Special
Agreementleading toajudgment which would not advance the settlement
of the dispute and which would be dependent for its application on the
subsequent agreement of the Parties.
9. However,in myview,theoperative part of theJudgment should have
been framed on the basis, not of degrees of latitude or longitude but of
concepts such as the lineperpendicular to the coast at RasAjdir, going as
far as theparallel of the westernmost point in the Gulf of Gabes, and from
that point successiveveerings parallel to the successiveinclinations of the
coast of the Tunisian mainland, al1 of these geographical facts to be

determined by the experts. On theother hand,it should haveindicated thattheperpendicular lineapplicable for thefirst sector is that of 22O,because
this is the one resulting from the historical records, in particular the
recognitionmade by the French Resident-General in Tunisia (cf. para. 90

below).

10. There isno contradiction in indicating in thissectoraperpendicular
linedefined by degrees as the 22" line because the principles and rules of
international law applicablein this segment of theboundary are, in them-
selves,sopreciseas to result in a concreteline of delimitation established
by history. Byproclaiming that 22" linethe Court would not haveinvaded
the function of the experts but would have performed its own task of
determining the existence and applicability of a rule of law which is, in
itself, of absolute precision.

3. The GeographicalScope of Equitable Principles

11. The fundamental rule authorizing the Court to apply equitable
principles in the decision of this case is to be found in the Special
Agreement which provides in its first paragraph that "the Court shall

take its decision according to equitable principles". This authoriza-
tion refers to the decision concerning "the delimitation of the area of
the continental shelf appertaining to the Republic of Tunisia and to
the area of the continental shelf appertaining to the Socialist People's
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya". Consequently, it does not place any geogra-
phical limitation on the applicability of equitable principles ; on the con-
trary, the SpecialAgreement refers to the whole area at issue between the
Parties and not just to the marginal or overlapping segments of that
area.
12. However, as a consequence of their rigid viewof natural prolonga-
tion, both Parties assigned intheirwritten and oralpleadingsalimitedand
subordinate role to equitable principles in the decision of the case. It is
striking that one of the few manifestations of express agreement by the
Parties during the oral hearings was their coincidence in subordinating
"equitable principles" to their own conceptions of "natural prolonga-
tion".

13. The reason for this coincidence was, of course, that both Parties

contended that their respective geomorphological and geological concep-
tions of "natural prolongation" should control the delimitation and that
equitableprinciplesshould comeinto play successivelyand only where the
physical facts of "natural prolongation" were no longer of assistance in
determining the respective limits of the two shelf areas :in other words,
equity would operate merely as a corrective criterion, and only in over-
lapping, doubtful or marginal segments of the continental shelf, such as,
according to Libya, in the zone north to the latitude of Ras Yonga, or in
what Tunisia described as the borderland area. But neither Party in itspleadingsregarded "equitable principles" as a basicprinciple of law gov-
erning the delimitation of the area as a whole and as its starting point.

14. This approach of the Parties is not in accordance with the prin-
ciples and rules of international law declared by the Court in 1969,con-
firmed by the 1977 Arbitral Award between the United Kingdom and
France and codified in Article 83 of the draft convention on the Law
of the Sea. And, what is more important, such a position is not in accor-
dancewith the terms of the SpecialAgreement, asquoted inparagraph 11
above.

15. The Court, in 1969,after it had discarded the principle of equidis-
tance as a mandatory rule of customaryinternational law, did not accept
that there was a "lacuna" in the lawof nations on the subject ;it stated, on
thecontrary, that "there are stillrules and principles of law to be applied"
(I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 46). It found that the first of these rules is that
delimitation should be agreed or decided in accordance with equitable
principles. The Court referred to "equitable principles" in the operative
part of its 1969Judgment, under letter (C), when defining "the principles
and rules of international law applicable to the delimitation". There it
assigned thefirstplaceand not asecondary or successiveone to "equitable
principles", adding aftenvards relevant circumstances, natural prolonga-
tion and non-encroachment. So, in the Court's Judgment, "equitable
principles" have pride of place and apply from the start to the whole area
subject to delimitationand notjust to marginal or overlapping segments of
that area.

16. A similar position was adopted by the Anglo-French Court of
Arbitration which, far from subordinating "equitable principles" to
"natural prolongation", did the opposite when it stated that it is clear

"from theemphasis on 'equitableprinciples'incustomary lawthat the
force of the cardinal principle of 'natural prolongation of territory' is

not absolute, but may be subject to qualification in particular situa-
tions" (para. 191).

Consequently,the award proclaimed that the principle of natural prolon-
gation, having a relative character, is subordinated to the necessity of
reaching an equitable delimitation.
17. Finally,Article 83,paragraph 1,of the draft convention on the Law
of the Sea makes clear that the only goal of delimitation on the basis of
international law is "to achieve an equitable solution". This text does not
placegeographical limits nor does it qualify in any other waythe equitable
solution which is to be achieved of a dispute concerning "the delimita-
tion of the continental shelf between States with opposite or adjacent
coasts". 4. The Meaning of Equity : Equity, Equidistance
and Relevant Circumstances

18. The opinionhas been expressed that indecidinga caseof thisnature
the point of departure should alwaysbe the line of equidistance,and that
this line should be altered only to the extent that it is found to produce
inequitable results.Naturally, in al1cases the decision-maker looks at the
line of equidistance, even if none of the parties has invoked it. But the
question is whether he is obliged to depart from it and confinehis task to
thecorrection or moderation of theline ofequidistancetothe extent that it
is found to lead to inequitable results.
19. In support of the above opinion it is contended that equity is tobe

viewedasadiscretionary or moderatinginfluencesuperadded to therigour
of formulated law ;that it consistsin thecorrection of ageneral rule when
that rule, by reason ofits generality, works hardship in aconcrete caseand
produces results which are felt to be unfair.

20. There isno denying that thisisacurrentconception of equity, which
may be a correct one in the municipal legal field. However, it is not the
conception of equity applicable to continental shelf delirnitation,as pro-
claimed by the Court in 1969and developed by the arbitral tribunal in
1977.
21. Moreover, in order to apply that view of equity to this branch of
international law it would be necessary to assume that equidistance con-
stitutes the general rule of law which is to be corrected or moderated in a
concrete case in proportion to the unfairness of its results. However, the
1969 Judgment of the Court proclaimed that equidistance was not a
binding rule of lawbut merely onemethodamongothers whichcould lead
to an equitable solution in some cases but produce inequitable results in
others. From this Judgment it followsthat the above-described conception

ofequityisnot validinthe fieldofcontinental shelfdelirnitation,byreason
simply of the absence of a general rule of lawwhich is to be moderated or
corrected in its concrete application.

22. What, then, is themeaning of equityin thisfield ?The 1977Arbitral
Award gave a positive content to the notion of equitable principles as
applicable in this context, by linking them to the circumstances of each
case. It thus recognized implicitly that each case is necessarily different
from al1others, by reason of the varying reciprocal relationship between
the geographicalconfiguration of the coasts concerned and the historical
and political factors which established the land frontiers separating the
States parties to each dispute.
23. And what is more important,that award expresslylinked thenotion
of equity to those particular circumstances, when it stated :

"ths Court considers that the appropriateness of the equidistance
method orany other methodfor the purpose of effecting an equitable delimitation is a function or reflection of the geographicaland other
relevant circumstances of each particular case. The choice of the
method or methods of delimitation in any givencase, whether under
the 1958 Convention or customary law, has therefore to be deter-
mined in the light of those circumstances and of the fundamental
norm that the delimitation must be in accordance with equitable
principles." (Para. 97.)

24. Consequently, in the context of the law of continental shelf delimi-
tation, the making of the decision "according to equitable principles", as
the Court is ordered to do under the Special Agreement, compels the
judges to determine what are the relevant circumstancesin each specific
caseand to make an evaluation of their relativeimportanceand weight.To
resort to equity means, in effect, to appreciate and balance the relevant
circumstances of the case, so as to render justice, not through the rigid
application of general rules and principles and of forma1legal concepts,
but through an adaptation and adjustment of such principles, rules and
concepts to the facts,realities and circumstances of each case. As waswell
stated by the 1977Court of Arbitration, equity is "to be looked for in the

particular circumstances of the present case" (para. 195).In other words,
thejudicial application of equitable principles means that a court should
renderjustice in the concrete case, by means of a decision shaped by and
adjusted to the relevant "factual matrix" of that case. Equity is here
nothing other than the taking into account of a complex of historical and
geographicalcircumstancesthe consideration of which does not diminish
justice but, on the contrary, enriches it.

25. For the notion ofjustice is not divorced from or opposed to that of
equity. Its having authorityto applyequitableprinciples does not entitlea
court to reach a capricious decision in each particular case, but to reach
that decision which,in thelight of theindividualcircumstances, isjust and
right for that case. Equity is thus achieved, not merely by a singular
decision of justice, but by thejustice of that singular decision.

26. This conception of equity, not as a correction or moderation of a
non-existent rule of law, but as a "lead rule" well adapted to the shape of
the situation to be measured, is the one which solves the fundamental
dilemma arisingin al1cases of continental shelf delimitation :the need to
maintain consistency and uniformity in the legal principles and rules
applicable to aseriesof situations whicharecharacterized by theirmultiple
diversity.

5. Non-Existenceof a Presumptionin Favourof Equidistance

27. A second and related view has also been expressed. This gives to
equidistance the rank of a privileged method, enjoying, as it were, a
presumption in its favour,so that it must be applied unless those arguing107 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP.OP. JIMENE DZE ARÉCHAGA)

for therejection of its application succeedin demonstrating that its results
are extraordinary, unnatural or unreasonable. If this demonstration fails,
then, according to this view, equidistance should be followed strictly.

28. Such a viewdoes not correspond to the law on the subject,as it was
declaredin the 1969Judgment of theCourt, developed inthe 1977Arbitral
Award, codified at the Third Conference on the Law of the Sea and
established by the Parties to this casein their SpecialAgreement.Accord-

ingto al1those precedents no method isprivileged or enjoysthe advantage
of a presumption in its favour. Al1are to be judged by their results and
applied only to the extent that they lead to an equitable solution.

29. The Court in 1969not only found that equidistance was not obli-
gatory ;it also said that this method was likely to produce inequitable
results, particularly in delimitations between adjacent States. The Court
said that "in certaingeographicalconfigurations, whicharequitefrequently
met with, the equidistance method, despite its known advantages, leads
unquestionably to inequity" (para. 89,emphasisadded).And in the opin-
ion of theCourt this occurswhen,for instance,there isaconcaveCoastor a
straight coastline with the coasts of adjacent countries protruding imme-

diately at a right angle.
30. Furthermore, the 1977Award assertedthat between the notions of
equidistance and special circumstances there was not the relationship
whichexistsbetween arule and its exceptions,and concluded that Article6
of the 1958Convention "givesparticular expression to a general norm" of
customary law requiring the application of equitable principles, as
declaredby the Court in 1969.Thus "the question whether another boun-
dary is justified by special circumstances is an integral part of the rule
providing for application of theequidistanceprinciple"(para. 68).For this
reason the Court of Arbitration rejected the United Kingdom's clairnthat
France had the onus ofprovingthe existenceof specialcircumstances.This
rejection signifies that there is no presumption in favour of equidis-

tance.
31. The law establishedin 1969and 1977was codified in the successive
texts of the Third Conference on the Law of the Sea. If one compares al1
these texts with Article 6 of the 1958Convention one cannot avoid the
conclusion that the emphasis has been displaced from equidistance to
equity,equidistance being simply onemethod available among others for
reaching an equitable solution. One of the main protagonists of the Con-
ference, commenting on the new accepted trends on the subjecthas stated
that at the Conference, in the various versions of the texts, there was a
"toning down of the significance attached to themedian line principle '".

This "toning down" has gone so far that the terms "equidistance" or

Cited in D. Brown,"The Continental Sheland the ExclusiveEconomicZone:
The Problem of Delimitation at UNCLOS III" iMaritime Policy and Management,
1977,4,p. 400.108 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP.OP. JIMENEZ DE ARÉCHAGA)

"median line" have disappeared altogetherfrom the text of Article 83 of
the draft convention. According to the new text,in order tobe applicable,
any method must ensure an equitable solution. Consequently, the onus
probandi, the need to demonstrate the attainment of an equitable result

restsequallyon those who advocateequidistance ason thosewho advocate
a different method.

6. New Accepted Trendsut the Third UNCLOS

32. Article 83wasrecentlyincorporated in the draft convention, after a
long and protracted negotiation of what became one of the most difficult
"hard core" issues at the Conference. It is true that the significance to be
attached to Article 83 of the draft convention and to previous texts of the
Conference has been questioned on the ground that they cannot be con-
sidered as having already become rules of customary international law.
While the Special Agreement empowers and even obliges the Court to
take into consideration "the new acceptedtrends at the Third Conference
on the Law of the Sea", both Parties have agreed that the Court is not

empowered to regard as principles and rules of international law new
trends merely because they have emerged during the Conferenceand have
gained aplacein thenegotiating texts. Theyhave pointed out that accord-
ing to the Special Agreement they must be "accepted trends", in other
words, they must be, or have become, rules of customary international
law.

33. There is, however, a certain difference between the Parties. While
Libya has maintained that position strictly,Tunisiahas advanceda some-
what broader interpretation of the clause in the Special Agreement. It
observed that if such an interpretation is ngidly maintained, then "the
mention of this categoryin the Compromis would have added nothing to
the principles and mles of international law" and consequently,this ref-
erence to "new accepted trends" would have no legal effect at all. The
submission was then made by Tunisia that even if a new accepted trend

does not yet qualify as a nile of customary law, it still may have a bearing
on the decision of the Court, not as part of applicable law, but as an
element in the interpretation of existing rules or as an indication of the
direction in whch such rules should be interpreted.

34. This is,in myopinion,thecorrect viewof the SpecialAgreement and
the only one which assigns practical effect and an independent meaning
and significance to the reference to new acceptedtrends. As the Court has
said, "no method ofinterpretation would warrant the conclusion" that this
reference is meaningless (I.C.J. Reports 1971,p. 35). 35. Therefore, it is legitimate to take into consideration that the whole
process of theConference isindicative of anew acceptedtrend, whichis to
minirnizeand "tone down" therole assigned to equidistance in Article 6of
the 1958Convention. These Conferencetexts signifythat equidistance is a
method and not aprinciple ;that it isno longer aprivilegedmethod or one
having pride of place ;that, like al1others, it must bejudged by its success
in achieving an equitable solution, and, finally, that the application of
equidistance and of equitable principles are not to be viewed as two
distinct and successivephases, nor as requiring that equitable principles
areonly to be resorted to after applyingequidistance, in order to correct its

result. There is no such succession in time and the process must be a
simultaneous one. Al1the relevantcircumstances areto be considered and
balanced ; they are to be thrown together into the crucible and their
interaction will yield the correct equitable solution of each individual
case.

36. Finally,the "toning down" of equidistancehas been reflected in the
terms of the SpecialAgreement, which ordersthe Court to applyequitable
principles and does not mention equidistance at all.Thisis confirmed by
the fact that neither of the Parties invoked equidistancein its pleadings or
submissions.

PARTII. THECONCEPT OF NATURAL PROLONGATION

1. The Parties' Contentions

37. The two Parties agreed in considering that the fundamental and
most relevant circumstancein this case consistsin the fact that the shelf
area tobe delimitedconstitutesthe "natural prolongation" of their respec-
tive territories. The Parties also agreed in that they regard the concept of
"natural prolongation" as one primarily or exclusively determined by
certainphysicalfacts, and theirdisagreement only appeared at thestage of
identifying the precise facts which constituted, for each of them, the
external evidence of that "natural prolongation". For Tunisia, its "natural
prolongation" was evidencedby thegeomorphology of thesea-bed, which,
soit was contended, reproducesthecontours of the Tunisian Coast,and by
its bathymetry, which provides identifiable limits to the shelf and shows
that its "natural prolongation", with the sequence of shelf, slopeand rise,

has an eastwards direction. Libya, on its part, invoked the geological
evidenceand thetheory ofplatetectonics to demonstrateitscontentionsas
to theaffinity between the shelf and thelandmassto the south, and thus to
show that the "natural prolongation" occurred in a northerly direction.
Thisit confirmed by the existence of afault line and aparallel "hingeline"
from West to east. Both Parties also coincided in considering "natural
prolongation", thus understood, as the unqualified and controlling prin- ciple or circumstance which should govern, above everythng else, the
delimitation of the area.

38. As a result of theposition adopted by the two Partiesthe Court was
placed in the situation of being asked to decide thiscase exclusivelyon the

basis of the conflictingscientific evidencepresented toit by expert ocean-
ographersand geologists.Suchevidence,evenifvery ablyexplained by the
Parties' respective counsel,was not only of a very specialized and some-
what speculativecharacter, but it was stronglycontested by theother side,
not only as to its relevance and interpretation, but also in respect of the
facts alleged in support. The impression gained from the lengthy and
instructive discussion was that the criticism by each Party of the scientific
arguments presented by the other was far stronger and more convincing
than their affirmative contentions. The consequence was that the Court
couldnot decide the caseeitheron the basis of the data of bathymetry and
geomorphology, disputed as to the facts and running contrary tojudicial
precedents and State practice, nor on the basis of a sea-floor spreading,
tectonic plateand continental drift idea whichis stillatheorydescribed by

one of its proponents as an "essay in geopoetry l".

39. Moreover, the casecouldnot be decided by choosingone of the rival
scientific theories of "natural prolongation" for a more fundamental rea-
son, namely that the basic premise upon which both Parties based their
casesis not, in my view,acorrectone.This is so,in thefirst place, because
the legalconcept of continental shelf,as defined by the applicable rules of
international law,is not deterrnined by thefacts of "natural prolongation"
as they have been understood and alleged by both Parties. It is incorrect,
furthermore, because continental shelf delimitation is not governed in an
unqualified and exclusive manner by such a notion of "natural prolonga-
tion". For thesereasons it must be concluded, as the Court has concluded,

that the decision of thiscase is tobe based on legalprinciples, putting aside
the expert evidence submitted by the Parties.

2. The Legal Definitionof ContinentalShey
not Based onGeologyor Geomorphology

40. A definition of the continental shelf wasmade in Article 1 of the
1958 Convention, a provision which the Court considered in 1969 "as
reflecting, or as crystallizing, received or at least emergent rules of cus-
tomary international law relative to the continental shelf" (para. 63).As is
confirmed by its travaux préparatoires,this Article divorced the legal
definition of continental shelf from the geological and geomorphological

Hess, as cited by John Noble Wilford, The Mapmakers, New York, 1981,
p. 292.facts which were at the origin of the doctrine. It is true, as the Court
recognized in 1969,that "the institution of thecontinental shelf has arisen
out of the recognition of a physicalfact", a physical fact present in "most
coastal States" (para. 95)(or "generally" astheUnited States press release
of 1945says)namely, the existence of a speciesof platform which extends
around the continent until a substantial break in gradient occurs, leading
to abyssal ocean depths.

41. However, in the process of codification and progressive develop-

ment of thisdoctrine, an important element of contemporarycodification
practice made itself felt ; the interaction between legal experts and gov-
ernmentalobservations.TheInternational Law Commission and the 1958
Conference wereconfronted with theobservations raised by certain States
on whose coasts the physical facts whichwere at theorigin of thedoctrine
presented themselvesinadifferentmannerordidnot existat all. Chile,for
instance, observed totheInternational Law Commission that that country,
as well as other Latin American States on the Pacific coast, had no con-
tinental shelf in the geomorphological or geological sense, or had only a
very narrow one owing to the fact that the sea reached oceanic depths at a
very short distancefrom the shore. It pointed out that a purely geological
definition of the continental shelf would discriminateagainst them.

42. In order to deal withthis situation,and thus preserve theprinciple of

equality of coastal States, the International Law Commission, following
the recomrnendation of an Inter-American SpecializedConference, added
the test of "exploitability" initsfinal draft, whichwasdiscussed and finally
accepted at the 1958Conference. It is clear from the text of Article 1that
the right of the coastal State to explore and exploit the submarine areas
adjacent to its coast doesnot depend on the existenceof acontinental shelf
in the geological or geomorphological sense. This is confirmed by the
travauxpréparatoires,for theInternational Law Commission commentary
to this Article states :

"the Commission decided not to adhere strictly to the geological
concept of the continental shelf.The mere fact that the existence of a
continental shelfinthe geologicalsensemight be questionedin regard
to submarine areas where the depth of the sea would nevertheless
permit of exploitation of the subsoilin the samewayasif there werea
continental shelf,could notjustify theapplication of adiscriminatory

legal régime,to these regions." (International Law CommissionYear-
book, 1956,Vol. II, p. 297, subpara. 6.)

43. A similarpoint, whichwasalsoconsidered by theInternational Law
Commission and the Conference, was raised by Norway, which pointed
out that : "There may be a stretch of deep water near the coast and areas of
shallow waters further out. That is for instance the case outside the
coast of Norway . ..It would obviously be most unfair if Denmark,
Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom should share
betweenthemthe wholeNorth Sea,whileNorway should be excluded
because of the above-mentioned belt of deep water." (International
Law Commission Yearbook,1953, Vol. II, p. 261.)

44. Thissituation wascoveredwhen thepurelybathymetricaldefinition
of the shelf, which had been adopted by the Commission in 1953, was

modified and enlarged in 1956by the addition of the "exploitability" test.
In consequence,treaties wereentered into by Nonvay with other countries
bordering the North Sea, according to whose terms the existence of the
Nonvegian trough did not prevent Norway having sovereign rights in the
sea-bed beyond it. Al1this demonstrates that the facts of geomorphology,
as well as those of geology, did not constitute a controlling factor in the
legal definition of the continental shelf or in the recognition of sovereign
rights for its exploration and exploitation.

3. The 1969Judgment and the 1958 Definition

45. Both Parties relied extensively on the use of the term "natural
prolongation" employed by the Court in several passages of its 1969
Judgment. Theyinvoked this expression asconstitutingasort of definition
of theconcept and nature of thecontinental shelf.However, in the light of
the text and history of Article 1 of the 1958Convention, the use by the
Court of that formula cannot be interpreted in the sense and with the
meaning attributed to it by the two Parties.
46. Such an interpretation wouldimplythat the Court meant in 1969to
reject the existence of a continental shelf and to deny the exercise of
continental shelfrights in thosecasesin whichit couldnot be said (asinthe
casesof Chle and Nonvay) that there was a"natural prolongation", inthe
geologicalor geomorphological sense,of the continental shelf beyond the
shore.That would be attributingto the Court theintention, by using these
terms, of revising or amendingthe definition contained in Article 1 of the

1958Convention.This would be unthinkable, when it is also recalled that
the same Judgment proclaimed that Article 1 represented a rule of cus-
tomary international law. Consequently, it is not possible to interpret the
term "natural prolongation" in the 1969Judgment as reintroducing into
thedefinition of thecontinental shelfthe geologicaland geomorphological
elements whichhad been left out by the International Law Commission in
1956and by the Conference in 1958.

47. If "natural prolongation" were to be interpreted as requiring the
existence of certain facts of geologyor geomorphology in order to define
the nature of the continental shelf, this would entai1that the existence of 113 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP.OP. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA)

those physical facts would be decisive for the recognition or denial of
continental shelf rights. The phrase, thus understood, would then put in
questionand challengerights possessed abinitioby virtue ofArticles 1and
2of theConvention by those Stateswhichcouldnot showthe existenceofa

"natural prolongation" from the geological or geomorphological point of
view. Far from making such a challenge, the Court in 1969referred, in
general terms, to the right of "the coastal States" in respect of the "sub-
marine areas concerned" and described it as an inherent right. And it
clearlyrecognized that a physical shelfwas not presentin everycase, since
it stated that "the continental shelf is, by definition, an area physically
extending the territory of most coastal States into a species of platform"
(para. 95, emphasis added).

48. This interpretation isconfirmed by thefact that severalMembers of
the Court in 1969had taken an activepart in the work of the International
LawCommissionand the GenevaConference, where thesequestions were
discussed. Others, like Judge Arnmoun, cited in his separate opinion the
following quotation from Professor Henkin :

"since geoiogywas not crucialto the legal doctrine, it was difficultto
resist claims of coastal Statesthat had no geologicalshelf,whether in
the Persian Gulf or in Latin America" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 111,
footnote 5).

49. Sincegeomorphology and geologywerenot admitted asthetests for
the existence and recognition of the right to exploreand exploit adjacent
submarine areas, they cannot constitute by themselves valid grounds or
applicable criteria for continental shelf delimitation. It would be contra-
dictory to recognize that Chile, Peru or Norway possess continental shelf
rights, as was done in 1958,despite the existence of deep depressionsand

regardless of the geologicalidentity of the rock strata,andat theametime
to deny these same rights to StateA or to State B, setting a limit to their
continental shelf rights, on the soleground of the existence of a trough or
depression, or by reason of the sea-bed contour, or of a certain changein
the geological composition of the subsoil.

4. The New Definition in the Draft Convention

at the Third UNCLOS Conference
50. It has been said that the Court's formula of "natural prolongation"
received new vigour and a definite physical meaning by its inclusion in
Article 76(1)of the draft convention at the Third UNCLOS. However,the

phrase "natural prolongation" was incorporated in Article 76 (1) because
its connotation - of a projection seaward from land - was of use in
justifying the extension of the continental shelf doctrine to comprise both 114 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP.OP. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA)

the continental slope and the continental rise "to the outer edge of the
continental margin". Thus, the Court's formula, with a meaningdifferent
from that attributed to it in the 1969Judgment, became a trump card for
the States which weresuccessfulin advocating at the'Conferencewhat has
been described as the "broad shelf school".

51. But the new definition in Article 761) provides, as a second alter-
native, that acoastal State isentitled to acontinental shelf"to adistance of
200nautical milesfrom the baselines" when the outer edgedoesnot extend
to that distance.This second alternativehas, evenmore categorically than
didArticle 1 of the 1958Convention, done awaywith therequirement of a
geologicalor geomorphological continental shelf, thus destroyingthecon-
ception of "natural prolongation" advocated by both Parties in this case.
What makes this conclusive is that, despite certain ambiguities in its
drafting, the alternative 200-mile definition is obviously made indepen-
dent of the criterion of natural prolongation :in the second part of the
formula, after the word or, the requirement of "natural prolongation"

ceases to apply. This new method of defining the continental shelf by
laying down an agreed distance from the baselines definitively severs any
relationship it might have with geological or geomorphological facts.The
continental shelf extends, regardless of the existence of troughs, depres-
sions or other accidentalfeatures,and whatever its geologicalstructure, to
a distance of 200 miles from the baselines, unless the outer edge of the
continental margin is to be found beyond that distance.

52. Libya had advanced the argument that while the first part of Arti-
cle76, paragraph 1,represents "existing customary law", the second part
of the formula, the distance test, "is not customary law". In my view,if a
distinction is to be made in respect of the legal status of the two criteria
in Article 76 (I), it would have rather to be in the opposite sense. The
extension of the shelf to the outer edge of the continental margin still
encounters some opposition, and on the question of a corresponding
payment of compensation by the States with a broad shelf a final con-
sensushasnot yet been reached (OfficialRecords,UNCLOS III, Vol.VIII,
p. 69). On the other hand, the criterion of "exploitability", whch was
designed to deal with the position of coastal States without a geological
shelf, but was dangerously open-ended, has now been replaced by a cri-
tenon stated interms of distance, whichhasthe sameobjective.It issafeto
assert that todav the distance test of 200 miles has abrogated the ex~loi-
tability test and consequently must be consideredas having already crys-
tallized as a rule of customary international law.

53. This is sobecause the exploitabilitytest wasformulated in Article 1 of the 1958Convention, which theCourt consideredin 1969to represent a
rule ofcustomaryinternational law.Arule ofcustomaryinternational law,
judicially recognized as such, has been abrogated or superseded by a new
definition. In order to have this abrogating effect the new rule must
necessarily partake of the nature of a rule of customary law. Only a legal
rule may abrogate a pre-existing one. This isconfirmed by theobservation
thatit wouldbe unthinkable that a State would try to exploit thesubmarine
areas off the coasts of another State at lessthan 200nautical milesfromthe
shore, claiming in doing so that such an area "lies beyond the edge of the
continental margin". Thisleads to another accepted newtrend at theThird

UNCLOS Conference.

5. The Exclusive Economic Zone and Shelf Delimitation

54. A confirmation of this conclusionand a further divorce from geo-
logical and geomorphological requirementsresultsfrom another accepted
trend at the Third UNCLOS, which is the widespread recognition of an
Exclusive Economic Zone comprising the sea-bed and subsoil and the
superjacent waters up to 200 miles from the baselines. In that area the
coastal State has sovereign rights, for the purpose of exploring and
exploitingal1natural resources.The provisions ofthenegotiatingtextsand
of the draft convention, and the consensus which emerged at the Confer-
ence, have had in this respect a constitutive or generating legal effect,
servingas the focalpoint for and as the authoritative guide to a consistent
and uniform practice of States.The proclamation by 86 coastal States of
economic zones, fishery zones or fishery conservation zones, made in
conformity with the texts of the Conference, constitutes a widespread
practice of Stateswhichhashardened into acustomary rule,an irreversible
part of today's lawof the sea.

55. It is significant that in the 1977Arbitration, France contended that
the 1958Convention on the continental shelf wasno longer in force by
reason of the consensus on the ExclusiveEconomic Zone arrived at at the
Third UNCLOS. TheTribunal could not accept this extreme view,but it is
difficult to deny that, at least in the case of continental shelves not
extendingbeyond 200 miles, the notion of the continental shelf is in the
process of being assimilated to, or incorporated in that of the Exclusive
EconomicZone (cf. Arts. 56 (3) and 60 of the draft convention).

56. As thisprocessreaches itsconclusion,thefacts allegedby theParties
to govern delimitation of their continental shelveswillcompletelylose any
possible relevance or raison d'êtrA.t least in the largemajority of normal
cases, the delimitation of the Exclusive EconomicZone and that of the
continental shelf would have to coincide. The reason is that both of these
delimitationsaregoverned by the samerules,asisshownby thefactthat atthe Third UNCLOS the corresponding Articles 74 and 83 are identical,
and have been discussed jointly. This being so, and since delimitation
would then comprisenotjust the sea-bedand subsoil, but also the super-
jacent waters for fishery rights and other uses, it would be even less
justifiable to take into account geologicaland geomorphological factors of
the sea-bed in order to effect such delimitation.

6. The Real Meaning of "Natural Prolongation"
in the 1969Judgment

57. The question which remains to be answered iswhat was the positive
meaning attributed by theCourt tothephrase"natural prolongation" used
in numerous passages of the 1969 Judgment. The insistent use of this
expression by the Court arosefrom thefact that al1the Partiesinthe North
Sea ContinentalShelfcases constantly relied upon the principle of natural
prolongation (para. 43 of the Judgment). But the Court, while accepting
theconcept, did not agreewith the interpretation givento it by the Parties.
In rejecting the Danish and Dutch interpretation, the Court gave a clear
idea of its own understanding of the formula, when it stated, in the crucial
paragraph 44 of the Judgment :

"As regards equidistance, it clearly cannot be identified with the
notion ofnatural prolongation or extension, since,ashasalready been
stated (paragraph S),the use of the equidistancemethod would fre-
quentlycause areaswhichare thenaturalprolongation or extension of
the territory of one State to be attributed to another, when the con-
figuration of the latter's Coastmakes the equidistanceline swing out
laterally across the former's coastal front, cutting it off from areas
situated directly before that front."

58. This statement makes it quite clear that for the Court "natural
prolongation" is a concept divorced from any geomorphological or geo-

logical requirement and that it merely expresses the continuation or
extension seawards of each State's coastal front. It means that the con-
tinuation of the territory into and under the sea has to be based on the
actual coastline,as defined by the land frontiers of the Statesin question,
since it is from the actual coastline of each State that the land territory
continues into and under the sea. Consequently, the basic corollary of
"natural prolongation" is the need to avoid the "cutting-off" of areas
"situated directlybefore that front". For this reason the Court referred in
paragraph 95 to the fact of "the appurtenance of the shelf to the countries
in front of whosecoastline it lies" and inparagraph 58it reiterated that "a
lateral equidistance lineoften leaves to one of the Statesconcerned areas
that are a natural prolongation of the territory of the other".

59. Thus, the meaning attributed to the expression "natural prolonga- tion" in the 1969Judgment, when properly analysed, is that it signifiesthe
continuation or extension of the coastal front of the territory of every
coastal State into and under the sea, "via the bed of its territorial sea"
(para. 43), a territorial sea to which al1maritime States are entitled. This
"natural prolongation" exists in every case, whatever may be the charac-
teristics of depth or geological composition of the sea-bed. To enjoy
continental shelf rights al1that a State needs is a coastal front to the sea,
which is then naturally prolonged "via the bed of the territorial sea". And
the "most natural prolongation" is that which continues or extends more
directly into the seaand isnot "cut off" by theextension orprolongation of
the coastal front of another State. From this meaning of "natural prolon-

gation" resultsthe correspondingprinciple which both Partiesin thiscase
haverecognized to be the other sideof thecoin of theprinciple of "natural
prolongation" :theprinciple of"non-encroachment", afundamental prin-
ciple of equity to be examined later.

7. GeologicalStructure in the 1969 and 1977Judgments

60. It is true that, as pointed out in the hearings,the Court referred,in
the operative part of the 1969Judgment, to "the physical and geological
structure, and natural resources, of the continental shelf areas involved".
But thesefactors werenot mentioned under letter (C)of theoperative part,
whichprescribestheprinciplesand rules ofinternational lawgoverningthe
delimitation of shelf areas, but were mentioned separately of "natural
prolongation", under letter (D),whichindicatesthefactors whichmay "be
taken into account" by the Parties "in the course of the negotiations". In
other words, these physical and geological facts were not placed by the
Court arnong the legalruleswhichgovernor determinedelimitation, ashas
been claimed in this case, but as factors which the Parties may take into
account in negotiating their delimitation.

61. And there is a world of difference between the two situations.
Physical features such as depressions, channels, sea-bed contours, geo-
logical structure, etc., cannot by themselves govern the determination of
continental shelf boundaries. Likewise, natural land features, such as
valleys, mountain crests, river thalwegs, etc., cannot by themselves deter-
mine boundaries between States. We would othenvise retrogress to the
dangerous doctrine of "natural frontiers", which Rousseau demolished
whenhe observed 'Qu'elles aboutissaient àfaire del'ordrepolitiquel'ouvrage
delanature". Those natural features can onlybecome dryland boundaries
when they have been subject to human occupation or have been agreed in
treaties entered into by the neighbouring States as constituting their
political frontiers.
62. But the area of the sea-bed and subsoil is barren of human popu-
lation and cannot be acquired by occupation ; consequently,the political and historical factors which have led to the establishment of natural
frontiers on land are not present in the sea-bed. This means that conti-
nental shelf boundaries based solely on geological or geomorphological
facts may only result from the agreement of the interested States, since
thereis no rule of international lawprescribingthe use of thesefeatures as
dividing boundaries. And this is the reason for the distinction in para-

graphs (C) and (D) in the operative part of the 1969Judgment.
63. Likewise, the 1977 award refused to accept the Hurd Deep Fault
Zone as a "feature capable of exercising a material influence on the
determination of the boundary" (para. 107),stating that this feature "is
placed where itis simplyas afact ofnature, and there isno intrinsicreason
why a boundary along that axis should be the boundary" (para. 108).
Moreover, the Court of Arbitration added that :

"to attach critical significance to a physical feature like the Hurd
Deep-Hurd Deep Fault Zone in delimiting the continental shelf
boundary in the present case would run counter to the whole ten-
dency of State practice on the continental sheif in recent years"
(para. 107).

64. When referring to Statepractice the Court of Arbitration probably
had in mind notjust the agreementsmade by Nonvay which disregarded
the Norwegian trough, but also unilateral acts such as decrees and con-
cessions which have been granted by numerous States which disregard
deep depressions,including trenches and submarine canyons, and incor-
porate themas part of their shelf.Thisis thecase,forinstance, of the Soviet
Union, Nonvay off its northern Coast,Brazil, Venezuela, Canada and the
United States off the coasts of California. (Prescott, The Political Geo-
graphy of the Oceans, pp. 159-160and E. D. Brown, The Legal Régime
of Hydrospace, pp. 18ff.)

PARTIII. THE EQUITABLP ERINCIPLE OF NON-ENCROACHMENT

65. In the operative part, letter (C), of its 1969Judgment, the Court
proclaimed the principles of "natural prolongation" and "non-encroach-

ment" as two correlative principles, when it concluded that delimitation
had to be effected :
"in such a way as to leave as much as possible to each Party al1those
parts of thecontinental shelf that constitute a natural prolongation of
its land territory into and under the sea,withoutencroachmenton the
natural prolongation of the land territory of the other" (para. 101(C)

(1)).
66. It is common ground between the Parties that there are here twofundarnental and complementary conditions, since the principle of non-
encroachment isinherent in theprinciple ofnatural prolongation ;the two
are inextricablyinterwoven, and oneis a reflection of the other. However,
the Parties have expressed a fundamental disagreement as to how the
principle of non-encroachment ought to be interpreted.

