Dissenting Opinion of Judge Lachs

Document Number
052-19690220-JUD-01-10-EN
Parent Document Number
052-19690220-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTJNG OPINION OF JUDGE LACHS

A disagreement has arisen concerning the delimitation of the continen-
tal shelf in the North Sea as between the Federal Republic of Germany
and the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The two States have succeeded in
reaching agreement only on the delimitation of the coastal continental
shelf and concluded on I December 1964 a convention to this effect.

They were, however, unable to agree on the further course of the bound-
ary, negotiations to that end having failed.
A similar situation has arisen between the Kingdom of Denmark and
the Federal Republic. They too concluded, on 9 June 1965,a convention
concerning the delimitation of the coastal continental shelf. The question
of the further boundary line has remained unresolved, as negotiations
to this end have proved unsuccessful.

Thiis important differences on the subject subsist and in orcier to
solve them the three States, by two Special Agreements, have requested
the Court to decide: "what principles and rules of international law are
applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the
continental shelf in the North Sea which appertaiil to each of them beyond
the partial boundary" determined by the Conventions of 1 December

1964 and 9 June 1965 respectively. They have further declared that they
shall delimit the continental shelf "by agreement in pursuance of the
decision requested from the International Court of Justice" (Article 1,
paragraph 2, of both Special Agreements).

In the light of these requests the Court is obviously faced with a
question of law. To that extent, its task is clear. To discharge it two
methodological approaches are possible: it can address itself directly

to the question of the law "applicable" "as between the Parties" or,
alternatively, ascertain in general if there exist any "principles and rules
of international law" on the subject, and, in the affirmative, decide as
to their applicability in the cases before it.
The latter approach may be justified in cases where the law is of very
recent origin and doubts may exist as to the real status of a principle
or rule. This is, indeed, the situation in the cases before the Court.

The need for a legal regulation of the exploration and exploitation of219 CONTINENTALSHELF (DISS.OP. LACHS)

the continental shelf has only recently become imperati\,e as a result of
the great strides of technology, which have enabled iiian to reach out
for niany of the treasures so jealously guarded by nature. Thus tlie law
on the continental shelf is one of the newest chapters of international
law.

The point of departure for aiiy analysis of the issues in\.olved is the
Geneva Convention of 1958 on the Continental Shelf. Tlie question of
its applicability-and in particular of the applicability of its Article 6,
paragraph 2, dealing with determination of the boundary of the coii-
tinental shelf adiacent to the territories of two adiacent States-Ilas
dominated the wliole proceedings in the present cases: it was raised in

the written pleadiiigs and again in the course of tlie oral proceedings.
Thus it seeins only logical to deal with this issue first. hloreo~er, the
iieed to seek solutioiis outside Article 6, paragraph 2, or ci~itsidethe
Convention as a whole, will arise only if the reply as to their ripplicabiiity
is neeative.
u
The substance and meaning of Article 6, paragraph 2, are cletermined
by the interrelation of its three eleinents: agreement-equidistance-
special circumstances. To coiisider them iiithat ordei-:
(a) The paragrapli specifies that in the first place it is hy agreeineiit,

that the boundary is to be determincd. This does not inean. however,
that it imposes any more far-reaching obligation tlian tlie duty to nego-
tiate of which certain other instruments speak and which, as is well-
known, constitutes one of the general principles of contemporary inter-
national law. Thus this provision may not be coiistrued as imposing an
absolute obligation to reach agreement, but rather as emphasiring the

obligation to make every possible effort in tliat direction: tlie parties
concerned are to endeavour to resol\~etlieir differences round a conference
table.
It is, then, essential that they open negotiations. The substance of tlie
agreement is left to their discretion; they are perfectly f'reeto decide
on its basis and constituents. They may agree to üpply one of the otlier

two elements of Article 6, or find anotlier basis for deterniiiiing the
boundary. The law on the subject does not impose any restrictions upon
them except those that are essential in al1 negotiations; in other words,
al1 that is required is that the negotiations be conducted in good faith.
Hence the parties can niove within the general limits imposed by law.

(b) The second element of Article 6, paragraph 2, is that of equidis-
tance. The words "shall be determined" are used twice in that paragraph:
once in relation to the agreement between the parties, and a second time
providing for the application of equidistance "in the absence of agree-
ment". This latter term obviously refers to two situations: either the

failure of negotiations or the fact that none took place. For one cati
very well imagine that two neighbouring States may not even enter into
negotiations; there may be coinpelling reasons which prevent both, orone of them, from doing so. Should the boundary in such event ren~ain
uncertain, with al1the resulting inconveniences, or even risks? There is
no juridical basis for such an inference. Equidistance is also applicable
if there are no "special circumstances" justifying another solution.

Not only the text but also the discussion that took place in the Inter-
national Law Commission should dispel al1doubts as to the true bearing

of the notion of equidistance. When the Special Rapporteur suggested
the addition of the words "as a general rule", one of the members of
the Commission (Lauterpacht) opposed it as "it was at least arguable
that they deprived the rule of its legal character". He argued that "No
judge or arbitrator could interpret a text so worded, because any party
to a dispute could always argue that its case did iiot fa11within the general
rule, but formed an exception to it". It was then that the words "unless
special circumstances should justify ... [another] delimitation" were
introduced. They were linked with the deletion of the words "as a rule".
And the chairman made the point quite clear by stating that the amend-
ment "stressed the exceptions rather than the rule" (Yearbook of the
Ii~terrtutionnlLaw Comniissiori, 1953, Vol. 1, pp. 128, 131, 133). The
intention of the drafters is further elucidated in the commentary of the
Commission :

"The rule thus proposed is subject to such modifications as may
be agreed upon by the parties. Moreover, while ... the rule of
equidistance is the geiieralrule, it is subject to modification in cases
in which another boundary line is justified by special circum-
stances." (Yearbook of the International Lniv Cotnmissioti, 1953,
Vol. II, p. 216, para.82.)

The decision taken at the Geneva Conference is based on the conclu-
sions of the International Law Commission. The rejection of the Vene-
zuelan amendment ("the boundary of the continental shelf appertaining
to such States shall be determined by agreement between them or by
other means recogiiized by international law") deinonstrated the deter-

mination of States to accept a clear and definitive rule; no uncertainty
was to be allowed on the subject. In no way did it affect the basic concept
of what was to become Article 6 of the Convention.
(c) In the logical order 1 ought now to deal with the third element
of Article 6, paragraph 2, namely "special circuinstances". However,
this being ail exception to the general rul1,shall dwellon its applicability
at a later stage. These clarifications seem to go to the essence of the matter. Their
purpose, as suggested above, is to elicit thetrue significanceof the notion
of equidistance within the framework of Article 6, while placing the
latter in its true perspective and establishing its proper relationship to
Articles 1and 2 of the Comention.
For, in cases "where the sanle continental shelf is adjacent to the
territories of two adjacent States", thus where a boundary problenl
arises, the exercise of the rights defined in Article 2 is conditioned (if
not wholly, certainly in some degree) by the application of Article 6,
paragraph 2. One may therefore view it as laying down the rules con-
cerning the implementation of Article 2 in specific circumstances. To
this extent it has an inescapable impact on Article 2.

Having analysed what to my mind is the real meaning and scope of
the notion of equidistance, I do not propose to dwell on its virtues or
advantages. It may sufficeto say that it is practical and concrete. It thus
qualifies as a rule, and 1shall henceforth so term it. It is admitted that
no other principle or rule of delimitation partakes of the same facility
and convenience of application and certainty of results. At this stage
1 would merely add that by the entry into force of the Convention on the
Continental Shelf the equidistance rule has become part of the treaty
law on the subject.

Only two States (the Kingdom of Denmark and the Kingdom of the
Netherlands) appearing before the Court in the present cases are parties
to the Convention. The Federal Republic, not haviiig ratified it, is not

contractually bound by it. In fact no claim in that sense has been ad-
vanced.
The question which arises, therefore, is whether the rules expressed
in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention of 1958 on the
Continental Shelf have acquired a wider status, so as to be applicable
to States not parties to the Convention, in particular whether they were
susceptible of becoming and have in fact become part of general inter-
national law.
Both these contentions have been advanced, and both have been de-
nied. To substantiate these denials the history of the Article has been in-
voked. Special stress is laid on the facts that hesitations accompanied the
adoption of the equidistance rule, that other possible solutions were dis-
cussed and that the equidistance rule was adopted only at a later stage,
on the basis of non-legal considerations. True as these facts may be, they are not conclusive. They constitute
but part of the history, above referred to, of how Article 6, paragraph 2,
came into being. Doubts and hesitations did exist. But is the same not
true of many new rules of law? Even in science, a successful experiment
is frequently greeted with suspicion. Some laws of nature, self-evident
today, were once viewed as heresy. How much more is this true in the
sphere of man-made law, and in particular when a new chapter of law
is brought into being?

It is al1 to the credit of the International Law Commission that it
discussed the issues involved in Article 6 at such length before adopting
its final text. Meanwhile the comments of governments were invited and
received. In fact it took three years (from 1953 to 1956) until that text

was finalized and submitted to the General Assembly of the United
Nations. It passed through al1 the stages contemplated by the Statute
of the International Law Commission for its work in implementation
ofArticle 13,paragraph 1 (a), of the Charter. At the Geneva Conference
itself it was thesubject of further discussion-before being finally voted
into the Convention.
Even if it be conceded that the Committee of Experts, in which the
equidistance rule originated, was guided by considerations of practical
convenience and cartography, this can have no effecton its legal validity.
There are scores of rules of law in the formation of which non-Iegal 2.
factors have played an important part. Whenever law is confronted with
facts of nature or technology, its solutions must rely on criteria derived
from them. For law is intended to resolve problems posed by such facts
and it is herein that the link between law and the realities of life is

manifest. It is not legal theory which provides answers to such problems;
al1it does is to select and adapt the one which best serves its purposes,
and integrate it within the framework of law. This, for example, is how
mediumfilum aquae has been recognized as the boundary rule for non-
navigable rivers, and the rule of the "talweg" for navigable rivers dividing
two States. Geography, likewise, lies at the basis of the rules concerning
bays (Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Territorial Sea).
Many illustrations can be derived from other chapters of international
law.

Nor can the insertion of the primary obligation to determine the
boundary by agreement cast doubt on the character of the provision.
It is true that this general principle of international law is not normally
stated. Yet one can find a similar stipulation in the Projet de Convention

sur la Navigation des Fleuves Internationaux drafted 90 years ago:
"In the absence of any stipulation to the contrary, the frontier of States
separated by a river corresponds to the talweg, i.e., the median line of
the channel" [translation bythe Registry] (Engelhardt, Du régime conven-
tionnel desflezr~~eisnternationaux, Paris, 1879,pp. 228 f.). Reference may223 COXTINENT.4LSHELF (DISS. OP. LACHS)

also be made to the provisions of Article 12 of the Geneva Convention
onthe Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone.

It is also stated that the faculty of making reservations to Article 6,
provided by Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Convention, while not
preventing the equidistance rule from becoming general law, creates
considerable difficulties in tliis respect. Here we touch the very essence
of the institution of reservations. There can be little doubt that its birth
and development have been closely linked with the change in the process
of elaboration of multilateral treaties, the transition from the unanimity
to the majority rule at international conferences.

This new institution reflected a new historical tendency towards a
greater rapprochement and CO-operationof States and it was intended
to serve this piirpose by opening the door to the participation in treaties
of the greatest possible nuniber of States. Within this process, reserva-
tions were not intended to undermine well-established and existing
principles and rules of international law, nor to jeopardize the object

of the treaty in question. Thus they could not imply an unlirnited right
to exclude or vary essential provisions of that treaty. Otherwise, instead
of serving international CO-operationthe new institution would hamper
it by reducing the substance of some treaties to mere formality.

Such was, indeed, the viewof this Court when it stated that "the object
and purpose of the Convention thus limit both the freedon~of making
reservations and that of objecting to them" (Rcservations to the Conven-
tion on t/w Prcvcntion andYunislltn~nt of the Critne of Genocide, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 24).
These considerations apply to al1multilateral treaties, the Convention
on the Continental Shelf being no exception. Special attention should
be drawn to the fact that it reflects elements of codification and pro-
gressive development of international law, both closely interwoven.

As for Article 6, paragraph 2, the right to make reservations is deter-
mined by the three eleinents of which it is composed. First: can a reserva-
tion be made to the provision that the boundary of the continental shelf
"shall be determined by agreement between" the States concerned? Can
any State contract out of the obligation to seek agreement by consent?
Obviously not, for, as was indicated earlier, this stipulation should be
read as the application ad caszrm of a general obligation of States.

Can the reservation apply to the remaining part of the paragraph?
In view of a special situation a State may claim that in the relationship
between rule (equidistance line) and exception (special circumstances)
the latter should prevail. It may also be that a State recording a reserva-
tion aims at the exclusion of "special circumstances" and thus states itsopposition to any exception from the rule. No better proof can be offered
that the possibilities of reservation are limited to these two than the
practice of States.Such was, indeed, the object of the reservations made

by Venezuela and France on the onehand (a special definition of "special
circumstances" is reflected in the reservation made by Iran). On the other
hand the reservation made by Yugoslavia shows the desire to strengthen
the rule by excluding any exceptions to it. (But even here the scope of
the reservations is not unlimited, as objections to some of them indicate.)

These considerations lead to the conclusion that the very substance
of paragraph 2 of Article 6 does not admit of reservations which purport
"to exclude ... the legal effects" of its provisions, but only of those
which may "vary" those legal effects (Draft Articles of the Law of
Treaties, Article 2).
The right to make reservations to Article6couldnot have been intended
as creating an unlimited freedom of action of the parties to the Con-
vention. This would have opened the door to making it wholly ineffective,
with the obvious result of creating a serious loophole in the Convention.
This is confirmed by the practice, covering as it does a period of ten
years.
This practice:

(a) constitutes important evidence as to the interpretation of the faculty
to make reservations to Article 6;
(b) indicates that the provisions of Article 6have beengenerally accepted
without reservation by the parties to the Convention.

As to the wider issue, there is evidence that reservations made to
iniportai~t law-making or codifying conventions have not prevented their
provisionsfrom beinggenerallyaccepted as law. Five Statesmade reserva-
tions to the Fourth Hague Convention (1907),yet the principles it incor-
porated have with the passage of time become part of general inter-
national law, binding upon al1States.

The Geneva Convention on the High Seas is another case in point.
Ttcontains no clause expressly permitting reservations, but neither does
it follow the example of the Convention on Slavery of 7 September 1956
(Article 9) and prohibit them. In fact, more reservations have been
made to it than to the Continental Shelf Convention. Yet the Geneva
Convention on the High Seas is obviously a codifying instrument par
excellence: its Preamble speaks of "desiring to codify the rules" and
describes the ensuing provisions as "generally declaratory of established
principles of international law".

The Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of
Nationality Laws, signed at The Hague on 12 April 1930 (League of
Nations Treaty Series, Vol. 179, pp. 91-113, No. 4137), was, to use itsown words, "a first attempt at progressive codification" (Preamble,
para. 4) in that field. Yet its Article 20 authorized reservations to all
of its substantive provisions. After a lapse of over 38 years, no more
than 14 States are parties to it-with six reservations and two declara-

tions. This notwithstanding, this Court has relied on the practice based,
iïiter aliuon its provisions (Articles 1 and 5), even though the parties
to the case were not parties to the Convention (Rioitcbohm,St.cori~P f hascp,
Judgmerits, I.C.J. Reports 1955, pp. 22 f.). It was also relied upon by
the ItalianIUnited States Conciliation Comn~ission (Mcrigk claim (I.L.R.,
22 (1955), p. 450) and also Fl~gctihcinr~~ claim (I.L.R., 25 (1958-l),

p. 149)).
A further illustration is provided by Article 20 of the United Nations
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
adopted by the General Assembly on 21 December 1965: the new test
therein introduced concerning the incompatibility of reservations with
the object and purpose of the Convention has no bearing on the principle
itself.
To surnmarize the foregoing observations: from the nianner in which

the Convention as a whole was prepared, from its obvious purpose to
become universally accepted, froni the structure and clear meaning of
Article 6, paragraph 2, as a whole, from the genesis of the equidistance
rule and from the fact that it has been enshrined in no less than four
provisions of three conventions signed in Geneva in 1958,I find it difficult
to infer that it was proposed by the International Law Coinmission in
an impromptu and contingent manner or on an experimental basis, and

adopted by the Geneva Conference on that understanding. Nor is there
anything-including Article 12-that can disqualify the equidistance rule
from becoming a rule of general law or constitute an obstacle to that
process. Furthermore, there are no other known factors which may
have had this effect.

III

Tt is generally recognized that provisions of international instruments
may acquire the status of general rules of international law. Even un-
ratified treaties may constitute a point of departure for a legal practice.
Treaties binding many States are,afortiori, capable of producing this
effect, a phenomenon not unknown in international relations.

1shall therefore now endeavour to ascertain whether the transformation
of the provisions of Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention
on the Continental Shelf, and in particular the equidistance rule, into
generally accepted law has in fact taken place. This calls for an analysis
of State practice, of the time factor, and of what is traditionally under-
stood to constitute opiniojuris. Ten years have elapsed since the Convention on tiie Continental Shelf
was signed, and 39 States are today parties to it.
Delay in the ratification of and accession to multilateral treaties is
a well-known phenornenon in contemporary treaty practice. (According
to a recent study conducted by the United Nations Institute for Training
and Research, 55 out of 179 multilateral treaties in respect of which
the Secretary-General of the United Nations performs depositary func-
tions had received an average of only about 27 per cent. of possible
acceptances.) It is self-evident that in many cases substiiiiti\~ereasons
are at the root of these delays. However, experience indicates that in
most cases they are caused by factors extraneous to the substance and
objective of the instrument in question. Often the slowness and inherent
complication of constitutional procedures, the need for interdepartmental

consultations and co-ordination, are responsible (lack of ratification
does not, however, prevent States from applying the provisions of such
conventions). Frequently, again, there is procrastination, due to the
lack of any sense of urgency, or of immediate interest in the problems
dealt with by the treaty, for so long as there are other important issues
to deal with. This may be illustrated by a cornparison between the Con-
vention on Diplornatic Relations (signed at Vienna on 24 April 1961)
and the Convention on the High Seas (signed at Geneva on 29 April
1958). Both are eminently instruments which codify existing law. Yet
the first, within a period of about seven years, had received 77 ratifica-
tions, accessions or notifications of succession, while after a lapse of
ten years only 42 States had become parties to the latter. The reasons
seem self-evident: the Convention on Diplornatic Relations is of direct,
daily interest for every State. It took ten years for an instrument codifying
existing law, the Convention on the Prevention and Repression of the
Crime of Genocide (adopted by the General Assembly of the United

Nations on 9 Deceinber 1948),to obtain 59 ratifications and accessions,
while by the end of 1967-20 years after its adoption-71 States had
become parties to it.

These overlong delays in ratification and their causes, not related to
the substance of the instruments concerned, are factors for which due
allowance has to be made.
1 may have dwelt on this point at excessive length. 1 have done so
because it is relevant to the issue now before the Court. For it indicates
that the number of ratifications and accessions cannot, in itself, be
considered coi~clusivewith regard to the general acceptance of a given
instrument.
In the case of the Convention on the Continental Shelf, there are
other elements that must be given their due weight. In particular, 31
States came into existence during the period between its signature (28
June 1958)and its entry into force (IOJune 1964),while 13other nations
have since acceded to independence. Thus the time during which these44 States could have completed the necessary procedure enabling them

to become parties to the Convention has been rather limited, in some
cases very limited. Taking into account the great and urgent problems
each of them had to face, one cannot be surprised that many of them
did not consider it a matter of priority. This notwithstanding, nine of
those States have acceded to the Convention. Twenty-six of the total
number of States in existence are moreover land-locked and cannot be

considered as having a special and irnmediate interest in speedy accession
to the Convention (only five of them have in fact acceded).

Finally, it is noteworthy that about 70 States are at present engaged
in the exploration and exploitation of continental shelfareas.
It is the above analysis which is relevant, not the straight comparison
between the total number of States in existence and the number of

parties to the Convention. It reveals in fact that the number of parties
to the Convention on the Continental Shelf is very impressive, including
as it does the majority of States actively engaged in the exploration of
continental shelves.
Again, it is noteworthy that while 39 States are parties, initial steps
towards the acceptance of the Convention have been taken by 46 States,

who have signed it: half of them have ratified it. Thus to the figure of
39 that of 23 States is to be added, Le., those States which by signing
it have acquired a provisional status vis-à-vis the Convention, each of
them being "obliged to refrain froin acts which would defeat the object
and purpose of the treaty . . ." until it "shall have made its intention
clear not to become a party to the treaty" (Article 15a of the Draft

Articles of the Law of Treaties, prepared by the T.L.C., as amended and
adopted by the Committee of the Whole of the Conference on the Law
of Treaties; Doc. A/CONF. 39/C. liL. 370:Add. 4, p. 8).
This mathematical computation, important as it is in itself, should
be supplemented by, so to speak, a spectral analysis of the representa-
tivity of the States parties to the Convention.

