Dissenting opinion of President Schwebel

Document Number
089-19980227-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
089-19980227-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF PRESIDENT SCHWEBEL

1regret that 1am unable to agree with the Judgment of the Court. It is
arguable that the challenge of the Respondent to the jurisdiction of the
Court should not carry. But the reasons so terselystated by the Court are
conclusory rather than elucidatory, and, at most, are barely persuasive in
a subsidiary respect. In my view, the Court's conclusions on the admis-
sibilityof Libya'sApplication, and as to whether it has become moot, are
unpersuasive.

The question of whether the Court has jurisdiction over a dispute
between the Parties under the Montreal Convention for the Suppression

of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation depends on the
resolution of antecedent questions. Does the Montreal Convention apply
to the facts at issue in the current case? If its, do the positions of the
Parties in this case giverise to a dispute under the Convention?

The Preamble to the Convention declares its purpose to be that of
"deterring" unlawful acts against the safety of civil aviation andprovid-
ing appropriate measures for punishment of offenders. Article 10 pro-
vides that contracting States shall "endeavour to take al1 practicable
measure for the purpose of preventing the offences mentioned in Ar-
ticle 1". Article 12provides that any contracting State having reason to
believeone of the offencesmentioned in Article 1willbe committed shall
furnish relevant information to other States concerned. These provisions
may be interpreted to imply that the Convention does not apply to alle-
gationsagainstpersons accused of destroying an aircraft who are claimed,
as in the instant case, to be acting as agents of a contracting State. Or, if
that implication is too extended, those provisions of the Montreal Con-

vention suggestthat the Convention would hardly have deterrent effectif
the State accused of having directed the sabotage were the only State
competent to prosecute the persons accused of the act. At the same time,
Article 1 of the Convention capaciously provides that, "Any person"
commits an offence under the Convention if he performs an act there-
after listed. Moreover, Libya has not accepted that the accused were
agents of its Government.
If it be assumed that the Convention does apply to persons allegedly
State agents who are accused of destroying an aircraft, the question thenarises whether there is a dispute between Libya and the Respondent

under the Convention.
It is difficult to show, and in its Judgment the Court in my view does
not show (as contrasted with concluding), that the Respondent can be in
violation of provisions of the Montreal Convention, with the possible
exception of Article 11; the Court does not show that there is a dispute
between the Parties over such alleged violations. The Convention in the
circumstances of the caseimposes multipleobligations on Libya. None of
the articles of the Convention invoked by Libya in the circumstances of
this case imposes obligations on the Respondent (as the opinion of Sir
Robert Jennings in the proceedings between Libya and the United King-
dom demonstrates). At most, it might be maintained that there is a dis-
pute over breach of an obligation under Article 11, which provides in
paragraph 1that,

"Contracting States shall afford one another the greatest measure
of assistance in connection with criminal proceedings brought in
respect of the offences.The law of the State requested shall apply in
ail cases."
The Respondent, the State requested,has provided Libya with the indict-

ment, but, in reliance upon the resolutions of the SecurityCounciland its
own law, has not, despite Libyan requests, done more. If in fact Libya
has brought criminal proceedings against the accused, there is arguable
ground for allegingthe existenceof a dispute under Article 11,though in
truth the dispute is over the force of the Security Council's resolutions.

The Court principally relies, in upholding jurisdiction, on its unexpli-
cated conclusion that, in view of the positions of the Parties, there exists
between them a dispute regarding the interpretation and application of
Article 7. Article 7 provides:

"The Contracting State in the territory of which the alleged
offender is found shall, if it does not extradite him, be obliged, with-
out exception whatsoever and whether or not the offence was com-
mitted on its territory, to submitthe case to its competent authorities
for the purpose of prosecution. Those authorities shall take their
decisionin the same manner as in the case of any ordinary offenceof
a serious nature under the law of that State."

The Respondent has not disputed Libya's obligation to prosecute the
accused under Article 7 if Libya does not extradite them. It rather main-
tains that Libya is obliged by the superveningresolutions of the Security
Council to surrender the accused for trial in the United States or the
United Kingdom. Libya challenges this reading of the resolutions of the
Security Council and contends that, if it is the right reading, the resolu-
tions of the Security Council are unlawful and ultra vires.That is to Say,
there is no dispute between the Parties in this regard under Article 7 of
the Montreal Convention. There is a dispute over the meaning, legalityand effectivenessof the pertinent resolutions of the SecurityCouncil.The
latter dispute may not be equated with the former. Consequentlyit does
not fa11within thejurisdiction of the Court under Article 14of the Mon-
treal Convention, which confinesthe Court's jurisdiction to "Any dispute
between two or more Contracting Statesconcerningthe interpretation or

application of this Convention . . .Libya's complaint that the Security
Council has acted unlawfully can hardly be a claim under the Montreal
Convention fallingwithin the jurisdiction of the Court pursuant to that
Convention.

The Court holds that there is a further, overarching dispute between
the Parties,because
"the Parties differ on the question whether the destruction of the

Pan Am aircraft over Lockerbie is governed by the Montreal Con-
vention. A dispute thus exists between the Parties as to the legal
régimeapplicable to this event. Such a dispute, in the view of the
Court, concerns the interpretation and application of the Montreal
Convention, and in accordance with Article 14,paragraph 1, of the
Convention, falls to be decided by the Court ."(Judgment, para. 24.)

That holding is not without forma1 force. But, as in this case, it lends
itselfto undue extension of thejurisdiction of the Court. If two States are

parties to a treaty affordingjurisdiction to the Court in disputes over its
interpretation or application, is there a dispute under the treaty merely
because oneparty so maintains - or maintains that the treaty constitutes
the governing legal régime - while the other denies it?

It is in any event obvious that the Montreal Convention cannot afford
the Court jurisdiction over Libya's submissionthat the Respondent

"isunder a legal obligation to respect Libya's right not to have the

Convention set aside by means which would in any case be at vari-
ance with the principles of the United Nations Charter and with the
mandatory rules of general international law prohibiting the use of
force and the violation of the sovereignty, territorial integrity, sov-
ereign equality and political independence of States" (Memorial of
Libya, Submissions, p. 242, para. 8.1 (d)).

Disputes under the Montreal Convention do not import those arising

under the Charter and customary international law. Yet the Court's
holding on this submission is equivocal. While it States that it cannot
uphold the Respondent's objection, at the same time it confines the
Court's jurisdiction to actions alleged to be at variance with the provi-
sions of the Montreal Convention.
Finally, in respect of jurisdiction, the Court observes that SecurityCouncil resolutions 748 (1992) and 883 (1993) were adopted after the
filing of Libya's Application on 3 March 1992.It holds that, in accord-
ance with its established jurisprudence, if the Court had jurisdiction on
that date, it continues to do so; subsequent adoption of the Security
Council'sresolutions cannot affect its jurisdiction once established.That
holding by its terms does not resolve whether, on 3 March 1992, the

Court had jurisdiction. For the reasons set out above, the conclusionthat
it didis dubious.
Moreover, the cases on which the Court relies in so holding hardly
seem to apply to the instant situation. The question at issue in the rele-
vant phase of the Nottebohm case was whether, where jurisdiction had
been established at the date of the application by Declarations under the
Optional Clause, it could be disestablished by subsequent lapse of a Dec-
laration by expiry or denunciation. Inevitably the Court held that it
could not. In the case concerning Right of Passage overIndian Territory,
the Court concordantly held that,

"It is a rule of law generallyaccepted, as wellas oneactedupon in
the past by the Court, that, once the Court has been validly seisedof
a dispute,unilateralaction by the respondent State in terminating its
Declaration . .. cannot divest the Court of jurisdiction." (Right of
Passage over Indian Territory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 142.)

Nothing of the kind at issue in either of those cases is pertinent to the
instant case. There is no question of the Respondent unilaterally taking
action that purports to denounce the Montreal Convention or to excise
Article 14 thereof. Rather the Security Council has taken multilateral
action in pursuance of its Charter powers by adopting resolution 748
(1992)which, as the Court held at the provisional measures stage of this
case, both Libya and the Respondent, "as Members of the United
Nations, are obliged to accept and carry out . . . in accordance with
Article 25 of the Charter" (I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 126). The Court
then held that, "in accordance with Article 103of the Charter, the obli-
gations of the Parties in that respect prevail over their obligations under
any other international agreement, including the Montreal Convention"
(ibid.). That is no less true in 1998than it was in 1992.

In its Judgment on jurisdiction and admissibility of 11 July 1996 in
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide,the Court held that, "It is the case that the jurisdic-
tion of the Court must normally be assessed on the date of the filing of

the act instituting proceedings." (I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 613, para. 26.)
This most recent holding on the question imports that what is normal is
not invariable; there is room for special treatment of the abnormal. The
instant case, in which the Applicant challenges the legality and applica-bility to it of resolutions of the Security Council adopted to deal with
what the Council held to be a threat to international peace, surely is one
to be treated in the exceptional way to which the Court opened the door
in 1996.

The Respondent objects to the admissibility of Libya's claims inreli-

ance upon SecurityCouncilresolutions 748(1992)and 883(1993),which,
having been adopted under Chapter VI1of the Charter, are binding and
govern the Montreal Convention by virtue of Article 103of the Charter.
It maintained that the Court is not empowered to overturn the decisions
of the Security Council and certainly is not authorized to overturn the
Council'sdetermination under Chapter VI1of the existenceof a threat to
the peace and its choice of measures to deal with the threat. Libya,
among other arguments, invoked the Court's holding in Border and
Transborder Armed Actions that, "The critical date for determining the
admissibility of an application is the date on which it is filed (cf. South
West Africa, Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344)"
(Border and Transborder ArmedActions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Juris-
diction and Admissibility, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 95).

In its Judgrnent,the Court upholds this submission of Libya, declaring
that,

"The date, 3 March 1992,on which Libya filed its Application, is
in fact the only relevant date for determiningthe admissibility of the
Application. Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)
cannot be taken into consideration in this regard since they were
adopted at a later date." (Para. 43.)

It is solely on this ground that the Court dismisses the Respondent's
objection to the admissibility of the Application. It is solely on this
ground that the Court finds it right, at this stage of the proceedings, to
put aside resolutions of the Security Council adopted to deal with what
the Councilhas found to be acts of international terrorism that constitute
threats to international peace and security. ("Acts", rather than the atro-
cious act of destroying the aircraft of Pan American flight 103,not only
because Libyanagents are allegedby French authorities to have destroyed
Union de transports aériensflight 772 on 19 September 1989, another
atrocity addressed by the Security Council in resolutions 731 (1992),748
(1992) and 883 (1993).That allegation has led French juge d'instruction
Jean-Louis Bruguière,after extensiveinvestigationcompleted on 29 Janu-
ary 1998, to cal1for trial of six alleged Libyan secret service or former
secret service agents, including a brother-in-law of Colonel Qaddafi (a

trial which, under French law, can take place in absentia) (Le Monde,
31 January 1998, p. 11). The Security Council also has chosen to actunder Chapter VI1of the Charter in view of its broader determination in
resolution 748 (1992) "that the failure by the Libyan Government to
demonstrate by concreteactionsits renunciation of terrorism and in par-
ticularits continued failure to respond fully and effectivelyto the requests
in resolution 731 (1992) constitute a threat to international peace and
security" .)

In my view, the holding of the Court is, on the facts of this case, even
less persuasive in respect of admissibilitythan it is in respect ofjurisdic-
tion. It may be recalled that, in customary international law, the admis-
sibility of a claim espoused by a State, under the rule of nationality of
claims, is determined not as of the date of filing but as of the date of
judgrnent. It may also be observed that the whole basis on which the
Court in 1992proceeded in approving its Order rejecting the provisional
measures sought by Libya was that of the applicability,as of the date of
its Order, of Security Council resolution 748 (1992), adopted after the
date of the filingof Libya's Application and Libya's request for the indi-
cation of provisional measures.

There is little in the legal literature on the question of whether, in the
jurisprudence of the Court, admissibility must be assessed as of the date
of application, perhaps because the quoted holding of the Court in the
case concerning Border and TransborderArmed Actions (Nicaragua v.
Honduras) is the only such general holding of the Court. In the latest

edition of his magisterial work, Shabtai Rosenne writes that the date of
the filing ofthe act institutingthe proceedings is the date "by reference to
which the existence of the dispute and the admissibility of the case are
normally determined . . ."(The Law and Practice of the International
Court, 1920-1996,Vol. II, pp. 521-522).That appraisal leaves room for
not necessarilydetermining admissibility as of the date of the application.

The Court's holding in the Border and Transborder Armed Actions
case referred to its prior holding in the South West Africa cases. In those
cases, as wellas in Border and TransborderArmed Actions, the issue was
not generally whether admissibility of an application is determined as of
the date of the applicationbut specificallywhether an alleged impossibil-
ity of settling the dispute by negotiation could only refer to the time when
the applications were filed. (South West Africa, Preliminary Objections,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344; Border and TransborderArmed Actions
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 95. See also to similar effect, Right of Passage
over Indian Territory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1957, p. 148.)The utility of determining that question as of the date of

the filing of the applicationis clear. But whether it follows that, generally
and in al1cases, the admissibility of an application is to be determined as
of the date of its filing,isnot so clear. It may indeed be asked whether theCourt's apparently general holding in Border and Transborder Armed
Actions is meant to have the comprehensive force which the Court
assigns to it in this case, in view ofthe restrictedconcern of the Court in
that and the other cases cited.

Moreover, the following lines of that Judgment significantly qualify
the sweep of the first sentence of the paragraph. It is instructiveto quote
the first sentence in the context of the following sentences:

"The critical date for determiningthe admissibility of an applica-
tion is the date on which it is filed(cf.South West Africa, Prelimi-
nary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344). It may however be
necessary, in order to determine with certainty what the situation
was at the date of filing of the Application, to examine the events,
and in particular the relations between the Parties, over a period
prior to that date, and indeed during the subsequent period.
Furthermore, subsequent events may render an application
without object, or even take such a course as to preclude the filing
of a later application in similar terms." (1C..J. Reports 1988, p. 95,
para. 66.)

In the case before the Court, it is precisely such "subsequent events",
namely adoption by the Security Council of resolutions 748 (1992) and
883 (1993), that render Libya's Application "without object", that is to
Say,moot. Accordingly any judgment by the Court couid have no lawful
effecton the rights and obligations of the Parties in light of the Council's

binding decisions and would thus not be within the proper judicial func-
tion of the Court.
In the case concerning Northern Cameroons, the Court declared :
"The function of the Court is to state the law, but it may pro-
nounce judgment only in connection with concrete cases wherethere

exists at the time of the adjudication an actual controversy involving
a conflict of legal interests between the parties. The Court's judg-
ment must have some practical consequence in the sense that it can
affect existing legal rights or obligations of the parties, thus remov-
inguncertaintyfrom their legalrelations. No judgment on the merits
in this case could satisfy these essentials of the judicial function."
(Northern Cameroons, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1963, pp. 33-34.)

The Court concluded :
"The Court must discharge the duty to which it has already called

attention - the duty to safeguard the judicial function. Whether or not at the moment the Application was filedthere wasjurisdiction in
the Court to adjudicate upon the dispute submitted to it, circum-
stances that have sincearisen render any adjudication devoid of pur-
pose. Under these conditions, for the Court to proceed further in the
case would not, in its opinion, be a proper discharge of its duties."
(I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 38.)

In the two cases on Nuclear Tests, the Court held:

"The Court, as a court of law, is called upon to resolve existing
disputes between States. Thus the existence of a dispute is the pri-
mary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function; it is
not sufficient for one party to assert that there is a dispute, since
'whether there exists an international dispute is a matter for objec-
tive determination' by the Court ... The dispute brought before it
must therefore continue to exist at the time when the Court makes
its decision. It must not fail to take cognizance of a situation in

which the dispute has disappeared ... al1the necessaryconsequences
must be drawn from this finding.

Thus the Court concludes that, the dispute having disappeared,
the claim advanced ... no longer has any object. It follows that any
further finding would have no raison d'être.

The Court therefore sees no reason to allow the continuance of
proceedings which it knows are bound to be fruitless.

.............................
The object of the claim having clearly disappeared, there is
nothing on which to give judgment." (Nuclear Tests (Australia v.
France), I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270-272,paras. 55-56, 58-59. See
also, Nuclear Tests-{New Zealgnd v. France), I.C.J. Reports 1974,
pp. 476-477; paras. 58-59, 61-62.)

