Separate opinion of Judge Kooijmans

Document Number
089-19980227-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
089-19980227-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE KOOIJMANS

1. 1have voted in favour of the operative part of the Judgrnent since
1concur with the Court's finding that it has jurisdiction to entertain the
claim as submitted by Libya and that this claim is admissible. 1also share
the view expressed in the Judgrnent that a number of the objections sub-
mitted by the Respondent do not have an exclusivelypreliminary char-
acter. Since, however, the Judgment does not reflect fully my own con-
siderations 1wishto place on record my viewson somespecificarguments
brought forward by the Parties. 1willdo so rather succinctlywith regard
to the objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and in a slightly more
comprehensive way with regard to the objections to the admissibility of

the claim and to the objection that the Libyan claimshave been rendered
moot, or that Libya is precluded from obtaining the relief it seeks, by
the subsequent adoption of Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and
883 (1993).

2. It would be a truism to contend that the present case is a politically
highly sensitiveone. As the Court has stated many times before, the fact
that a dispute brought before it has serious political overtones does not
act as a bar to the Court's entertaining it, nor does the fact that the dis-
pute is being dealt with simultaneously by the Security Council.
In the present case the Respondent has gone further than pointing out
merely these elements. It has intimated that Libya has not invoked the

Court's jurisdiction under the Montreal Convention in order to settle a
dispute which has arisen under that Convention but for other - quite
unconnected - reasons.
As it is stated in the written pleading submitted by the United States:
"This dispute does not relate to the Montreal Convention. It
relates to Libya's obligations to comply with the decisions of the

Security Council . . the Court ought not allow Libya to abuse the
Court's jurisdiction to entertain disputes that do not ariseunder the
Montreal Convention." (PreliminaryObjections of the United States
of America, p. 76, para. 3.22.)

3. The Respondent not only denies that there exists a dispute with
Libya onthe interpretation or application of the Montreal Convention, it

also casts serious doubts on Libya's motivesto construe such a dispute;the Court should not allow itself to be lured into such a politically
inspired hoax. 1have chosen the rather extreme wording of this last sen-
tence on purpose in order to show how easilythe Court can be portrayed
as an instrument used by one of the parties for extrajudicial purposes.
And this risk becomes an acute danger if the impression arises that the
Court is used as a pawn in a game of chess where other principal organs

of the United Nations play a role.

4. Against this background it seems proper and worthwhile to point
out once more what is the function of the Court according to the Charter
and its Statute, which forms an integral part of that Charter. This func-
tion was describedin appositeterms by the Court itself in its Judgment of
20 December 1988in the Border and TransborderArmed Actions case:

"the Court is aware that politicalaspects may be present in any legal
dispute brought before it. The Court, as a judicial organ, is however
only concerned to establish, first, that the dispute before it is a legal
dispute, in the sense of a dispute capable of being settled by the
application of principles and rules of international law, and sec-
ondly, that the Court has jurisdiction to deal with it, and that that
jurisdiction is not fettered by any circumstancerendering the appli-
cation inadmissible. The purpose of recourse to the Court is the
peaceful settlement of disputes; the Court's judgrnent is a legal pro-
nouncement, and it cannot concern itself with the political motiva-
tion which may lead a State at a particular time, or in particular
circumstances, to choose judicial settlement." (Border and Trans-
border Armed Actions (Nicaraguav. Honduras), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1988,p. 91, para. 52.)

5. Whether the eventualfinding of the Court on the merits is compat-
ible with binding decisions of other United Nations organs, in particular
the Security Council, is quite another matter and in the Court's view
must be considered at alater stage.The first task of the Court after a case
is submitted to it is toonsider whether the case concerns a legal dispute
and whether it has jurisdiction to deal with it. As the Court said in the
Nuclear Tests cases: "the existence of a dispute is the primary condition
for the Court to exerciseitsjudicial function". The Court went on to say
that "it is not sufficient for one party toassert that there is a dispute",
nor, it may be added, is it sufficientthat the other partyenies that there
is a dispute. Referring to what is said in the case concerning Znterpreta-
tion of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania (Z.C.J.

Reports 1950, p. 74), the Court stated that "whether there exists an
international dispute is a matter for objective determination" by it
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1974,
p. 271, para. 55). 6. If the Court, therefore, is determining the existence or the non-
existenceof a legal dispute, it is carrying out its proper judicial function.
In this respect it is in my viewnot relevant that the Respondent does not
rely on the Montreal Convention and contends that it has no dispute

with Libya concerning its interpretation or application. It is not in dis-
pute between the Parties that the facts of the Lockerbie incident as such
may be characterizedas an act defined in Article 1 of the Montreal Con-
vention which would imply that the Convention could be applicable to
that incident and - under normal circumstances - would be applicable.
The Respondent has stated that this does not mean that no other rules of
international law are applicable to these facts and by bringing the situa-
tion to the attention of the Security Councilas a potential threat to peace
and securityresultingfrom State-sponsoredterrorism it has relied on the
provisions of the United Nations Charter. Under such circumstancesthe
Montreal Convention would not be the only and exclusivelyapplicable
instrument as is contended by the Applicant.

7. The resulting difference of opinion is therefore not an abstract dis-
agreement about the applicability of the Montreal Convention, it is a
very precise legal dispute about its applicability to the very facts of the
case before the Court. The fact that the Security Council by adopting
resolution 731 (1992) implicitly denied the Convention's applicability to
these facts can in no way detract from the Court's own competence and
its own responsibility to determine whether the dispute as submitted by
the Applicant is a justiciable dispute within the terms of Article 14,para-
graph 1,of the Montreal Convention,the settlement of which isentrusted
to the Court. To conclude othenvise would impair the proper function of
the Court as it is determined in the Charter and the Statute. By implica-
tion the Court has alsojurisdiction to entertain the claims by Libya that
the Respondent has not respected Libya's rights under Article 7 of the
Convention, respectivelyits own obligations under Article 11,since these

are the specificclaims submitted by the Applicant. Whether the Court
will have to deal with these specificclaims will, of course, depend upon
the Court's finding on the preliminary question of the Convention's
applicabilityin view of the resolutions of the Security Council.

8. The Court's jurisdiction in my view is confined to the issues just
mentioned which are covered by the terms of Article 14,paragraph 1, of
the Montreal Convention, viz. the issues of applicabilityand compliance
or non-compliance. In particular the ways and means by which this non-
compliance is practised and the question whether these ways and means
are at variance with the Charter of the United Nations and with manda-
tory rules of general international law do not come within the Court's

jurisdiction as consensually agreed upon in Article 14, paragraph 1, of
the Convention.
9. 1,therefore, fully agree with the Court's finding that it has jurisdic-tion to hear the dispute between the Applicant and the Respondent in

accordance with Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention.
That 1 nevertheless have expressed some persona1views on the issue of
jurisdictionis because 1deem it important to point out that in this regard
the competences of the Security Council and the Court are separate and
clearly distinguishable, and should not be confused, letlone be seen as
potentially conflicting with each other. Just as each Stateis entitled to
bring a situation to the attention of thecurityCouncil and the Council
is entitled to give its views on that situation and to qualify it as a threat
to international peace and security,so each State is entitled to submit to
the Court a claim against another State with regard to a dispute which in
its opinion is justiciable. It is for the Court and only for the Court to

determine whether it is competent to entertain the claim on the basis of
the relevant legal provisions.