For in the world today an essential factor in the formation of a new
rule of general international law is to be taken into account: namely
that States with different political, economic and legal systems, States
of al1continents, participate in the process. No more can a general rule
of international law be established by the fiat of one or of a few, or-as
it was once claimed-by the consensus of European States only.

This development was broadly reflected in the composition of the
Geneva Conference on the Law of the Sea; it is now similarly reflected
within the number of States which are parties to the Convention on the
Continental Shelf. These include States of al1 continents, among them
States of various political systems, with both new and old States re-

presenting the main legal systems of the world. It may therefore be said that, from the viewpoints both of number
and of representativity, the participation in the Convention constitutes
a solid basis for the formation of a general rule of law. It is upon that
basis that further, more extensive practice has developed:

(a) A considerable number of States, both parties and not parties
to the Convention (and quite apart from the Parties to the present cases),
have concluded agreements delimiting their continental shelves. Several
of these make specific reference to the Geneva Convention ("having

regard to . ..","bearing in mind . . ."or "in accordance with the Geneva
Convention on the Continental Shelf", "bearing in mind Article 6 of
the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf" or "in accordance with
the principles laid down in the Geneva Convention on the Continental
Shelf of 1958, in particular its Article6"). At least six other agreements
(registered with the United Nations) have accepted as a basis the equidis-
tance or median lines, though without actually ieferring to the Con-

vention. (Texts: United Nations Doc. AiAC. 135,111,and Add. 1.)

(b) A considerable number of States (both parties and not parties
to the Convention) have passed special legislation concerning their con-
tinental shelves, or included provisions on the subject in other instru-
ments. Some of them have enacted a unilateral delimitation of their
continental shelf on the basis of the equidistance rule. Fifteen have

referred specifically to the Convention of 1958, invoking it in a preamble
or in individual articles, or employing definitions derived from it (some-
times with slight modifications). One instrument refers to "law and the
provisions of international treaties and agreements", "law or ratified
international treaties" (Guatemala), and another accepts the median
line as a definitive boundary (Norway). Another (U.S.S.R.) reproduces

mutatis n7utandis the full text of Article 6 of the Convention, while
three (Finland, Denmark and Malaysia) make specific reference to that
Article. Another, yet again, invokes "established international practice
sanctioned by the law of nations" (Philippines). (Texts: U.N. Doc. A!AC.
135/11, and Add. 1.)

(c) In some cases the unilateral adoption of the equidistance rule has
had a direct bearing on its recognition by other States. To give but one
instance: Australia's Federal Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act, 1967,
which defines adjacent areas (section 5) and their delimitation (Second
Schedule), is based on the application of the equidistance rule. This
delimitation appears to have been effected on the assumption that a
neighbouring State could not advance any claim beyond the equidis-

tance line.
All this leads to the conclusion that the principles and rules enshrined
in the Convention, and in particular the equidistance rule, have beenaccepted not only by those States which are parties to the Convention
on the Continental Shelf, but also by those which have subsequently
followed it in agreements, or in their legislation, or have acquiesced in
it when faced with legislative acts of other States affecting them. This
can be viewed as evidence of a practice widespread enough to satisfy
the criteria for a general rule of law.

For to become binding, a rule or principle of international law need
not pass the test of universal acceptance. This is reflected in several
statements of the Court, e.g.: "generally ... adopted in the practice
of States" (Fisheries, Judgmerzt, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 128). Not al1
States have, as 1 indicated earlier in a different context, an opportunity
or possibility of applying a given rule. The evidence should be sought

in the behaviour of a great number of States, possibly the majority of
States, in any case the greatmajority of the interested States.

Thus this test cannot be, nor is it, one endowed with any absolute
character: it is of its very nature relative. Criteria of frequency, con-
tinuity and uniformity are involved. However, not al1 potential rules
are susceptible to verification by al1 these criteria. Frequency may be
invoked only in situations where there are many and successive oppor-
tunities to apply a rule. This is not the case with delimitation, which
is a one-time act. Furthermore, as it produces lasting consequences,
it invariably implies an intention to satisfy the criterion of continuity.

As for uniformity, "too much importance need not be attached to"
a "few uncertainties or contradictions, real and apparent" (Fisheries,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 138).
Nor can a general rule which is not of the nature ofjus cogensprevent

some States from adopting an attitude apart. They may have opposed
the rule from its inception and may, unilaterally, or in agreement with
others, decide upon different solutions of the problem involved. Article 6,
paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Continental Shelf, by virtue of
the built-in exceptions,actually opens the way to occasional departures
from the equidistance rule wherever special circumstances arise. Thus
the fact that some States, aspointed out in the course of the proceedings,
have enacted special legislation or concluded agreements at variance
with the equidistance rule and the practice confirming it represents a
mere permitted derogation and cannot be held to have disturbed the
formation of a general rule of law on delimitation. With regard to the time factor, the formation of law by State practice

has in the past frequently been associated with the passage of a long
period of time. There is no doubt that in some cases this may bejustified.

However, the great acceleration of social and economic change, com-
bined with that of science and technology, have confronted law with a
serious challenge: oneit must meet, lest it lag even farther behind events

than it has been wont to do.
To give a concrete example: the first instruments that man sent into
outer space traversed the airspace of States and circled above them in
outer space, yet the launching States sought no permission, nor did the
other States protest. This is how the freedom of movement into outer
space, and in it, came to be established and recognized as law within a

remarkably short period of time. Similar developments are affecting, or
may affect, other branches of international law.

Given the necessity of obviating serious differences between States,
which might lead to disputes, the new chapter of human activity con-

cerning the continental shelf could not have been left outside the frame-
work of law for very long.
Thus, under the pressure of events, a new institution has corne into
being. By traditional standards this was no doubt a speedy development.
But then the dimension of time in law, being relative, must be commen-

surate with the rate of movement of events which require legal regulation.
A consequential response is required. And so the short period within
which the law on the continental shelf has developed and matured does
not constitute an obstacle to recognizing its principles and rules, including
the equidistance rule, as part of general law.

Can the practice above summarized be considered as having been
accepted as law, having regard to the subjective element required? The

process leading to this effect is necessarily complex. There are certain
areas of State activity and international law which by their very character
may only with great difficulty engender general law, but there are others,
both old and new, which may do so with greater ease. Where continental
shelf law is concerned, some States have at first probabiy accepted the
rules in question, as States usually do, because they found them con-

venient and useful, the best possible solution for the problems involved.
Others may also have been convinced that the instrument elaborated
within the framework of the United Nations was intended to become
and would in due course become general law (the teleological elementis of no small importance in the formation of law). Many States have
followed suit under the conviction that it was law.

Thus at the successivestages in the development of the rule the motives
which have prompted States to accept it have varied from case to case.
It could not be otherwise. At al1events, to postulate that al1States, even
those which initiate a given practice, believe themselves to be acting
under a legal obligation is to resort to a fiction-and in fact to deny
the possibility of developing such rules. For the path rnay indeed start
from voluntary, unilateral acts relying on the confident expectation that
they will find acquiescence or be emulated; alternatively, the starting-
point rnay consist of a treaty to which more and more States accede
and which is followed by unilateral acceptance. It is only at a later stage
that, by the combined effect of individual or joint action, response and
interaction in the field concerned, Le., of that reciprocity so essential in
international legal relations, there develops the chain-reaction productive
of international consensus.

In view of the complexity of this formative process and the differing
motivations possible at its various stages, it is surely over-exacting to
require proof that every State having applied a given rule did so because
it was conscious of an obligation to do so. What can be required is that
the party relying on an alleged general rule must prove that the rule
invoked is part of a general practice accepted as law by the States in
question. No further or more rigid form of evidence could or should be
required.
In sum, the general practice of States should be recognized as prima
facie evidence that it is accepted as law. Such evidence may, of course,
be controverted-even on the test of practice itself, if it shows"much
uncertainty and contradiction" (Asylum, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950,
p. 277). It rnay also be controverted on the test of opinijuriswith regard
to "the States in question" or the parties to the case.

In approaching this issue one has to take into account the great variety
of State activity-manifesting itself as itdoes today in many forms of

unilateral act or international instrument or in the decisions of inter-
national organizations-, the multiplicity and interdependence of these
Drocesses.
With the ever-increasing activities of States in international relations,
some rules of conduct begin to be accepted even before reaching that
state of precision which is normally required for a rule of law. If their
binding force is contested, courts operating within the traditional frame-
work of certitude rnay apply tests of perfection and clarity they could
not possibly pass. The alternative would be to fall back on some general
and, it rnay be, elusive principle. This rnay not be conducive to strength-
ening the edifice of international law, which is so important for present-232 CONTINENTALSHELF (DISS. OP. LACHS)

day international relations. One should of course avoid the risk of
petrifying rules before they have reached the necessary state of maturity
and by doing so endangering the stability of and confidence in law. It
may, however, be advisable, without entering the field of legislation,

to apply more flexible tests, which, like the substance of the law itself,
have to be adapted to changing conditions. The Court would thus take
cognizance of the birth of a new rule, once the general practice States
have pursued has crossed the threshold from haphazard and discretionary
action into the sphere of law.

As to the cases before the Court, the situation leaves little room for
doubt.The conclusion by States of agreements in the field of continental-
shelf delimitation has self-evidently expressed their willingness to accept
the rules of the Convention "as law" and has in fact represented a logical
furtherance of the provisions of Article 6, paragraph 2. As for the
unilateral acts concerned, they also, by their reference to the Convention

or borrowing of its very wording, have given recognition to its provisions.
Other States have done so by acquiescence.

The foregoing analysis leads to the conclusion that the provisions of
Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention on the Continental
Shelf, and more especially the equidistance rule, have attained the

identifiable status of a general law. This may be contested in a particular
case by a State denying its opposability to itself. Then, of course, the
matter becomes one of evidence.

1now turn to the principal issue concerning the law applicable to the
present cases. 1s the Federal Republic bound by Article 6, paragraph 2,
of the Geneva Convention?
The Federal Republic of Germany signed the Convention on the
Continental Shelf on 30 October 1958. This fact, as indicated earlier,
cannot remain without influence on that State's relationship to the Con-

vention.
Admittedly it does not imply an obligation to ratify the instrument,
nor is it in itself sufficient to bind the Federal Republic to observance
of its provisions. However, it certainly implies a link betweeii the State
concerned and the treaty to which it is not as yet a Party.
The Court has made this perfectly clear by stating that "Without going
into the question of the legal effect of signing an international convention,

which necessarily varies in individual cases, the Court considers that
signature constitutes a first step to participation in the Convention";
and the Court continued: "Tt is evident that without ratification, signaturedoes not make the signatory Statea party to the Convention; nevertheless
it establishes a provisional status in favour of that State" (Reservations
to Gcnocide Convention, Aclvisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 28).
Consequently the Court recognized, in the context of the case it was
dealing with at the time, certain rights which "the signature confers upon

the signatory". This obviously also implies some obligations.

Now, at no time did the Federal Republic make a statement which
could be interpreted as a repudiation of the Convention or the abandon-
ment of its intention to ratify it. This was made clear even in the course

of the proceedings before the Court, by the admission that it had not
"yet" ratified the Convention (hearing of 23 October 1968).

There is no need to stress the obvious. As long as this ratification has
not been forthcoming, the Federal Republic cannot be considered as a
party to the Convention. The Government may have changed its view,
. .
as governments do; parliament may eventually refuse ratification. How-
ever, theact of signature has to be viewed inthe context of other voluntary
and positive acts of the Federal Republic in this domain.

On 22 January 1964 the Federal Government issued a Proclamation

which stated, inter alia:
"The Federal Government will shortly subrnit to the Legislature
an Accession Bill on this Convention in order to create the constitu-

tional basis for ratification by the Federal Republic of Germany";

and further:
"ln order to eliminate legal uncei-tainties that might arise in the

present situation until the Geneva Convention on the Continental
Shelf comes into force and until its ratification by the Federal
Republic of Germany, the Federal Governrnent deems it necessary
to affirm the following now:

1. In virtue of the development of general international law, as
expressed in recent State practice and in particular in the signing
of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf, the Federal

Government regards the exploration and exploitation of the natural
resources of the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas adjacent
to the German Coast but outside the German territorial sea, to a
depth of 200 metres and also-so far as the depth of the superjacent
waters admits of the exploitation of the natural resources-beyond

that, as an exclusive sovereign right of the Federal Republic of
Germany. In the individual case the delimitation of the German
continental shelf vis-à-vis the continental shelves of foreign States remains subject to agreement with those States." jTratislatiot~ bj,
tlze Registry ',;.

In the e,uposédesmotifs of the Bill on the Continental Shelf, 25 July
1964,special reference is made to theConvention,asa manifest expression

of a change in the general approach to the problem of the continental
shelf:

"For a long time the possibility of individual States' acquiring
special rights over the parts of the continental shelf lying off their
Coast had been denied in the theory and practice of international

law. In recent years the opposite view, that the extraction and
appropriation of the resources of the marine subsoil are not free
but reserved to the coastal States, has come to prevail. A manifest
expression of this change can in particular be seen in the Convention
on the Continental Shelf of 29 April 1958 (reproduced in Archiil

des Vülkerrechts, Vol. 7, 1958-59,pp. 325 ff.),adopted at the Geneva
Conference on the Law of the Sea, which was signed by the Federal
Republic of Germany together with 45 other States and has siilce
been ratified by 21 of those States. According to its Article 11 this

Convention will come into force as soon as the next instrument of
ratification is deposited.

Considering the above, one may proceed on the assumption that,

at least since the Federal Government's Proclamation of 20 January
1964,which has remained unchallenged, the Federal Republic holds
sovereign rights, coinciding as to content with those established for
coastal States by the Geneva Convention, in the domain of the

German continental shelf." jTrarislation hy tlie Registry 2].

l"Die Bundesregierung wird den gesetzgebendcn Korperschaften in Kürze den
Entwurf eines Zustimmungsgesetzes zu dieser Konvention vorlegen, um die ver-
fassungsrechtliche Grundlage für die Ratifikation durch die Bundesrepublik
Deutschland zu schaffen." "Um Rechtsunklarheiten zu beseitigen, die sich in der
gegenwartigen Situation bis zum Inkrafttreten der Genfer Konvention über den
Festlandsockel und bis zu ihrer Ratifikationdurch die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
ergeben konnten, halt es die Bundesregierung für erforderlich, schon jetzt folgendes
festzustellen:
1. Die Bundesregierung sieht auf Grund der Entwicklung des allgemeinen Volker-
rechts, wie es in der neueren Staatenpraxis und insbesondere in der Unterzeichnung
der Genfer Konvention über den Festlandsockel zum Ausdruck kornmt, die Erfor-
schung und Ausbeutung der Naturschatze des Meeresgrundesund des Meeresunter-
grundes der an diedeutschen Meeresküsten grenzenden Unterwasserzoneausserhalb
des deutschen Küstenmeeres bis zu einer Tiefe von 200 m und-soweit die Tiefe des
Darüber befindlichen Wassers die Ausbeutung der Naturschatze gestattet-auch
hieruber hinaus als ein ausschliessliches Hoheitsrecht der Bundesre~ublik Deutsch-
landan. Irn einzelnen bleibt die Abgrenzung des deutschen ~estlands6ckels gegenüber
dem Festlandsockel auswartiger Staaten Vereinbarungen mit diesen Staaten vor-
behalten." (Bundesgesetzhlatt, Teil II, Nr. 5, 6 February 1964.)
"Lange Zeit hindurch war in der volkerrechtlichen Lehre und Praxis die Mog- The Proclamation of the Federal Government of 22 January 1964
refers,then, to "the development of general international law, as expressed
in recent State practice and in particular in the signing of the Geneva

Convention on the Continental Shelf". Here an opinion is expressed as
to thecharacter and scope of the law on thecontinental shelf. It constitutes
in fact a value-judgment on the state of the law on the subject. Indeed
it is emphatically implied that the mere signing of that instrument, at
a time when it had not yet entered into force, was evidence of general

international law. The Federal Republic viewed its own signature as a
constituent element of that evidence, thus attaching to it far more
importance than is normal in the case of signatures to instruments
requiring ratification. If words have any meaning, these could be under-

stood solely as the recognition by the Federal Republic that the Geneva
Convention reflected general international law. Specific reference was
made to State practice. It deemed this practice, covering, up to the
date of the Proclamation, a period of over five years, to be adequate and

sufficiently uniform to be considered as evidence of general international
law, for if there had been variations within it, or it had been inadequate,
no such conclusion as to the definitive state of the law could have been
drawn. The Federal Government also linked the practice with the Geneva

Convention. Events after 22 January 1964 could in no circumstances be
held to weaken an official statement of this kind, but in fact they have
only added to its force. For the Geneva Convention has become law,
and subsequent practice has corroborated it further.

The Proclamation is, therefore, as binding upon the Federal Republic

today as it was at the time it was made. A value-judgment of so final
a nature may not be revoked. It should therefore be viewed as an unequi-

lichkeit des Erwerbs von Sonderrechten einzelner Staaten an den ihrer Küste vor-
gelagerten Teilen des Festlandsockels verneint worden. In den letzten Jahren setzte
sich die gegentielige Auffassung durch, dass die Gewinnung und Aneignung der
Schatze des Meeresuntergrundes nicht frei, vielmehr den Küstenstaaten vorbehalten
seien.Als sichtbarer Ausdruck dieser Wandlung kann namentlich die auf der Genfer
Seerechtskonferenzzustande gekommene Konvention über den Festlandsockel von1
29. April 1958 (abgedruckt in Archiv des Viilkerrechts Bd. 7 [1958/59] S. 325 A'.)
gewertet werden, die neben 45 anderen Staaten auch von der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland unterzeichnet und in der Zwischenzeit von 21 diesertaateii ratifiziert
derdniichsten Ratifikationsurkunde iKraft treten.tion bereitsmit der Hinterlegung

Es kann angesichts dessen davon ausgegangen werden, dass der Bundesrepublik
vorn 20. Januar d1964 im Bereich des deutschen Festlandsockels Holieitsrechteg
zustehen, die sich inhaltlich mit den in der Genfer Konvention zugunsten der
Küstenstaaten fèstgelegten Rechten decken."(Verlrandlrtngendes delttsclBlrndes-
rages, 1964, Vol. 91, Drucksache IV12341.)vocal expression of opirliojuris, with al1the consequences floning there-
from. Indeed, if it may be claiined that the opit~iojuris of certain other
States is in doubt or not fully proven, this is certainly not the case of
the Federal Republic. This is a decisive point in the present cases.

As for the e.rposé(les motifs of the Bill on the Continental Shelf, it
stands on the Geneva Convention and the Federal Government's Procla-
mation of 20 January 1964, and States that: "The rules provided for in
this Bill are to be the municipal supplement to the effects of the Procla-
mation in the field of international law" (Verhut~t/lungeri des tlrutscherz
Bundrstagrs, 1964, Vol. 91, Drucksaclic~lV,'2341). It refers to the Con-

vention as a whole with no exception or reservation. The great evidential
weight attaching to documents of this nature is surely incontrovertible.
This Court has held a number of e.~po.scd ;es nzotifs "conclusive" in a
case before it (Fisherics, Juc/,qmcwt,I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 135).

States may obviously change their intentions, conduct and policy,

but it would seriously undermine the worth of and reliance upon state-
ments made by governments if value-judgments of so important a nature
were disregarded or held as not binding upon the governments which
made them. For, to use the words which the Court employed in another
context: "Language of this kind can only be construed as the considered
expression of a legal conception ..." (Fisherirs, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1951, p. 136).

It has been submitted that the two official statements did not specific-
ally cite Article 6. This is true; however, they did not exclude it either.
The Convention as a whole is referred to, andthat undoubtedly implicates
Article 6. And although the actual wording of the first part of Article 6,

paragraph 2, was employed, this cannot be understood as excluding its
remaining provisions. Only a specific exclusion of the other parts of the
paragraph could have had the effect alleged by the Federal Governn-ient.
Any doubt as to this reasoning should be dispelled by the Proclamation's
specific statement that "The Federal Government will shortly submit
an Accession Bill on this Convention". There was no hint of aiiy objec-

tions the Federal Republic might raise to any provisions of the Conven-
tion-more particularly Article 6, paragraph 2-, though this was surely
the tiine and context for placing them on record. There is not even the
slightest evidence that reservations to the paragraph, of whatever scope
or nature, had been contemplated. If agreement between the parties was
nientioned, this, as the Federal Republic has itself indicated (ut irfra),
was because the paragraph in question refers to it "in the first place".

