Dissenting Opinion of Judge Tanaka

Document Number
052-19690220-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
052-19690220-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE TANAKA

In spite of my great respect for the Court, 1 am unable, to iny deep
regret, to share the views of the Court concerning some important points
in the operative part as well as in the reasons of the Judgment.
What is requested of the International Court of Justice by virtue of the
two Special Agreements (Article 1, paragraph 1)is to givea decisioii on
the question :

"What principles and rules of international law are applicable to the
delimitation as between the Partie of the areas of the continental
shelf in the North Sea wliich appertain to each of them beyond the

partial [boundaries] determined [in the previous agreements con-
cluded by them namely: the Convention of 9 June 1965 between
the Kingdom of Denmark and the Federal Republic of Germany
and the Convention of 1 December 1964 between the Federiil
Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of the Netherlands]?"

From the Special Agreements it is clear that what is requested consti-
tutes the "principles and rules of international law" applicable to the
said delimitation of the continental shelf and nothing else.
The cases before the Court are concerned with disputes relative to the

delimitation of the continental shelf in the North Sea areas. The fact
that such disputes arose and the decision of the Court was asked indicates
the followingfact. An originally geological and geographical concept, Le.,
that of the continental shelf, by reason of its intrinsic economic interests
(natural resources, particularly minerals such as oil, gas froin the subsoil
of the seabed) which have become susceptible of exploration and exploi-

tation as the result of recent technological development, has been vested
with legal interest and presents itself as a subject-matter of rights and
duties subject to the rule of law and constituting an institution belonging
to international law.
It is beyond the slightest doubt that this original field of international
maritime law involves many new and difficult questions. The fact that
after the "Truman Proclamation" of Septenlber 1945 there followed a

succession of unilateral declarations, decrees and other acts issued by
coastal States declaring theiexclusive sovereign rights over the adjacent
continental shelves was without the slightest doubt a main motive for
starting the legislative work of the Geneva Conference on the ContinentalShelf prepared by the Tnternational Law Commission of the United
Nations. By the Geneva Convention of 1958, the system of the con-
tinental shelf definitively acquired the status of a legal institution.

As to the idea and the fundamental principle which govern the conti-
nental shelf as a legal institution, it is evidently the realization of harmony
between the two interests: the one the interest of individual coastal
States for exploration of their continental shelves and exploitation of
natural resources; the other the interest of the international community,
particularly the safeguarding of the freedom of the high seas.

In this context one point must be emphasized, namely that the institu-
tion of the continental shelf adopts as fundamental principles that the
coastal State exercises over the continental shelf sovereign rights for the
purpose of exploring it and exploiting its natural resources, that these
rights are exclusive and that these rights do not depend on occupation,
effective or notional, or on any express proclamation (Article 2, para-
graphs 1-3, of the Geneva Convention). It must be noted that this funda-

mental concept of the continental shelf, being established as customary
international law, exercises an important influence upon the decision of
the question of delimitation of the continental shelf, as we shall seebelow.

The necessity for legal regulation on the matter of delimitation of the
continental shelf between coastal States can naturally be understood

from the fact that boundary disputes between them as a result of extend-
ing their jurisdiction over areas of the continental shelf nlay involve a
serious threat to international peace, as in case of disputes over land
boundaries. On the contrary, peaceful CO-existence of well-ordered
activities of exploration and exploitation of the seabed and subsoil
natural resources by the States concerned would enormously contribute
to the welfare of mankind.

From the above-mentioned viewpoint it beconles clear that the matter
concerning the delimitation of the same continental shelf between two or
more opposite States or between two adjacent States plays a very im-
portant role-the question which is provided in Article 6, paragraphs 1
and 2,of the said Convention. In thepresent cases this question is involved.
In respect of the delimitation of the continental shelf, as well as of the

continental shelf as a whole, rule of law and not anarchy must prevail.