II.ISSUE SF ADMISSIBILI TNYD MOOTNESS

10. Whether the Court, once it has assumed jurisdiction, should carry
out its judicial function under al1circumstances is quite a different mat-

ter. The Respondent has submitted that any rights which Libya might
have under the Montreal Convention are in any event superseded by its
obligations under Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)
which were adopted after the date of the filing of Libya's Application.
Consequently, any judgment on the merits would be an empty one
because it would be neither applicable nor enforceable.

11. It seemsto be a question ofminor relevancewhether this objection
must be called an objection to the admissibilityand consequentlymust be
rejectedsincethese resolutions wereadopted after the date of the filingof
the Application which according to the Judgment is the only relevant

date for determining the admissibility or whether it must be qualified as
an "objection the decision upon which must be determined before any
furtherproceedings" in the sense of Article 79,paragraph 1,of the Rules
of Court.
12. It may be questioned whether it is necessary or even possible to
give a neat categorization of preliminary objections. S. Rosenne says in
this respect

"Al1that can be deducedfrom experienceis that it is an individual
matter to be appreciated in the light of al1the circumstances of each
case." (S. Rosenne,The Law and Practice of the International Court
of Justice, 1920-1996, 1997,p. 883.)
In this respect reference may be made also to the Northern Cameroons
case where the Court, commenting on the various meanings ascribed by

the Parties to,inter alia, the term "admissibility" said: "The Court recognizes that these words in differing contexts may
have various connotations but it does not find it necessary in the
present case to explore the meaning of these terms. For the purposes
of the present case, a factual analysis undertaken in the light of cer-
tain guiding principles may suffice to conduce to the resolution of
the issues to which the Court directsits attention." (Northern Cam-

eroons, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 28.)
13. Irrespective of the question whether preliminary objectionsshould
be distinguished asto category,this contextual analysisis exactlywhat the
Court has undertaken in the present Judgment. Taking into account al1cir-
cumstancesof the case ithas cometo the conclusionthat the objection that
Security Councilresolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)have rendered the
Libyan claim "moot" is an objection which possessesa preliminary char-
acter and falls within the provisions of Article 79 of the Rules of Court.
Nevertheless,the Court has concludedthat this objection does not have an
exclusivelypreliminary character within the meaning of Article 79, para-
graph 7, and, therefore, should be considered at the stage of the merits.

14. 1 share this view of the Court. 1 have, however, the feeling that
some additional remarks would be appropriate in light of the fact that
the Respondent has not denied that this objection may touch upon the
merits. Itis of the opinion that the case should neverthelessbe terminated
at the present stage as any judgment on the merits would be without
practical effectsincethe relief sought by Libya cannot be provided by the
Court because of the overriding legal effectsof the mandatory resolutions
of the Security Council. As counsel for the United States said:
"The Court is under no compulsion to pass on the merits of
Libya's claims under the Montreal Convention if it believes, as we

do, that those claims are, as a matter of substantive law, superseded
by the decisionsof the Council, whether or not those claims are valid
under the terms of the.Convention. Nothing precludes the Court
from deciding the case in substance on this basis, without having to
enquire further into Libya's assertions under the Convention."
(CR97119,p. 47; emphasis added.)
In this respect explicit reference wasmade to the Court's finding in the
Northern Cameroons case, where it said:

"The Court's judgment must have some practical consequence in
the sense that it can affect existing legal rights or obligations of the
parties,thus removing uncertaintyfrom their legal relations." (I.C.J.
Reports 1963, p. 34.)
15. It seems questionable, however, whether this reference to the
Northern Cameroonscaseis correct. The Court'sreasoningwasbasedon the

argument that a judgment on the merits would not be ajudgment capable
of effectiveapplication since the decision of the General Assembly (reso-
lution 1608 (XV)) to terminate the Trusteeship over the British Cam-
eroons (which mooted the case between the United Kingdom and theRepublic of Cameroon) was an administrative measure of a determina-
tive and final character. A finding of a breach of law by the Court could
not lead to redress as the General Assembly was no longer competent
with regard to the Territory pursuant to the termination of the Trustee-

ship as a result of resolution 1608(XV) and consequently no determina-
tion reached by the Court could be given effect to by the former Admin-
isteringAuthority (1C.J. Reports 1963, p. 35).
16. Even lessappropriate seems the reference by the United States to
the Court's decision in the 1974Nuclear Tests cases where it found that
"the claim of the Applicant (Australia) no longer has any object and that
the Court is therefore not called to givea decision thereon". This finding
was based on the fact that in the view of the Court the dispute brought
before the Court no longer existed, since the Respondent (France) had
unilaterally undertaken an obligation which fully met the claim of the
applicant State. Itdeservesnotice, however, that the Court ruled that the
case could be re-opened if the Respondent would not comply with its
commitment (1.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270 ff.).
17. Both the Northern Cameroons case and the Nuclear Tests cases
make clear that a decision that a claim no longer has any object can only
be made within a highly concrete context. It is "the circumstances which
have arisen" which bring the Court to the determination that "it does not
enter into the adjudicatory functions of the Court to deal with issues in

abstracto, once it has reached the conclusion that the merits of the case
no longer fa11to be determined" (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 272).
18. In the present case circumstances are different: neither is there an
administrative measure of a determinative and final character taken by
an organ of the United Nations, nor is there a satisfaction of the Appli-
cant's claim. Resolutions of the Security Council taken under Chap-
ter VI1 of the Charter may have far-reaching legal effects, but they are
not irrevocable or unalterable. In the exerciseof its function the Security
Council is free to confirm, revoke or amend them and consequently they
cannot be called "final" evenif during their lifetime they may be disposi-
tive of the rights and obligations of member States, overridingrights and
obligations these States may have under other treaties. It is generally
agreed that the SecurityCouncil has full competence under Chapter VI1
to determine that a factual situation constitutes a threat to international
peace and security and that it may take the necessary legally binding
measures to counter that threat, but that it has no competence to deter-
mine the law, whereas it has been questioned whether the Council can
modify the law when applying it to a particular set of facts (see e.g.

Malcolm Shaw, "The Security Council and the International Court of
Justice: Judicial Drift and Judicial Function", in A. S. Muller et al.
(eds.), The International Court of Justice - Its Future Role after Fifty
Years, 1997,pp. 219 ff.). 19. Since Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)have
authoritatively but not dejinitively and for an indefinite period of time
determined the matters at issue, the Court rightly concluded that the
objection by the Respondents that the Libyan claims are without objec-
tive (moot) does not have "an exclusivelypreliminary character" and will
be considered by the Court when it reaches the merits of the case. By
doing so the Court has upheld its function as it is definedin Article 38 of
the Statute, viz. "to decide in accordance with international law such dis-

putes as are submitted to it", at thesame time respecting fully the com-
petences which the Security Council has under the Charter.
20. Distinguishing carefully the proper functions of both Security
Council and Court in my viewis essential for what Judge Lachs called "a
fruitful interaction" between these two main organs of the United
Nations. These functions are complementary and in that sense can be
mutually supportive.