This view is confirmed by a f~irtherrecognition of Article 6. to be found
in the joint niinutes of the delegations of the Federal Republic and theNetherlands, dated 4 August 1964 (Memorial, Annex 4). Though here,
too, reference is specifically made to the determination of the continental
shelf "by agreement", this is because agreement was the obvious objective
of the conference contemplated at the time by the Federal Government

(which in no way implies rejection of the other components of Article 6,
paragraph 2).

This point has been confirmed by the Federal Government itself:

"At that time the Federal Revubiic could still exvect to come to
an amicable agreement with its neighbours on the delimitation of

the continental shelf before its coast on equitable lines inasmuch
as Article 6 expressly refers the Parties to a settlement by agreement
in the first place" (Reply, para.27).

The Reply continues:
"the insistence on the equidistance line as the only valid rule for

the delimitationof the continental shelf, and the reliance on Article 6,
paragraph 2, of the Convention for this purpose by the Kingdom
of Denmark and the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the negotiations
taken up on the instance of the Federal Republic of Germany ...
caused the Government of the Federal Republic to reconsider the
advisability of ratifying the Continental Shelf Convention as long
as the interpretation of Article 6, paragraph 2, is uncertain"(ibid.).

And yet the Federal Republic denies that it has ever recognized Article 6,
paragraph 2 (Reply, para. 28).
These statements cal1 for some comment. For to refuse to recognize
provisions, and to take exception to a given interpretation of them, are
mutually exclusive positions. An interpretation is disputed in the name
of a contrary conception, in upholding which one in fact defends the
provisions as such. Thus eitlzethe Federal Republic has, as it claims,

refused to recognize Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention beyond
its first component (though this refusal leaves the binding force of its
two official statements wholly intact), or it must have held a conception
thereof which caused it to contest a particular interpretation. The two
positions cannot be equated, for interpretation must needs concern the
paragraph as a whole, which in no imaginable conception could have
been reduced to a singleelement, i.e., the determination of the boundary

by agreement. The difference of interpretation could in fact only have
concerned the relationship between the rule and the exception, between
equidistance and special circumstances. In sum, the fragility of the claim to have withheld recognition from
Article 6, paragraph 2, as a whole is manifest. Itis a claim which has
been argued from a change of position on the ratification issue the very
purpose of which was to explain away definitive and unambigucus
statements conveying such recognition. In fact the Federal Republic
made clear its intention to ratify the Convention simultaneously with
the Proclamation acknowledging it and the practice as expressive of

"general international law". The link between such recognition and ratifi-
cation may have been more than merely chronological, e.g. (the latter
resulting from the former), one of cause and effect. Subsequently the
Federal Governnient had second thoughts about ratifying the Conven-
tion. But, given the unreserved nature of the Proclamation and e'cposé
des motfs, the expression of such second thoughts cannot alter the fact

that the Federal Republic-whether or not it ratifies the Convention-
has recognized the binding character of the rules concerned.

The whole of the Federal Republic's reasoning on the subject bears
al1 the marks of an e.r post facto construction. It has obscured the true
legal issue in the present cases. It can have no effect on the recognition

of the Convention (and within it of Article 6, paragraph 2) and of State
practice, reflected in the two officia1statements placed on record by the
Federal Government.

Having thus analysed the position taken by the Federal Republic,
I reach the conclusion that it has recognized the provisions of the Con-
vention on the Continental Shelf and in particular its Article 6,paragraph
2, as binding. Subsequent changes in its attitude, in view of the nature

of its unequivocal statements, can have no legal effect. For, in the
circumstances, its situation cannot be assimilated with that of a country
which "has always opposed any attempt to apply" a rule (Fishcrics,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 131), nor with that of one having
"repudiated" the relevant treaty (Asylum, Juclgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950,
p. 278).

In the light of al1 these facts and of the law, the real legal problem

with which the Court has been confronted is not that of the binding
effect of the equidistance rule upon the Federal Republic, for this is
established, but the question of whether there are special circumstanceswhich would justify a departure from it in the present cases. Indeed,
notwithstanding al1 that may have been alleged to the contrary, this is
the implicit burden of the Federal Republic's claim.
Are there in fact any special circumstances justifying a departure from
the equidistance rule? Within the meaning of Article 6, paragraph 2,
"special circumstances" is to be understood as constituting merely an
exception to the general rule. This should not be interpreted otherwise
than in a restrictive manner. Indications to this effect were given by the
International Law Commission: "As in the case of the boundaries of
coastal waters, provision must be made for departures necessitated by
any exceptional configuration of the coast, as well as the presence of
islands or navigable channels" (Yearbook of the International Law Com-
mission, 1953, Vol. II, p. 216, para. 82. Similar and other views were
expressed at the Geneva Conference). There is furthermore room for
the view that the presence of natural resources should not be over-

looked.
What are called "special circumstances" should at al1events rest on
sound criteria. The term should not be made subject to vague and
arbitrary interpretation (Conference on the Law of the Sea, 1958, OfJicial
Records, II, p. 93; VI, p. 91).

Nor should the concept of "special circumstances" be allowed to
substitute another rule for the equidistance rule. The provision should
be thus understood: that a special situation, created by "special circum-
stances" calls for a special, adhoc arrangement.

There must be, in other words, a combination of factual elements
creating a situation to ignore which would give rise to obvious hardship
or difficulties. Here, as elsewhere, the application of the rule, and the
admission of possible exceptions from it, cal1for a reasonable approach.
"Reasonableness" requires that the realities of a situation, as it affects

al1the Parties, be fully taken into account.
The mere fact thnt on the application of the equidistance rule the area
of continental shelf allotted to the Federal Republic would be smaller
than those of Denmark or the Netherlands does not create a qualitatively
anomalous situation such as could be regarded as a "special circum-
stance7'. For the area falling to the Federal Republic would not be
inconsiderable. Moreover, if the notion of "special circumstances" is to
be taken to imply a slanting reference to comparative bases, a much
wider spectrum of factors should be taken into account-e.g., the com-
parative wealth and economic potential of the States concerned.

The evidence produced in the cases before the Court is not in fact
sufficient toustify an exemption from the rule. It has not been shown
that its application would, on account of the bend in the coast, expose
the Federal Republic to any special hardship, impose upon it any undue240 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP. LACHS)

burdens or create for it any serious difficulties. Thus1 find no adequate
basis for exemption from the equidistance rule.

In the light of the grounds 1 have set forth,1 deem it unnecessary to
deal with the other issues raised by the three Parties, or the Submissions

made by them. In particular, the question of the combined effect of the
delimitations concerned in each respective case does not arise, as each
is to be determined on the basis of the equidistance rule.

1conclude that the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas
of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them
beyond the partial boundaries already determined by agreement is to

be carried out in accordance with the provisions of Article6,paragraph 2,
of the Geneva Convention of 1958, and in particular by the application
of the equidistance rule. There are no special circumstances whichjustify
anvd.e~arture from this rule.
To my great regret, therefore, 1am unable to concur in the reasoning
and conclusions of the Judgment.

(SignedM )anfred LACHS.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTJNG OPINION OF JUDGE LACHS

A disagreement has arisen concerning the delimitation of the continen-
tal shelf in the North Sea as between the Federal Republic of Germany
and the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The two States have succeeded in
reaching agreement only on the delimitation of the coastal continental
shelf and concluded on I December 1964 a convention to this effect.

They were, however, unable to agree on the further course of the bound-
ary, negotiations to that end having failed.
A similar situation has arisen between the Kingdom of Denmark and
the Federal Republic. They too concluded, on 9 June 1965,a convention
concerning the delimitation of the coastal continental shelf. The question
of the further boundary line has remained unresolved, as negotiations
to this end have proved unsuccessful.

Thiis important differences on the subject subsist and in orcier to
solve them the three States, by two Special Agreements, have requested
the Court to decide: "what principles and rules of international law are
applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the
continental shelf in the North Sea which appertaiil to each of them beyond
the partial boundary" determined by the Conventions of 1 December

1964 and 9 June 1965 respectively. They have further declared that they
shall delimit the continental shelf "by agreement in pursuance of the
decision requested from the International Court of Justice" (Article 1,
paragraph 2, of both Special Agreements).

In the light of these requests the Court is obviously faced with a
question of law. To that extent, its task is clear. To discharge it two
methodological approaches are possible: it can address itself directly

to the question of the law "applicable" "as between the Parties" or,
alternatively, ascertain in general if there exist any "principles and rules
of international law" on the subject, and, in the affirmative, decide as
to their applicability in the cases before it.
The latter approach may be justified in cases where the law is of very
recent origin and doubts may exist as to the real status of a principle
or rule. This is, indeed, the situation in the cases before the Court.

The need for a legal regulation of the exploration and exploitation of OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LACHS

Un désaccorda surgi au sujet de la délimitation du plateau continental
de la mer du Nord entre la République fédérale d'Allemagneet le Roy-
aume des Pays-Bas. Les deux Etats ne sont parvenus à un accord qu'en
ce qui concerne la délimitation du plateau continental côtier et ils ont

conclu une convention a ce sujet le 1" décembre 1964.Mais ils n'ont pu
s'entendre sur le prolongement dela ligne de délimitation,les négociations
entamées à cette fin ayant échoué.
Le Royaume du Danemark et la République fédérale sesont trouvés
dans une situation analogue. Ces deux Etats ont également conclu, le
9 juin 1965, une convention relative à la délimitation du plateau con-
tinental côtier. La question du prolongement de cette ligne de délimita-

tion n'a pas étéréglée, lesnégociations entreprises à cette fin s'étant
soldéespar un échec.
Ainsi des divergences importantes subsistent en la matière et, pour les
résoudre, les trois Etats ont demandé à la Cour, dans deux compromis,
de dire (1quels sont les principes et les règlesdu droit international ap-
plicables à la délimitation entre les Parties des zones du plateau con-
tinental de la mer du Nord relevant de chacune d'elles, au-delà de la
ligne de délimitation partiellel~ déterminée par les conventions du

1" décembre 1964 et du 9 juin 1965 respectivement. D'autre part, ils
ont déclaréqu'ils délimiteront le plateau continental (1par voie d'accord
conclu conformément à la décision demandée à la Cour internationale
de Justice )(art. 1, par. 2, des deux compromis).

D'après ces demandes, il est évidentque la Cour est appelée à trancher
un point de droit. Jusque-là sa tâche est claire. Pour s'en acquitter, la
Cour a le choix entre deux méthodes: elle peut soit étudier directement
la question du droit ((applicable ~entre les Parties 11,soit rechercher,

d'une façon générale,s'il existe des principes et des règles du droit
international 11à ce sujet et, dans l'affirmative, se prononcer sur leur ap-
plicabilitéaux affaires dont elle est saisie.
La deuxième méthode semble justifiée lorsque le droit est d'origine
très récenteet qu'il peut exister des doutes quant au statut réel d'un
principe ou d'une règle.Or telle est la situation en l'espèce.
La nécessitéd'une réglementation juridique en matière d'exploration219 CONTINENTALSHELF (DISS.OP. LACHS)

the continental shelf has only recently become imperati\,e as a result of
the great strides of technology, which have enabled iiian to reach out
for niany of the treasures so jealously guarded by nature. Thus tlie law
on the continental shelf is one of the newest chapters of international
law.

The point of departure for aiiy analysis of the issues in\.olved is the
Geneva Convention of 1958 on the Continental Shelf. Tlie question of
its applicability-and in particular of the applicability of its Article 6,
paragraph 2, dealing with determination of the boundary of the coii-
tinental shelf adiacent to the territories of two adiacent States-Ilas
dominated the wliole proceedings in the present cases: it was raised in

the written pleadiiigs and again in the course of tlie oral proceedings.
Thus it seeins only logical to deal with this issue first. hloreo~er, the
iieed to seek solutioiis outside Article 6, paragraph 2, or ci~itsidethe
Convention as a whole, will arise only if the reply as to their ripplicabiiity
is neeative.
u
The substance and meaning of Article 6, paragraph 2, are cletermined
by the interrelation of its three eleinents: agreement-equidistance-
special circumstances. To coiisider them iiithat ordei-:
(a) The paragrapli specifies that in the first place it is hy agreeineiit,

that the boundary is to be determincd. This does not inean. however,
that it imposes any more far-reaching obligation tlian tlie duty to nego-
tiate of which certain other instruments speak and which, as is well-
known, constitutes one of the general principles of contemporary inter-
national law. Thus this provision may not be coiistrued as imposing an
absolute obligation to reach agreement, but rather as emphasiring the

obligation to make every possible effort in tliat direction: tlie parties
concerned are to endeavour to resol\~etlieir differences round a conference
table.
It is, then, essential that they open negotiations. The substance of tlie
agreement is left to their discretion; they are perfectly f'reeto decide
on its basis and constituents. They may agree to üpply one of the otlier

two elements of Article 6, or find anotlier basis for deterniiiiing the
boundary. The law on the subject does not impose any restrictions upon
them except those that are essential in al1 negotiations; in other words,
al1 that is required is that the negotiations be conducted in good faith.
Hence the parties can niove within the general limits imposed by law.

(b) The second element of Article 6, paragraph 2, is that of equidis-
tance. The words "shall be determined" are used twice in that paragraph:
once in relation to the agreement between the parties, and a second time
providing for the application of equidistance "in the absence of agree-
ment". This latter term obviously refers to two situations: either the

failure of negotiations or the fact that none took place. For one cati
very well imagine that two neighbouring States may not even enter into
negotiations; there may be coinpelling reasons which prevent both, oret d'exploitation du plateau continental ne s'est imposéeque récemment
i la suite des énormesprogrès de la technique qui ont rendu accessibles
à l'homme nombre des trésors si jalousement gardés par la nature. Le
droit relatif au plateau continental est ainsi l'un des chapitres les plus
nouveaux du droit :international.
Pour analyser le:; problèmes en jeu, il faut partir de la Convention

de Genèvede 1958 :surle plateau continental. La question de l'applicabi-
litéde la Convention, en particulier de l'applicabilité du paragraphe 2
de son article 6, qui a trait à la délimitation du plateau continental ad-
jacent aux territoires de deux Etats limitrophes, a dominétoute l'affaire,
que ce soit dans la procédure écriteou dansla procédure orale. Il semble
donc logique d'examiner cette question en premier, d'autant que la
nécessitéde rechercher des solutions en dehors du paragraphe 2 de
l'article6 ou en dehors de la Convention dans son ensemble ne se présen-

tera que si l'on répond par la négative à la question de l'applicabilité.

Lecontenu et lesens du paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 sont déterminéspar
les rapports qui existent entre ses trois éléments: accord - équidistance -
circonstances spéciales,élémentsque l'on examinera successivement:

a) Le paragraphe en question stipule que c'est en priorité par voie
d'accord que la dél.imitationdoit être déterminée. Cela ne signifie pas,
cependant, qu'il impose une obligation dépassant celle de négocier,qui
est énoncéedans d'autres instruments et qui constitue comme chacun
sait un des principes générauxdu droit international contemporain.
Cette disposition nie peut donc êtreinterprétéecomme imposant une
obligation absolue d'aboutir à un accord, mais plutôt comme mettant
en relief l'obligation de déployertous les efforts possibles en ce sens: les

parties doivent s'efforcer de résoudreleurs différendsautour d'une table
de conférence.
II est donc essentiel qu'elles ouvrent des négociations. Le contenu de
l'accord est laissé ii leur discrétion; elles sont parfaitement libres d'en
déterminer le fondemept et les élémentsconstitutifs. Elles peuvent con-
venir d'appliquer l'un des deux autres éléments de l'article 6, ou trouver
une autre base pour déterminer la limite. Dans ce domaine, le droit ne
leur impose aucune restriction, si ce n'est cellesqui sont de l'essence de

toute négociation; autrement dit, tout ce qui est exigé, c'estque les négo-
ciations soient menéesde bonne foi. Les parties sont donc libres à l'inté-
rieur des limites généralesqu'impose le droit.
b) Le deuxième élémentdu paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 est celui de
l'équidistance. On a utilisédans ce paragraphe les mots Iest déterminée
par 1)à propos de l'accord entre les parties, et (s'opèrepar 1s'agissant de
l'application du principe de l'équidistance «à défaut d'accord 1)[en
anglais: ((shall be determined 1)dans les deux cas]. Il est évidentque l'ex-

pression e lidéfautd'accord 1recouvre deux situations: échecdes négocia-
tions ou absence de négociations. En effet, on peut mêmefort bien ima-
giner que deux Etats voisins puissent ne pas entamer de négociations,parone of them, from doing so. Should the boundary in such event ren~ain
uncertain, with al1the resulting inconveniences, or even risks? There is
no juridical basis for such an inference. Equidistance is also applicable
if there are no "special circumstances" justifying another solution.

Not only the text but also the discussion that took place in the Inter-
national Law Commission should dispel al1doubts as to the true bearing

of the notion of equidistance. When the Special Rapporteur suggested
the addition of the words "as a general rule", one of the members of
the Commission (Lauterpacht) opposed it as "it was at least arguable
that they deprived the rule of its legal character". He argued that "No
judge or arbitrator could interpret a text so worded, because any party
to a dispute could always argue that its case did iiot fa11within the general
rule, but formed an exception to it". It was then that the words "unless
special circumstances should justify ... [another] delimitation" were
introduced. They were linked with the deletion of the words "as a rule".
And the chairman made the point quite clear by stating that the amend-
ment "stressed the exceptions rather than the rule" (Yearbook of the
Ii~terrtutionnlLaw Comniissiori, 1953, Vol. 1, pp. 128, 131, 133). The
intention of the drafters is further elucidated in the commentary of the
Commission :

"The rule thus proposed is subject to such modifications as may
be agreed upon by the parties. Moreover, while ... the rule of
equidistance is the geiieralrule, it is subject to modification in cases
in which another boundary line is justified by special circum-
stances." (Yearbook of the International Lniv Cotnmissioti, 1953,
Vol. II, p. 216, para.82.)

The decision taken at the Geneva Conference is based on the conclu-
sions of the International Law Commission. The rejection of the Vene-
zuelan amendment ("the boundary of the continental shelf appertaining
to such States shall be determined by agreement between them or by
other means recogiiized by international law") deinonstrated the deter-

mination of States to accept a clear and definitive rule; no uncertainty
was to be allowed on the subject. In no way did it affect the basic concept
of what was to become Article 6 of the Convention.
(c) In the logical order 1 ought now to deal with the third element
of Article 6, paragraph 2, namely "special circuinstances". However,
this being ail exception to the general rul1,shall dwellon its applicability
at a later stage.suite de raisons impérieusesqui empêchentl'un et l'autre, ou encore l'un
ou l'autre de le faire. La limite devra-t-elle en pareil cas rester incertaine,
avec tous les inconvénients, ou mêmeles risques, que cela comporte?
On ne peut trouver aucun fondement juridique à pareille conclusion.
L'équidistance est aussiapplicable s'iln'y a pas de «circonstances spécia-

lesl~qui justifient une autre solution.
Tous les doutes concernant la portée véritable de la notion d'équi-
distance devraient êtredissipésnon seulement par le texte, mais aussi
par la discussion qui a eu lieu au sein de la Commission du droit inter-
national. Lorsque le rapporteur spécial a proposé d'ajouter les mots
((en règle générale 1,un des membres de la Commission (Lauterpacht)
s'est élevécontre l'adjonction de ces mots en déclarant: (on peut soutenir

non sans quelque apparence de raison qu'ils retirent tout caractère juri-
dique à la disposition 11Il a fait valoir qu'«aucun juge, aucun arbitre ne
pourrait interpréter un texte ainsi rédigéparce qu'une partie à un diffé-
rend pourrait toujours soutenir que son cas ne rentre pas dans la règle
généraleet constitue une exception 1).C'est alors que les mots (à moins
que des circonstances spécialesne justifient une autre délimitation ont

étéintroduits. Ilsétaientliés à la suppression des mots (en règlegénérale 11.
Le président abien mis les choses au point en précisant à propos de cette
modification qu'elle ((insiste sur les exceptions plutôt que sur la règle
même )l(Yearbook de la Commission du droit international, 1953,vol. 1,
p. 128, 131, 133). L'intention des rédacteurs est encore élucidéepar le
commentaire de la Commission du droit international:

(Ln règle ainsi proposée peut êtremodifiéepar accord entre les
parties. Au surplus si ... les limites sont déterminées,en général,
par la règlede l'équidistance, des modifications peuvent êtreappor-

tées à cette rt;gle lorsque des circonstances spéciales justifient le
tracé d'une autre limite. 11(Yearbook de la Commission du droit
international, 1953,vol. 11,p. 216,par. 82.)[Textefrançais dans: Rop-
port de la Com~mission du droit international, 1953, par. 82, p. 16.1

La décision prise à la conférence de Genève est fondée sur les con-
clusions de la Commission du droit international. Le rejet de l'amende-
ment du Venezuela ((cla délimitation du plateau continental entre ces
Etats est déterminéepar accord entre ces Etats ou par les autres moyens
admis en droit international 11)montre que les Etats étaient résolus à

accepter une règle claireet définitivequi ne laisserait place à aucune in-
certitude 1ice sujet. L'idéede base du texte qui allait devenir l'article 6
de la Convention n'en a aucunement été atteinte.
c) Logiquement, je devrais traiter à présent du troisième élémentdu
paragraphe 2 de l'article 6à savoir les Kcirconstances spéciales 1,Cepen-
dant, comme il s7a.gitd'une exception à la règle générale,j'examinerai
Ia question de son applicabilité à un stade ultérieur. These clarifications seem to go to the essence of the matter. Their
purpose, as suggested above, is to elicit thetrue significanceof the notion
of equidistance within the framework of Article 6, while placing the
latter in its true perspective and establishing its proper relationship to
Articles 1and 2 of the Comention.
For, in cases "where the sanle continental shelf is adjacent to the
territories of two adjacent States", thus where a boundary problenl
arises, the exercise of the rights defined in Article 2 is conditioned (if
not wholly, certainly in some degree) by the application of Article 6,
paragraph 2. One may therefore view it as laying down the rules con-
cerning the implementation of Article 2 in specific circumstances. To
this extent it has an inescapable impact on Article 2.