It follows that, in the case now before the Court, the Court should
have held Libya's claimsto be inadmissible, or at any rate moot, on the
ground that the issues between it and the Respondent have been deter-
mined by decisions of the Security Council which bind the Parties and
which, pursuant to Article 103of the Charter, prevail over any rights and
obligations that Libya and the Respondent have under the Montreal
Convention. If the Court had done so, it would have removed a pro-
longed challenge to the exercise by the Security Council of its Charter

responsibilities and presumably promoted Libya's compliance with its
obligations, under Article 25 of the Charter, "to accept and carry out the
decisionsof the SecurityCouncil in accordance with the present Charter". However, the Court's Judgment holds that it may not so determine at
this stage of the proceedings because of the terms of Article 79 of the

Rules of Court. That article provides that its judgment on preliminary
objections, whether they be to the jurisdiction or to the admissibility of
the application, "or other objection the decision upon which is requested
before any further proceedings on the merits", shall either uphold the
objection, reject it, "oreclare that the objection does not possess, in the
circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character". The
Court concludes that the objection that Libya's claimsare without object
constitutes in many respects the very subject-matter of anyjudgment on
the merits and, hence, sinceit does not possess an exclusivelypreliminary
character, must be remitted to the stage of the merits.
In my view, the Court's conclusion in this regard is substantial and,
unlike some of its other conclusions, draws support from the reasoning
and authority set out in the Judgment. But is the Court's conclusion,
however plausible, compelling?

1do not find it so for these reasons. The Court takes an absolute view
of an admittedly absolute term, "exclusively". It holds that the Respon-
dent's objections are not exclusivelypreliminary in character. But it will
be the rare preliminary objection that actually is exclusivelypreliminary
in character. This will especially be so if the wide construction given by
the Court in the current case to the meaning of "exclusively"is followed
in future cases. The fact that a preliminary objection, if upheld, will dis-
pose of the merits of the case in thesenseof preventing a hearing of them
proves nothing; al1preliminary objections, if sustained, have this effect.
More than this, Article 79 qualifiesthe conclusion that the objection does
not possess an exclusively preliminary character by specifying that it
"does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypre-
liminary character". In the circumstances of this case, concerned as it is
or should be with jurisdiction under the Montreal Convention - and

there is no other ground forjurisdiction - a plea that the case should not
proceed to a consideration of the merits of rights and obligations under
the Montreal Convention because resolutions of the Security Council
render such consideration without object must be treated as a plea of an
exclusivelypreliminary character.

It may be added that, in the circumstances of this case, the Parties have
extensively argued elements of the case which the Court now remits to
the merits as part of the very subject-matter of the merits (as indeed the
Parties did at the stage of provisional measures). Presumably they did so
by dint of construction of paragraph 6 of Article 79 of the Rules, which
provides that,

"In order to enable the Court to determine its jurisdiction at the

preliminarystage of the proceedings, the Court, whenever necessary, rnay request the parties to argue al1questions of law and fact, and to
adduce al1evidence, which bear on the issue."

They rnay also have had regard to the first paragraph of Article 79, which
speaks of any other objectionthe decisionupon which is requested before
any "further" proceedings on the merits. The Court made no effort to
limit the arguments of the Parties embracing elements of what it now
treats as the merits.1do not think that the Court need now require, as it
does require, the Parties to argue these elements once more - actually,
for a third time - before it passes upon them and disposes of these
objections. To have done so at this stage the Court needed neither the
resolution of disputed facts nor the consideration of further evidence.To
have ruled on the question of whether the resolutions of the Security
Council render Libya's invocation of the Montreal Convention moot

would not have entailed adjudicating the merits of the case in so far as it
relates to what rnay be within the jurisdiction of the Court under the
Montreal Convention. Important questions which rnay arise on the
merits would in any event remain unaddressed, such as the propriety of
the trial of the suspects in the United States or in the United Kingdom.

The Court's decision in effect to join the preliminary objections to the
merits, a decision based essentiallyupon its literal construction of a word
of a Rule of Court, does not appear consistent with the design of the
Court in amending the Rules of Court in 1972.It has regrettable if un-
intended results, the least of which is requiring the Parties to argue, and
the Court to hear, arguments on those objections, or some of those objec-
tions, for a third time. It will prolong a challenge to the integrity and

authority of the SecurityCouncil. It rnay be taken asproviding excusefor
continued defianceof the Council'sbinding resolutions. It rnay be seen as
prejudicing an important contemporary aspect of the Council'sefforts to
maintain international peace and security by combatting State-sponsored
international terrorism. Justice for the victims of an appalling atrocity
rnay be further delayed and denied. The Court rnay have opened itself,
not only in this but in future cases, to appearing to offer to recalcitrant
Statesa means to parry and frustrate decisionsof the Security Council by
way of appeal to the Court.

That last spectre raises the question of whether the Court is em-
poweredto exercisejudicial reviewof the decisionsof the SecurityCouncil,
a question as to which 1 think it right to express my current views. The
Court is not generally so empowered, and it is particularlywithout power

to overrule or undercut decisions of the Security Council made by it inpursuance of its authority under Articles 39, 41 and 42 of the Charter to
determine the existence ofany threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or
act of aggression and to decide upon responsive measures to be taken to
maintain or restore international peace and security.

The Court more than once has disclaimed possessinga power ofjudi-
cial review. In its Advisory Opinion in the case concerning Certain
Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Char-
ter), the Court declared :

"In the legal systems of States, there is often some procedure for
determining the validity of even a legislative or governmental act,
but no analogous procedure is to be found in the structure of the
United Nations. Proposals made during the drafting of the Charter
to place the ultimate authority to interpret the Charter in the Inter-
national Court of Justice were not accepted; the opinion which the
Court isin course of rendering is an advisoryopinion. As anticipated
in 1945,therefore, each organ rnust, in the first place at least, deter-
mine its own jurisdiction. If the Security Council, for example,

adopts a resolutionpurportedly for the maintenance of international
peace and security and if, in accordance with a mandate or authori-
zation in such resolution,the Secretary-Generalincurs financialobli-
gations, these amounts must be presumed to constitute 'expensesof
the Organization'." (1C.J. Reports 1962,p. 168.)

In its Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequencesfor States of the Con-
tinued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) not-
withstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), the Court reiter-
ated that: "Undoubtedly, the Court does not possess powers of judicial
review or appeal in respect of the decisions taken by the United Nations
organs concerned." (1.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 45.)
It should be noted that the Court made these holdings in advisory pro-
ceedings, in which the Security Council and the General Assembly are

entitled to request the Court's opinion "on any legal question". The
authority of the Court to respond to such questions,and, in the course of
so doing, to pass upon relevant resolutions of the Security Council and
General Assembly, is not disputed. Nevertheless, if the Court could hold
as it did in advisoryproceedings, afortiori in contentious proceedings the
Court can hardly be entitled to invent, assert and apply powers ofjudicial
review.

While the Court so far has not had occasion in contentious proceed-
ings to pass upon an allegedauthority to judicially reviewdecisionsof the
Security Council, it may be recalled that in Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua the Court observed that : "The Court is not asked to say that the Security Council was
wrong in its decision, nor that there was anything inconsistent with
law in the way in which the members of the Council employed their
right to vote. The Court is asked to pass judgment on certain legal
aspects of a situation which has also been considered by the Security

Council, a procedure which isentirely consonant with its position as
the principal judicial organ of the United Nations." (Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 436.)

The implication of this statement is that, if the Court had been asked by
the Applicant to Saythat the SecurityCouncil had been wrong in its deci-
sion, the Court would have reached another conclusion.
The texts of the Charter of the United Nations and of the Statute of
the Court furnish no shred of support for a conclusion that the Court
possesses a power of judicial review in general, or a power to supervene
the decisions of the Security Council in particular. On the contrary, by
the absence of any such provision, and by accordingthe SecurityCouncil
"primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and
security", the Charter and the Statute import the contrary. So extraordi-
nary a power as that of judicial reviewis not ordinarily to be implied and
never has been on the international plane. If the Court were to generate

such a power, the Security Council would no longer be primary in its
assigned responsibilities, because if the Court could overrule, negate,
modify - or, as in this case, hold as proposed that decisions of the Secu-
rity Council are not "opposable" to the principal object State of those
decisions and to the object of its sanctions - it would be the Court and
not the Council that would exercise,or purport to exercise, the disposi-
tive and hence primary authority.

The drafters of the Charter above al1resolved to accord the Security
Council alone extraordinary powers. They did so in order to further
realization of the firsturpose of the United Nations,

"To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to
take effective collectivemeasures for the prevention and removal of
threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or
other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means,
and in conformity with the principles of justice and international
law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations

which might lead to a breach of the peace."
Article 24 thus provides:

"1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United
Nations, its Membersconfer onthe SecurityCouncilprimary respon-
sibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the
Security Council acts on their behalf.
2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act
in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United
Nations . . ."

Article 25 provides that: "The Members of the United Nations agree
to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accord-
ance with the present Charter."
Theseprovisions - the very heart of the Charter's design for the main-

tenance of international peace - manifest the plenitude of the powers of
the Security Council, which are elaborated by the provisions of Chapters
VI, VII, and VI11of the Charter. They also demonstrate that the Security
Council is subject to the rule of law; it shall act in accordance with the
Purposes and Principles of the United Nations and its decisions must be
adopted in accordance with the Charter. At the same time, as Article 103
imports, it may lawfully decide upon measures which may in the interests
of the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security
derogate from the rights of a State under international law. The first Pur-
pose of the United Nations quoted above also so indicates, for the refer-
ence to the principles of justice and international law designedly relates
only to adjustment or settlement by peaceful means, and not to the
taking of effectivecollectivemeasures for the prevention and removal of
threats to and breaches of the peace. It was deliberately so provided to
ensure that the vital duty of preventing and removing threats to and
breaches of the peace would not be limited by existing law. (See the
Report on the Preamble, Purposes and Principles, UnitedNation Confer-

ence on International Organization (UNCIO), Vol. 6, pp. 453-454, and
the observations of Lord Halifax, p. 25.)

Itdoes not follow from the facts that the decisions of the Security
Council must be in accordance with the Charter, and that the Interna-
tional Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, that the Court is empowered to ensure that the Council's deci-
sions do accord with the Charter. To hold that it does so follow is a
monumental non sequitur, which overlooks the truth that, in many legal
systems,national and international, the subjection of the acts of an organ
to law by no means entails subjection of the legality of its actions to judi-
cial review. In many cases, the system reliesnot upon judicial reviewbut
on self-censorshipby the organ concerned or by its members or on review
by another political organ.
Judicial review could have been provided for at San Francisco, in full
or lessermeasure, directly or indirectly, but both directly and indirectly it
was not in any measurecontemplated or enacted. Not only was the Court

not authorized to be the ultimate interpreter of the Charter, as the Court
acknowledged in the case concerning Certain Expenses of the United
Nations. Proposals which in restricted measure would have accorded theCourt a degree of authority, by way of advisory proceedings, to pass
upon the legality of proposed resolutions of the Security Council in the

sphere of peaceful settlement - what came to be Chapter VI of the Char-
ter - were not accepted. What was never proposed, considered, or, so
far as the records reveal, evenimagined, was that the International Court
of Justice would be entrusted with, or would develop, a power ofjudicial
review at large, or a power to supervene, modify, negate or confine the
applicability of resolutions of the Security Council whether directly or in
the guise of interpretation.
That this is understandable, indeed obvious, is the clearer in the light
of the conjunction of political circumstances at the time that the Charter
was conceived, drafted and adopted. The Charter was largely a concept
and draft of the United States, and secondarily of the United Kingdom;
the other most influential State concerned was the USSR, The United
States was cautious about the endowments of the Court. Recalling the
rejection by the Senate of the United States a decade earlier of adherence

to the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, the
Department of State was concerned to assure that nothing in the Charter
concerningthe Court, and nothing in the Statute which was to be an inte-
gral part of the Charter, could prejudice the givingof advice and consent
by the Senate to the ratification of the Charter. Thus the Report of the
Senate Cornmittee on Foreign Relations on the United Nations Charter
of 16July 1945to the Senate recommending ratification of the Charter
specified :

"The Charter does not permit the Security Council or the General
Assembly to force states to bring cases to the Court, nor does it or
the Statute permit the Court to interfere with the functions of the
Security Council or the General Assembly . . . Your committee
recommends that the Senate accept the International Court of Justice
in the form and with the authority set forth in chapter XIV of the
Charter and the annexed Statute of the Court." (United States Sen-
ate, 79th Congress, 1st session, ExecutiveReport No. 8, "The Char-
ter of the United Nations", republished in United States Senate,
83rd Congress, 2nd session, Document No. 87, "Review of the
United Nations Charter: A Collection of Documents", 1954, p.67.)

The British Government which, together with the United States, was
the principal proponent of the creation of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice and which had played a large and constructive part in
respect of that Court, was hardly less cautious in its approach to the
powers of the International Court of Justice, as is illustrated by a quota-
tion from the proceedings of the San Francisco Conference set out below.
As for the Government of the Union of Soviet SocialistRepublics - a
Government which had been ideologically hostile to the Court since its

creation (as a reading of the EasternCareliacase so vividlyillustrates) -
can it be thought that Stalin, whose preoccupationln the days of San Francisco was giving the veto power the widest possible reach, could
have assented to the establishment of a Court authorized to possess or
develop the authority to review and Vary the application of resolutions
adopted by the Security Council under Chapter VI1 of the Charter?

At San Francisco, Belgium proposed the following amendment:

"Any State, party to a dispute brought before the Security Coun-
cil, shall have the right to ask the Permanent Court of International
Justice whether a recommendation or a decisionmade by the Coun-
cil or proposed in it infringes on its essential rights. If the Court
siders that such rights have been disregarded or are threatened, it is
for the Council either to reconsider the question or to refer the dis-
pute to the Assembly for decision." (UNCIO, Vol. 3, p. 336.)

The purpose of the amendment, the Belgian delegate explained, was to
allow the State concerned to seek an advisory opinion from the Court if
that State believed that a Security Council recommendation infringed
upon its essential rights. It was not in any sense the purpose of the
amendment to limit the legitimate powers of the Security Council (ibid.,
Vol. 12,pp. 48-49).
The Belgian proposa1 gave rise to a mixed reaction, support from
States such as Ecuador and Colombia, and opposition from Great Power
Sponsors of the Conference.The delegate of the Soviet Union

"considered that the Belgian Amendment would have the effect of
weakening the authority of the Council to maintain international
peace and security. If it were possible for a state to appeal from the
Council to the International Court of Justice . ..the Council would
find itself handicapped in carrying out its functions. Inuch circum-
stances, the Council might even be placed in a position of being a
defendant before the Court." (Ibid., Vol. 12,p. 49.)

The delegate of the United States explained the importance of the
requirement that the action of the Security Councilin dealing with a dis-
pute involving a threat to the peace betaken "in accordance with the pur-
poses and principles of the Organization". One of the purposes isto bring
about peaceful settlement of disputes "with due regard for principles of
justice and international law". He did not interpret the Proposals as pre-
venting any State from appealing to the International Court of Justice at
any time on any matter which might properly go before the Court. On
the whole, he did not consider the acceptance of the BelgianAmendment
advisable, particularly since he believed that "the Security Council was

bound to act in accordance with the principles of justice and interna-
tional law" (ibid.). (It should be noted that this statement of 17 May
1945antedated revision of the draft of the Charter's Purposes and Prin-
ciples in June to provide that "the principles of justice and internationallaw" relate only to the adjustment or settlement of international disputes
by peaceful means and not to measures of collective security.)

The delegate of France declared that, while he viewedwith great sym-
pathy the ideas in the Belgian Amendment, he was doubtful that "it
would be effectivein obtaining its desired end, especially sinceit involved
a dispersa1 of responsibilities in the Organization" (UNCIO, Vol. 12,
p. 50).

The delegate of the United Kingdom stated that the adoption of the
Belgian Amendment "would be prejudicial to the successof the Organi-
zation". The amendment would
"result in the decisionby the Court ... of politicalquestions in addi-
tion to legal questions. The performance of this function by the
Court . ..would seriously impair the successof its role as a judicial
body. Further, the procedures proposed by the amendment would
cause delay, at a time when prompt action by the Security Council
was most desirable.A powerful weapon would thus be placed in the

hands of a state contemplating aggression, and the Council would
not be able to play the part in maintaining peace which wasintended
for it...he considered it necessarythat the Council possessthe trust
and confidence of al1states; itsmajority would be composed of small
states, and it would be obligated to act in a manner consistent with
the purposes and principles of the Organization." (Ibid., p. 65.)