On the matter of the delimitation, the opinions of the Parties, one the
Federal Republic of Germany and the other the Kingdoms of Denmark

and the Netherlands, are radically opposed. The former denies the
application of equidistance to the present cases; the latter approves itsapplication. The core of the present cases constitutes the question of the
opposability or non-opposability to the Federal Republic of Article 6,
paragraph 2, which provides for the principle of equidistance.
It is evident that the 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf,
particularly its Article,is not opposable as such to the Federal Republic
for the reason of absence of her consent. It is true that she positively
participated in the work of the Convention and became one of the sig-
natory States on 30 October 1958,but she did not ratify the Convention.
This lack of ratification is the reason for the denial of her contractual
obligation regarding the Convention asa whole or in part, and therefore
niakes it unopposable to her. Although the Geneva Convention of 1958,
as a kind of "law-making" treaty, has a great number of States parties,
still it cannot bind outsiders to the Convention,among which the Federal
Republic belongs.

The fact that the two Kingdoms on the contrary ratified the Conven-

tion does not alter this unopposability vis-à-vis the Federal Republic.
This isnot contested bythe two Governments. Therefore it seemsunneces-
sary to deal with this matter further. Still 1 consider it to have some
significance in relation to other contexts.
The followingcircumstances, namelyinaddition to the afore-mentioned
German positive participation in the work of the Convention and its
signature, are to be noted:

The Government Proclamation of 20 January 1964, the esposé des
mot@ to the Bill for the Provisional Determination of Rights over the
Continental Shelf of 15May 1964,and the conclusion of the two "partial
boundary" treaties betwecn the Federal Republic and the Netherlands
of 1December 1964and between the Federal Republic and Denmark of
9 June 1965; in particular, the Proclamation of 20 January 1964 is
extremely significant in the sense that the Federal Republic expressly
recognized the Geneva Convention asthe basis for the exclusivesovereign
rights on her continental shelf. Furthermore, the conclusion of the last
two treaties regarding the delimitation of the continental shelf, seems to
approve the provision of Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Conven-

tion.
These circumstances, operating as a whole, contribute to justification
of the binding power of the equidistance principle provided in Article 6,
paragraph 2, vis-à-vis the Federal Republic should she be bound by a
ground other than contractual obligation, namely by the customary law
character of the Convention.

As to whether a situation of estoppel exists or not, 1hesitate to rec-
ognize this latter because there is no evidence that Denmark and the
Netherlands were caused to change position or suffer some prejudice in reliance on the conduct of the Federal Republic, as is properly stated by
the Court's Judgment.
If, in the first place, the Geneva Convention, including Article 6,

paragraph 2, is as such not opposable to the Federal Republic, the
Court, in the second place, is confronted with the task of examining the
contention put forward by the two Kingdoms as to the existence of the
customary law character (Article 38, paragraph 1 (b), of the Statute) of
the Convention as a whole or the equidistance principle of Article 6,
paragraph 2, of the Convention. If the customary law character of the
Geneva Convention and the principle of equidistance is established, the
latter principlecan be applied to the present cases, and that will be the
end of the matter.
The history of the continental shelf as a legal institution indicated by
theabove-mentioned Truman Proclamation of 28 September 1945,does
not appear to be long enough to have enabled more or less complete
customary international law to have been formulated on this matter.
The practical necessity of regulating a great number of claims of coastal
States on their adjacent continental shelf soas to avoid a cliaotic situation
which may be caused by competition and conflict among them, seemed
to be a primary consideration of the international community. ln 1949

the International Law Cominission, representing the main legal systems
of the world, took the initiative by appointing the Committee of Experts
for the question relating to the territorial sea including the continental
shelf. This Committee of Experts terminated its Report, to which refer-
ence has been made abolie, in 1953.
Parallel with the efforts of the International Law Commission, various
governmental and non-governmental, as well as academic organizations
and institutions, contributed to promoting the legislative work on the
continental shelf by study, examination and preparation of drafts.