Having analysed what to my mind is the real meaning and scope of
the notion of equidistance, I do not propose to dwell on its virtues or
advantages. It may sufficeto say that it is practical and concrete. It thus
qualifies as a rule, and 1shall henceforth so term it. It is admitted that
no other principle or rule of delimitation partakes of the same facility
and convenience of application and certainty of results. At this stage
1 would merely add that by the entry into force of the Convention on the
Continental Shelf the equidistance rule has become part of the treaty
law on the subject.

Only two States (the Kingdom of Denmark and the Kingdom of the
Netherlands) appearing before the Court in the present cases are parties
to the Convention. The Federal Republic, not haviiig ratified it, is not

contractually bound by it. In fact no claim in that sense has been ad-
vanced.
The question which arises, therefore, is whether the rules expressed
in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention of 1958 on the
Continental Shelf have acquired a wider status, so as to be applicable
to States not parties to the Convention, in particular whether they were
susceptible of becoming and have in fact become part of general inter-
national law.
Both these contentions have been advanced, and both have been de-
nied. To substantiate these denials the history of the Article has been in-
voked. Special stress is laid on the facts that hesitations accompanied the
adoption of the equidistance rule, that other possible solutions were dis-
cussed and that the equidistance rule was adopted only at a later stage,
on the basis of non-legal considerations. PLKTEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS.LACHS) 22 1

Ces explications me paraissent aller au fond du problème. Elles ont
pour but, comme on l'a indiquéplus haut, de mettre en lumièrela portée
véritable de la notion d'équidistance dans le cadre de I'article 6, en
pla~ant cet article sous son vrai jour et en précisant ses rapports exacts
avec les articles 1et2 de la Convention.
En effet, «dans lc cas où un mêmeplateau continental est adjacent
aux territoires de deux Etats limitrophes 11,c'est-à-dire lorsque se pose
un problème de délimitation, l'exercice des droits définis à l'article 2
est conditionné (sinon entièrement, en tout cas dans une certaine mesure)
par l'application du paragraphe 2 de l'article 6. On peut donc considérer

que ce paragraphe énonceles règlesrelatives à l'application de l'article 2
dans des circonstances particulières. Dans cette mesure, il a inévitable-
ment une incidence sur l'article 2.
Ayant ainsi analysé ce qui me paraît êtrela signification et la portée
véritables de la notion d'équidistance, je n'ai pas l'intention d'insister
sur ses vertus ou ses avantages. Il suffira de dire qu'elle est pratique et
concrète. Elle peut donc êtreconsidéréecomme une règle, et c'est ainsi
que je la qualifierai désormais. On a admis qu'aucun autre principe ni
aucune autre règlen'offrait la mêmefacilitéet la mêmecommodité d'ap-
plication, ni lamêmecertitude dans les résultats. A ce stade, j'ajouterai
simplement que, du fait de l'entréeen vigueur de la Convention sur le
plateau continental, la règle de l'équidistance est devenue partie inté-

grante du droit conventionnel en la matière.

Sur les trois Etiits Parties aux présentes affaires, deux seulement
(le Royaume du Danemark et le Royaume des Pays-Bas) sont parties à la
Convention. La Républiquefédérale nel'ayant pas ratifiée, la Convention
ne la lie pas contractuellement. D'ailleurs, nul n'a prétendu que cela fût
le cas.

Par conséquent, la question qui se pose est celle de savoir si les règles
énoncéesau paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la Convention de Genève de
1958 sur le plateau continental ont acquis une portéeplus large les ren-
dant applicables àdes Etats non parties à la Convention, et si, en parti-
culier, elles étaient susceptibles de devenir, et sont en fait devenues,
partie intégrante du droit international général.
Ces deux thèses ont été soutenues,et les deux se sont vu opposer des
dénégations.A l'appui de ces dénégations, l'ona invoqué l'historique
de l'article en question. On a insistéparticulièrement,à cet égard, sur les
hésitations qui ont accompagné l'adoption de la règlede l'équidistance,
sur le fait que d'autres solutions ont étéenvisagées,et sur le fait que la
règle de l'équidistance n'a étéadoptée qu'à un stade ultérieur en vertu
de considérations non juridiques. True as these facts may be, they are not conclusive. They constitute
but part of the history, above referred to, of how Article 6, paragraph 2,
came into being. Doubts and hesitations did exist. But is the same not
true of many new rules of law? Even in science, a successful experiment
is frequently greeted with suspicion. Some laws of nature, self-evident
today, were once viewed as heresy. How much more is this true in the
sphere of man-made law, and in particular when a new chapter of law
is brought into being?

It is al1 to the credit of the International Law Commission that it
discussed the issues involved in Article 6 at such length before adopting
its final text. Meanwhile the comments of governments were invited and
received. In fact it took three years (from 1953 to 1956) until that text

was finalized and submitted to the General Assembly of the United
Nations. It passed through al1 the stages contemplated by the Statute
of the International Law Commission for its work in implementation
ofArticle 13,paragraph 1 (a), of the Charter. At the Geneva Conference
itself it was thesubject of further discussion-before being finally voted
into the Convention.
Even if it be conceded that the Committee of Experts, in which the
equidistance rule originated, was guided by considerations of practical
convenience and cartography, this can have no effecton its legal validity.
There are scores of rules of law in the formation of which non-Iegal 2.
factors have played an important part. Whenever law is confronted with
facts of nature or technology, its solutions must rely on criteria derived
from them. For law is intended to resolve problems posed by such facts
and it is herein that the link between law and the realities of life is

manifest. It is not legal theory which provides answers to such problems;
al1it does is to select and adapt the one which best serves its purposes,
and integrate it within the framework of law. This, for example, is how
mediumfilum aquae has been recognized as the boundary rule for non-
navigable rivers, and the rule of the "talweg" for navigable rivers dividing
two States. Geography, likewise, lies at the basis of the rules concerning
bays (Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Territorial Sea).
Many illustrations can be derived from other chapters of international
law.

Nor can the insertion of the primary obligation to determine the
boundary by agreement cast doubt on the character of the provision.
It is true that this general principle of international law is not normally
stated. Yet one can find a similar stipulation in the Projet de Convention

sur la Navigation des Fleuves Internationaux drafted 90 years ago:
"In the absence of any stipulation to the contrary, the frontier of States
separated by a river corresponds to the talweg, i.e., the median line of
the channel" [translation bythe Registry] (Engelhardt, Du régime conven-
tionnel desflezr~~eisnternationaux, Paris, 1879,pp. 228 f.). Reference may Ces faits, pour véridiques qu'ils puissent être,ne sont pas concluants.
Ils ne rendent compte que partiellement de la genèse,évoquéeci-dessus,
du paragraphe 2 de l'article 6. Certes, des doutes et des hésitationsse sont
manifestés,mais ne pourrait-on en dire autant de bien des règlesde droit
nouvelles? Mêmedans le domaine scientifique, une expérience réussie
est souvent accueillie avec scepticisme. Certaines lois de la nature, par-
faitement évidentes aujourd'hui, ont étéd'abord qualifiées d'hérésie.
A plus forte raison en va-t-il ainsi de lois d'origine humaine, el1particulier
lorsqu'il s'agit de la naissance d'un chapitre nouveau du droit.
Il est toutà l'honneur de la Commission du droit international de
s'êtrepenchée aussilonguement sur les problèmes que posait l'article 6
avant d'en adopter le texte définitif,cependant qu'elle sollicitait et rece-

vait les observations des gouvernements. En fait, il a fallu trois ans (de
1953 à 1956) pour rnettre le texte au point et le présenter a l'Assemblée
générale desNations Unies. Il a passépar tous les stades prévusdans le
statut de la Commission du droit international pour ses travaux visant
à mettre en Œuvre l'article 13, paragraphe 1 a), de la Charte. A la con-
férencede Genève même,ce texte a fait l'objet de nouvelles discussions,
avant que la Convention ne soit finalement votée.
Même si l'on admet que le comité d'experts, qui est à l'origine de la
règle de l'équidistance, s'estinspiré de considérations d'opportunité
pratique et de cartographie, cela n'ôte rienà la validitéjuridique de cette
règle.Il existe des dizaines de règlesde droit dans la formation desquelles

des facteurs non juridiques ont joué un rôle important. Lorsque le droit
se heurte à des faits imposéspar la nature ou la technique, les solutions
qu'il propose doivent répondre à des critères qui en procèdent. Car le
droit est destiné à résoudre les problèmes poséspar ces faits et c'est en
cela que le lienentri: le droit et les réalités dela vie est manifeste. Ce n'est
pas la théorie juridique qui offre une réponseà ces problèmes; elle ne fait
que choisir et adapter celIe qui sert le mieux ses fins et l'intégrerdans le
cadre du droit. C'est ainsi, par exemple, que lemediumJilum aquae a été
accepté comme règle de délimitation pour les fleuves non navigables,
et la règledu ((thalweg )pour les fleuves navigables séparant deux Etats.
C'est égalementla géographiequi est à la base des règlesconcernant les
baies (art.7, par. 2, de la convention sur la mer territoriale). On pourrait

citer encore bien des exemples tirés d'autres domaines du droit inter-
national.
Le fait d'avoir prévu l'obligation primordiale de déterminer la délimi-
tation par voie d'accord ne saurait davantage jeter un doute sur le carac-
tère de la disposition en question. Il est exact que, le plus souvent, ce
principe général di1 droit international n'est pas énoncé.On trouve
cependant une stipulation analogue dans le projet de convention sur la
navigation des fleuves internationaux, établiil y a quatre-vingt-dix ans:
([A moins de stipulations contraires, la frontière des Etats séparéspar
un fleuve est marquéepar le thalweg, c'est-à-dire par la ligne médianedu
chenal. »(Engelharclt, Du régimeconventionneldesjleui9es internationaux,223 COXTINENT.4LSHELF (DISS. OP. LACHS)

also be made to the provisions of Article 12 of the Geneva Convention
onthe Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone.

It is also stated that the faculty of making reservations to Article 6,
provided by Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Convention, while not
preventing the equidistance rule from becoming general law, creates
considerable difficulties in tliis respect. Here we touch the very essence
of the institution of reservations. There can be little doubt that its birth
and development have been closely linked with the change in the process
of elaboration of multilateral treaties, the transition from the unanimity
to the majority rule at international conferences.

This new institution reflected a new historical tendency towards a
greater rapprochement and CO-operationof States and it was intended
to serve this piirpose by opening the door to the participation in treaties
of the greatest possible nuniber of States. Within this process, reserva-
tions were not intended to undermine well-established and existing
principles and rules of international law, nor to jeopardize the object

of the treaty in question. Thus they could not imply an unlirnited right
to exclude or vary essential provisions of that treaty. Otherwise, instead
of serving international CO-operationthe new institution would hamper
it by reducing the substance of some treaties to mere formality.

Such was, indeed, the viewof this Court when it stated that "the object
and purpose of the Convention thus limit both the freedon~of making
reservations and that of objecting to them" (Rcservations to the Conven-
tion on t/w Prcvcntion andYunislltn~nt of the Critne of Genocide, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 24).
These considerations apply to al1multilateral treaties, the Convention
on the Continental Shelf being no exception. Special attention should
be drawn to the fact that it reflects elements of codification and pro-
gressive development of international law, both closely interwoven.

As for Article 6, paragraph 2, the right to make reservations is deter-
mined by the three eleinents of which it is composed. First: can a reserva-
tion be made to the provision that the boundary of the continental shelf
"shall be determined by agreement between" the States concerned? Can
any State contract out of the obligation to seek agreement by consent?
Obviously not, for, as was indicated earlier, this stipulation should be
read as the application ad caszrm of a general obligation of States.

Can the reservation apply to the remaining part of the paragraph?
In view of a special situation a State may claim that in the relationship
between rule (equidistance line) and exception (special circumstances)
the latter should prevail. It may also be that a State recording a reserva-
tion aims at the exclusion of "special circumstances" and thus states itsParis, 1879, p. 228.) Mentionnons aussi à cet égard les dispositions de
l'article 13de la convention de Genève sur la mer territoriale et la zone
contiguë.
On a dit égalementque la faculté d'apporter des réserves à l'article 6,
prévueau paragraplne 1de l'article 12 de la Convention, sans empêcher
la règle del'équidistance de devenirdu droit général, crée des difficultés

considérables à cet égard. Nous touchons là à l'essence mêmede I'ins-
titution des réserves.II ne fait guère de doute que la naissance et l'évolu-
tion de cette institution ont étéétroitement liéesau changement inter-
venu dans le processus d'élaboration des traités multilatéraux, c'est-à-
dire au remplacement de la règlede l'unanimitépar la règlede la majorité
dans les conférencesinternationales.
Cette nouvelle institution, qui reflétait unetendance historique nou-
velle vers une coopilration et un rapprochement accrus entre les Etats,
visait à permettre au plus grand nombre possible d'Etats de devenir

parties à des traités. Cependant, les réserves nedevaient pas avoir pour
but de porter atteinte à des principes et des règles existants et bien
établisdu droit international ou de faire échec àl'objet du traitéen cause.
Elles ne pouvaient donc impliquer un droit illimitéd'exclure ou de mo-
difier des clispositions essentielles de ce traité. Si cela avait étéle cas,
loin de servir la cause de la coopération internationale, la nouvelle ins-
titution y aurait mis obstacle en réduisant certains traités à des actes de
pure forme.

Tel était d'ailleurs l'avis de la Cour actuelle lorsqu'elle a déclaré:
11I'objet et le but de [la Convention] assignent [ainsi] des limites tanà la
liberté d'apporter cles réserves qu'à celle d'y objecter ))(Réserves à la
conventio~rpour la pr6vetztion et la répressiondu crime de génocide, avis
cotzsultatifC.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 24).
Ces considérationiss'appliquent à tous les traités multilatéraux, et la
Conventiori sur le plateau continental ne fait pas exception. Il convient
de relever tout particulièrement, à cet égard,le fait qu'elle renferme des
éléments de codificationet des élémentsde développement progressif

du droit international, qui sont intimement liés.
Pour ce qui est du paragraphe 2 de I'article 6, le droit de formuler des
réserves dépend des trois élémentsqui le composent. Tout d'abord,
une réserve peut-elleêtrefaite à la disposition selon laquelle la limite du
plateau continental Iest déterminéepar accord 1entre les Etats intéressés?
Un Etat peut-il se dégager de l'obligation de rechercher un accord?
Evidemmetit non, ciir cette disposition, ainsi qu'on l'a vu plus haut, doit
êtreinterprétée corrime l'application ad casum d'une obligation générale
des Etats.

La réserve peut-elles'appliquer au reste du paragraphe? Devant une
situation spéciale,un Etat peut prétendreque,dansla relation entrela règle
(ligne d'équidistance) et l'exception (circonstances spéciales),cette der-
nièredoit l'emporter. Un Etat peut aussi, en formulant une réserve, viser
à exclure les (circoristances spéciales1)et se déclarer ainsiopposé à touteopposition to any exception from the rule. No better proof can be offered
that the possibilities of reservation are limited to these two than the
practice of States.Such was, indeed, the object of the reservations made

by Venezuela and France on the onehand (a special definition of "special
circumstances" is reflected in the reservation made by Iran). On the other
hand the reservation made by Yugoslavia shows the desire to strengthen
the rule by excluding any exceptions to it. (But even here the scope of
the reservations is not unlimited, as objections to some of them indicate.)

These considerations lead to the conclusion that the very substance
of paragraph 2 of Article 6 does not admit of reservations which purport
"to exclude ... the legal effects" of its provisions, but only of those
which may "vary" those legal effects (Draft Articles of the Law of
Treaties, Article 2).
The right to make reservations to Article6couldnot have been intended
as creating an unlimited freedom of action of the parties to the Con-
vention. This would have opened the door to making it wholly ineffective,
with the obvious result of creating a serious loophole in the Convention.
This is confirmed by the practice, covering as it does a period of ten
years.
This practice:

(a) constitutes important evidence as to the interpretation of the faculty
to make reservations to Article 6;
(b) indicates that the provisions of Article 6have beengenerally accepted
without reservation by the parties to the Convention.

As to the wider issue, there is evidence that reservations made to
iniportai~t law-making or codifying conventions have not prevented their
provisionsfrom beinggenerallyaccepted as law. Five Statesmade reserva-
tions to the Fourth Hague Convention (1907),yet the principles it incor-
porated have with the passage of time become part of general inter-
national law, binding upon al1States.

The Geneva Convention on the High Seas is another case in point.
Ttcontains no clause expressly permitting reservations, but neither does
it follow the example of the Convention on Slavery of 7 September 1956
(Article 9) and prohibit them. In fact, more reservations have been
made to it than to the Continental Shelf Convention. Yet the Geneva
Convention on the High Seas is obviously a codifying instrument par
excellence: its Preamble speaks of "desiring to codify the rules" and
describes the ensuing provisions as "generally declaratory of established
principles of international law".

The Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of
Nationality Laws, signed at The Hague on 12 April 1930 (League of
Nations Treaty Series, Vol. 179, pp. 91-113, No. 4137), was, to use itsexception à la règle. On ne saurait fournir de meilleure preuve que la
pratique des Etats pour démontrer que les possibilités de réserves se
limitent à ces deux hypothèses. Tel étaitbien d'ailleurs l'objet desréserves
faites par le Venezuela et la France d'une part (la réserveformuléepar

l'Iran traduit une conception particulière des ((circonstances spéciales II),
et par la Yougoslavie d'autre part, la réservede cette dernière indiquant
le désirde renforcer la règle enexcluant toute exception. (Mêmedans ce
cas, cependant, la portée des réserves n'est pas illimitée, comme en
témoignent les objections qui ont été faites à certaines d'entre elles.)
Ces considératioris permettent de conclure qu'en raison de sa sub-
stance même,le paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 n'est pas susceptible de
réserves visant ((à exclure ... l'effet juridique)) de ses dispositions;

seules sont admissibles celles qui pourraient ICmodifier 1cet effetjuridique
(projet d'articles sur le droit des traités, art..
Le droit de faire des réserves àl'article 6 ne pouvait avoir pour but de
donner aux parties ;ila Convention une libertéd'action illimitée, cequi
aurait ôté toute efficacité à l'article et aurait évidemment entraîné une
grave lacune dans la Convention.
Cela se trouve confirmépar la pratique, qui s'étendsur une périodede
dix ans.
Cette pratique:

a) constitute un élément depreuve important pour l'interprétation de la
facultéde faire des réserves à l'article 6;
b) montre que les dlispositions de l'article 6 ont été généralement accep-

téessans réservepar les parties à la Convention.
D'un point de vue plus général, onconstate que les réservesapportées
à diverses conventions normatives ou de codification importantes n'ont
pas empêché leurs dispositions d'être généralemea ntceptées comme

étant le droit. Cinq Etats ont fait des réserves à la quatrième convention
de La Haye (1907), irtpourtant les principes qu'elle énonce sont devenus,
avec le temps, partie intégrante du droit international général s'imposant
à tous les Etats.
La convention de Genève sur la haute mer fournit un autre exemple
en ce sens. Elle ne (contient aucune disposition autorisant expressément
les réserves, mais elle n'en renferme non plus aucune qui les interdise,
à la différencede la1convention relative à l'esclavage en date du 7 sep-

tembre 1956(art. 9). D'ailleurs, elle a fait l'objet de plus de réservesque
la Convention sur le plateau continental. Or, la convention de Genève
sur la haute mer est de toute évidenceun instrument de codification par
excellence: son préambule commence par les mots (désireux decodifier
les règles11et précise:que les dispositions qui y sont contenues ((sont pour
l'essentiel déclaratoires de principes établisdu droit international 1).
La convention concernant certaines questions relatives aux conflits de
lois sur la nationalité, signée à La Haye le 12 avril 1930 (Sociétédes
Nations, Recueil des traités,vol. 179, p. 90 à 112, no 4137), était, pourown words, "a first attempt at progressive codification" (Preamble,
para. 4) in that field. Yet its Article 20 authorized reservations to all
of its substantive provisions. After a lapse of over 38 years, no more
than 14 States are parties to it-with six reservations and two declara-

tions. This notwithstanding, this Court has relied on the practice based,
iïiter aliuon its provisions (Articles 1 and 5), even though the parties
to the case were not parties to the Convention (Rioitcbohm,St.cori~P f hascp,
Judgmerits, I.C.J. Reports 1955, pp. 22 f.). It was also relied upon by
the ItalianIUnited States Conciliation Comn~ission (Mcrigk claim (I.L.R.,
22 (1955), p. 450) and also Fl~gctihcinr~~ claim (I.L.R., 25 (1958-l),

p. 149)).
A further illustration is provided by Article 20 of the United Nations
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
adopted by the General Assembly on 21 December 1965: the new test
therein introduced concerning the incompatibility of reservations with
the object and purpose of the Convention has no bearing on the principle
itself.
To surnmarize the foregoing observations: from the nianner in which

the Convention as a whole was prepared, from its obvious purpose to
become universally accepted, froni the structure and clear meaning of
Article 6, paragraph 2, as a whole, from the genesis of the equidistance
rule and from the fact that it has been enshrined in no less than four
provisions of three conventions signed in Geneva in 1958,I find it difficult
to infer that it was proposed by the International Law Coinmission in
an impromptu and contingent manner or on an experimental basis, and

adopted by the Geneva Conference on that understanding. Nor is there
anything-including Article 12-that can disqualify the equidistance rule
from becoming a rule of general law or constitute an obstacle to that
process. Furthermore, there are no other known factors which may
have had this effect.

III

Tt is generally recognized that provisions of international instruments
may acquire the status of general rules of international law. Even un-
ratified treaties may constitute a point of departure for a legal practice.
Treaties binding many States are,afortiori, capable of producing this
effect, a phenomenon not unknown in international relations.

1shall therefore now endeavour to ascertain whether the transformation
of the provisions of Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention
on the Continental Shelf, and in particular the equidistance rule, into
generally accepted law has in fact taken place. This calls for an analysis
of State practice, of the time factor, and of what is traditionally under-
stood to constitute opiniojuris. reprendre les termes mêmesqui y figurent, un ((premier essai de codifica-
tion progressive )](priambule, 4" al.) dans ce domaine. Son article 20
autorisait cependant les réservesà toutes les dispositions de fond. Après
plus de trente-huit ans, quatorze Etats seulement y sont parties - avec
six réserveset deux déclarations. Malgrétout, la Cour actuelle a tenu
compte de la pratique fondée, notamment, sur les dispositions de cette
convention (art. 1et :5)bien que lesparties àl'affairene fussent pasparties

àla convention (affaire Nottebohrn, deuxièmepllase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1955, p. 22-23). La commission de conciliation ItaliejEtats-Unis l'a
également prise en considération (affaire Merigé [I.L.R., 22 (1955),
p. 4501et affaire Flegenheimer [I.L.R., 25 (1958-I), p. 1491).
Un exemple suppl~tmentaireest fourni par l'article 20 de la convention
des Nations Unies sur l'éliminationde toutes lesformes de discrimination
raciale, adoptéepar l'Assembléegénéralele21décembre1965:le nouveau
critère introduit dan!;cette disposition, qui concerne l'incompatibilité des
réserves avec l'objetet le but de la convention, n'a pas d'incidence sur le
principe lui-même.
Pour résumerles cibservations qui précèdent:si l'on considère la façon
dont la Convention dans son ensemble a étéélaborée, l'intention mani-
feste de ses auteurs de la voir universellement adoptée, la structure et la

signification sans éqi~ivoquedu paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 dans son en-
semble, la genèse dela règlede l'équidistance,et le fait que cette règlea
été consacréedans quatre dispositions des trois conventions signées à
Genkve en 1958,je crois qu'il est difficiledeconclure qu'ellea étéproposée
par la Comnlission du droit international à titre expérimental ou de
manière improviséeet contingente et que la conférence de Genève l'a
adoptéedans cet esprit. Rien non plus - pas même l'article12 - n'inter-
dit àla règlede l'équidistance de devenir une règlede droit général nine
fait obstacleà ce processus. Par ailleurs, on ne connaît pas d'autres fac-
teurs qui aient pu avoir cet effet.

III

On reconnaît gén'éralementque les dispositions d'instruments inter-
nationaux peuvent a.cquérirle statut de règles généralesdu droit inter-
national. Même destraités non ratifiéspeuvent constituer le point de
départ d'une pratique juridique. A plus forte raison des traités liant un
grand nombre dlEtaits sont-ils capables de produire cet effet, phénomène
qui n'est pas inconnu dans les relations internationales.
Je me propose donc maintenant de déterminer s'ily a eu effectivement
transformation des dispositions du paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la Con-
vention de Genèvc sur le platzau continental, notamment de la règlede
l'équidistance,en droit généralementaccepté.Pour cela, il est nécessaire
de procéder àune analyse de la pratique des Etats, du facteur temps, et de
ce qui est traditionnellement considérécomme constituant l'opiniojuris. Ten years have elapsed since the Convention on tiie Continental Shelf
was signed, and 39 States are today parties to it.
Delay in the ratification of and accession to multilateral treaties is
a well-known phenornenon in contemporary treaty practice. (According
to a recent study conducted by the United Nations Institute for Training
and Research, 55 out of 179 multilateral treaties in respect of which
the Secretary-General of the United Nations performs depositary func-
tions had received an average of only about 27 per cent. of possible
acceptances.) It is self-evident that in many cases substiiiiti\~ereasons
are at the root of these delays. However, experience indicates that in
most cases they are caused by factors extraneous to the substance and
objective of the instrument in question. Often the slowness and inherent
complication of constitutional procedures, the need for interdepartmental

consultations and co-ordination, are responsible (lack of ratification
does not, however, prevent States from applying the provisions of such
conventions). Frequently, again, there is procrastination, due to the
lack of any sense of urgency, or of immediate interest in the problems
dealt with by the treaty, for so long as there are other important issues
to deal with. This may be illustrated by a cornparison between the Con-
vention on Diplornatic Relations (signed at Vienna on 24 April 1961)
and the Convention on the High Seas (signed at Geneva on 29 April
1958). Both are eminently instruments which codify existing law. Yet
the first, within a period of about seven years, had received 77 ratifica-
tions, accessions or notifications of succession, while after a lapse of
ten years only 42 States had become parties to the latter. The reasons
seem self-evident: the Convention on Diplornatic Relations is of direct,
daily interest for every State. It took ten years for an instrument codifying
existing law, the Convention on the Prevention and Repression of the
Crime of Genocide (adopted by the General Assembly of the United

Nations on 9 Deceinber 1948),to obtain 59 ratifications and accessions,
while by the end of 1967-20 years after its adoption-71 States had
become parties to it.

These overlong delays in ratification and their causes, not related to
the substance of the instruments concerned, are factors for which due
allowance has to be made.
1 may have dwelt on this point at excessive length. 1 have done so
because it is relevant to the issue now before the Court. For it indicates
that the number of ratifications and accessions cannot, in itself, be
considered coi~clusivewith regard to the general acceptance of a given
instrument.
In the case of the Convention on the Continental Shelf, there are
other elements that must be given their due weight. In particular, 31
States came into existence during the period between its signature (28
June 1958)and its entry into force (IOJune 1964),while 13other nations
have since acceded to independence. Thus the time during which these PLA'TEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. LACHS) 226

Dix ans se sont écoulésdepuis la signature de la Convention sur le
plateau continental et 39 Etats y sont aujourd'hui parties.
Le retard avec lequel se produisent la ratification des traités multi-
latéraux et l'adhésion à ces traités est un phénomènebien connu dans la
pratique contemporaine en la matière. (Selon uneétude récenteentreprise
par l'Institut de formation et de recherche des Nations Unies, sur les

179 traités multilatéraux à l'égard desquels le Secrétaire généralde
l'organisation des 'Nations Unies exerce les fonctions de dépositaire,
55 n'ont reçu en moyenne que 27% des acceptations possibles.) Bien
entendu, ce retard s'explique dans de nombreux cas par des raisons de
fond. Cependant, l'expériencemontre qu'il est dû le plus souvent à des

facteursétrangersau contenu et à l'objectif de l'instrument intéressé.Ilest
fréquemment attribuable à la lenteur et i la complication inhérentes aux
procédures constitu-tionnelles, à la nécessitéde consultations et d'une
coordination intermiinistérielles(ledéfaut de ratification n'empêchetoute-
fois pas les Etats d'a,ppliquer lesdispositions de ces conventions). Souvent

aussi, le retard vient de ce que les Etats n'éprouvent pas de sentiment
d'urgence, ou d'intérêt immédiap tour les problèmes qui font l'objet du
traité, aussi longtemps que d'autres questionsimportantes retiennent leur
attention. On peut ktablir, à cet égard, une comparaison entre la con-
vention sur les relations diplomatiques (signéeà Vienne le 24 avril 1961)

et la convention sur la haute mer (signéeà Genève le 29 avril 1958), qui
sont par excellence des instruments de codification du droit existant. Or
la première convention a, en l'espace de sept ans environ, reçu 77 ratifi-
cations,adhésions 01.notifications de succession, tandis qu'au bout de dix
ans, 42 Etats seulennent sont devenus parties à la deuxième. La raison

parait évidente: c'est que la convention sur les relations diplomatiques
présente pour tout lltat un intérêt direct etquotidien. Il a fallu dix ans
pour qu'un instrument codifiant le droit existant, la convention pour la
prévention etla répressiondu crime de génocide(adoptéepar l'Assemblée
généraledes Nation!; Unies le 9 décembre 1948), obtienne 59 ratifications
et adhésions, et à la fin de 1967 - soit vingt ans après son adoption -

71 Etats y étaient dt:venus parties.
Les délais prolongés qui interviennent ainsi dans la ratification, de
mêmeque leurs causes, qui ne sont pas liéesau contenu des instruments
intéressés,sont des l'acteurs dont ily a lieu de tenir dûment compte.
Si je me suis éteridu peut-être lin peu trop longuement sur ce point,

c'est à cause de sa pl-rtinence pour la question dont la Cour est saisie. En
effet,ilen découleque le nombre des ratifications et adhésions ne saurait
en soi êtreconsidérécomme probant en ce qui concerne l'acceptation
généraled'un instrument donné.
Dans le cas de Ila Convention sur le plateau continental, d'autres

élémentssont en cauiseauxquels ilconvient d'accorder tout leur poids. En
particulier, 31 Etats sont néspendant la période qui a séparéla signature
de cette convention (28juin 1958)et son entrée en vigueur (10juin 1964),
tandis que 13 autres. nations ont depuis lors accédéà l'indépendance. Le44 States could have completed the necessary procedure enabling them

to become parties to the Convention has been rather limited, in some
cases very limited. Taking into account the great and urgent problems
each of them had to face, one cannot be surprised that many of them
did not consider it a matter of priority. This notwithstanding, nine of
those States have acceded to the Convention. Twenty-six of the total
number of States in existence are moreover land-locked and cannot be

considered as having a special and irnmediate interest in speedy accession
to the Convention (only five of them have in fact acceded).

Finally, it is noteworthy that about 70 States are at present engaged
in the exploration and exploitation of continental shelfareas.
It is the above analysis which is relevant, not the straight comparison
between the total number of States in existence and the number of

parties to the Convention. It reveals in fact that the number of parties
to the Convention on the Continental Shelf is very impressive, including
as it does the majority of States actively engaged in the exploration of
continental shelves.
Again, it is noteworthy that while 39 States are parties, initial steps
towards the acceptance of the Convention have been taken by 46 States,

who have signed it: half of them have ratified it. Thus to the figure of
39 that of 23 States is to be added, Le., those States which by signing
it have acquired a provisional status vis-à-vis the Convention, each of
them being "obliged to refrain froin acts which would defeat the object
and purpose of the treaty . . ." until it "shall have made its intention
clear not to become a party to the treaty" (Article 15a of the Draft

Articles of the Law of Treaties, prepared by the T.L.C., as amended and
adopted by the Committee of the Whole of the Conference on the Law
of Treaties; Doc. A/CONF. 39/C. liL. 370:Add. 4, p. 8).
This mathematical computation, important as it is in itself, should
be supplemented by, so to speak, a spectral analysis of the representa-
tivity of the States parties to the Convention.

For in the world today an essential factor in the formation of a new
rule of general international law is to be taken into account: namely
that States with different political, economic and legal systems, States
of al1continents, participate in the process. No more can a general rule
of international law be established by the fiat of one or of a few, or-as
it was once claimed-by the consensus of European States only.

This development was broadly reflected in the composition of the
Geneva Conference on the Law of the Sea; it is now similarly reflected
within the number of States which are parties to the Convention on the
Continental Shelf. These include States of al1 continents, among them
States of various political systems, with both new and old States re-

presenting the main legal systems of the world. PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP.DISS.LACHS) 227

temps que ces 44 Iztats ont eu à leur disposition pour accomplir les
formalités leur permettant de devenir parties à la Convention a donc été

asîez limité et mênie,dans certains cas, très limité. Compte tenu des
problèmes importants et urgents auxquels chacun d'eux a eu à faire face,
il n'est pas surprenant que beaucoup de ces Etats aient estimé qu'il ne
s'agissait pas d'une question prioritaire. Néanmoins, 9 d'entre eux ont
adhéréà la Convention. Par ailleurs, sur le nombre total d'Etats existants,

26 sont dépourvus ~d'accèsà la mer et ne peuvent donc être considérés
comme ayant un intérêtspécialet immédiat à adhérer rapidement à la
Convention (5 d'entre eux seulement l'ont fait).
Enfin, il y a lieuclenoter qu'environ 70 Etats se livrent actuellement à
l'exploration et à l'exploitation de zones de plateau continental.

C'est l'analyse qu'on vient de faire qui importe et non une comparaison
pure et simple entre le nombre total d'Etats existants et le nombre de
parties à la Convenition. Cette analyse montre qu'en fait, le nombre des
parties à la Convention sur le plateau continental est remarquablement
élevé,si l'on considlèrequ'il inclut la majorité des Etats qui se livrent

activement à l'exploration de plateaux continentaux.
II y a également lieu de noter que, si le nombre des parties est de 39,
46 Etats ont fait un premier pas vers l'acceptation de la Convention en la
signant; la moitié l'ont ratifiée. Au chiffre de 39, il faut donc ajouter
23 Etats qui, en signant la Convention, ont acquis au regard de celle-ci
un statut provisoire, chacun d'eux devant (s'abstenir d'actes qui pri-

veraient [le] traité de son objet et de son but 11... cctant qu'il n'a pas
manifesté son intention de ne pas devenir partie au traité ))(art.15a) du
projet d'articles sur le droit des traités établipar la Coinmission du droit
international, tel qu'il a étémodifié et adopté par la commission plé-
nière de la conférence sur le droit des traités; doc. des Nations Unies

A1CONF.39,'C. l/L.:370,'Add. 4, p. 7).
Ce calcul mathématique, si important qu'il soit déjà en lui-même, doit
êtrecomplétépar une analyse spectrale, pour ainsi dire, de la représenta-
tivité des Etats parties à la Convention.
Dans le monde d'aujourd'hui, en effet, ilfaut tenir compte d'un facteur

essentiel dans la formation d'une nouvelle règle de droit international
général,à savoir le filit que des Etats ayant des systèmespolitiques, écono-
miques et juridiques différents, des Etats de tous les continents, partici-
pent à ce processus Le temps est révolu où une règlegénéralede droit
international pouvait être établiepar la volonté d'un seul ou de quelques-

uns, ou encore - comme on l'a prétendu à un moment donné - par le
consensus des seuls Etats d'Europe.
Cette évolution s'est en gros reflétéedans la participation à la con-
férence de Genève sur le droit de la mer; de mêmel'observe-t-on au-
jourd'hui dans la composition du groupe d'Etats parties à la Convention
sur le plateau continental.Cegroupecompte en effet des Etats de tous les

continents,ayant deissystèmespolitiques divers, des Etats aussi bien nou-
veaux qu'anciens représentant lesprincipaux systèmesjuridiques du monde. It may therefore be said that, from the viewpoints both of number
and of representativity, the participation in the Convention constitutes
a solid basis for the formation of a general rule of law. It is upon that
basis that further, more extensive practice has developed:

(a) A considerable number of States, both parties and not parties
to the Convention (and quite apart from the Parties to the present cases),
have concluded agreements delimiting their continental shelves. Several
of these make specific reference to the Geneva Convention ("having

regard to . ..","bearing in mind . . ."or "in accordance with the Geneva
Convention on the Continental Shelf", "bearing in mind Article 6 of
the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf" or "in accordance with
the principles laid down in the Geneva Convention on the Continental
Shelf of 1958, in particular its Article6"). At least six other agreements
(registered with the United Nations) have accepted as a basis the equidis-
tance or median lines, though without actually ieferring to the Con-

vention. (Texts: United Nations Doc. AiAC. 135,111,and Add. 1.)

(b) A considerable number of States (both parties and not parties
to the Convention) have passed special legislation concerning their con-
tinental shelves, or included provisions on the subject in other instru-
ments. Some of them have enacted a unilateral delimitation of their
continental shelf on the basis of the equidistance rule. Fifteen have

referred specifically to the Convention of 1958, invoking it in a preamble
or in individual articles, or employing definitions derived from it (some-
times with slight modifications). One instrument refers to "law and the
provisions of international treaties and agreements", "law or ratified
international treaties" (Guatemala), and another accepts the median
line as a definitive boundary (Norway). Another (U.S.S.R.) reproduces

mutatis n7utandis the full text of Article 6 of the Convention, while
three (Finland, Denmark and Malaysia) make specific reference to that
Article. Another, yet again, invokes "established international practice
sanctioned by the law of nations" (Philippines). (Texts: U.N. Doc. A!AC.
135/11, and Add. 1.)