After a fewother statements in this vein, the delegate of Belgiumstated
that, since it was now clearly understood that a recommendation under
what was to become Chapter VI did not possess obligatory effect, he
wished to withdraw his amendment (ibid., p. 66).

Subsequently,the Conference rejected a proposa1 by Belgium to refer
disagreements between organs of the United Nations on interpretation of
the Charter to the Court. The pertinent report concludes:
"Under unitary forms of national governmentthe final determina-
tion of such a question may be vestedin the highest court or in some
other national authority. However, the nature of the Organization
and of its operation would not seemto be such as to invite the inclu-
sion in the Charter of any provision of this nature. If two member
states are at variance concerning the correct interpretation of the
Charter, they are of course free to submit the dispute to the Inter-
national Court of Justiceas in the case of any other treaty. Similarly,

it would also be open to the General Assembly or to the Security
Council, in appropriate circumstances,to ask the International Court
of Justice for an advisory opinion concerningthe meaning of a pro-
vision of the Charter." (Ibid.,Vol. 13,pp. 668-669.) It may finally be recalled that, at San Francisco, it was resolved "to
leave to the Council the entire decision, and also the entire responsibility
for that decision, as to what constitutesa threat to peace, a breach of the
peace, or an act of aggression" (UNCIO, Vol. 11,p. 17).
The conclusions to which the travaux préparatoiresand text of the
Charter lead arethat the Court was not and was not meant to be invested
with a power of judicial reviewof the legality or effectsof decisionsof the
Security Council. Only the Security Council can determine what is a
threat to or breach of the peace or act of aggressionunder Article 39,and
under Article 39 only it can "decide what measures shall be taken . . .to

maintain or restore international peace and security". Two States at vari-
ance in the interpretation of the Charter may submit a dispute to the
Court, but that facility does not empower the Court to set aside or
second-guessthe determinations of the SecurityCouncil under Article 39.
Contentious cases may come before the Court that cal1for its passing
upon questions of law raised by Council decisions and for interpreting
pertinent Council resolutions. But that power cannot be equated with an
authority to review and confute the decisions of the Security Council.
It may of course be maintained that the Charter is a living instrument;
that the present-day interpreters of the Charter are not bound by the
intentions of its drafters of50 years ago; that the Court has interpreted
the powers of the United Nations constmctively in other respects, and
could take a constructive view of its own powers in respect of judicial
review or some variation of it. The difficulty with this approach is that
for the Court to engraft upon the Charter régimea power to review,and
revise the reach of, resolutions of the Security Council would not be evo-
lutionary but revolutionary. It would be not a development but a depar-
ture, and a great and grave departure. It would not be a development
even arguably derived from the terms or structure of the Charter and

Statute. It would not be a development arising out of customaryinterna-
tional law, which has no principle of or provision for judicial review. It
would not be a development drawn from the general principles of law.
Judicial review, in varying forms, is found in a number of democratic
polities, most famously that of the United States, where it was developed
by the Supreme Court itself. But it is by no means a universal or even
general principle of government or law. It is hardly found outside the
democratic world and is not uniformly found in it. Where it exists inter-
nationally, as in the European Union, it is expressly provided for by
treaty in specificterms. The United Nations is far from being a govern-
ment, or an international organization comparable in its integration to
the European Union, and it is not democratic.

The conclusion that the Court cannot judicially review or revise the

60resolutions of the Security Council is buttressed by the fact that only
States may be parties in cases before the Court. The Security Council
cannot be a party. For the Court to adjudge the legality of the Council's
decisions in a proceeding brought by one State against another would be

for the Court to adjudicate the Council's rights without givingthe Coun-
cila hearing, which would run counter to fundamental judicial principles.
It would run counter as well to thejurisprudence of the Court. (Cf. East
Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment,I.C.J. Reports 1995,pp. 100-
105; Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1954,pp. 32-33.)Anysuchjudgment could not bind the Council,
because, by the terms of Article 59 of the Statute, the decision of the
Court has no binding force except between the parties and in respect of
that particular case.
At the same time, a judgment of the Court which held resolutions of
the Security Council adopted under Chapter VI1 of the Charter not to
bind or to be "opposable" to a State, despite the terms of Article 25 of
the Charter, would seriously prejudice the effectivenessof the Council's
resolutions and subvert the integrity of the Charter. Such a holding
would be tantamount to a judgment that the resolutions of the Security
Council were ultra vires,at any rate in relation to that State. That could
set the stage for an extraordinary confrontation between the Court and
the SecurityCouncil. It could giverise to the question, is a holding by the

Court that the Council has acted ultra viresa holding which of itself is
ultra vires?
For some 45 years, the world rightly criticizedstalemate in the Security
Council. With the end of the Cold War, the Security Council has taken
great strides towards performing as it was empowered to perform. That
in turn has given rise to the complaint by some Members of the United
Nations that they lack influence over the Council's decision-making.
However understandable that complaint may be, it cannot furnish the
Court with the legal authority to supervene the resolutions of the Secu-
rity Council.The argument that it does is a purely political argument; the
complaints that give rise to it should be addressed to and by the United
Nations in its consideration of the reform of the Security Council. It is
not an argument that can be heard in a court of law.

(Signed) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF PRESIDENT SCHWEBEL

1regret that 1am unable to agree with the Judgment of the Court. It is
arguable that the challenge of the Respondent to the jurisdiction of the
Court should not carry. But the reasons so terselystated by the Court are
conclusory rather than elucidatory, and, at most, are barely persuasive in
a subsidiary respect. In my view, the Court's conclusions on the admis-
sibilityof Libya'sApplication, and as to whether it has become moot, are
unpersuasive.

The question of whether the Court has jurisdiction over a dispute
between the Parties under the Montreal Convention for the Suppression

of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation depends on the
resolution of antecedent questions. Does the Montreal Convention apply
to the facts at issue in the current case? If its, do the positions of the
Parties in this case giverise to a dispute under the Convention?

The Preamble to the Convention declares its purpose to be that of
"deterring" unlawful acts against the safety of civil aviation andprovid-
ing appropriate measures for punishment of offenders. Article 10 pro-
vides that contracting States shall "endeavour to take al1 practicable
measure for the purpose of preventing the offences mentioned in Ar-
ticle 1". Article 12provides that any contracting State having reason to
believeone of the offencesmentioned in Article 1willbe committed shall
furnish relevant information to other States concerned. These provisions
may be interpreted to imply that the Convention does not apply to alle-
gationsagainstpersons accused of destroying an aircraft who are claimed,
as in the instant case, to be acting as agents of a contracting State. Or, if
that implication is too extended, those provisions of the Montreal Con-

vention suggestthat the Convention would hardly have deterrent effectif
the State accused of having directed the sabotage were the only State
competent to prosecute the persons accused of the act. At the same time,
Article 1 of the Convention capaciously provides that, "Any person"
commits an offence under the Convention if he performs an act there-
after listed. Moreover, Libya has not accepted that the accused were
agents of its Government.
If it be assumed that the Convention does apply to persons allegedly
State agents who are accused of destroying an aircraft, the question then[Traduction]

Je regrette de ne pas pouvoir souscrire à l'arrêt de la Cour.On peut
estimer que le défendeurn'étaitpas fondé à contesterla compétencede la
Cour. Mais les motifs énoncés de manièresi concisepar la Cour ont un
caractèreplus conclusif qu'explicatif etne sont guèreconvaincantspour
le moins à l'égardd'un aspect subsidiaire. A mon avis, lesconclusions de

la Cour sur la recevabilitéde la requête de laLibye et sur la question de
savoir si cette requête est devenuesans objet n'emportent pas la convic-
tion.

La question de savoir si la Cour est compétente pour connaître d'un
différendentre les Parties en vertu de la convention de Montréal pour la
répression d'actesillicites dirigéscontre la sécuritéde l'aviation civile
dépendde la manièredont il sera répondu aux questionspréalables sui-
vantes. La convention de Montréal s'applique-t-elleaux faits en litigeen
l'espèce?Dans l'affirmative,les positions des Etats en l'affairennent-

ellesnaissance à un différenden vertu de la convention?
Selon le préambulede la convention, cet instrument vise à«prévenir»
les actes illicitesdirigéscontre la sécurde l'aviation civileet prévoir
des mesures appropriéesen vue de la punition de leurs auteurs. Aux
termes de l'article10, les Etats contractants ((s'engagenà s'efforcerde
prendre les mesures raisonnables en vue de prévenir les infractions
viséesà l'articlepremier)).En vertu de l'article 12,tout Etat contractant
qui a lieu de croire que l'une des infractions prévuesà l'article premier
sera commise fournit tous renseignements utiles aux autres Etats inté-
ressés.On peut interpréterces dispositions comme écartantl'application
de la convention aux allégations formuléescontre des personnes accusées
d'avoir détruit unaéronef etqui auraient agi, comme en l'espèce,en tant
qu'agents d'un Etat contractant. Mais, sil'on donne ainsi une interpréta-
tion trop large de ces dispositions, la convention de Montréal n'aurait

guèred'effetpréventifsi 1'Etataccuséd'avoir ordonnéle sabotage est le
seulEtat compétentpour poursuivrelespersonnes accuséesde cet acte. Il
y a aussi lieu de relever que, aux termes de l'article premier,((toute per-
sonne))commet une infraction au titre de la convention si elle accomplit
un des actes qui y sont énumérésQ . uoi qu'il en soit, la Libye n'a pas
admis que lespersonnes accuséessoient des agents de son gouvernement.
Si l'on suppose que la convention s'applique à des personnes qui
seraient des agents d'un Etat qui sont accusésd'avoir détruit un aéronef,arises whether there is a dispute between Libya and the Respondent

under the Convention.
It is difficult to show, and in its Judgment the Court in my view does
not show (as contrasted with concluding), that the Respondent can be in
violation of provisions of the Montreal Convention, with the possible
exception of Article 11; the Court does not show that there is a dispute
between the Parties over such alleged violations. The Convention in the
circumstances of the caseimposes multipleobligations on Libya. None of
the articles of the Convention invoked by Libya in the circumstances of
this case imposes obligations on the Respondent (as the opinion of Sir
Robert Jennings in the proceedings between Libya and the United King-
dom demonstrates). At most, it might be maintained that there is a dis-
pute over breach of an obligation under Article 11, which provides in
paragraph 1that,

"Contracting States shall afford one another the greatest measure
of assistance in connection with criminal proceedings brought in
respect of the offences.The law of the State requested shall apply in
ail cases."
The Respondent, the State requested,has provided Libya with the indict-

ment, but, in reliance upon the resolutions of the SecurityCounciland its
own law, has not, despite Libyan requests, done more. If in fact Libya
has brought criminal proceedings against the accused, there is arguable
ground for allegingthe existenceof a dispute under Article 11,though in
truth the dispute is over the force of the Security Council's resolutions.

The Court principally relies, in upholding jurisdiction, on its unexpli-
cated conclusion that, in view of the positions of the Parties, there exists
between them a dispute regarding the interpretation and application of
Article 7. Article 7 provides:

"The Contracting State in the territory of which the alleged
offender is found shall, if it does not extradite him, be obliged, with-
out exception whatsoever and whether or not the offence was com-
mitted on its territory, to submitthe case to its competent authorities
for the purpose of prosecution. Those authorities shall take their
decisionin the same manner as in the case of any ordinary offenceof
a serious nature under the law of that State."

The Respondent has not disputed Libya's obligation to prosecute the
accused under Article 7 if Libya does not extradite them. It rather main-
tains that Libya is obliged by the superveningresolutions of the Security
Council to surrender the accused for trial in the United States or the
United Kingdom. Libya challenges this reading of the resolutions of the
Security Council and contends that, if it is the right reading, the resolu-
tions of the Security Council are unlawful and ultra vires.That is to Say,
there is no dispute between the Parties in this regard under Article 7 of
the Montreal Convention. There is a dispute over the meaning, legalityla question sepose alors de savoir s'il existe undifférendentrela Libye et
le défendeur en vertu de la convention.
Il est difficilede démontrer et, selon moi, la Cour ne le démontrepas
dans son arrêt(qui conclut, ce qui est différent)que le défendeurpourrait
avoir violéles dispositions de la convention de Montréal, sauf peut-être
en ce qui concerne l'article 11la Cour ne démontre pas qu'ilexiste un
différendentre les Parties sur ces violations alléguée. ans les circons-
tances de l'espèce,la convention impose de multiples obligations à la
Libye. Aucun des articles de la convention invoquéspar la Libye dans les
circonstances de l'espèce n'imposecependant des obligations au défen-
deur (comme le démontre sir Robert Jennings dans l'opinion qu'il a
expriméedans l'instance entre la Libye et le Royaume-Uni). On pourrait
tout au plus faire valoir qu'il existe un différendsur le non-respect d'une

obligation au titre de l'articledont le paragraphe 1 dispose que:
«Les Etats contractants s'accordent l'entraide judiciaire la plus
large possible dans toute procédure pénale relative auxinfractions.
Dans tous les cas, la loi applicable pour l'exécutiond'une demande
d'entraide est celle de'Etat requis.»

Le défendeur, à savoir 1'Etatrequis, a communiqué à la Libye un acte
d'accusation mais, conformémentaux résolutionsdu Conseil de sécurité
et àsa propre législation,il n'a rien fait d'autre, malgréles demandes de
la Libye. Si la Libye avait effectivement engagé despoursuites pénales
contre les accusés,on pourrait alors invoquer l'existenced'un différend
sur la base de l'article 11,bien que le différendporte en réalité sur la
valeur des résolutionsdu Conseil de sécurité.
La Cour se fonde principalement, pour établir sa compétence,sur la

conclusion, qu'elle n'expliquepas, que compte tenu des positions des
Parties, il existe entre elles un différendconcernant l'interprétation et
l'application de l'article 7, qui est ainsi conçu:
«L'Etat contractant sur le territoire duquel l'auteur présuméde
l'une desinfractions est découvert,s'iln'extrade pas ce dernier, sou-
met l'affaire, sansaucune exception et que l'infraction ait ou non été

commise sur son territoire,à ses autoritéscompétentespour l'exer-
cice de l'action pénale.Ces autorités prennent leur décisiondans les
mêmesconditions que pour toute infraction de droit commun de
caractère grave conformémentaux lois de cet Etat. »
Le défendeurn'a pas contesté l'obligation incombant à la Libye de
poursuivre lesaccusésconformément àl'article7 siellene lesextrade pas.
II soutient cependant que la Libye est tenue, conformément aux résolu-

tions adoptéespar le Conseil de sécurité ce sujet, de remettre les accusés
pour qu'ils soient jugésaux Etats-Unis ou au Royaume-Uni. La Libye
contesteune telle interprétation des résolutionsdu Conseil de sécurité et
soutient que, si une telle interprétation étaitexacte, les résolutionsdu
Conseilde sécuritéseraienitlliciteset constitueraientun excès de pouvoir.
Il n'y a donc pas de différendentre les Parties à cet égardau titre deand effectivenessof the pertinent resolutions of the SecurityCouncil.The
latter dispute may not be equated with the former. Consequentlyit does
not fa11within thejurisdiction of the Court under Article 14of the Mon-
treal Convention, which confinesthe Court's jurisdiction to "Any dispute
between two or more Contracting Statesconcerningthe interpretation or

application of this Convention . . .Libya's complaint that the Security
Council has acted unlawfully can hardly be a claim under the Montreal
Convention fallingwithin the jurisdiction of the Court pursuant to that
Convention.

The Court holds that there is a further, overarching dispute between
the Parties,because
"the Parties differ on the question whether the destruction of the

Pan Am aircraft over Lockerbie is governed by the Montreal Con-
vention. A dispute thus exists between the Parties as to the legal
régimeapplicable to this event. Such a dispute, in the view of the
Court, concerns the interpretation and application of the Montreal
Convention, and in accordance with Article 14,paragraph 1, of the
Convention, falls to be decided by the Court ."(Judgment, para. 24.)

That holding is not without forma1 force. But, as in this case, it lends
itselfto undue extension of thejurisdiction of the Court. If two States are

parties to a treaty affordingjurisdiction to the Court in disputes over its
interpretation or application, is there a dispute under the treaty merely
because oneparty so maintains - or maintains that the treaty constitutes
the governing legal régime - while the other denies it?