The efforts of the International Law Commission were crowned by
the birth of the Convention on the Continental Shelf adopted on 26April
1958by the Geneva Conference which was attended by 86delegations.
That 46 States have signed and 39 States ratified or acceded to the
Convention is already an important achievement towards the recognition
of customary international law on the matter of the continental shelf.
To decide whether the equidistance principle of Article 6, paragraph 2,

of the Convention can be recognized as customary international law, it
is necessary to observe State practice since the Geneva Convention of
1958. In this respect it may be enough to indicate the following five
Agreements as examples of the application of the equidistance principle
concerning the North Sea continental shelf:

(a) United Kingdom-Norway of 10 Marcli 1965;
(b) Netherlands-United Kingdom of 6 October 1965;
(c) Denmark-Norway of 8 December 1965;175 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP.TANAKA)

(d) Denmark-United Kingdom of 3 March 1966;
(c) Netherlands-Denmark of 31March 1966.

1 must also mention the two partial boundary treaties concluded by
the Federal Republic already indicated.
Ttmust be noted that Norway, who is a party to two of these Agree-
ments, acted on the basis of the equidistance principle notwithstanding
the fact that she has not yet acceded to the Geneva Convention, that the
Netherlands adopted the equidistance principle in her Agreement with
the United Kingdom at a time when she had not yet ratified the Con-
vention and that Belgium had recently adopted the equidistance prin-
ciple for the delimitation of her continental shelf boundaries, although
she is not a party to the Convention (23 October 1967 "Projet de
Loi", Art. 2).
It is not certain that before 1958the equidistance principle existed as a

rule of customary international law, and was as such incorporated in
Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention, but it is certain that equidis-
tance in its median line form has long been known in international law
for drawing the boundary lines in sea, lake or river, that, therefore, it is
not the simple invention of the experts of the International Law Com-
mission and that this rule has finally acquired the status of customary
international law accelerated by the legislative function of the Geneva
Convention.

The formation of a customary law in a given society, be it municipal
or international, is a complex psychological and sociological process,
and therefore, it is not an easy matter to decide. The first factor of
customary law, which can be called its corpus, constitutes a usage or a

continuous repetition of the same kind of acts; in customary international
law State practice isrequired. Ttrepresents aquantitative factor ofcustom-
ary law. The second factor of customary law, which can be called its
clnimus,constitutes opiniojuri.r sive ncccssitntby which a simple usage
can be transformed into a custom with the bindingpower. Ttrepresents a
qualitative factor of customary Iaw.
To decide whether these two factors in the formative process of a
customary law exist or not, is a delicate and difficult matter. The repeti-
tion, the number of examples of State practice, the duration of time
required for the generation of customary law cannot be mathematically
and uniformly decided. Each fact requires to be evaluated relatively
according to the different occasions and circumstances. Nor is the situa-
tion the same in different fields of law such as family law, property law,
commercial law, constitutional law, etc. It cannot be denied that the

question of repetition is a matter of quantity; therefore there is no
alternative to denying the formation of customary law on the continental
shelf in general and the equidistance principle if this requirement of
quantity is not fulfilled. What 1want to emphasize is that what is impor- tant in the matter at issue is not the number or figure of ratifications of
and accessions to the Convention or of examples of subsequent State
practice, but the meaning which they would imply in the particular
circumstances. We cannot evaluate the ratification of the Convention
by a large maritime country or the State practice represented by its
concluding an agreement on the basis of the equidistance principle, as
having exactly the same importance as similar acts by a land-locked

country which possesses no particular interest in the delirnitation of the
continental shelf.

Next, sofarasthequalitativefactor, namely opiniojuris sive necessitatis
is concerned, it is extremely difficult to get evidence of its existence in
concrete cases. This factor, relating to internal motivation and being of
a psychological nature, cannot be ascertained very easily, particularly
when diverse legislative and executive organs of a government participate
in an internal process of decision-making in respect of ratification or
other State acts. There is no other way than to ascertain the existence of
opiniojuris from the fact of the external existence of a certain custom
and its necessity felt in the international community, rather than to seek
evidence as to the subjective motives for each example of State practice,
which is something which is impossible of achievement.