III. CONCLUDIN RGEMARKS

21. One final remark may be made. The Respondent has invoked the
concept of "judicial economy" when advocatinga dismissal of the case in
the preliminary phase. It has warned of proceedings on the merits which
will be lengthy, arduous and extremely complicated and added that

"such a difficultand lengthy procedure would ...be wholly without
purpose if in the end the Court concludes that Libya must comply
with the Council's decisionsand surrender the two accused persons
for trial in the United States or the Unitedngdom ...It is clearly
within the power of the Court to avoid unnecessary examination of
immaterial and more difficult legaland factual issues." (Preliminary

Objections of the United States of America, pp. 112-113.)
It cannot be excluded that this might be the case indeed, although this is
by no means certain as it was in the Northern Carneroonscase.

22. Judicial economy however may go to the detriment ofjudicial pro-
priety which asks for a careful weighing of the interests of al1parties to
the dispute. In this respect itorthwhile to recall what Judge Read said
in his dissenting opinion in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case:

"It is impossible to overlook the grave injustice which would be
done to an applicant State, by ajudgrnent upholding an objection to
the jurisdiction and refusing to permit adjudication on the merits,
and which, at the same time, decided an important issue of fact or
law, forming part of the merits, against the applicant State. The
effect ofrefusa1to permit adjudication of the dispute would be to remit the applicant and respondentStates to other measures, legal or
political, for the settlement of the dispute.either the applicant nor
the respondent should be prejudiced,in seeking an alternative solu-

tion of the dispute, by the decision of any issue offact or law that
pertains to the merits." (I.C.J. Reports 1952, p. 149; emphasis
added.)
23. It certainly cannot be foreseen that alternative solutions, for
example, on the basis of suggestions made by regional organizations or
other international or national groupings, will be found and at present
that may even seem improbable but neither can it be excluded. The
Court should not be seen as standing in the way of any conciliatory
effort.

(Signed) P. H. KOOIJMANS.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE KOOIJMANS

1. 1have voted in favour of the operative part of the Judgrnent since
1concur with the Court's finding that it has jurisdiction to entertain the
claim as submitted by Libya and that this claim is admissible. 1also share
the view expressed in the Judgrnent that a number of the objections sub-
mitted by the Respondent do not have an exclusivelypreliminary char-
acter. Since, however, the Judgment does not reflect fully my own con-
siderations 1wishto place on record my viewson somespecificarguments
brought forward by the Parties. 1willdo so rather succinctlywith regard
to the objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and in a slightly more
comprehensive way with regard to the objections to the admissibility of

the claim and to the objection that the Libyan claimshave been rendered
moot, or that Libya is precluded from obtaining the relief it seeks, by
the subsequent adoption of Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and
883 (1993).

2. It would be a truism to contend that the present case is a politically
highly sensitiveone. As the Court has stated many times before, the fact
that a dispute brought before it has serious political overtones does not
act as a bar to the Court's entertaining it, nor does the fact that the dis-
pute is being dealt with simultaneously by the Security Council.
In the present case the Respondent has gone further than pointing out
merely these elements. It has intimated that Libya has not invoked the

Court's jurisdiction under the Montreal Convention in order to settle a
dispute which has arisen under that Convention but for other - quite
unconnected - reasons.
As it is stated in the written pleading submitted by the United States:
"This dispute does not relate to the Montreal Convention. It
relates to Libya's obligations to comply with the decisions of the

Security Council . . the Court ought not allow Libya to abuse the
Court's jurisdiction to entertain disputes that do not ariseunder the
Montreal Convention." (PreliminaryObjections of the United States
of America, p. 76, para. 3.22.)

3. The Respondent not only denies that there exists a dispute with
Libya onthe interpretation or application of the Montreal Convention, it

also casts serious doubts on Libya's motivesto construe such a dispute; OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. KOOIJMANS

[Traduction]

1. J'ai votéen faveur du dispositif de l'arrêt carje pense, comme la
Cour, que celle-ciest compétentepour connaître de la requête introduite
par la Libyeet que cette requêteest recevable.Je partage égalementl'opi-
nion expriméedans l'arrêtselon laquelle un certain nombre des excep-
tions présentéespar le défendeurn'ont pas un caractère exclusivement
préliminaire.Toutefois, commel'arrêtne prend pas pleinementen compte
mespropres considérations,je tiens àcequ'ilsoit pris actede mesvuesen
ce qui concernecertains des arguments formuléspar lesParties. Je leferai
assez succinctement pour les exceptions d'incompétenceet un petit peu
plus longuement pour les exceptions d'irrecevabilitéet l'exception selon
laquelle les demandes libyennes ont étéprivéesde tout objet, ou selon
laquelle la Libye ne peut obtenir les mesures qu'elledemande, du fait de
l'adoption subséquentedes résolutions748 (1992)et 883 (1993) par le
Conseil de sécurité.

2. Ce serait un truisme d'affirmer que, politiquement, la présente
affaire est extrêmement délicate. Comme la Cour l'a déjà déclaré a de
nombreuses reprises,lefait qu'un différendporté devantellea desconno-
tations politiques sérieuseset le fait que le Conseil de sécurité est simul-
tanémentsaisi de ce différendne l'empêchenp t as d'en connaître.
En l'espèce,le défendeurne s'est pas contenté de souligner ces élé-
ments. Il a laisséentendre que la Libyen'a pas invoquéla compétencede
la Cour en vertu de la convention de Montréal pour réglerun différend
nédans le cadre de cette convention mais pour d'autres raisons, sans
aucun lien avec elle.
Comme l'ont dit les Etats-Unis dans leurs écritures:

«Ce différendn'a pas trait à la convention de Montréal. Il a en
effet trait aux obligations de la Libye de se conformeraux décisions
du Conseil de sécurité ..la Cour ne doit pas permettre à la Libye
d'abuser de la compétencede celle-ci pour lui faire connaître de
différends qui ne se trouvent pas fondés sur la convention de
Montréal.)) (Exceptions préliminairesdes Etats-Unis d'Amérique,
p. 76, par. 3.22.)

3. Non seulement le défendeurnie qu'il existe un différendavec la
Libye sur l'interprétationou l'application de la conventionde Montréal,
mais il met aussi sérieusementen doute lesmotifs qui poussent la Libyeàthe Court should not allow itself to be lured into such a politically
inspired hoax. 1have chosen the rather extreme wording of this last sen-
tence on purpose in order to show how easilythe Court can be portrayed
as an instrument used by one of the parties for extrajudicial purposes.
And this risk becomes an acute danger if the impression arises that the
Court is used as a pawn in a game of chess where other principal organs

of the United Nations play a role.