1. The Parties' DivergentInterpretations
67. Libyaunderstands it isaprohibition upon eitherState crossingover
to the other side of the appropriate line running seaward from the terri-
torial sea-boundary, stating as the rationale of the principle, thus under-

stood, that coastal States will not tolerate a sea-bed area immediately in
front of their coasts being used by a foreign power.

68. Tunisia has taken issue with this interpretation, observing that by
means of a series of semantic shifts, Libya
"goes on to deduce a prohibition against encroachment on areas of
continental shelf in front of the coasts of Libya, which, 1think it will
be agreed, is something quite differentfrom theencroachrnent on the
naturalprolongation. ..Yet theLibyanReplysystematically uses the

expression,encroachment ofthe shelfin front of the Libyan coasts,as
synonymous with encroachment on the natural prolongation of
Libya's land territory".

2. The CorrectIizterpretationof the PrincipIe

69. The solution of this disagreement is to be found in the meaning
which is to be attributed to the correlative notion of "natural prolonga-
tion". If, as stated above, the Court used this expression to describe the
continuation of the coastal front of every coastal State, and not with a
geologicalor geomorphological meaning, then the "non-encroachment" in
front of and closeto theêoastsof a State is thecorrectinterpretation of the
principle. It is true that there may be geographicalconfigurationsin which
a boundary line cannot avoid "cutting across" the coastal front of one
State or of both. But the principle of non-encroachment, being an equi-
table principle, is not a rigid one. It admits a correctiveelement, which is
the factor of distance fromthe Coast.If the above-described geographical
situation occurs, then the "cutting-off" effect should be allowed to take
place at apoint as far asit maybepossible to go,seawards,fromthecoastal
front of the affected State.
70. This interpretation is confirmed by the very raison d'êtreof the
institution of the continental shelf as it appeared and developed in the

middle of the present century. The reason which explains the wide and
imrnediate acceptance of the doctrine was not so much the possibility it
offered of exploitingthe natural resources of the shelf, but rather the fact
that it authorized every coastal State to object to the exploitation of the sea-bed and subsoil in front of its coasts being undertaken by another
State. At that time, only a handful of industrialized States possessed
the technology required for such exploitation. Yet, al1coastal States ac-
cepted the doctrine without hesitation mainly because of its negative

consequences, namely, that it prevented a rush and grab for sea-bed
resources being undertaken by a few States on the basis of the Grotian
dogma of "freedom of the seas". It is for thisreason that the 1958Conven-
tion does not subordinate the acquisition ab initio of sovereign rights to
actual exploitation or occupation, or even to a proclamation of these
rights.

3. The GermanProposa1and theReaction atthe
1958 Conference

71. It is instructive in this connection to recall what happened at the
1958 Conference when the Federal Republic of Germany proposed to
declare that "anyone is free to explore and exploit the subsoil of the sea
outside theterritorial sea" (OfficialRecords,Vol. VI,p. 126).This proposa1
was forcefully and unanimously rejected. The strongest objection was
made by the delegatefrom Peru, who pointed out that such a view :

"would produce the absurd consequence that.a State could exploit the
natural resources of the continental shelf at a short distancefrom the
coast of another State" (ibid., p. 11).

Other delegations criticized the proposa1 on sirnilar grounds, observing
that :

"it was necessary for a coastal State to protect itself against the
possibility that other States might undertake exploitation of its con-
tinental shelf at short distance from its shores" (Lebanon, p. 14)

"There would be a great ado if one State started exploiting the

submarine resources within a very short distance of the coast of
another State without first obtaining its agreement" (Brazil, p. 36)

since

"One of those realities [ofinternational life]was that no State could
countenance the presence of foreigninstallations in a zone immedi-
ately opposite its coastal defences." (Argentine, p. 43.)

In a similar vein, it was pointed out that :

"the exploitation of the natural resources of the continental shelfwas
generally connected with the erection of permanent installations
which necessarily entailed the exerciseof a State'sauthority" (USSR,
P 20)and such exploitation

"might - particularly where the extraction of petroleum was con-
cerned - interfere with depositswithin that territory. Bothlegallyand
politically,the presence of installations belonging to a foreign State
would constitute a constant threat to the securityof thecoastal State"
(Vietnam, p. 24).

72. Already the Truman Proclamationhad invoked in its preamble the
need for "self-protection" which "compels thecoastalnation to keep close
watch over theactivities off its shoreswhich areof the nature necessary for
theutilization of theseresources". There was, therefore, an immediate and
almost instinctive rejection by al1coastal States of the possibility that
foreign States, or foreigncompanies or individuals, might appear in front
of theircoasts, outside theirterritorial seabut at a shortdistancefromtheir
ports and coastal defences, in order to exploit the sea-bedand erect fixed
installations for that purpose.

73. Thus, the fact that a trough or ridge may appear close to the shore-
line of a State, or that the strata of rock may be similar to that of certain
sedimentsinanotherland territory,cannot bevalidgrounds forattributing
a certain area of shelf to a certain State to the detriment of another "in
front ofwhosecoastline it lies" (para. 95of the 1969Judgment).This is the
proper meaning of "natural prolongation" and of the correlativeprinciple
of "non-encroachment" of that natural prolongation.

4. The Principle of Non-Encroachment andIts Effects
in the Present Case

74. In the light of the foregoing, none of the extremepositions claimed
or suggested by the Parties - neither the prolongation northward of the
terminalpoint of the land boundary, nor the eastward line determined by
the crest of the ridges - could be accepted as compatible with the basic
principles of international law on continental shelf delimitation, as
expressed in the concepts of "natural prolongation" and "non-encroach-
ment".

75. Encroachment is particularly to be avoided when a proposed boun-
dary linebrings aforeign State too closeto the main ports of theother. The
reason is that, asJudgeJessup recalled in his separate opinionin the North
Sea Continental Shelf cases, quoting from the German pleadings :

"From the point of view of exploitation and control of such sub-

marine areas, the decisivefactor is not the nearestpoint on the coast,
but the nearest coastal area or port from which exploitation of the
seabed and subsoil can be effected. The distance of an oil, gas or
mineral deposit from the nearest point on the coast is irrelevant for
practical purposes, even for the laying of a pipe-line, if this point on
the coast does not offer any possibilities for setting up a supplybase123 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP. OP. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA)

préparatoires of Article 6 of the 1958 Convention, where the notion of
"special circumstances" originated, leave no doubt that fishery rights in
general were then consideredas one of the "special circumstances" which
might influence delimitation. (Official Records of the 1958 Conference,
Vol. VI, p. 93.)

80. The argument has been propounded that the 1958Convention on
the Territorial Sea and the Continental Shelf, as well as the Third
UNCLOS draft convention refer to historic rights only in the context of
territorial sea delimitation, but not of that of the continental shelf. The
explanation, however,is simple. It is not that historicrights are irrelevant
or unimportant for shelf delimitation, but that there are, in this case,
besides the historic factor, other special circumstances equally relevant.
Consequently, the historic factor is included in the wider formula of
"special circumstances", asthe travauxpréparatoires of 1958indicate, and
is undoubtedly contained within the broad terms of the Special Agree-
ment : "the relevant circumstances which characterize the area ".

81. And the relevance of historicrights with respect to sponge fisheries

is decisivein this particular case,when account is taken of the fact that the
taking of spongesadhering to the sea-bedconstitutes a form of exploita-
tion of one of the natural resources of the shelf, according to Article 2,
paragraph 4, of the Continental ShelfConvention - aprovision which the
Court found in 1969to be part of customaryinternational law.The taking
of sponges, as of other living resources permanently attached to the sea-
bed at the harvestable stage was considered by the International Law
Commission and defined in the 1958 Convention, not as a sedentary
fishery, but as a form of shelf exploitation,as much as is the extraction of
oil or of gas. Consequently,the taking of sponges in the area was really an
exploitation of shelf resources, whichbegan in TunisiaandTripolitania in
the last century, and continued into the present century, thus long ante-
dating the Truman proclamation.

82. It has been contended, however, that since continental shelf rights
are defined as rights owned "ab initio", then those histori'crights which

were acquired before the Truman proclamation should be set aside, and
denied the nature of continental shelf rights,since they werenot acquired
"ab initio" but from occupation. This objection is fallacious. Naturally,
rights with respect to sponge fisheries could only result from occupation
because the "abinitioY'doctrinedidnot appear until1958. It wasadopted at
the Geneva Conference as a means of protectingcoastal States which had
not madeaproclamation oftheircontinental shelfrightsandhad nomeans
of exploring or exploitingtheir resources. However, when the continental
shelf doctrine was first enunciated, its proponents, including President
Truman's advisers, found support in the existence of historic fisheries
involving exploitation of natural resourcesattached to the sea-bed.A newlegalconcept,consistingin thenotion introduced in 1958that continental
shelf rights are inherent or "ab initio", cannot by itself have the effect of
abolishing or denyingacquired and existingrights. That would be contrary
to elementary legalnotions and to basicprinciples of intertemporal law. It

would be absurd to contend that the Truman proclamation or the 1958
Convention abolished or disregarded pre-existing rights over the conti-
nental shelf, when, on the contrary, they embodied or assimilated those
rights into the new doctrine.

83. Other minor objections have been made with respect to the rele-
vance and decisive character which must be attributed in this case to the
taking of sponges from the sea-bed. It has been pointed out that these
activities werecarried out not by nationals of the Tunisian Protectorate or
ofTripolitania but mostlyby foreigners.This doesnot mean,however,that
sovereign rights of the respective countries are not involved. Gas and oil
exploration and exploitation are likewisegenerally carried out by foreign
companies ; yet no one denies the sovereign rights of the coastal State
which has granted the required concessions, licences or permits for those
activities.
84. A similar objection is that sponge taking was only carried out in

certain sparsely located banks. However, minera1 resources are also
extracted from certain sparselylocated wells, but the sovereign rights of
the coastal State extend to the whole area over which explorationpermits
are granted. In both cases what determines the political and economic
interests of the coastal State is the control over offshore resources, rather
than the control over an area.

3. The Tunisian Claimfora ZV 45" Line

85. The conclusion to be drawn from the foregoing is that there was in
the area to be delimited an exploitation of shelf resources which was
carried out in parallel by two sovereignties : Tunisia under French pro-
tectorate and Tripolitania under Italian administration. It was a conti-
guous shelf exploitation, and, as a consequence of the frequent problems
that inevitably arose, a modus vivendiwas reached, which constituted in

fact a tacit shelf delimitation.

86. Tunisia has claimed that the area of its historic fisheryrights over
sponges "is definedlaterally on the sidetowards Libya by theline ZV45""
(Submission 1.2).It is true that in 1902the Tunisian authorities claimed
that line as theeasternmost lateral limit of their "zonedesurveillance"over
sponge fisheries.The recordpresented to the Court explains,however, the
reason why theFrench authorities claimed theZV45" linebefore 1910but
dropped that claim in 1911and afterwards. When the French authorities
thought, before 1910,that the land frontier would follow the Wadi Fassi,
the prolongation of that boundary into the sea had a 45" angulation (asshown by Map No. 8 in the Libyan Memorial). But when the French
authorities succeededin 1910in extendingthe land frontier to theWadiEl
Mokta, the prolongation of that new land frontier into the sea had a
different and considerably smaller angulation and the thesis of the pro-
longation of the land frontier was no longer convenient to Tunisia. This
wasthereason givenbytheResident-GeneralinTunisiain a letter to Prime

Minister and ForeignMinisterDoumergue, tojustify hisrecommendation
not to insist on the 45" line based on the prolongation of the land fron-
tier.

4. The Orfeo Incident : FrenchProtest and Italian Answer

87. The record also shows that after the annexation of Tripolitania by

Italy, the Tunisian claim for a ZV 45" line was consistently and firmly
opposedby the Italian authorities,and that suchoppositionresultedinthe
establishment of a régimedifferent from that of the ZV 45" line. An
importantpart of that record is the correspondence filed by Libya relating
to the incident between Tunisian and Italian authorities arising out of the
arrest of three Greek fishing boats possessing Tunisian fishing licences,
madeby the Italian torpedo boat Orfeoon 26August 1913.The arrest was
made at a point 11 42' 14"east of the Greenwichmeridian, that is to Say,
within the ZV 45" line claimed by Tunisia.

88. The French authorities, through their embassy in Rome, presented
to the Italian Foreign Ministry a forma1protest stating that "the sponge-
bank where the Greek vessels werecarrying on their trade belongs to the
body of banks over which the Tunisian Fisheries Department exercise
surveillance". In consequence, the Note Verbale added that :

"the Government of the Protectorate can in these circumstances only
maintain its assertion of its rights, which are directlyinfringed by the
seizureof vesselsfishing with aTunisian licenceona bank recognized
to be Tunisian".

89. The answer to the preceding communication was given by the
Italian Government in a Note Verbale of 2 October 1913 which reads
in part :

"Sincea delimitation must existbetween the water, and the sponge-
banks thereof, appertaining to the Regency of Tunis and those of
Tripolitania, the Ministry of Colonieshas instructed the Governor of
Tripolitania, for the time being and awaiting for the question to be
settled by agreement between the two Governments, to limit his
jurisdiction on sponge-fishing westwards within a straight line that,
starting from thecoastalboundary point with Tunisia, extends on the sea normally to the direction of the coast at that point. That line,
bearing approximately north-northeast, would appear provisionally
to settle the question in the most natural and equitable way without
compromising, even in a seaward direction, the rights of the two
Governments over the sponge-banks appertaining to each of them
respectively."

90. The record doesnot contain any reply fromthe Tunisian authorities
to this communication. However, Libya has furnished two documents
from French archives which explain why no answer was given.The first is
an officia1letter of 2 February 1914fromthe Resident-GeneralinTunis to
the French PrimeMinisterand Ministerfor ForeignAffairs, M. Doumer-
gue, referring to the arrests made by the Orfeo,where he examines "the
position of the point of capture in relation to the imaginaryline marking
the maritime boundary of Tunisian and Tripolitanian waters". The Resi-
dent-General comparesthe ZV45" linewith the Italian line"starting from
the Tunisian frontier and extending seawards NNE at right angles to the
direction of thecoast at this point", asserting that "the discrepancy of 23"
between the Italian and Tunisian delimitations is of some importance".
This constitutes a significantrecognitionby the French authorities of the
fact that theperpendicular lineproposed by the Italian administration was
that of 22". The officia1 Note concludes by saying :

"There would thus be an evident advantage if the French Govern-
ment could causethe RoyalGovernment to accept as the limit of the
Tuniso-Tripolitan waters a line starting from the frontier pyramid
taking the direction N 45" E, but the question is not sufficiently im-
portant for us to insist on the maintenance of a possession which is
not supported by tangible signs, and we can dono more than refer to
Your Excellency'sjudgment as to whether one should not accept as
theoffshoreboundary ('frontière demer')thelineperpendicular to the
general direction of the coast which has been indicated by Italy, as

being a rational solution to a dispute which it is important to settle
and for which the evidence is not sufficiently precise."

91. Libya has also presented a persona1letter dated 29 January 1914,
from the Resident-General to the French PrimeMinisterand Minister for
ForeignAffairs, M. Doumergue, where, referringto the preceding officia1
communication, he states that he had examined with Navy experts

"the question of our maritime frontier, and we agreed that it was
necessary to modify the conclusion in the report which is to be
addressed to you, and which, whenin the form of a minute, called on
you to insist that our line should be made to prevail over the Italian
line".The following reason is stated in explanation of this change of posi-
tion :

"Our line was roughly the prolongation of Ourland frontier. How-
ever,when that frontier was modified by theTreaty of Tripoli, wedid
not prolong the new line seaward. If the Italians were to draw it, the
line would be moreadvantageous to them than aperpendicular to the
generaldirection of the coast. It would givethem part of the channel
leading to the pocket of 3-metre depths, whereas at present they
regard as theirs part of the pocket, but none of the channel."

5. The French-Italian'Modus Vivendi"

92. In the light of these documents,counselfor Libyacontended in the
hearings that "the situation whichhad arisen following the Italian Note of
1913and the silenceobserved by the Franco-Tunisians" signified that the
provisional solution suggested by Italy "had been tacitly accepted by the
Franco-Tunisians". Undoubtedly the French PrimeMinister and Minster
for Foreign Affairs, advised by the French Resident-General in Tunisia,
was fullycompetent to decide not to insist on the diplomaticclaim which

had been submitted to the Italian Government and thus tacitlyacceptthe
Italian proposal.A further indication of the tacit acceptance of the Italian
line is that the Italian instructions of 16April 1919,on the surveillance of
maritime fishing in the waters of Tripolitania and Cyrenaicaprovided in
Article3 that :
"As far as the sea border between Tripolitania and Tunisia is
concerned, it was agreedto adopt as a line of delirnitation the line
perpendicular to the coast at the border point, which is, in this case,

theapproximate bearing north-northeast fromRas Ajdir." (Emphasis
added.)
Ttis significant that on the frontier of Cyrenaica with Egypt the sarne
Article establishes a line east-north-east but no mention is made of the
existence of an agreement.
93. Counsel for Tunisia, in replying to these contentions, pointed out
that the Italian Instructions of 1919created on each of the Tunisian and
Egyptian borders of Libya a buffer zone in the following terms :

"1 establish that the lines of delirnitation mentioned above be
moved in a direction parallel to their own selves,until the first shall
have as itspoint of origin Ras Makabez l... In such away there will
be two areas of about eight miles each, the one toward Tunisia,
included within the two lines with a NNE direction, passing one
through Ras Ajdir and the other through Ras Makabez ; and that
toward Egypt ..."

Ras Makabez is located seven nautical miles east of Ras Ajdir.

113Counsel also stated that

"If one carefully examines the extent of this buffer zone and com-
pares it with the ZV 45", it will be found that the zone in question
covered almost the whole sea area adjacent to the ZV 45" line."
He then argued that :

"in its concern to avoidconflictswithTunisia, Italy attributed to the
area claimed by its neighboura specialnature, a nature differentfrom
that of the waters over which the Italian authorities intended to
exercisetheirfull sovereignty.In that areaItalian shipscouldnot seize
foreign fishing boats."

In conclusion, he asserted that :
"these instructions were the result of the firm attitude of the French
authorities, and the subsequent desire of Italy to find what it called a
provisional solution, a compromise. This compromise, which was
lacking in certitude but was nevertheless fruitful, since no further

incident occurred, was to continue until the end of the second world
war."
94. In analysingmore deeply thenature ofwhat counsel for Tunisiahad
describedas aprovisionalsolution or a compromise which lasted until the
end of the Second World War, counsel for Libya observed that the Italian
Instructions provided with respect to the buffer zones that :

"in these two areas, although the conditions for prohibition of fishing
and the right to perform an on board inspection are stillstanding, the
boats flying a foreign flag and not in possession of the Italian mari-
time authorities' permit shall not be seized,but rather ordered away,
unless the position of the site within the borders where such boats
were fishing illegally can be demonstrated in an irrefutable manner
even afterwards".

Consequently,the buffer zone was not excluded from Italian naval juris-
diction, since foreignboats could be detained and inspected and ordered
off, ''whichcertainlypresupposed that the waters of the buffer zone were
Italian waters, because you may only order a vesse1out of a zone which
belongs to YOU".Furthermore, if the incident had occurred beyond al1
doubt within the limits, the Italian naval units "were under orders to
proceed to seizure ;the tolerance wasnot tocontinue if thelocation of the

infringement had been irrefutably established".
95. Both Parties thus recognized before the Court that a defacto com-
promise, a provisional solution or "modusvivendi"had been achieved by
means of the buffer zone. But clearly the buffer zone proclaimed in the
Italian Instructions presupposed the existence of Tripolitanian and not
Tunisian jurisdiction up to the end of that buffer zone, that is to Say,laterally as far as the line perpendicular to the coast at Ras Ajdir, and
seawardsas far as the more removed spongebanks. A map furnished by
Tunisia shows that the dense sponge banks off the Tripolitanian coast
extended to the north well beyond the 34th parallel. Consequently, that
perpendicular line extending beyond the 34th parallel constituted the
compromise or the "modusvivendi"for thedelimitation of the surveillance

of spongefishinginthe area. OtherdocumentsemanatingfromtheFrench
authorities in Tunisia recognized that such surveillance of spongefishing
waseffectivelyexercised by the Italian authonties in Tripolitania, sincein
these documents reference is made to "the frequent presence of Italian
torpedo boats, which pursue (foreign fishermen)as soon as they cross the
boundary".

6. Equitable Reasons whichCompelRespectfor
the Historic Lateral Delimitation

96. There are fundamental reasons of equity and of law which compel
respect for the historic lateral delimitation established along the perpen-
dicular line NNE from Ras Ajdir. The most important of these equitable
reasons was forcefully stated by counsel for Tunisia, in the following
terms :

"where any part of that zone has from time immemorial been exclu-

siveto one of the coastal States, as in the case of Tunisia,the equities
surely demand that it remain so ; not just for the positive reason of
respecting those rights astheyare today,but evenmore sobecauseitis
unthinkable that an area which has from time immemorial been
exclusive to one State should as a result of the determination of the
boundary of sea-bed and subsoil rights, now and hencefonvard
become the exclusivefishery of the other State. That resultcannot be
right in law or equity."

97. It is obviousthat thiselementary pnnciple of equity cannot operate
onlyto the benefit ofTunisia, but must be equallyvalid forboth Parties. As
has been well said, "the principle in equity is that if a party invokes an
argument against the opposing party, the argument must carry equal

weight against itself". It is thereforeunthinkable, to borrow the term used
by Tunisian counsel, that the delimitation which existed during the colo-
nialperiod shouldbe revisedor abolished and that apart of the shelfwhich
was for almost 50years exploited and controlled by Tripolitanian autho-
ritiesshould be transferred toTunisia. Italian torpedoboats excluded from
that area Tunisian sponge-fishingboats or foreign spongefishermen pos-
sessinga Tunisian licence.This exclusion constituted an act of sovereignty
and, as was contended in the Tunisian pleadings, such exploitation and control resultedin the acquisitionand exerciseof sovereignrights over the
continental shelf.
98. Both Parties were asked the question whether, if one Party has
demonstrated possession ofhistoricfisheryrights over sedentary speciesin
certain specifiedwaters, it is possible to attribute to the other Party the
exclusive right to exploit the mineral resources of the shelf below the
sea-bed to which the sedentary species are attached. Tunisia, after in-
volung paragraphs 1, 2 and 4 of Article 2 of the 1958 Convention, and
Article 77 of the draft convention on the Law of the Sea, answered
in the negative :

"It follows that, in the modern Law of the Sea, the exclusiverights
of fishing of sedentary species, and the exclusive rights over the
non-living resources, cannot be dissociatedand belong to two differ-
ent States. Suchadivisionwould furthermore involveinsurmountable
difficulties in practice."

Libya, for its part, answered the same question in the affirmative,
because :
"to allow an existingfisheryfor sedentary species to set the geogra-
phical lirnits of the continental shelf boundary would be ... tanta-
mount to allowing prior rights, acquired by a form of occupation, to
override the inherent dejure rights of a coastal State based upon

natural prolongation".

After indicating several instances in State practice of "vertical superim-
position of rights", it pointed out that the incompatibility between fishing
for sedentary species and oil-drilling might be avoided by directional
drilling, by abstention from oil drilling or by compensation for the loss of

catch.
99. The uniqueness which characterizes the sovereign rights of the
coastal State with respect to al1the natural resources of the shelf indicates
that a dual régime, as suggestedby Libya,cannot result from the rules of
general international law. There may be examples in State practice of a
"vertical superimposition of rights" but they can only result from special
agreements accepted by the Parties and are not imposed by the general
rules of international law which the Court is called upon to identify as
applicableinthepresent case.Consequently, itisimpossible to accept that,
if one of the Parties to this casehas demonstrated the existence of historic
fisheryrights over sedentary species in certain specified waters, the other
Party can be recognized as having the exclusiveright to exploit the mineral
resources of the shelf below the sea-bed to which the sedentary speciesare
attached. These equitable considerations determine the impossibility of
acceptingas the line of continental shelf delimitation in that area anyline
other than a straight line starting from Ras Ajdir and extendingseawards
beyond the 34th parallel perpendicularly to the direction of the Coastat
Ras Ajdir.131 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP. OP. JIMÉNEZDE ARÉCHAGA)

7. Reasons of Law which CompelRespectfor
the Historic Lateral Delimitation

100. Most African States, including the Parties to the case, have ac-
cepted the status quoof colonial boundaries at the time of independence.
According to the resolution adopted by the African Statesin Cairo in 1964,
the Assembly of African Heads of State and Government, "solemnly
declare that al1Member States pledge themselves to respect the borders
existingon their achievement of colonialindependence". The terms of this
pledge determine its applicability notjust to those borders established by
treaty or existingon dryland. It alsoincludes boundary arrangements and
even tacit compromises concerning maritime frontiers which divide zones
of sedentary fisheries.
101. Tunisia has accepted that the principle of stability of African

colonial frontiers as well as the principle of State succession apply to this
delimitation, despite thefact that thisis a maritime boundary, and onenot
established by treaty but resulting from theconduct and the history of the
relations of the former colonial powers. In the memorandum the Govern-
ment ofTunisia circulated to the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
the OAU and the Arab League, and to diplomatic missions accredited in
Tunis, on 3 May 1976,referring to the ZV 45" line, it stated :

"5. On this basis, and according to the preamble and Article III of
theCharter of the Organization of African Unity which stipulatethat
African States should recognize the borders resulting from their
independence, and the stability of such borders, the sea boundaries
delimitation referred to in paragraph 2 is unalterable.
6. On theother hand, international practices andjurisprudence are
unanimous in that the newStatewhichreplaces the colonialpower (as
is the casewith both Tunisia and Libya) is bound, and shall continue
to be bound, by any agreements fixing boundaries which may have
been concluded by the colonial power."

It results from the foregoing that both principles of international law
invoked by Tunisia in the above memorandum, namely, the colonial uti
possidetis agreed by the African States and the principles of State succes-
sioncompel respect for the delimitation resulting from the French-Italian
"modusvivendi':

102. The objection is made that the record does not contain positive
evidence of the express acceptance by the authorities of the Tunisian
Protectorate of the perpendicular line. This is true, but this is not the
crucial point. The decisive and material points are, first, that there is
conclusiveevidence that theItalian authorities exercisedeffectivesurveil-
lance of sponge fisheries off the Tripolitanian coasts, laterally, to the 22"
line and seawards, beyond the 34th parallel ;second, that during a period
of more than 30years the Franco-Tunisianauthorities did not oppose but
acquiescedin such an exerciseof effectivesurveillance ;third, that sponge fisheries constitute a form of shelf exploitation avant la lettre;fourth, that
such surveillance confers sovereign rights over the sea-bed of the area in
question,as convincingly contended in the Tunisian pleadings ;fifth, that
it would be unthinkable for theCourt to assign to one Party an area which

was controlled by the other for more than 30 years, and, finally, that the
international law principles of utipossidetis of African boundaries and of
succession of States in respect to frontier delimitation also apply to the
colonial delimitation of sponge fisheries, as was contended by Tunisia,
with respecttothe ZV45" line,initsmemorandum of 3May 1976.Evenif
one denies the existence of an agreement,there was a deficto delimitation
for the exploitation of sea-bed areas which wasacquiesced to and thus it is
one which the Court cannot now revise or ignore.Libyan proven historic
rights are as worthy of respect as those invoked by Tunisia.

1. General Relevanceof the Circumstance

103. Geographicalconfiguration,that isto Saytherelationship between
the coasts of the States in dispute, is undoubtedly a most relevant circum-
stance in any continental shelf delimitation. The Court said in its 1969
Judgment :
"the principle is applied that the land dominates the sea ;it is con-
sequently necessary to examine closely the geographicalconfigura-
tion of thecoastlines of thecountries whosecontinental shelvesareto

be delimited" (I.C.J. Reports1969, p. 51,para. 96).
And the 1977Court of Arbitration stated that the validity of any method
"as a means of achieving an equitabledelimitation of the continental shelf
is always relative to the particular geographicalsituation" (para. 84).

2. Substantive Inequity of Equidistance inthis Case

104. By reason of the geographical configuration of the coasts of the
respective countries the line of equidistance would in this case produce
inequitable and disproportionate results to the detriment of Libya. This
linewould impinge on thebasicprinciple ofnon-encroachment,producing
acutting-off effectby pullingthe line too closeto Tripoli,from whichport
al1offshore oil exploration and exploitation is made by that country. This

cutting-off effectwas taken into accountand rejected by the Court in 1969.
It is true that the specific effect which the Court rejected in the North Sea
Continental Shelf cases was the cutting off of the German Coastresultingfrom the combined effect of the two equidistance lines with the Wether-
lands and Denmark, whichpulled the boundaryinwardsinthedirection of
theconcavity of the German coast. In this case,theconcavity of the Gulf of
Gabes would not influencetheline of equidistance, because the islands of
Jerba and Kerkennah control that line.

105. However, with respect to the 1969Judgment, the Arbitral Award
of 1977made the following pertinent remark :

"Although its observations on this aspect of 'adjacent States' situ-
ations were directed to the particular content of a concave coastline
formed by the adjoiningterritories of three States, they reflect an evi-
dent geometrical truth and clearly have a more general validity."

This is confirmed by the fact that in 1969, when deciding against the
binding character of the method of equidistance,the Court had before it
various maps and diagrams, not limited to the case of concave coasts,
whichillustrated the inequitable results produced by certain geographical
configurations, if the equidistance method was applied rigorously in al1
cases of adjacent States. One of these illustrations is the geographical
situation of Haiti and the DominicanRepublic, whichis shownin the map
appearing in the second volume of Pleadings in that case, at page 28.The
geographicalrelationship between the coasts of these two States is very
similar to that existing in the present case, with one coast protruding at a
right angle to the other and the presence of an island which, like Kerken-
nah and Jerba, swingsconsiderablythe equidistanceline to the detriment
of Haiti.

106. When introducingthismap Professor Jaenicke,Agent and Counsel
of the Federal Republic of Germany, stated that it illustrated :

"the effectwhich theconfiguration of thecoasthas on thedirection of
the equidistanceline if it is drawn for a boundary between countries
lying adjacent to one another, a so-called lateral boundary. 1men-
tioned that a very strikingexample of how much the equidistance line
diverts the boundary before the coast of another State is the actual
geographical situation before the coast of the Dominican Republic
and Haiti .. .The fact that the coast of the Dominican Republic
projects hereforsome milescausesadiversion of theequidistance line
to quite a considerable extent." (I.C.J. Pleadings, NorthSea Conti-
nental Shelf, Vol. II, p. 27.)

107. The Court expressly took into account these maps and diagrams,
saying :
"It would however be ignoring realities if it were not noted at the
same time that the use of this method, partly for the reasons givenin
paragraph 8above and part&for reasons that are best appreciatedby referenceto themany maps and diagramsfurnishedby bothsidesin the
courseof the written and oralproceedings,can under certain circum-
stances produce results that appear on the face of them to be extra-
ordinary, unnatural or unreasonable." (Para. 24, emphasis added.)

And in paragraph 8 of theJudgment,theCourt did not refer exclusivelyto
the case of concave coasts, for it said that :
"The effect of concavity could of course equally be produced for a
country with a straight coastline, if the coasts of adjacent countries

protruded immediately on either side of it."
Again in paragraph 59 the Court made expressreference to the maps and
diagrams when it stated :

"As was convincingly demonstrated inthe maps and diagramsfur-
nished by the Parties, and as has been noted in paragraph 8, the
distorting effectsof lateral equidistance linesunder certainconditions
of coastal configuration are nevertheless comparatively small within
the lirnits of territorial waters, but produce their maximum effect in
the localities where the main continental shelf areas lie further
out."

108. This observation of theCourt refers to the well-knownfact that the
effect of any distorting geographical feature upon adjacent countries by
the use of the equidistance method is automatically magnified the greater
thedistancefrom the shore. Counsel for theFederal Republic of Germany
had referred in this context to "the extreme, and even sometimesbizarre,
results reached by strictly applying the equidistance method" (I.C.J.
Pleadings, Vol. II, p. 57), which "can only be properly applied at short
distances from the coast" (ibid.,p. 62).In thisparticular casethedistorting
effect would be such that Tunisian islands of no more than 180 square
kilometres would attract about 2,000 square kilometres of shelf area. And
if account istaken, asit should be, of the shelf area acquired by Tunisia by
its 1973law, five years after the critical date when the dispute arose, the
equidistance line would give to Tunisia 70 per cent of the disputed area,
leaving to Libya less than one-third of it. This would not be an "equitable

solution" as required by the applicable law codified in the new accepted
trends at the Thrd UNCLOS.

3. ProceduralInequity of Equidistancein this Case

109. The Court is not confronted in this case with the procedural sit-
uation existing in the North Sea ContinentalShelf or Anglo-French cases,
where one side advocated equidistance, the other pointed out its inequity
in thecaseand the Court or theTribunal rejected that method or varied it
by diminishing its effects. Here the two Parties are in agreement that theequidistance method not only is not of general application, but must be
discarded in this particular case, on the ground that it does not lead to
equitable results. Moreover, the Parties have admitted, in the Special
Agreement, the existence of relevant circumstances and have imposed
upon theCourttheobligation to take theminto account inits decision ;the
existence of these circumstances logically excludes the application of the
equidistance method.

110. While Tunisia had invoked this method in the diplomatic corres-

pondence prior to the submission of the case to the Court, it abandoned
that position completelyin its Memorial and subsequent Pleadings. This
had irreversible consequences. The Court has not received arguments for
or against the general applicability of this method or concerningits geo-
graphical details in the particular circumstances of this case, other than a
brief rejection in the Libyan Memorial, on the grounds of its inequitable
results. For theCourt to resortproprio motuto amethodnot advocatedbut
strongly rejected by both sideswould not only take the Parties by surprise,
but it would imply deciding the case without the benefit of the Parties'
assistance,and without having afforded them the opportunity of submit-
tingargumentsfor or againstits applicability to this particular geographi-
cal configuration. These would have included complicated issues of fact,
such as a deeper analysis of the legality of the baselines, the effect of the
islands and low-tideelevations on the line and the geographical determi-
nation of the controlling points. In this respect it is of significance that
there have appeared marked divergences as to the effect to be given to
islands and low-tide elevationsin the opinions which advocate equidis-
tance in the present case. This illustrates the danger of applying equidis-

tance motuproprio. These are not mere procedural objections,but involve
important considerations with respect to the right of defence injudicial
proceedings and the reception of the Court's Judgment by the Parties.

4. The Configuration of the Tunisian Coastline

111. The most important geographical feature to take into account as a
relevant circumstancein thiscaseisthat the Tunisian coast, whichextends
from Ras Ajdir to the Westin a general directionfacingnorth-east, turns at
a certain point in the Gulf of Gabes, in a north-northeast direction. The
line perpendicular to the coast established historically by the colonial
Powersextends to the sponge fishing banks locatedfurther from the shore
line. However, if that perpendicular line were to continue in the same
north-northeast direction, after the point at which the Tunisian coast

turns, then an effect of encroachment would be produced, particularly in
respect of the port of Sfax, the banks and shoals of the Kerkennah Islandsand thepromontory of the Sahel.Account must be taken, therefore, of the
change of direction of that coast as it turns inside the Gulf of Gabes and
then runs to the north-east.
112. In order to take into account this relevant geographical circum-
stance, and reflect theconfiguration of the Tunisian coast,a veering to the
east should be introduced in the line of delimitation,parallel to the line of
that coast. The first point at which such a change of direction begins to
occur is in theneighbourhood of alocalityin the Gulf of Gabes named "la
Skira", some 15'north of the 34th parallel. This coastal configuration
shouldin myviewhavebeen taken into account by afirst veeringof theline
of delimitation at this latitude, reflecting exactly the same angle of diver-
gence which existsin the direction of the coastline.The exact location of
the parallel where the change of direction occurs and the angle of incli-
nation should havebeen left,in myview,tobe determined by theexperts of
the Parties.
113. Further to the north, at the latitude of Ras Yonga, the eastwards
projection of the Tunisian coast is accentuated and, consequently,a sec-

ond veering of the line of delimitation should have taken place, reflecting
again exactly the change of direction of the Tunisian coast at thislatitude.
Such a veering, the exact angle of which should have been left to be
determined by the experts, would maintain within Tunisian jurisdiction
the banks and shoals of the Kerkennah Islands and al1the spongebanks
traditionally exploited under the surveillance of Tunisian authorities.
114. This means that thehistoricrights overspongefishingtraditionally
exercised by Tunisia, as well as those of Libya, would be respected and
preserved in the continental shelf delimitation. But these historic rights,
based as they are on prolonged exercise, and having an exceptional char-
acter,by their very nature, cannot be invoked or used ashaving apotential
effectwhichwould make them capable of aprojectionseaward,and thus as
the basis for moreextended and differentmaritime claims. Historic rights
must be respected and preserved, but as they were and where they were,
that is to Say,within the limits established by usage and history. In par-
ticular, to transform these historic waters into interna1or territorialwaters
in order to project a further claim to a continental shelf beyond them is
unjustified.