(c) In some cases the unilateral adoption of the equidistance rule has
had a direct bearing on its recognition by other States. To give but one
instance: Australia's Federal Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act, 1967,
which defines adjacent areas (section 5) and their delimitation (Second
Schedule), is based on the application of the equidistance rule. This
delimitation appears to have been effected on the assumption that a
neighbouring State could not advance any claim beyond the equidis-

tance line.
All this leads to the conclusion that the principles and rules enshrined
in the Convention, and in particular the equidistance rule, have been PLA'rEAUCONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. LACHS) 228

On peut donc dire que, du point de vue du nombre comme du point de
vue de la représentativité,la participation à la Convention offre une base
solide pour la formation d'une règle de droit générale. C'estsur cette

base que la pratique a continué à se développer:
a) Un très grand nombre d'Etats, tant parties que non parties à la

Convention (en dehors des Parties aux présentes affaires), ont conclu des
accords de délimitation de leur olateau continental. Plusieurs de ces
accords contiennent une référence expresseà la Convention de Genève
(((eu égard à.. . », (tenant compte de.. .11,(conformément à la Conven-

tion de Genèvesur le plateau continental JIIvu l'article 6de la Convention
de Genève sur le plateau continental 1)ou ((conformément aux principes
énoncésdans la Convention de Genèvede 1958sur le plateau continental,
et notamment dans son article 6 11).Six autres accords au moins (en-

registrésauprès de L'Organisation des Nations Unies) ont pris pour base
la ligne d'équidistance ou la ligne médiane, sans toutefois faire expressé-
ment référenceà la Convention. (Textes dans le doc. des Nations Unies

A!AC. 135;11 et son Add. 1.)
b) Un grand nombre d'Etats (tant parties que non parties à la Con-
vention) ont adopté une législation spécialeconcernant leur plateau con-
tinental, ou fait figurer des dispositions à ce sujet dans d'autres instru-

ments. Certains d'entre eux ont édictédes textes délimitant unilatérale-
ment leur plateau continental suivant la règle de I'équidistance. Quinze
Etats se sont référés expressément à la Convention de 1958, soit qu'ils
l'aient invoquée dans un préambule ou dans certains articles, soit qu'ils

aient utilisé des définitions tiréesde la Convention (moyennant parfois
de légères modifications). Par exemple, il est question dans un instrument
des (lois et [des] dispositions des traités et des accords internationaux 11,
des (lois ou [des] traités et accords internationaux ratifiés 1(Guatemala),

et un autre accepte la ligne médiane comme limite définitive (Norvège).
Un autre Etat (U.P..S.S.) reproduit mutatis mutandis le texte complet
de l'article 6 de la Convention et trois Etats (Finlande, Danemark et
Malaisie) mentionnent expressément cet article. Un autre encore fait

mention d'une ((pratique internationale établie consacrée par le droit
des gens '1(Philippii~es) (textes : doc. des Nations Unies &AC. 135;11 et
Add. 1).
c) Dans certains cas, l'adoption unilatérale de la règlede l'équidistance

a influédirectement sur sa reconnaissance par d'autres Etats. Pour n'en
donner qu'un exemple: en Australie, la loi fédérale de1967 sur le pétrole
(terres submergées), qui définitles zones limitrophes (par. 5) et leur déli-
mitation (seconde annexe), se fonde sur l'application de la règlede l'équi-

distance. Pour effectuer cette délimitation, on semble en effet êtreparti
du principe qu'un E;tat voisin ne pouvait rien revendiquer au-delà de la
ligne d'équidistance.

Tout ce qui préckde porte à conclure que les principes et règlesconsa-
créspar la Convention, et tout particulièrement la règlede l'équidistance,accepted not only by those States which are parties to the Convention
on the Continental Shelf, but also by those which have subsequently
followed it in agreements, or in their legislation, or have acquiesced in
it when faced with legislative acts of other States affecting them. This
can be viewed as evidence of a practice widespread enough to satisfy
the criteria for a general rule of law.

For to become binding, a rule or principle of international law need
not pass the test of universal acceptance. This is reflected in several
statements of the Court, e.g.: "generally ... adopted in the practice
of States" (Fisheries, Judgmerzt, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 128). Not al1
States have, as 1 indicated earlier in a different context, an opportunity
or possibility of applying a given rule. The evidence should be sought

in the behaviour of a great number of States, possibly the majority of
States, in any case the greatmajority of the interested States.

Thus this test cannot be, nor is it, one endowed with any absolute
character: it is of its very nature relative. Criteria of frequency, con-
tinuity and uniformity are involved. However, not al1 potential rules
are susceptible to verification by al1 these criteria. Frequency may be
invoked only in situations where there are many and successive oppor-
tunities to apply a rule. This is not the case with delimitation, which
is a one-time act. Furthermore, as it produces lasting consequences,
it invariably implies an intention to satisfy the criterion of continuity.

As for uniformity, "too much importance need not be attached to"
a "few uncertainties or contradictions, real and apparent" (Fisheries,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 138).
Nor can a general rule which is not of the nature ofjus cogensprevent

some States from adopting an attitude apart. They may have opposed
the rule from its inception and may, unilaterally, or in agreement with
others, decide upon different solutions of the problem involved. Article 6,
paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Continental Shelf, by virtue of
the built-in exceptions,actually opens the way to occasional departures
from the equidistance rule wherever special circumstances arise. Thus
the fact that some States, aspointed out in the course of the proceedings,
have enacted special legislation or concluded agreements at variance
with the equidistance rule and the practice confirming it represents a
mere permitted derogation and cannot be held to have disturbed the
formation of a general rule of law on delimitation.ont étéacceptés non seulement par les Etats qui sont parties à la Con-
vention sur le plateau continental mais aussi par ceux qui ont ultérieure-

ment suivi cette règle dans des accords ou dans leur législation, ou qui y
ont acquiescé lorsqu'ils se sont trouvés placésdevant des actes législatifs
d'autres Etats dont ].eseffets les concernaient. On peut y voir la preuve
d'une pratique assez répandue pour satisfaire aux critères d'une règle

.2néralede droit.
En effet, pour devenir obligatoire, une règle ou un principe de droit
international n'a paf; besoin d'êtresanctionné par une acceptation uni-
verselle. Cela ressort de plusieurs déclarations de la Cour, qui a employé
des expressions comme: ((généralementadoptée par la pratique des

Etats JI(affaire des Pkheries, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 128). Les Etats
n'ont pas tous, comrrieje l'ai indiquéplus haut dans un contexte différent,
l'occasion ni la possibilitéd'appliquer une règledonnée. L'élémentd'ap-
préciation déterminalnt doit êtrele comportement d'un grand nombre

d'Etats, éventuellement de la majorité des Etats, en tout cas de la grande
majorité des Etats intéressés.
Cet élément d'appréciationne peut donc avoir et n'a aucun caractère
absolu: il est, par sa nature même, relatif.Il met enjeu des critères comme

la fréquence, la continuité et l'uniformité. Or, les règles virtuelles ne se
prêtentpas toutes à une vérification selon tous ces critères. La fréquence
ne peut êtreinvoquée:que dans des situationsoù il est possible d'appliquer
à maintes reprises et. successivement la mêmerègle. Ce n'est pas le cas

pour la délimitation, qui est un acte unique. En outre, comme elle produit
des effets durables, clle suppose invariablement l'intention de satisfaire
au critère de continuité.
Pour ce qui est de l'uniformité, (il n'y a pas lieu d'attacher trop d'im-
portance 11 à squelques incertitudes ou contradictions apparentes ou

réelles 1(affaire des f'écheries,arrét, C.I.J. Recueil 1951,p. 138).
Par ailleurs, une regle générale quine relève pas du jus cogens ne sau-
rait empêchercertains Etats d'adopter une attitude qui s'écarte de ladite
règle. Ces Etats se sont parfois opposés à la règle dès le début - et

ils peuvent donner, unilatéralement ou en accord avec d'autres Etats,
des solutions différentesau problème enjeu. Le paragraphe 2 de l'article6
de la Convention sur le plateau continental, en vertu des exceptions
prévuesdans la disposition elle-même,ouvre en fait la voie à des déroga-

tions occasionnelles à la règle de l'équidistance chaque fois qu'il existe
des circonstances sutciales. Ainsi. le fait aue certains Etats. comme on
l'a fait observer au cours de la procédure, aient promulgué des lois spé-
ciales ou conclu des accords qui s'écartent dela règlede l'équidistance et

de la pratique confirmant cette règle représente simplement une déroga-
tion autorisée et ne saurait être considéré commeayant perturbé le pro-
cessus de formation d'une règle généralede droit sur la délimitation. With regard to the time factor, the formation of law by State practice

has in the past frequently been associated with the passage of a long
period of time. There is no doubt that in some cases this may bejustified.

However, the great acceleration of social and economic change, com-
bined with that of science and technology, have confronted law with a
serious challenge: oneit must meet, lest it lag even farther behind events

than it has been wont to do.
To give a concrete example: the first instruments that man sent into
outer space traversed the airspace of States and circled above them in
outer space, yet the launching States sought no permission, nor did the
other States protest. This is how the freedom of movement into outer
space, and in it, came to be established and recognized as law within a

remarkably short period of time. Similar developments are affecting, or
may affect, other branches of international law.

Given the necessity of obviating serious differences between States,
which might lead to disputes, the new chapter of human activity con-

cerning the continental shelf could not have been left outside the frame-
work of law for very long.
Thus, under the pressure of events, a new institution has corne into
being. By traditional standards this was no doubt a speedy development.
But then the dimension of time in law, being relative, must be commen-

surate with the rate of movement of events which require legal regulation.
A consequential response is required. And so the short period within
which the law on the continental shelf has developed and matured does
not constitute an obstacle to recognizing its principles and rules, including
the equidistance rule, as part of general law.

Can the practice above summarized be considered as having been
accepted as law, having regard to the subjective element required? The

process leading to this effect is necessarily complex. There are certain
areas of State activity and international law which by their very character
may only with great difficulty engender general law, but there are others,
both old and new, which may do so with greater ease. Where continental
shelf law is concerned, some States have at first probabiy accepted the
rules in question, as States usually do, because they found them con-

venient and useful, the best possible solution for the problems involved.
Others may also have been convinced that the instrument elaborated
within the framework of the United Nations was intended to become
and would in due course become general law (the teleological element PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. LACHS) 230

En ce qui concerne le facteur temps, on a souvent, dans le passé,
associélaformation 'dudroit par l'effetde la pratique desEtats à l'écoule-
ment d'une longue période de temps. II n'est pas douteux que, dans cer-
tains cas, cela peut sejustifier.

Toutefois, l'accélérationconsidérable des transformations sociales et
économiques, s'ajoutant à celle du progrès scientifique et technique,
place le droit devant un véritable défi - défiqu'il devra relever, sous
peine d'accentuer encore son retard sur les événements.
J'en donnerai un exemple concret: les premiers engins envoyés dans
l'espace extra-atmosphérique ont traversél'espace aériendes Etatset ont

survoléceux-ci dans l'espace extra-atmosphérique; néanmoins, les Etats
qui ont procédéau lancement n'ont demandé aucune autorisation, et les
autres Etats n'ont émis aucune protestation. C'est ainsi que la liberté
de circulatic~njusqu'à l'espace extra-atmosphérique et dans cet espace a
étéétablie et reconnue comme étant le droit en un laps de temps remar-
quablement bref. Des faits nouveaux de ce genre influent actuellement,

ou pourraient inf uer, sur d'autres branches du droit international.
Vu la nécessité d'éviterentre les Etats les contestations sérieuses,
risquant de conduira: à des litiges, on ne pouvait tenir très longtemps à
l'écartdu domaine juridique le nouveau chapitre des activités humaines
concernant le plateau continental.

Ainsi, sous la pression des événements,une nouvelle institution a vu
le jour. Selon les normes traditionnelles, son évolution a sans doute été
rapide. Mais en droit, la dimension temporelle, relative par nature, doit
êtreen rapport avec le rythme des événementsqui appellent une régle-
mentation juridique, et c'est en fonction de ceux-ci qu'il faut agir. Par
conséquent, le fait que le droit du plateau continental se soit crééet

développé enaussi peu de temps ne doit pas empêcherd'en reconnaître
les principes et les r<Sgles,notamment la règle de l'équidistance, comme
faisant partie du droit général.

Peut-on dire que la pratique que j'ai résumée ci-dessusa étéacceptée
comme étant le droii:, compte tenu de l'élément subjectifrequis? Le pro-
cessus qui aboutit à un tel effet est nécessairement complexe. Il y a, dans
l'activité des Etats et le droit international, certains domaines qui par

leur nature mêmen9engendrent que très difficilement un droit général,
tandis qu'il en est d'autres, anciens et nouveaux, où cela est plus facile.
En ce qui concerne le droit du plateau continental, certains Etats ont
probablement acceptéau début les règles en cause, comme cela se passe
généralement,parce qu'ils les trouvaient commodes et utiles et qu'elles
constituaient la meilleure solution possible des problèmes qui se posaient.

D'autres étaient peut-êtreconvaincus que l'instrument élaborédans le
cadre de l'organisation des Nations Unies étaitcensédevenir, et devien-is of no small importance in the formation of law). Many States have
followed suit under the conviction that it was law.

Thus at the successivestages in the development of the rule the motives
which have prompted States to accept it have varied from case to case.
It could not be otherwise. At al1events, to postulate that al1States, even
those which initiate a given practice, believe themselves to be acting
under a legal obligation is to resort to a fiction-and in fact to deny
the possibility of developing such rules. For the path rnay indeed start
from voluntary, unilateral acts relying on the confident expectation that
they will find acquiescence or be emulated; alternatively, the starting-
point rnay consist of a treaty to which more and more States accede
and which is followed by unilateral acceptance. It is only at a later stage
that, by the combined effect of individual or joint action, response and
interaction in the field concerned, Le., of that reciprocity so essential in
international legal relations, there develops the chain-reaction productive
of international consensus.

In view of the complexity of this formative process and the differing
motivations possible at its various stages, it is surely over-exacting to
require proof that every State having applied a given rule did so because
it was conscious of an obligation to do so. What can be required is that
the party relying on an alleged general rule must prove that the rule
invoked is part of a general practice accepted as law by the States in
question. No further or more rigid form of evidence could or should be
required.
In sum, the general practice of States should be recognized as prima
facie evidence that it is accepted as law. Such evidence may, of course,
be controverted-even on the test of practice itself, if it shows"much
uncertainty and contradiction" (Asylum, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950,
p. 277). It rnay also be controverted on the test of opinijuriswith regard
to "the States in question" or the parties to the case.

In approaching this issue one has to take into account the great variety
of State activity-manifesting itself as itdoes today in many forms of

unilateral act or international instrument or in the decisions of inter-
national organizations-, the multiplicity and interdependence of these
Drocesses.
With the ever-increasing activities of States in international relations,
some rules of conduct begin to be accepted even before reaching that
state of precision which is normally required for a rule of law. If their
binding force is contested, courts operating within the traditional frame-
work of certitude rnay apply tests of perfection and clarity they could
not possibly pass. The alternative would be to fall back on some general
and, it rnay be, elusive principle. This rnay not be conducive to strength-
ening the edifice of international law, which is so important for present-drait en temps utile, le droit général(l'élémenttéléologique est loin
d'être sansimportarice dans la formation du droit). De nombreux Etats

ont suivi cet exemple, convaincus que c'étaitlà le droit.
On constate donc qu'aux étapes successives de la création de la règle,
les mobiles qui ont poussé les Etats à l'accepter ont varié d'un cas à
l'autre. Il ne pouvait en être autrement. De toute façon postuler que tous
les Etats, mêmeceux qui donnent le départ d'une pratique quelconque,

sont convaincus d'agir en vertu d'une obligation juridique, c'est recourir
à la fiction - et c'est en fait nier la possibilité de créerde telles règles.
Car le départ peut i3tre donné par des actes volontaires et unilatéraux,
reposant sur le fermi: espoir de voir ces actes acceptés ou imités; ou bien
le point de départ peut êtreun traité auquel les Etats adhèrent de plus

en plus nombreux et qui suscite une acceptation unilatérale. Ce n'est
qu'à un stade ultérieur que, sous l'effet conjugué d'actions isolées ou
concertées, de réactions et d'interactions dans le domaine en cause,
c'est-à-dire par le jeu de cette réciprocitési fondamentale dans les rela-
tions juridiques internationales, se produit la réaction en chaîne aboutis-

sant à un consensus international.
Vu la complexité de ce processus de formation et la multiplicité des
mobiles possibles à ses différentes étapes, il serait excessif d'exiger la
preuve que tout Etait qui a appliqué une règle donnée l'a fait parce qu'il
avait conscience d'une obligation de le faire. Ce qu'on peut exiger, c'est
que la partie qui dit invoquer une règle généraleprouve que cette règle

ressortit à une pratique générale acceptéecomme étant le droit par les
Etats en question. On ne peut ni ne doit exiger de preuve supplémentaire
ou plus formelle que celle-la.
En somme, la pratique généraledes Etats devrait être reconnuecomme
un commencement de preuve de ce que la règleest acceptéecommeétant

le droit. Cette preuve peut naturellement êtrecontestée sur le plan de la
pratique elle-même,si celle-ci comporte beaucoup ((d'incertitude et de
contradictions 1(affaire du Droit d'asile, arrêtC.I.J. Recueil 1950, p.277),
et sur le plan de l'opiniojuris en ce qui concerne ((les Etats en question il
ou les parties à l'affaire.

II faut, lorsqu'on aborde ce problème, tenir compte de la diversité de
l'activitédes Etats, (quise manifeste aujourd'hui de nombreuses façons
sous forme d'actes unilatéraux ou d'instruments internationaux ou en-
core dans les décisions d'organisations internationales, ainsi que de la
multiplicité et de l'interdépendance de ces processus.

Etant donné 1'act:ivitésans cesse croissante des Etats dans la s~hère
des relations internationales, certaines règles de conduite commencent
à êtreacceptéesavant même d'avoiratteint le degréde précision qui est
normalement nécessaireà une règlede droit. Si leur force obligatoire est
contestée, les tribunaux faisant appel à la notion traditionnelle de certi-
tude risquent d'appliquer à ces règles des critères de perfection et de

clartéauxquels il leur sera impossible de répondre. L'autre solution con-
sisterait à se rabattre sur quelque principe général et peut-êtredifficile à232 CONTINENTALSHELF (DISS. OP. LACHS)

day international relations. One should of course avoid the risk of
petrifying rules before they have reached the necessary state of maturity
and by doing so endangering the stability of and confidence in law. It
may, however, be advisable, without entering the field of legislation,

to apply more flexible tests, which, like the substance of the law itself,
have to be adapted to changing conditions. The Court would thus take
cognizance of the birth of a new rule, once the general practice States
have pursued has crossed the threshold from haphazard and discretionary
action into the sphere of law.

As to the cases before the Court, the situation leaves little room for
doubt.The conclusion by States of agreements in the field of continental-
shelf delimitation has self-evidently expressed their willingness to accept
the rules of the Convention "as law" and has in fact represented a logical
furtherance of the provisions of Article 6, paragraph 2. As for the
unilateral acts concerned, they also, by their reference to the Convention

or borrowing of its very wording, have given recognition to its provisions.
Other States have done so by acquiescence.

The foregoing analysis leads to the conclusion that the provisions of
Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention on the Continental
Shelf, and more especially the equidistance rule, have attained the

identifiable status of a general law. This may be contested in a particular
case by a State denying its opposability to itself. Then, of course, the
matter becomes one of evidence.

1now turn to the principal issue concerning the law applicable to the
present cases. 1s the Federal Republic bound by Article 6, paragraph 2,
of the Geneva Convention?
The Federal Republic of Germany signed the Convention on the
Continental Shelf on 30 October 1958. This fact, as indicated earlier,
cannot remain without influence on that State's relationship to the Con-

vention.
Admittedly it does not imply an obligation to ratify the instrument,
nor is it in itself sufficient to bind the Federal Republic to observance
of its provisions. However, it certainly implies a link betweeii the State
concerned and the treaty to which it is not as yet a Party.
The Court has made this perfectly clear by stating that "Without going
into the question of the legal effect of signing an international convention,

which necessarily varies in individual cases, the Court considers that
signature constitutes a first step to participation in the Convention";
and the Court continued: "Tt is evident that without ratification, signaturecerner, ce qui ne serait pas toujours propice au renforcement de l'édifice
du droit international, si important dans les relations internationales
actuelles. 11faut évidemment éviterde pétrifier les règles avant qu'elles
aient atteint le stade de maturité nécessaire et de mettre en danger, ce

faisant, la stabilité du droit et la confiance dont il jouit. Sans vouloir
faire Œuvre de législateur, il pourrait cependant être indiqué d'appliquer
des critères plus souples qui, comme le contenu du droit lui-même,
seraient adaptés à l'évolution des circonstances. De la sorte, la Cour
prendrait acte de l'existence d'une nouvelle règle,une fois que la pratique

générale desEtats serait passée du domaine de l'action fortuite et dis-
crétionnaire # celui du droit.
En l'eîpèce, la siiuation ne laisse guère de place au doute. Les accords
conclus par les Etats en niatiére de déliniitation du plateau continental
témoignent à l'évidencede leur volonté d'accepter les règles de la Con-

vention ((comme étant le droit )et découlent d'ailleurs logiquement des
dispositions du paragraphe 2 de l'article 6. Quant aux actes unilatéraux,
ils prouvent eux aussi, du fait qu'ils se réfèrentà la Convention ou en
reprennent les terrries mêmes,que leurs auteurs ont reconnu les disposi-
tions de la Convention. D'autres Etats ont fait de mêmepar acquiesce-

ment.
L'analyse qui précèdeconduit à la conclusion que les dispositions du
paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la Convention de Genève sur le plateau
continental, et notamment la règle de l'équidistance, ont acquis le statut
nettenient identifiable de droit général.Cela peut êtrecontesté dans tel
ou tel cas particulier par un Etat qui niera que cette règle lui soit oppo-

sable. II s'agira alors bien entendu d'une question de preuve.