It is in any event obvious that the Montreal Convention cannot afford
the Court jurisdiction over Libya's submissionthat the Respondent

"isunder a legal obligation to respect Libya's right not to have the

Convention set aside by means which would in any case be at vari-
ance with the principles of the United Nations Charter and with the
mandatory rules of general international law prohibiting the use of
force and the violation of the sovereignty, territorial integrity, sov-
ereign equality and political independence of States" (Memorial of
Libya, Submissions, p. 242, para. 8.1 (d)).

Disputes under the Montreal Convention do not import those arising

under the Charter and customary international law. Yet the Court's
holding on this submission is equivocal. While it States that it cannot
uphold the Respondent's objection, at the same time it confines the
Court's jurisdiction to actions alleged to be at variance with the provi-
sions of the Montreal Convention.
Finally, in respect of jurisdiction, the Court observes that Securityl'article7 de la convention de Montréal, alorsqu'ily a un différendentre
ellessur le sens, la licéiet l'effetdes résolutions pertinentesdu Conseil
de sécuritéC. e dernier différendne saurait êtreassimiléau premier et ne
relèvedonc pas de la compétencedela Cour en vertu de l'article 14de la
convention de Montréal, qui limite cette compétence à «tout différend
entre des Etats contractants concernant l'interprétation ou l'application
de la présente convention...)) L'affirmation de la Libye selon laquelle le
Conseil de sécuritéaurait agi illicitement ne peut guèreêtreconsidérée
comme un grief formuléau titre de la convention relevant de la compé-
tence de la Cour conformément à cette convention.

La Cour est d'avis qu'il existeun autre différend essentielentre les
Parties, car
«les Parties s'opposent sur la question de savoir si la destruction de
l'appareil de la Pan Am au-dessus de Lockerbie est régiepar la
convention de Montréal. Il existe donc un différendentreles Parties

sur le régimejuridique applicable à cet événementU . n tel différend
concerne, de l'avis dela Cour, l'interprétation et l'application de la
convention de Montréal, et, conformément au paragraphe 1 de
l'article 14de la convention, il appartientla Cour de le trancher. ))
(Arrêt, par.24.)

Cetteconclusion nemanquepas formellementdevaleur. Mais, enl'espèce,
elletend à étendre indûment lacompétencede la Cour. Sideux Etats sont
partiesà un traité prévoyantla compétencede la Cour pour connaître des
différendsconcernant son interprétation ou son application, y aurait-il
un différend envertu du traitédu fait simplement qu'une partie est de cet
avis - ou est d'avisque le traité constituele seul régimejuridique appli-
cable - alors que l'autre partie le conteste?
Il est cependant manifeste que la convention de Montréal ne saurait
donner à la Cour compétencepour se prononcer sur la conclusion de la
Libye selon laquelle le défendeur

«est juridiquement tenu de respecter le droit de la Libye à ce que
cette convention ne soit pas écartéepar des moyens qui seraient au
demeurant en contradiction avec les principes de la Charte des
Nations Unies et du droit international général de caractère impéra-
tif qui prohibent l'utilisation de la force et la violation de la souve-
raineté,de l'intégrité territoriale, del'égalsouveraine des Etats et
de leur indépendance politique))(mémoire dela Libye, conclusions,

p. 242, par. 8.1d)).
Il convient toutefois de ne pas confondre les différendsau titre de la
convention de Montréal avec ceux découlant de la Charte et du droit
international coutumier. L'avis de la Cour sur ce point est cependant

équivoquepuisque,tout en affirmant ne pas pouvoir accueillirl'exception
du défendeur,ellelimite sa compétence à des actes qui seraientcontraires
aux dispositionsde la convention de Montréal.
La Cour fait finalement observer, au sujet de sa compétence,que leCouncil resolutions 748 (1992) and 883 (1993) were adopted after the
filing of Libya's Application on 3 March 1992.It holds that, in accord-
ance with its established jurisprudence, if the Court had jurisdiction on
that date, it continues to do so; subsequent adoption of the Security
Council'sresolutions cannot affect its jurisdiction once established.That
holding by its terms does not resolve whether, on 3 March 1992, the

Court had jurisdiction. For the reasons set out above, the conclusionthat
it didis dubious.
Moreover, the cases on which the Court relies in so holding hardly
seem to apply to the instant situation. The question at issue in the rele-
vant phase of the Nottebohm case was whether, where jurisdiction had
been established at the date of the application by Declarations under the
Optional Clause, it could be disestablished by subsequent lapse of a Dec-
laration by expiry or denunciation. Inevitably the Court held that it
could not. In the case concerning Right of Passage overIndian Territory,
the Court concordantly held that,

"It is a rule of law generallyaccepted, as wellas oneactedupon in
the past by the Court, that, once the Court has been validly seisedof
a dispute,unilateralaction by the respondent State in terminating its
Declaration . .. cannot divest the Court of jurisdiction." (Right of
Passage over Indian Territory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 142.)

Nothing of the kind at issue in either of those cases is pertinent to the
instant case. There is no question of the Respondent unilaterally taking
action that purports to denounce the Montreal Convention or to excise
Article 14 thereof. Rather the Security Council has taken multilateral
action in pursuance of its Charter powers by adopting resolution 748
(1992)which, as the Court held at the provisional measures stage of this
case, both Libya and the Respondent, "as Members of the United
Nations, are obliged to accept and carry out . . . in accordance with
Article 25 of the Charter" (I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 126). The Court
then held that, "in accordance with Article 103of the Charter, the obli-
gations of the Parties in that respect prevail over their obligations under
any other international agreement, including the Montreal Convention"
(ibid.). That is no less true in 1998than it was in 1992.

In its Judgment on jurisdiction and admissibility of 11 July 1996 in
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide,the Court held that, "It is the case that the jurisdic-
tion of the Court must normally be assessed on the date of the filing of

the act instituting proceedings." (I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 613, para. 26.)
This most recent holding on the question imports that what is normal is
not invariable; there is room for special treatment of the abnormal. The
instant case, in which the Applicant challenges the legality and applica-Conseil de sécuritéa adoptésesrésolutions748 (1992)et 883 (1993)après
le dépôtde la requêtede laLibye le 3 mars 1992.Elle estime que, confor-
mément à sajurisprudence constante, si la Cour était compétenteà cette
date, ellel'estdemeuréeet l'adoption ultérieuredesrésolutionsduConseil

de sécuriténe saurait avoir d'effetsur sa compétenceune foisqu'ellea été
établie.Tellequ'elle est formulée, cette conclusionne règlecependantpas
la question de savoir si, le mars 1992,la Cour avait bien compétence.
C'est pourquoi il est discutable que la Cour conclue que tel étaitle cas.
De plus, les précédentes affairessur lesquelles la Cour se fondeà cet
effet ne semblent guères'appliquer à la situation considérée.l s'agissait
en effet, dans la phase pertinentede l'affaire Nottebohm, de savoir si, une
fois la compétence établieà la date du dépôt dela requête à la suite de
déclarationsfaitesconformément à la clausefacultative,cette compétence
pouvait êtreensuite écartéedu fait de la caducité ultérieured'une déclara-
tion parce qu'elleest venueà expiration ou a étdénoncéeL . a Cour a été
inévitablementd'avisque tel ne saurait êtrele cas. Dans l'affaireduroit
de passage sur territoire indien, la Cour a étéen conséquence d'avis

que :
«C'est une règle dedroit généralement acceptée et appliquéedans
le passépar la Cour qu'une fois la Cour valablement saisie d'un dif-
férend, l'action unilatérale de1'Etat défendeur, dénonçant ...sa
déclaration,ne peut retirer compétence à la Cour. » (Droit de pas-
sage sur territoire indien, exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.Z.J.
Recueil 1957, p. 142.)

Mais aucune des questions soulevéesdans ces affaires n'est pertinente en
l'espèce.Le défendeur n'a pris aucune mesure unilatérale tendant à
dénoncerla conventionde Montréal ou à en retrancher l'article 14.C'est
plutôt le Conseil de sécuritqui a pris des mesures multilatéralesconfor-
mémentaux pouvoirs qui lui sont conférés par la Charte en adoptant la
résolution 748 (1992)que, comme la Cour l'a estiméau stade de la pré-

sente affaire relatif aux mesures conservatoires, tant la Libye que le
défendeur, «en tant que Membres de l'organisation des Nations Unies,
sont dans l'obligation d'accepter et d'appliquer..conformément à l'ar-
ticle25 de la Charte)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 126).La Cour a alors affir-
méque ((conformément à l'article 103 de la Charte, les obligations des
Partiesà cet égardprévalentsur leurs obligations en vertu de tout autre
accord international, ycomprisla convention de Montréal » (ibid) .Cela
n'est pas moins vrai en 1998que cela l'étaiten 1992.
Dans l'arrêtqu'ellea rendu le 11juillet 1996dans la phase relativeàla
compétence et à la recevabilitéen l'affaire relatiàel'Application de la
conventionpour la préventionet la répression ducrime de génocide, la
Cour avait dit que, certes, «la compétencede la Cour doit normalement
s'apprécier à la date du dépôt de l'acte introductif d'instance)) (C.I.J.

Recueil 1996, p. 613, par. 26). Cette opinion, la plus récente formuléeen
la matière, sembleindiquer que ce qui est normal n'est pas invariable; et
qu'il serait possible de réserverun traitement particulier aux situationsbility to it of resolutions of the Security Council adopted to deal with
what the Council held to be a threat to international peace, surely is one
to be treated in the exceptional way to which the Court opened the door
in 1996.

The Respondent objects to the admissibility of Libya's claims inreli-

ance upon SecurityCouncilresolutions 748(1992)and 883(1993),which,
having been adopted under Chapter VI1of the Charter, are binding and
govern the Montreal Convention by virtue of Article 103of the Charter.
It maintained that the Court is not empowered to overturn the decisions
of the Security Council and certainly is not authorized to overturn the
Council'sdetermination under Chapter VI1of the existenceof a threat to
the peace and its choice of measures to deal with the threat. Libya,
among other arguments, invoked the Court's holding in Border and
Transborder Armed Actions that, "The critical date for determining the
admissibility of an application is the date on which it is filed (cf. South
West Africa, Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344)"
(Border and Transborder ArmedActions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Juris-
diction and Admissibility, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 95).

In its Judgrnent,the Court upholds this submission of Libya, declaring
that,

"The date, 3 March 1992,on which Libya filed its Application, is
in fact the only relevant date for determiningthe admissibility of the
Application. Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)
cannot be taken into consideration in this regard since they were
adopted at a later date." (Para. 43.)

It is solely on this ground that the Court dismisses the Respondent's
objection to the admissibility of the Application. It is solely on this
ground that the Court finds it right, at this stage of the proceedings, to
put aside resolutions of the Security Council adopted to deal with what
the Councilhas found to be acts of international terrorism that constitute
threats to international peace and security. ("Acts", rather than the atro-
cious act of destroying the aircraft of Pan American flight 103,not only
because Libyanagents are allegedby French authorities to have destroyed
Union de transports aériensflight 772 on 19 September 1989, another
atrocity addressed by the Security Council in resolutions 731 (1992),748
(1992) and 883 (1993).That allegation has led French juge d'instruction
Jean-Louis Bruguière,after extensiveinvestigationcompleted on 29 Janu-
ary 1998, to cal1for trial of six alleged Libyan secret service or former
secret service agents, including a brother-in-law of Colonel Qaddafi (a

trial which, under French law, can take place in absentia) (Le Monde,
31 January 1998, p. 11). The Security Council also has chosen to actanormales. La présente affaire, où le demandeur conteste la licéitéet
l'applicabilitéà son égard de résolutions duConseil de sécuritéadoptées

pour traiter une situation que le Conseil a estiméecommeconstituant une
menace contre la paix internationale, mérite certainement d'être traitée
de la manière exceptionnelle que la Cour a laissé envisager en1996.

Le défendeurcontestelarecevabilitédesdemandesde la Libye en invo-
quant les résolutions748 (1992)et 883 (1993)du Conseil de sécuritéqui,
ayant été adoptées au titre du chapitreVI1 de la Charte, seraient obli-
gatoires et primeraient sur la convention de Montréal en vertu de l'ar-
ticle 103de la Charte. Il soutient que la Cour ne saurait annuler les déci-
sions du Conseilde sécuritéetn'estcertainementpas habilitée àmettre en
cause la constatation faite par le Conseil, conformémentau chapitre VII,
de l'existenced'une menace contre la paix ni son choix de mesures pour

parer à une telle menace. La Libye a invoqué entre autres arguments,
pour sa part, la conclusionde la Cour dans l'affairerelativedes Actions
arméesfrontalières et transfrontalières,elon laquelle «la date critiquà
retenir pour déterminerla recevabilitéd'une requêteest cellede sondépôt
(voir Sud-Ouest africain, exceptions préliminaires, C.I.J. Recueil 1962,
p. 344))) (Actions armées frontalièreset transfrontalières (Nicaragua
c. Honduras), compétenceet recevabilité, C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 95).
Dans son arrêt,la Cour admet cet argument de la Libye en déclarant
que :

«La date du 3 mars 1992 à laquelle la Libye a déposé sarequête
est en effetla seuledate pertinente aux finsd'apprécierla recevabilité
de celle-ci. Les résolutions748 (1992)et 883 (1993) du Conseil de
sécuriténe sauraient êtreprises en considérationàcet égarddès lors
qu'ellesont étéadoptées àune date ultérieure.» (Par. 43.)

C'est seulementpour cemotif que la Cour rejette l'exceptiondu défen-
deur à l'égard de larecevabilité dela requête.C'est seulement pour ce
motif quela Cour estimepouvoir écarter,au stade actuelde l'instance,les
résolutionsque le Conseil de sécuritéa adoptées pour traiter ce que le
Conseil a considéré comme desactes de terrorisme international consti-
tuant des menacespour la paix et la sécuritinternationales.((Desactes)),
et non pas seulement l'acte atroce de destruction de l'appareil de la Pan
Am assurant le vol 103,puisque, selon les autorités françaises,des agents
libyens auraient détruit, le 19 septembre 1989, l'appareil del'Union de
transports aériens assurant le vol 772,autre atrocitéviséepar le Conseil
de sécuritédans sesrésolutions731 (1992),748 (1992)et 883(1993).Cette
allégation a conduit le juge d'instruction français, M. Jean-Louis Bru-
guiére,après une longue enquêtequi s'est achevéele 29 janvier 1998, à

demander que six agents ou anciens agents présumés des servicesde ren-
seignement libyens, dont un beau-frère du colonel Kadhafi, soient tra-
duits en justice (ils peuvent, selon le droit français, êtrejugéspartu-under Chapter VI1of the Charter in view of its broader determination in
resolution 748 (1992) "that the failure by the Libyan Government to
demonstrate by concreteactionsits renunciation of terrorism and in par-
ticularits continued failure to respond fully and effectivelyto the requests
in resolution 731 (1992) constitute a threat to international peace and
security" .)

In my view, the holding of the Court is, on the facts of this case, even
less persuasive in respect of admissibilitythan it is in respect ofjurisdic-
tion. It may be recalled that, in customary international law, the admis-
sibility of a claim espoused by a State, under the rule of nationality of
claims, is determined not as of the date of filing but as of the date of
judgrnent. It may also be observed that the whole basis on which the
Court in 1992proceeded in approving its Order rejecting the provisional
measures sought by Libya was that of the applicability,as of the date of
its Order, of Security Council resolution 748 (1992), adopted after the
date of the filingof Libya's Application and Libya's request for the indi-
cation of provisional measures.

There is little in the legal literature on the question of whether, in the
jurisprudence of the Court, admissibility must be assessed as of the date
of application, perhaps because the quoted holding of the Court in the
case concerning Border and TransborderArmed Actions (Nicaragua v.
Honduras) is the only such general holding of the Court. In the latest

edition of his magisterial work, Shabtai Rosenne writes that the date of
the filing ofthe act institutingthe proceedings is the date "by reference to
which the existence of the dispute and the admissibility of the case are
normally determined . . ."(The Law and Practice of the International
Court, 1920-1996,Vol. II, pp. 521-522).That appraisal leaves room for
not necessarilydetermining admissibility as of the date of the application.