115. An objection has been made to the above veering. It has been
pointed out that this solution would onlytake into account theinclination

of the Tunisian coast, while ignoringthe south-easterly inclination of the
Libyan coast. An immediate answer is that the alteration in the perpen-
dicular line established by history is only caused by the inclination of the
Tunisian coast, which, if ignored, would produce an effect of encroach-
ment.Afurther reply is that the suggestionthat exactconsiderationshould
be given to both coasts is, really, only another way of advocating the
application of the equidistancemethod, which is unacceptablein this case
for the reasonsalready given.Finally,thepoint ismade that after the 34th
parallel the two coasts cease to be adjacent and become opposite. This, froma geographical point of view,isnot so.After the34thparallel,as well
as before, the areas of shelf to be delimited lie off and not between the
coasts of the two countries. This means that this is not a delimitation
between opposite States but one which continues to be a lateral delimi-
tation between adjacent States.Thisconclusion is confirmed by the find-
ingsof the 1977arbitral award. In that case,the two Stateswereoppositein
the Channel area but the Court of Arbitration considered that in the
Atlantic region, where the areas of shelf lie off, rather than between their
two coasts, an analogy could be drawn with a lateral delimitation. The

Court of Arbitration said :

"in the Atlantic region the situation geographically is one of two
laterally related coasts, abutting on the same continental shelf ...
Indeed, the Court notes that so evident is this lateral relation of the
two coasts, geographically, that both Parties in their pleadings saw
some analogy between the situation in the Atlantic region and the
situation of 'adjacent' States." (Para. 241.)

5. The Testof Proportionality

116. In the North Sea Continental Shelfcases, the Court indicated as a
possible pertinent factor in negotiations what it described as :

"a reasonable degree of proportionality which a delimitation effected

according to equitable principles ought to bring about between the
extent of the continental shelf appertaining to the States concerned
and the lengths of their respective coastlines" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,
p. 52, para. 98).

117. The 1977 Court of Arbitration in the Anglo-French dispute
rejected what it described as "nice calculations of proportionality" and
refined this concept into a test of the equity of the results reached in a
delimitation, saying :
"In short, it is disproportion rather than any generalprinciple of
proportionality which isthe relevant criterion or factor. The equitable
delimitation of the continental shelf isnot, as this Court has already

emphasized inparagraph 78,aquestion of apportioning - sharing out
- thecontinental shelf amongst the Statesabutting uponit.Nor isit a
question of simply assigning to them areas of the shelf in proportion
to the length of their coastlines ; forto do this would be to substitute
for the delimitation of boundaries a distributive apportionment of
shares ... Proportionality, therefore, is to be used as a criterion or
factor relevant in evaluating the equities of certain geographical situations, not as a general principle providing an independent
source of rights to areas of continental shelf." (Para. 101.)

In the light of this pronouncement, proportionality is linked with the
application of equitableprinciples, and itsfunction is to test the equitable
character of the method of delimitation used, in the light of the results to
which it leads. It constitutes a test to be applied expost facto to the results
obtained throughtheappreciation of the relevant circumstances, and not a
relevant circumstance or independent factor in itself.

118. Moreover, it is necessary to establish clearly and with fairness the
basicpremises which need tobe adopted in order to make a comparison of
proportionalitypossible. The first ofthesepremises concernstheareato be
taken into consideration. In this respect the Judgment defines it as de-
limited by Ras Kaboudia and Ras Tajoura and this appears as generally
acceptable. Another premise is the measurement of the length of the
relevant coasts. In this respect the 1969Judgment is clear when it States
that the coastlines are to be measured

"according to their general direction in order to establish the neces-
sary balance between States with straight, and those with markedly
concaveor convexcoasts, or to reduceveryirregularcoastlines to their
truer proportions" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 52, para. 98).

119. The most serious disagreementconcerns the determination of the
areas of shelfcoveredby watersappertaining toeachParty which aretobe
taken into accountin order tomakethiscomparison. Libya hascontended

that in evaluating the effect of a proposed shelf delimitation one should
consider al1areas of shelf, whether under the waters of the high seas, the
waters of exclusivefishing zones, the waters of the territorial sea and even
any internal waters lying beyond the actual coast. Tunisia, basing its
argument on the legal definition of the continental shelf as lyingbeyond
the territorial sea, has contended, on the contrary, that territorial and
internal waters are not to be taken into account in any comparison of
equitable results.

120. This is not an issue that could be decided in the abstract and in a
general way, but must be decided - as other questions involved in an
equitable delimitation - in the light of the circumstances of the particular
case. One such circumstance has to do with the baselines adopted by
Tunisia in 1973.These baselines are, to Saythe least, of doubtful legality

sincethey do not conform to the onlyrestrictionestablished by the Court's
Judgment of 1951in the Norwegian Fisheriescase, namely, that the base-
lines should follow thegeneraldirection of thecoast. Thesebaselines,with
a seaward point going as far as El-Mzebla, form a triangle which lies
against the concavity of the Gulf of Gabes and which is notjust different
but opposite to the general direction of the coast. Furthermore, thesebaselines aredrawn on the basis of low-tideelevations, some of which are
always below water while the applicable rules of international law forbid
their use unless lighthouses or similar installations have been built upon
them. It is obvious that lightbuoys on the water cannot fulfil this require-
ment nor is there any record of stationary fishing gear that far out to
sea.

121. However, the legality of these baselines is not the question to be
decided here. What is important is whether these baselines are opposable
to Libya for the purposes of the application of the proportionality test.
This question is determined conclusively by the fact that these baselines
wereproclaimed by Tunisia in 1973,fiveyears after the critical date when
the dispute arose, and that the 1973law and decreemodified radically the
pre-existing Tunisian laws which did not constitute these waters either as
intemal or as territorial. Tunisia thus unilaterally appropriated a large
expanse of the disputed continental shelf and this makes it difficult to
claimwith fairness that such an area should not be counted and should be
left out of any comparison with the portion of shelf which each party will
obtainfrom the Court's Judgment. In the Minquiers and Ecrehos case the
Court said that acts subsequent to the critical date should be taken into

consideration "unless the measure in question was taken with a view to
improving the legalposition of the Party concerned" (I.C.J. Reports 1953,
p. 59). And this is the case here.
122. Furthermore, it would seem that in a case such as the present,
whichisdifferent in thisrespect from the North Sea ContinentalShelfcases
in that there is an enormous differencebetween the areas of water claimed
asinterna1and territorial by each Party, it would beinequitable notto take
into account,forthe overallevaluation of fairness and proportionality, the
whole expanse of water, on the sole ground that legally the continental
shelf begins at the outer limit of the territorial sea. To do so would be to
commit -thesin of formalism ; to allow that form of inequity which the
Romans called subtilitas, that is to Say,an exaggerated adherence to the
strictletter of the law when equity demands a broader approach for the
purposes of comparison.
123. Taking the above into account,a line as the one suggested of 22"
with aveeringparallel to that of the Tunisian Coast,would haveresulted in
assigningto each Party almost 50percent of the areaindispute. Suchaline

of delimitation would thus have complied with the test of a reasonable
degree of proportionality, and have achieved an equitable result.

PARTVI. THEJUDGMENT' FINALCONCLUSIONS

124. It results from the foregoing that1 have certain doubts and diver-
gencesconcerning some of thefinal conclusionsin the operative part ofthe
Judgment. In particular, it seemsto me that not sufficientsignificance hasbeen attributed to the 22" historic line and that a veering of 52" is too

pronounced.
However, since 1concur fully with most of the Court's legal reasoning,
and the above indicated differences do not result in too great a disagree-
mentwith respect to theline of delimitation, 1consider that 1ought not to
press these differences and doubts to the point of dissenting from the
Court's decision.

(Signed) Eduardo JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA. SYNOPTICAL TABLE
Paragraphs
PART1. INTERPRETATIO OF THE SPECIAL AGREEMENT 1-36

1. The Parties' submissions 1-4
2. The role of the Court and the subsequent role of the experts 5-10
3. The geographical scope of equitable principles 11-17
4. The meaning of equity :equity, equidistance and relevant cir-
cumstances 18-26

5. Non-existence of a presumption in favour of equidistance 27-31
6. New accepted trends at the Third UNCLOS 32-36

PARTII. THECONCEPT OF NATURAL PROLONGATION

1. The Parties' contentions
2. The legal definition of continental shelf not based on geo-
logy or geomorphology
3. The 1969Judgment and the 1958definition

4. The new definition in the draft convention at the Third
UNCLOS Conference
5. The Exclusive Economic Zone and shelf delimitation
6. The real meaning of "natural prolongation" in the 1969g-
ment
7. Geological structure in the 1969and 1977Judgments

PARTIII. THEEQUITABLP ERINCIPLE OF NON-ENCROACHMENT 65-76
1. The Parties' divergent interpretations 67-68

2. The correct interpretation of the principle 69-70
3. The German proposal and the reaction at the 1958 Confer-
ence 71-73
4. The principle of non-encroachment and its effects in the-
ent case 74-76

PARTIV. HISTORIC FISHERY RIGHTS

1. Existence of historic fishery rights
2. Relevance of historic fishery rights to continental shelf delimi-
tation
3. The Tunisian claim for a ZV45" line
4. The Orfeo incident: French protest and Italian answer

5. The French-Italian "modus vivendi"
6. Equitable reasons which compel respect for the historic lateral

delimitation
7. Reasons of law which compel respect for thehistorie lateral
delimitation Paragraphs

1. General relevance of the circumstance
2. Substantive inequity of equidistance in this case
3. Procedural inequity of equidistance in this case
4. The configuration of the Tunisian coastline

5. The test of proportionality

PART VI. THEJUDGMENT'F SINALCONCLUSIONS 124

Bilingual Content

1O0

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA*

PART1. INTERPRETATIO OFNTHE SPECIAL AGREEMENT

1. The Parties'Submissions

1. The Partiespresented different viewsas to the role to be performed
by the Court inthis case.Tunisiacontended that thetask of the Court was,
first,to determine the principlesand rules of international law applicable
to thisdelimitation andthen, as a second question, to identify and indicate
thepractical method or methods to be followed for that delimitation,and
to do sowith suchclarity and in such detail "as to enable theexperts of the
twocountries to delimit these areas without any difficulties". For Tunisia,
the role of the experts consists "in the substantial but technical task of
constructing the line of delimitation and establishingthe boundary line".
This is tobe done within a period of threemonths and, during thisperiod,
the Parties are to conclude an agreement providing legal sanction to
the line arrived at by the experts on the basis of the Judgment of the
Court.
2. Libya, on its part, advanced a morerestrictive viewof the role of the
Court, and, consequently, a much larger viewof the task of the experts. It

contended that the application by the Parties and their experts of the
principlesand rules set forth in the Judgment could not be restricted to a
meremechanical plotting of CO-ordinatesor drawing oflinesfrompoint to
point. According to Libya, the Court was "invited to indicate the consi-
derations and factors which should be taken into account" but not "to
indicate averv~recisemethod of delimitation". sincethis would be. for al1
intents and Pu&oses "the same as taking ovérthe task of drawing the
line".
In support of this view Libya recalled that Article 3 of the Special
Agreement mentions the need of a further "agreement" between the Par-
ties, and pointed out that this instrument is to be interpreted against the
background of the fundamental principlethat delimitation is to be settled
by agreement.
3. The divergence of views of the Parties as to the degree of precision

which the judgment of the Court should possess was reflected in their
respectivefinal Submissions, that isto Say,in what they asked the Court to
adjudge and declare. In consonance with its interpretation of the Special
Agreement, Libya framedits Submissionsin suchbroad andgeneral terms
that their acceptance would still have left wide room for substantive

*A synoptical table of contents appears at the end OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA*

[Traduction]

1. Les conclusionsdes Parties

1. Les Parties ont exprimédesvuesdifférentesquant au rôle delaCour
en l'espèce.La Tunisiea affirméque la tâche de la Cour était, première-
ment, de déterminer les principes et les règles de droit international
applicables à la délimitation des zones de plateau continental en cause,
puis - seconde question - de définir et d'indiquer la ou les méthodes
pratiques à suivre pour cette délimitation, en procédant de façon suffi-

samment préciseet détaillée pour ((permettre auxexperts desdeuxpaysde
délimiterces zones sans difficultéaucune )>.Pour la Tunisie, le rôle des
experts estdemener à bien latâcheimportante maistechniqueconsistant
à construire lalignede délimitationet à établirlalimite )>.Cette tâcheest à
accomplir dans un délaide trois mois, périodependant laquelle lesParties
doivent conclure un accord donnant force légale àla ligne établiepar les
experts sur la base de l'arrêtde la Cour.

2. La Libyeinterprétait defaçon plusrestrictivelerôledela Couret,par
voiede conséquence,avaitune conception beaucoup plus large de la tâche
confiéeauxexperts. Elle soutenait qu'en appliquant lesprincipes et règles
énoncés dans l'arrêt,les Parties et leurs expertsne pouvaient se limiter au
simple travail mécaniqueconsistant à reporter sur une carte les coordon-
néesindiquéesou à tracer deslignes entre les différentspoints. D'aprèsla
Libye,la Courétait ((invitéeà indiquer lesconsidérationset lesfacteurs à

prendre en compte O,mais non pas à ((énoncerune méthode de délimi-
tation spécifique )>,ce qui revenait pratiquement à (se charger de la
construction mêmede la ligne )>.
A l'appui de cette manièrede voir, la Libye a rappeléque l'article3 du
compromis mentionnela nécessité d'unnouvel ((accord )entre lesParties,
et affirméqu'ilfallaitinterprétercettedisposition àla lumièredu principe

fondamental selon lequel toute délimitation doit se faire par voie d'ac-
cord.
3. Cette divergencede vuesentre lesParties quant au degrédeprécision
attendu de la Cour dans son arrêt apparaîtégalementdans leurs conclu-
sions finales respectives, c'est-a-dire dans ce qu'elles demandaient à la
Cour de dire etjuger. La Libye, logique avec son interprétation du com-

promis, a présentédes conclusions rédigées en termes tellement larges et
générauxque leur acceptation eût encore laisséune large place à des

* Une table des matières figuaela fin de la présente opinion.negotiations and for substantial disagreements between the Parties. The
adoption by the Court of Submissions framed in such terms would not
haveadvancedthesettlement of thedispute to anygreatextent,nor would
it havecomplied with therequirement of thesecondsectionofparagraph 1
of the Special Agreement, namely :
"to clarify thepractical method for theapplication of theseprinciples
and rules in this specific situation, so as to enable the experts of the
two countries to delimit these areas without any difficulties".

The Tunisian Submissions were, on the contrary, very precise but they
asked the Court to endorse and adopt certain methods of delimitation
which, for reasons of substance, the Court could not accept.
4. What then had to be done in view of this lack of correspondence
between the Parties' Submissionsand the task assigned to theCourt in the
SpecialAgreement ?The Courthas followedits establishedjurisprudence

to the effect that, inrder to determine the precise points which require
decision in the operative part of a judgment, when the case has been
brought by Special Agreement,
"it is rather to the terms of this agreement than to the submissions of
the Parties that the Court must have recourse in establishing the
precisepoints whichithasto decide" ('Lotus" case,P.C.I.J., SeriesA,
No. 10, p. 12). (Cf. also Serbian Laans case, P.C.I.J., Series A,
Nos. 20121, p. 47 ; River Odercase, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23, p. 18
and Minquiers andEcrehos case, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p.52.)

2. The Role of the Court and the Subsequent Role
of the Experts

5. 1concur with theJudgmentinpreferring the Tunisian interpretation
of theSpecialAgreement astothe roleof theCourt and thesubsequent role
of the experts. Butths conclusion is not, in my view,one to be based on

minor exegeticalpoints such as whether one or two questions have been
put to the Court or whether the words '~vecprécision"are to be read into
the French translation of the text of the Special Agreement or, finally,
whether there is a real distinction between "practical method of delimi-
tation" and "practical method for the application of principles and rules
that may be applied for the delimitation".
6. There is a more fundamental reason for preferring the Tunisian
interpretation of the SpecialAgreement in respect to the role of theCourt.
The Libyan interpretation envisages the role of the experts as that of
diplomaticrepresentatives whowillnegotiatethefinaldelimitation within
a vague and very general framework of pronouncementsfrom the Court
described as mere indications or "guidance". Thus, the Libyan interpre-
tation of the Special Agreement, combined with the broad submissionsnégociationsde fond et à des désaccordssubstantiels entre les Parties.
L'adoption par la Cour de conclusions ainsi rédigéesn'aurait guèrefait
progresser le règlementdu différend,et n'aurait pas non plus répondu à
ce que lui demandait le compromis dans le deuxième paragraphe de

l'article 1:
((clarifier la méthode pratique pour l'application de ces principes
et de ces règlesdans cette situation précise,de manière à permettre
aux experts des deux pays de délimiter ces zones sans difficulté

aucune o.
Lesconclusionstunisiennes étaientau contrairefort précises,maisla Cour
yétaitinvitée à cautionner et à adoptercertaines méthodesde délimitation

que, pour des raisons de fond, elle n'a pu accepter.
4. Que devait fairela Cour devant cedécalageentre lesconclusionsdes
Parties et la tâche que lui confiait le compromis ? La Cour a suivi sa
jurisprudence établie, qui veut que, pour déterminer les points précis à
trancherdans ledispositif d'un arrêtconcernantune affaireintroduitepar
compromis,

(c'est dans les termes de ce compromis plutôt que dans les conclu-
sionsdes Parties qu'elledoit rechercherquels sont lespoints précissur
lesquels il lui appartient de seprononcer ))(affairedu Lotus, C.P.J.I.

sérieA noIO,p. 12).(Voir aussil'affaire desEmpruntsserbes, C.P.J.I.
série A no20/21, p. 47, l'affaire de la Juridiction territorialede la
Commission internationalede l'Oder, C.P.J.I. série A no23, p. 18,et
l'affaire des Minquiers etEcréhous,C. 1.J. Recueil 1953, p. 52.)

2. Le rôle de la Cour
et le rôle ultérieur desexperts

5. J'approuve la préférencedonnéedans l'arrêt à l'interprétation tuni-
sienne du compromis quant au rôle de la Cour et au rôle ultérieur des
experts. Selonmoi, cependant,cette conclusionne doit pas êtrefondéesur

des points mineurs d'exégèse, comme par exemple le fait de savoir si la
Cour est saisie d'une ou de deux questions, ou l'opportunité des mots
((avecprécision )dans la traductionenfrançaisdu compromis, ou enfinla
réalitéde la distinctionentre une méthodepratique de délimitation ))et
une ((méthode pratique pour l'application des principes et règlesappli-
cables aux fins de la délimitationo.
6. Il existe une raison plus profonde de préférerl'interprétation tuni-

sienne .du compromis quant au rôle de la Cour. Dans l'interprétation
libyenne, en effet, les expertsjoueraient le rôle de représentantsdiploma-
tiques chargésde négocierla délimitationfinaledans le cadre impréciset
très généralde prononcés de la Cour qui représenteraient de simples
indications ou ((directives)).Ainsi l'interprétation donnéepar laLibye au
compromis, s'ajoutant au caractèregénéraldesconclusionsprésentée psar Libya presented, would in fact have made the implementation of the
Court's Judgment depend upon the subsequent agreement of the Par-
ties.
7. Confronted with a situation in a case where there were two possible
interpretations of a SpecialAgreement, one of them making theJudgment
dependent on a subsequent agreement of theParties,thePermanent Court
decided :

"it is hardly possible to suppose that the Parties intended to adopt a
clause which would be incompatible with the Court's function ; as,
accordingly, ifit ispossible toconstrueparagraph 2ofArticle 2of the
Special Agreement in such a way as to enable the Court to fulfil its
task, whilst respecting the fundamental conception on which that
paragraph is based, such a construction is the one which must be
preferred ;
Whereas it is certainly incompatible with the character of the
judgments rendered by theCourt and with thebinding forceattached
to them by Articles 59 and 63, paragraph 2, of its Statute, for the
Court to render a judgment which either of the Parties may render
inoperative." (FreeZones of UpperSavoy andtheDistrictof Gex,Order
of 6 December 1930,P.C.Z.J.,Series A, No. 24, p. 14.)

And in the finalJudgment in that case, thePermanentCourt reiterated the
same position :

"Aftermatureconsideration,theCourtmaintains its opinion that it
would be incompatible with the Statute, and with its position as a
Court of Justice, to giveajudgment which wouldbe dependent for its
validity on the subsequent approval of the Parties." (FreeZones of
UpperSavoy andthe District of Gex, Judgment, 1932, P.C.1.J., Series
A/B, No. 46, p. 161.)
8. In the light of these pronouncements it must be concluded that, in
making the choicebetween the two conflictinginterpretations of the Spe-

cialAgreement, theone to bepreferred is that whichiscompatible with the
character ofjudgments rendered by the Court and with the binding force
attached to them by Articles 59 and 63, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
It would certainly be incompatible with the Statute and with the Court's
position as a Court of Justice to accept an interpretation of the Special
Agreementleading toajudgment which would not advance the settlement
of the dispute and which would be dependent for its application on the
subsequent agreement of the Parties.
9. However,in myview,theoperative part of theJudgment should have
been framed on the basis, not of degrees of latitude or longitude but of
concepts such as the lineperpendicular to the coast at RasAjdir, going as
far as theparallel of the westernmost point in the Gulf of Gabes, and from
that point successiveveerings parallel to the successiveinclinations of the
coast of the Tunisian mainland, al1 of these geographical facts to be

determined by the experts. On theother hand,it should haveindicated that cet Etat, aurait enfait subordonnéla mise en Œuvrede l'arrêtde la Cour à
un accord ultérieur entre les Parties.

7. La Cour permanente, placéedevant deux interprétations possibles
d'un compromis, dont l'une aurait subordonné son arrêt à un accord

ultérieur entre les Parties, a statué en ces termes:

<l'on ne saurait facilement admettre que les Parties aient voulu
adopter une stipulationqui serait incompatible avecla fonction de la
Cour ; ..dèslors,s'ilestpossible d'interpréterl'alinéa2del'article2
du compromis de manière à permettre à la Cour d'accomplir satâche,
tout en respectant l'idée essentiellequi esà la base dudit alinéa,c'est
cette interprétation qui doit êtrepréférée ;
considérant qu'il est certainementincompatible avec le caractère
desarrêtsquerendla Cour et aveclaforceobligatoirequi est attachée
par les articles 59 et 63, alinéa2, de son Statut, que celle-ci pro-
nonce un arrêt quel'uneou l'autre Partiepourrait rendreinopérant. ))

(Affaire des Zonesfranches de la Haute-Savoie et du Pays de Gex,
ordonnancedu 6 décembre 1930, C.P.J.I. sérieA no24, p. 14.)

Et dans l'arrêt définitiefn cette affaire,la Cour permanenteaconfirmé son
attitude :

<(Après un examen très approfondi, la Cour maintient son opi-
nion : pour elle, il serait incompatible avec son Statut et avec sa
position en tant que cour de justice de rendre un arrêt dont la
validité serait subordonnée à l'approbation ultérieuredes Parties )>
(C.P.J.Z.sérieA/B no46, p. 161).

8. Etant donnécetteprisedeposition,force estdeconclureque,dansun
choix entre deux interprétationscontradictoiresd'un mêmecompromis,il
faut préférercellequi est compatible aveclecaractèredes arrêtsdelaCour
et avec la force obligatoireque leur attribuent les articles 59 et 63, para-
graphe 2, du Statut.
Il serait certainementincompatible avec le Statut de la Cour et avec sa
position en tant que cour de justice d'accepter une interprétation du

compromisaboutissant à un arrêt quineferaitpas progresserle règlement
du différendet dont l'application dépendrait de l'agrémentultérieurdes
Parties.
9. J'estimecependant qu'au lieud'indiquer des degrésdelatitude ou de
longitude la Cour aurait dû, dans le dispositif de son arrêt,recourirà des
notions telles que celle d'une ligne perpendiculaire àla côte à Ras Ajdir,
prolongéejusqu'à lalatitude du point leplus occidental du golfedeGabès
et,à partir delà,infléchieun certainnombre defoisdefaçon à donner effet
aux changements de direction successifsdu rivageprincipaldela Tunisie,
l'ensembledecesfaits géographiquesdevantêtredéterminépalresexperts.theperpendicular lineapplicable for thefirst sector is that of 22O,because
this is the one resulting from the historical records, in particular the
recognitionmade by the French Resident-General in Tunisia (cf. para. 90

below).

10. There isno contradiction in indicating in thissectoraperpendicular
linedefined by degrees as the 22" line because the principles and rules of
international law applicablein this segment of theboundary are, in them-
selves,sopreciseas to result in a concreteline of delimitation established
by history. Byproclaiming that 22" linethe Court would not haveinvaded
the function of the experts but would have performed its own task of
determining the existence and applicability of a rule of law which is, in
itself, of absolute precision.

3. The GeographicalScope of Equitable Principles

11. The fundamental rule authorizing the Court to apply equitable
principles in the decision of this case is to be found in the Special
Agreement which provides in its first paragraph that "the Court shall

take its decision according to equitable principles". This authoriza-
tion refers to the decision concerning "the delimitation of the area of
the continental shelf appertaining to the Republic of Tunisia and to
the area of the continental shelf appertaining to the Socialist People's
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya". Consequently, it does not place any geogra-
phical limitation on the applicability of equitable principles ; on the con-
trary, the SpecialAgreement refers to the whole area at issue between the
Parties and not just to the marginal or overlapping segments of that
area.
12. However, as a consequence of their rigid viewof natural prolonga-
tion, both Parties assigned intheirwritten and oralpleadingsalimitedand
subordinate role to equitable principles in the decision of the case. It is
striking that one of the few manifestations of express agreement by the
Parties during the oral hearings was their coincidence in subordinating
"equitable principles" to their own conceptions of "natural prolonga-
tion".

13. The reason for this coincidence was, of course, that both Parties

contended that their respective geomorphological and geological concep-
tions of "natural prolongation" should control the delimitation and that
equitableprinciplesshould comeinto play successivelyand only where the
physical facts of "natural prolongation" were no longer of assistance in
determining the respective limits of the two shelf areas :in other words,
equity would operate merely as a corrective criterion, and only in over-
lapping, doubtful or marginal segments of the continental shelf, such as,
according to Libya, in the zone north to the latitude of Ras Yonga, or in
what Tunisia described as the borderland area. But neither Party in itsElle aurait pu malgrécela préciserquela ligneperpendiculaireapplicable

pour la premièrepartie de ladélimitationétaitlalignedes 22",vuque c'est
cette dernière ligne qui ressort de l'étudedes faits historiques, et en par-
ticulier de certains documents émanant du résident généralde France à
Tunis (voir ~ar.90 ci-dessous).
10. 11n'yaurait pas eu de contradiction à indiquer pour ce secteur une
ligne perpendiculairedéfiniepar un angle de 22", car les principes et les
règlesde droit international applicables à cette partie de la délimitation

sont en eux-mêmes suffisammentprécispour aboutir à une ligne concrète
résultantdesfaits historiques. La Cour,enindiquant cette lignedes 22",ne
se serait pas substituée aux experts, et n'aurait fait que s'acquitter de sa
tâche en constatant l'existenceet l'applicabilitéd'unerèglede droit qui est
en soi d'une précision absolue.

3.Lu portéegéographique desprincipes équitables

11. La règlefondamentale donnant à la Cour licence d'appliquer les
principes équitablesdans sadécisionen l'espècevient du compromis,qui
stipule à l'article 1que((la Cour décidera conformément à des principes
équitables )).Le mandat ainsi donné àla Cour s'applique àla décisionsur
la délimitation de la zone du plateau continental appartenant à la
Républiquetunisienneet de la zone du plateau continentalappartenant à
laJamahiriya arabe libyennepopulaire et socialiste )).Il necomportedonc
pasdelimitation géographique.Au contraire, lecompromisporte surtoute

la régiondisputéeentre les Parties, et non pas seulementsur desétendues
marginales ou sur les zones faisant chevauchement à l'intérieur de cette
région.

12. Cependant, dans leurs plaidoiries comme dans leurs écritures,les
Parties, en raison mêmede la conception rigide qu'elles se faisaient du
prolongement naturel, n'ont reconnu aux principes équitables qu'un
rôle limitéet subalterne dans la décisiondemandée à la Cour. Il est frap-

pant de constater que l'un des rares exemples d'accord entre les Parties
durant les plaidoiries ait été leurvolonté expressede subordonner les
(<principes équitables au (prolongement naturel ))tel qu'elles conce-
vaient celui-ci.
13. Si les Parties se sont montrées d'accord sur ce point, c'est bien
entendu parce qu'elles soutenaient l'une etl'autre que leurs conceptions
géomorphologiquesetgéologiquesenmatièrede (prolongement naturel ))
devaient commander la délimitation,lesprincipes équitablesn'entrant en

jeu qu'ensuite, et seulement là où la réalitéphysique du <(prolongement
naturel ne permettrait plus de déterminerles limites des deux zones de
plateau. En d'autres termes, l'équité ne devait servir que de critèrecor-
recteur, s'appliquant uniquement dans leszonesdouteuses,marginales ou
chevauchantesdu plateaucontinental, commepar exemple,selonla Libye,
la zone qui se trouve au nord de la latitude de Ras Yonga ou, selon lapleadingsregarded "equitable principles" as a basicprinciple of law gov-
erning the delimitation of the area as a whole and as its starting point.

14. This approach of the Parties is not in accordance with the prin-
ciples and rules of international law declared by the Court in 1969,con-
firmed by the 1977 Arbitral Award between the United Kingdom and
France and codified in Article 83 of the draft convention on the Law
of the Sea. And, what is more important, such a position is not in accor-
dancewith the terms of the SpecialAgreement, asquoted inparagraph 11
above.

15. The Court, in 1969,after it had discarded the principle of equidis-
tance as a mandatory rule of customaryinternational law, did not accept
that there was a "lacuna" in the lawof nations on the subject ;it stated, on
thecontrary, that "there are stillrules and principles of law to be applied"
(I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 46). It found that the first of these rules is that
delimitation should be agreed or decided in accordance with equitable
principles. The Court referred to "equitable principles" in the operative
part of its 1969Judgment, under letter (C), when defining "the principles
and rules of international law applicable to the delimitation". There it
assigned thefirstplaceand not asecondary or successiveone to "equitable
principles", adding aftenvards relevant circumstances, natural prolonga-
tion and non-encroachment. So, in the Court's Judgment, "equitable
principles" have pride of place and apply from the start to the whole area
subject to delimitationand notjust to marginal or overlapping segments of
that area.

16. A similar position was adopted by the Anglo-French Court of
Arbitration which, far from subordinating "equitable principles" to
"natural prolongation", did the opposite when it stated that it is clear

"from theemphasis on 'equitableprinciples'incustomary lawthat the
force of the cardinal principle of 'natural prolongation of territory' is

not absolute, but may be subject to qualification in particular situa-
tions" (para. 191).

Consequently,the award proclaimed that the principle of natural prolon-
gation, having a relative character, is subordinated to the necessity of
reaching an equitable delimitation.
17. Finally,Article 83,paragraph 1,of the draft convention on the Law
of the Sea makes clear that the only goal of delimitation on the basis of
international law is "to achieve an equitable solution". This text does not
placegeographical limits nor does it qualify in any other waythe equitable
solution which is to be achieved of a dispute concerning "the delimita-
tion of the continental shelf between States with opposite or adjacent
coasts".Tunisie,ce que celle-cidésignepar l'expression (<avant-pays o.Ni l'une ni
l'autredesParties n'areconnu dans les (<principes équitables >>unprincipe
fondamental de droit régissant dès ledépart la délimitationde toute la
régionconsidérée.

14. L'attitude des Partiessur cepoint n'estpas conformeaux principes
et règlesdu droit international tels qu'ils ont étéénoncéspar la Cour en
1969,confirmésdans la sentencearbitrale de 1977entre le Royaume-Uni
et la France et inscritsà l'article 83duprojet de convention sur le droit de
lamer.Et, cequi estplus grave,ellen'estpasnonplusconforme auxtermes
du compromis cités au paragraphe 11 ci-dessus.

15. En 1969,la Cour, ayant écarté l'équidistancecomme règleobliga-
toire de la coutume internationale, a niéqu'il existât pour autant une
lacune sur ce point dans les règlesdu droit des gens. Elle a affirmé au
contraire :(<ildemeure desrèglesetprincipes de droit à appliquer )(C.I.J.

Recueil1969,p. 46). Etelle a conclu que la premièrede cesrèglesétait que
la délimitation doit se faire par voie d'accord ou conformément à des
principes équitables. D'ailleurs la Cour a mentionné les (principes
équitables )>dans le dispositif de son arrêtde 1969(par. 101C), en défi-
nissant les ((principes et les règlesdu droit international applicables à
la délimitation O, et leur a assigné la première place - et non pas

une place secondaire ou subséquente -, ne citant qu'ensuite les circons-
tances pertinentes, le prolongement naturel et le non-empiétement.
Ainsi, dans l'arrêt de la Cour, les ((principes équitables venaient en
priorité et s'appliquaient dèsle début à l'ensemble de la région à déli-
miter, et non pas seulement aux parties marginales ou chevauchantes de
cette région.

16. C'est une attitude analogue qu'a adoptéele tribunal arbitral anglo-
français, qui, loin de subordonner les (principes équitables )>au ((pro-
longement naturel )>a suiviladémarcheinverse en soulignant qu'ilressort
clairement :

(<de l'importance attachée aux (<principes équitables en droit cou-

tumier que le principe fondamental du (<prolongement naturel du
territoire >n'a pas une valeur absolue, mais qu'ilpeut faire l'objet de
restrictions dans des situations particulières 1)(par. 191).

Aussi le tribunal arbitral a-t-il proclamédans sa sentence que le principe
du prolongement naturel, n'ayant qu'uncaractèrerelatif,étaitsubordonné

à la nécessitéde parvenir à une délimitation équitable.
17. Enfin, le paragraphe 1de l'article 83du projet de convention sur le
droit de la mer précise bienque le seul but d'une délimitationfaite sur la
basedudroitinternational estd'c< aboutir àune solutionéquitable M.Onne
trouve dans cette disposition ni limite géographiqueni atténuation à la
nécessitéd'unesolutionéquitabledans les différendssur (ladélimitation

duplateaucontinentalentreEtats dont lescôtessontadjacentesou sefont
face )). 4. The Meaning of Equity : Equity, Equidistance
and Relevant Circumstances

18. The opinionhas been expressed that indecidinga caseof thisnature
the point of departure should alwaysbe the line of equidistance,and that
this line should be altered only to the extent that it is found to produce
inequitable results.Naturally, in al1cases the decision-maker looks at the
line of equidistance, even if none of the parties has invoked it. But the
question is whether he is obliged to depart from it and confinehis task to
thecorrection or moderation of theline ofequidistancetothe extent that it
is found to lead to inequitable results.
19. In support of the above opinion it is contended that equity is tobe

viewedasadiscretionary or moderatinginfluencesuperadded to therigour
of formulated law ;that it consistsin thecorrection of ageneral rule when
that rule, by reason ofits generality, works hardship in aconcrete caseand
produces results which are felt to be unfair.

20. There isno denying that thisisacurrentconception of equity, which
may be a correct one in the municipal legal field. However, it is not the
conception of equity applicable to continental shelf delirnitation,as pro-
claimed by the Court in 1969and developed by the arbitral tribunal in
1977.
21. Moreover, in order to apply that view of equity to this branch of
international law it would be necessary to assume that equidistance con-
stitutes the general rule of law which is to be corrected or moderated in a
concrete case in proportion to the unfairness of its results. However, the
1969 Judgment of the Court proclaimed that equidistance was not a
binding rule of lawbut merely onemethodamongothers whichcould lead
to an equitable solution in some cases but produce inequitable results in
others. From this Judgment it followsthat the above-described conception

ofequityisnot validinthe fieldofcontinental shelfdelirnitation,byreason
simply of the absence of a general rule of lawwhich is to be moderated or
corrected in its concrete application.