J'en viens maintenant à la question principale, relative au droit ap-
plicable aux présentes affaires. La République fédérale est-elleliéepar le
paragraphe 2 de l'article6 de la Convention de Genève?
La République fédérale d'Allemagne a signé la Convention sur le
plateau continental le 30 octobre 1958. Ce fait. comme je l'ai indiqué

plus haut, ne saurait être sans influence sur les relations entre cet Etat et
la Convention.
Certes, il n'implique pas l'obligation de ratifier la Convention et ne
suffit pas en soi à obliger la République fédéraleà se conformer à ses
dispositions. Toutt:fois, il implique assurément un lien entre 1'Etat en
question et le trait6 auquel cet Etat n'est pas encore partie.

La Cour l'a dit de manière parfaitement claire lorsqu'elle a déclaré
que, 11sans entrer dans l'euarnen de la portéejuridique de la signature des
conventions internationales. portée essentiellement variable, suivant les
cas, la Cour estinie que la signature constitue la première étape dans la
participation i la convention $1elle a poursuivi: IIest évidentque sansdoes not make the signatory Statea party to the Convention; nevertheless
it establishes a provisional status in favour of that State" (Reservations
to Gcnocide Convention, Aclvisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 28).
Consequently the Court recognized, in the context of the case it was
dealing with at the time, certain rights which "the signature confers upon

the signatory". This obviously also implies some obligations.

Now, at no time did the Federal Republic make a statement which
could be interpreted as a repudiation of the Convention or the abandon-
ment of its intention to ratify it. This was made clear even in the course

of the proceedings before the Court, by the admission that it had not
"yet" ratified the Convention (hearing of 23 October 1968).

There is no need to stress the obvious. As long as this ratification has
not been forthcoming, the Federal Republic cannot be considered as a
party to the Convention. The Government may have changed its view,
. .
as governments do; parliament may eventually refuse ratification. How-
ever, theact of signature has to be viewed inthe context of other voluntary
and positive acts of the Federal Republic in this domain.

On 22 January 1964 the Federal Government issued a Proclamation

which stated, inter alia:
"The Federal Government will shortly subrnit to the Legislature
an Accession Bill on this Convention in order to create the constitu-

tional basis for ratification by the Federal Republic of Germany";

and further:
"ln order to eliminate legal uncei-tainties that might arise in the

present situation until the Geneva Convention on the Continental
Shelf comes into force and until its ratification by the Federal
Republic of Germany, the Federal Governrnent deems it necessary
to affirm the following now:

1. In virtue of the development of general international law, as
expressed in recent State practice and in particular in the signing
of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf, the Federal

Government regards the exploration and exploitation of the natural
resources of the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas adjacent
to the German Coast but outside the German territorial sea, to a
depth of 200 metres and also-so far as the depth of the superjacent
waters admits of the exploitation of the natural resources-beyond

that, as an exclusive sovereign right of the Federal Republic of
Germany. In the individual case the delimitation of the German
continental shelf vis-à-vis the continental shelves of foreign Statesla ratification, la signature ne rend pas 1'Etat signataire partie à la con-
vention: elle établit néanmoins au ~rofit de cet Etat un statut ~rovisoire 11
(Réservesa la convention pour la préventionet lu répressiondu crime de

g&nocide,avis consultatiA C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 28). La Cour a donc
reconnu, dans l'affaire dont elle s'occupait alors, certains droits que la
signature confère aux signataires 11.II en découle aussi, évidemment, cer-
taines obligations.

Or la Ré~ubliaue fédéralen'a fait à aucun moment de déclaration aui
puisse être interprétée comme une répudiation de la Convention ou
comme l'abandon de son intention de la ratifier. Ce point a encore été
mis en lumière au cours de la procédure devant la Cour, lorsqu'il a été
déclaréque la République fédérale n'avait 1pas encore 1ratifié la Con-

vention (audience du 23 octobre 1968).
Il n'est pas nécessaire d'insister sur ce qui est évident. Tant que cette
ratification n'a pas eu lieu, la République fédéralene peut êtreconsidérée
comme une partie ELla Convention. Il se peut en effet que le gouvernement

ait changé d'avis, comme cela arrive aux gouvernements, ou que le parle-
ment refuse en fin de comptela ratification. Toutefois, l'acte de signature
doit être examinédans le contexte d'autres actes volontaires et positifs
accomplis par la R.épubliquefédéraledans ce domaine.
Le 22janvier 1904,le Gouvernenient fédérala publiéune proclamation

où il était déclaré i~otarnment:

(Le Gouvernement fédéralsoumettra prochainement aux corps
législatifs un projet de loi d'adhésion a cette convention afin de
créer la base constitutionnelle de ratification par la République
fédéraled'Allemagne; 11

et plus loin:

1Afin d'éliminer les incertitudes d'ordre juridique qui pourraient
surgir dans la situation actuelle, en attendant l'entréeen vigueur de
la Convention de Genève sur le plateau continental et sa ratifica-

tion par la République fédérale d'Allemagne, le Gouvernement
fédéral estimenécessaire de faire dès à présent la déclaration sui-
vante :

1. En raison de l'évolution du droit international général,telle
qu'elle s'exprime dans la pratique récentedes Etats et en particulier
dans la signature de la Convention de Genève sur le plateau con-

tinental, le Gouvernement fédéral considère l'explorationet I'exploi-
tation des ressources naturelles du lit de la mer et du sous-sol des
régions sous-marines adjacentes à la côte allemande, mais situées
en dehors de la mer territoriale allemande, jusqu'à une profondeur
de 200 mètres et - pour autant que la profondeur des eaux sur-

jacentes permet l'exploitation des ressources naturelles - même
au-delà de cette limite, comme un droit souverain exclusif de la
République fkdéraled'Allemagne. Dans le cas particulier, la délimi- remains subject to agreement with those States." jTratislatiot~ bj,
tlze Registry ',;.

In the e,uposédesmotifs of the Bill on the Continental Shelf, 25 July
1964,special reference is made to theConvention,asa manifest expression

of a change in the general approach to the problem of the continental
shelf:

"For a long time the possibility of individual States' acquiring
special rights over the parts of the continental shelf lying off their
Coast had been denied in the theory and practice of international

law. In recent years the opposite view, that the extraction and
appropriation of the resources of the marine subsoil are not free
but reserved to the coastal States, has come to prevail. A manifest
expression of this change can in particular be seen in the Convention
on the Continental Shelf of 29 April 1958 (reproduced in Archiil

des Vülkerrechts, Vol. 7, 1958-59,pp. 325 ff.),adopted at the Geneva
Conference on the Law of the Sea, which was signed by the Federal
Republic of Germany together with 45 other States and has siilce
been ratified by 21 of those States. According to its Article 11 this

Convention will come into force as soon as the next instrument of
ratification is deposited.

Considering the above, one may proceed on the assumption that,

at least since the Federal Government's Proclamation of 20 January
1964,which has remained unchallenged, the Federal Republic holds
sovereign rights, coinciding as to content with those established for
coastal States by the Geneva Convention, in the domain of the

German continental shelf." jTrarislation hy tlie Registry 2].

l"Die Bundesregierung wird den gesetzgebendcn Korperschaften in Kürze den
Entwurf eines Zustimmungsgesetzes zu dieser Konvention vorlegen, um die ver-
fassungsrechtliche Grundlage für die Ratifikation durch die Bundesrepublik
Deutschland zu schaffen." "Um Rechtsunklarheiten zu beseitigen, die sich in der
gegenwartigen Situation bis zum Inkrafttreten der Genfer Konvention über den
Festlandsockel und bis zu ihrer Ratifikationdurch die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
ergeben konnten, halt es die Bundesregierung für erforderlich, schon jetzt folgendes
festzustellen:
1. Die Bundesregierung sieht auf Grund der Entwicklung des allgemeinen Volker-
rechts, wie es in der neueren Staatenpraxis und insbesondere in der Unterzeichnung
der Genfer Konvention über den Festlandsockel zum Ausdruck kornmt, die Erfor-
schung und Ausbeutung der Naturschatze des Meeresgrundesund des Meeresunter-
grundes der an diedeutschen Meeresküsten grenzenden Unterwasserzoneausserhalb
des deutschen Küstenmeeres bis zu einer Tiefe von 200 m und-soweit die Tiefe des
Darüber befindlichen Wassers die Ausbeutung der Naturschatze gestattet-auch
hieruber hinaus als ein ausschliessliches Hoheitsrecht der Bundesre~ublik Deutsch-
landan. Irn einzelnen bleibt die Abgrenzung des deutschen ~estlands6ckels gegenüber
dem Festlandsockel auswartiger Staaten Vereinbarungen mit diesen Staaten vor-
behalten." (Bundesgesetzhlatt, Teil II, Nr. 5, 6 February 1964.)
"Lange Zeit hindurch war in der volkerrechtlichen Lehre und Praxis die Mog- PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. LACHS; 234

tation du plateau continental allemand reste soumise à des accords
à conclure avec ces Etats. JI-'Traductiondu Greffe. j il

Dans l'exposédes motifs du projet de loi sur le plateau continental du
25juillet 1964,il est dit en termes clairs quela Convention est l'expression
même d'un changement générald'attitude à l'égard de la question du

plateau continental:

ciPendant longtemps, la possibilité pour les Etats d'acquérir des
droits spéciauxsur les parties du plateau continental situéesau large
de leur côte avait éténiéetant par la doctrine que dans la pratique

du droit international. Au cours des dernières années,la conception
contraire a fini par l'emporter, savoir que l'extraction et I'appropria-
tion des ressources du sous-sol maritime ne sont pas libres mais sont
réservéesaux Ihts riverains. Comme expression manifeste de ce

changement l'on peut surtout faire état de la Convention sur le
plateau continental, adoptée le 29 avril 1958 à la conférence de
Genève sur le droit de la mer (et reproduite dans I'Arcllivdes Vdker-

reclits. vol. 7, 1958-1959, p. 325 et suiv.), qui fut signéepar la Ré-
publique fédérale d'Allemagne ainsique par 45 autres Etats et a été
ratifiéedepuis par 21 d'entre eux. D'après l'article 11 de la Conven-
tion. celle-ci entrera en vigueur dès que le prochain instrument de

ratification aura été déposé.
Cela étant, on peut tenir comme établi que, du moins depuis le
20 janvier 1964, date de la proclamation du Gouvernement fédéral

qui est restée incontestée. la République fédérale d'Allemagne
détientdes droits souverains en ce qui concerne le plateau continental
allemand. droits dont la teneur coïncide avec celle des droits aue la

Convention de Genève a reconnus aux Etats riverains. JILrTraduction
du Grefe.]

' (Die Bundesregierung wird den gesetzgebenden Korperschaften in Kürze den
Entwurf eines Zustimrnungsaesetzes zu dieser Konvention vorlegen, um die cer-
fassungsrechtliche Ciriindi& für die Ratifikation durch die- Bundesrepublik
Deutschland zu schaffen.a «Um Rechtsunklarheiten zu beseitigen, die sich in der
gegenwartigen Situation bis zum lnkrafttreten der Genfer c on vent io über den
Festlandsockel und bis zu ihrer Ratifikationdurch die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
ergeben kbnnten, halt es die Bundesregierung für erforderlich. schon jetzt folgendes
festzustellen:

1. Die Bundesregierung sieht auf Grund der Entwicklung des allgemeinen Volker-
rechts, wie es in der neiueren Staatenpraxis und insbesondere in der Unterzeichnung
der Genfer Konventiori über den Festlandsockel zum Ausdruck kommt, die Erfor-
schung und Ausbeutung der Naturschatze des Meeresgrundesund des Meeresunter-
grundes der an die deutschen Meeresküsten grcnzenden Unterwasserzone ausserhalb
des deutschen Küstenirieeres bis zu einer Tiefe von 200 ni und -soweit die Tiefe des
Darüber befindlichen Wassers die Ausbeutung der Naturschatze gestattet- auch
hierüber hinaus als ein ausschliesslichesHoheitsrecht der Bundesrepublik Deutsch-
land an. Im einzelnen bleibt dieAbgrenzungdesdeutschen Festlandsockels gegenüber
dern Festlandsockel aiiswartiger Staaten Vereinbarungen mit diesen Staaten vor-
behalten.)! (Rirndesgesetzblatr. Teil II, Nr. 5, 6 February 1964.)
<rLange Zeit hindurch war in der volkerrechtlichen Lehre und Praxis die Mog- The Proclamation of the Federal Government of 22 January 1964
refers,then, to "the development of general international law, as expressed
in recent State practice and in particular in the signing of the Geneva

Convention on the Continental Shelf". Here an opinion is expressed as
to thecharacter and scope of the law on thecontinental shelf. It constitutes
in fact a value-judgment on the state of the law on the subject. Indeed
it is emphatically implied that the mere signing of that instrument, at
a time when it had not yet entered into force, was evidence of general

international law. The Federal Republic viewed its own signature as a
constituent element of that evidence, thus attaching to it far more
importance than is normal in the case of signatures to instruments
requiring ratification. If words have any meaning, these could be under-

stood solely as the recognition by the Federal Republic that the Geneva
Convention reflected general international law. Specific reference was
made to State practice. It deemed this practice, covering, up to the
date of the Proclamation, a period of over five years, to be adequate and

sufficiently uniform to be considered as evidence of general international
law, for if there had been variations within it, or it had been inadequate,
no such conclusion as to the definitive state of the law could have been
drawn. The Federal Government also linked the practice with the Geneva

Convention. Events after 22 January 1964 could in no circumstances be
held to weaken an official statement of this kind, but in fact they have
only added to its force. For the Geneva Convention has become law,
and subsequent practice has corroborated it further.

The Proclamation is, therefore, as binding upon the Federal Republic

today as it was at the time it was made. A value-judgment of so final
a nature may not be revoked. It should therefore be viewed as an unequi-

lichkeit des Erwerbs von Sonderrechten einzelner Staaten an den ihrer Küste vor-
gelagerten Teilen des Festlandsockels verneint worden. In den letzten Jahren setzte
sich die gegentielige Auffassung durch, dass die Gewinnung und Aneignung der
Schatze des Meeresuntergrundes nicht frei, vielmehr den Küstenstaaten vorbehalten
seien.Als sichtbarer Ausdruck dieser Wandlung kann namentlich die auf der Genfer
Seerechtskonferenzzustande gekommene Konvention über den Festlandsockel von1
29. April 1958 (abgedruckt in Archiv des Viilkerrechts Bd. 7 [1958/59] S. 325 A'.)
gewertet werden, die neben 45 anderen Staaten auch von der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland unterzeichnet und in der Zwischenzeit von 21 diesertaateii ratifiziert
derdniichsten Ratifikationsurkunde iKraft treten.tion bereitsmit der Hinterlegung

Es kann angesichts dessen davon ausgegangen werden, dass der Bundesrepublik
vorn 20. Januar d1964 im Bereich des deutschen Festlandsockels Holieitsrechteg
zustehen, die sich inhaltlich mit den in der Genfer Konvention zugunsten der
Küstenstaaten fèstgelegten Rechten decken."(Verlrandlrtngendes delttsclBlrndes-
rages, 1964, Vol. 91, Drucksache IV12341.) PLA'TEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. LACHS) 235

La proclamation cluGouvernement fédéraldu 22janvier 1964fait donc
état de (l'évolution du droit international généraltelle qu'elle s'exprime
dans la pratique récentedes Etats et en particulier dans la signature de la
Convention de Genkve sur le plateau continental o.Une opinion est ainsi

expriméesur le cara'ctèreet la portée du droit sur le plateau continental.
Elle constitue en fait un jugement de valeur sur l'était du droit en la
matière. On laisse mêmenettement entendre que la simple signature de
cetteconvention, à une époqueoù elle n'étaitpasencoreentrée en vigueur,

montrait que celle-ci traduisait le droit international général.La Répu-
blique fédérale acoinsidérésa propre signature comme un élément cons-
titutif de cette preuve, en y attachant donc beaucoup plus d'importance
qu'on n'en attache inormalement à la signature d'instruments soumis à

ratification. Si les mots ont un sens, on ne peut interpréter ceux-là que
comme la reconnaissance par la République fédéraledu fait que la Con-
vention de Genève (;tait l'expression du droit international général.La

République fédérale a cité expressément lapratique des Etats. Elle esti-
mait donc que cette ]pratique, qui, à la date de la proclamation, s'étendait
sur une période de plus de cinq ans, était adéquate et suffisamment uni-
forme pour pouvoir être considéréecomme apportant la preuve de l'état

du droit international généralcar, si elle avait comporté des variations
ou si elle avait été inadéquate,la République fédéralen'aurait pu en tirer
cette conclusion quant à l'étatdéfinitifdu droit. Le Gouvernement fédéral
a aussi établi un lieri entre la pratique et la Convention de Genève. Les

événements postérieursau 22 janvier 1964 ne sauraient en aucun cas
êtreconsidéréscomme affaiblissant une déclaration officielle de cette
sorte; en réalité,ils n'ont fait que la renforcer. En effet, la Convention
de Genève est devenue le droit et la pratique ultérieure est encore venue

la corroborer.
La proclamation est donc tout aussi obligatoire aujourd'hui pour la
République fédéralequ'elle l'étaità l'époqueoù elle a étéfaite. Il n'est
pas possible de rétracter un jugement de valeur de caractère aussi défini-

lichkeit des Erwerbs vcin Sonderrechten einzelner Staaten an den ihrer Küste vor-
gelagerten Teilen des Festlandsockels verneint worden. In den letzten Jahren setzte
sicli die gegenteilige Auffassung durch, dass die Gewinnung und Aneignung der
Schatze des Meeresuntergrundes nicht frei, vielmehr den Küstenstaaten vorbehalten
seien.Als sichtbarer Ausdruck dieser Wandlung kann namentlich dieauf der Genfer
Seerechtskonferenz zustande gekommene Konvention über den Festlandsockel vom
29. April 1958 (abgedruckt in Archiv des Volkerrechts Bd. 7 [1958/59] S. 325 ff.)
gewertet werden. die neben 45 anderen Staaten auch von der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland unterzeichnet und in der Zwischenzeit von 21 dieser Staaten ratifiziert
worden ist. Nach ihrem Artikel 11wird diese Konvention bereits mit der Hinterlegung
der nachsten Ratifikatii~nsurkunde in Kraft treten.
Es kann angesichts dlessen davon ausgegangen werden, dass der Bundesrepublik
spatestens seit der ohne Widerspruch gebliebenen Proklamationder Bundesregierung

vom 20. Januar 1964 im Bereich des deutschen Festlandsockels Hoheitsrechte
zustehen, die sich inh;lltlich niit den in der Genfer Konvention zugunsten der
Küstenstaaten festgelegten Rechten decken )(Verhandlrrngen des deutschen B~rndes-
rages,1961, Vol.91, Drrrcksache 1\1/2341.)vocal expression of opirliojuris, with al1the consequences floning there-
from. Indeed, if it may be claiined that the opit~iojuris of certain other
States is in doubt or not fully proven, this is certainly not the case of
the Federal Republic. This is a decisive point in the present cases.

As for the e.rposé(les motifs of the Bill on the Continental Shelf, it
stands on the Geneva Convention and the Federal Government's Procla-
mation of 20 January 1964, and States that: "The rules provided for in
this Bill are to be the municipal supplement to the effects of the Procla-
mation in the field of international law" (Verhut~t/lungeri des tlrutscherz
Bundrstagrs, 1964, Vol. 91, Drucksaclic~lV,'2341). It refers to the Con-

vention as a whole with no exception or reservation. The great evidential
weight attaching to documents of this nature is surely incontrovertible.
This Court has held a number of e.~po.scd ;es nzotifs "conclusive" in a
case before it (Fisherics, Juc/,qmcwt,I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 135).

States may obviously change their intentions, conduct and policy,

but it would seriously undermine the worth of and reliance upon state-
ments made by governments if value-judgments of so important a nature
were disregarded or held as not binding upon the governments which
made them. For, to use the words which the Court employed in another
context: "Language of this kind can only be construed as the considered
expression of a legal conception ..." (Fisherirs, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1951, p. 136).