The Court's holding in the Border and Transborder Armed Actions
case referred to its prior holding in the South West Africa cases. In those
cases, as wellas in Border and TransborderArmed Actions, the issue was
not generally whether admissibility of an application is determined as of
the date of the applicationbut specificallywhether an alleged impossibil-
ity of settling the dispute by negotiation could only refer to the time when
the applications were filed. (South West Africa, Preliminary Objections,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344; Border and TransborderArmed Actions
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 95. See also to similar effect, Right of Passage
over Indian Territory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1957, p. 148.)The utility of determining that question as of the date of

the filing of the applicationis clear. But whether it follows that, generally
and in al1cases, the admissibility of an application is to be determined as
of the date of its filing,isnot so clear. It may indeed be asked whether the mace) (Le Monde, 31 janvier 1998, p. 11). Le Conseil de sécuritéa
également choisi d'agir conformément au chapitre VI1 de la Charte
lorsqu'il a constaté, d'une manièreplus générale, ans sa résolution748
(1992),que «le défaut dela part du Gouvernement libyen de montrer par
des actes concrets sa renonciation au terrorisme et, en particulier, son
manquement continu à répondre de manière complèteet effective aux
requêtes contenuesdans la résolution731 (1992)constituent une menace
pour la paix et la sécuriinternationales)).)
Surla base desfaits de la présente affaire,la conclusion de la Cour est,
selon moi, encore moins convaincante en ce qui concerne la recevabilité
qu'à l'égard dela compétence.Il convient de rappeler que, en droit inter-
national coutumier, la recevabilitéd'une demande appuyéepar un Etat
doit être déterminée, conformément à la règle de la nationalité des
demandes, non pas à la date de son dépôt mais à celle du jugement. Il

convient également d'observerque, dans son ordonnance de 1992reje-
tant les mesures conservatoires demandées par la Libye, la Cour s'est
entièrementfondée surI'applicabilité,à la date de cette ordonnance, de la
résolution748 (1992),adoptéepar le Conseil de sécuritéaprèsla date du
dépôt de la requête dela Libye et de la demande en indication de mesures
conservatoiresde la Libye.
La doctrine est peu abondante sur la question de savoir si, selon la
jurisprudence de la Cour, la recevabilitédoit être déterminéela date de
la requête, peut-êtren raison du fait que la conclusionsusmentionnéede
la Cour dans l'affaire relativedes Actions arméesfrontalièreset trans-
frontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras) est la seule opinion de caractère
générad l e la Cour sur ce point. Dans la dernière édition de son ouvrage
magistral, Shabtai Rosenne dit que la date du dépôt del'acte introductif
d'instanceest la date«par rapport à laquelle l'existencedu différendet la

recevabilitéde la requêtesont normalement déterminées...))(The Law
and Practice of the International Court,1920-1996, vol. II, p. 521-522).
Selon ce point de vue, il n'y a pas nécessairementlieu de déterminer la
recevabilitéà la date de la requête.
Dans la conclusion qu'elle a formulée dans l'affaire relative à des
Actions arméesfrontalièreset transfrontalières,la Cour s'estréféré ela
conclusion qu'elleavait expriméedans les affairesdu Sud-Ouest africain.
Dans ces dernières affaires, ainsi que dans la première, il s'agissait de
savoir, non pas, d'une manière générales ,i la recevabilitéd'une requête
doit être déterminéeà la date de son dépôt, maissi, spécifiquement, une
prétendueimpossibilitéde réglerle différendpar la négociationne pou-
vait avoir trait qu'au moment où les requêtes avaient étdéposées (Sud-
Ouest africain, exceptions préliminaires, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 344;
Actions armées frontalièreset transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Hondu-

ras), compétenceet recevabilité,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 95. Voir,
de manière analogue, l'affaire.du Droit de passage sur territoire indien,
exceptions préliminaires,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 148.)L'intérêt de
déterminer cette question à la date du dépôt dela requêteest évident.
Reste cependant à savoir si, d'une manièregénéraleet dans tous les cas,Court's apparently general holding in Border and Transborder Armed
Actions is meant to have the comprehensive force which the Court
assigns to it in this case, in view ofthe restrictedconcern of the Court in
that and the other cases cited.

Moreover, the following lines of that Judgment significantly qualify
the sweep of the first sentence of the paragraph. It is instructiveto quote
the first sentence in the context of the following sentences:

"The critical date for determiningthe admissibility of an applica-
tion is the date on which it is filed(cf.South West Africa, Prelimi-
nary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 344). It may however be
necessary, in order to determine with certainty what the situation
was at the date of filing of the Application, to examine the events,
and in particular the relations between the Parties, over a period
prior to that date, and indeed during the subsequent period.
Furthermore, subsequent events may render an application
without object, or even take such a course as to preclude the filing
of a later application in similar terms." (1C..J. Reports 1988, p. 95,
para. 66.)

In the case before the Court, it is precisely such "subsequent events",
namely adoption by the Security Council of resolutions 748 (1992) and
883 (1993), that render Libya's Application "without object", that is to
Say,moot. Accordingly any judgment by the Court couid have no lawful
effecton the rights and obligations of the Parties in light of the Council's

binding decisions and would thus not be within the proper judicial func-
tion of the Court.
In the case concerning Northern Cameroons, the Court declared :
"The function of the Court is to state the law, but it may pro-
nounce judgment only in connection with concrete cases wherethere

exists at the time of the adjudication an actual controversy involving
a conflict of legal interests between the parties. The Court's judg-
ment must have some practical consequence in the sense that it can
affect existing legal rights or obligations of the parties, thus remov-
inguncertaintyfrom their legalrelations. No judgment on the merits
in this case could satisfy these essentials of the judicial function."
(Northern Cameroons, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1963, pp. 33-34.)

The Court concluded :
"The Court must discharge the duty to which it has already called

attention - the duty to safeguard the judicial function. Whether orla recevabilitéd'une requêtedoit êtredéterminée à la date de son dépôt,

ce qui n'est pas si évident. Onpeut en effet se demander s'ilconvient de
donner à la conclusion apparemment généraleformulép ear la Cour dans
l'affaire relative des Actions arméesfrontalièreset transfrontalières,la
valeur trèsgénéraleque la Cour lui attribue en I'espèce,compte tenu de
l'intérêrtestreint que cette affaire et les autres affaires susmentionnées
présentaientpour la Cour.
Par ailleurs, le passage qui suit de l'arrêt rendu par la Couren l'affaire
relativeà des Actions arméesfrontalières et transfrontalièresnuance sen-
siblement la portéegénérale du paragraphe concerné. Il est riche d'ensei-
gnements de citer cette première phrase en mêmetemps que celles qui
suivent :

«La date critique a retenir pour déterminer la recevabilitéd'une
requêteest cellede son dépôt(cf. Sud-Ouest africain,exceptionspré-
liminaires, C.I.. Recueil 1962, p. 344). Il peut toutefois êtrenéces-
saire, pour détermineravec certitude quelle était la situation à la
date du dépôt de la requête,d'examiner les événements,eten parti-
culier lesrelationsentre lesparties,pendant une périodeantérieure à
cette date, voire pendant la périodequi a suivi. En outre, il se peut
que des événements privent ensuite la requêtede son objet ou qu'ils

prennent mêmeune tournure telle qu'une nouvelle requêtene pour-
rait par la suite êtredéposéedans des termes analogues.)) (C.I.J.
Recueil 1988, p. 95, par. 66.)
Dans la présente affaire,ce sont précisément de tels((événementspos-

térieurs)),à savoir l'adoption par le Conseil de sécuritéde ses résolu-
tions 748 (1992)et 883 (1993),qui ont rendu la requêtede la Libye sans
objet, autrement dit moot. En conséquence,aucun arrêtde la Cour ne
saurait avoir d'effetjuridique sur les droits et obligations des Parties eu
égard aux décisionsobligatoiresdu Conseilet ne saurait donc entrer dans
le cadre de la fonction judiciaire propre la Cour.
Dans l'affaire du Camerounseptentrional, la Cour a déclaré:

«La fonction de la Cour est de dire le droit, mais elle ne peut
rendre des arrêts qu'àl'occasion de cas concrets dans lesquels il
existe, au moment du jugement, un litige réelimpliquant un conflit
d'intérêtjsuridiques entre les parties. L'arrêt dela Cour doit avoir
des conséquencespratiques en ce sens qu'il doit pouvoir affecter les
droits ou obligationsjuridiques existants des parties, dissipant ainsi
toute incertitude dans leurs relations juridiques. En l'espèce,aucun
arrêtrendu au fond ne pourrait répondre à ces conditions essen-
tielles de la fonction judiciaire.))ameroun septentrional, excep-
tions préliminaires,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 33-34.)

La Cour a conclu:

«La Cour doit s'acquitter du devoir sur lequel elle a déjà appelé
l'attention et qui consistesauvegarder sa fonctionjudiciaire. Qu'au not at the moment the Application was filedthere wasjurisdiction in
the Court to adjudicate upon the dispute submitted to it, circum-
stances that have sincearisen render any adjudication devoid of pur-
pose. Under these conditions, for the Court to proceed further in the
case would not, in its opinion, be a proper discharge of its duties."
(I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 38.)

In the two cases on Nuclear Tests, the Court held:

"The Court, as a court of law, is called upon to resolve existing
disputes between States. Thus the existence of a dispute is the pri-
mary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function; it is
not sufficient for one party to assert that there is a dispute, since
'whether there exists an international dispute is a matter for objec-
tive determination' by the Court ... The dispute brought before it
must therefore continue to exist at the time when the Court makes
its decision. It must not fail to take cognizance of a situation in

which the dispute has disappeared ... al1the necessaryconsequences
must be drawn from this finding.

Thus the Court concludes that, the dispute having disappeared,
the claim advanced ... no longer has any object. It follows that any
further finding would have no raison d'être.

The Court therefore sees no reason to allow the continuance of
proceedings which it knows are bound to be fruitless.

.............................
The object of the claim having clearly disappeared, there is
nothing on which to give judgment." (Nuclear Tests (Australia v.
France), I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270-272,paras. 55-56, 58-59. See
also, Nuclear Tests-{New Zealgnd v. France), I.C.J. Reports 1974,
pp. 476-477; paras. 58-59, 61-62.)

It follows that, in the case now before the Court, the Court should
have held Libya's claimsto be inadmissible, or at any rate moot, on the
ground that the issues between it and the Respondent have been deter-
mined by decisions of the Security Council which bind the Parties and
which, pursuant to Article 103of the Charter, prevail over any rights and
obligations that Libya and the Respondent have under the Montreal
Convention. If the Court had done so, it would have removed a pro-
longed challenge to the exercise by the Security Council of its Charter

responsibilities and presumably promoted Libya's compliance with its
obligations, under Article 25 of the Charter, "to accept and carry out the
decisionsof the SecurityCouncil in accordance with the present Charter". moment où la requête a été déposéela Cour ait eu ou non compé-
tence pour trancher le différendqui lui étaitsoumis, il reste que les
circonstancesqui sesont produites depuislors rendent toute décision

judiciaire sans objet. La Cour estime dans ces conditions que, si elle
examinait l'affaire plus avant, elle ne s'acquitterait pas des devoirs
qui sont les siens.»C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 38.)

Dans les deux affaires des Essais nucléaires,la Cour a estimé:
«La Cour, comme organejuridictionnel, a pour tâche de résoudre
des différendsexistants entre Etats. L'existence d'un différend est
donc la condition premièrede l'exercicede sa fonctionjudiciaire; on
peut se contenter à cet égard des affirmations d'une partie car

((l'existenced'undifférendinternational demande à êtreétablioebjec-
tivement))par la Cour ..Le différenddont la Cour a étésaisie doit
donc persister au moment où elle statue. Elle doit tenir compte de
toute situation dans laquelle le différenda disparu..il faut en tirer
les conséquencesqui s'imposent.

C'estpourquoi la Cour conclut que, le différendayant disparu, la
demande présentée ...ne comporte plus d'objet. Il en résulte
qu'aucune autre constatation n'aurait de raison d'être.

La Cour ne voit donc pas de raison de laisser se poursuivre une

procédurequ'elle sait condamnée à rester stérile.

La demande ayant manifestement perdu son objet, il n'ya rien à
juger.» (Essais nucléaires(Australie c. France), C.1J. Recueil 1974,
p. 270-272,par. 55-56,58-59;voir égalementEssais nucléaires(Nou-
velle-Zélandec. France), C.I.J. Recueil 1974,p. 476-477,par. 58-59,

61-62.)
Il s'ensuit donc que, dans l'affaire dont elle est actuellement saisie, la
Cour aurait dû considérerles demandes de la Libye comme irrecevables,
ou en tout cas dépourvues d'objet,étant donné queles questions qui se

posent entre elle et le défendeuront été tranchéep sar des décisionsdu
Conseil de sécuritéqui s'imposent aux Parties et que, conformément à
l'article 103de la Charte, cesdécisionsprévalent surtous les autres droits
et obligations de la Libye et du défendeurau titre de la convention de
Montréal. Si la Cour s'était prononcée dela sorte, elle aurait fait cesser
une longue contestation de l'exercice,par le Conseil de sécurité,de ses
responsabilitésen vertu de la Charte, et encouragéprobablement la Libye
à respecter l'obligation qui lui incombe, aux termes de l'article 25 de la
Charte, ((d'accepter et d'appliquer les décisionsdu Conseil de sécurité
conformément à la présenteCharte». However, the Court's Judgment holds that it may not so determine at
this stage of the proceedings because of the terms of Article 79 of the

Rules of Court. That article provides that its judgment on preliminary
objections, whether they be to the jurisdiction or to the admissibility of
the application, "or other objection the decision upon which is requested
before any further proceedings on the merits", shall either uphold the
objection, reject it, "oreclare that the objection does not possess, in the
circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character". The
Court concludes that the objection that Libya's claimsare without object
constitutes in many respects the very subject-matter of anyjudgment on
the merits and, hence, sinceit does not possess an exclusivelypreliminary
character, must be remitted to the stage of the merits.
In my view, the Court's conclusion in this regard is substantial and,
unlike some of its other conclusions, draws support from the reasoning
and authority set out in the Judgment. But is the Court's conclusion,
however plausible, compelling?

1do not find it so for these reasons. The Court takes an absolute view
of an admittedly absolute term, "exclusively". It holds that the Respon-
dent's objections are not exclusivelypreliminary in character. But it will
be the rare preliminary objection that actually is exclusivelypreliminary
in character. This will especially be so if the wide construction given by
the Court in the current case to the meaning of "exclusively"is followed
in future cases. The fact that a preliminary objection, if upheld, will dis-
pose of the merits of the case in thesenseof preventing a hearing of them
proves nothing; al1preliminary objections, if sustained, have this effect.
More than this, Article 79 qualifiesthe conclusion that the objection does
not possess an exclusively preliminary character by specifying that it
"does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypre-
liminary character". In the circumstances of this case, concerned as it is
or should be with jurisdiction under the Montreal Convention - and

there is no other ground forjurisdiction - a plea that the case should not
proceed to a consideration of the merits of rights and obligations under
the Montreal Convention because resolutions of the Security Council
render such consideration without object must be treated as a plea of an
exclusivelypreliminary character.