4. Against this background it seems proper and worthwhile to point
out once more what is the function of the Court according to the Charter
and its Statute, which forms an integral part of that Charter. This func-
tion was describedin appositeterms by the Court itself in its Judgment of
20 December 1988in the Border and TransborderArmed Actions case:

"the Court is aware that politicalaspects may be present in any legal
dispute brought before it. The Court, as a judicial organ, is however
only concerned to establish, first, that the dispute before it is a legal
dispute, in the sense of a dispute capable of being settled by the
application of principles and rules of international law, and sec-
ondly, that the Court has jurisdiction to deal with it, and that that
jurisdiction is not fettered by any circumstancerendering the appli-
cation inadmissible. The purpose of recourse to the Court is the
peaceful settlement of disputes; the Court's judgrnent is a legal pro-
nouncement, and it cannot concern itself with the political motiva-
tion which may lead a State at a particular time, or in particular
circumstances, to choose judicial settlement." (Border and Trans-
border Armed Actions (Nicaraguav. Honduras), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1988,p. 91, para. 52.)

5. Whether the eventualfinding of the Court on the merits is compat-
ible with binding decisions of other United Nations organs, in particular
the Security Council, is quite another matter and in the Court's view
must be considered at alater stage.The first task of the Court after a case
is submitted to it is toonsider whether the case concerns a legal dispute
and whether it has jurisdiction to deal with it. As the Court said in the
Nuclear Tests cases: "the existence of a dispute is the primary condition
for the Court to exerciseitsjudicial function". The Court went on to say
that "it is not sufficient for one party toassert that there is a dispute",
nor, it may be added, is it sufficientthat the other partyenies that there
is a dispute. Referring to what is said in the case concerning Znterpreta-
tion of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania (Z.C.J.

Reports 1950, p. 74), the Court stated that "whether there exists an
international dispute is a matter for objective determination" by it
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1974,
p. 271, para. 55). CONVENTION DE MONTRÉAL DE 1971(OP.IND.KOOIJMANS) 145

invoquer un tel différend; la Cour ne doit pas se laisser entraîner dans
une telle mystification motivéepar des considérations politiques. J'ai

choisi de libeller la phrase qui précèdeen des termes assez extrêmesafin
de montrer combien il est facile de représenterla Cour comme un instru-
ment utilisépar l'une des parties à des fins extrajudiciaires. Et ce risque
devient un grave danger si l'impression naît que la Cour est utilisée
comme un pion dans une partie d'échecs à laquelle participent d'autres
organes principaux de l'Organisation des Nations Unies.
4. Dans ce contexte, il semble opportun et utile de souligner une fois
de plus quelle est la fonction de la Cour selon la Charte et le Statut, qui
fait partie intégrantede la Charte. Cettefonction a été décritee manière
appropriée par la Cour elle-mêmedans son arrêtrendu le 20 décembre
1988dans l'affaire relative des Actions arméesfrontalièreset transfron-
talières:

«la Cour n'ignore pas que tout différendjuridique porté devant elle
peut présenterdes aspects politiques. Mais, en tant qu'organe judi-
ciaire, elledoit seulement s'attacherdéterminerd'unepart si le dif-
férendqui lui est soumis est d'ordre juridique, c'est-à-dire s'il est
susceptibled'êtrerésolupar application desprincipes et des règlesdu
droit international, et d'autre part si elle a compétencepour en
connaître et si l'exercicede cette compétencen'est pas entravé par

des circonstances qui rendent la requête irrecevable. L'objet de la
saisine de la Cour est le règlement pacifique de telsdifférends.La
Cour se prononce en droit et n'a pas à s'interroger sur les motiva-
tions d'ordre politique qui peuvent amener un Etat,à un moment
donné ou dans des circonstances déterminées, à choisir le règlement
judiciaire.))Actions arméesfrontalièreset transfrontalières (Nica-
ragua c. Honduras), compétenceet recevabilité,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil
1988, p. 91, par. 52.)

5. Tout autre est la question de savoir si la conclusion finale de la
Cour quant au fond estcompatible avecdesdécisionsobligatoiresd'autres
organes de l'organisation des Nations Unies, en particulier le Conseil de
sécuritée,t, de l'avis de la Cour, cette question doit être examinéeàun
stade ultérieur. La première tâche de la Cour lorsqu'une affaire lui est
soumise est d'examiner si cette affaire concerne un différendjuridique et
si elle a compétencepour en connaître. Comme l'a déclaré laCour dans
les affaires desssais nucléaires:((L'existenced'un différend estdonc la
condition première de l'exercice de sa fonction judiciaire.» La Cour a
aussi dit qu'«on ne peut se contenter à cet égarddes affirmations d'une
partie))et, pourrait-on ajouter, il ne suffitpas non plus que l'autre partie
nie qu'ily ait un différend.Seréférantà son avis consultatifdans l'affaire

de l'Interprétation des traitsepaix conclus avec la Bulgarie, laHongrie
et la Roumanie (C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p.74)'la Cour a déclaré que ((l'exis-
tence d'un différendinternational demande à êtreétablie objectivement
(Essaisnucléaires(Australie c.France), arrêtC , .I.J. Recueil 1974,p. 271,
par. 55). 6. If the Court, therefore, is determining the existence or the non-
existenceof a legal dispute, it is carrying out its proper judicial function.
In this respect it is in my viewnot relevant that the Respondent does not
rely on the Montreal Convention and contends that it has no dispute

with Libya concerning its interpretation or application. It is not in dis-
pute between the Parties that the facts of the Lockerbie incident as such
may be characterizedas an act defined in Article 1 of the Montreal Con-
vention which would imply that the Convention could be applicable to
that incident and - under normal circumstances - would be applicable.
The Respondent has stated that this does not mean that no other rules of
international law are applicable to these facts and by bringing the situa-
tion to the attention of the Security Councilas a potential threat to peace
and securityresultingfrom State-sponsoredterrorism it has relied on the
provisions of the United Nations Charter. Under such circumstancesthe
Montreal Convention would not be the only and exclusivelyapplicable
instrument as is contended by the Applicant.

7. The resulting difference of opinion is therefore not an abstract dis-
agreement about the applicability of the Montreal Convention, it is a
very precise legal dispute about its applicability to the very facts of the
case before the Court. The fact that the Security Council by adopting
resolution 731 (1992) implicitly denied the Convention's applicability to
these facts can in no way detract from the Court's own competence and
its own responsibility to determine whether the dispute as submitted by
the Applicant is a justiciable dispute within the terms of Article 14,para-
graph 1,of the Montreal Convention,the settlement of which isentrusted
to the Court. To conclude othenvise would impair the proper function of
the Court as it is determined in the Charter and the Statute. By implica-
tion the Court has alsojurisdiction to entertain the claims by Libya that
the Respondent has not respected Libya's rights under Article 7 of the
Convention, respectivelyits own obligations under Article 11,since these

are the specificclaims submitted by the Applicant. Whether the Court
will have to deal with these specificclaims will, of course, depend upon
the Court's finding on the preliminary question of the Convention's
applicabilityin view of the resolutions of the Security Council.