22. What, then, is themeaning of equityin thisfield ?The 1977Arbitral
Award gave a positive content to the notion of equitable principles as
applicable in this context, by linking them to the circumstances of each
case. It thus recognized implicitly that each case is necessarily different
from al1others, by reason of the varying reciprocal relationship between
the geographicalconfiguration of the coasts concerned and the historical
and political factors which established the land frontiers separating the
States parties to each dispute.
23. And what is more important,that award expresslylinked thenotion
of equity to those particular circumstances, when it stated :

"ths Court considers that the appropriateness of the equidistance
method orany other methodfor the purpose of effecting an equitable 4.La signification de l'équitééquité, équidistance
et circonstancespertinentes

18. On asoutenuque, dans uneaffaire commelaprésenteespèce,ilfaut
toujours partir de la ligne d'équidistance, et ne la modifier que dans la
mesure où l'onconstate qu'elleaboutit à desrésultatsinéquitables.Il va de
soique, dans toute affaire de délimitation,lejuge envisagela ligned'équi-
distance, même siaucune des parties n'en a demandé le tracé. Maisla
question est de savoir silejuge doit se contenter de corriger cetteligne ou
d'en atténuer les effets, en s'en écartant dans la mesure où les résultats
constatés sont inéquitables.
19. A l'appui de cette opinion, on fait valoir que l'équité doit être

considéréecomme une influence discrétionnaire ou modératrice exercée
sur les rigueurs du droit positif; et qu'elle consiste à corriger la règle
générale quandcelle-ci, en raison mêmede son caractère général,s'ap-
plique mal à un cas concret et débouche sur des résultats que l'on estime
injustes.
20. Il est incontestable que c'est là une des conceptions de l'équitéen
vigueur et qu'une telle façon de voir peut êtrecorrecte en droit interne.
Mais ce n'est pas la conception de l'équité qui s'applique aux affaires de
délimitationdu plateau continental, telle que la Courl'a formuléeen 1969
et que le tribunal arbitral l'a complétéeen1977.
21. Il faudrait d'ailleurs,pour appliquercette conception de l'équité au
droitinternational enmatière de délimitation,admettre quel'équidistance

constitue la règlegénéralede droit qu'il s'agit de corriger ou d'atténuer
dans les cas concrets, en fonction del'inéquité desrésultatsobtenus. Orla
Cour, dans son arrêtde 1969,a proclaméquel'équidistancen'estpas une
règlede droit impérative,mais seulement uneméthodeparmi d'autres, qui
peut aboutir à une solution équitable dans certains cas et, dans d'autres
cas,àdesrésultatsinéquitables.Ils'ensuitquelaconception del'équité que
je viens d'exposer n'a pas sa place dans les affaires de délimitation du
plateau continental, pour la simple raison qu'il n'existepas de règle géné-
rale de droit pouvant être atténuéeou corrigée dans ses applications
concrètes.
22. Que signifie donc l'équité enmatière de délimitation du plateau
continental ? Le tribunal arbitral de 1977 a donnéun contenu positif à la
notion de principeséquitables,telsqu'ilss'appliquent dans cedomaine, en

les reliant aux circonstances propres à chaque affaire. Ce faisant, il a
implicitementreconnu que chaqueaffaire est nécessairementdifférentede
toutes les autres, en raison desrelationsréciproquesentrela configuration
géographiquedes côtes considéréeset les raisonshistoriqueset politiques
qui président à l'établissementdes frontières terrestres entre les Etats.
23. Mieux encore,le tribunal arbitral a explicitéce lien entrela notion
d'équité etles circonstances pertinentes en déclarant :

(le tribunal est d'avis que l'application de la méthodede l'équidis-
tance ou de toute autre méthode dans le but de parvenir à une delimitation is a function or reflection of the geographicaland other
relevant circumstances of each particular case. The choice of the
method or methods of delimitation in any givencase, whether under
the 1958 Convention or customary law, has therefore to be deter-
mined in the light of those circumstances and of the fundamental
norm that the delimitation must be in accordance with equitable
principles." (Para. 97.)

24. Consequently, in the context of the law of continental shelf delimi-
tation, the making of the decision "according to equitable principles", as
the Court is ordered to do under the Special Agreement, compels the
judges to determine what are the relevant circumstancesin each specific
caseand to make an evaluation of their relativeimportanceand weight.To
resort to equity means, in effect, to appreciate and balance the relevant
circumstances of the case, so as to render justice, not through the rigid
application of general rules and principles and of forma1legal concepts,
but through an adaptation and adjustment of such principles, rules and
concepts to the facts,realities and circumstances of each case. As waswell
stated by the 1977Court of Arbitration, equity is "to be looked for in the

particular circumstances of the present case" (para. 195).In other words,
thejudicial application of equitable principles means that a court should
renderjustice in the concrete case, by means of a decision shaped by and
adjusted to the relevant "factual matrix" of that case. Equity is here
nothing other than the taking into account of a complex of historical and
geographicalcircumstancesthe consideration of which does not diminish
justice but, on the contrary, enriches it.

25. For the notion ofjustice is not divorced from or opposed to that of
equity. Its having authorityto applyequitableprinciples does not entitlea
court to reach a capricious decision in each particular case, but to reach
that decision which,in thelight of theindividualcircumstances, isjust and
right for that case. Equity is thus achieved, not merely by a singular
decision of justice, but by thejustice of that singular decision.

26. This conception of equity, not as a correction or moderation of a
non-existent rule of law, but as a "lead rule" well adapted to the shape of
the situation to be measured, is the one which solves the fundamental
dilemma arisingin al1cases of continental shelf delimitation :the need to
maintain consistency and uniformity in the legal principles and rules
applicable to aseriesof situations whicharecharacterized by theirmultiple
diversity.

5. Non-Existenceof a Presumptionin Favourof Equidistance

27. A second and related view has also been expressed. This gives to
equidistance the rank of a privileged method, enjoying, as it were, a
presumption in its favour,so that it must be applied unless those arguing délimitation équitable dépend des circonstancespertinentes, géogra-
phiques et autres, du cas d'espèce. Qu'onse place sous l'angle de la

convention de 1958ou sous celui du droit coutumier, le choix de la
méthodeou des méthodes de délimitation doit donc être faitdans
chaque cas àla lumièrede ces circonstances et sur la base de la règle
fondamentale qui veut que la délimitationsoit conforme à des prin-
cipes équitables.)>(Par. 97.)

24. Ainsi, dans le contexte du droit applicable à la délimitation du
plateau continental,le fait quela décisiondoiveêtreprise conformément
à des principes équitables )>comme cela était demandé à la Cour aux
termes du compromis, obligelejuge a déterminerquelles sont les circons-
tances pertinentes dans chaque cas particulier età apprécierleur impor-
tance et leur poids relatif. Appliquer l'équité signifie donc en fait consi-
déreret mettre en balance les circonstances particulières à l'espèce,de
façon à statuer, non pas en appliquant rigidement un certain nombre de

règleset principes générauxet de notions juridiques formelles, mais en
adaptantet enajustant cesprincipes, règlesetnotionsauxfaits,auxréalités
et aux circonstances de l'espèce.Comme l'afort bien dit letribunal d'arbi-
trageen 1977,c'est (dans les circonstancespropres a la présente affaire)>
qu'il faut rechercher les considérations d'équité (par.195). En d'autres
termes, appliquerjudiciairement lesprincipeséquitablessignifieque letri-
bunal doit rendrelajustice, danslecasconcret dont ilestsaisi,par une déci-
sion conçue en fonction de l'ensemble desfaits propres à cette affaire et
adaptée àcesfaits.L'équité n'est iciriend'autre quelefait de tenir compte

de tout un ensemble de circonstanceshistoriques et géographiques dont
l'intervention n'affaiblit pas la justice, mais au contraire l'enrichit.
25. En effet,l'idéedejusticenepeutêtreséparée delanotion d'équité,ni
lui êtreopposée. Le fait qu'un tribunal ait le pouvoir d'appliquer des
principes équitableslui donne pour mandat, non pas de rendre une déci-
sion soumise aux capricesdu hasard, mais celui de trouver la décisionqui,
vu lescirconstancespropres à l'affaire,estjuste pour cetteaffaireetlui est
adaptée. Cen'est doncpas par une décisionparticulièredejustice que l'on

paMent à l'équité, maispar la justice de chaque décisionparticulière.
26. Cette conception de l'équité- vue non pas comme une correction
ou une atténuation apportée à une règlede droit qui n'existe pas, mais
comme une règleprioritaire adaptée aux élémentsde la situation consi-
dérée - permet de résoudre le dilemme qui est à la base de toutes les
affaires de délimitationdu plateaucontinental,et qui tient àla nécesside
respecter la cohérenceet l'uniformité desprincipes et règlesde droit dans
une sériede situations que caractériseleur extrêmediversité.

5.Absence deprésomption favorable à l'équidistance

27. Une autre vue a étéexprimée,qui n'est pas sans lien avec la pre-
mière.Elle reviendrait à faire de l'équidistance une méthodeprivilégiée,
bénéficiant d'une sortede présomption favorable, de telle sorte que son107 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP.OP. JIMENE DZE ARÉCHAGA)

for therejection of its application succeedin demonstrating that its results
are extraordinary, unnatural or unreasonable. If this demonstration fails,
then, according to this view, equidistance should be followed strictly.

28. Such a viewdoes not correspond to the law on the subject,as it was
declaredin the 1969Judgment of theCourt, developed inthe 1977Arbitral
Award, codified at the Third Conference on the Law of the Sea and
established by the Parties to this casein their SpecialAgreement.Accord-

ingto al1those precedents no method isprivileged or enjoysthe advantage
of a presumption in its favour. Al1are to be judged by their results and
applied only to the extent that they lead to an equitable solution.

29. The Court in 1969not only found that equidistance was not obli-
gatory ;it also said that this method was likely to produce inequitable
results, particularly in delimitations between adjacent States. The Court
said that "in certaingeographicalconfigurations, whicharequitefrequently
met with, the equidistance method, despite its known advantages, leads
unquestionably to inequity" (para. 89,emphasisadded).And in the opin-
ion of theCourt this occurswhen,for instance,there isaconcaveCoastor a
straight coastline with the coasts of adjacent countries protruding imme-

diately at a right angle.
30. Furthermore, the 1977Award assertedthat between the notions of
equidistance and special circumstances there was not the relationship
whichexistsbetween arule and its exceptions,and concluded that Article6
of the 1958Convention "givesparticular expression to a general norm" of
customary law requiring the application of equitable principles, as
declaredby the Court in 1969.Thus "the question whether another boun-
dary is justified by special circumstances is an integral part of the rule
providing for application of theequidistanceprinciple"(para. 68).For this
reason the Court of Arbitration rejected the United Kingdom's clairnthat
France had the onus ofprovingthe existenceof specialcircumstances.This
rejection signifies that there is no presumption in favour of equidis-

tance.
31. The law establishedin 1969and 1977was codified in the successive
texts of the Third Conference on the Law of the Sea. If one compares al1
these texts with Article 6 of the 1958Convention one cannot avoid the
conclusion that the emphasis has been displaced from equidistance to
equity,equidistance being simply onemethod available among others for
reaching an equitable solution. One of the main protagonists of the Con-
ference, commenting on the new accepted trends on the subjecthas stated
that at the Conference, in the various versions of the texts, there was a
"toning down of the significance attached to themedian line principle '".

This "toning down" has gone so far that the terms "equidistance" or

Cited in D. Brown,"The Continental Sheland the ExclusiveEconomicZone:
The Problem of Delimitation at UNCLOS III" iMaritime Policy and Management,
1977,4,p. 400.application s'imposerait,sauf preuveapportéeducaractèreextraordinaire,

artificiel ou injustifiable des résultats obtenus. D'après lespartisans de
cette façon de voir, si cette preuve n'est pas faite,l'équidistance doit être
appliquée strictement.
28. Une tellevuene correspondpas au droit en la matière,tel qu'ilaété
énoncé dansl'arrêtde 1969delaCour, complétédanslasentencearbitrale
de 1977,codifiépar la troisièmeconférencesur le droit de la mer et défini
dansle compromis par lesParties àlaprésenteaffaire. Il ressort de tous les

précédentsqu'aucune méthode n'est privilégiée oune bénéficied'une
présomption favorable. Toutes les méthodessont jugéesen fonction de
leurs résultatset ne s'appliquent quedans la mesure où ellesaboutissent à
une solution équitable.
29. La Cour, dans son arrêt de 1969, n'a pas seulement conclu que
l'équidistancen'étaitpas obligatoire ;ellea ajoutéquecetteméthodeétait
denature à aboutir à des résultatsinéquitables,surtout en cas de délimi-
tation entre Etats limitrophes. Comme l'a dit la Cour, <<malgréses avan-

tages reconnus,la méthode de l'équidistanceaboutit dans certaines con-
ditions géographiquesassezfréquentes à créeruneincontestable inéquité ))
(par. 89, italique ajouté). Tel est le cas par exemple,précisel'arrêt,lors-
qu'une côte concave ou droite fait un angle droit avec la côte d'un pays
limitrophe.
30. De son côté,le tribunal arbitral de 1977,niant qu'il y eût entre les
notions d'équidistance et de circonstances spéciales le mêmerapport
qu'entre la règleet sesexceptions, a conclu que l'article 6de laconvention

de 1958était <l'expression particulière d'une norme générale ))du droit
coutumier exigeant l'application des principes équitables,comme l'avait
affirméla Cour en 1969.Ainsi, (laquestion de savoirsi des circonstances
spéciales ...justifient une autre délimitation fait partie intégrante de la
règlequi prévoitl'application du principe de l'équidistance (par. 68).
C'est pour ce motif que le tribunal d'arbitrage a rejetél'argument du
Royaume-Uni selonlequel il incombait à la France de prouver l'existence
decirconstances spéciales.Une telle conclusion signifiequ'il n'y a pas de

présomption en faveur de l'équidistance.
31. Le droit établi en 1969 et en 1977 a étécodifiépar la troisième
conférence sur le droit de la mer, sous la forme d'une sériede textes
successifs. Sil'oncomparetous ces textes avecl'article 6de la convention
de 1958,on ne peut échapper à la conclusion que le rôle dévolujadis à
l'équidistanceest maintenant occupépar l'équité,l'équidistance n'étant
plusquel'une desdiversesméthodesauxquellesonpeut avoirrecourspour
aboutir à une solutionéquitable.L'un des principauxprotagonistes de la

conférence,parlant des nouvelles tendances acceptées en la matière, a
reconnu que les divers textes successifstraduisaient l'importance décrois-
sante du principe de la ligne médiane l.Le fait est que les termes <(équi-

The Problem ofDelimitation at UNCLOSnIII >M,aritime PolicyandManagement,1977,108 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP.OP. JIMENEZ DE ARÉCHAGA)

"median line" have disappeared altogetherfrom the text of Article 83 of
the draft convention. According to the new text,in order tobe applicable,
any method must ensure an equitable solution. Consequently, the onus
probandi, the need to demonstrate the attainment of an equitable result

restsequallyon those who advocateequidistance ason thosewho advocate
a different method.

6. New Accepted Trendsut the Third UNCLOS

32. Article 83wasrecentlyincorporated in the draft convention, after a
long and protracted negotiation of what became one of the most difficult
"hard core" issues at the Conference. It is true that the significance to be
attached to Article 83 of the draft convention and to previous texts of the
Conference has been questioned on the ground that they cannot be con-
sidered as having already become rules of customary international law.
While the Special Agreement empowers and even obliges the Court to
take into consideration "the new acceptedtrends at the Third Conference
on the Law of the Sea", both Parties have agreed that the Court is not

empowered to regard as principles and rules of international law new
trends merely because they have emerged during the Conferenceand have
gained aplacein thenegotiating texts. Theyhave pointed out that accord-
ing to the Special Agreement they must be "accepted trends", in other
words, they must be, or have become, rules of customary international
law.

33. There is, however, a certain difference between the Parties. While
Libya has maintained that position strictly,Tunisiahas advanceda some-
what broader interpretation of the clause in the Special Agreement. It
observed that if such an interpretation is ngidly maintained, then "the
mention of this categoryin the Compromis would have added nothing to
the principles and mles of international law" and consequently,this ref-
erence to "new accepted trends" would have no legal effect at all. The
submission was then made by Tunisia that even if a new accepted trend

does not yet qualify as a nile of customary law, it still may have a bearing
on the decision of the Court, not as part of applicable law, but as an
element in the interpretation of existing rules or as an indication of the
direction in whch such rules should be interpreted.

34. This is,in myopinion,thecorrect viewof the SpecialAgreement and
the only one which assigns practical effect and an independent meaning
and significance to the reference to new acceptedtrends. As the Court has
said, "no method ofinterpretation would warrant the conclusion" that this
reference is meaningless (I.C.J. Reports 1971,p. 35). PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. IND. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA) 108

distance ))et ((ligne médiane ont complètement disparu du texte de
l'article 83duprojet de convention. D'aprèslenouveau texte, pour qu'une

méthodesoitapplicable, il faut qu'elleaboutisse à une solutionéquitable.
Dans ces conditions,la charge de la preuve - c'est-à-dire la nécessitde
démontrer la possibilitéde parvenir à un résultat équitable - incombe
égalementaux partisans de l'équidistanceet à ceux qui demandent l'ap-
plication d'une autre méthode.

6.Les nouvelles tendances acceptées à la troisième conférence
des Nations Uniessur le droit de la mer

32. L'article 83 a étérécemment ajoutéau projet de convention,après
des négociations prolongéessur ce qui est devenu l'un des problèmes les
plus difficilessoumis àla conférence.Il estvrai quel'importance àdonner
à l'article 83du projet de convention et aux textes précédentsde la confé-
rence a été contestée, pour laraison que ces textes ne pourraient être
considérés commeétant déjà devenus des règlesdu droit international
coutumier.

Si le compromis donne à la cour le pouvoir - et mêmel'obligation -
de tenir compte des <nouvelles tendances acceptées à la troisièmeconfé-
rence sur le droit de la mer u, les deux Parties ont cependant affirmé
qu'il ne suffisait pas que certaines tendances se soient dégagéespen-
dant la conférenceet se soient fait jour dans les textes de négociation
pour quela Cour puisse y voir desprincipes et des règlesdedroit interna-
tional. L'une et l'autre Partie ont rappeléqu'aux termes du compromis
ces tendances doivent être ((acceptées n ; en d'autres termes, qu'elles
doivent être - ou êtredevenues - des règlesdu droit international cou-

tumier.
33. Il y a néanmoins unecertaine différence de point de vue entre les
Parties.Alors que laLibyeadhéraitstrictement àcetteposition,la Tunisiea
avancéuneinterprétation un peu plus large desdispositionspertinentesdu
compromis. Sesconseils ont plaidéque, si l'on s'entenait àune interpré-
tation stricte,<<arler de ces tendances dans le compromis [n'ajouterait]
rien denouveau auxprincipeset règlesdudroit international j),et quedans
cecascettemention des (nouvellestendancesacceptées )seraitsans aucun

effetjuridique. LaTunisiea conclu sur cepoint que, même siune nouvelle
tendance acceptéeneconstitue pasencoreune règledu droitcoutumier, elle
peut néanmoinsavoir uncertain effetsur ladécisionde laCour,nonpas en
tant qu'élémend tu droit applicable, mais en tant qu'élémentà retenirpour
interpréterlesrèglesenvigueuroupourdéfinirlesensdans lequelcesrègles
doivent être interprétées.
34. Telle est selon moi la bonne interprétation du compromis et la
seule qui donne à la mention des nouvelles tendances acceptéesun effet
pratique etune signification indépendante.Comme la Cour a déjàeul'oc-

casiondeledire, <aucuneméthoded'interprétationn'autorise àconclure ))
que cette mention soit sans aucune signification (C.I.J. Recueil 1971,
p. 35). 35. Therefore, it is legitimate to take into consideration that the whole
process of theConference isindicative of anew acceptedtrend, whichis to
minirnizeand "tone down" therole assigned to equidistance in Article 6of
the 1958Convention. These Conferencetexts signifythat equidistance is a
method and not aprinciple ;that it isno longer aprivilegedmethod or one
having pride of place ;that, like al1others, it must bejudged by its success
in achieving an equitable solution, and, finally, that the application of
equidistance and of equitable principles are not to be viewed as two
distinct and successivephases, nor as requiring that equitable principles
areonly to be resorted to after applyingequidistance, in order to correct its

result. There is no such succession in time and the process must be a
simultaneous one. Al1the relevantcircumstances areto be considered and
balanced ; they are to be thrown together into the crucible and their
interaction will yield the correct equitable solution of each individual
case.

36. Finally,the "toning down" of equidistancehas been reflected in the
terms of the SpecialAgreement, which ordersthe Court to applyequitable
principles and does not mention equidistance at all.Thisis confirmed by
the fact that neither of the Parties invoked equidistancein its pleadings or
submissions.

PARTII. THECONCEPT OF NATURAL PROLONGATION

1. The Parties' Contentions

37. The two Parties agreed in considering that the fundamental and
most relevant circumstancein this case consistsin the fact that the shelf
area tobe delimitedconstitutesthe "natural prolongation" of their respec-
tive territories. The Parties also agreed in that they regard the concept of
"natural prolongation" as one primarily or exclusively determined by
certainphysicalfacts, and theirdisagreement only appeared at thestage of
identifying the precise facts which constituted, for each of them, the
external evidence of that "natural prolongation". For Tunisia, its "natural
prolongation" was evidencedby thegeomorphology of thesea-bed, which,
soit was contended, reproducesthecontours of the Tunisian Coast,and by
its bathymetry, which provides identifiable limits to the shelf and shows
that its "natural prolongation", with the sequence of shelf, slopeand rise,

has an eastwards direction. Libya, on its part, invoked the geological
evidenceand thetheory ofplatetectonics to demonstrateitscontentionsas
to theaffinity between the shelf and thelandmassto the south, and thus to
show that the "natural prolongation" occurred in a northerly direction.
Thisit confirmed by the existence of afault line and aparallel "hingeline"
from West to east. Both Parties also coincided in considering "natural
prolongation", thus understood, as the unqualified and controlling prin- 35. Il est donc légitimede considérerque l'ensembledes travaux de la
conférenceest significatif d'unenouvelletendance acceptée,qui consiste à
restreindre le rôle qui était donné à l'équidistance dans l'article 6de la
convention de 1958et àdiminuer sonimportance. Les textes de la confé-
rencemontrent quel'équidistanceestuneméthodeetnonunprincipe ; que

cen'estplusuneméthodeprivilégiée ou prioritaire;que, comme toutes les
autres, elle doit êtrejugéepar son utilité pour une solution équitable ; et,
enfin, qu'il ne faut pas voir dans l'application de l'équidistance et dans
l'application desprincipeséquitablesdeuxopérationsdistinctes et succes-
sives,nitenir lesprincipeséquitablespour unenotion à laquelleonn'aurait
recours qu'après avoir appliqué l'équidistance, et pour en corriger les
résultats.Il n'y a pas deux opérations successives, mais un seul proces-
sus dont tous les élémentsdoivent être simultanés. Toutesles circons-
tances pertinentes doivent être envisagéeset mises en balance ; chacune

d'entre elles doitjouer son rôle et c'est l'effetréciproquequ'ellespeuvent
avoir l'une sur l'autre qui fournit la solution équitable correcte dans
chaque cas.
36. Enfin,l'importance décroissantede l'équidistancesereflètedans le
compromis, où il est demandé àla Cour d'appliquer des principes équi-
tables, sans qu'il soit mêmefait mention de l'équidistance.Et elle est
confirmée par le fait que ni l'une ni l'autre des Parties n'ont invoqué
l'équidistancedans leurs exposésou dans leurs conclusions.

DEUXIÈME PARTIE. - LA NOTION DE PROLONGEMENT NATUREL

1.Les thèsesdes Parties

37. Les Parties se sont trouvées d'accordpour estimer que la circons-
tance pertinente fondamentale était en l'espècele fait que l'étendue de
plateau continental àdélimiterconstituait le <<prolongementnaturel ))de
leur territoire. Elles se sont également trouvéesd'accord pour considérer
que cette notion de <prolongement naturel ))reposait au premier chef,

voire exclusivement, sur certains faits naturels ;et leur désaccordn'est
apparu qu'au momentde définirlesfaits précisreprésentantpour chacune
d'elleslesmanifestations extérieuresde ce (<prolongementnaturel u.Pour
la Tunisie, la preuve de son (<prolongement naturel ))résidait dans la
géomorphologiedu fond des mers, laquelle, suivant sa thèse,reproduirait
lescontoursde lacôtetunisienne,et dans labathymétrie,quidessinerait les
limites observablesdu plateau et prouverait que le <prolongement natu-
rel))tunisien, avec ses éléments successifs - plateau, talus, glacis-, est
orientéversl'est. La Libye,pour sapart, ainvoquéla géologieet la théorie

de latectoniquedesplaquespour prouverqu'il existaituneaffinité entre le
plateau et la masse terrestre située au sud et montrer qu'en conséquence
son <<prolongementnaturel >est orientéverslenord. Cela seraitconfirmé
par l'existence d'une ligne de failles et d'une ligne charnière parallèle
alignéesd'ouest en est. Les deux Parties sesont égalementaccordéespour ciple or circumstance which should govern, above everythng else, the
delimitation of the area.

38. As a result of theposition adopted by the two Partiesthe Court was
placed in the situation of being asked to decide thiscase exclusivelyon the

basis of the conflictingscientific evidencepresented toit by expert ocean-
ographersand geologists.Suchevidence,evenifvery ablyexplained by the
Parties' respective counsel,was not only of a very specialized and some-
what speculativecharacter, but it was stronglycontested by theother side,
not only as to its relevance and interpretation, but also in respect of the
facts alleged in support. The impression gained from the lengthy and
instructive discussion was that the criticism by each Party of the scientific
arguments presented by the other was far stronger and more convincing
than their affirmative contentions. The consequence was that the Court
couldnot decide the caseeitheron the basis of the data of bathymetry and
geomorphology, disputed as to the facts and running contrary tojudicial
precedents and State practice, nor on the basis of a sea-floor spreading,
tectonic plateand continental drift idea whichis stillatheorydescribed by

one of its proponents as an "essay in geopoetry l".

39. Moreover, the casecouldnot be decided by choosingone of the rival
scientific theories of "natural prolongation" for a more fundamental rea-
son, namely that the basic premise upon which both Parties based their
casesis not, in my view,acorrectone.This is so,in thefirst place, because
the legalconcept of continental shelf,as defined by the applicable rules of
international law,is not deterrnined by thefacts of "natural prolongation"
as they have been understood and alleged by both Parties. It is incorrect,
furthermore, because continental shelf delimitation is not governed in an
unqualified and exclusive manner by such a notion of "natural prolonga-
tion". For thesereasons it must be concluded, as the Court has concluded,

that the decision of thiscase is tobe based on legalprinciples, putting aside
the expert evidence submitted by the Parties.

2. The Legal Definitionof ContinentalShey
not Based onGeologyor Geomorphology

40. A definition of the continental shelf wasmade in Article 1 of the
1958 Convention, a provision which the Court considered in 1969 "as
reflecting, or as crystallizing, received or at least emergent rules of cus-
tomary international law relative to the continental shelf" (para. 63).As is
confirmed by its travaux préparatoires,this Article divorced the legal
definition of continental shelf from the geological and geomorphological

Hess, as cited by John Noble Wilford, The Mapmakers, New York, 1981,
p. 292.voir dans le (prolongement naturel )),ainsi compris, le principe ou la
circonstance décisiveappelée à régirsans restriction, avant toute autre

considération, la délimitationde la région.
38. Etant donnélapositionainsiadoptéepar lesdeux Parties, laCour se
trouvait invitée à se prononcer exclusivement sur la base des moyens de
preuve scientifiques que lui apportaient des deux côtés lesexperts océa-
nographes et géologues.Or ces preuves, d'ailleurs présentéesavec beau-
coup de compétencepar les conseils de chaque Partie, n'avaient pas seu-
lement un caractère extrêmementtechnique et quelque peu spéculatif :

ellesont étéchaquefoisfortement critiquéespar laPartie adverse, quant à
leur pertinence, quant à leur interprétation, et mêmequant aux faits
invoqués.De ceslongset instructifsdébats,onretirait l'impressionque les
critiques opposéespar chaquePartie aux arguments scientifiquesdel'autre
avaientbeaucoup plus depoidset emportaientdavantage laconviction que
sespropres affirmations. La Cour ne pouvait donc seprononcer, ni surla
foi de données bathymétriques et géomorphologiques contestéessur le

plan des faits et contraires aux précédentsjudiciaires et à la pratique
des Etats, ni sur la foi d'une conception de l'extension du fond des mers,
de la tectonique des plaques et de la dérive des continents qui n'est
encore qu'une théorie qualifiéepar l'un de ses partisans d'((essai de
géopoésie H l.
39. Il y avait d'ailleurs une autreraison, plus fondamentale,pour quela
solutionne fûtpas de choisir l'une des théories scientifiquesrivales sur le

(<prolongement naturel )):c'est que le postulat sur lequel les Parties ont
l'uneet l'autre construitleur thèseest, à mon sens,erroné.Il est erronétout
d'abord parce que la notionjuridique de plateau continental, telle que la
définissentles règlesapplicablesdu droit international, ne dépend pasde
laréalité physique du ((prolongement naturel au sens où l'ontcompriset
soutenu les deux Parties. Il est erronéensuiteparcequela délimitationdu
plateau continental n'est pas régie exclusivementet sans restriction par

cettenotion de (<prolongement naturel ))C'estpourquoi ilfallait conclure,
comme la Cour l'afait, àla nécessité de statuer en l'espècesur la base de
principes juridiques, en laissant de côté les moyens de preuve techniques
présentéspar les Parties.

2. La conceptionjuridiqueduplateau continentalne repose
ni sur lagéologieni sur la géomorphologie

40. On trouve une définitiondu plateau continental à l'article premier
de la convention de 1958,dispositionqui, pour la Cour, en 1969, <con-
sacr[ait] ou cristallis[ait] des règlesde droit international coutumier rela-
tives au plateau continental, règlesétabliesou du moins en voie de for-
mation ))(par. 63). Comme le confirment les travaux préparatoires, cet
article affranchissait la définition juridique du plateau continental des

' Hess,citépar John Noble Wilford,The Mapmakers, New York, 1981,p. 292.facts which were at the origin of the doctrine. It is true, as the Court
recognized in 1969,that "the institution of thecontinental shelf has arisen
out of the recognition of a physicalfact", a physical fact present in "most
coastal States" (para. 95)(or "generally" astheUnited States press release
of 1945says)namely, the existence of a speciesof platform which extends
around the continent until a substantial break in gradient occurs, leading
to abyssal ocean depths.

41. However, in the process of codification and progressive develop-

ment of thisdoctrine, an important element of contemporarycodification
practice made itself felt ; the interaction between legal experts and gov-
ernmentalobservations.TheInternational Law Commission and the 1958
Conference wereconfronted with theobservations raised by certain States
on whose coasts the physical facts whichwere at theorigin of thedoctrine
presented themselvesinadifferentmannerordidnot existat all. Chile,for
instance, observed totheInternational Law Commission that that country,
as well as other Latin American States on the Pacific coast, had no con-
tinental shelf in the geomorphological or geological sense, or had only a
very narrow one owing to the fact that the sea reached oceanic depths at a
very short distancefrom the shore. It pointed out that a purely geological
definition of the continental shelf would discriminateagainst them.

42. In order to deal withthis situation,and thus preserve theprinciple of

equality of coastal States, the International Law Commission, following
the recomrnendation of an Inter-American SpecializedConference, added
the test of "exploitability" initsfinal draft, whichwasdiscussed and finally
accepted at the 1958Conference. It is clear from the text of Article 1that
the right of the coastal State to explore and exploit the submarine areas
adjacent to its coast doesnot depend on the existenceof acontinental shelf
in the geological or geomorphological sense. This is confirmed by the
travauxpréparatoires,for theInternational Law Commission commentary
to this Article states :

"the Commission decided not to adhere strictly to the geological
concept of the continental shelf.The mere fact that the existence of a
continental shelfinthe geologicalsensemight be questionedin regard
to submarine areas where the depth of the sea would nevertheless
permit of exploitation of the subsoilin the samewayasif there werea
continental shelf,could notjustify theapplication of adiscriminatory

legal régime,to these regions." (International Law CommissionYear-
book, 1956,Vol. II, p. 297, subpara. 6.)

43. A similarpoint, whichwasalsoconsidered by theInternational Law
Commission and the Conference, was raised by Norway, which pointed
out that :facteurs géologiqueset géomorphologiquesqui étaient à l'origine de la
doctrine. 11estvraique, commelaCour l'aadmisen 1969, (l'institution du
plateau continental est néede la constatation d'un fait naturel )>présent
dans (<la plupart des Etats maritimes ))(par. 95) (ou (<généralement )),

comme le disait le communiqué de presse américainde 1945), à savoir
l'existence d'une espècede socle que l'on trouve autour des continents
jusqu'au point où apparaît une rupture de pente appréciable,au-delà de
laquelle commencent les profondeurs abyssales.
41. Toutefois, dans la codification et le développementprogressif de
cettedoctrine, un élémenitmportant de la pratique codificatricecontem-
poraine a joué un certain rôle : il s'agit de l'influence réciproque des
travaux desjuristes et des observations des gouvernements. La Commis-

siondudroitinternational etlaconférencede 1958sesont eneffetheurtées
aux objections de certainsEtats,qui ont fait observer que lesfaitsnaturels
donnant naissance à la doctrine se présentaient différemmentsur leurs
côtes ou bien n'apparaissaient pas du tout. C'est ainsi que le Chili a fait
observer à la Commission du droit international que pour sa part, et
comme d'autres Etats latino-américainsriverains du Pacifique, il ne pos-
sédaitpasde plateaucontinental ausensgéomorphologiqueou géologique
du terme, ou tout au moins qu'il ne possédait qu'unplateau très étroit, la

mer atteignant des profondeurs océaniques à une très courte distance de
la côte. Selon le Chili, une définition purement géologiquedu plateau
continental défavorisait les Etats se trouvant dans cette situation.
42. C'est pour tenir compte de cet état de choses et sauvegarder le
principe de l'égalité deE stats riverains quela Commission du droit inter-
national, sur la recommandation d'une conférenceinteraméricainespé-
cialisée,a ajoutélecritèrede exploitabilité)danssonprojetfinal,quia
étéétudiéet finalementretenu lorsde la conférencede 1958.Il ressort du
texte de l'article premierde la convention que le droit de1'Etatriverain de

prospecter et d'exploiterlesespacessous-marins adjacents à son rivagene
dépendpas de l'existenced'un plateau continental au sensgéologiqueou
géomorphologiquedel'expression. Celasetrouveconfirméparlestravaux
préparatoires, car la Commission du droit international précisedans son
commentaire :

(<la Commission[adécidéd ]enepas s'entenir strictement àlanotion
géologiquedu plateau continental. Le seul fait que l'existence d'un

plateau continental au sensgéologiquepourrait êtremise en doute en
cequi concernelesrégionssous-marines,oùnéanmoinslaprofondeur
de la mer permettrait l'exploitation du sous-sol de la mêmemanière
que s'ilyavaitun plateaucontinental, nesauraitjustifier l'application
d'unrégime juridique discriminatoire à ces régions.))(Annuaire de la
Commission du droit international, 1956,vol. II, p. 297, par. 6.)

43. Une situation analogue,quelaCommissiondudroitinternationalet

la conférenceont également examinée,a étéévoquéepar la Norvège,
laquelle a fait observer ce qui suit : "There may be a stretch of deep water near the coast and areas of
shallow waters further out. That is for instance the case outside the
coast of Norway . ..It would obviously be most unfair if Denmark,
Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom should share
betweenthemthe wholeNorth Sea,whileNorway should be excluded
because of the above-mentioned belt of deep water." (International
Law Commission Yearbook,1953, Vol. II, p. 261.)

44. Thissituation wascoveredwhen thepurelybathymetricaldefinition
of the shelf, which had been adopted by the Commission in 1953, was

modified and enlarged in 1956by the addition of the "exploitability" test.
In consequence,treaties wereentered into by Nonvay with other countries
bordering the North Sea, according to whose terms the existence of the
Nonvegian trough did not prevent Norway having sovereign rights in the
sea-bed beyond it. Al1this demonstrates that the facts of geomorphology,
as well as those of geology, did not constitute a controlling factor in the
legal definition of the continental shelf or in the recognition of sovereign
rights for its exploration and exploitation.

3. The 1969Judgment and the 1958 Definition

45. Both Parties relied extensively on the use of the term "natural
prolongation" employed by the Court in several passages of its 1969
Judgment. Theyinvoked this expression asconstitutingasort of definition
of theconcept and nature of thecontinental shelf.However, in the light of
the text and history of Article 1 of the 1958Convention, the use by the
Court of that formula cannot be interpreted in the sense and with the
meaning attributed to it by the two Parties.
46. Such an interpretation wouldimplythat the Court meant in 1969to
reject the existence of a continental shelf and to deny the exercise of
continental shelfrights in thosecasesin whichit couldnot be said (asinthe
casesof Chle and Nonvay) that there was a"natural prolongation", inthe
geologicalor geomorphological sense,of the continental shelf beyond the
shore.That would be attributingto the Court theintention, by using these
terms, of revising or amendingthe definition contained in Article 1 of the

1958Convention.This would be unthinkable, when it is also recalled that
the same Judgment proclaimed that Article 1 represented a rule of cus-
tomary international law. Consequently, it is not possible to interpret the
term "natural prolongation" in the 1969Judgment as reintroducing into
thedefinition of thecontinental shelfthe geologicaland geomorphological
elements whichhad been left out by the International Law Commission in
1956and by the Conference in 1958.