Therefore, the two factors required for the formation of customary

law on matters relating to the delimitation of the continental shelf inust
not be interpreted too rigidly. The appraisal of factors must be relative
to the circumstances and therefore elastic; it requires the teleological
approach.
As stated above, the generation of customary law is a sociological
process. This process itself develops in a society and does not fail to
reflect its characteristic upon the manner of generation of customary
law. This is the question of the tempo which has to be considered.

Here can be enumerated some sociological factors whichmay bedeemed
to have played a positive role in the speedy formation of customary
international law on the subject-matter of the continental shelf, including
the principle of equidistance.
First, the existence of the Geneva Convention itself plays an important
role in the process of the formation of a customary international law in
respect of the principle of equidistance. The Geneva Convention con-
stitutes the termirial point of the first stage in the development of
law concerning the continental shelf. It consolidated and systematized

principles and rules on this matter although its validity did not ex-
tend beyond the States parties to the Convention. Furthermore, the
Convention constitutes the starting point of the second stage in thedevelopment of law concerning the contineiital shelf. Tt has without
doubt provided the necessary support and impetus for the growth of law

on this matter.
The coming into existence of the Geneva Convention itself would
psychologically and politically facilitate the adherence of non-party
States to the Convention or the introduction of the equidistance principle
into their practice.
The role played by the existence of a world-wide international orga-

nization like the United Nations, its agency the International Law
Commission, and their activities generally do not fail to accelerate the
rapid formation of a customary law. Ttis similar to the way in which a
customary conimercial law speedily evolves from a standard contract
drafted by experts of business circles to a universal commercial custom.
The Geneva Convention of 1958 on the Continental Shelf, first Iex e.u
corztractuamong the States parties, has been promoted by the subsequent

practice of a number of other States through agreements, unilateral acts
and acquiescence to the law of the international community which is
nothing else but world law or universal law.

Secondly, the legal, scientific and technical, and less political character

of the Convention, and the fact that itsbirth is mainly due to the activities
of the International Law Commission composed of highly qualified inter-
nationally well-known legal scholars representing the main legal systenis
of the world in collaboration with a group of experts, would not fail to
exercise rapidly a positive influence for the formation of opiiliojurissive
neccs.ritatiin the international community.

Thirdly, the urgent necessity of avoiding international conflict and
disorder which may be feared to occur between coastal States in propor-
tion to the rapidly increasing economic necessity of the exploration and
exploitation of natural resources in the subsoil of submarii-ie areas, has
becorne a matter of serious preoccupation not only to coastal States,
but to the whole international community in which consciousness of

solidarity is more than ever intensified.
Fourtlily, it can be recognized that the speedy tempo of present
international life promoted by highly developed communication and
transportation had minimized the importance of the time factor and has
made possible the acceleration of the formation of custoniary interna-
tional law. What required a hundred years in former days now may re-

quire less than ten years.
Fifthly, the circumstance that with regard to the continental shelf,
iilcluding the equidistance principle, there had been no legal system in
existence, either written or customary law, and that therefore a legal
vacuum had existed, has certainly facilitated the realization of the
Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf and customary law on thesame matter. Similar circumstances can be recognized in the fields of air
law and space law.
In short, the process of generation of a customary law is relative in

its manner according to the different fields of law, as 1 have indicated
above. The time factor, namely the duration of custom, is relative; the
same with factor of number, namely State practice. Not only must each
factor generating a customary law be appraised according to the occasion
and circumstances, but the formation as a whole must be considered as
an organic and dynamic process. We must not scrutinize formalistically

the conditions required for customary law and forget the social necessity,
namely the importance of the aims and purposes to be realized by the
customary law in question.