8. The Court's jurisdiction in my view is confined to the issues just
mentioned which are covered by the terms of Article 14,paragraph 1, of
the Montreal Convention, viz. the issues of applicabilityand compliance
or non-compliance. In particular the ways and means by which this non-
compliance is practised and the question whether these ways and means
are at variance with the Charter of the United Nations and with manda-
tory rules of general international law do not come within the Court's

jurisdiction as consensually agreed upon in Article 14, paragraph 1, of
the Convention.
9. 1,therefore, fully agree with the Court's finding that it has jurisdic- 6. Partant, si la Cour se prononce sur l'existenceou la non-existence

d'un différendjuridique, elle exercerégulièrementsa fonction judiciaire.
Il està mon avis indifférentà cet égard que ledéfendeurne s'appuie pas
surla conventiondeMontréalet soutiennequ'aucun différendne l'oppose
à la Libye en ce qui concerne l'interprétation et l'application de cette
convention. Il n'est pas contestépar lesParties qu'en eux-mêmes les faits
de l'incident de Lockerbie peuvent être considérés comme constitutifs
d'un acte visé à l'article premier de la convention de Montréal, ce qui
impliquerait que cette convention pourrait être applicable à cet incident
et - dans des circonstancesnormales - lui serait applicable. Le défen-
deur a déclaré quecela ne signifiepas que d'autres règlesdu droit inter-
national ne soientpas applicables à cesfaits, et qu'en portant la situation

àl'attention du Conseil de sécuritécomme une menace potentiellecontre
la paix et la sécuritérésultant d'un terrorisme parrainépar un Etat, il a
fait fond sur les dispositions de la Charte des Nations Unies. Dans ces
conditions, la convention de Montréal ne serait pas, comme l'affirme le
demandeur, le seul instrument applicable ou exclusivementapplicable.
7. La divergenced'opinions qui en résulten'est donc pas un désaccord
abstrait quant àl'applicabilité dela convention de Montréal:il s'agitd'un
différendjuridique très précissur l'applicabilité decette convention aux
faits mêmesde l'affaire dont la Cour est saisie. Le fait qu'en adoptant la
résolution731 (1992) le Conseil de sécuritéait implicitement niéque la
conventionfût applicable àcesfaits ne peut en aucune manièrerestreindre

la compétenceet la responsabilitépropres de la Cour s'agissantde déter-
miner si, au regard du paragraphe 1 de l'article 14 de la convention de
Montréal,ledifférend que luia soumisledemandeur est un différendrele-
vant du règlementjudiciaire, lequel règlement lui est confié.Conclure
autrement porterait atteinte à la fonction propre de la Cour telle que
celle-ciest définiedans la Charte et le Statut. Par voie de conséquence,
la Cour est aussi compétente pour connaître des demandes de la Libye,
à savoir dire et juger que le défendeurn'a pas respectéles droits que l'ar-
ticle7 de la convention confèreà la Libyeet n'a pasexécutéles obligations
que l'article 11 lui imposeà lui-même,puisque telles sont les demandes
spécifiquesdu demandeur. La réponse à la question de savoir si la Cour

devra connaître de ces demandes spécifiquesdépendra bien sûr de la
conclusion qu'elleadoptera sur la question préliminaire del'applicabilité
de la convention eu égard aux résolutionsdu Conseil de sécurité.
8. La compétencede la Cour est à mon avis limitéeaux questions que
je viens de mentionner et qui sont couvertes par les termes du para-
graphe 1 de l'article 14 de la convention de Montréal, c'est-à-dire les
questions de l'applicabilitéet du respect ou non-respect de ce texte. En
particulier, les moyens par lesquels ce non-respect se traduit et la ques-
tion de savoir si ces moyens ne sont pas conformes à la Charte des
Nations Unies et aux règlesimpérativesdu droit international généran le
relèventpas de la compétencede la Cour telle que celle-cia été consen-

suellement acceptéeau paragraphe 1 de l'article 14de la convention.
9. C'est pourquoi je souscris pleinement à la conclusion de la Courtion to hear the dispute between the Applicant and the Respondent in

accordance with Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention.
That 1 nevertheless have expressed some persona1views on the issue of
jurisdictionis because 1deem it important to point out that in this regard
the competences of the Security Council and the Court are separate and
clearly distinguishable, and should not be confused, letlone be seen as
potentially conflicting with each other. Just as each Stateis entitled to
bring a situation to the attention of thecurityCouncil and the Council
is entitled to give its views on that situation and to qualify it as a threat
to international peace and security,so each State is entitled to submit to
the Court a claim against another State with regard to a dispute which in
its opinion is justiciable. It is for the Court and only for the Court to

determine whether it is competent to entertain the claim on the basis of
the relevant legal provisions.

II.ISSUE SF ADMISSIBILI TNYD MOOTNESS

10. Whether the Court, once it has assumed jurisdiction, should carry
out its judicial function under al1circumstances is quite a different mat-

ter. The Respondent has submitted that any rights which Libya might
have under the Montreal Convention are in any event superseded by its
obligations under Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)
which were adopted after the date of the filing of Libya's Application.
Consequently, any judgment on the merits would be an empty one
because it would be neither applicable nor enforceable.

11. It seemsto be a question ofminor relevancewhether this objection
must be called an objection to the admissibilityand consequentlymust be
rejectedsincethese resolutions wereadopted after the date of the filingof
the Application which according to the Judgment is the only relevant

date for determining the admissibility or whether it must be qualified as
an "objection the decision upon which must be determined before any
furtherproceedings" in the sense of Article 79,paragraph 1,of the Rules
of Court.
12. It may be questioned whether it is necessary or even possible to
give a neat categorization of preliminary objections. S. Rosenne says in
this respect

"Al1that can be deducedfrom experienceis that it is an individual
matter to be appreciated in the light of al1the circumstances of each
case." (S. Rosenne,The Law and Practice of the International Court
of Justice, 1920-1996, 1997,p. 883.)
In this respect reference may be made also to the Northern Cameroons
case where the Court, commenting on the various meanings ascribed by

the Parties to,inter alia, the term "admissibility" said:selon laquelle elle est compétente pour connaître du différendentre le

demandeur et le défendeur conformémentau paragraphe 1de l'article 14
de la conventionde Montréal. J'ai néanmoinsexprimécertainesopinions
personnelles sur la question de la compétence parceque j'estime impor-
tant de souligner que lescompétencesdu Conseil de sécuritéet de la Cour
sont à cet égard distinctes et peuvent être nettement distinguées, et
qu'ellesne doivent pas être confondues,encore moins considéréescomme
pouvant êtreen conflit. De mêmeque tout Etat a le droit de porter une
situationà l'attention du Conseil de sécuritéet le Conseil le droit de se
prononcer sur cettesituation et de la qualifierde menace contre la paix et
la sécuritéinternationales, tout Etat a le droit d'introduire devant la
Cour une requête contre un autre Etat au sujet d'un différenddont il

estime qu'il relèvedu règlementjudiciaire. C'està la Cour età la Cour
seulement qu'il appartient de déterminer si elle est compétente pour
connaître de la demande sur la base desdispositionsjuridiques applicables.