47. If "natural prolongation" were to be interpreted as requiring the
existence of certain facts of geologyor geomorphology in order to define
the nature of the continental shelf, this would entai1that the existence of <On trouveparfois à proximitédescôtesunezone de grands fonds
et plus loin des régionsde hauts-fonds. Tel est le cas, par exemple,
le long des côtes norvégiennes ...Il serait évidemment tout à fait

contraire à l'équitéque le Danemark, l'Allemagne,les Pays-Bas et le
Royaume-Unisepartagent toute l'étendue de la mer du Nord, etque
la Norvègesoit exclue de ce partage en raison de l'existencede cette
bande de grands fonds. )>(Rapport de la Commissiondu droit inter-
nationalsurlestravaux desa cinquièmesession, A/2456, 1953,ann.II,
p. 63.)

44. La solutionretenue fut de modifier et d'élargiren 1956la définition
purement bathymétrique du plateau quela Commissionavait adoptéeen
1953,en la complétantpar lecritère d'(<exploitabilité)).LaNorvègeaainsi
pu conclure avec d'autres pays riverains de la mer du Nord des traités en
vertudesquels la faillenorvégiennenel'empêchaitpas d'exercerdesdroits
souverainssur lesfondsmarinssituésau-delà. Ilressort de toutcela queles

faits géomorphologiques,pas plus que les faits géologiques,n'ont joué de
rôle déterminant dans la définition juridique du plateau continental ni
dansla reconnaissancedes droits souverainsrelatifs à sa prospection et à
son exploitation.

3. L'arrêtde 1969 et la définitionde 1958

45. Les Parties se sont l'une et l'autre beaucoup serviesde l'expression
(<prolongement naturel O, que la Cour avait utilisée à plusieurs reprises
dans son arrêtde 1969,comme s'ils'agissaitd'une sortededéfinitiondela
notion de plateau continental et de la nature de celui-ci. Or, si l'on consi-

dèrel'énoncédel'articlepremierdela convention de 1958etl'historique de
ce texte, on ne saurait interpréter l'expression utiliséepar la Cour en lui
donnant le sens que lui attribuent les Parties.
46. Selon l'interprétation des Parties,il faudrait supposer que la Cour,
en 1969,entendait écarter l'existence d'un plateau continental et refuser
l'exercicedesdroits relatifsà ceplateau dans le cas (celui du Chiliet de la
Norvège,par exemple)où l'on ne peut pas faire état d'un (<prolongement
naturel H,au sensgéologiqueougéomorphologiquedecesmots, du plateau

continental au-delà de la côte. Cela reviendrait à attribuer à la Cour
l'intention de reviser ou d'amender, par l'emploi de cette expression,la
définition énoncée àl'article premierde la convention de 1958.Or celaest
impensable,dès lors qu'on serappelle que, dans le mêmearrêt,la Cour a
déclaré queleditarticlepremierconstituaitune règledu droitinternational
coutumier. Il n'est donc pas possible d'interpréterl'expression (prolon-
gement naturel )),dans l'arrêtde 1969, comme réintroduisant dans la
définition du plateau continental les éléments géologiqueest géomorpho-

logiquesque laCommission du droitinternational en 1956et laconférence
en 1958en avaient écartés.
47. Sil'expression (<prolongementnaturel ))signifiait que la définition
de lanature du plateau continental fait nécessairementappel àl'existence
de certains faits géologiquesou géomorphologiques,il s'ensuivrait que 113 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP.OP. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA)

those physical facts would be decisive for the recognition or denial of
continental shelf rights. The phrase, thus understood, would then put in
questionand challengerights possessed abinitioby virtue ofArticles 1and
2of theConvention by those Stateswhichcouldnot showthe existenceofa

"natural prolongation" from the geological or geomorphological point of
view. Far from making such a challenge, the Court in 1969referred, in
general terms, to the right of "the coastal States" in respect of the "sub-
marine areas concerned" and described it as an inherent right. And it
clearlyrecognized that a physical shelfwas not presentin everycase, since
it stated that "the continental shelf is, by definition, an area physically
extending the territory of most coastal States into a species of platform"
(para. 95, emphasis added).

48. This interpretation isconfirmed by thefact that severalMembers of
the Court in 1969had taken an activepart in the work of the International
LawCommissionand the GenevaConference, where thesequestions were
discussed. Others, like Judge Arnmoun, cited in his separate opinion the
following quotation from Professor Henkin :

"since geoiogywas not crucialto the legal doctrine, it was difficultto
resist claims of coastal Statesthat had no geologicalshelf,whether in
the Persian Gulf or in Latin America" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 111,
footnote 5).

49. Sincegeomorphology and geologywerenot admitted asthetests for
the existence and recognition of the right to exploreand exploit adjacent
submarine areas, they cannot constitute by themselves valid grounds or
applicable criteria for continental shelf delimitation. It would be contra-
dictory to recognize that Chile, Peru or Norway possess continental shelf
rights, as was done in 1958,despite the existence of deep depressionsand

regardless of the geologicalidentity of the rock strata,andat theametime
to deny these same rights to StateA or to State B, setting a limit to their
continental shelf rights, on the soleground of the existence of a trough or
depression, or by reason of the sea-bed contour, or of a certain changein
the geological composition of the subsoil.

4. The New Definition in the Draft Convention

at the Third UNCLOS Conference
50. It has been said that the Court's formula of "natural prolongation"
received new vigour and a definite physical meaning by its inclusion in
Article 76(1)of the draft convention at the Third UNCLOS. However,the

phrase "natural prolongation" was incorporated in Article 76 (1) because
its connotation - of a projection seaward from land - was of use in
justifying the extension of the continental shelf doctrine to comprise bothl'existencede cesfaitsnaturels serait déterminantepour la reconnaissance
ou la non-reconnaissance des droits sur le la te aucontinental. L'ex~res-
sion, suivantcetteinterprétation, mettrait enquestionet ébranlerait, lors-
que lesEtats nepeuvent pas prouver qu'ils sontdotésd'un ((prolongement
naturel )>au sensgéologiqueou géomorphologiquedu terme,les droitsque

cesmêmesEtats possèdentab initio envertu des articles premier et 2 de la
convention. Or, loin de procéder à cette remise en question, la Cour en
1969 a parlé sur un plan généraldu droit de l' ( at riverain ))sur les
((zonessous-marinesconsidérées )>etl'aqualifiédedroit inhérent.Etellea
clairement reconnu qu'il n'yavait pas toujours deplateau au sensphysique
decemot, endisantque (leplateaucontinental estpar définitionune zone
prolongeantphysiquementle territoire de laplupart desEtatsmaritimespar
cette espècede socle )>(par. 95, italique ajouté).
48. Cette interprétation setrouveconfirméepar lefaitqueplusieurs des

membres delaCour en 1969avaientactivementparticipé aux travauxdela
Commission du droit international et de la conférencede Genève,où ces
questions avaient étéexaminées.Quant à M.Ammoun, il cite dans son
opinion individuelle M. Henkin :

«La géologienejouant pas un rôle déterminant dans la doctrine
juridique, il étaitdifficile de s'opposer aux revendications des Etats
riverains ne possédant pas de plateau au sens géologiquedu terme,
que ce soit dans le golfe Persique ou en Amériquelatine. 1)(C.I.J.
Recueil 1969, p. 111,note 5. [Traductron du Greffe.])

49. La géomorphologieetla géologie,n'étant pasretenues comme cn-
tères de l'existence et de la reconnaissance du droit de prospecter et
d'exploiter les zones sous-marinesadjacentes, ne peuvent constituer en
elles-mêmesdes motifs valables ou des critèresapplicables aux fins de la
délimitationduplateaucontinental.Ilyaurait contradiction à reconnaître
des droits sur le plateau continental au Chili, au Pérouou à la Norvège,
comme on l'afait en 1958,malgré l'existencede dépressionsprofondes et

indépendamment de la nature géologique des couches rocheuses, et à
refuser en mêmetemps des droitsidentiques àun Etat A ou Benfixant une
limite à ses droits sur le plateau continental sans autre raison que la
présenced'une failleou d'unedépression,ouquelaforme descontours des
fondsmarins, ou qu'une modification quelconque de la composition géo-
logique du sous-sol.

4. La nouvelledéfinitionénoncée dans leprojet de convention
de la troisièmeconférence desNations Uniessur le droit de la mer

50. On a dit quelaformuledu <(prolongement naturel >>utiliséepar la
Cour,avait acquisun regain deforceetun sensphysiqueprécisen trouvant
place à l'article 76, paragraphe 1, du projet de convention établipar la
troisième conférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer. Mais, si la
formuleaétéajoutée à cettedisposition, c'estparceque cequ'elleévoque -
une projection vers le largeà partir de la terr- étaitutile pour légitimer 114 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP.OP. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA)

the continental slope and the continental rise "to the outer edge of the
continental margin". Thus, the Court's formula, with a meaningdifferent
from that attributed to it in the 1969Judgment, became a trump card for
the States which weresuccessfulin advocating at the'Conferencewhat has
been described as the "broad shelf school".

51. But the new definition in Article 761) provides, as a second alter-
native, that acoastal State isentitled to acontinental shelf"to adistance of
200nautical milesfrom the baselines" when the outer edgedoesnot extend
to that distance.This second alternativehas, evenmore categorically than
didArticle 1 of the 1958Convention, done awaywith therequirement of a
geologicalor geomorphological continental shelf, thus destroyingthecon-
ception of "natural prolongation" advocated by both Parties in this case.
What makes this conclusive is that, despite certain ambiguities in its
drafting, the alternative 200-mile definition is obviously made indepen-
dent of the criterion of natural prolongation :in the second part of the
formula, after the word or, the requirement of "natural prolongation"

ceases to apply. This new method of defining the continental shelf by
laying down an agreed distance from the baselines definitively severs any
relationship it might have with geological or geomorphological facts.The
continental shelf extends, regardless of the existence of troughs, depres-
sions or other accidentalfeatures,and whatever its geologicalstructure, to
a distance of 200 miles from the baselines, unless the outer edge of the
continental margin is to be found beyond that distance.

52. Libya had advanced the argument that while the first part of Arti-
cle76, paragraph 1,represents "existing customary law", the second part
of the formula, the distance test, "is not customary law". In my view,if a
distinction is to be made in respect of the legal status of the two criteria
in Article 76 (I), it would have rather to be in the opposite sense. The
extension of the shelf to the outer edge of the continental margin still
encounters some opposition, and on the question of a corresponding
payment of compensation by the States with a broad shelf a final con-
sensushasnot yet been reached (OfficialRecords,UNCLOS III, Vol.VIII,
p. 69). On the other hand, the criterion of "exploitability", whch was
designed to deal with the position of coastal States without a geological
shelf, but was dangerously open-ended, has now been replaced by a cri-
tenon stated interms of distance, whichhasthe sameobjective.It issafeto
assert that todav the distance test of 200 miles has abrogated the ex~loi-
tability test and consequently must be consideredas having already crys-
tallized as a rule of customary international law.

53. This is sobecause the exploitabilitytest wasformulated in Article 1l'élargissementde la doctrine du plateau continental, celui-ci devant
s'étendre désormais au taluset au glacis continentaux ((jusqu'au rebord
externe de la margecontinentale )).C'est ainsi que la formule de la Cour,
avecun sensdifférentde celuiqu'ellerevêtaitdansl'arrêd te 1969,afourni

une carte maîtresse aux Etats qui ont réussià faire triompher à la confé-
rence ce que l'on a appeléla <<conception élargiedu plateau >).
51. Toutefois, cette nouvelle définition énoncée à l'article 76, para-
graphe 1,prévoit, à titre de secondepossibilité,que les Etats côtiers ont
droit à un plateau continental c(jusqu'à 200 milles marins des lignes de
base quand le rebord externe de la marge continentale se trouve à une
distance inférieure. Et cette secondepossibilité a fait disparaître encore
plus radicalement que ne le faisait l'article premier de la convention de
1958l'obligation deconstater la présenced'un plateau continental au sens
géologique ou géomorphologique du terme, détruisant du mêmecoup
l'interprétation du (<prolongement naturel >> qu'ont défendueles deux

Parties en l'espèce.L'élément concluant à cet égardest que, malgré cer-
taines ambiguïtés dans l'énoncé,la définition sous son second aspect
(jusqu'à 200 milles) est explicitementrendue indépendante du critèredu
prolongement naturel :en effet, dans la secondepartie de la définition,
aprèsla conjonction ou,l'obligation de constater le<(prolongement natu-
rel >)cesse de s'appliquer. Ce nouveau mode de définition du plateau
continental, consistant à spécifierune certaine distance mesurée à partir
deslignesde base, rompt définitivementlelien,quelqu'ilfût,qui aurait pu
exister entre leplateau et les donnéesgéologiquesougéomorphologiques.
Leplateau continental s'étend, indépendamment de l'existencedes fosses,
dépressionset autres accidents,et quelle que soit sa structure géologique,

jusqu'à 200milles des lignes de base, sauf si lerebord externe de la marge
continentale se situe au-delà.
52. La Libye a fait valoir que, si la première partie de l'article 76,
paragraphe 1,représentele << droit coutumierexistant >>l,deuxièmepar-
tie de la définition, c'est-à-dire le critèrede distance,est pas du droit
coutumier o.A mon sens, s'il faut faire une distinction entre les deux
critèresretenus à l'article 76,paragraphe 1,du point de vue de leur valeur
juridique, c'est le résultat inverse qu'on obtient. Etendre le plateau jus-
qu'au rebord externe de la marge continentale susciteencoreune certaine
opposition, et la question d'une compensation correspondante qui serait

due par les Etats dotésd'un largeplateau n'a pas encorepu êtreréglée par
consensus(troisièmeconférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer,
Documentsofficiels,vol. VIII, p. 71). Par ailleurs, le crid'<ee<ploitabi-
litéO,qui avaitétéconçupour tenircomptede lasituationdes Etats côtiers
dépourvus de plateau au sens géologiquedu terme, mais qui était dange-
reusement vague,estdésormaisremplacépar un critèrededistancequiale
mêmeobjectif. On est donc fondé à dire qu'aujourd'hui le critère de
distance(les 200milles)apris laplace du critèred'exploitabilitéetdoitêtre
considérécomme cristallisant d'ores et déjàune règledu droit internatio-
nal coutumier.
53. Eneffet,lecritèred'exploitabilitéavaitétéénoncé àl'article premier of the 1958Convention, which theCourt consideredin 1969to represent a
rule ofcustomaryinternational law.Arule ofcustomaryinternational law,
judicially recognized as such, has been abrogated or superseded by a new
definition. In order to have this abrogating effect the new rule must
necessarily partake of the nature of a rule of customary law. Only a legal
rule may abrogate a pre-existing one. This isconfirmed by theobservation
thatit wouldbe unthinkable that a State would try to exploit thesubmarine
areas off the coasts of another State at lessthan 200nautical milesfromthe
shore, claiming in doing so that such an area "lies beyond the edge of the
continental margin". Thisleads to another accepted newtrend at theThird

UNCLOS Conference.

5. The Exclusive Economic Zone and Shelf Delimitation

54. A confirmation of this conclusionand a further divorce from geo-
logical and geomorphological requirementsresultsfrom another accepted
trend at the Third UNCLOS, which is the widespread recognition of an
Exclusive Economic Zone comprising the sea-bed and subsoil and the
superjacent waters up to 200 miles from the baselines. In that area the
coastal State has sovereign rights, for the purpose of exploring and
exploitingal1natural resources.The provisions ofthenegotiatingtextsand
of the draft convention, and the consensus which emerged at the Confer-
ence, have had in this respect a constitutive or generating legal effect,
servingas the focalpoint for and as the authoritative guide to a consistent
and uniform practice of States.The proclamation by 86 coastal States of
economic zones, fishery zones or fishery conservation zones, made in
conformity with the texts of the Conference, constitutes a widespread
practice of Stateswhichhashardened into acustomary rule,an irreversible
part of today's lawof the sea.

55. It is significant that in the 1977Arbitration, France contended that
the 1958Convention on the continental shelf wasno longer in force by
reason of the consensus on the ExclusiveEconomic Zone arrived at at the
Third UNCLOS. TheTribunal could not accept this extreme view,but it is
difficult to deny that, at least in the case of continental shelves not
extendingbeyond 200 miles, the notion of the continental shelf is in the
process of being assimilated to, or incorporated in that of the Exclusive
EconomicZone (cf. Arts. 56 (3) and 60 of the draft convention).

56. As thisprocessreaches itsconclusion,thefacts allegedby theParties
to govern delimitation of their continental shelveswillcompletelylose any
possible relevance or raison d'êtrA.t least in the largemajority of normal
cases, the delimitation of the Exclusive EconomicZone and that of the
continental shelf would have to coincide. The reason is that both of these
delimitationsaregoverned by the samerules,asisshownby thefactthat atde la convention de 1958, et la Cour y avait vu en 1969une règledu droit
international coutumier. Il se trouve donc qu'une règledu droit intema-
tional coutumier,reconnue comme telle par lesinstancesjudiciaires, a été
abrogéeou remplacéepar une définitionnouvelle. Or cette nouvelle règle,
pour avoir un tel effet d'abrogation, doit nécessairement avoir elleaussile
caractère d'une règlede droit coutumier,puisque seuleune règlede droit
peut abrogerune règlede droit préexistante.Il seraitd'ailleursimpensable

qu'un Etat veuille exploiter les zones sous-marinesà moins de 200 milles
marins de lacôted'un autreEtat, en prétextant queladitezone <(est située
au-delà du rebord de lamargecontinentale o.Celanousamène à une autre
des nouvelles tendances acceptées à la troisièmeconférence des Nations
Unies sur le droit de la mer.

5. La zone économiqueexclusive et la délimitationduplateau
54. Il y a en effet une autre tendance acceptàela troisièmeconférence
des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer qui confirmecette conclusion et
qui marque un nouveau recul des préalables géologiqueset morpholo-

giques : c'est l'existence, désormais très largement admise, d'une zone
économique-exclusivecomprenant les fonds des mers, le sous-sol et les
eaux surjacentes jusqu'à 200 milles des lignes de base. Sur cette étendue,
1'Etatriverain exercedesdroits souverainspour la prospection et l'exploi-
tation de toutes les ressources naturelles. Les dispositions des textes de
négociationetdu projet de convention,etleconsensusqui s'est dégagé à la
conférence,ont eu à cet égard uneffet de constitution ou de créationdu
droit, en offrant un repère et une orientation une pratique systématique
et uniforme de la part des Etats. La proclamation de zones économiques,
de zones de pêche oude zones de conservation des pêchesfaite par
quatre-vingt-six Etats riverains, conformément aux textes retenus par la
conférence,constitueunepratique étatique fort abondante, qui s'estbel et
bien muéeen règlecoutumière et constitue désormais un aspect irréver-

sible du droit contemporain de la mer.
55. Il est significatif de noter que, dans l'arbitrage de 1977,la France a
soutenu quelaconvention de 1958surleplateaucontinentaln'était plusen
vigueur en raison du consensus dont la zone économiqueexclusive avait
fait l'objeà la troisièmeconférencesurle droit de la mer. Le tribunal n'a
pas retenu cette thèse extrême,mais il est difficile de nier que, tout au
moins pour les plateaux continentaux ne dépassant pas 200 milles, la
notion mêmede plateau continental soit en voie d'êtreassimilée ouinté-
grée à celle de zone économique exclusive (voir les articles 56, para-
graphe 3, et 60 du projet de convention).
56. Amesure que ceprocessus serapprochera de son terme, lesfaitsqui,
suivant les Parties,devaient régirla délimitation deleurplateau continen-

tal vont perdre toute importance et toute raison d'être. La délimitation de
la zone économique exclusive et la délimitation du plateau continental
coïncideront,tout aumoinsdans la trèsvastemajoritédescasnormaux. La
raison en est que les deux délimitations sont régiespar des règlesiden-the Third UNCLOS the corresponding Articles 74 and 83 are identical,
and have been discussed jointly. This being so, and since delimitation
would then comprisenotjust the sea-bedand subsoil, but also the super-
jacent waters for fishery rights and other uses, it would be even less
justifiable to take into account geologicaland geomorphological factors of
the sea-bed in order to effect such delimitation.

6. The Real Meaning of "Natural Prolongation"
in the 1969Judgment

57. The question which remains to be answered iswhat was the positive
meaning attributed by theCourt tothephrase"natural prolongation" used
in numerous passages of the 1969 Judgment. The insistent use of this
expression by the Court arosefrom thefact that al1the Partiesinthe North
Sea ContinentalShelfcases constantly relied upon the principle of natural
prolongation (para. 43 of the Judgment). But the Court, while accepting
theconcept, did not agreewith the interpretation givento it by the Parties.
In rejecting the Danish and Dutch interpretation, the Court gave a clear
idea of its own understanding of the formula, when it stated, in the crucial
paragraph 44 of the Judgment :

"As regards equidistance, it clearly cannot be identified with the
notion ofnatural prolongation or extension, since,ashasalready been
stated (paragraph S),the use of the equidistancemethod would fre-
quentlycause areaswhichare thenaturalprolongation or extension of
the territory of one State to be attributed to another, when the con-
figuration of the latter's Coastmakes the equidistanceline swing out
laterally across the former's coastal front, cutting it off from areas
situated directly before that front."

58. This statement makes it quite clear that for the Court "natural
prolongation" is a concept divorced from any geomorphological or geo-

logical requirement and that it merely expresses the continuation or
extension seawards of each State's coastal front. It means that the con-
tinuation of the territory into and under the sea has to be based on the
actual coastline,as defined by the land frontiers of the Statesin question,
since it is from the actual coastline of each State that the land territory
continues into and under the sea. Consequently, the basic corollary of
"natural prolongation" is the need to avoid the "cutting-off" of areas
"situated directlybefore that front". For this reason the Court referred in
paragraph 95 to the fact of "the appurtenance of the shelf to the countries
in front of whosecoastline it lies" and inparagraph 58it reiterated that "a
lateral equidistance lineoften leaves to one of the Statesconcerned areas
that are a natural prolongation of the territory of the other".

59. Thus, the meaning attributed to the expression "natural prolonga- tiques, comme en témoignelefait qu'à la troisièmeconférencesur ledroit
de la mer les articles correspondants, en l'occurrence les articles 74 et 83,

aient étérédigés de façonidentique et examinésensemble.Celaétant,etla
délimitationn'intéressant plus seulementlefond de la mer et le sous-sol,
maisaussi les eaux surjacentes aux finsde lapêcheetpour certainesautres
utilisations, il serait encore moinsjustifiéde faire appel, pour opérerune
telle délimitation,aux facteurs géologiqueset géomorphologiquesconcer-
nant le fond de la mer.

6.Le sens véritabledu ((prolongementnaturelw

dans l'arrêd te 1969
57. Il resteà déterminerle sens positif qu'attribuait la Cour àl'expres-
sion <(prolongement naturel )),fréquemment utiliséedans son arrêt de

1969.Si la Cour a fait un usage aussi répété de cette expression, c'estque
toutes les Parties aux affaires du Plateau continentalde la mer du Nord
n'avaient cesséd'invoquer le principe du prolongement naturel (arrêt,
par. 43). Mais la Cour, tout en acceptant cette notion, n'a pas souscrit
à l'interprétationqu'en donnaient les Parties. En rejetant l'interprétation
du Danemark et des Pays-Bas, la Cour a clairement indiqué comment
elle comprenait pour sa part l'expression, en disant ce qui suit au para-
graphe 44, qui est un passage capital de l'arrêt :

<(La notion d'équidistancene peut manifestement pas être identi-
fiéeà celled'extensionou de prolongement naturelcar, comme on l'a
déjàvu au paragraphe 8, l'emploi de la méthode de l'équidistance
aurait souvent pour résultat d'attribuer à un Etat des zones prolon-

geant naturellement le territoire d'un autre Etat lorsque la configu-
ration côtièredu premier fait dévierlatéralementla ligne d'équidis-
tance et ampute le second de zones situéesjuste devant sa façade
maritime.

58. Ce texte montre très clairement que, pour la Cour, le <<prolonge-
ment naturel ))n'était assujetti à aucun facteur géomorphologique ou
géologique,mais exprimait simplementla continuationou l'extensionvers

lelargede lafaçademaritime de chaqueEtat. Lacontinuation du territoire
dans et sous la mer doit donc partir de la côte proprement dite, telle que
celle-ci est définiepar les frontières terrestres des Etats, puisque c'est à
partir de la côte que le territoire de chaque Etat se prolonge dans et sous
la mer. Par suite, le <prolongement naturel 1)a pour corollaire fonda-
mental qu'il estindispensable d'éviter &<(amputer >)tout Etat des zones
<<situéesjuste devant sa façade maritime )).C'est pourquoi la Cour, au
paragraphe 95, a évoqué l'appartenance ...du plateau continental
aux pays riverains devant leurs côtes et a répétéa ,u paragraphe 58,

qu'<(il est fréquent qu'une ligne latérale d'équidistancelaisse a l'un des
Etats intéressés deszones qui sont le prolongement naturel du territoire
de l'autre )).
59. Dans ces conditions, l'expression ((prolongementnaturel ))quand tion" in the 1969Judgment, when properly analysed, is that it signifiesthe
continuation or extension of the coastal front of the territory of every
coastal State into and under the sea, "via the bed of its territorial sea"
(para. 43), a territorial sea to which al1maritime States are entitled. This
"natural prolongation" exists in every case, whatever may be the charac-
teristics of depth or geological composition of the sea-bed. To enjoy
continental shelf rights al1that a State needs is a coastal front to the sea,
which is then naturally prolonged "via the bed of the territorial sea". And
the "most natural prolongation" is that which continues or extends more
directly into the seaand isnot "cut off" by theextension orprolongation of
the coastal front of another State. From this meaning of "natural prolon-

gation" resultsthe correspondingprinciple which both Partiesin thiscase
haverecognized to be the other sideof thecoin of theprinciple of "natural
prolongation" :theprinciple of"non-encroachment", afundamental prin-
ciple of equity to be examined later.

7. GeologicalStructure in the 1969 and 1977Judgments

60. It is true that, as pointed out in the hearings,the Court referred,in
the operative part of the 1969Judgment, to "the physical and geological
structure, and natural resources, of the continental shelf areas involved".
But thesefactors werenot mentioned under letter (C)of theoperative part,
whichprescribestheprinciplesand rules ofinternational lawgoverningthe
delimitation of shelf areas, but were mentioned separately of "natural
prolongation", under letter (D),whichindicatesthefactors whichmay "be
taken into account" by the Parties "in the course of the negotiations". In
other words, these physical and geological facts were not placed by the
Court arnong the legalruleswhichgovernor determinedelimitation, ashas
been claimed in this case, but as factors which the Parties may take into
account in negotiating their delimitation.

61. And there is a world of difference between the two situations.
Physical features such as depressions, channels, sea-bed contours, geo-
logical structure, etc., cannot by themselves govern the determination of
continental shelf boundaries. Likewise, natural land features, such as
valleys, mountain crests, river thalwegs, etc., cannot by themselves deter-
mine boundaries between States. We would othenvise retrogress to the
dangerous doctrine of "natural frontiers", which Rousseau demolished
whenhe observed 'Qu'elles aboutissaient àfaire del'ordrepolitiquel'ouvrage
delanature". Those natural features can onlybecome dryland boundaries
when they have been subject to human occupation or have been agreed in
treaties entered into by the neighbouring States as constituting their
political frontiers.
62. But the area of the sea-bed and subsoil is barren of human popu-
lation and cannot be acquired by occupation ; consequently,the political on l'analysedans lecontexte de l'arrêt de1969,désignelacontinuation ou
l'extensiondelafaçademaritimeduterritoire de chaqueEtat riverain dans
et sous la mer, ((au-delà du lit de la mer territoriale ))(par. 43) - mer
territorialeàlaquelle tous lesEtats maritimes ontdroit. Ce << rolongement
naturel existedanstous lescas,quellesque soient laprofondeur delamer
et la composition géologiquedu fond marin. Pour exercer desdroits sur le

plateau continental, il suffitqu'un Etat possède une façademaritime,qui
ensuiteseprolonge naturellement ((au-delà dulit delamerterritoriale ))Et
extension laplus naturelle ))est cellequi seprolonge ou s'étend le plus
directementdans la mer, sans être<< amputée ))par l'extension oule pro-
longement de la façade maritime d'un autre Etat. De cette acception du
<<prolongement naturel découle le principe correspondant, dont les

Parties à la présente espèceont toutes deux reconnu qu'il constituait la
seconde facedu principe du ((prolongement naturel )):je veux parler du
principedu <non-empiétement )>principefondamentald'équitéquenous
examinerons plus loin.

7. La structuregéologiquedans l'arrêd te 1969
et dans la sentence arbitralede 1977

60. Ilestexactque,commecelaaétéplaidé,laCour,dansledispositif de
son arrêtde 1969,a parlé de ((la structure physique et géologiqueet [des]
ressources naturellesdes zones de plateau continental en cause D.Cepen-
dant, ces élémentsnefigurentpas dans leparagraphe 101C du dispositif,
qui énoncelesprincipeset lesrèglesdu droitinternationalapplicables à la
délimitation entre les Parties, et sont mentionnés indépendamment du
(prolongement naturel à l'alinéaD, quiindique lesfacteurs ((à prendre

enconsidération ))par lesParties (<aucours desnégociations ))Autrement
dit, la Cour n'a pas situéces facteurs physiques et géologiquesparmi les
règlesjuridiques qui régissent oudéterminent la délimitation, contraire-
ment à ce qu'on a prétendu en l'espèce,mais parmi les facteurs que les
Parties pouvaient prendre en considérationen négociantla délimitation
aui les intéresse.

61. La différence est énorme.Les caractéristiquesphysiques - dépres-
sions, chenaux,contours du fond des mers, structures géologiques,etc. -
ne sauraient eneffet suffire àdéterminerleslimitesduplateaucontinental.
De même,sur terre, les accidentsnaturels - vallées, lignesde crête,thal-
wegs fluviaux, etc. - ne peuvent en eux-mêmesfixer les frontières entre
Etats. Si tel étaitle cas, on en reviendrait à la dangereuse doctrine des

((frontières naturelles ))que Rousseau a condamnéeen faisant observer
<<qu'ellesaboutissaient àfairedel'ordrepolitique l'ouvragedelanature )).
Ces accidentsnaturels ne peuvent semuer enfrontièresterrestresque s'ils
ont fait l'objet d'une occupationpar l'homme ou si, par voie convention-
nelle, les Etats limitrophesen ont délibérémenftait leurs frontières poli-
tiques.

62. Or le fond des merset son sous-sol,étant inhabités,nepeuvent être
acquis par voie d'occupation, et les faits politiques et historiquesqui ont and historical factors which have led to the establishment of natural
frontiers on land are not present in the sea-bed. This means that conti-
nental shelf boundaries based solely on geological or geomorphological
facts may only result from the agreement of the interested States, since
thereis no rule of international lawprescribingthe use of thesefeatures as
dividing boundaries. And this is the reason for the distinction in para-

graphs (C) and (D) in the operative part of the 1969Judgment.
63. Likewise, the 1977 award refused to accept the Hurd Deep Fault
Zone as a "feature capable of exercising a material influence on the
determination of the boundary" (para. 107),stating that this feature "is
placed where itis simplyas afact ofnature, and there isno intrinsicreason
why a boundary along that axis should be the boundary" (para. 108).
Moreover, the Court of Arbitration added that :

"to attach critical significance to a physical feature like the Hurd
Deep-Hurd Deep Fault Zone in delimiting the continental shelf
boundary in the present case would run counter to the whole ten-
dency of State practice on the continental sheif in recent years"
(para. 107).

64. When referring to Statepractice the Court of Arbitration probably
had in mind notjust the agreementsmade by Nonvay which disregarded
the Norwegian trough, but also unilateral acts such as decrees and con-
cessions which have been granted by numerous States which disregard
deep depressions,including trenches and submarine canyons, and incor-
porate themas part of their shelf.Thisis thecase,forinstance, of the Soviet
Union, Nonvay off its northern Coast,Brazil, Venezuela, Canada and the
United States off the coasts of California. (Prescott, The Political Geo-
graphy of the Oceans, pp. 159-160and E. D. Brown, The Legal Régime
of Hydrospace, pp. 18ff.)

PARTIII. THE EQUITABLP ERINCIPLE OF NON-ENCROACHMENT

65. In the operative part, letter (C), of its 1969Judgment, the Court
proclaimed the principles of "natural prolongation" and "non-encroach-

ment" as two correlative principles, when it concluded that delimitation
had to be effected :
"in such a way as to leave as much as possible to each Party al1those
parts of thecontinental shelf that constitute a natural prolongation of
its land territory into and under the sea,withoutencroachmenton the
natural prolongation of the land territory of the other" (para. 101(C)

(1)).
66. It is common ground between the Parties that there are here two PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP.IND. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA) 118

présidé àl'établissement desfrontièresnaturellessurterrefont icidéfaut.Il
s'ensuit quec'estseulement par convention entre lesEtats intéressésque le
plateau continental pourrait être délimité surla seule base des éléments
géologiquesougéomorphologiques,puisqu'iln'existeaucune règlededroit
internationalobligeant à seservirdecesaccidents commeligne departage.
Telle est la raison de la distinction faite au paragraphe 101 C et D du

dispositif de l'arrêtde 1969.
63. De mêmed , anssasentencede 1977,letribunalarbitral s'estrefusé à
voir dans la zone de failles de la Fosse centrale une (caractéristique
géographiquequipuisseavoir uneinfluenceréellesurladéterminationdela
limite )(par. 107),ajoutantquecettecaractéristique (setrouve où[elle]est
par un simpleaccident de lanature et [qu']iln'ya en soiaucun motif pour
que cet axe constitue la limite (par. 108).A quoi le tribunal arbitral a
ajouté :

(<attacher une signification déterminante à un élément physique tel
que la Fosse centrale et la zone de failles de la Fosse centrale pour
établir lalimite du plateau continentaldans la présente espèceserait
allerà l'encontre de la tendance générale manifestée par la pratique
des Etats concernant le plateau continental pendant ces dernières
années >(par. 107).

64. En évoquant la pratique des Etats, il est probable que le tribunal
arbitral ne songeaitpas seulement aux accords dela Norvègeoù iln'estpas
tenu comptedela fossenorvégienne,maisaussi à certains actesunilatéraux,
décretsou concessions émanant denombreux Etats quine tiennentaucun
comptedes dépressionsprofondes, fussent-ellesdes fosses ou des canons

sous-marins, etqui lesincorporent à leurplateau. Telestlecaspar exemple
de l'Union soviétique,de laNorvègepour lazone situéeaulargede sacôte
septentrionale, du Brésil,duVenezuela,du Canada,ou desEtats-Unispour
la zone située au large des côtes de Californie (Prescott, The Political
Geographyof the Oceans, p. 159-160,et E. D. Brown, TheLegal Régimeof
Hydrospace, p. 18 et suiv.).

65. Dans sonarrêtde 1969,laCour, auparagraphe 101 Cdu dispositif,a

fait des principes de prolongement naturel Het de (non-empiétement u
deux principescorrélatifs, en indiquant pour conclure que la délimitation
devait s'opérer :
(de manière à attribuer, dans toute la mesure du possible,à chaque

Partie la totalitédes zones du plateau continental qui constituentle
prolongementnaturel de son territoire sousla mer et n'empiètentpas
sur le prolongement naturel du territoire de l'autru (par. 101C 1)).

66. En l'espèce,les Parties s'accordent pour dire qu'il s'agitlà de deuxfundarnental and complementary conditions, since the principle of non-
encroachment isinherent in theprinciple ofnatural prolongation ;the two
are inextricablyinterwoven, and oneis a reflection of the other. However,
the Parties have expressed a fundamental disagreement as to how the
principle of non-encroachment ought to be interpreted.

1. The Parties' DivergentInterpretations
67. Libyaunderstands it isaprohibition upon eitherState crossingover
to the other side of the appropriate line running seaward from the terri-
torial sea-boundary, stating as the rationale of the principle, thus under-

stood, that coastal States will not tolerate a sea-bed area immediately in
front of their coasts being used by a foreign power.

68. Tunisia has taken issue with this interpretation, observing that by
means of a series of semantic shifts, Libya
"goes on to deduce a prohibition against encroachment on areas of
continental shelf in front of the coasts of Libya, which, 1think it will
be agreed, is something quite differentfrom theencroachrnent on the
naturalprolongation. ..Yet theLibyanReplysystematically uses the

expression,encroachment ofthe shelfin front of the Libyan coasts,as
synonymous with encroachment on the natural prolongation of
Libya's land territory".