It may be added that, in the circumstances of this case, the Parties have
extensively argued elements of the case which the Court now remits to
the merits as part of the very subject-matter of the merits (as indeed the
Parties did at the stage of provisional measures). Presumably they did so
by dint of construction of paragraph 6 of Article 79 of the Rules, which
provides that,

"In order to enable the Court to determine its jurisdiction at the

preliminarystage of the proceedings, the Court, whenever necessary, UN CARACTÈRE EXCLUSIVEMENT PRÉLIMINAIRE

Cependant, dans son arrêt,la Cour estime ne pas pouvoir seprononcer
ainsiau stade actuel de l'instanceen raison destermesde l'article79de son
Règlement. Selon cetarticle,la Cour doit, pour statuer sur toute exception,
qu'il s'agissed'une exception àla compétencede la Cour ou à la receva-
bilitéde la requête oude «toute autre exception sur laquelle le défendeur
demande une décisionavant que la procéduresur le fond se poursuive»,
soit retenir l'exception, soitla rejeter ou déclarer que«cette exception n'a
pas dans les circonstances de l'espèce uncaractèreexclusivement prélimi-
naire». La Cour conclut que l'exception selonlaquelle les demandes de la

Libye seraient sans objet constitue bien deségards l'objetmêmede toute
décisionsur le fond et que, n'ayant pas un caractèreexclusivement préli-
minaire, cette exception doit êtrerenvoyéeau stade de l'examenau fond.
Selon moi, la conclusion formuléepar la Cour à cet égardest impor-
tante et s'appuie, contrairementà certaines de ses autres conclusions,sur
les motifs et arguments énoncésdans l'arrêt. Mais, pour plausible qu'elle
soit, cette conclusionde la Cour est-elle déterminante?
Je ne le pense pas pour lesraisons suivantes. La Cour donne une valeur
décisiveau terme «exclusivement» dont on reconnaît en généralle carac-
tère absolu. Elle estime que les exceptions du défendeurn'ont pas un
caractère exclusivement préliminaire.Rares peuvent être cependantles

exceptions préliminairesayant vraiment un caractèreexclusivementpréli-
minaire. Il en sera particulièrementainsi si la Cour maintient àl'avenirle
sens large qu'elledonne en la présenteaffaire au terme «exclusivement».
Le fait qu'une exception préliminaire,si elle était retenue,décideraitdu
fond de l'affaire dans la mesure où elle en empêcherait l'examen,ne
prouve rien; toutes les exceptions préliminaires,si ellessont retenues, ont
ce mêmeeffet. En outre, l'article 79 limite l'irrecevabilité d'une exception
n'ayant pas un caractèreexclusivementpréliminaireen précisant qu'ilvise
une exception qui «n'a pas dans les circonstances de l'espèceun caractère
exclusivementpréliminaire)).Dans les circonstances de la présenteaffaire,
qui soulèveou devrait souleverla question de la compétenceau titre de la

convention de Montréal - seule base de compétence possible -, l'argu-
ment selon lequel il n'ya pas lieu d'examiner quant au fond les droits et
obligations découlant de cette convention puisque des résolutions du
Conseil de sécurité rendent un tel examen sans objet, doit êtreconsidéré
comme un argument ayant un caractèreexclusivementpréliminaire.
On peut ajouter que, dans les circonstances de l'espèce,les Parties ont,
notamment lors de l'examendes mesures conservatoires,amplement dis-
cutédes éléments de l'affairequela Cour renvoie maintenant au stade du
fond comme faisant partie de l'objet mêmedu fond du différend.Elles
ont sans doute pu le faire sur la base du paragraphe 6 de l'article 79 du
Règlement,aux termes duquel :

«Pour permettre à la Cour de se prononcer sur sa compétenceau
stade préliminairede la procédure,la Cour peut, le cas échéant,invi- rnay request the parties to argue al1questions of law and fact, and to
adduce al1evidence, which bear on the issue."

They rnay also have had regard to the first paragraph of Article 79, which
speaks of any other objectionthe decisionupon which is requested before
any "further" proceedings on the merits. The Court made no effort to
limit the arguments of the Parties embracing elements of what it now
treats as the merits.1do not think that the Court need now require, as it
does require, the Parties to argue these elements once more - actually,
for a third time - before it passes upon them and disposes of these
objections. To have done so at this stage the Court needed neither the
resolution of disputed facts nor the consideration of further evidence.To
have ruled on the question of whether the resolutions of the Security
Council render Libya's invocation of the Montreal Convention moot

would not have entailed adjudicating the merits of the case in so far as it
relates to what rnay be within the jurisdiction of the Court under the
Montreal Convention. Important questions which rnay arise on the
merits would in any event remain unaddressed, such as the propriety of
the trial of the suspects in the United States or in the United Kingdom.

The Court's decision in effect to join the preliminary objections to the
merits, a decision based essentiallyupon its literal construction of a word
of a Rule of Court, does not appear consistent with the design of the
Court in amending the Rules of Court in 1972.It has regrettable if un-
intended results, the least of which is requiring the Parties to argue, and
the Court to hear, arguments on those objections, or some of those objec-
tions, for a third time. It will prolong a challenge to the integrity and

authority of the SecurityCouncil. It rnay be taken asproviding excusefor
continued defianceof the Council'sbinding resolutions. It rnay be seen as
prejudicing an important contemporary aspect of the Council'sefforts to
maintain international peace and security by combatting State-sponsored
international terrorism. Justice for the victims of an appalling atrocity
rnay be further delayed and denied. The Court rnay have opened itself,
not only in this but in future cases, to appearing to offer to recalcitrant
Statesa means to parry and frustrate decisionsof the Security Council by
way of appeal to the Court.

That last spectre raises the question of whether the Court is em-
poweredto exercisejudicial reviewof the decisionsof the SecurityCouncil,
a question as to which 1 think it right to express my current views. The
Court is not generally so empowered, and it is particularlywithout power

to overrule or undercut decisions of the Security Council made by it in CONVENTION DE MONTRÉAL DE 1971(OP.DIS.SCHWEBEL) 164

ter lesparties débattre tous points de fait et de droit, àproduire
tous moyens de preuve, qui ont trait à la question.))

Les Parties peuvent avoir égalementtenu compte du paragraphe 1 de
l'article 79, visant toute autre exception sur laquelle une décision est
demandéeavant que la procéduresur lefond «se poursuive».La Cour n'a
pas tentéde limiterlesarguments présentés par lesParties sur des éléments
qu'elle considèremaintenant comme touchant au fond. Je ne pense pas
que la Cour ait maintenant besoin de demander, comme elle le fait, que

les Parties reviennent une nouvelle fois pour la troisièmefois, en fai-
sur ces éléments pour pouvoir se prononcer en la matière et statuer sur
ces exceptions.Pour se prononcer au stade actuel, la Cour n'avait besoin
ni de trancher certains faits contestésni d'examinerd'autres éléments de
preuve. Une décisionsur la question de savoir si lesrésolutionsdu Conseil
de sécuritérendent sans objet l'invocation par la Libye de la convention
de Montréaln'aurait pas entraînéune décisionsur l'affairequant au fond
dans la mesure où cette dernièreconcerne des questions qui peuvent bien
releverdela compétence dela Cour au titre de ladite convention. D'impor-
tantes questions qui peuvent se poser quant au fond n'auraient pas étéen
tout cas traitées,comme celletouchant àl'opportunitéde traduire les sus-

pects en justice aux Etats-Unisou au ~o~aume-uni.
La décisionde la Cour à l'effetde joindre les exceptions préliminaires
au fond, décisionessentiellement fondée sur son interprétation littérale
d'un termede son Règlement,ne semblepas conformeaux desseinsde la
Cour lorsqu'elle a réviséson Règlementen 1972.Cette décisiona inévi-
tablement des résultats regrettables,dont le moindre est de demanderaux
Parties de fairevaloir, etla Cour d'entendre, pour la troisièmefois leurs
arguments sur ces exceptions ou certaines de ces exceptions. Cette déci-
sion donne de nouvelles possibilitésde remettre en question l'intégrité et
l'autoritédu Conseil de sécurité. Onpourrait l'interprétercomme un pré-
texte pour continuer à refuser d'exécuterdes résolutions obligatoires du

Conseil. On peut y voir aussi une entrave àun important aspect contem-
porain des efforts du Conseil pour maintenir la paix et la sécuritéinter-
nationales en luttant contre le terrorisme international parrainé par des
Etats. La justiceà laquelle ont droit les victimes d'une atrocité épouvan-
table pourrait êtreencore retardéeet déniéeL . a Cour peut ainsi sembler,
non seulement dans cette affaire mais dans de futures affaires également,
offrir aux Etats récalcitrantsun moyen de tourner et de contrecarrer les
décisionsdu Conseil de sécuritéen faisant appel à elle.

Cette dernière analyse pose la question de savoir si la Cour a le
pouvoir d'exercer uncontrôle judiciaire sur les décisionsdu Conseil de
sécurité, une questionsur laquelle j'estime devoir exprimer mon avis
actuel. La Cour ne possèdepas un tel pouvoir de façon généraleet, en

particulier, elle n'est pas habilitéeinfirmer les décisions prisespar lepursuance of its authority under Articles 39, 41 and 42 of the Charter to
determine the existence ofany threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or
act of aggression and to decide upon responsive measures to be taken to
maintain or restore international peace and security.

The Court more than once has disclaimed possessinga power ofjudi-
cial review. In its Advisory Opinion in the case concerning Certain
Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Char-
ter), the Court declared :

"In the legal systems of States, there is often some procedure for
determining the validity of even a legislative or governmental act,
but no analogous procedure is to be found in the structure of the
United Nations. Proposals made during the drafting of the Charter
to place the ultimate authority to interpret the Charter in the Inter-
national Court of Justice were not accepted; the opinion which the
Court isin course of rendering is an advisoryopinion. As anticipated
in 1945,therefore, each organ rnust, in the first place at least, deter-
mine its own jurisdiction. If the Security Council, for example,

adopts a resolutionpurportedly for the maintenance of international
peace and security and if, in accordance with a mandate or authori-
zation in such resolution,the Secretary-Generalincurs financialobli-
gations, these amounts must be presumed to constitute 'expensesof
the Organization'." (1C.J. Reports 1962,p. 168.)

In its Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequencesfor States of the Con-
tinued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) not-
withstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), the Court reiter-
ated that: "Undoubtedly, the Court does not possess powers of judicial
review or appeal in respect of the decisions taken by the United Nations
organs concerned." (1.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 45.)
It should be noted that the Court made these holdings in advisory pro-
ceedings, in which the Security Council and the General Assembly are

entitled to request the Court's opinion "on any legal question". The
authority of the Court to respond to such questions,and, in the course of
so doing, to pass upon relevant resolutions of the Security Council and
General Assembly, is not disputed. Nevertheless, if the Court could hold
as it did in advisoryproceedings, afortiori in contentious proceedings the
Court can hardly be entitled to invent, assert and apply powers ofjudicial
review.

While the Court so far has not had occasion in contentious proceed-
ings to pass upon an allegedauthority to judicially reviewdecisionsof the
Security Council, it may be recalled that in Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua the Court observed that :Conseil de sécuritéou à en réduire la portéedans l'exercicedu pouvoir
qu'il tient des articles 39, 41 et 42 de la Charte de constater l'existence
d'unemenacecontre la paix, d'unerupture dela paix ou d'un acted'agres-
sion et de décider des mesures à prendre face à de telles situations pour

maintenir ou rétablir la paix et la sécuritinternationales.
La Cour s'est plus d'une fois défenduede posséderun pouvoir de
contrôle judiciaire. Dans son avis consultatif en l'affaire de Certaines
dépenses des Nations Unies(article 17, paragraphe 2 de la Charte), la
Cour a déclaré:

((Dans les systèmesjuridiques des Etats, on trouve souvent une
procédurepour déterminer la validitéd'un acte mêmelégislatifou
gouvernemental, mais on ne rencontre dans la structure des Nations
Unies aucune procédure analogue. Certainespropositions présentées
pendant la rédaction de laCharte et qui visaient remettre à la Cour
internationale de Justice l'autorité suprême d'interprételra Charte,
n'ont pas étéadoptées;l'avisque la Cour s'apprête à donner ici est
un avis consultatif. Comme il a étéprévuen 1945, chaque organe

doit donc, tout au moins en premier lieu, déterminersa propre com-
pétence.Si le Conseil de sécuritéparexempleadopte une résolution
visant au maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinternationales et si,
conformément à un mandat ou à une autorisation inscritedans cette
résolution,le Secrétairegénéraclontracte des obligations financières,
il està présumer que les montants en question constituent des
((dépensesde l'organisation. ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 168.)

Dans son avis consultatif sur lesonséquencesjuridiquespour lesEtats
de laprésencecontinue de l'Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest afri-
cain) nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970), la Cour a répété« :Il est évi-
dent que la Cour n'a pas de pouvoirs de contrôlejudiciaire ni d'appel en
ce qui concerne les décisions prisespar les organes des Nations Unies

dont il s'agit.))(C.I.J. Recueil 1971,p. 45.)
Il convient de relever que la Cour a fait ces déclarations lors de procé-
dures consultatives, dans lesquelles le Conseil de sécuritéet l'Assemblée
généraleont le droit de demander l'avis dela Cour «sur toute question
juridique)). Le pouvoir de la Cour de répondre à de tellesquestions et, ce
faisant, de donner un avis sur les résolutions pertinentes du Conseil de
sécuritéet de l'Assembléegénéralen'est pas contesté. Cependant, si la
Cour a pu déclarerce qu'ellea déclarédansdes procédures consultatives,
à plus forte raison ne saurait-elle guèreavoir le droit d'inventer, d'affir-
mer et d'exercer despouvoirs de contrôle judiciaire dans une procédure
contentieuse.
Si la Cour jusqu'ici n'a pas eu l'occasion dese prononcer, lors d'une
instance contentieuse, sur le pouvoir alléguéd'exercer un contrôle judi-

ciairedes décisionsdu Conseilde sécuritéo ,n peut rappeler qu'en l'affaire
des Activitésmilitaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci
elle a fait observer ceci: "The Court is not asked to say that the Security Council was
wrong in its decision, nor that there was anything inconsistent with
law in the way in which the members of the Council employed their
right to vote. The Court is asked to pass judgment on certain legal
aspects of a situation which has also been considered by the Security

Council, a procedure which isentirely consonant with its position as
the principal judicial organ of the United Nations." (Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 436.)

The implication of this statement is that, if the Court had been asked by
the Applicant to Saythat the SecurityCouncil had been wrong in its deci-
sion, the Court would have reached another conclusion.
The texts of the Charter of the United Nations and of the Statute of
the Court furnish no shred of support for a conclusion that the Court
possesses a power of judicial review in general, or a power to supervene
the decisions of the Security Council in particular. On the contrary, by
the absence of any such provision, and by accordingthe SecurityCouncil
"primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and
security", the Charter and the Statute import the contrary. So extraordi-
nary a power as that of judicial reviewis not ordinarily to be implied and
never has been on the international plane. If the Court were to generate

such a power, the Security Council would no longer be primary in its
assigned responsibilities, because if the Court could overrule, negate,
modify - or, as in this case, hold as proposed that decisions of the Secu-
rity Council are not "opposable" to the principal object State of those
decisions and to the object of its sanctions - it would be the Court and
not the Council that would exercise,or purport to exercise, the disposi-
tive and hence primary authority.

The drafters of the Charter above al1resolved to accord the Security
Council alone extraordinary powers. They did so in order to further
realization of the firsturpose of the United Nations,

"To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to
take effective collectivemeasures for the prevention and removal of
threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or
other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means,
and in conformity with the principles of justice and international
law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations

which might lead to a breach of the peace."
Article 24 thus provides:

"1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United
Nations, its Membersconfer onthe SecurityCouncilprimary respon-
sibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and ((11n'est pas demandé àla Cour de dire que le Conseil de sécurité
a commis une erreur, ni que la manière de voter des membres du

Conseil ait étéen rien contraire au droit. La Cour est priée dese
prononcer sur certains aspects juridiques d'une question qui a été
aussi examinéepar le Conseil, ce qui est parfaitement conforme à sa
situation d'organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies.Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contrecelui-ci (Nicara-
gua c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), compétenceet recevabilité,arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 436.)

Ce que donne à entendre cette déclaration, c'est que, si le demandeur
avait priéla Cour de dire que le Conseil de sécuritéavait commis une
erreur, la Cour aurait abouti à une conclusion différente.
Les textes de la Charte des Nations Unies et du Statut ne contiennent
pas le moindre élémenq t ui permettrait de conclure que la Cour possède
un pouvoir de contrôle judiciaire de façon générale,ou un pouvoir de
supplanter le Conseil de sécuritédans ses décisions enparticulier. Au
contraire, en l'absencede toute dispositionàcet effetet compte tenu de la

((responsabilitéprincipale du maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinter-
nationales)), qui incombe au Conseil de sécurité,la Charte et le Statut
laissent entendre le contraire. Un pouvoir aussi extraordinaire que celui
du contrôle judiciaire ne peut normalement êtreimplicite et ne l'ajamais
été dans l'ordre international.Si la Cour devait créer un telpouvoir, le
Conseil de sécurité n'exercerait plusla fonction principale dans les res-
ponsabilités qui lui sont confiées: en effet,si la Cour pouvait annuler,
infirmer, modifier les décisionsdu Conseil de sécurité,ou, comme en
l'espèce,juger ainsiqu'on lepropose que lesdécisionsdu Conseil de sécu-
riténe sont pas «opposables» au principal Etat objetde tellesdécisionset
objet de ses sanctions, ce serait la Cour et non pas le Conseil qui exerce-
rait ou serait censé exercer l'autorité déterminantet,,partant, principale.
Les rédacteurs dela Charte ont voulu par-dessus tout attribuer au seul
Conseil de sécurité despouvoirs extraordinaires. Ils l'ont fait afin de

favoriser la réalisation dupremier but des Nations Unies:
((Maintenir la paix et la sécuritéinternationales et à cette fin:

prendre des mesures collectivesefficacesen vue de préveniret d'écar-
ter lesmenaces àla paix et de réprimertout acte d'agressionou autre
rupture de la paix, et réaliser,par des moyens pacifiques, conformé-
ment aux principes de la justice et du droit international, l'ajuste-
ment ou le règlement de différendsou de situations, de caractère
international, susceptibles de menerà une rupture de la paix.))