The attitude which one takes vis-à-vis customary international law
has been influenced by one's view on international law or legal philosophy

in general. Those who belong to the school of positivism and voluntarism
wish to seek the explanation of the binding power of international law in
the sovereign wiil of States, and consequeiitly, their attitude in recog-
nizing the evidence of customary law is rigid and forinalistic. On the
other hand, those who advocate the objective existence of law apart from
the will of States, are inclined to take a more liberal and elastic attitude

in recognizing the formation of a customary law attributing more im-
portance to the evaluatioii of the content of law than to the process of its
formation. I wish to share the latter view. The rearon for that is derived
from the essence of law, namely that law, being an objective order vis-à-
vis those who are subject to it, and goveriiing above them, does not
constitute their "auto-limitation" (Jellinek), even in the case of inter-

national law, in which the sovereign will of States plays an extremely
important role.
In this context, 1 venture to quote the statements of two eminent
writers which appear to be valuable for the affirmative conclusion on the
formation of customary international law concerning the nlatter of the
continental shelf.
J. L. Brierly, in TllLa,v of'Nations, 6th edition, 1963,page 62:

"The growth of a new custom is always a slow process, and the
character of international society makes it particularly slow in the
international sphere. The progress of the law therefore has coine to

be more and more bound up with that of the law-making treaty.
But it ispossible even today for ne\v customs to de\,elop and to win
acceptance as law wlien the need is sufficiently clear and urgent.
A striking recent illustration of this is the rapid development of the
principle of sovereignty over the air." D. P. O'Connell, in Iritcnlatio~inlLcrii,,1. 1965, pages 20-21 :
"Much of the traditional discussion of customary law suttèrs

froin the rigidity and narrow-mindedness of iiineteenth-centur>
positivism, which \vas itself the product of a static conception of
society. The ernp!iasis that the positi\~ist places oii the \vil1 of the
State over-formalises the law and obscures its basic evolutionary
tendency. He looks to positive practice without possessing the
criteria for evaluating it, and hence is powerless to explain the
mystical process of Ics,ferrr~rla,which he is compelled to distinguish

sharply, and iinproperly, from 1e.ylirtu . . ."

ln the event that the customary law character of the principle of
equidistance cannot be proved, there exists another reason which seems
more cogent for recognizing this chai-:icter. That is the deduction of the
necessity of this principle frorn the fundamental concept of the continental

shelf.
The starting point is the concept of thecontinental shelf. This concept is
clearly expressed in Articles 1-3of the Geneva Conveiition.
Before we examine this concept, we sliall clarify its nature, iiamely its
customary law character.
There is no doubt that Articles 1-3,wiiich coiistitute the fundamental

concept of the coiitiiiental shelf, are mainly formulated on the basis of the
State practice established since President Truma:i's Proclamation of
September 1945, and that, accordingly, they have the character of
customary law. Thei-efore, even those States whicli have not ratified or
acceded to the Convention could not deny the validity of these provisions
against them. Denying the principles enuiiciated in Articles 1-3 would

depi-ive the non-contracting States of the basis of al1 rights over their
continental shelves.
The fundamental pi-incipleupon which the institution of the continental
shelf is based constitutes the recognition of the solereign rights of the
coastal State for the purpose of its exploration and the exploitation of its
natiiral resources (Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Conventioii). These

sovereigii riglits are exclusive in the sense that if the coastal State does not
explore or exploit its natural i-esour-ces,no one may undcrtake these
acti~ities, or make a claini to the continental shelf, without the express
consent of the coastal State (Article 2,paragapli 2, of the Conventioii).
Tliese rights of the coastal State do not depend on occupation, effective
or notional, or on any express proclamation (Article 2, paragraph 3,of
the Convention).