2. The CorrectIizterpretationof the PrincipIe

69. The solution of this disagreement is to be found in the meaning
which is to be attributed to the correlative notion of "natural prolonga-
tion". If, as stated above, the Court used this expression to describe the
continuation of the coastal front of every coastal State, and not with a
geologicalor geomorphological meaning, then the "non-encroachment" in
front of and closeto theêoastsof a State is thecorrectinterpretation of the
principle. It is true that there may be geographicalconfigurationsin which
a boundary line cannot avoid "cutting across" the coastal front of one
State or of both. But the principle of non-encroachment, being an equi-
table principle, is not a rigid one. It admits a correctiveelement, which is
the factor of distance fromthe Coast.If the above-described geographical
situation occurs, then the "cutting-off" effect should be allowed to take
place at apoint as far asit maybepossible to go,seawards,fromthecoastal
front of the affected State.
70. This interpretation is confirmed by the very raison d'êtreof the
institution of the continental shelf as it appeared and developed in the

middle of the present century. The reason which explains the wide and
imrnediate acceptance of the doctrine was not so much the possibility it
offered of exploitingthe natural resources of the shelf, but rather the fact
that it authorized every coastal State to object to the exploitation of theconditionsfondamentales et complémentaires,leprincipedu non-empié-
tement étantinhérent au principe du prolongement naturel ;et que ces
deuxprincipes sontintimement liés,chacund'eux étantlereflet de l'autre.

Mais elles sont profondément diviséessur l'interprétation à donner au
principe du non-empiétement.

1. Les interprétations divergentes des Parties

67. La Libyevoit dans leprincipe du non-empiétementune interdiction
faite aux Etatsdefranchir laligneappropriéetracéeverslelarge àpartir de
la limite de la mer territoriale, en expliquant que ce principe, dans cette

acception, procède de l'idéeque les Etats côtiers ne sauraient admettre
qu'une étenduede fonds marins situéeimmédiatementdevant leur côte
soit utiliséepar une puissance étrangère.
68. La Tunisie a récusé cetteinterprétation, estimant que, par une série
de glissements sémantiques, la Libye

en déduit immédiatementqu'est prohibé tout empiétementsur les
zones deplateau continental se trouvant devant lescôtes de la Libye,
cequi,on en conviendra, est tout à faitautre chosequ'unempiétement
sur le prolongement naturel ...Pourtant, la répliquelibyenne utilise
systématiquement l'expression (<empiétement sur le plateau situé
devant les côtes libyennes )>comme un synonymed'empiétementsur
le prolongement naturel du territoire de la Libye. )>

2.L'interprétationcorrecteduprincipe

69. C'est en déterminant le sens à attribuer à la notion de (<prolonge-
ment naturel ))que l'onpeut surmontercette divergence. Si,commeon l'a
vu plus haut, la Courentendait désignerpar cette expression la continua-
tion de la façade côtière de chaqueEtat riverain, sanslui donner un sens
géologiqueou géomorphologique,il faut interpréter le principe du <<non-

empiétement )>comme s'appliquant aux zones situées près des côtes des
Etats et devant ces côtes. Il est vrai que l'on rencontre des configurations
géographiques où, inévitablement,la ligne de démarcation (<passe de-
vant )>la façadecôtière de l'un des Etats, ou des deux.Maisle principedu
non-empiétement,en tant queprincipeéquitable,n'estpasrigide :iladmet
un élémentde correction, à savoir la distance de la côte. Si la situation
géographiquequel'onvientd'évoquerseprésente, l' <<fetd'amputation )>
doit êtrerepoussévers le large, aussi loin que possible delafaçadecôtière

de l'Etat affecté.
70. Cette interprétation est confirméepar la raison d'êtrede l'institu-
tion du plateaucontinental, telle que celle-ciest néeet s'estdéveloppée au
milieu de ce siècle.Si cette doctrine a été largementet immédiatement
acceptée,ce n'est pas tellement parce qu'elle permet d'exploiter les res-
sources naturellesdu plateau, mais plutôt parce qu'elleautorisetout Etat
riverainà s'opposer à cequ'un autre Etat entreprenned'exploiterlefond et sea-bed and subsoil in front of its coasts being undertaken by another
State. At that time, only a handful of industrialized States possessed
the technology required for such exploitation. Yet, al1coastal States ac-
cepted the doctrine without hesitation mainly because of its negative

consequences, namely, that it prevented a rush and grab for sea-bed
resources being undertaken by a few States on the basis of the Grotian
dogma of "freedom of the seas". It is for thisreason that the 1958Conven-
tion does not subordinate the acquisition ab initio of sovereign rights to
actual exploitation or occupation, or even to a proclamation of these
rights.

3. The GermanProposa1and theReaction atthe
1958 Conference

71. It is instructive in this connection to recall what happened at the
1958 Conference when the Federal Republic of Germany proposed to
declare that "anyone is free to explore and exploit the subsoil of the sea
outside theterritorial sea" (OfficialRecords,Vol. VI,p. 126).This proposa1
was forcefully and unanimously rejected. The strongest objection was
made by the delegatefrom Peru, who pointed out that such a view :

"would produce the absurd consequence that.a State could exploit the
natural resources of the continental shelf at a short distancefrom the
coast of another State" (ibid., p. 11).

Other delegations criticized the proposa1 on sirnilar grounds, observing
that :

"it was necessary for a coastal State to protect itself against the
possibility that other States might undertake exploitation of its con-
tinental shelf at short distance from its shores" (Lebanon, p. 14)

"There would be a great ado if one State started exploiting the

submarine resources within a very short distance of the coast of
another State without first obtaining its agreement" (Brazil, p. 36)

since

"One of those realities [ofinternational life]was that no State could
countenance the presence of foreigninstallations in a zone immedi-
ately opposite its coastal defences." (Argentine, p. 43.)

In a similar vein, it was pointed out that :

"the exploitation of the natural resources of the continental shelfwas
generally connected with the erection of permanent installations
which necessarily entailed the exerciseof a State'sauthority" (USSR,
P 20)lesous-solde lamer devant sescôtes.Al'époque, seuleune poignéed'Etats
industrialiséspossédaientles techniques nécessaires à cette exploitation.
Cependant, tous les Etats riverains ont acceptéla doctrinesanshésitation
en raison de ses effets négatifs, à savoir qu'elleempêchaitla ruéevers les
ressources desfonds marins à laquellequelques Etats se seraient livrés,au
nom du dogme de la (<liberté desmers cher à Grotius. C'estpour cette
raison quela convention de 1958ne subordonnepas les droits souverains

existant ab initio àl'exploitation ou à l'occupation effective,ni même à la
proclamation desdits droits.

3.La propositionde l'Allemagneet les réactions
de la conférencede 1958

71. Il est instructià cet égardderappeler cequiarriva, à la conférence
de 1958,quand la Républiquefédéraled'Allemagne proposa de déclarer
que chacun peut librement explorer et exploiter le sous-sol maritime en
dehors de la mer territoriale w(Documentsofficiels,vol. VI, p. 146).Cette
proposition fut rejetéecatégoriquementet de manièreunanime. L'objec-

tion la plus fortefut formuléepar le représentant du Pérou,qui souligna
qu'une telle conception :
(<aboutirait à cette conséquenceabsurdequ'un Etat seraitlibre d'ex-

ploiter les ressources naturelles du plateau continental à faible dis-
tance de la côte d'un autre Etat ))(ibid., p. 13).
D'autres délégationscritiquèrent la proposition pour des raisons ana-
logues :

((Il s'agit essentiellement, pour l'Etat riverain, d'empêcherque
d'autres Etats neviennent entreprendre des travauxd'exploitation du
plateau continental à une faible distance de son littoral. ))(Liban,

p. 17.)
((Lefait qu'un Etat semette àexploiterlesressources sous-marines
à une trèsfaibledistance de la côte d'un autre Etat sans avoir obtenu
auparavant la permission de ce dernier pourrait créerde graves pro-
blèmes. ))(Brésil,p. 44.)

En effet :

(L'une[des]réalités[delavieinternationale] est qu'aucun Etat ne
peut admettre la présenced'installations étrangères dans une zone
situéeimmédiatementen face de ses défensescôtières. ))(Argentine,
p. 53.)

On souligna dans le mêmeesprit que :

(<l'exploitation des ressources naturelles de ce plateau suppose en
généralla construction d'installations permanentes qui entraînent
nécessairement l'exercice par un Etat de son autorité )) (URSS,
p. 24).and such exploitation

"might - particularly where the extraction of petroleum was con-
cerned - interfere with depositswithin that territory. Bothlegallyand
politically,the presence of installations belonging to a foreign State
would constitute a constant threat to the securityof thecoastal State"
(Vietnam, p. 24).

72. Already the Truman Proclamationhad invoked in its preamble the
need for "self-protection" which "compels thecoastalnation to keep close
watch over theactivities off its shoreswhich areof the nature necessary for
theutilization of theseresources". There was, therefore, an immediate and
almost instinctive rejection by al1coastal States of the possibility that
foreign States, or foreigncompanies or individuals, might appear in front
of theircoasts, outside theirterritorial seabut at a shortdistancefromtheir
ports and coastal defences, in order to exploit the sea-bedand erect fixed
installations for that purpose.

73. Thus, the fact that a trough or ridge may appear close to the shore-
line of a State, or that the strata of rock may be similar to that of certain
sedimentsinanotherland territory,cannot bevalidgrounds forattributing
a certain area of shelf to a certain State to the detriment of another "in
front ofwhosecoastline it lies" (para. 95of the 1969Judgment).This is the
proper meaning of "natural prolongation" and of the correlativeprinciple
of "non-encroachment" of that natural prolongation.

4. The Principle of Non-Encroachment andIts Effects
in the Present Case

74. In the light of the foregoing, none of the extremepositions claimed
or suggested by the Parties - neither the prolongation northward of the
terminalpoint of the land boundary, nor the eastward line determined by
the crest of the ridges - could be accepted as compatible with the basic
principles of international law on continental shelf delimitation, as
expressed in the concepts of "natural prolongation" and "non-encroach-
ment".

75. Encroachment is particularly to be avoided when a proposed boun-
dary linebrings aforeign State too closeto the main ports of theother. The
reason is that, asJudgeJessup recalled in his separate opinionin the North
Sea Continental Shelf cases, quoting from the German pleadings :

"From the point of view of exploitation and control of such sub-

marine areas, the decisivefactor is not the nearestpoint on the coast,
but the nearest coastal area or port from which exploitation of the
seabed and subsoil can be effected. The distance of an oil, gas or
mineral deposit from the nearest point on the coast is irrelevant for
practical purposes, even for the laying of a pipe-line, if this point on
the coast does not offer any possibilities for setting up a supplybaseUne telle exploitation :
(<pourra - surtout s'il s'agit d'extraction de pétrole - avoir des
répercussionsdéfavorablessurl'exploitationde gisementsdu sous-sol

de ce territoire. Tant du point de vuejuridique quepolitique,la pré-
senced'installationsappartenant àunEtatétrangerconstituerauneme-
nace constantepour la sécuritédel'Etat riverain. (VietNam, p. 29.)

72. DéjàlaproclamationTruman avait invoquédans son préambulela
nécessité d'une <<autoprotection )qui <<obligeYEtatriverain à surveillerde
prèsles activités aularge de ses côtes, nécessairepour l'utilisation de ces
ressources ))On constatedonc un rejet immédiatetpresqueinstinctif,par
tous lesEtats riverains, del'idéeque desEtatsétrangers,dessociétés ou des
personnes privéesétrangèrespuissent se présenterdevant leurs côtes, en

dehors de la mer territoriale mais à faibledistance desports et desdéfenses
côtières,pour exploiterlefond desmersetédifier àcettefin desinstallations
fixes.
73. Ainsi, le fait qu'une faille ou qu'une dorsalesoitproche du littoral
d'unEtat, ouque lesstrates rocheusessoientsemblables à certaines couches
sédimentairesappartenant à un autre territoire terrestre, ne saurait légi-

timerl'attribution d'unecertaineétenduedeplateau àunEtat audétriment
d'un autre, si celui-ci est l(<pays [riverain]devant [les]côtes >)duquel se
trouve cetteétendue(cf.par. 95 del'arrêtde 1969).Tel est le sensjuste du
(<prolongement naturel )etduprincipe corrélatifdu (<non-empiétement >)
sur ce prolongement naturel.

4.Le principe du non-empiétementet ses effets en l'espèce

74. Compte tenu de ce qui précède,aucune des positions extrêmes

adoptéesou suggéréep sar lesParties - qu'ils'agissedu prolongement vers
lenord àpartir dupoint terminal delafrontièreterrestre, ou delalignevers
l'estdéfiniepar la crêtedes dorsales - ne saurait être tenuepour compa-
tible avec les principes fondamentaux du droit international en matière
de délimitation du plateau continental, tels qu'ils s'expriment dans les
concepts de (prolongement naturel et de <non-empiétement o.

75. L'empiétementest tout spécialement à éviterquandon envisageune
limite qui rapprocherait à l'excès unEtat des principaux ports de l'autre.
La raison en est que, comme M. Jessup l'a rappelé dans son opinion
individuelle dans les affaires du Plateau continentalde la mer du Nord, en
citant les écritures allemandes :

(Du point de vue del'exploitationet du contrôlede telles régions
sous-marines, le facteur décisifn'est pas lepoint le plus proche de la
côte,maislazonecôtièrelaplusprocheou leport leplus proched'où il
estpossible de procéder à l'exploitation dulitdela mer et du sous-sol.
La distancequi sépareune nappe de pétroleou de gaz naturel ou un

gisement de minerai du point le plus proche de la côte est sans
importance dans la pratique, mêmepour la pose d'un pipe-line, si ce point de la côte n'offre aucunepossibilité decréerunebase d'appro-
visionnement, d'installer une station de forage ou de débarquer le
produit d'extraction. (C.I.J. Recueil 1969,p. 67-68.)

Les deux limites suggérées dans les mémoiresdes Parties se rapprochent
exagérémentdes principaux ports qui servent de base pour leurs activités
respectives d'exploitation en mer :Sfax sur la côte tunisienne,Tripoli sur
la côte libyenne.
76. Ilyadonc lieu de rechercher quels autresprincipeset règlesde droit
international existant en la matière permettraient une solution intermé-

diairequi, tout en respectant les principes du ((prolongementnaturel )et
du < <on-empiétement ))correctement entendus, assurerait un équilibre
mieuxappropriéetpluséquitableentre lesprétentionsetintérêtsrespectifs
des Parties.

1.Existence de droits depêche historiques

77. L'une descirconstancespertinentes pour délimiterleplateau conti-
nental dont il s'agiten l'espèce est l'existencede droits historiques sur les
pêcheries d'éponges. LT aunisiea invoquédes droits de pêchehistoriques
pourdeuxcatégoriesdepêcheries :lespêcheriessédentairesd'épongesetles
pêcheriesutilisant desinstallations fixes dans les hauts-fonds prochesdes
îles Kerkennah et sur les bancs d'El-Biban. Seule la première catégorie
intéressela délimitation,carla seconde est situéetrop près descôtespour
l'influencer.LaLibyen'apascontestél'existencedesdroitsde laTunisiesur

les pêcheries d'éponges.
78. Bienquecesoit la Tunisiequiait leplusinsistésurlapertinencedes
droits historiques relatifs aux pêcheriesd'éponges, la Libye a elle aussi
établiqu'ellepossèdeet exerce des droits identiquespour la pêche séden-
taire aux éponges au large des côtes de la Tripolitaine. Les pêcheurs
tripolitains exploitent depuis 1893au moins lesbancs d'éponges situésau
largede cescôtesetl'Italie ainvoquéetexercédesdroitsde surveillancesur
cespêcheriesaprèsavoir annexélaTripolitaineen 1911.En établissantson
autoritésur cetteprovince,leGouvernementitaliena réglementé la pêche
aux éponges sur les côtes par des méthodes analogues à celles que le

protectorat français avaitadoptéesen Tunisie. Cesdroits sur la pêcheaux
épongesont étéreconnuspar les autorités du protectorat français,qui ont
déclaréque les (deux nations intéresséesont le droit strict d'exercerune
surveillance surlesbancs d'épongessituésbien au-delàdeslimitesde leurs
eaux territoriales )).

2. Pertinence des droitsdepêche historiquepsour la délimitation
duplateau continental

79. D'une manièregénérale, l'existence de droits de pêche historiques
constitue une circonstance spécialepertinente aux fins de la délimitation123 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP. OP. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA)

préparatoires of Article 6 of the 1958 Convention, where the notion of
"special circumstances" originated, leave no doubt that fishery rights in
general were then consideredas one of the "special circumstances" which
might influence delimitation. (Official Records of the 1958 Conference,
Vol. VI, p. 93.)

80. The argument has been propounded that the 1958Convention on
the Territorial Sea and the Continental Shelf, as well as the Third
UNCLOS draft convention refer to historic rights only in the context of
territorial sea delimitation, but not of that of the continental shelf. The
explanation, however,is simple. It is not that historicrights are irrelevant
or unimportant for shelf delimitation, but that there are, in this case,
besides the historic factor, other special circumstances equally relevant.
Consequently, the historic factor is included in the wider formula of
"special circumstances", asthe travauxpréparatoires of 1958indicate, and
is undoubtedly contained within the broad terms of the Special Agree-
ment : "the relevant circumstances which characterize the area ".

81. And the relevance of historicrights with respect to sponge fisheries

is decisivein this particular case,when account is taken of the fact that the
taking of spongesadhering to the sea-bedconstitutes a form of exploita-
tion of one of the natural resources of the shelf, according to Article 2,
paragraph 4, of the Continental ShelfConvention - aprovision which the
Court found in 1969to be part of customaryinternational law.The taking
of sponges, as of other living resources permanently attached to the sea-
bed at the harvestable stage was considered by the International Law
Commission and defined in the 1958 Convention, not as a sedentary
fishery, but as a form of shelf exploitation,as much as is the extraction of
oil or of gas. Consequently,the taking of sponges in the area was really an
exploitation of shelf resources, whichbegan in TunisiaandTripolitania in
the last century, and continued into the present century, thus long ante-
dating the Truman proclamation.

82. It has been contended, however, that since continental shelf rights
are defined as rights owned "ab initio", then those histori'crights which

were acquired before the Truman proclamation should be set aside, and
denied the nature of continental shelf rights,since they werenot acquired
"ab initio" but from occupation. This objection is fallacious. Naturally,
rights with respect to sponge fisheries could only result from occupation
because the "abinitioY'doctrinedidnot appear until1958. It wasadopted at
the Geneva Conference as a means of protectingcoastal States which had
not madeaproclamation oftheircontinental shelfrightsandhad nomeans
of exploring or exploitingtheir resources. However, when the continental
shelf doctrine was first enunciated, its proponents, including President
Truman's advisers, found support in the existence of historic fisheries
involving exploitation of natural resourcesattached to the sea-bed.A new PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP.IND. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA) 123

du plateau continental. Les travauxpréparatoires relatifs àl'article6 de la

convention de 1958,oùla notion de ((circonstancespertinentes ))trouveson
origine,ne laissentd'ailleurssubsisteraucun doute surlefait que lesdroits
de pêche étaient considérés à l'époquecomme l'une des (circonstances
pertinentes )influençant la délimitation (conférencede 1958,Documents
officiels,ol. VI, p. 93).
80. Il est vrai qu'on a soutenu que les conventions de 1958sur la mer
territorialeet leplateau continental, ainsique leprojet deconventionde la
troisièmeconférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, ne men-

tionnent les droits historiques qu'à propos de la délimitation de la mer
territoriale, et non pas de la délimitation du plateau continental. Mais
l'explication est simple : ce n'est pas que les droits historiques soient
dépourvusde pertinence ou d'importance pour la délimitationdu plateau,
mais qu'il existedans ce cas, outre l'élément historique, d'autrescircons-
tancesspécialesnonmoinspertinentes.L'élémenthistoriqueestdoncinclus
dans la formuleplus générale des <(circonstances spéciales O,comme l'in-
diquent les travaux préparatoires de 1958,et il rentre assurément dans le

champdes termestrèslargesducompromis les (circonstancespertinentes
propres à la région )).
81. Lapertinencedesdroitshistoriquesrelatifs auxpêcheries d'éponges
estdécisiveenl'espècec,arlaprisedesépongesfixées surlefond delamer est
uneformed'exploitation del'une desressources naturelles du plateau, aux
termes de l'article2, paragraphe 4, de la convention sur le plateau conti-
nental, disposition qui, la Cour l'a jugé en 1969, fait partie du droit
international coutumier. La prise des éponges,de mêmeque celle des

autres ressources vivantes fixées enpermanence sur le lit de la mer au
moment où elles peuvent êtrepêchéesa , été considérépear la Commis-
sion du droit international et définiedans la convention de 1958 non
pas comme une pêcherie sédentaire,mais comme une forme d'exploita-
tion du plateau, à l'égalde l'extraction du pétrole ou du gaz. La prise des
épongesdans cette zone représente donc une véritable exploitation des
ressources du plateau, qui a commencé enTunisie et en Tripolitaine au

cours du siècledernier pour continuer au XXesiècle,bien avant la procla-
mation Truman.
82. On a soutenu aussi que, comme par définition les droits sur le
plateau continental appartiennent à l'Etat ab initio, les droits historiques
acquis avant laproclamation Truman devaientêtrerejetéset ne pouvaient
êtrequalifiéd se droitssur leplateau continental, n'ayant pas été acquis ab
initio, mais par occupation. L'objection est fallacieuse. Les droits sur la
pêcheauxépongesnepouvaient évidemmentrésulterque del'occupation,

puisque la doctrine «ab initio ))est apparue en 1958seulement,quand la
conférence de Genève l'a adoptée pour protégerles Etats côtiers qui
n'avaient pas proclamé leurs droits sur le plateau et n'avaient pas les
moyens d'en prospecter et d'en exploiter les ressources. Mais cela n'em-
pêchepas que,lorsque la doctrineduplateau continental aétédéfiniepour
la première fois, ses auteurs, parmi lesquels les conseillers du président
Truman, se sont appuyés sur l'existencedes pêcherieshistoriques exploi-legalconcept,consistingin thenotion introduced in 1958that continental
shelf rights are inherent or "ab initio", cannot by itself have the effect of
abolishing or denyingacquired and existingrights. That would be contrary
to elementary legalnotions and to basicprinciples of intertemporal law. It

would be absurd to contend that the Truman proclamation or the 1958
Convention abolished or disregarded pre-existing rights over the conti-
nental shelf, when, on the contrary, they embodied or assimilated those
rights into the new doctrine.

83. Other minor objections have been made with respect to the rele-
vance and decisive character which must be attributed in this case to the
taking of sponges from the sea-bed. It has been pointed out that these
activities werecarried out not by nationals of the Tunisian Protectorate or
ofTripolitania but mostlyby foreigners.This doesnot mean,however,that
sovereign rights of the respective countries are not involved. Gas and oil
exploration and exploitation are likewisegenerally carried out by foreign
companies ; yet no one denies the sovereign rights of the coastal State
which has granted the required concessions, licences or permits for those
activities.
84. A similar objection is that sponge taking was only carried out in

certain sparsely located banks. However, minera1 resources are also
extracted from certain sparselylocated wells, but the sovereign rights of
the coastal State extend to the whole area over which explorationpermits
are granted. In both cases what determines the political and economic
interests of the coastal State is the control over offshore resources, rather
than the control over an area.

3. The Tunisian Claimfora ZV 45" Line

85. The conclusion to be drawn from the foregoing is that there was in
the area to be delimited an exploitation of shelf resources which was
carried out in parallel by two sovereignties : Tunisia under French pro-
tectorate and Tripolitania under Italian administration. It was a conti-
guous shelf exploitation, and, as a consequence of the frequent problems
that inevitably arose, a modus vivendiwas reached, which constituted in

fact a tacit shelf delimitation.

86. Tunisia has claimed that the area of its historic fisheryrights over
sponges "is definedlaterally on the sidetowards Libya by theline ZV45""
(Submission 1.2).It is true that in 1902the Tunisian authorities claimed
that line as theeasternmost lateral limit of their "zonedesurveillance"over
sponge fisheries.The recordpresented to the Court explains,however, the
reason why theFrench authorities claimed theZV45" linebefore 1910but
dropped that claim in 1911and afterwards. When the French authorities
thought, before 1910,that the land frontier would follow the Wadi Fassi,
the prolongation of that boundary into the sea had a 45" angulation (astant les ressources naturelles fixéessur lelit de la mer. Une idéejuridique
nouvelle,comme lanotion introduite en 1958selonlaquellelesdroits surle
plateau sont inhérents ou existent ab initio,ne peut à elle seule abolir ou
exclure des droits acquis et existants. Ce serait faire fi des conceptions
juridiques les plus élémentaires et des principes fondamentaux du droit
intertemporel. 11serait absurde de soutenir que la proclamation Truman

ou la convention de 1958 ont aboli ou écartéles droits préexistants sur le
plateau continental, alorsqu'au contraire cesdeux textes ont eu pour effet
d'incorporer ces droits à la nouvelle doctrine ou de les lui assimiler.
83. D'autres objections, moins importantes, ont étéformuléecsontre la
pertinence et le caractère déterminantqu'il faut attribuer en l'espèceà la
prise des épongessur le lit de la mer. On a fait observer par exemple que
cetteactivitéétaitmoinslefaitdesressortissantsduprotectorat tunisien ou
de la Tripolitaine que des étrangers. Il ne faudrait cependant pas en
conclureque les pays intéressésn'exercent pas des droits souverains dans
ce domaine :la prospection et l'exploitation des ressources en gaz et en
pétrolesont elles aussi en généralle fait de sociétésétrangères, et nul ne
conteste pour autant les droits souverainsde 1'Etatcôtier qui accorde les
concessions, licences ou permis nécessaires à ces activités.

84. On a soulignéaussique lesépongesne sont pêchéeq sue surcertains
bancs, très espacés.Cependant, les ressources minérales sont elles aussi
extraites d'un certain nombre de puits très espacéset cela n'empêchepas
lesdroitssouverains del'Etat côtier de s'étendresurl'ensembledelarégion
que visent les permis d'exploration. Dans les deux cas, les intérêts poli-
tiqueset économiquesde YEtatcôtiersont déterminéspar lecontrôle qu'il
exerce sur les ressources situées en meret non pas sur une zone particu-
lière.

3.L'argument tunisien relatifà la ligne ZV 45"
85. La conclusion à tirer de ce qui précèdeest que, dans la région à
délimiter,les activités d'exploitation des ressources du plateau ont été
poursuivies parallèlement par deux entités souveraines :la Tunisie, sous

protectorat français, et la Tripolitaine,soumise à l'administration ita-
lienne.Il s'agissaitd'exploiterun plateau dans une situation de contiguïté,
et les problèmes qui ne manquaient pas de surgir ont amenéles Parties à
s'entendre sur un modus vivendireprésentantenfait unedélimitationtacite
du plateau.
86. LaTunisieasoutenu que lazone à l'intérieur delaquelleellepossède
des droits de pêchehistoriques <est définielatéralement, du côté libyen,
parla ligne ZV45" n(conclusion 1.2).11est vrai que, dès1902,lesautorités
tunisiennesontentendufaire decette lignelalimiteorientale de leur <zone
de surveillance >)sur les pêcheriesd'éponges. Cependant, les documents
soumis à la Cour expliquentpourquoi les autorités françaises,qui avaient
revendiqué la ligne ZV 45 "jusqu'en 1910,ont abandonné cette revendi-
cation en 191 1et par la suite. En effet,avant 1910,les autorités françaises

pensaientquelafrontière terrestresuivraitl'oued Fessietleprolongementshown by Map No. 8 in the Libyan Memorial). But when the French
authorities succeededin 1910in extendingthe land frontier to theWadiEl
Mokta, the prolongation of that new land frontier into the sea had a
different and considerably smaller angulation and the thesis of the pro-
longation of the land frontier was no longer convenient to Tunisia. This
wasthereason givenbytheResident-GeneralinTunisiain a letter to Prime

Minister and ForeignMinisterDoumergue, tojustify hisrecommendation
not to insist on the 45" line based on the prolongation of the land fron-
tier.

4. The Orfeo Incident : FrenchProtest and Italian Answer

87. The record also shows that after the annexation of Tripolitania by

Italy, the Tunisian claim for a ZV 45" line was consistently and firmly
opposedby the Italian authorities,and that suchoppositionresultedinthe
establishment of a régimedifferent from that of the ZV 45" line. An
importantpart of that record is the correspondence filed by Libya relating
to the incident between Tunisian and Italian authorities arising out of the
arrest of three Greek fishing boats possessing Tunisian fishing licences,
madeby the Italian torpedo boat Orfeoon 26August 1913.The arrest was
made at a point 11 42' 14"east of the Greenwichmeridian, that is to Say,
within the ZV 45" line claimed by Tunisia.

88. The French authorities, through their embassy in Rome, presented
to the Italian Foreign Ministry a forma1protest stating that "the sponge-
bank where the Greek vessels werecarrying on their trade belongs to the
body of banks over which the Tunisian Fisheries Department exercise
surveillance". In consequence, the Note Verbale added that :

"the Government of the Protectorate can in these circumstances only
maintain its assertion of its rights, which are directlyinfringed by the
seizureof vesselsfishing with aTunisian licenceona bank recognized
to be Tunisian".

89. The answer to the preceding communication was given by the
Italian Government in a Note Verbale of 2 October 1913 which reads
in part :

"Sincea delimitation must existbetween the water, and the sponge-
banks thereof, appertaining to the Regency of Tunis and those of
Tripolitania, the Ministry of Colonieshas instructed the Governor of
Tripolitania, for the time being and awaiting for the question to be
settled by agreement between the two Governments, to limit his
jurisdiction on sponge-fishing westwards within a straight line that,
starting from thecoastalboundary point with Tunisia, extends on thede cettedélimitationdans lamer formait un anglede45" (commel'indique
la carte no8 du mémoirede la Libye). Mais, en 1910,quand les autorités

françaises ont réussi à reporter la frontière terrestre jusqu'à l'oued El
Mokta, l'angle formépar le prolongement de cette nouvelle frontière est
devenu beaucoup plus aigu, et la thèse du prolongement de la frontière
terrestre n'a plus fait l'affaire de la Tunisie. Telle est la raison que le
résidentgénéralen Tunisie invoquait dans une lettre au président Dou-
mergue, àl'époqueprésidentdu Conseil etministredesaffairesétrangères,
à l'appui de sa recommandation de ne pas insister sur la ligne des 45O,
fondéesur le prolongement de la frontière terrestre.

4.L'incident del'orfeo :laprotestation de la France
et la réponse del'Italie

87. Il ressort aussi du dossierqu'après l'annexionde laTripolitaine par
l'Italie, la revendication tunisienne relative la ligne ZV 45" se heurta à
l'opposition systématiqueet résolue des autorités italiennes, et que cette

opposition aboutit à l'établissement d'un régimd eifférent de celui de la
ligne ZV 45". La documentation dont il s'agit est constituéeen grande
partie par lacorrespondance, verséeauxdébatspar la Libye, qui porte sur
l'incident survenu entre les autorités tunisienneset italiennesaprès que,le
26 août 1913,le torpilleur italien Orfeo eut arraisonné trois bateaux de
pêchegrecstitulairesde permis depêchetunisiens.L'arraisonnement avait
eu lieu en un point situé à 11 42' 14" à l'est du méridiende Greenwich,
c'est-à-dire en deçà de la ligne ZV 45" revendiquéepar la Tunisie.
88. Les autoritésfrançaises,agissant par l'intermédiaire deleurarnbas-

sade à Rome, adressèrent au ministèreitalien des affaires étrangères une
note verbale où il était indiqué que (<le banc d'épongesoù les barques
grecques selivraient à leur industrie appartientà l'ensembledesbancs sur
lesquels le service des pêchesde Tunisie exerce sa surveillance o.La note
verbale ajoutait :

(<le gouvernement du Protectorat ne peut, dans ces conditions, que
maintenir l'affirmation de ces droits auxquels la capture de barques
pêchantavec une patente tunisienne sur un banc réputé comme
tunisien porterait une atteinte directe)).

89. Le Gouvernement italien répondit à cette communication par une
note verbale du 2 octobre 1913,où figure le passage suivant :

(Commeune délimitation doit exister entre les eaux relativement
aux bancs d'épongesdépendant de la Régencede Tunis et ceux
dépendant de la Tripolitaine, le ministèredes colonies a donnépour
instruction au gouverneur de la Tripolitaine de limiter, pour le
moment et en attendant que la question soit régléeentre les deux
gouvernements, sajuridiction, en ce qui touche la pêchedes éponges
vers le couchant, àune ligne droite qui, partant d'un point de la côte sea normally to the direction of the coast at that point. That line,
bearing approximately north-northeast, would appear provisionally
to settle the question in the most natural and equitable way without
compromising, even in a seaward direction, the rights of the two
Governments over the sponge-banks appertaining to each of them
respectively."

90. The record doesnot contain any reply fromthe Tunisian authorities
to this communication. However, Libya has furnished two documents
from French archives which explain why no answer was given.The first is
an officia1letter of 2 February 1914fromthe Resident-GeneralinTunis to
the French PrimeMinisterand Ministerfor ForeignAffairs, M. Doumer-
gue, referring to the arrests made by the Orfeo,where he examines "the
position of the point of capture in relation to the imaginaryline marking
the maritime boundary of Tunisian and Tripolitanian waters". The Resi-
dent-General comparesthe ZV45" linewith the Italian line"starting from
the Tunisian frontier and extending seawards NNE at right angles to the
direction of thecoast at this point", asserting that "the discrepancy of 23"
between the Italian and Tunisian delimitations is of some importance".
This constitutes a significantrecognitionby the French authorities of the
fact that theperpendicular lineproposed by the Italian administration was
that of 22". The officia1 Note concludes by saying :

"There would thus be an evident advantage if the French Govern-
ment could causethe RoyalGovernment to accept as the limit of the
Tuniso-Tripolitan waters a line starting from the frontier pyramid
taking the direction N 45" E, but the question is not sufficiently im-
portant for us to insist on the maintenance of a possession which is
not supported by tangible signs, and we can dono more than refer to
Your Excellency'sjudgment as to whether one should not accept as
theoffshoreboundary ('frontière demer')thelineperpendicular to the
general direction of the coast which has been indicated by Italy, as

being a rational solution to a dispute which it is important to settle
and for which the evidence is not sufficiently precise."

91. Libya has also presented a persona1letter dated 29 January 1914,
from the Resident-General to the French PrimeMinisterand Minister for
ForeignAffairs, M. Doumergue, where, referringto the preceding officia1
communication, he states that he had examined with Navy experts

"the question of our maritime frontier, and we agreed that it was
necessary to modify the conclusion in the report which is to be
addressed to you, and which, whenin the form of a minute, called on
you to insist that our line should be made to prevail over the Italian
line". servant de frontière avec la Tunisie, se prolongerait en mer norma-
lement à la direction de la côteencepoint. Cette ligne,orientée à peu

prèsN.N.E., semblerésoudreprovisoirement la question de la façon
la plus naturelle et équitable sans compromettre, mêmeau large, les
droits des deux gouvernements sur les bancs d'éponges qui leur
appartiennent respectivement. ))

90. On ne trouve dans le dossier aucune réponse des autorités tuni-
siennes à cette communication. Mais la Libye a produit deux documents
extraitsdes archivesfrançaises,qui, selonelle,expliqueraientcetteabsence
de réponse.Le premier est une lettre officielle du 2février1914,adressée
par le résident général à Tunis au président Doumergue, à l'époque pré-
sident du Conseil et ministre des affaires étrangères, à propos des arrai-
sonnements effectuéspar l'Orfeo,dans laquellelerésident généralexami-
nait <<la position du point de saisie par rapport à la ligne virtuelle indi-
quant en mer la limite des eauxtuniso-tripolitaines u. Le résident général,
comparant la ligne ZV 45" avecla ligne italienne <(partant de la frontière

tunisienne et se prolongeant en mer vers le N.N.E., normalement à la
direction de lacôte en cepoint ))affirmait dans cettelettre que((l'écart de
23" qui existe entre les délimitationsitalienne et tunisiennea une certaine
importance o. 11y a là un fait important, car les autorités françaises
reconnaissaient ainsi que la ligne perpendiculaire proposée par le Gou-
vernement italien était celle des 22". La note officielle concluait en ces
termes :

(<Il y aurait donc un intérêt éviden àt ce que le Gouvernement
français pût amenerle Gouvernement royal àaccepter comme limite
des eaux tuniso-tripolitaines une ligne partant de la pyramide fron-
tière, et orientée vers le N. 45" E., mais la question n'a pas une
importance assez grande pour que nous insistions pour le maintien
d'une possession qui n'estpas étayée par des signestangibles,et nous
nepouvons que nousen rapporter à Votre Excellencedu soindejuger

s'iln'yapas lieu d'accepter comme frontièrede mer lalimitenormale
à la direction généralede la côte, indiquée par l'Italie, comme une
solution rationnelle d'un différend qu'ilimporte de résoudre et pour
lequel les élémentsd'appréciation ne sont pas d'une précision suffi-
sante. ))

91. La Libye a égalementproduit une lettre personnelle en date du
29janvier 1914dans laquelle le résident générals,e référant àla commu-
nication officielleprécédente, indiquait au présidentdu Conseil, ministre
des affaires étrangères, qu'il avait examinéavec des experts de la ma-
rine

<<la question de notre frontièrede mer, et nous avonsreconnu qu'ily
avait lieudemodifier laconclusiondu rapportqui vavousêtreadressé
etqui, enminute, vous demandait d'insisterpour faireprévaloir notre
tracé surle tracé italienr).The following reason is stated in explanation of this change of posi-
tion :

"Our line was roughly the prolongation of Ourland frontier. How-
ever,when that frontier was modified by theTreaty of Tripoli, wedid
not prolong the new line seaward. If the Italians were to draw it, the
line would be moreadvantageous to them than aperpendicular to the
generaldirection of the coast. It would givethem part of the channel
leading to the pocket of 3-metre depths, whereas at present they
regard as theirs part of the pocket, but none of the channel."