Ainsi l'article 24 dispose-t-:l

«1. Afin d'assurer l'action rapide et efficacede l'organisation, ses
Membres confèrent au Conseil de sécuritéla responsabilité princi-
pale du maintien de la paix et de la sécuriinternationales etrecon- agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the
Security Council acts on their behalf.
2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act
in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United
Nations . . ."

Article 25 provides that: "The Members of the United Nations agree
to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accord-
ance with the present Charter."
Theseprovisions - the very heart of the Charter's design for the main-

tenance of international peace - manifest the plenitude of the powers of
the Security Council, which are elaborated by the provisions of Chapters
VI, VII, and VI11of the Charter. They also demonstrate that the Security
Council is subject to the rule of law; it shall act in accordance with the
Purposes and Principles of the United Nations and its decisions must be
adopted in accordance with the Charter. At the same time, as Article 103
imports, it may lawfully decide upon measures which may in the interests
of the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security
derogate from the rights of a State under international law. The first Pur-
pose of the United Nations quoted above also so indicates, for the refer-
ence to the principles of justice and international law designedly relates
only to adjustment or settlement by peaceful means, and not to the
taking of effectivecollectivemeasures for the prevention and removal of
threats to and breaches of the peace. It was deliberately so provided to
ensure that the vital duty of preventing and removing threats to and
breaches of the peace would not be limited by existing law. (See the
Report on the Preamble, Purposes and Principles, UnitedNation Confer-

ence on International Organization (UNCIO), Vol. 6, pp. 453-454, and
the observations of Lord Halifax, p. 25.)

Itdoes not follow from the facts that the decisions of the Security
Council must be in accordance with the Charter, and that the Interna-
tional Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, that the Court is empowered to ensure that the Council's deci-
sions do accord with the Charter. To hold that it does so follow is a
monumental non sequitur, which overlooks the truth that, in many legal
systems,national and international, the subjection of the acts of an organ
to law by no means entails subjection of the legality of its actions to judi-
cial review. In many cases, the system reliesnot upon judicial reviewbut
on self-censorshipby the organ concerned or by its members or on review
by another political organ.
Judicial review could have been provided for at San Francisco, in full
or lessermeasure, directly or indirectly, but both directly and indirectly it
was not in any measurecontemplated or enacted. Not only was the Court

not authorized to be the ultimate interpreter of the Charter, as the Court
acknowledged in the case concerning Certain Expenses of the United
Nations. Proposals which in restricted measure would have accorded the naissent qu'en s'acquittant des devoirs que lui impose cette respon-
sabilitéle Conseil de sécuritéagit en leur nom.
2. Dans l'accomplissement de ses devoirs, le Conseil de sécurité
agit conformément aux buts et principes des Nations Unies ..»

L'article 25 dispose : «Les Membres de l'Organisation conviennent
d'accepter et d'appliquer les décisionsdu Conseil de sécuritéconformé-
ment à la présenteCharte.))
Ces dispositions - qui sont le cŒur mêmede la conception de la
Charte du maintien de la paix internationale - expriment la plénitude

des pouvoirs du Conseil de sécurité,qui sontdéveloppés par les disposi-
tions des chapitres VI, VI1et VI11de la Charte. Elles démontrent aussi
que le Conseil de sécurité est soumisà 1'Etatde droit; il doit agir confor-
mémentaux buts et principes des Nations Unies et ses décisionsdoivent
être adoptées d'une manière conforme à la Charte. En mêmetemps,
comme l'indique l'article 103, il peut légitimement décider des mesures,
qui, dans l'intérêdtu maintien ou du rétablissement dela paix et de la
sécuritéinternationales, limitent la portéedes droits qu'un Etat tient du
droit international. Le premier but des Nations Unies cité ci-dessus
donne la mêmeindication, car la mention des principes de la justice et du
droit international ne se rapporte délibérémenqtu'à l'ajustement ou au

règlementpar des moyens pacifiques et non pas à l'adoption de mesures
collectives effectivesen vue de prévenirou d'écarterdes menaces à la paix
et des ruptures de la paix. Ces dispositions ont été adoptéesélibérément
pour garantir que l'obligation vitale de préveniret d'écarterles menaces
contre la paix et les ruptures de la paix ne seraient pas limitéespar le
droit en vigueur (voir le rapport sur le préambule,les buts et les prin-
cipes, Conférence desNations Unies sur l'organisation internationale,
vol. 6, p. 471-473,avec les observations de lord Halifax, p. 54).
Les décisionsdu Conseil de sécuritédoiventêtre conformes àla Charte
et la Cour internationale de Justice est l'organe judiciaire principal des
Nations Unies, mais il ne s'ensuitpas que la Cour a le pouvoir de garan-

tir la conformitédes décisionsdu Conseil à la Charte. Statuer en tirant
une telleconséquenceest un nonsequiturmonumental, et méconnaît cette
vérité:dans nombre de systèmesjuridiques, dans l'ordre national et inter-
national, soumettre au droit les actes d'un organe ne signifienullement
soumettre la légalitéde ses actes àun contrôle judici.aire.Dans bien des
cas, le systèmen'a pas pour appui le contrôlejudiciaire, mais soit la cen-
sure que l'organe dont il s'agit exerce sur lui-même,ou qu'exercent ses
membres, soit le contrôle par un autre organe politique.
Le contrôle judiciaire aurait pu êtreprévu à San Francisco, totalement
ou en partie, directement ou indirectement, mais il n'a été envisagé n,i
adopté, d'aucunemanière, directe ou indirecte. Ce n'est pas seulement

que la Cour n'ait pas été habilitéeà être l'interprètultime de la Charte,
comme elle l'a reconnu en l'affaire de Certaines dépensesdes Nations
Unies. Les propositions qui, dans une mesure restreinte, lui auraientCourt a degree of authority, by way of advisory proceedings, to pass
upon the legality of proposed resolutions of the Security Council in the

sphere of peaceful settlement - what came to be Chapter VI of the Char-
ter - were not accepted. What was never proposed, considered, or, so
far as the records reveal, evenimagined, was that the International Court
of Justice would be entrusted with, or would develop, a power ofjudicial
review at large, or a power to supervene, modify, negate or confine the
applicability of resolutions of the Security Council whether directly or in
the guise of interpretation.
That this is understandable, indeed obvious, is the clearer in the light
of the conjunction of political circumstances at the time that the Charter
was conceived, drafted and adopted. The Charter was largely a concept
and draft of the United States, and secondarily of the United Kingdom;
the other most influential State concerned was the USSR, The United
States was cautious about the endowments of the Court. Recalling the
rejection by the Senate of the United States a decade earlier of adherence

to the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, the
Department of State was concerned to assure that nothing in the Charter
concerningthe Court, and nothing in the Statute which was to be an inte-
gral part of the Charter, could prejudice the givingof advice and consent
by the Senate to the ratification of the Charter. Thus the Report of the
Senate Cornmittee on Foreign Relations on the United Nations Charter
of 16July 1945to the Senate recommending ratification of the Charter
specified :

"The Charter does not permit the Security Council or the General
Assembly to force states to bring cases to the Court, nor does it or
the Statute permit the Court to interfere with the functions of the
Security Council or the General Assembly . . . Your committee
recommends that the Senate accept the International Court of Justice
in the form and with the authority set forth in chapter XIV of the
Charter and the annexed Statute of the Court." (United States Sen-
ate, 79th Congress, 1st session, ExecutiveReport No. 8, "The Char-
ter of the United Nations", republished in United States Senate,
83rd Congress, 2nd session, Document No. 87, "Review of the
United Nations Charter: A Collection of Documents", 1954, p.67.)

The British Government which, together with the United States, was
the principal proponent of the creation of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice and which had played a large and constructive part in
respect of that Court, was hardly less cautious in its approach to the
powers of the International Court of Justice, as is illustrated by a quota-
tion from the proceedings of the San Francisco Conference set out below.
As for the Government of the Union of Soviet SocialistRepublics - a
Government which had been ideologically hostile to the Court since its

creation (as a reading of the EasternCareliacase so vividlyillustrates) -
can it be thought that Stalin, whose preoccupationln the days of Sanaccordéune certaine autorité pour statuer, par des avis consultatifs, sur
la légalité dprojets de résolutiondu Conseil de sécurité dans le domaine
du règlement pacifique - ce qui est devenu le chapitre VI de la Charte-
n'ont pas été acceptées I.l est une chose qui n'ajamais été proposéee ,xa-
minée,ni mêmeimaginée,pour autant que lesdocuments le révèlent: que
l'on confie à la Cour internationale de Justice, ou qu'elle développe, un
pouvoir d'annuler, de modifier, de contester, ou de limiter l'applicabilité
des résolutions du Conseil de sécurité,directement ou sous couvert
d'interprétation.
Que ce soit intelligibleet mêmeévident,cela ressort de façon plus claire

encore de l'ensemble de la situation politique à l'époque à laquelle la
Charte a été conçue, rédigée et adoptée.La Charte a été en grande partie
conçue et rédigéepar les Etats-Unis et, de façon secondaire, par le
Royaume-Uni; l'autre Etat intéresséle plus influent était l'URSS.Les
Etats-Unis ont envisagéavec prudence les attributions de la Cour. Se
rappelant que le Sénat des Etats-Unis avait rejeté, dix ans plus tôt,
l'adhésionau Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, le
département d7Etats'estpréoccupé d'éviterqu'aucun élémend telaCharte
relatifà la Cour et qu'aucun élémentdu Statut, qui devait faire partie
intégrantede la Charte, ne risque de compromettre l'aviset le consente-
ment du Sénat concernant la ratification de la Charte. Ainsi le rapport de

la commission sénatoriale des relations étrangères sur la Charte des
Nations Unies, adresséau Sénatle 16juillet 1945et qui recommandait la
ratification, précisait-il
«La Charte n'autorise pas le Conseil de sécuritéou l'Assemblée
générale à contraindre les Etatsà porter des affairesdevant la Cour

et ni la Charte ni le Statut ne permettent la Cour de s'ingérerdans
les fonctions du Conseil de sécuritéou de l'Assemblée générale ...
Votre commission recommande que le Sénataccepte la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice sous la forme et avec les pouvoirs indiquésau
chapitre XIV de la Charte et le Statut joint de la Cour.)) (Sénatdes
Etats-Unis, 79" congrès, première session,rapport exécutif no 8,
«The Charter of the United Nations)), reproduit dans UnitedStates
Senate, 83"congrès, deuxième session,document no 87, «Review of
the United Nations Charter: A Collection of Documents*, 1954,
p. 67.)

Le Gouvernement britannique, qui avait été, avecles Etats-Unis, le
principal promoteur de la création de la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale et qui avait jouéun rôle important et constructif à l'égard
de cette Cour, n'était guèremoins prudent dans son attitude envers les
pouvoirs de la Cour internationale de Justice, comme le montre une cita-
tion des travaux de la conférencede San Francisco donnée ci-dessous.

Quant au Gouvernement de l'Union des Républiquessocialistes sovié-
tiques - un gouvernement qui avait été idéologiquementhostile à la
Cour depuis sa création(comme l'indique de façon si évidentela lecture
de l'affaire dela Carélie orientale) - comment pourrait-on croire que Francisco was giving the veto power the widest possible reach, could
have assented to the establishment of a Court authorized to possess or
develop the authority to review and Vary the application of resolutions
adopted by the Security Council under Chapter VI1 of the Charter?

At San Francisco, Belgium proposed the following amendment:

"Any State, party to a dispute brought before the Security Coun-
cil, shall have the right to ask the Permanent Court of International
Justice whether a recommendation or a decisionmade by the Coun-
cil or proposed in it infringes on its essential rights. If the Court
siders that such rights have been disregarded or are threatened, it is
for the Council either to reconsider the question or to refer the dis-
pute to the Assembly for decision." (UNCIO, Vol. 3, p. 336.)

The purpose of the amendment, the Belgian delegate explained, was to
allow the State concerned to seek an advisory opinion from the Court if
that State believed that a Security Council recommendation infringed
upon its essential rights. It was not in any sense the purpose of the
amendment to limit the legitimate powers of the Security Council (ibid.,
Vol. 12,pp. 48-49).
The Belgian proposa1 gave rise to a mixed reaction, support from
States such as Ecuador and Colombia, and opposition from Great Power
Sponsors of the Conference.The delegate of the Soviet Union

"considered that the Belgian Amendment would have the effect of
weakening the authority of the Council to maintain international
peace and security. If it were possible for a state to appeal from the
Council to the International Court of Justice . ..the Council would
find itself handicapped in carrying out its functions. Inuch circum-
stances, the Council might even be placed in a position of being a
defendant before the Court." (Ibid., Vol. 12,p. 49.)

The delegate of the United States explained the importance of the
requirement that the action of the Security Councilin dealing with a dis-
pute involving a threat to the peace betaken "in accordance with the pur-
poses and principles of the Organization". One of the purposes isto bring
about peaceful settlement of disputes "with due regard for principles of
justice and international law". He did not interpret the Proposals as pre-
venting any State from appealing to the International Court of Justice at
any time on any matter which might properly go before the Court. On
the whole, he did not consider the acceptance of the BelgianAmendment
advisable, particularly since he believed that "the Security Council was

bound to act in accordance with the principles of justice and interna-
tional law" (ibid.). (It should be noted that this statement of 17 May
1945antedated revision of the draft of the Charter's Purposes and Prin-
ciples in June to provide that "the principles of justice and internationalStaline, qui se préoccupait,à l'époquede San Francisco, de donner au
pouvoir de veto la plus grande portéepossible, aurait pu accepter l'ins-
tauration d'une cour habilitée à exercer ou à développerle pouvoir de

contrôler et de modifier l'application des résolutions adoptéespar le
Conseil de sécuritéen vertu du chapitre VI1de la Charte?
A San Francisco, la Belgique a proposé l'amendementsuivant:
«Tout Etat partie à un différenddont est saisi le Conseilde sécu-
ritéest en droit de demanderàla CPJI un avisconsultatifsur lepoint
de savoir si une recommandation faite ou une décisionprise par le

Conseil ou qui y sont proposéesportent atteinte à ses droits essen-
tiels. Sila Cour estimeque cesdroits ont étéméconnuo su sont mena-
cés,il appartient au Conseil, soit de reconsidérerla question, soit de
renvoyer ledifférendpour décisiondevant l'Assemblée. »(Conférence
des Nations Uniessur l'organisation internationale, vol. 4, p. 477.)
Le but de cet amendement, a expliquéle délégué dlea Belgique, était

d'accorder à 1'Etatintéresséla faculté de demander un avis consultatifà
la Cour, s'il estimait qu'une résolution du Conseil de sécuritéportait
atteinteà ses droits essentiels. L'amendement n'avait en aucune façon
pour but de restreindre les pouvoirs légitimesdu Conseil de sécurité
(ibid., vol. 12,p. 53).
La proposition belge a suscité desréactions de toutes sortes, l'appui
d'Etats tels que 1'Equateur et la Colombie et l'opposition des grandes
puissances sous les auspices desquellesse tenait la conférence.Le délégué
de l'Union soviétique

«est d'avis que l'amendement belge aurait pour effet d'affaiblir le
pouvoir du Conseil de maintenir la paix et la sécuritéinternatio-
nales. S'il étaitpossible pour un Etat d'en appeler du Conseilà la
Cour internationale de Justice...le Conseil se trouverait handicapé
dans l'exercice de ses fonctions. Dans ces conditions, le Conseil
pourrait même setrouver placédans la position d'un défendeurvis-
à-vis de laour.)) (Ibid., vol. 12,p. 53.)