The fact that the coastal State exercises oter the continental shelf
exclusi\e sovereign rights, and that these rights do not depend on oc- cupation or any express proclamation, explains eloquently the legal
status of the continental shelf asan institution. First, the continental shelf
does not constitute rcs riulliuwhich is susceptible of occiipation by any

State-not only an adjacent coastal State but any other State. Next, the
continental shelf does not constitute a rcs conlnlurlisof the coastal States
which must bejointly exploited or divided by them. The continental shelf
beloiigs exclusively to the coastal State according to the principle fixed
by Iaw which gives the definition of the continental shelf. According to
Article 1 of the Convention, the term "continental shelf" is used as

referring to the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas adjacent to the
Coast. Bythis provision the law prescribes the only condition for a coastal
State to be able to have sovereign rights over the continental shelf. This
condition is of a geographical nature; the existence of the relationship of
adjacency between the continental shelf and the coastal State is required.

The criterion of adjacency-or proximity, propinquity, contiguity-

seems a most reasonable one if one adopts the principle of the sovereign
rights of the coastal State, excluding the régime of res nullius or rcJs
cornmunis. The idea that the continental shelf constitutes the natural
continuation or extension of the coastal State is most natural and reason-
able from the geographical and economic viewpoints.

The principle which governs the delimitation of the continental shelf
and which is provided for in Article 6 is the corollary of the concept
declared in Articles 1and 2. The present cases are related to Article 6,
paragraph 2. This stipulates:

"In the absence of agreement, and unless another boundary line
is justified by special circumstat-ices, the boundary shall be deter-
mined by application of the principle of equidistance from the
nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the ter-
ritorial sea of each State is measured."

The equidistance principle which is incorporated in Article 6, paragraph 2,
fows froin the fundamental concept of the continental shelf as the
logical conclusion on the matter of the delimitation of the continental

shelf. The equidistance principle is integrated in the concept of the con-
tinental shelf. The former is inherent in the latter, being inseparably
connected with it. Therefore, if the law of the continental shelf were
devoid of the provision concerning delimitation by means of the eqiii-
distance principle, satisfactory f~iiictioning of the institution of the
continental shelf could not be expected.
The Federal Republic denies the opposability of the GenevaConvention

as a whole, and consequeiitly denies the opposability of its part, nainely
Ai-ticle6, paragraph 2. However, the Federal Republic has not the slight-
est doubt that she exercises sovereign rights over the continental shelf
of the disputed area. But on what title can she exercise such rights?There should be no other possibility of justification other than by
customary law on the matter of the continental shelf. And indeed she
recognizes the applicability of Articles 1-3 of the Geneva Convention
vis-à-vis herself on a customary law basis. Can the Federal Republic deny
the application of Article 6, paragraph 2, concerning the delimitation of
the continental shelf which she claims as her own? The answer is in the

negative.
The viewpoint of the Federal Republic is to consider the question of
delimitation separately from the fundamental concept of the continental
shelf. However, the rule with regard to delimitation by means of the
equidistance principle constitutes an integral part of the continental
shelf as a legal institution of teleological construction. For the existence

of the continental shelf as a legal institution presupposes delimitation
between the adjacent continental shelves of coastal States. The delimita-
tion itself is a logical consequence of the concept of the continental shelf
that coastal States exercise sovereign rights over their own continental
shelves. Next, the equidistance principle constitutes the method which is
the result of the principle of proximity or natural continuation of land

territory, which is inseparable from the concept of continental shelf.
Delimitation itself and delimitation by the equidistance principle serve to
realize the aims and purposes of the continental shelf as a legal institution.
The Federal Republic, in so far as she insists upon her rights on the
continental shelf, cannot deny the application of itsdelimitation by means
of the equidistance principle. As 1 have said above, the equidistance
principle provided for in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention, is

inherent in the concept of the continental shelf, in the sense that without
this provision the institution as a whole cannotattain its own end.

The doctrine that the equidistance principle is inherent in the institution
of the continental shelf would certainly make a highly controversial

impression. However, even if Article 6,paragraph 2, did not exist or is not
opposable to the Federal Republic, the interpretation of Articles 1-3
would produce the same conclusion. Customary law, being vague and
containing gaps compared with written law, requires precision and com-
pletion about its content. This task, in its nature being interpretative,
would be incumbent upon the Court.