5. The French-Italian'Modus Vivendi"

92. In the light of these documents,counselfor Libyacontended in the
hearings that "the situation whichhad arisen following the Italian Note of
1913and the silenceobserved by the Franco-Tunisians" signified that the
provisional solution suggested by Italy "had been tacitly accepted by the
Franco-Tunisians". Undoubtedly the French PrimeMinister and Minster
for Foreign Affairs, advised by the French Resident-General in Tunisia,
was fullycompetent to decide not to insist on the diplomaticclaim which

had been submitted to the Italian Government and thus tacitlyacceptthe
Italian proposal.A further indication of the tacit acceptance of the Italian
line is that the Italian instructions of 16April 1919,on the surveillance of
maritime fishing in the waters of Tripolitania and Cyrenaicaprovided in
Article3 that :
"As far as the sea border between Tripolitania and Tunisia is
concerned, it was agreedto adopt as a line of delirnitation the line
perpendicular to the coast at the border point, which is, in this case,

theapproximate bearing north-northeast fromRas Ajdir." (Emphasis
added.)
Ttis significant that on the frontier of Cyrenaica with Egypt the sarne
Article establishes a line east-north-east but no mention is made of the
existence of an agreement.
93. Counsel for Tunisia, in replying to these contentions, pointed out
that the Italian Instructions of 1919created on each of the Tunisian and
Egyptian borders of Libya a buffer zone in the following terms :

"1 establish that the lines of delirnitation mentioned above be
moved in a direction parallel to their own selves,until the first shall
have as itspoint of origin Ras Makabez l... In such away there will
be two areas of about eight miles each, the one toward Tunisia,
included within the two lines with a NNE direction, passing one
through Ras Ajdir and the other through Ras Makabez ; and that
toward Egypt ..."

Ras Makabez is located seven nautical miles east of Ras Ajdir.

113La raison avancéepour ce changement d'attitude était la suivante :

((Notre tracéétait àpeu prèsleprolongement de notre frontièrede
terre. Mais quand cettefrontièreaétémodifiéepar letraitéde Tripoli

nous n'avons pas prolongéen mer la nouvelle ligne. Si les Italiens le
faisaient le tracé seraitplus avantageuxpour eux que la normale à la
direction généralede la côte. Il leur donnerait une partie de la passe
quiconduit àla pochedesfonds de 3mètres,tandis qu'en cemoment
ils s'attribuent une partie de la poche mais rien de la passe. >)

5.Le modus vivendifranco-italien
92. Surlafoi de cesdocuments, les conseilsde la Libye ont soutenuque

(la situation qui s'était créé àela suitede la note verbaleitaliennede 1913
et du silence gardé par les Franco-Tunisiens ))signifiait que la solution
provisoire suggéréepar l'Italie (avait été tacitement acceptéepar les
Franco-Tunisiens )).Il est certain que le président du Conseil français,
ministredesaffairesétrangères,sur l'avisdu résidentgénéralde Franceen
Tunisie, avait toute compétence pour décider de ne pas insister sur la
demande diplomatique présentée au Gouvernement italien et d'accepter

tacitement la proposition de l'Italie. Cette acceptation tacite de la ligne
italienne est d'ailleurs attestéepar l'article 3desinstructionsitaliennesdu
16avril 1919sur la surveillance de la pêchemaritime dans les eaux de la
Tripolitaine et de la Cyrénaïque, aux termes duquel :

En cequi concernelafrontièremaritime entrela Tripolitaineet la
Tunisie, il a étéconvenu d'adopter comme ligne de délimitation la
perpendiculaire à la côte tiréeau point frontière soit, dans le cas
présent, la direction approximativenord-nord-est en partant de Ras
Ajdir. ))(1talique ajouté.)

On remarquera que, pour la frontière de la Cyrénaïqueavec l'Egypte, le
mêmearticle établissaitune ligne nord-nord-est, mais sans faire mention
d'aucun accord.
93. En réponse à ces arguments, les conseils de la Tunisie ont souligné
que les instructions italiennes de 1919créaient,dans les termes suivants,
deux zones tampons, l'une sur la frontière tunisienne et l'autre sur la

frontière égyptienne :
Je décide que les lignes de délimitation susmentionnées seront
déplacéesparallèlement à elles-mêmejsusqu'à ce que la première ait

pour point d'origine Ras Makabez l..Deux zones d'environ 8milles
chacuneseront ainsi délimitées.La première,du côtédela Tunisie, se
trouvera comprise entre les deux lignes de direction N.N.E., l'une
passant par RasAjdiretl'autre par RasMakabez. La seconde,du côté
de 1'Egypte ...))

'Ras Makabez se trouve à environ 7 milles marins à l'est de Ras Ajdir.Counsel also stated that

"If one carefully examines the extent of this buffer zone and com-
pares it with the ZV 45", it will be found that the zone in question
covered almost the whole sea area adjacent to the ZV 45" line."
He then argued that :

"in its concern to avoidconflictswithTunisia, Italy attributed to the
area claimed by its neighboura specialnature, a nature differentfrom
that of the waters over which the Italian authorities intended to
exercisetheirfull sovereignty.In that areaItalian shipscouldnot seize
foreign fishing boats."

In conclusion, he asserted that :
"these instructions were the result of the firm attitude of the French
authorities, and the subsequent desire of Italy to find what it called a
provisional solution, a compromise. This compromise, which was
lacking in certitude but was nevertheless fruitful, since no further

incident occurred, was to continue until the end of the second world
war."
94. In analysingmore deeply thenature ofwhat counsel for Tunisiahad
describedas aprovisionalsolution or a compromise which lasted until the
end of the Second World War, counsel for Libya observed that the Italian
Instructions provided with respect to the buffer zones that :

"in these two areas, although the conditions for prohibition of fishing
and the right to perform an on board inspection are stillstanding, the
boats flying a foreign flag and not in possession of the Italian mari-
time authorities' permit shall not be seized,but rather ordered away,
unless the position of the site within the borders where such boats
were fishing illegally can be demonstrated in an irrefutable manner
even afterwards".

Consequently,the buffer zone was not excluded from Italian naval juris-
diction, since foreignboats could be detained and inspected and ordered
off, ''whichcertainlypresupposed that the waters of the buffer zone were
Italian waters, because you may only order a vesse1out of a zone which
belongs to YOU".Furthermore, if the incident had occurred beyond al1
doubt within the limits, the Italian naval units "were under orders to
proceed to seizure ;the tolerance wasnot tocontinue if thelocation of the

infringement had been irrefutably established".
95. Both Parties thus recognized before the Court that a defacto com-
promise, a provisional solution or "modusvivendi"had been achieved by
means of the buffer zone. But clearly the buffer zone proclaimed in the
Italian Instructions presupposed the existence of Tripolitanian and not
Tunisian jurisdiction up to the end of that buffer zone, that is to Say, Selon les conseils de la Tunisie :
((Sil'on regardede près l'étenduede cette zone tampon, et qu'onla
compare avec la ZV45", on constate que la zone en question recou-

vrait presque toute l'aire de la mer adjacente à la ligne ZV45'. ))
Les conseils ont soutenu ensuite que

<(dans le souci d'éviter des conflitsavec la Tunisie, l'Italie avait
attribué à la zonerevendiquéepar son voisin un caractère spécial,un
caractère différentde celui des eaux sur lesquelles les autorités ita-
liennes entendaient exercer la plénitude de leur souveraineté.Dans

cette zone, lesnavires italiens ne pouvaient séquestrerles bateaux de
pêche étrangers. )>

Et ils ont conclu
((Ces instructions furent dictéespar la fermeté desautorités fran-
çaiseset ledésirconsécutif de l'Italiede trouver cequ'elleappelaitune

solution provisoire, de compromis. Ce compromis incertain, mais
fructueux, puisque nul incident ne seproduit alors, survivrajusqu'au
terme de la seconde guerre mondiale.

94. Analysant plus avant la nature de ce que les conseils de la Tunisie
avaient présenté commeune solution provisoire ou de compromis ayant
duréjusqu'à la fin de la seconde guerre mondiale, les conseils dela Libye
ont rappeléque, pour les zones tampons, les instructions italiennes stipu-
laient ce qui suit :

((A l'intérieurde cesdeuxzones, lesconditions d'interdiction de la
pêche etle droit de procéder à une inspection à bord resteront vala-
bles. Néanmoins les bateaux battant pavillon étranger et non munis

du permis délivré par les autoritésmaritimes italiennes ne seront pas
saisis mais éloignés, à moins qu'il ne soit démontréde manière irré-
futable (et sibesoin aprèscoup)quecesbateauxpratiquant une pêche
illicite se trouvaient bien dans la zone délimitée. ))

La zone tampon n'étaitdonc pas excluedela juridiction navale italienne,
puisque les bateaux étrangers pouvaient êtrearraisonnés, inspectés et
éloignés, ((cequi suppose bien que leseaux de la zone tampon étaient des
eaux italiennes, car on n'éloigne quelqu'un qued'une zone qui vous
appartient )).De plus, si l'incident s'étaitproduit sans doute possible à

l'intérieur deslimites,lesunités italiennes avaientl'ordredeprocéder à la
capture ...la tolérance [devant]cesser sile lieu de l'infraction étaitétabli
d'une manièreirréfutable )).
95. Lesdeux Parties ont ainsireconnu devant laCour qu'un compromis
de facto ou une solution transitoire avaient ététrouvés grâce à la zone
tampon. Or la zone tampon proclaméedans les instructions italiennes

supposait évidemmentque c'était lajuridictionde l'Italie, et non la juri-
diction de la Tunisie, qui s'étendait jusqu'auxconfins de cette zone tam-laterally as far as the line perpendicular to the coast at Ras Ajdir, and
seawardsas far as the more removed spongebanks. A map furnished by
Tunisia shows that the dense sponge banks off the Tripolitanian coast
extended to the north well beyond the 34th parallel. Consequently, that
perpendicular line extending beyond the 34th parallel constituted the
compromise or the "modusvivendi"for thedelimitation of the surveillance

of spongefishinginthe area. OtherdocumentsemanatingfromtheFrench
authorities in Tunisia recognized that such surveillance of spongefishing
waseffectivelyexercised by the Italian authonties in Tripolitania, sincein
these documents reference is made to "the frequent presence of Italian
torpedo boats, which pursue (foreign fishermen)as soon as they cross the
boundary".

6. Equitable Reasons whichCompelRespectfor
the Historic Lateral Delimitation

96. There are fundamental reasons of equity and of law which compel
respect for the historic lateral delimitation established along the perpen-
dicular line NNE from Ras Ajdir. The most important of these equitable
reasons was forcefully stated by counsel for Tunisia, in the following
terms :

"where any part of that zone has from time immemorial been exclu-

siveto one of the coastal States, as in the case of Tunisia,the equities
surely demand that it remain so ; not just for the positive reason of
respecting those rights astheyare today,but evenmore sobecauseitis
unthinkable that an area which has from time immemorial been
exclusive to one State should as a result of the determination of the
boundary of sea-bed and subsoil rights, now and hencefonvard
become the exclusivefishery of the other State. That resultcannot be
right in law or equity."

97. It is obviousthat thiselementary pnnciple of equity cannot operate
onlyto the benefit ofTunisia, but must be equallyvalid forboth Parties. As
has been well said, "the principle in equity is that if a party invokes an
argument against the opposing party, the argument must carry equal

weight against itself". It is thereforeunthinkable, to borrow the term used
by Tunisian counsel, that the delimitation which existed during the colo-
nialperiod shouldbe revisedor abolished and that apart of the shelfwhich
was for almost 50years exploited and controlled by Tripolitanian autho-
ritiesshould be transferred toTunisia. Italian torpedoboats excluded from
that area Tunisian sponge-fishingboats or foreign spongefishermen pos-
sessinga Tunisian licence.This exclusion constituted an act of sovereignty
and, as was contended in the Tunisian pleadings, such exploitation andpon, c'est-à-dire latéralementjusqu'à la ligne perpendiculaire à la côte
à Ras Ajdir et vers le largejusqu'aux bancs d'épongesles plus éloignés.
L'une des cartes fournies par la Tunisie montre d'ailleurs que les bancs
d'éponges,d'une grande densité, situés aularge du littoral de la Tripo-
litaine, s'étendaientvers le nord bien au-delà du 34eparallèle.C'est donc

cette ligne perpendiculaire dépassant le 34e parallèle qui constituait le
compromis, ou modus vivendi, pour la délimitation des zones de sur-
veillance des pêcheriessédentairesdans la région.D'autres documents,
émanant des autorités françaises en Tunisie, confirment que cette sur-
veillance de la pêche aux épongeé s taiteffectivement exercéepar les auto-
ritésitaliennes de Tripolitaine, en faisant état de<la présencefréquente
des torpilleurs italiens qui..donnent la chasse [aux pêcheursétrangers]
dès qu'ilsdépassentla limite )).

6. Motifs d'équité obligean atrespecter la délimitation latérale
d'origine historique

96. Il existedesmotifs fondamentauxd'équitéet de droit qui obligent à

respecter la délimitation latérale historiquement déterminéecomme la
perpendiculairenord-nord-est tracée à partir de Ras Ajdir. Leplusimpor-
tant de ces motifs d'équité a étd ééfiniavec autorité par les conseils de la
Tunisie dans les termes suivants :

<<Quand une partie quelconque de la zone de pêcheappartient
exclusivement, et depuis des temps immémoriaux, à l'un des Etats
côtiers,l'équitéexige certainement que cette situation subsiste : pas
seulement pour laraison positive que cesdroits doivent êtrerespectés,
comme ils le sont aujourd'hui, mais encore et surtout parce qu'il est
impensable qu'un espacequi,depuis des tempsimmémoriaux,appas-
tient exclusivement àun Etat, doive,à lasuitedeladéterminationdela
limitedufond delamer etdes droitssur lesous-sol,devenirdésormais
zone de pêcheexclusive de l'autre Etat. Un tel résultat ne saurait se
justifier en droit ou en équité.

97. A l'évidence,ceprincipe élémentaire d'équité ne saurait s'appliquer
au seul profit de la Tunisie :il doit êtreégalement valablepour les deux
Parties. Comme on l'adit avecraison, (<leprinciped'équitéest que, sil'une
des parties invoque un argumentcontre son adversaire, cet argumentdoit
avoir autant depoids contre elle-même )).Il serait donc impensable,pour
reprendre les termes des conseils de la Tunisie, que la délimitation qui
existait pendant lapériode colonialesoit revisée ouabolie et qu'une partie
du plateau qui a étéexploitée etcontrôlée par les autorités tripolitaines
pendant près de cinquante ans soit attribuée à la Tunisie. Les torpilleurs

italiens excluaient de cette zone lesbateaux tunisienspêchant l'épongeou
lespêcheursd'épongeétrangerstitulairesde permis tunisiens. Cette exclu-
sion constituait un acte de souverainetéet, comme la Tunisiel'a affirmé control resultedin the acquisitionand exerciseof sovereignrights over the
continental shelf.
98. Both Parties were asked the question whether, if one Party has
demonstrated possession ofhistoricfisheryrights over sedentary speciesin
certain specifiedwaters, it is possible to attribute to the other Party the
exclusive right to exploit the mineral resources of the shelf below the
sea-bed to which the sedentary species are attached. Tunisia, after in-
volung paragraphs 1, 2 and 4 of Article 2 of the 1958 Convention, and
Article 77 of the draft convention on the Law of the Sea, answered
in the negative :

"It follows that, in the modern Law of the Sea, the exclusiverights
of fishing of sedentary species, and the exclusive rights over the
non-living resources, cannot be dissociatedand belong to two differ-
ent States. Suchadivisionwould furthermore involveinsurmountable
difficulties in practice."

Libya, for its part, answered the same question in the affirmative,
because :
"to allow an existingfisheryfor sedentary species to set the geogra-
phical lirnits of the continental shelf boundary would be ... tanta-
mount to allowing prior rights, acquired by a form of occupation, to
override the inherent dejure rights of a coastal State based upon

natural prolongation".

After indicating several instances in State practice of "vertical superim-
position of rights", it pointed out that the incompatibility between fishing
for sedentary species and oil-drilling might be avoided by directional
drilling, by abstention from oil drilling or by compensation for the loss of

catch.
99. The uniqueness which characterizes the sovereign rights of the
coastal State with respect to al1the natural resources of the shelf indicates
that a dual régime, as suggestedby Libya,cannot result from the rules of
general international law. There may be examples in State practice of a
"vertical superimposition of rights" but they can only result from special
agreements accepted by the Parties and are not imposed by the general
rules of international law which the Court is called upon to identify as
applicableinthepresent case.Consequently, itisimpossible to accept that,
if one of the Parties to this casehas demonstrated the existence of historic
fisheryrights over sedentary species in certain specified waters, the other
Party can be recognized as having the exclusiveright to exploit the mineral
resources of the shelf below the sea-bed to which the sedentary speciesare
attached. These equitable considerations determine the impossibility of
acceptingas the line of continental shelf delimitation in that area anyline
other than a straight line starting from Ras Ajdir and extendingseawards
beyond the 34th parallel perpendicularly to the direction of the Coastat
Ras Ajdir.dans sesécritures,cetteexploitation etcecontrôleontentraîné l'acquisition

et l'exercicede droits souverains sur le plateau continental.
98. 11a été demandé auxdeux Parties si, au cas où l'une d'elles aurait
établilapossessiondedroits depêchehistoriquessurlesespècessédentaires
dans des eaux déterminées,il serait possible d'attribuer à l'autre le droit
exclusif d'exploiter les ressources minéralesdu plateau sous le fond de la
mer où sont fixéescesespècesA . près avoirinvoquélespragraphes 1,2 et 4
de l'article 2 de la convention de 1958ainsi que l'article 77 du projet de
convention sur le droit de la mer, la Tunisie a répondu par la négative :

Il en résulte que, dans le droit moderne de la mer, les droits
exclusifsde pêchedesespècessédentaireset lesdroits exclusifssur les
ressources non biologiques ne peuvent êtredissociéset appartenir à
deux Etatsdifférents.Une telledivision entraînerait d'ailleursdansla
pratique des difficultésinsurmontables.

La Libye arépondu à la mêmequestionpar l'affirmative, en faisant valoir
que :

([sil'onvoulait ]..laisserunepêcheried'espèces sédentairesexistante
déterminer à touségardslecadre géographiquedela délimitationdu
plateau continental ...[cela]reviendrait à admettre que des droits
antérieursrésultantd'unesorted'occupationl'emportentsur lesdroits
inhérents et de jure d'un Etat côtier, fondés sur le prolongement
naturel o.

Après avoir indiquéplusieurs exemples de surimposition verticale de
droits )>,tirésde la pratique des Etats, la Libye a fait observer que l'on
pouvaitévitertouteincompatibilitéentre lapêchedesespècessédentaireset
lesforagesdepétroleeneffectuant desforagesdirectionnels,ens'abstenant
de forer ou en versant une indemnité pour les prises perdues.
99. L'exclusivitéquicaractériselesdroits souverains de l'Etat côtiersur
les ressources naturelles du plateau montre bien qu'un régimedouble,
commeceluique suggèrela Libye,ne sauraitêtredéduitdesrèglesdudroit
international général.Il y a peut-êtredes exemples de ((surimposition
verticale de droits ))dans la pratique des Etats, mais seulement à la suite
d'accords spéciauxentre les Parties,et les règlesgénéralesdu droit inter-

national, que la Cour est chargéededire applicables à la présenteespèce,
n'en imposent nullement l'obligation. Si donc l'une des Parties au diffé-
rend établissaitl'existence de droits historiques sur la pêche desespèces
sédentaires dans certaines eaux bien définies, l'autre ne saurait jouir
du droit exclusif d'exploiter les ressources minérales du plateau sous le
fond marin où sont fixéesces espècessédentaires.Pour toutes ces raisons
d'équitéi,lestimpossible d'accepter,pourladélimitationduplateauconti-
nental dans larégion,d'autre lignequ'unedroite tiréeperpendiculairement
à la directiondela côte à Ras Ajdir et allant versle largejusqu'au-delà du
34eparallèle.131 CONTINENTAL SHELF (SEP. OP. JIMÉNEZDE ARÉCHAGA)

7. Reasons of Law which CompelRespectfor
the Historic Lateral Delimitation

100. Most African States, including the Parties to the case, have ac-
cepted the status quoof colonial boundaries at the time of independence.
According to the resolution adopted by the African Statesin Cairo in 1964,
the Assembly of African Heads of State and Government, "solemnly
declare that al1Member States pledge themselves to respect the borders
existingon their achievement of colonialindependence". The terms of this
pledge determine its applicability notjust to those borders established by
treaty or existingon dryland. It alsoincludes boundary arrangements and
even tacit compromises concerning maritime frontiers which divide zones
of sedentary fisheries.
101. Tunisia has accepted that the principle of stability of African

colonial frontiers as well as the principle of State succession apply to this
delimitation, despite thefact that thisis a maritime boundary, and onenot
established by treaty but resulting from theconduct and the history of the
relations of the former colonial powers. In the memorandum the Govern-
ment ofTunisia circulated to the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
the OAU and the Arab League, and to diplomatic missions accredited in
Tunis, on 3 May 1976,referring to the ZV 45" line, it stated :

"5. On this basis, and according to the preamble and Article III of
theCharter of the Organization of African Unity which stipulatethat
African States should recognize the borders resulting from their
independence, and the stability of such borders, the sea boundaries
delimitation referred to in paragraph 2 is unalterable.
6. On theother hand, international practices andjurisprudence are
unanimous in that the newStatewhichreplaces the colonialpower (as
is the casewith both Tunisia and Libya) is bound, and shall continue
to be bound, by any agreements fixing boundaries which may have
been concluded by the colonial power."

It results from the foregoing that both principles of international law
invoked by Tunisia in the above memorandum, namely, the colonial uti
possidetis agreed by the African States and the principles of State succes-
sioncompel respect for the delimitation resulting from the French-Italian
"modusvivendi':

102. The objection is made that the record does not contain positive
evidence of the express acceptance by the authorities of the Tunisian
Protectorate of the perpendicular line. This is true, but this is not the
crucial point. The decisive and material points are, first, that there is
conclusiveevidence that theItalian authorities exercisedeffectivesurveil-
lance of sponge fisheries off the Tripolitanian coasts, laterally, to the 22"
line and seawards, beyond the 34th parallel ;second, that during a period
of more than 30years the Franco-Tunisianauthorities did not oppose but
acquiescedin such an exerciseof effectivesurveillance ;third, that sponge 7.Motifs de droit obligeant à respecterla délimitation latérale
d'origine historique

100. Laplupart des Etats africains, ycompris lesParties àl'instance, ont
acceptéle statu quo pour les frontières coloniales existant à la date de
l'indépendance. Aux termesdela résolutionadoptéepar lesEtats africains
au Caire, en 1964, la conférence des chefs d'Etat et de gouvernement
africains<<déclaresolennellementque tous lesEtats membress'engagent à

respecter les frontières existant au moment où ils ont accédé à l'indépen-
dance ))Il ressort destermesutilisésque cet engagement ne s'applique pas
seulement aux frontières établiespar traitéou en terre ferme :il viseaussi
les arrangementsfrontaliers et mêmelescompromis tacites concernant les
frontières maritimes qui séparent les zones de pêcheries sédentaires.
101. La Tunisie a admis que le principe de la stabilitédes frontières
coloniales en Afrique et le principe de la successiond'Etats s'appliquent à
la présente délimitation, bienqu'il s'agissed'une limite maritime qui n'a
pas fait l'objet d'une convention mais est le produit des relations que les
anciennes puissances coloniales ont entretenues entre elles. Dans le
mémoire sur la ligne ZV 45", que le Gouvernement tunisien a remis le
3 mai 1976au Secrétaire général des Nations Unies, à l'organisation de
l'unité africaine,àla Ligue arabe et aux missions diplomatiques accrédi-
tées à Tunis, il est di:

<<5. De cefait, etconformémentaupréambuleet àl'article III dela
Chartede l'OUA dont découle,pour les Etats africains, la reconnais-

sance et la stabilitédes frontières néesde l'indépendance, la délimi-
tation maritime visée à l'alinéa2 ci-dessus est intangible;

6. Il est d'ailleurs unanimement admis par la doctrine et la juris-
prudenceinternationale que lenouvel Etat qui succède à la puissance
coloniale (et c'est le cas tant de la Tunisie que de la Libye) est et
demeureliépar lesaccords dedélimitationdefrontièresqui ont pu être
passéspar la puissance coloniale.

Il découlede ce qui précèdeque les deux principes de droit international
invoquéspar la Tunisie dans ledit mémoire - le principe de l'utipossidetis
colonial, sur lequel lesEtats africains sesont misd'accord, et leprincipe de
la succession d'Etats - obligent à respecter la délimitation résultant du
modus vivendientre la France et l'Italie.
102. On a objecté à cela que le dossier ne contenait pas de preuves

positives de l'acceptation expresse de la ligne perpendiculaire par les
autorités du protectorat tunisien. Cela est vrai, mais ce n'est pas là l'es-
sentiel.Les faits importants et décisifssont les suivants:premièrement, il
est établique les autoritésitaliennes ont exercéune surveillance effective
sur les pêcheries d'éponges au large du littoral tripolitain, jusqu'à la ligne
de 22" latéralement et au-delà du 34eparallèle vers lahaute mer ;deuxiè-
mement, au cours d'une périodede plus de trente ans, lesautorités franco-
tunisiennes ne sesontpas opposées àla sumeillance effectiveainsi exercée, fisheries constitute a form of shelf exploitation avant la lettre;fourth, that
such surveillance confers sovereign rights over the sea-bed of the area in
question,as convincingly contended in the Tunisian pleadings ;fifth, that
it would be unthinkable for theCourt to assign to one Party an area which

was controlled by the other for more than 30 years, and, finally, that the
international law principles of utipossidetis of African boundaries and of
succession of States in respect to frontier delimitation also apply to the
colonial delimitation of sponge fisheries, as was contended by Tunisia,
with respecttothe ZV45" line,initsmemorandum of 3May 1976.Evenif
one denies the existence of an agreement,there was a deficto delimitation
for the exploitation of sea-bed areas which wasacquiesced to and thus it is
one which the Court cannot now revise or ignore.Libyan proven historic
rights are as worthy of respect as those invoked by Tunisia.

1. General Relevanceof the Circumstance

103. Geographicalconfiguration,that isto Saytherelationship between
the coasts of the States in dispute, is undoubtedly a most relevant circum-
stance in any continental shelf delimitation. The Court said in its 1969
Judgment :
"the principle is applied that the land dominates the sea ;it is con-
sequently necessary to examine closely the geographicalconfigura-
tion of thecoastlines of thecountries whosecontinental shelvesareto

be delimited" (I.C.J. Reports1969, p. 51,para. 96).
And the 1977Court of Arbitration stated that the validity of any method
"as a means of achieving an equitabledelimitation of the continental shelf
is always relative to the particular geographicalsituation" (para. 84).

2. Substantive Inequity of Equidistance inthis Case

104. By reason of the geographical configuration of the coasts of the
respective countries the line of equidistance would in this case produce
inequitable and disproportionate results to the detriment of Libya. This
linewould impinge on thebasicprinciple ofnon-encroachment,producing
acutting-off effectby pullingthe line too closeto Tripoli,from whichport
al1offshore oil exploration and exploitation is made by that country. This

cutting-off effectwas taken into accountand rejected by the Court in 1969.
It is true that the specific effect which the Court rejected in the North Sea
Continental Shelf cases was the cutting off of the German Coastresultingqui au contraire a reçu leur assentiment ; troisièmement, les pêcheries
d'éponges sont une forme d'exploitation avant la lettre ))du plateau
continental ;quatrièmement,une telle surveillance donne des droits sou-
verains sur les fonds marins de la zone en question, comme la Tunisiel'a
affirmé de manière convaincante en plaidoirie ;cinquièmement,il serait
impensableque la Cour attribue à l'une des Partiesune zone sur laquelle
l'autre Partie a exercéson contrôlependant plus de trente ans ;enfin, les
principes de droit international relatifs à l'utipossidetis des frontières

africaineset àla succession d'Etats en matière de délimitationfrontalière
s'appliquent aussi à la délimitation des pêcheriesd'épongeseffectuée à
l'époquecoloniale, ainsi que la Tunisie l'a soutenu dans son mémoiredu
3 mai 1976 au sujet de la ligne ZV 45". Même sil'on ne reconnaît pas
l'existence d'un accord, il reste qu'il y a eu délimitation de fait pour
l'exploitation deszonesde fondsmarins,quecettedélimitation aétél'objet
d'un assentiment et que la Cour ne saurait donc à présentla modifier ou
l'ignorer.Lesdroitshistoriquesétablispar laLibye sont aussidignes d'être
respectésque ceux qu'invoque la Tunisie.

1.Importance générale de cette circonstance

103. La configuration géographique, c'est-à-direle rapport entre les
côtes des Etats en litige, est sans nul doute une circonstance hautement
pertinente dans toutedélimitation du plateau continental.CommelaCour
l'a dit dans son arrêtde 1969 :
((on applique le principe que la terre domine la mer ; il est donc

nécessairede regarder deprèslaconfigurationgéographiquedes côtes
despays dont ondoit délimiterleplateaucontinental ))(C.I.J. Recueil
1969, p. 51,par. 96).
De son côté, le tribunal arbitral de 1977 a affirmé que la validité d'une
méthode <<en tant que moyen d'aboutir à une délimitation équitable du

plateau continental dépend toujours de la situation géographiqueparti-
culière ))(par. 84).

2. En l'espèce,l'équidistance esftondamentalement inéquitable

104. En raison de la configuration géographique des côtes des deux
pays, la ligne d'équidistance aboutirait en l'espèce àdes résultats inéqui-
tables et disproportionnés, au détriment de la Libye. Une ligne d'équidis-
tance serait contraire au principe fondamental du non-empiétement, car
elle aurait un effet d'amputation dû au fait qu'ellerepousserait la limite
trop prèsde Tripoli, port servantdebase à toutes les opérationslibyennes
de prospection et d'exploitation pétrolière. En 1969,la Cour, après avoir

tenu compte d'un tel effet d'amputation, l'a écarté.Il est vrai que l'effet
particulierquelaCour arejetédanslesaffairesdu Plateaucontinentaldelafrom the combined effect of the two equidistance lines with the Wether-
lands and Denmark, whichpulled the boundaryinwardsinthedirection of
theconcavity of the German coast. In this case,theconcavity of the Gulf of
Gabes would not influencetheline of equidistance, because the islands of
Jerba and Kerkennah control that line.

105. However, with respect to the 1969Judgment, the Arbitral Award
of 1977made the following pertinent remark :

"Although its observations on this aspect of 'adjacent States' situ-
ations were directed to the particular content of a concave coastline
formed by the adjoiningterritories of three States, they reflect an evi-
dent geometrical truth and clearly have a more general validity."

This is confirmed by the fact that in 1969, when deciding against the
binding character of the method of equidistance,the Court had before it
various maps and diagrams, not limited to the case of concave coasts,
whichillustrated the inequitable results produced by certain geographical
configurations, if the equidistance method was applied rigorously in al1
cases of adjacent States. One of these illustrations is the geographical
situation of Haiti and the DominicanRepublic, whichis shownin the map
appearing in the second volume of Pleadings in that case, at page 28.The
geographicalrelationship between the coasts of these two States is very
similar to that existing in the present case, with one coast protruding at a
right angle to the other and the presence of an island which, like Kerken-
nah and Jerba, swingsconsiderablythe equidistanceline to the detriment
of Haiti.

106. When introducingthismap Professor Jaenicke,Agent and Counsel
of the Federal Republic of Germany, stated that it illustrated :

"the effectwhich theconfiguration of thecoasthas on thedirection of
the equidistanceline if it is drawn for a boundary between countries
lying adjacent to one another, a so-called lateral boundary. 1men-
tioned that a very strikingexample of how much the equidistance line
diverts the boundary before the coast of another State is the actual
geographical situation before the coast of the Dominican Republic
and Haiti .. .The fact that the coast of the Dominican Republic
projects hereforsome milescausesadiversion of theequidistance line
to quite a considerable extent." (I.C.J. Pleadings, NorthSea Conti-
nental Shelf, Vol. II, p. 27.)

107. The Court expressly took into account these maps and diagrams,
saying :
"It would however be ignoring realities if it were not noted at the
same time that the use of this method, partly for the reasons givenin
paragraph 8above and part&for reasons that are best appreciatedbymer du Nord étaitun effet d'amputation du littoral allemand résultantde
l'effet combiné des deux lignesd'équidistancetracéespar rapport aux
Pays-Baset au Danemark, quirepoussaient lalimite dansla direction dela
concavitédu littoral allemand ;et qu'en l'espècela concavitédu golfe de
Gabèsn'influencerait pas laligned'équidistance, puisquecette ligneserait
déterminéepar l'île de Djerba et par les Kerkennah.
105. Cependant, le tribunal arbitral de 1977a fait au sujet de l'arrêtde
1969une remarque pertinente :

<Bienquecesobservations surcet aspect dela situation des <<Etats
limitrophes ))aientétéfaites pourlecas particulier d'unelignecôtière
concaveforméepar les territoires de trois Etats voisins,ellesreflètent
une réalité géométrique évidente,ie ltest hors de doute qu'ellesont
une validité plus générale. ))

En effet, lorsqu'en 1969la Cour s'estprononcéecontre le caractère obli-
gatoire de la méthodede l'équidistance, elleétaitsaisiede diverscroquis et
cartes qui ne se limitaient pas au cas de côtes concaves et qui montraient
les résultatsinéquitables qu'engendrent certaines configurations géogra-
phiques lorsqu'on applique rigoureusement la méthodede l'équidistance
dans tous les cas mettant en cause des Etats limitrophes. La situation
géographique d'Haïti et de la République dominicaine était un de ces
exemples,comme lemontre la cartefigurant dans le deuxièmevolumedes

mémoiresconcernant cette affaire, à la page 28. Le rapport géographique
entre lescôtes de cesdeux Etats est très semblableaurapport existant enla
présente instance ;l'une des côtes s'avance à angle droit par rapport à
l'autre et l'on note la présenced'une île qui, comme les Kerkennah et
Djerba, fait sensiblement dévier la ligne d'équidistanceau détriment
d'Haïti.

106. Lorsque M. Jaenicke, agent et conseil de la Républiquefédérale
d'Allemagne, a présentécette carte, il a dit qu'elle montrait :

<(l'effet que la configuration de la côte a sur la direction de la ligne
d'équidistancesi l'on trace celle-cipour marquer la limite entre des
pays limitrophes ou ce qu'on appelle une limite latérale.J'ai signalé
quela situation géographiquedevant la côte de la Républiquedomi-
nicaine etd'Haïti estun exempletrèsfrappant, quimontre combien la
ligne d'équidistancefait dévierla limite devant le littoral d'un autre
Etat ..Le fait que la côte de la Républiquedominicaine s'avance ici
sur quelques kilomètres entraîne une déviationde la ligne d'équidis-

tance qui est très sensible.> >C.I.J. Mémoires, Plateau continentad le
la mer du Nord, vol. II, p. 27. [Traduction du Greffe.J)
107. La Cour a expressément tenucompte de ces cartes et croquis, en
déclarant :

<Ce serait cependant méconnaîtreles réalitésque de ne pas noter
en même temps que,pour les raisons indiquées au paragraphe 8
ci-dessus etpour d'autres raisonsqui apparaissent clairement sil'onse referenceto themany maps and diagramsfurnishedby bothsidesin the
courseof the written and oralproceedings,can under certain circum-
stances produce results that appear on the face of them to be extra-
ordinary, unnatural or unreasonable." (Para. 24, emphasis added.)