Le délégué de Estats-Unis a expliquél'importancede la prescription en
vertu de laquelle l'actiondu Conseil desécurité,n cas de différendconsti-
tuant une menacepour la paix, aurait lieu«en conformitéavec les buts et
principesde l'Organisation». L'un des buts étaitd'assurerle règlement des
différendspar des moyens pacifiques «en tenant dûment compte des prin-
cipes delajustice et du droit international)).n'interprétaitpas les propo-
sitionscommeempêchantun Etat quelconquede faire appel en tout temps
àla Cour internationale de Justicepour toute question qui pourrait norma-
lementêtresoumise à cette dernière.Dans l'ensemble,il nepensait pasqu'il
y eût intérê t accepter l'amendementbelge, notamment parce qu'il était

convaincu que «le Conseil de sécurité esttenu d'agir conformément aux
principesde lajustice et du droit international)) (ibid.). (Il convientde rele-
ver que cette déclarationdu 17 mai 1945précédait la revision du projet
concernantlesbuts et principesde la Charte, qui a éeffectuéeenjuin pourlaw" relate only to the adjustment or settlement of international disputes
by peaceful means and not to measures of collective security.)

The delegate of France declared that, while he viewedwith great sym-
pathy the ideas in the Belgian Amendment, he was doubtful that "it
would be effectivein obtaining its desired end, especially sinceit involved
a dispersa1 of responsibilities in the Organization" (UNCIO, Vol. 12,
p. 50).

The delegate of the United Kingdom stated that the adoption of the
Belgian Amendment "would be prejudicial to the successof the Organi-
zation". The amendment would
"result in the decisionby the Court ... of politicalquestions in addi-
tion to legal questions. The performance of this function by the
Court . ..would seriously impair the successof its role as a judicial
body. Further, the procedures proposed by the amendment would
cause delay, at a time when prompt action by the Security Council
was most desirable.A powerful weapon would thus be placed in the

hands of a state contemplating aggression, and the Council would
not be able to play the part in maintaining peace which wasintended
for it...he considered it necessarythat the Council possessthe trust
and confidence of al1states; itsmajority would be composed of small
states, and it would be obligated to act in a manner consistent with
the purposes and principles of the Organization." (Ibid., p. 65.)

After a fewother statements in this vein, the delegate of Belgiumstated
that, since it was now clearly understood that a recommendation under
what was to become Chapter VI did not possess obligatory effect, he
wished to withdraw his amendment (ibid., p. 66).

Subsequently,the Conference rejected a proposa1 by Belgium to refer
disagreements between organs of the United Nations on interpretation of
the Charter to the Court. The pertinent report concludes:
"Under unitary forms of national governmentthe final determina-
tion of such a question may be vestedin the highest court or in some
other national authority. However, the nature of the Organization
and of its operation would not seemto be such as to invite the inclu-
sion in the Charter of any provision of this nature. If two member
states are at variance concerning the correct interpretation of the
Charter, they are of course free to submit the dispute to the Inter-
national Court of Justiceas in the case of any other treaty. Similarly,

it would also be open to the General Assembly or to the Security
Council, in appropriate circumstances,to ask the International Court
of Justice for an advisory opinion concerningthe meaning of a pro-
vision of the Charter." (Ibid.,Vol. 13,pp. 668-669.)faire en sorte que «les principesde la justice et du droit international)) ne
s'appliquent qu'àl'ajustementou au règlementdes différendsinternationaux
par des moyens pacifiqueset non pas aux mesuresde sécurité collective.)

Le délégué de la France a déclaréque,tout en considérantavec la plus
grande sympathie lesidéescontenues dans l'amendement belge, il nepen-
sait pas que cet amendement ((obtiendrait le résultatdésirét,out spécia-
lement parce qu'il entraînerait une dispersion des responsabilitésau sein
de l'organisation))(ConférencedesNations Uniessur l'organisation inter-
nationale, vol. 12,p. 50).
Le délégud éu Royaume-Uni a déclaréque l'adoption del'amendement
belge ((nuirait aux chances de succèsde l'Organisation». Il résulteraitde
l'amendement :

«que la Cour ...aura à décidernon seulement des questionsjuridi-
ques, mais encore des questionspolitiques. Le fait que la Cour assu-
merait cette fonction serait extrêmementpréjudiciableau succèsde
son rôle judiciaire. En outre, la procédure proposéepar l'amende-
ment entraînerait un retard dans lescirconstances où la promptitude
d'action du Conseil de sécuritéest extrêmementsouhaitable. On pla-
cerait ainsi une arme redoutable entre lesmains d'un Etat qui médi-
terait un acte d'agression et le Conseil ne pourrait pas remplir, en
vue du maintien de la paix, la fonction pour laquelle il est spéciale-
ment désigné ...il semble nécessaireque le Conseil ait l'entière
confiance de tous les Etats; il sera en majorité composé de petits
Etats et il sera tenu d'agir en conformitéaveclesbuts et lesprincipes
de l'organisation.» (Ibid., p. 68.)

Après quelques autres déclarationsdu mêmegenre, le délégué de la
Belgique a déclaréqu'étant donnéqu'il était maintenant clairement
entendu qu'une recommandation faite par le Conseil en vertu de ce qui
est devenu depuis le chapitre VI n'entraînait aucun effet obligatoire, il
acceptait de retirer son amendement (ibid., p. 69).
Par la suitela conférencea rejeté uneproposition de la Belgique deporter
devantla Cour lesdésaccordsentrelesorganesdel'organisation desNations
Unies relatifsàl'interprétation dela Charte. Le rapport pertinent conclut:

«Sous un régimeunitaire de gouvernement national, le soin de
déterminer unetelle question d'une manièredéfinitivepeut êtrelaissé
àl'instancejudiciairela plus haute ouàtoute autre autorité nationale.
Toutefois le caractèrede l'organisation et de son fonctionnement ne
semblepas êtredenature àfavoriserl'incorporation dans la Charte de
dispositions semblables.Si deux Etats Membres neparviennent pas à
se mettre d'accord en ce qui concerne l'interprétationexacte de la
Charte, ils ont naturellement toute liberté desoumettre leurs diffé-
rends àla Cour internationale de Justice, comme s'ils'agissaitde tout
autre traité.De mêmel'Assembléegénérale oule Conseil de sécurité

auront toujours la faculté,en temps et lieu utiles, de demander à la
Cour internationale de Justiceun avisconsultatif sur lesensd'une dis-
position quelconque de la Charte.))(Ibid., vol. 13,p. 677-678.) It may finally be recalled that, at San Francisco, it was resolved "to
leave to the Council the entire decision, and also the entire responsibility
for that decision, as to what constitutesa threat to peace, a breach of the
peace, or an act of aggression" (UNCIO, Vol. 11,p. 17).
The conclusions to which the travaux préparatoiresand text of the
Charter lead arethat the Court was not and was not meant to be invested
with a power of judicial reviewof the legality or effectsof decisionsof the
Security Council. Only the Security Council can determine what is a
threat to or breach of the peace or act of aggressionunder Article 39,and
under Article 39 only it can "decide what measures shall be taken . . .to

maintain or restore international peace and security". Two States at vari-
ance in the interpretation of the Charter may submit a dispute to the
Court, but that facility does not empower the Court to set aside or
second-guessthe determinations of the SecurityCouncil under Article 39.
Contentious cases may come before the Court that cal1for its passing
upon questions of law raised by Council decisions and for interpreting
pertinent Council resolutions. But that power cannot be equated with an
authority to review and confute the decisions of the Security Council.
It may of course be maintained that the Charter is a living instrument;
that the present-day interpreters of the Charter are not bound by the
intentions of its drafters of50 years ago; that the Court has interpreted
the powers of the United Nations constmctively in other respects, and
could take a constructive view of its own powers in respect of judicial
review or some variation of it. The difficulty with this approach is that
for the Court to engraft upon the Charter régimea power to review,and
revise the reach of, resolutions of the Security Council would not be evo-
lutionary but revolutionary. It would be not a development but a depar-
ture, and a great and grave departure. It would not be a development
even arguably derived from the terms or structure of the Charter and

Statute. It would not be a development arising out of customaryinterna-
tional law, which has no principle of or provision for judicial review. It
would not be a development drawn from the general principles of law.
Judicial review, in varying forms, is found in a number of democratic
polities, most famously that of the United States, where it was developed
by the Supreme Court itself. But it is by no means a universal or even
general principle of government or law. It is hardly found outside the
democratic world and is not uniformly found in it. Where it exists inter-
nationally, as in the European Union, it is expressly provided for by
treaty in specificterms. The United Nations is far from being a govern-
ment, or an international organization comparable in its integration to
the European Union, and it is not democratic.

The conclusion that the Court cannot judicially review or revise the

60 On peut enfinrappeler qu'à San Francisco il a étédécidé «de laisser au
Conseil l'entièreappréciation de ce qui constitue une menace à la paix,

une atteinte à la paix, ou un acte d'agression» (Conférencedes Nations
Uniessur l'organisationinternationale,vol. 11, p. 33).
Lesconclusionsauxquellesont abouti lestravaux préparatoireset letexte
de la Chartesont que la Cour n'avait pas reçu, nin'étaitcenséerecevoi;, le
pouvoir d'exercerun contrôlejudiciaire dela légalité oudes effets des déci-
sions du Conseilde sécuritéS .eulle Conseil de sécurité peut détermincer
qui constitue une menacecontre la paix, une rupture de la paix ou un acte
d'agressionen vertu de l'article39 et, en vertu de l'article39, lui seul peut
((déciderquelles mesuresseront prises...pour maintenir ou rétablirla paix
et la sécuritinternationales)).Deux Etats en désaccordsur l'interprétation
de la Charte peuvent soumettre un différend à la Cour, mais cette possibi-
liténe confère pas à la Cour le pouvoir d'écarterou réinterpréterles déci-
sionsprisespar le Conseilde sécuritéen vertu de l'article39. La Cour peut
êtresaisied'affaires contentieusesqui l'amènentà statuer sur des questions

de droit poséespar des décisionsdu Conseilet à interpréterdes résolutions
pertinentes du Conseil. Cependant ce pouvoir ne peut pas êtreassimilé à
celuide réformeret de réfuterles décisionsdu Conseilde sécurité.
Certes, on peut soutenir que la Charte est un instrument vivant; que
ceux qui interprètent la Charte aujourd'hui ne sont pas liéspar les inten-
tions de ceux qui l'ont rédigéeil y a cinquante ans; que la Cour a donné
une interprétationconstructivedespouvoirsde l'organisation desNations
Unies à d'autres égardset pourrait adopter une vue constructivede ses
propres pouvoirs alors qu'il s'agit du contrôle judiciaire, ou de quelque
variante de celui-ci.La difficultéque suscitecettefaçon d'aborder le pro-
blèmec'est que, en greffant sur le régimede la Charte un pouvoir de
contrôler et de reviser la portéedes résolutionsdu Conseil de sécuritél,a
Cour ne ferait pas acte d'évolution,mais de révolution.Ce ne serait pas
une évolution,mais un changement de direction,un changement impor-

tant et grave. On ne pourrait pas mêmesoutenirque ce soit une évolution
découlantdes termes ou de la structure de la Charte et du Statut. Ce ne
serait pas une évolutionissue du droit international coutumier, qui ne
comporte aucun principe ni aucune disposition prévoyant le contrôle
judiciaire. Ce ne serait pas une évolution fondée surles principes géné-
raux de droit. On trouve le contrôle judiciaire, sous diversesformes, dans
un certain nombre de systèmesde gouvernement démocratiques, plus
particulièrement aux Etats-Unis, où il a été développp éar la Cour su-
prêmeelle-même. Cen'est pourtant d'aucune manière un principe uni-
versel, ni mêmeun principe généralde gouvernement ou de droit. On ne
le trouve guèreen dehors du monde démocratique,ni uniformémentdans
ce monde. Là où il existe sur le plan international comme dans l'Union
européenne,il est prévuexpressémentpar un traitéen des termes précis.
II s'en faut de beaucoup que l'organisation des Nations Unies soit un

gouvernement, ou une organisation internationale comparable, par son
intégration,à l'Union européenne, etelle n'est pas démocratique.
La conclusion selon laquelle la Cour ne peut pas exercer un contrôleresolutions of the Security Council is buttressed by the fact that only
States may be parties in cases before the Court. The Security Council
cannot be a party. For the Court to adjudge the legality of the Council's
decisions in a proceeding brought by one State against another would be

for the Court to adjudicate the Council's rights without givingthe Coun-
cila hearing, which would run counter to fundamental judicial principles.
It would run counter as well to thejurisprudence of the Court. (Cf. East
Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment,I.C.J. Reports 1995,pp. 100-
105; Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1954,pp. 32-33.)Anysuchjudgment could not bind the Council,
because, by the terms of Article 59 of the Statute, the decision of the
Court has no binding force except between the parties and in respect of
that particular case.
At the same time, a judgment of the Court which held resolutions of
the Security Council adopted under Chapter VI1 of the Charter not to
bind or to be "opposable" to a State, despite the terms of Article 25 of
the Charter, would seriously prejudice the effectivenessof the Council's
resolutions and subvert the integrity of the Charter. Such a holding
would be tantamount to a judgment that the resolutions of the Security
Council were ultra vires,at any rate in relation to that State. That could
set the stage for an extraordinary confrontation between the Court and
the SecurityCouncil. It could giverise to the question, is a holding by the

Court that the Council has acted ultra viresa holding which of itself is
ultra vires?
For some 45 years, the world rightly criticizedstalemate in the Security
Council. With the end of the Cold War, the Security Council has taken
great strides towards performing as it was empowered to perform. That
in turn has given rise to the complaint by some Members of the United
Nations that they lack influence over the Council's decision-making.
However understandable that complaint may be, it cannot furnish the
Court with the legal authority to supervene the resolutions of the Secu-
rity Council.The argument that it does is a purely political argument; the
complaints that give rise to it should be addressed to and by the United
Nations in its consideration of the reform of the Security Council. It is
not an argument that can be heard in a court of law.

(Signed) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.judiciaire des résolutions du Conseil de sécurité,niles reviser, est étayée
par le fait que seulslesEtats ont qualitépour être parties dans une affaire

devant la Cour. Le Conseil de sécurité ne peut pas être partie.Si la Cour
statuait sur la légalité des décisidsu Conseil dans une affaireintroduite
par un Etat contre un autre, elle statuerait sur les droits du Conseil sans
donner au Conseil l'occasion d'être entendu,ce qui enfreindrait les prin-
cipes judiciaires fondamentaux. Cela irait aussià l'encontre de la juris-
prudence de la Cour (voir Timor oriental (Portugal c. Australie), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 100-105;Or monétairepris à Rome en1943, arrêt,
C.I.J.Recueil 1954, p. 32-33).Un arrêtde ce genre ne peut pas s'imposer
au Conseil, car aux termes de l'article 59 du Statut la décisionde la Cour
n'est obligatoire que pour les parties en litige et dans le cas qui a été
décidé.
Au demeurant, un arrêtde la Cour qui déciderait que des résolutions
du Conseil de sécurité adoptéesen vertu du chapitre VI1de la Charte ne
s'imposent pas à un Etat, ou ne lui sont pas «opposables», malgré les

termes de l'article 25de la Charte, compromettrait gravement l'effectivité
des résolutionsdu Conseil et porterait atteinteà l'intégritde la Charte.
Statuer en ce sens reviendrait àjuger que les résolutions du Conseil de
sécuritéconstituaient un excèsde pouvoir, au moins vis-à-visde cet Etat.
Cela pourrait préparerle terrainà une confrontation extraordinaire entre
la Cour et le Conseil de sécurit. ela pourrait poser la question de savoir
sila Cour, en décidant quele Conseil a commis une excèsde pouvoir, n'a
pas elle-mêmestatuépar excèsde pouvoir.
Pendant prèsde quarante-cinq ans, le monde a critiqué à juste titre la
paralysie du Conseil de sécurité. vecla fin de la guerrefroide, le Conseil
de sécurité aprogressé à grands pas sur la voie qui lui permet de fonc-
tionner comme il en a le pouvoir. De ce fait, certains Membres de l'Or-
ganisation des Nations Unies se sont plaints de manquer d'influence

sur l'adoption des décisionsdu Conseil. Quelque compréhensibleque
puisse être cetteplainte,ellene saurait donneràla Cour, en droit, le pou-
voir de supplanter le Conseil de sécuritdans sesrésolutions. L'argument
selon lequel une telle plainte produit cet effet est purement politique; les
plaintes sur lesquelles se fonde cet argument devraient êtreadressées à
l'organisation des Nations Unies et examinéespar elle avec la réforme
du Conseil de sécuritéC. e n'est pas un argument susceptible d'êtreinvo-
qué devantun tribunal.

(Signé) Stephen M. SCHWEBEL.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of President Schwebel

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