The method of logical and teleological interpretation can be applied in
the case of customary law as in the case of written law. Even if the Fed-
eral Republic recognizes the custoinary la\v character of only the fuiida-
mental concept incorporated in Articles 1-3 of the Convention, and denies
it in respect of other matters, she cannot escape from the application of
what is derived as a logical conclusion from the fundamental concept,-a
conclusion which, in respect of the delimitation of the contiriental shelf,

would reach the same result as Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention.182 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP. TANAKA)

The Federal Republic, referring to the right of the States parties to the

Convention to make reservations to articles other than to Articles 1-3
(Article 12of the Convention), argues in favour of the non-applicability
afortior ofiArticle 6 to the Federal Republic, which is not a State party
to the Convention. This question has been very extensively discussed.
However, if areservation were concerned with the equidistance principle,
it would not necessarily have a negative effect upon the formation of

customary international law, because in this case the reservation would
in itself be nul1 and void as contrary to an essential principle of the
continental shelf institution which must be recognized as jus cogens. It
is certain that this institution cannot properly function without being
completed by some method of delimitation provided by law. It is obvious
that a State party to the Convention cannot exclude by reservation the
application of the provision for settlement by agreement, since this is

required by general international law, notwithstanding the fact that
Article 12 of the Convention does not expressly exclude Article 6, para-
graphs 1 and 2, from the exercise of the reservation faculty. The pos-
sibility of reservation could apply to the application of the special-cir-
cumstances clause, but not to that of the equidistance principle, which, as
indicated above, constitutes an integral part of the continental shelf

régime. In short, a reservation to Article 6, paragraph 2, so far as the
application of the equidistance principle is concerned, is not permissible,
because it would produce a legal vacuum and thus prevent normal
functioning of the institution of the continental shelf.

The Danish and Netherlands Governments have sought to establish
their claim to apply the equidistance principle either by way of the

applicability of Article6, paragraph 2, of the Convention, or by way of
direct inference from the fundamental concept of the continental shelf
which is supposed to be inherent in Articles 1and 2 of the Convention.
For the reasons mentioned above, the contention of the Danish and
Netherlands Governments as to the customary law character of the
eqiiidistance rule applicable to non-contracting States of the Convention,

including the Federal Republic, is well-founded.

The equidistance principle provides a method of delimiting the con-
tinental shelf which must be deemed most practical and appropriate.
Specifically, concerning a boundary matter, it is desirable that the method
be objective and clear. This is the requirement from the standpoint of the
international community's need for certainty.

In this connection 1 would like to make some observations on the
logical relationship between law and technique for the purpose of
considering the nature of the equidistance rule.
We have before us a technical norm of a geometrical nature, which is
calied the equidistance rule, and may serve a geographical purpose.
This norm, being in itself of a technical nature, constitutes a norm of expedieiicy which is of an optional, i.e., not obligatory character, and the
non-observation of which does not produce any further efTectthan fai 'ure
to achieve the result it woiild have rendered possible. This technical norm
of a geometrical nature can be used as a method for delimitiiig the

continental shelf. The legislator, being aware of the utility of this method
for legal purposes, has adopted it as the content of a legal norm.

Thus the equidistance method aî a simple technique is embodied in
law, whether in Article 6,paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention or in
corresponding customary international law. By being submitted to a

juridical evaluation and in\,ested with the character of a legal norm, it has
acquired an obligatory force which it did not have as a simple technical
norm.