II. QUESTION CONCERNANT LA RECEVABILITÉ ET LE DÉFAUT D'OBJET

DES DEMANDES
10. La question de savoir sila Cour, une fois qu'elles'estdéclarée com-

pétente, doit exercer sa fonction judiciaire dans toutes les circons-
tances est une question tout à fait différente.Le défendeura soutenu
que les droits que la Libye pourrait avoir en vertu de la convention de
Montréal sont de toute façon supplantéspar les obligations que lui im-
posent les résolutions748 (1992) et 883 (1993)du Conseil de sécurité,
qui ont étéadoptées postérieurement à l'introduction de la requêtede la
Libye. En conséquence,tout arrêt surlefond serait videde sensparce qu'il
ne serait ni applicable ni exécutable.
11.Il ne semble guèrepertinent de savoir si cette exception doit être
considérée commeune exception d'irrecevabilitéet rejetée en consé-
quence, puisque les résolutionsen question ont étadoptéesaprèsla date

de l'introduction de la requête qui, auxtermes de l'arrêt,est la seule date
pertinente aux fins d'apprécier la recevabilde celle-ciou de déterminer
si elle doit êtrequalifiéed'«exception sur laquelle le défendeur demande
une décisionavant que la procédure surle fond sepoursuive)) au sens du
paragraphe 1de l'article 79 du Règlementde la Cour.
12. On peut contester qu'il soit nécessaireou mêmepossible de clas-
ser les exceptions préliminaires en catégories distinctes. cet égard
S. Rosenne déclare:

«Tout ce qu'on peut déduire del'expérienceest qu'il s'agitd'une
questionparticulièrequi doit êtreappréciéeàla lumièrede toutes les
circonstances de chaque affaire.))(S. Rosenne, The Law and Prac-
tice of the International Court of Justice, 1920-1996, 1997,p. 883.)
A cet égard, onpeut aussi se reporteà l'affaire du Camerounsepten-

trionaldans laquelle la Cour, commentant lesdivers sens attribués par les
Parties, entre autres, au terme «recevabilité»,a déclaré: "The Court recognizes that these words in differing contexts may
have various connotations but it does not find it necessary in the
present case to explore the meaning of these terms. For the purposes
of the present case, a factual analysis undertaken in the light of cer-
tain guiding principles may suffice to conduce to the resolution of
the issues to which the Court directsits attention." (Northern Cam-

eroons, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 28.)
13. Irrespective of the question whether preliminary objectionsshould
be distinguished asto category,this contextual analysisis exactlywhat the
Court has undertaken in the present Judgment. Taking into account al1cir-
cumstancesof the case ithas cometo the conclusionthat the objection that
Security Councilresolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)have rendered the
Libyan claim "moot" is an objection which possessesa preliminary char-
acter and falls within the provisions of Article 79 of the Rules of Court.
Nevertheless,the Court has concludedthat this objection does not have an
exclusivelypreliminary character within the meaning of Article 79, para-
graph 7, and, therefore, should be considered at the stage of the merits.

14. 1 share this view of the Court. 1 have, however, the feeling that
some additional remarks would be appropriate in light of the fact that
the Respondent has not denied that this objection may touch upon the
merits. Itis of the opinion that the case should neverthelessbe terminated
at the present stage as any judgment on the merits would be without
practical effectsincethe relief sought by Libya cannot be provided by the
Court because of the overriding legal effectsof the mandatory resolutions
of the Security Council. As counsel for the United States said:
"The Court is under no compulsion to pass on the merits of
Libya's claims under the Montreal Convention if it believes, as we

do, that those claims are, as a matter of substantive law, superseded
by the decisionsof the Council, whether or not those claims are valid
under the terms of the.Convention. Nothing precludes the Court
from deciding the case in substance on this basis, without having to
enquire further into Libya's assertions under the Convention."
(CR97119,p. 47; emphasis added.)
In this respect explicit reference wasmade to the Court's finding in the
Northern Cameroons case, where it said:

"The Court's judgment must have some practical consequence in
the sense that it can affect existing legal rights or obligations of the
parties,thus removing uncertaintyfrom their legal relations." (I.C.J.
Reports 1963, p. 34.)
15. It seems questionable, however, whether this reference to the
Northern Cameroonscaseis correct. The Court'sreasoningwasbasedon the

argument that a judgment on the merits would not be ajudgment capable
of effectiveapplication since the decision of the General Assembly (reso-
lution 1608 (XV)) to terminate the Trusteeship over the British Cam-
eroons (which mooted the case between the United Kingdom and the «La Cour reconnaît que, dans des contextes différents,ces termes
peuvent avoir des sensdifférentsmais elle n'estimepas nécessaireen
l'espèced'enexaminer la signification.Aux finsdela présenteespèce,
une analyse des faits tenant compte de certains principes directeurs
peut suffirepour résoudreles questionsqui retiennent l'attention de
la Cour.»(Camerounseptentrional, arrêtC , .I.J. Recueil 1963,p. 28.)

13. Qu'il failleou non distinguer les exceptionspréliminairesselon des

catégories,cette analyse contextuelle est exactement ce à quoi la Cour
s'est livréedans le présent arrêt. Tenant compte de toutes les circons-
tances de l'espèce,elleest parvenue à la conclusion que l'exception selon
laquelle les résolutions748 (1992) et 883 (1993)du Conseil de sécurité
auraient rendu la demande libyenne sans objet est une exception qui a un
caractère préliminaireet relève desdispositionsde l'article 79 du Règle-
ment de la Cour. La Cour a néanmoins conclu que cette exceptionn'avait
pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaireau sens du paragraphe 7 de
l'article 79 et devait, en conséquence,êtreexaminéeavec le fond.
14. Je partage cette opinion de la Cour. J'ai cependant le sentiment
qu'il y a lieu de faire des observations additionnelles étantdonné quele
défendeurn'a pas niéque cette exception pouvait toucher le fond du dif-
férend. Il estime qu'ildevraitêtrenéanmoinsmis fin à l'instancedurant la

phase actuelle au motif que tout arrêtau fond serait dépourvu d'effet
pratique puisque la Cour ne peut faire droit aux demandes de la Libye en
raison des effets juridiques supérieurs des résolutions obligatoires du
Conseil de sécurité. Commel'a dit le conseil des Etats-Unis:
«La Cour n'est pas tenue de se prononcer sur le bien fondédes
demandes formulées par la Libye au titre de la convention de
Montréalsi elle croit, comme c'estnotre cas, que ces demandes ont
étésupplantéesen droit positif par les décisionsdu Conseil, que ces

demandes soient ou non valables au regard de la convention. Rien
n'empêchela Cour de trancher l'affaire sur cette base sans avoirà
examiner plus avant les thèses développéep sar la Libye en vertu de
la convention.» (CR 97/19, p. 47; les italiques sont de moi.)
A cet égard, on a citéce qu'avait déclaré laCour dans l'affaire du
Cameroun septentrional, à savoir:

«L'arrêtde la Cour doit avoir des conséquencespratiques en ce
sens qu'il doit pouvoir affecter les droits ou obligationsjuridiques
existants des Parties, dissipant ainsi toute incertitudedans leurs rela-
tions juridiques. (C.Z.J. Recueil 1963, p. 34.)