It has been submitted that the two official statements did not specific-
ally cite Article 6. This is true; however, they did not exclude it either.
The Convention as a whole is referred to, andthat undoubtedly implicates
Article 6. And although the actual wording of the first part of Article 6,

paragraph 2, was employed, this cannot be understood as excluding its
remaining provisions. Only a specific exclusion of the other parts of the
paragraph could have had the effect alleged by the Federal Governn-ient.
Any doubt as to this reasoning should be dispelled by the Proclamation's
specific statement that "The Federal Government will shortly submit
an Accession Bill on this Convention". There was no hint of aiiy objec-

tions the Federal Republic might raise to any provisions of the Conven-
tion-more particularly Article 6, paragraph 2-, though this was surely
the tiine and context for placing them on record. There is not even the
slightest evidence that reservations to the paragraph, of whatever scope
or nature, had been contemplated. If agreement between the parties was
nientioned, this, as the Federal Republic has itself indicated (ut irfra),
was because the paragraph in question refers to it "in the first place".

This view is confirmed by a f~irtherrecognition of Article 6. to be found
in the joint niinutes of the delegations of the Federal Republic and thetif. Aussi convient-il de la considérer comme l'expression sans équivoque

d'une opinio juris, avec toutes les conséquences qui en découlent. En
vérité,si l'on peut prétendre que l'opiniojuris de certains autres Etats
est douteuse ou n'est pas entièrement prouvée, ce ii'est certainement pas
le cas de la République fédérale.11s'agit là d'un point décisifpour les

présentes affaires.
Quant à l'exposédes motifs du projet de loi sur le plateau continental,
il se fonde sur la Convention de Genève et sur la proclamation du Gou-
vernement fédéralen datedu 20 iaiivier 1964.et déclare: (Les dis~ositioiis
prévuesdans le présent projet sont destinéesà compléter, sur le plan du

droit interne, les effets de la proclamation dans le domaine du droit inter-
national. ]) (Vcrhandlungen d~s deutschcn Bundestages, 1964, vol. 91,
Drucksache IVjf2341.) 11se réfèreà la Convention dans son ensemble,
sans faire d'exception ni de réserve. La grande force probante qui s'at-
tache à des docun~ents de cette nature est assurément incontestable.

Dans une autre affaire (affaire des Pêcheries,arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951,
p. 135), la Cour a considéréun certain nombre d'exposés des motifs
comme cdécisifs 11.
Il est évident que les intentions, le comportement et la politique des

Etats peuvent changer, mais la valeur et le crédit des déclarations faites
par les gouvernements seraient sérieusement ébranléssi l'on méconnais-
sait desjugements de valeur d'une telle importance ou si l'on considérait
qu'ils ne lient pas les gouvernements qui les ont émis. En effet, pour
reprendre les termes employés par la Cour dans d'autres circonstances:

CrOn ne saurait inlerpréter un tel langage que comme l'expression ré-
fléchie d'une conc:eption juridique.. .))(affaire des Pêcheries, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 136).
On a fait valoir que les deux déclarations officielles ne citaient pas
expressément l'article 6. Cela est vrai; mais elles ne l'ont pas exclu non

plus. La Convention dans son ensemble y est mentionnée et cela com-
prend à n'en pas douter l'article 6. Et le fait d'avoir repris le texte même
de la première partie du paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 ne saurait s'inter-
préter comme excluant le reste de cette disposition. Seule une exclusion

expresse des autres parties de ce paragraphe aurait pu avoir l'effet allégué
par le Gouvernenient fédéral. Les doutes auxquels ce raisonnement
pourrait donner lieludevraient êtredissipéspar le passage de la proclama-
tion où il est dit expressément: 11Le Gouvernement fédéralsoumettra
prochainement au corps législatif un projet de loi d'adhésion à cette

convention. 1II n'est fait aucune allusion à des objections que la Répu-
blique fédérale pourrait élever contre telle ou telle disposition de la
Convention - noiamment le paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 - alors que
c'étaient à n'en pari douter le moment et le lieu de les formuler. IIn'y a
mêmepas la moindre indication donnant à penser que des réservesà ce

paragraphe, de quelque portée ou nature que ce soit, aient jamais été
envisagées. Si l'accord entre les parties a été mentionnéc'est, comme la
République fédéralel'a elle-mêmeindiqué (ut infra), parce que le para-Netherlands, dated 4 August 1964 (Memorial, Annex 4). Though here,
too, reference is specifically made to the determination of the continental
shelf "by agreement", this is because agreement was the obvious objective
of the conference contemplated at the time by the Federal Government

(which in no way implies rejection of the other components of Article 6,
paragraph 2).

This point has been confirmed by the Federal Government itself:

"At that time the Federal Revubiic could still exvect to come to
an amicable agreement with its neighbours on the delimitation of

the continental shelf before its coast on equitable lines inasmuch
as Article 6 expressly refers the Parties to a settlement by agreement
in the first place" (Reply, para.27).

The Reply continues:
"the insistence on the equidistance line as the only valid rule for

the delimitationof the continental shelf, and the reliance on Article 6,
paragraph 2, of the Convention for this purpose by the Kingdom
of Denmark and the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the negotiations
taken up on the instance of the Federal Republic of Germany ...
caused the Government of the Federal Republic to reconsider the
advisability of ratifying the Continental Shelf Convention as long
as the interpretation of Article 6, paragraph 2, is uncertain"(ibid.).

And yet the Federal Republic denies that it has ever recognized Article 6,
paragraph 2 (Reply, para. 28).
These statements cal1 for some comment. For to refuse to recognize
provisions, and to take exception to a given interpretation of them, are
mutually exclusive positions. An interpretation is disputed in the name
of a contrary conception, in upholding which one in fact defends the
provisions as such. Thus eitlzethe Federal Republic has, as it claims,

refused to recognize Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention beyond
its first component (though this refusal leaves the binding force of its
two official statements wholly intact), or it must have held a conception
thereof which caused it to contest a particular interpretation. The two
positions cannot be equated, for interpretation must needs concern the
paragraph as a whole, which in no imaginable conception could have
been reduced to a singleelement, i.e., the determination of the boundary

by agreement. The difference of interpretation could in fact only have
concerned the relationship between the rule and the exception, between
equidistance and special circumstances.graphe en question en fait mention «en premier lieu 1)Ce point de vue
est confirmé par la reconnaissance de l'article 6 que fait également res-
sortir le procès-verbal commun des délégations allemandeet néerlandaise
en date du 4 août 11964(mémoire,ann. 4). Ce texte aussi mentionne ex-
pressément la délimitation du plateau continental effectuée (d'un com-
mun accord 11mai:; cela s'explique par le fait que les négociations par
voie d'accord constituaient évidemment l'objectifde la conférence en-
visagée à l'époquelparle Gouvernement fédéralet n'implique en aucune
manière le rejet des autres élémentsdu paragraphe 2 de l'article 6.

Le Gouvernement de la République fédéralelui-mêmea confirméce
point :
((Al'époque,la République fédérale pouvaitencore espérerpar-
venir à un accord amiable avec ses voisins sur la délimitation sur
une base équitable du plateau continental situé devant son littoral,

d'autant que I'article 6 renvoie expressémentles parties, en premier
lieu,à une solution négociée » (réplique,par. 27).
La répliquepoursuit:

l'insistance miseà déclarer que la ligne d'équidistance est la seule
règle valable pour la délimitation du plateau continental et I'impor-
tance accordée, a cet effet, par le Royaume du Danemark et le
Royaume des Pays-Bas à I'article 6, paragraphe 2, de la Convention
lors des négociiationsengagéessur l'initiative de la République fédé-
rale d'A1lema;zne .. .ont déterminéle Gouvernement de la Ré-
publique fédérale à remettre en question l'opportunité de ratifier
la Convention sur le plateau continental aussi longtemps que l'inter-

prétation de l'article 6, paragraphe 2, demeurerait douteuse »
(ibid.).
La République fédéralenie cependant avoir jamais reconnu le paragra-
phe 2 de I'article 6 (réplique,par. 28).
Ces affirmations appellent quelques commentaires. En effet, refuser de
reconnaître une certaine disposition et s'élevercontre une interprétation

particulière qui en est donnée sont des attitudes qui s'excluent récipro-
quement. On conteste une interprétation en faisant valoir une conception
opposée, mais défendre cette conception équivauten fait à défendre la
disposition elle-miime. Ainsi donc, ou bien la République fédéralea,
comme elle le prétend,refuséde reconnaître le paragraphe 2 de I'article 6
de la Convention, hormis son premier élément(encore que ce refus ne
porte aucunement atteinte à la force obligatoire de ses deux déclarations
officielles),u bien elle devait en avoir une conception qui l'a amenée à
contester une certa.ine interprétation. Ces deux attitudes ne peuvent être
considéréescomme:équivalentescar l'interprétation porte nécessairement
sur l'ensemble du paragraphe, qu'il serait absolument inconcevable de
réduire à un élémentunique, à savoir la délimitation par voie d'accord.

La différenced'interprétation ne pouvait en fait porter que sur la relation In sum, the fragility of the claim to have withheld recognition from
Article 6, paragraph 2, as a whole is manifest. Itis a claim which has
been argued from a change of position on the ratification issue the very
purpose of which was to explain away definitive and unambigucus
statements conveying such recognition. In fact the Federal Republic
made clear its intention to ratify the Convention simultaneously with
the Proclamation acknowledging it and the practice as expressive of

"general international law". The link between such recognition and ratifi-
cation may have been more than merely chronological, e.g. (the latter
resulting from the former), one of cause and effect. Subsequently the
Federal Governnient had second thoughts about ratifying the Conven-
tion. But, given the unreserved nature of the Proclamation and e'cposé
des motfs, the expression of such second thoughts cannot alter the fact

that the Federal Republic-whether or not it ratifies the Convention-
has recognized the binding character of the rules concerned.

The whole of the Federal Republic's reasoning on the subject bears
al1 the marks of an e.r post facto construction. It has obscured the true
legal issue in the present cases. It can have no effect on the recognition

of the Convention (and within it of Article 6, paragraph 2) and of State
practice, reflected in the two officia1statements placed on record by the
Federal Government.

Having thus analysed the position taken by the Federal Republic,
I reach the conclusion that it has recognized the provisions of the Con-
vention on the Continental Shelf and in particular its Article 6,paragraph
2, as binding. Subsequent changes in its attitude, in view of the nature

of its unequivocal statements, can have no legal effect. For, in the
circumstances, its situation cannot be assimilated with that of a country
which "has always opposed any attempt to apply" a rule (Fishcrics,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 131), nor with that of one having
"repudiated" the relevant treaty (Asylum, Juclgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950,
p. 278).

In the light of al1 these facts and of the law, the real legal problem

with which the Court has been confronted is not that of the binding
effect of the equidistance rule upon the Federal Republic, for this is
established, but the question of whether there are special circumstancesentre la règle et l'exception, entre l'équidistance et les circonstances
spéciales.
En résumé,la fragilité de la thèse selon laquelle l'ensemble du para-
graphe 2 tle l'article6 n'aurait fait l'objet d'aucune reconnaissance est

manifeste. Cette thi:se se fonde sur un changement d'attitude concernant
la question de la ratification, changement qui visait précisémenta écarter
des déclarations dkfinitives et sans équivoque exprimant cette recon-
naissance. En fait, la République fédéralea manifesté l'intention de
ratifier la Convention lorsqu'elle a publié laproclamation, dans laquelle

elle considérait la Convention ainsi que la pratique des Etats comme I'ex-
pression du ((droit international général JJ.Il se peut que le lien entre
cette recoiinaissanc,e et la ratification n'ait pas été purement chrono-
logique mais, par exemple, la seconde découlant de la première, ait
constitué un lien de cause à effet. Par la suite, le Gouvernement fédéral

a changé d'avis au sujet de la ratification de la Convention. Mais, étant
donné le caractère inconditionnel de la proclamation et de l'exposé des
motifs, le fait d'avoir ainsichangé d'avis n'empêchepas quela République
fëdérale - qu'elle ratifie ou non la Convention - a reconnu le caractère
obligatoire des règles dont il s'agit.

Tout le raisonnement de la République fédérale à ce sujet présente
toutes les apparences d'une construction à posteriori. II a masqué le
point de droit véritablement en jeu dans les présentes affaires. Ce raison-
nement ne saurait influer sur la reconnaissance de la Convention (et par
conséquent du para.graphe 2 de son article 6)et de la pratique des Etats,

qui s'est nianifestée dans les deux déclarations officielles publiées par le
Gouvernement de la République fédérale.

Ayant ainsi analyséla position prise par la République fédérale,j'arrive
à la conclusion que celle-ci a reconnu aux dispositions de la Convention
sur le plateau contiinental, et en particulier au paragraphe 2 de son arti-

cle 6,un caractère obligatoire. Les changements intervenus ultérieurement
dans son attitude rie sauraient avoir d'effet juridique, vu la nature des
déclarations sans élquivoquequ'elle a faites. En effet on ne peut pas, en
l'occurrence, assimiler la situation de la République fédérale&celle d'un
pays qui se serait 1toujours [élevé]contre toute tentative )Jd'appliquer

une règle (affaire clesPêcheries, arrêC t,.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 131) ni à
celle d'un pays ayant irépudié »le traité en cause (affaire duDroit d'asile,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 278).

Compte tenu de tous ces faits et du droit, le véritable problème juri-
dique posé à la Cour n'est pas celui de l'effet obligatoire de la règle de

l'équidistance pour la République fédérale,car cet effet est établi, mais
la question de savoir s'il existe des circonstances spécialesjustifiant unewhich would justify a departure from it in the present cases. Indeed,
notwithstanding al1 that may have been alleged to the contrary, this is
the implicit burden of the Federal Republic's claim.
Are there in fact any special circumstances justifying a departure from
the equidistance rule? Within the meaning of Article 6, paragraph 2,
"special circumstances" is to be understood as constituting merely an
exception to the general rule. This should not be interpreted otherwise
than in a restrictive manner. Indications to this effect were given by the
International Law Commission: "As in the case of the boundaries of
coastal waters, provision must be made for departures necessitated by
any exceptional configuration of the coast, as well as the presence of
islands or navigable channels" (Yearbook of the International Law Com-
mission, 1953, Vol. II, p. 216, para. 82. Similar and other views were
expressed at the Geneva Conference). There is furthermore room for
the view that the presence of natural resources should not be over-

looked.
What are called "special circumstances" should at al1events rest on
sound criteria. The term should not be made subject to vague and
arbitrary interpretation (Conference on the Law of the Sea, 1958, OfJicial
Records, II, p. 93; VI, p. 91).

Nor should the concept of "special circumstances" be allowed to
substitute another rule for the equidistance rule. The provision should
be thus understood: that a special situation, created by "special circum-
stances" calls for a special, adhoc arrangement.

There must be, in other words, a combination of factual elements
creating a situation to ignore which would give rise to obvious hardship
or difficulties. Here, as elsewhere, the application of the rule, and the
admission of possible exceptions from it, cal1for a reasonable approach.
"Reasonableness" requires that the realities of a situation, as it affects

al1the Parties, be fully taken into account.
The mere fact thnt on the application of the equidistance rule the area
of continental shelf allotted to the Federal Republic would be smaller
than those of Denmark or the Netherlands does not create a qualitatively
anomalous situation such as could be regarded as a "special circum-
stance7'. For the area falling to the Federal Republic would not be
inconsiderable. Moreover, if the notion of "special circumstances" is to
be taken to imply a slanting reference to comparative bases, a much
wider spectrum of factors should be taken into account-e.g., the com-
parative wealth and economic potential of the States concerned.

The evidence produced in the cases before the Court is not in fact
sufficient toustify an exemption from the rule. It has not been shown
that its application would, on account of the bend in the coast, expose
the Federal Republic to any special hardship, impose upon it any unduedérogation à la règledans les présentes affaires. Enfait, malgrétout ce
qu'on a pu avancer en sens contraire, c'est cela qui constitue implicite-
ment le fond de la demande de la République fédérale.
Y a-t-il en fait cles circonstances spécialesjustifiant une dérogation
à la règle de l'équidistance? Au sensdu paragraphe 2 de l'article 6, les
((circonstances spéciales )doivent s'entendre comme une simpleexception
à la règlegénérale. 011 ne saurait interpréter cette expression que d'une

manière restrictive. La Commission du droit international a donné des
indications en ce sens: ((Comme pour les limites des eaux territoriales,
il doit êtreprévuqu'on peut s'écarter dela règlelorsqu'une configuration
exceptionnelle de la côte ou encore la présence d'îles ou de chenaux
navigables l'exigent 1)(Rapport de la Commission du droit international,
1953, p. 16, par. 82). (Des opinions analogues et diverses ont été expri-
mées à la conférence de Genève.)On peut aussi êtred'avis que la présence

de ressources naturelles doit êtreprise en ligne de compte.

Ce que l'on appt:lle icirconstances spéciales 1)doit pour le moins se
fonder sur des critèrl-ssolides. Cette expressionne doit pas êtresusceptible
d'une interprétation vague et arbitraire (conférence desNations Unies
sur le droit de la nier, Documents oflciels, vol. II, p. 106 et 107; ibid.,
vol. VI, p. 110).
II ne faut pas non plus qu'on puisse se servir de lanotion de (circons-

tances spéciales ))pour substituer une autre règle à celle de l'équidistance.
Cette disposition doit donc s'entendre ainsi: une situation spécialecréée
par des «circonstcl~ncesspéciales » appelle un arrangement spécial,
ad hoc.
En d'autres termes, il faut qu'il y ait une combinaison d'élémentsde
fait créant une situation qui, méconnue,entraînerait un préjudiceévident
ou des difficultésincontestables. Là encore, l'application de la règleet la

possibilité d'exceptions doivent êtreenvisagées de façon raisonnable.
Or la raison exige que l'on tienne pleinement compte de toutes les réalités
d'une situation, dans ses effets pour toutes les Parties.
Le simple fait que l'application de la règle de l'équidistance ait pour
résultat d'attribuer à la République fédéraleune zone de plateau con-
tinental plus petite que celle du Danemark et des Pays-Bas ne crée pas
une situation qualiitativement anormale susceptible d'être considérée
comme une ~ccircoinstancespéciale ». En effet, la zone revenant à la

République fédéraleserait néanmoins importante. De plus, si la notion
de :(circonstances spéciales ))doit êtreentendue comme impliquant une
référenceindirecte àdes critèrescomparatifs, il faut prendre en considéra-
tion une gamme de facteurs beaucoup plus large et notamment la richesse
et le potentiel éconc)miquerelatifs des Etats intéressés.
Les élémentsde preuve produits dans les affaires dont la Cour est
saisie ne suffisentpas à justifier une dérogation à la règle.Il n'a pas été
établi que, du fait de la courbure de la côte de la République fédérale,

l'application de la règleexposerait cette dernière à un préjudice spécial,240 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP. LACHS)

burdens or create for it any serious difficulties. Thus1 find no adequate
basis for exemption from the equidistance rule.

In the light of the grounds 1 have set forth,1 deem it unnecessary to
deal with the other issues raised by the three Parties, or the Submissions

made by them. In particular, the question of the combined effect of the
delimitations concerned in each respective case does not arise, as each
is to be determined on the basis of the equidistance rule.

1conclude that the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas
of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them
beyond the partial boundaries already determined by agreement is to

be carried out in accordance with the provisions of Article6,paragraph 2,
of the Geneva Convention of 1958, and in particular by the application
of the equidistance rule. There are no special circumstances whichjustify
anvd.e~arture from this rule.
To my great regret, therefore, 1am unable to concur in the reasoning
and conclusions of the Judgment.

(SignedM )anfred LACHS.lui imposerait des charges ii~justifiéesou lui créerait de graves difficultés.
Je ne vois donc pas de raison qui justifie une dérogation à la règle.

Poür les motifs qlue j'ai indiqués, j'estime qu'il n'est pas nécessaire
d'examiner les autres questions soulevées par les trois Parties, ni les
thèses qu'elles ont présentées.En particulier, la question de l'effet com-
binédes délimitatioris respectivement en cause dans chaque cas ne se pose
pas, chaque délimitation devant être déterminéesur la base de la règle
de l'équidistance.

J'en conclus que la délimitation entre les Parties des zones du plateau
continental de la mer du Nord relevant de chacune d'elles, au-delà des
lignes de délimitaticin partielle déjà déterminées par voie d'accord, doit
s'effectuer conformément aux dispositions du paragraphe2de l'articl6
de la Convention de Genève de 1958 et, en particulier, par application
de la règle de l'équidistance. II n'y a pas de circonstances spéciales qui

justifient une déroga.tionà cette règle.
A mon grand regret, je ne peux donc m'associer au raisonnement ni
aux conclusions de l'arrêt.

(Signé M)anfred LACHS.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Lachs

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