And in paragraph 8 of theJudgment,theCourt did not refer exclusivelyto
the case of concave coasts, for it said that :
"The effect of concavity could of course equally be produced for a
country with a straight coastline, if the coasts of adjacent countries

protruded immediately on either side of it."
Again in paragraph 59 the Court made expressreference to the maps and
diagrams when it stated :

"As was convincingly demonstrated inthe maps and diagramsfur-
nished by the Parties, and as has been noted in paragraph 8, the
distorting effectsof lateral equidistance linesunder certainconditions
of coastal configuration are nevertheless comparatively small within
the lirnits of territorial waters, but produce their maximum effect in
the localities where the main continental shelf areas lie further
out."

108. This observation of theCourt refers to the well-knownfact that the
effect of any distorting geographical feature upon adjacent countries by
the use of the equidistance method is automatically magnified the greater
thedistancefrom the shore. Counsel for theFederal Republic of Germany
had referred in this context to "the extreme, and even sometimesbizarre,
results reached by strictly applying the equidistance method" (I.C.J.
Pleadings, Vol. II, p. 57), which "can only be properly applied at short
distances from the coast" (ibid.,p. 62).In thisparticular casethedistorting
effect would be such that Tunisian islands of no more than 180 square
kilometres would attract about 2,000 square kilometres of shelf area. And
if account istaken, asit should be, of the shelf area acquired by Tunisia by
its 1973law, five years after the critical date when the dispute arose, the
equidistance line would give to Tunisia 70 per cent of the disputed area,
leaving to Libya less than one-third of it. This would not be an "equitable

solution" as required by the applicable law codified in the new accepted
trends at the Thrd UNCLOS.

3. ProceduralInequity of Equidistancein this Case

109. The Court is not confronted in this case with the procedural sit-
uation existing in the North Sea ContinentalShelf or Anglo-French cases,
where one side advocated equidistance, the other pointed out its inequity
in thecaseand the Court or theTribunal rejected that method or varied it
by diminishing its effects. Here the two Parties are in agreement that the reporteaux cartes et croquisfournis engrandnombrepar les Partiesau
coursdesprocéduresécriteo etale,l'emploidecetteméthodepeutdans
certains cas aboutir à des résultatsde prime abord extraordinaires,
anormaux ou déraisonnables. ))(Par. 24, italique ajouté.)

Et, au paragraphe 8 de l'arrêt, la Courne se référaitpas exclusivement au
cas des côtes concaves, puisqu'elle affirmait :
<Il estévidentquelemêmeeffetdeconcavitépeutseproduire siun
Etat ayant une côte droite est encadrépar deux Etatsdont lescôtesles

plus proches font saillie par rapport à la sienne.))
La Cour s'est de nouveau référée expressémen aut x cartes et croquis au
paragraphe 59, où elle a déclaré :

<Ainsi que l'ont démontré de façon convaincante les carteset cro-
quisfournis par les Partieset ainsi qu'on l'avu au paragraphe 8, les
effets de déviationque produisent certaines configurations côtières
sur les lignes latérales d'équidistancesont relativement faibles dans
leslimitesdes eaux territoriales maisjouent au maximum à l'emplace-
ment des zones de plateau continental au large. ))(Italique ajouté.)

108. Cette observation delaCour serapporteaufait bien connu qu'avec
la méthodede l'équidistance les effetsd'une particularité géographique
déformante sur les pays limitrophes sont automatiquement amplifiés à
mesure qu'on s'éloignede la côte. A ce sujet, le conseil de la République
fédérale d'Allemagne avaitparlédes <<résultatsextrêmes,etparfois même

bizarres, auxquels conduit l'application stricte de la méthodede l'équidis-
tance ))(C.I.J. Mémoires,vol. II, p. 57),méthodequi <<ne peut s'appliquer
correctement que sur de courtes distances àpartir de la côte (ibid.,p. 62
[traductionduGreffe]).Dansla présenteaffaire,l'effetdedéviationseraittel
quedesîlestunisiennes d'àpeine 180kilomètrescarrésattireraientverselles
environ 2000kilomètrescarrésdeplateaucontinental. Sil'ontenaitcompte
enoutre,commeilfaudrait lefaire,dela zonedeplateaucontinental acquise
par laTunisieconformément à saloide 1973,cinq ans aprèsladate critique
à laquelleledifférend estnél,aligned'équidistanceattribuerait àlaTunisie
soixante-dixpourcent delazoneenlitigeetenlaisseraitmoins d'un tiersàla

Libye.Cela ne seraitpas une <<solutionéquitable ))commel'exigeledroit
applicable codifiédans les nouvelles tendances acceptéesde la troisième
conférence desNations Unies sur le droit de la mer.

3. Inéquitéprocédurale del'équidistance
dans laprésente affaire

109. Dans la présente affaire, la Cour ne se trouve pas dans la même
situation, du point de vuede la procédure,quedans les affaires du Plateau
continentalde la mer du Nord ou dans l'arbitrage franco-britannique, où
l'une des parties invoquait l'équidistancetandis que l'autre en soulignait
l'inéquitée,toù la Cour ouletribunal a rejetécetteméthodeoul'a modifiéeequidistance method not only is not of general application, but must be
discarded in this particular case, on the ground that it does not lead to
equitable results. Moreover, the Parties have admitted, in the Special
Agreement, the existence of relevant circumstances and have imposed
upon theCourttheobligation to take theminto account inits decision ;the
existence of these circumstances logically excludes the application of the
equidistance method.

110. While Tunisia had invoked this method in the diplomatic corres-

pondence prior to the submission of the case to the Court, it abandoned
that position completelyin its Memorial and subsequent Pleadings. This
had irreversible consequences. The Court has not received arguments for
or against the general applicability of this method or concerningits geo-
graphical details in the particular circumstances of this case, other than a
brief rejection in the Libyan Memorial, on the grounds of its inequitable
results. For theCourt to resortproprio motuto amethodnot advocatedbut
strongly rejected by both sideswould not only take the Parties by surprise,
but it would imply deciding the case without the benefit of the Parties'
assistance,and without having afforded them the opportunity of submit-
tingargumentsfor or againstits applicability to this particular geographi-
cal configuration. These would have included complicated issues of fact,
such as a deeper analysis of the legality of the baselines, the effect of the
islands and low-tideelevations on the line and the geographical determi-
nation of the controlling points. In this respect it is of significance that
there have appeared marked divergences as to the effect to be given to
islands and low-tide elevationsin the opinions which advocate equidis-
tance in the present case. This illustrates the danger of applying equidis-

tance motuproprio. These are not mere procedural objections,but involve
important considerations with respect to the right of defence injudicial
proceedings and the reception of the Court's Judgment by the Parties.

4. The Configuration of the Tunisian Coastline

111. The most important geographical feature to take into account as a
relevant circumstancein thiscaseisthat the Tunisian coast, whichextends
from Ras Ajdir to the Westin a general directionfacingnorth-east, turns at
a certain point in the Gulf of Gabes, in a north-northeast direction. The
line perpendicular to the coast established historically by the colonial
Powersextends to the sponge fishing banks locatedfurther from the shore
line. However, if that perpendicular line were to continue in the same
north-northeast direction, after the point at which the Tunisian coast

turns, then an effect of encroachment would be produced, particularly in
respect of the port of Sfax, the banks and shoals of the Kerkennah Islandspour en atténuer les effets. Dans la présente affaire, les deux Parties
reconnaissentnon seulement quelaméthodede l'équidistancenepeut pas
s'appliquer d'une manière générale,mais aussi qu'elle doit êtreécartée
dans ce cas particulier parce qu'elle ne conduit pas à des rélutats équi-
tables. En outre, les Parties ont admis dans le compromis l'existence de
circonstancespertinentes et ont obligéla Cour a en tenir compte dans sa
décision ;l'existencede cescirconstances exclutlogiquement l'application
de la méthode de l'équidistance.
110. La Tunisie a invoquéla méthodede l'équidistancedans la corres-
pondance diplomatique antérieure àla saisinede la Cour,mais a complè-
tement abandonné cette position dans son mémoireet dans ses pièces
ultérieures.Cechangement deposition aeudesconséquencesirréversibles.

Aucun argument pour ou contre la valeur générale de cette méthodeou
concernant son application géographique dans les circonstancesparticu-
lièresde l'espècen'aétéprésenté àlaCour, mise à part une brèveréfutation
de laméthodedans lemémoirelibyen, oùsesrésultatsinéquitablesétaient
mis en lumière.Sila Cour avaitdécidédesa propre initiative de recourir à
une méthode que les deux Parties ne préconisent pas, et mêmequ'elles
rejettent vivement,cela n'aurait pas seulement eupour effet de prendre les
Parties au dépourvu ;cela aurait signifiéaussi que la Cour tranchait
l'affaire sans le concours des Parties, et sans leur donner l'occasion de
présenter des argumentspour ou contre l'applicabilité de cette méthode à
la configuration géographique en cause dans l'espèce.De délicatesques-
tions de fait se seraient posées,au nombre desquelles la légalitédes lignes
debase, qu'ilaurait fallu examiner demanièreplusapprofondie,l'effetdes

îles et hauts-fonds découvrants sur la ligne ou le choix géographiquedes
points côtiers déterminant le tracé de laligne. A ce sujet, il est significatif
que des divergences profondes se soient fait jour parmi les partisans de
l'équidistanceà propos de l'effeà attribuer aux îles et hauts-fondsdécou-
vrants en l'espèce.Cela montre le danger qu'il y a pour un tribunal à
appliquer de sa propre initiativela méthode de l'équidistance. Ce ne sont
pas là de simples objections de procédure ;d'importantes considérations
sont enjeu, tant au point devue desmoyens dedéfenseenjustice qu'à celui
de l'accueil que les Parties peuvent réserveà l'arrêtde la Cour.

4.La configurationde la côte tunisienne
111. La principaleconsidérationgéographique,parmi lescirconstances
pertinentes enl'espèce,estquelacôtetunisienne,qui part deRas Ajdir vers
l'ouest selon une direction généralequi lui fait faire face au nord-est,

emprunteensuite, àun certainpoint du golfede Gabès,unedirectionnord-
nord-est. La perpendiculaire àla côte établiehistoriquement par les puis-
sances coloniales s'étend jusqu'aux bancs de cueillettedes éponges quise
trouventau large.Toutefois, sicetteperpendiculaire seprolongeaitdansla
mêmedirection nord-nord-est au-delà du point où la côte tunisienne fait
un tournant, ilseproduirait un effet d'empiétement,enparticulieràl'égard
du port de Sfax, des bancs et hauts-fonds des Kerkennah et du promon-and thepromontory of the Sahel.Account must be taken, therefore, of the
change of direction of that coast as it turns inside the Gulf of Gabes and
then runs to the north-east.
112. In order to take into account this relevant geographical circum-
stance, and reflect theconfiguration of the Tunisian coast,a veering to the
east should be introduced in the line of delimitation,parallel to the line of
that coast. The first point at which such a change of direction begins to
occur is in theneighbourhood of alocalityin the Gulf of Gabes named "la
Skira", some 15'north of the 34th parallel. This coastal configuration
shouldin myviewhavebeen taken into account by afirst veeringof theline
of delimitation at this latitude, reflecting exactly the same angle of diver-
gence which existsin the direction of the coastline.The exact location of
the parallel where the change of direction occurs and the angle of incli-
nation should havebeen left,in myview,tobe determined by theexperts of
the Parties.
113. Further to the north, at the latitude of Ras Yonga, the eastwards
projection of the Tunisian coast is accentuated and, consequently,a sec-

ond veering of the line of delimitation should have taken place, reflecting
again exactly the change of direction of the Tunisian coast at thislatitude.
Such a veering, the exact angle of which should have been left to be
determined by the experts, would maintain within Tunisian jurisdiction
the banks and shoals of the Kerkennah Islands and al1the spongebanks
traditionally exploited under the surveillance of Tunisian authorities.
114. This means that thehistoricrights overspongefishingtraditionally
exercised by Tunisia, as well as those of Libya, would be respected and
preserved in the continental shelf delimitation. But these historic rights,
based as they are on prolonged exercise, and having an exceptional char-
acter,by their very nature, cannot be invoked or used ashaving apotential
effectwhichwould make them capable of aprojectionseaward,and thus as
the basis for moreextended and differentmaritime claims. Historic rights
must be respected and preserved, but as they were and where they were,
that is to Say,within the limits established by usage and history. In par-
ticular, to transform these historic waters into interna1or territorialwaters
in order to project a further claim to a continental shelf beyond them is
unjustified.

115. An objection has been made to the above veering. It has been
pointed out that this solution would onlytake into account theinclination

of the Tunisian coast, while ignoringthe south-easterly inclination of the
Libyan coast. An immediate answer is that the alteration in the perpen-
dicular line established by history is only caused by the inclination of the
Tunisian coast, which, if ignored, would produce an effect of encroach-
ment.Afurther reply is that the suggestionthat exactconsiderationshould
be given to both coasts is, really, only another way of advocating the
application of the equidistancemethod, which is unacceptablein this case
for the reasonsalready given.Finally,thepoint ismade that after the 34th
parallel the two coasts cease to be adjacent and become opposite. This,toire du Sahel. Il faut donc tenir compte du changement de direction à
l'intérieur du golfede Gabès, aprèslequel la côte se dirige vers le nord-
est.
112. Pour prendre en considération cette circonstance géographique
pertinente et donner effet à la configuration de la côte tunisienne, il
convient de faire dévierla ligne de délimitationvers l'estparallèlement à
cettelignede côte. Lepremierpoint auquel un telchangementdedirection
sembleintervenir est dans le voisinage d'un lieu du golfe de Gabèsappelé
<la Skira r),à quelque 15' au nord du 34e parallèle. A mon avis, cette
configurationcôtièreaurait dû entraîner un premier infléchissementdela
ligne de délimitation à cette latitude, exactement selon le mêmeangle de

déviation que la direction de la côte. C'est aux experts des Parties qu'il
aurait fallu, d'après moi, laisser le soin de déterminer le point précis du
parallèle où le changement de direction se produit et de calculer l'angle
d'inclinaison.
113. Plus au nord, à lalatitudedeRas Yonga,où la saillieversl'estdela
côte tunisienne s'accentue, il y aurait eu lieu de faire dévierune seconde
foisla ligne de délimitation pour que de nouveau elle corresponde exac-
tement au changement de direction de la côte. Cet infléchissement,dont
l'angle exact aurait été déterminé palres experts, aurait maintenu sous
juridiction tunisienne les bancs et les hauts-fonds des Kerkennah et tous
les bancs d'éponges qui sont traditionnellement exploités sousla surveil-
lance des autorités tunisiennes.
114. Dans cesconditions, lesdroitshistoriquestraditionnellement exer-
céspar la Tunisie sur les pêcheries d'éponges, aussi bien que ceux de la

Libye, seraientrespectéset protégéspar la délimitation du plateau conti-
nental. Mais on nepeut invoquer cesdroits historiques,qui sefondent sur
un exercice prolongéet quiont un caractèreexceptioilnel par leur nature
même,en leur attribuant un effet qui les ferait se projeter vers le large et
servir ainsi de base à des revendicationsmaritimes plus étendues et dif-
férentes.Les droits historiques doivent êtrerespectéset protégésm , ais ils
doivent l'êtretels qu'ils étaient et tels qu'ils sont, c'est-à-dire dans les
limitesfixéespar l'usageetpar l'histoire.Riennepermet, enparticulier,de
transformer ces eaux historiques en eaux internes ou territoriales afin
d'étendre au-delà desdites eaux historiques les revendications sur le pla-
teau continental.
115. L'infléchissementsusmentionné a soulevéune objection : cette
solution, a-t-on dit, ne tenait compte que de l'inclinaison de la côte tuni-

sienne et ignorait l'inclinaison de la côte libyenne vers le sud-est. Je
rétorquerai quela modificationdelaperpendiculaire fixéehistoriquement
n'estdue qu'à l'inclinaisondela côtetunisienne et quecetteinclinaison, si
on en faisait abstraction, produirait un effet d'empiétement.Je répondrai
aussi qu'en suggérantde prendre pleinement en considération les deux
côtes, on ne fait en réalitéque préconiserd'une autre manièrela méthode
de l'équidistance,laquelle estinacceptable enl'espècepour lesraisons déjà
indiquées.Enfin,on a affirméqu'au-delàdu 34eparallèlelescôtes cessent
d'être adjacentes et deviennentdes côtes se faisant face. Géographique- froma geographical point of view,isnot so.After the34thparallel,as well
as before, the areas of shelf to be delimited lie off and not between the
coasts of the two countries. This means that this is not a delimitation
between opposite States but one which continues to be a lateral delimi-
tation between adjacent States.Thisconclusion is confirmed by the find-
ingsof the 1977arbitral award. In that case,the two Stateswereoppositein
the Channel area but the Court of Arbitration considered that in the
Atlantic region, where the areas of shelf lie off, rather than between their
two coasts, an analogy could be drawn with a lateral delimitation. The

Court of Arbitration said :

"in the Atlantic region the situation geographically is one of two
laterally related coasts, abutting on the same continental shelf ...
Indeed, the Court notes that so evident is this lateral relation of the
two coasts, geographically, that both Parties in their pleadings saw
some analogy between the situation in the Atlantic region and the
situation of 'adjacent' States." (Para. 241.)

5. The Testof Proportionality

116. In the North Sea Continental Shelfcases, the Court indicated as a
possible pertinent factor in negotiations what it described as :

"a reasonable degree of proportionality which a delimitation effected

according to equitable principles ought to bring about between the
extent of the continental shelf appertaining to the States concerned
and the lengths of their respective coastlines" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,
p. 52, para. 98).

117. The 1977 Court of Arbitration in the Anglo-French dispute
rejected what it described as "nice calculations of proportionality" and
refined this concept into a test of the equity of the results reached in a
delimitation, saying :
"In short, it is disproportion rather than any generalprinciple of
proportionality which isthe relevant criterion or factor. The equitable
delimitation of the continental shelf isnot, as this Court has already

emphasized inparagraph 78,aquestion of apportioning - sharing out
- thecontinental shelf amongst the Statesabutting uponit.Nor isit a
question of simply assigning to them areas of the shelf in proportion
to the length of their coastlines ; forto do this would be to substitute
for the delimitation of boundaries a distributive apportionment of
shares ... Proportionality, therefore, is to be used as a criterion or
factor relevant in evaluating the equities of certain geographicalment, cela est inexact. Aprèsle 34eparallèle comme avant, les zones de
plateau continental àdélimitersetrouventaulargedescôtesdesdeux pays
et non pas entre leurscôtes. Il ne s'agitdonc pas d'une délimitation entre
Etats se faisant face, mais d'une délimitation qui reste une délimitation
latérale entre Etats limitrophes. Cette conclusion trouve confirmation
dans les motifs de la sentence arbitrale de 1977. Dans cette affaire,
les Etats se faisaient face dans la régionde la Manche, mais le tribunal
arbitral a estimé que dans la régionatlantique, où les zones de plateau
continental se trouvaient au large des côtes desdits Etats plutôt qu'entre
leurs côtes, il était possible de voir une analogie avec une délimitation

latérale:
<<dans la régionatlantique, la situation est géographiquementune
situation mettant en présencedes côtes qui sont dans un rapport
latéral et qui bordent le mêmeplateau continental ...Le tribu-
nal constate d'ailleurs que cette relation latérale des deux côtes, du
point de vue géographique,est si évidente queles deux Parties, dans

leurs écritureset plaidoiries, ont trouvé une certaine analogie entre
la situation de la régionatlantique et celle d'Etats <limitrophes. ))
(Par. 241 .)

5.Le critèrede laproportionnalité

116. Dans les affairesdu Plateaucontinental delamer du Nord,la Cour a
mentionné, parmi les facteurs éventuellementpertinents dans les négio-
ciations, ce qu'elle a appelé:

(<lerapport raisonnable qu'une délimitation effectuéeselondesprin-
cipes équitables devrait faire apparaître entre l'étenduedu plateau
continental relevantdesEtatsintéresséset lalongueurdeleurscôtes >)
(C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 52, par. 98).

117. Dans l'arbitrage franco-britannique de 1977,le tribunal a rejetéce
qu'ilaappeléles <<savants calculsdeproportionnalité O,etilaprécisé cette
notion en y voyant un critère d'équité des résultats auquel aboutitla
délimitation :

(<En bref, c'est la disproportion plutôt qu'un principe général de
proportionnalié quiconstitue lecritèreoufacteurpertinent. Commele
tribunal l'adéjàsoulignéau paragraphe 78, la délimitation équitable
du plateau continental n'est pas une opération de partage et d'attri-
bution du plateau continental entre les Etats qui bordent ce plateau.
Ellene consistepasdavantage enunesimpleattribution àcesEtats de
zones du plateau proportionnelles à la longueur de leur ligne côtièr;
agirainsiserait, en effet,remplacerladélimitationpar une attribution
departs ..Laproportionnalité doitdoncêtreutiliséecommeuncritère
ou un facteur permettant d'établir si certaines situations géogra- situations, not as a general principle providing an independent
source of rights to areas of continental shelf." (Para. 101.)

In the light of this pronouncement, proportionality is linked with the
application of equitableprinciples, and itsfunction is to test the equitable
character of the method of delimitation used, in the light of the results to
which it leads. It constitutes a test to be applied expost facto to the results
obtained throughtheappreciation of the relevant circumstances, and not a
relevant circumstance or independent factor in itself.

118. Moreover, it is necessary to establish clearly and with fairness the
basicpremises which need tobe adopted in order to make a comparison of
proportionalitypossible. The first ofthesepremises concernstheareato be
taken into consideration. In this respect the Judgment defines it as de-
limited by Ras Kaboudia and Ras Tajoura and this appears as generally
acceptable. Another premise is the measurement of the length of the
relevant coasts. In this respect the 1969Judgment is clear when it States
that the coastlines are to be measured

"according to their general direction in order to establish the neces-
sary balance between States with straight, and those with markedly
concaveor convexcoasts, or to reduceveryirregularcoastlines to their
truer proportions" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 52, para. 98).

119. The most serious disagreementconcerns the determination of the
areas of shelfcoveredby watersappertaining toeachParty which aretobe
taken into accountin order tomakethiscomparison. Libya hascontended

that in evaluating the effect of a proposed shelf delimitation one should
consider al1areas of shelf, whether under the waters of the high seas, the
waters of exclusivefishing zones, the waters of the territorial sea and even
any internal waters lying beyond the actual coast. Tunisia, basing its
argument on the legal definition of the continental shelf as lyingbeyond
the territorial sea, has contended, on the contrary, that territorial and
internal waters are not to be taken into account in any comparison of
equitable results.

120. This is not an issue that could be decided in the abstract and in a
general way, but must be decided - as other questions involved in an
equitable delimitation - in the light of the circumstances of the particular
case. One such circumstance has to do with the baselines adopted by
Tunisia in 1973.These baselines are, to Saythe least, of doubtful legality

sincethey do not conform to the onlyrestrictionestablished by the Court's
Judgment of 1951in the Norwegian Fisheriescase, namely, that the base-
lines should follow thegeneraldirection of thecoast. Thesebaselines,with
a seaward point going as far as El-Mzebla, form a triangle which lies
against the concavity of the Gulf of Gabes and which is notjust different
but opposite to the general direction of the coast. Furthermore, these phiques produisent des délimitations équitables et non comme
un principe généralqui constituerait une source indépendante de
droits sur des étendues de plateau continental. ))(Par. 101.)

Selonceprononcé, laproportionnalitéest liée àl'application desprincipes
équitables,et son but est d'évaluer lecaractère équitablede la méthodede
délimitationemployée, à la lumièredes résultatsauxquels elleaboutit.La

proportionnalité est donc un critèreà appliquer expost facto aux résultats
obtenus après avoir appréciéles circonstances pertinentes, et non une
circonstance pertinente ou un facteur indépendant.
118. En outre, il faut détermineravecprécisionet impartialitélesprin-
cipaux éléments à retenir pour qu'une comparaison de proportionnalité
soit possible. Le premier de ces éléments estla surface à prendre en
considération :le présent arrêt la définit commé e tantdélimitéepar Ras
Kapoudia et Ras Tadjoura, ce qui paraît généralementacceptable. Un
autre élément esltecalculdelalongueur descôtespertinentes.Sur cepoint,
la Cour a bien préciséen 1969que les côtes doivent êtremesurées

<(d'après leur direction généraleafin d'étabirl'équilibre nécessaire
entre les Etats ayant des côtes droites et les Etats ayant des côtes
fortement concaves ou convexes ou afin de ramener des côtes très
irrégulièresàdesproportions plus exactes >(C.I.J. Recueil1969,p. 52,
par. 98).

119. En l'espèce, ledésaccord leplus sérieuxconcerne la détermination
des zones de plateau continental immergéeset relevant de chaque Partie
dont il faut tenir compte pour effectuer cette comparaison. La Libye a
soutenu que, pour apprécier l'effetd'une ligne envisagéepour la délimi-
tation d'un plateau, il fallait tenir compte de toutes les étenduesde ce

plateau, qu'elles setrouvent sous les eaux de la haute mer, sous cellesdes
zones de pêche exclusives,sousla mer territoriale ou mêmesous toutes les
eaux intérieuresau-delàde lacôte réelle.La Tunisie estimait au contraire,
en se fondant sur la définitionjuridique du plateau continental considéré
comme un espace situé au-delàde la mer territoriale, que les eaux terri-
toriales et intérieures ne devaientpas entrer en ligne de compte dans les
comparaisons destinées à vérifierl'équitédes résultats.
120. Cette question ne saurait être tranchéedans l'abstrait et d'une
manièregénérale :comme les autres questions soulevéespar une délimi-
tation équitable, elle doit êtretranchée compte tenu des circonstances
particulières.Une decescirconstances tientaux lignesdebasepromulguées

par laTunisie en 1973.Lemoins qu'on puissedireest queceslignesdebase
sont d'une légalitédouteuse, puisqu'elles nesont pas conformes à la seule
restriction fixéepar la Cour dans son arrêtde 1951relatif aux Pêcheries
norvégiennes, à savoir que les lignes de base doivent suivre la direction
générale delacôte.Leslignesdebase tunisiennes, quisurun point s'écartent
vers le large jusqu'à El-Mzebla, forment un triangle qui s'oppose à la
concavitédu golfe de Gabès et qui n'est pas simplement différentde labaselines aredrawn on the basis of low-tideelevations, some of which are
always below water while the applicable rules of international law forbid
their use unless lighthouses or similar installations have been built upon
them. It is obvious that lightbuoys on the water cannot fulfil this require-
ment nor is there any record of stationary fishing gear that far out to
sea.

121. However, the legality of these baselines is not the question to be
decided here. What is important is whether these baselines are opposable
to Libya for the purposes of the application of the proportionality test.
This question is determined conclusively by the fact that these baselines
wereproclaimed by Tunisia in 1973,fiveyears after the critical date when
the dispute arose, and that the 1973law and decreemodified radically the
pre-existing Tunisian laws which did not constitute these waters either as
intemal or as territorial. Tunisia thus unilaterally appropriated a large
expanse of the disputed continental shelf and this makes it difficult to
claimwith fairness that such an area should not be counted and should be
left out of any comparison with the portion of shelf which each party will
obtainfrom the Court's Judgment. In the Minquiers and Ecrehos case the
Court said that acts subsequent to the critical date should be taken into

consideration "unless the measure in question was taken with a view to
improving the legalposition of the Party concerned" (I.C.J. Reports 1953,
p. 59). And this is the case here.
122. Furthermore, it would seem that in a case such as the present,
whichisdifferent in thisrespect from the North Sea ContinentalShelfcases
in that there is an enormous differencebetween the areas of water claimed
asinterna1and territorial by each Party, it would beinequitable notto take
into account,forthe overallevaluation of fairness and proportionality, the
whole expanse of water, on the sole ground that legally the continental
shelf begins at the outer limit of the territorial sea. To do so would be to
commit -thesin of formalism ; to allow that form of inequity which the
Romans called subtilitas, that is to Say,an exaggerated adherence to the
strictletter of the law when equity demands a broader approach for the
purposes of comparison.
123. Taking the above into account,a line as the one suggested of 22"
with aveeringparallel to that of the Tunisian Coast,would haveresulted in
assigningto each Party almost 50percent of the areaindispute. Suchaline

of delimitation would thus have complied with the test of a reasonable
degree of proportionality, and have achieved an equitable result.

PARTVI. THEJUDGMENT' FINALCONCLUSIONS

124. It results from the foregoing that1 have certain doubts and diver-
gencesconcerning some of thefinal conclusionsin the operative part ofthe
Judgment. In particular, it seemsto me that not sufficientsignificance has directiongénéraledela côte,mais auneformecontraire. Enoutre, ceslignes
de base sont tracées enfonction de hauts-fonds découvrantsdont certains
restent toujours immergés, alorsque les règlesapplicables du droit inter-
nationalinterdisent deseservirdeshauts-fonds decegenre, àmoins quedes
phares ou desinstallations semblablesn'yaient étéérigés.Ilestévidentque
les bouées lumineuses, à la surface de l'eau, ne peuvent remplir cette
condition ;etl'onnetrouvepas non plus d'installations depêchefixes àune
telle distance de la côte.
121. Leproblèmede la légalité de ceslignesdebase n'acependantpas à
êtrerésolu :laquestion est de savoirsiellessont opposablesà laLibyedans

l'application ducritèredeproportionnalité.Cette question esttranchéepar
lefait que ceslignesdebase ont été proclaméespar laTunisieen 1973,cinq
ans après la date critique laquelle le différendest né, etque la loi et le
décretde 1973ont modifié radicalement la législation tunisienne anté-
rieure, quine faisait de ceseauxni deseauxintérieuresni des eaux territo-
riales. La Tunisie s'estainsi appropriéeunilatéralementde larges étendues
du plateau continental en litige et il est difficile dans ces conditions de
prétendre en toute impartialité que ces zones ne doivent pas compter et
sont à laisser de côtédans toute comparaison des parts de plateau que
chaquePartie obtiendra conformément àl'arrêtde la Cour. Dans l'affaire
des Minquiers et Ecréhous,la Cour a déclaréque les actes postérieursà la
date critique devaient êtrepris enconsidération<en exceptant lesmesures
qui auraient été prises ene d'améliorer la position endroit dela Partie

-ntéressée (C.I.J. Recueil 1953, p.59). Tel est bien le cas en l'espèce.
122. De plus, dans un cas comme le cas présent,qui se différenciedes
affaires du Plateau continentalde la mer du Nord par l'énorme différence
entre les espacesmaritimes revendiquéspar chaquePartie en tant qu'eaux
intérieures et territoriales, il paraîtrait inéquitable de refuser de tenir
compte de l'ensemble desespacesmaritimes dans l'évaluation globaledela
justice et de la proportionnalité des résultats obtenus,pour la seuleraison
quejuridiquementleplateaucontinental commence àlalimiteextérieurede
lamer territoriale. Agirainsiseraitpêcherpar excèsdeformalisme ;ceserait
autorisercetteformed'iniquité quelesRomains appelaient subtilitas,etqui
est lerespect exagérédela loiprise strictementà la lettre, alors que l'équité

exige pour toute comparaison une conception plus large des choses.
123. Compte tenu de cequi précède, uneligne du genre de cellequi est
proposée, à savoirunelignede22"présentantuninfléchissementparallèle à
lacôtetunisienne, aurait attribuéàchaquePartie environ 50pour cent dela
région en litige.Pareille lignede délimitationaurait donc étconforme au
critère du rapport raisonnable, et aurait aboutià un résultat équitable.

124. Ildécouledecequiprécèdequej'éprouve quelquesdoutes àl'égard
de certaines des conclusions du dispositif de l'arrêt etqueje ne suis pas
complètement d'accord avec elles.En particulier, il me semble que l'arrêtbeen attributed to the 22" historic line and that a veering of 52" is too

pronounced.
However, since 1concur fully with most of the Court's legal reasoning,
and the above indicated differences do not result in too great a disagree-
mentwith respect to theline of delimitation, 1consider that 1ought not to
press these differences and doubts to the point of dissenting from the
Court's decision.

(Signed) Eduardo JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA.n'accorde pas assez d'importanceàla ligne historique des 22" et qu'une
déviationde 52" est trop prononcée.
Toutefois,commeje suisentièrement d'accord aveclaplupart desmotifs

de la Cour, et comme les divergencesqueje viens de diren'entraînent pas
une trop grande différence ence qui concerne la ligne de délimitation,je
considèrequeje nedois pas insister sur cesdivergenceset sur cesdoutesau
point de marquer mon dissentiment à l'égardde la décisionde la Cour.

(Signé)Eduardo JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA. SYNOPTICAL TABLE
Paragraphs
PART1. INTERPRETATIO OF THE SPECIAL AGREEMENT 1-36

1. The Parties' submissions 1-4
2. The role of the Court and the subsequent role of the experts 5-10
3. The geographical scope of equitable principles 11-17
4. The meaning of equity :equity, equidistance and relevant cir-
cumstances 18-26

5. Non-existence of a presumption in favour of equidistance 27-31
6. New accepted trends at the Third UNCLOS 32-36

PARTII. THECONCEPT OF NATURAL PROLONGATION

1. The Parties' contentions
2. The legal definition of continental shelf not based on geo-
logy or geomorphology
3. The 1969Judgment and the 1958definition

4. The new definition in the draft convention at the Third
UNCLOS Conference
5. The Exclusive Economic Zone and shelf delimitation
6. The real meaning of "natural prolongation" in the 1969g-
ment
7. Geological structure in the 1969and 1977Judgments

PARTIII. THEEQUITABLP ERINCIPLE OF NON-ENCROACHMENT 65-76
1. The Parties' divergent interpretations 67-68

2. The correct interpretation of the principle 69-70
3. The German proposal and the reaction at the 1958 Confer-
ence 71-73
4. The principle of non-encroachment and its effects in the-
ent case 74-76

PARTIV. HISTORIC FISHERY RIGHTS

1. Existence of historic fishery rights
2. Relevance of historic fishery rights to continental shelf delimi-
tation
3. The Tunisian claim for a ZV45" line
4. The Orfeo incident: French protest and Italian answer

5. The French-Italian "modus vivendi"
6. Equitable reasons which compel respect for the historic lateral

delimitation
7. Reasons of law which compel respect for thehistorie lateral
delimitation PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. IND. JIMÉNEZ DE ARÉCHAGA) 141

1. Les conclusions des Parties
2. Le rôle de la Cour et le rôle ultérieur des experts
3. La portéegéographique des principes équitables
4. La signification de l'équité:équité, équidistanceet circons-
tances pertinentes
5. Absence de présomption favorable à l'équidistance
6. Lesnouvelles tendances acceptées à la troisièmeconférencedes

Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer

1. Les thèses des Parties
2. La conception juridique du plateau continental ne repose ni sur
la géologieni sur la géomorphologie
3. L'arrêtde 1969 et la définition de 1958
4. Lanouvelledéfinitionénoncée dans leprojet deconvention dela
troisième conférence desNations Unies sur le droit de la mer

5. La zone économique exclusive et la délimitation du plateau
6. Le sens véritabledu <<prolongement naturel dans l'arrêtde
1969
7. La structure géologiquedans l'arrêtde 1969et dans la sentence
arbitrale de 1977

TROISIÈMEPARTIE. - LE PRINCIPE ÉQUITABLE DE NON-EMPIÉ-
TEMENT
1. Les interprétations divergentes des Parties

2. L'interprétation correcte du principe
3. La proposition de l'Allemagne etles réactionsde la conférence
de 1958
4. Le principe du non-empiétement et ses effets en l'espèce

1. Existence de droits de pêche historiques
2. Pertinence des droits de pêche historiquespour la délimitation
du plateau continental
3. L'argument tunisien relatifà la ligne ZV 45"
4. L'incidence de I'Orfeo :la protestation de la France et la ré-

ponse de l'Italie
5. Le «modus vivendi u franco-italien
6. Motifs d'équité obligeant à respecter la délimitation latérale
d'origine historique
7. Motifs de droit obligeant à respecter la délimitation latérale
d'origine historique Paragraphs

1. General relevance of the circumstance
2. Substantive inequity of equidistance in this case
3. Procedural inequity of equidistance in this case
4. The configuration of the Tunisian coastline

5. The test of proportionality

PART VI. THEJUDGMENT'F SINALCONCLUSIONS 124 Paragraphes

1. Importance généralede cette circonstance 103
2. En l'espèce,l'équidistanceest fondamentalement inéquitable 104-108
3. Inéquitéprocéduralede l'équidistancedans la présente affaire 109-110
4. La configuration de la côte tunisienne 111-115
5. Le critère de la proportionnalité 116-123

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Separate Opinion of Judge Jiménez de Aréchaga

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