15. On peut toutefois sedemander sicette référencà l'affairedu Came-
roun septentrional est justifiée.Dans cette affaire, le raisonnement de la
Cour reposait surl'idéequ'un arrêtur lefond nepourrait êtreeffectivement
appliquépuisque la décisionde l'Assemblég eénérale(résolution1608(XV))
de mettre finà la tutelle sur le Cameroun britannique (décisionqui ren-
dait l'instancesansobjetentre leRoyaume-Uni et la Républiquedu Came-Republic of Cameroon) was an administrative measure of a determina-
tive and final character. A finding of a breach of law by the Court could
not lead to redress as the General Assembly was no longer competent
with regard to the Territory pursuant to the termination of the Trustee-

ship as a result of resolution 1608(XV) and consequently no determina-
tion reached by the Court could be given effect to by the former Admin-
isteringAuthority (1C.J. Reports 1963, p. 35).
16. Even lessappropriate seems the reference by the United States to
the Court's decision in the 1974Nuclear Tests cases where it found that
"the claim of the Applicant (Australia) no longer has any object and that
the Court is therefore not called to givea decision thereon". This finding
was based on the fact that in the view of the Court the dispute brought
before the Court no longer existed, since the Respondent (France) had
unilaterally undertaken an obligation which fully met the claim of the
applicant State. Itdeservesnotice, however, that the Court ruled that the
case could be re-opened if the Respondent would not comply with its
commitment (1.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270 ff.).
17. Both the Northern Cameroons case and the Nuclear Tests cases
make clear that a decision that a claim no longer has any object can only
be made within a highly concrete context. It is "the circumstances which
have arisen" which bring the Court to the determination that "it does not
enter into the adjudicatory functions of the Court to deal with issues in

abstracto, once it has reached the conclusion that the merits of the case
no longer fa11to be determined" (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 272).
18. In the present case circumstances are different: neither is there an
administrative measure of a determinative and final character taken by
an organ of the United Nations, nor is there a satisfaction of the Appli-
cant's claim. Resolutions of the Security Council taken under Chap-
ter VI1 of the Charter may have far-reaching legal effects, but they are
not irrevocable or unalterable. In the exerciseof its function the Security
Council is free to confirm, revoke or amend them and consequently they
cannot be called "final" evenif during their lifetime they may be disposi-
tive of the rights and obligations of member States, overridingrights and
obligations these States may have under other treaties. It is generally
agreed that the SecurityCouncil has full competence under Chapter VI1
to determine that a factual situation constitutes a threat to international
peace and security and that it may take the necessary legally binding
measures to counter that threat, but that it has no competence to deter-
mine the law, whereas it has been questioned whether the Council can
modify the law when applying it to a particular set of facts (see e.g.

Malcolm Shaw, "The Security Council and the International Court of
Justice: Judicial Drift and Judicial Function", in A. S. Muller et al.
(eds.), The International Court of Justice - Its Future Role after Fifty
Years, 1997,pp. 219 ff.).roun) étaitune mesureadministrative ayant la nature d'unedécisionet un
caractère définitif.Une conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle des dispo-
sitionsjuridiques avaient étévioléesn'aurait pu entraîner une réparation
puisquel'Assemblég eénéralen'étapiltuscompétenteencequi concernaitle
territoire par suitedela cessationdela tutelle parl'effet dela résolution1608
(XV) et, en conséquence, l'ancienne puissanceadministrante ne pouvait
donner effet à aucune décisionde la Cour (C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 35).
16. La référencepar lesEtats-Unis à la décisionrendue par la Cour en
1974 dans une des affaires des Essais nucléaires,dans laquelle elle a
déclaréque «la demande présentéepar l'Australie [le demandeur] ne
comporte plus d'objet» et que par conséquent «il n'ya rien àjuger», est
encore moins pertinente. La Cour a ainsi conclu parce qu'elle estimait
que le différendporté devantellen'existait plus puisquele défendeur(la

France) avait contracté unilatéralementune obligation qui satisfaisait
pleinement àla demande de 1'Etatdemandeur. Il faut toutefoisnoter que
la Cour a indiqué que l'affaire pourrait être rouverte si le défendeur
n'honorait pas son engagement (C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 270 et suiv.).
17. Il ressort clairement des affaires du Camerounseptentrional et des
Essais nucléairesque la Cour ne décidera qu'unedemande n'a plus
d'objet que dans un contexte extrêmementconcret. Ce sont «les circons-
tances qui se sont produites))qui amènent la Cour àjuger qu'«il n'entre
pas dans la fonction juridictionnelle de la Cour de traiter des questions
dans l'abstrait, une fois qu'elle est parvenueà la conclusion qu'il n'y a
plus lieu de statuer au fond» (C.I.J. Recueil1974, p. 272).
18. En l'espèce, lescirconstances sont différentes: il n'y a pas de
mesure administrativeayant la nature d'une décisionet un caractère défi-
nitif prise par un organe de l'organisation des Nations Unies, et la

demande du demandeur n'a pas étésatisfaite. Les résolutionsadoptées
par le Conseil de sécuritéen vertu du chapitre VI1de la Charte peuvent
avoir des effetsjuridiques de vaste portée,mais elles nesont pas irrévo-
cablesni inaltérables.Il est loisibleau Conseil de sécurité,ans l'exercice
de sesfonctions,de lesconfirmer,de lesrévoquerou de lesmodifier,et on
ne peut en conséquenceles qualifier de «définitives»mêmesi, pendant la
périodeoù elles sont en vigueur, elles peuvent déterminerles droits et
obligations des Etats Membres, leurs dispositions l'emportant sur les
droits et lesobligationsque cesEtats peuvent avoir en vertu d'autres trai-
tés.Il est généralement admisque le Conseil de sécurité est pleinement
compétenten vertu du chapitre VI1 pour constater qu'une situation de
fait constitue une menace contre la paix et la sécuritéinternationales et
qu'il peut prendre les mesures juridiquement obligatoires nécessaires

pour parer à cette menace, mais qu'il n'estpas compétent pour dire le
droit, et l'on a contestéquele Conseil de sécuritépuisse modifierle droit
lorsqu'il l'applique un ensemblede faits particuliers (voir, par exemple,
Malcolm Shaw, «The Security Council and the International Court of
Justice: Judicial Drift and Judicial Function», dans A. S. Muller et
autres, dir. publ.,The International Court of Justice - Its Future Role
after Fifty Years, 1997,p. 219 et suiv.). 19. Since Security Council resolutions 748 (1992)and 883 (1993)have
authoritatively but not dejinitively and for an indefinite period of time
determined the matters at issue, the Court rightly concluded that the
objection by the Respondents that the Libyan claims are without objec-
tive (moot) does not have "an exclusivelypreliminary character" and will
be considered by the Court when it reaches the merits of the case. By
doing so the Court has upheld its function as it is definedin Article 38 of
the Statute, viz. "to decide in accordance with international law such dis-

putes as are submitted to it", at thesame time respecting fully the com-
petences which the Security Council has under the Charter.
20. Distinguishing carefully the proper functions of both Security
Council and Court in my viewis essential for what Judge Lachs called "a
fruitful interaction" between these two main organs of the United
Nations. These functions are complementary and in that sense can be
mutually supportive.

III. CONCLUDIN RGEMARKS

21. One final remark may be made. The Respondent has invoked the
concept of "judicial economy" when advocatinga dismissal of the case in
the preliminary phase. It has warned of proceedings on the merits which
will be lengthy, arduous and extremely complicated and added that

"such a difficultand lengthy procedure would ...be wholly without
purpose if in the end the Court concludes that Libya must comply
with the Council's decisionsand surrender the two accused persons
for trial in the United States or the Unitedngdom ...It is clearly
within the power of the Court to avoid unnecessary examination of
immaterial and more difficult legaland factual issues." (Preliminary

Objections of the United States of America, pp. 112-113.)
It cannot be excluded that this might be the case indeed, although this is
by no means certain as it was in the Northern Carneroonscase.

22. Judicial economy however may go to the detriment ofjudicial pro-
priety which asks for a careful weighing of the interests of al1parties to
the dispute. In this respect itorthwhile to recall what Judge Read said
in his dissenting opinion in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case:

"It is impossible to overlook the grave injustice which would be
done to an applicant State, by ajudgrnent upholding an objection to
the jurisdiction and refusing to permit adjudication on the merits,
and which, at the same time, decided an important issue of fact or
law, forming part of the merits, against the applicant State. The
effect ofrefusa1to permit adjudication of the dispute would be to 19. Comme lesrésolutions748(1992)et 883 (1993)du Conseil de sécu-
ritéont tranchéles questions en cause avec autoritémais non déjïnitive-
ment et pour une périodeindéfinie,la Cour a à juste titre conclu que
l'exception des défendeursselon laquelle les demandes libyennes ont été
privéesde tout objet (sont devenues «moot») n'a pas «un caractère ex-
clusivement préliminaire))et serait examinée avecle fond. Ce faisant, la
Cour agit conformément à sa fonction telle que celle-ciest définàel'ar-
ticle 38 de son Statut, savoir «réglerconformémentau droit internatio-
nal les différendsqui lui sont soumis», tout en respectant pleinement les
compétencesqui sont cellesdu Conseil de sécurité en vertu de la Charte.
20. Il està mon avis essentiel aux fins de ce que M. Lachs a appelé
«une interactionfructueuse))entre cesdeuxprincipaux organesde l'Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies de distinguer soigneusement entre les fonc-

tions propres au Conseil de sécurité etcelles propres à la Cour. Ces
fonctionssont complémentaireset, en cesens,peuvent sesoutenir mutuel-
lement.

III. OBSERVATIONS FINALES

21. On peut faire une observation finale. Le défendeura invoqué la
notion d'«économiejudiciaire))lorsqu'il a demandé qu'il soit mis fin à
l'affaire dans sa phase préliminaire.Il a prévenuque la procédure quant
au fond serait longue, difficileet extrêmement complexe, eta ajouté que
cette procédure

«serait en outre tout a fait dépourvu[e]d'objet si, en finde compte, la
Cour venait à conclureque la Libyedevait sesoumettre aux décisions
du Conseilet livrerlesdeuxindividus accusésafinque ceux-cipuissent
êtrejugésaux Etats-Unis ou au Royaume-Uni ..Il relèveclairement
du pouvoir de la Cour d'éviter d'effectuer unexamen inutile de cer-
taines questions plus complexesde droit et de fait sans incidence)).
(Exceptions préliminairesdes Etats-Unis d'Amérique,p. 112-113.)

On ne peut exclure que tel puisse êtreeffectivement le cas, bien que cela
ne soit aucunementcertain comme celal'était dans l'affairedu Cameroun
septentrional.
22. L'économiejudiciaire peuttoutefois jouer au détrimentde l'oppor-
tunitéjudiciaire, qui appelle une délicatemise en balance des intérêts de
toutes lesparties au différend.A cet égard,ce qu'a ditM. Read dans son
opinion dissidente dans l'affaire de'Anglo-IranianOil Co. mérited'être
rappelé :

«Il m'est impossible de méconnaître la grave injustice que cause-
raità un Etat demandeur un arrêtqui admettrait une exception
d'incompétenceet refuserait d'autoriser un prononcé sur le fond,
tout en tranchant en mêmetemps, à l'encontre de 1'Etatdemandeur,
un important point de fait ou de droit faisant partie du fond. Le
refus d'autoriser un jugement du différendaurait pour effet de ren- remit the applicant and respondentStates to other measures, legal or
political, for the settlement of the dispute.either the applicant nor
the respondent should be prejudiced,in seeking an alternative solu-

tion of the dispute, by the decision of any issue offact or law that
pertains to the merits." (I.C.J. Reports 1952, p. 149; emphasis
added.)
23. It certainly cannot be foreseen that alternative solutions, for
example, on the basis of suggestions made by regional organizations or
other international or national groupings, will be found and at present
that may even seem improbable but neither can it be excluded. The
Court should not be seen as standing in the way of any conciliatory
effort.

(Signed) P. H. KOOIJMANS. CONVENTION DE MONTRÉAL DE 1971(OP. IND.KOOUMANS) 151

Voyer1'Etatdemandeur et 1'Etatdéfendeur à d'autres mesures juri-
diques ou politiques, en vue de réglerle différend.u moment de
rechercher une autre solution au différend,ni le demandeur ni le
défendeurne devraientêtre placésdans un étatd'inférioritéà la suite
d'une décisionsur un point de fait ou de droit touchant le fond. ))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1952, p. 149; les italiques sont de moi.)

23. On ne peut certainement pas prévoir que d'autres solutions, par
exemplesur la base de suggestionsfaitespar des organisations régionales
ou d'autres groupements internationaux ou nationaux, seront trouvées
et, pour lemoment, cela peut mêmesemblerimprobable, mais on ne peut

non plus l'exclure.La Cour ne doit pas être perçuecomme faisant obs-
tacleà d'éventuelsefforts de conciliation.

(Signé) P. H. KOOIJMANS.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Kooijmans

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