The incorporation of the equidistance rule as e geometrical technique

into a legal norm exemplifies an cxtremely svidespread phenomenon
which can be observed in regard to several kinds of extra-legal, social and
cultural norms and in such fields as usage, ethics and technique whicli has
drawn the attention of Professor Gustav Radbruch, who characterizes it
as the investing of one and the same material with a dual axiological
character (Utnk/ei(lung (lr~ssc~/bcMizutc'rialstnit rloppc,ltctlW(>rtcharakter:

Rerlir.~p/~i/o.sopli~r,d ed., 1932, p. 43). He has also described the same
phenomenon as "naturalization". In the case of the equidistance principle,
a technical norm of geometrical nature,after being submitted to juridical
evaluation has become incorporated or naturalized in law as a legal
norm vested with obligatory force.
This distinction between the rule of equidistance as a mere technique

and as a norm of law is very important in relation to the correct discharge
by the Court of the task laid upon it by the Special Agreements.

In the present context, 1 would like to add that there is a wider pos-
sibility of applying scientifico-technical methods to the delimitation of
territorial sea and continental shelf areas than in the case of frontier-

demarcation on land. This is because in the former the particular and
individual feat~ires in the historical, ethnological, social and cultural
sense, which are usually to be found in the latter, do not exist. Here
technique can have full play, as in the case of the delimitation and
division of newly discovered and uninhabited territories, which permit of
automatic demarcation by the drawing of geometrical lines.

Therefore technique, particularly geometrical technique, can have
particular importance for the delimitation of the territorial sea and
continental shelf. It is understandable that in the maritime field the
relation between law and techniques should be more intimate than irithe
field of the delimitation of land territory, that elements of uniformity and
abstraction should be prevalent, and that the role of technique ~itilized

by law should be an outstandingone. In short, law can be more consistent with its idea of objectivity and
certainty in maritime international law than in other fields of law.

The following opinion of Lord McNair in the Fislleries case (I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 161) may be appropriately cited in justification of the
applicability of the equidistance principle in the present cases:

"The method of delimiting territorial waters is an objective one
and, while the coastal State is free to make minor adjustments in its
maritime frontier when required in the interests of clarity and its

practical object, it is not authorized by the law to nianipulate its
maritime frontier in order to give effect to its economic and other
social interests. There is an overwhelming consensus of opinion
amongst maritime States to the effect that the baseline of territorial
waters, . . is a line which follows the coastline along low-water
mark and not a series of imaginary lines drawn by the coastal State
for the purpose of giving effect, even within reasonable limits, to its

econoniic and other social interests and to other sibjective factors."

Article 6, paragraph 2,of the Geneva Convention provides:
"2. Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the ter-

ritories of two adjacent States, the boundary of the continental shelf
shall be determined by agreement between them. In the absence of
agreement, and unless another boundary line is justified by special
circumstances, the boundary shall be determined by application of
the principle of equidistance from the nearest points of the base-
lines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is
measured."

This provision deterinines the application of the equidistance principle.
However, this application is not absolute and immediate. It presupposes
the existence of two negative conditions: namely the absence of agree-

ment and the absence of special circuinstances. Theone is of a procedural,
the other of a substantive nature.
The boundary of the continental shelf shall in the first place be deter-
mined by agreement between the two States before recourse to other
means. The principle thus recognized by the said provision is fully in the
spirit of the Charter of the United Nations, Article 33 (1)of which lays
down that "the parties to any dispute ... shall, first of all, seek a solution

by negotiation", it is also appropriatefrom the psychological and political
viewpoint. Besides, the validity of an agreement concerning delimitation
as between two States can be justified on the ground that the interests
involved are of a disposable nature between them.185 CONTINENTAL SHELF(DISS. OP. TANAKA)

For the settlement of a dispute on delimitation, therefore. the régime

of the continental shelf requires, as a necessary step for the application
of the principle of equidistance, an agreement betweeil the parties to the
dispute. This agreement must be preceded by negotiations.
This requirement is evident. If we adhere too closely to the wording of
the Article, the conclusion would be that the simple fact of the non-
existence of agreement would always authorize the application of the

equidistance principle. But this mere parsiiig of the words is surely
insufficient to elicit the real meaning of the provision. It is a precondition
that genuine negotintions must have taken place and thai, not\r~ithstand-
ing, no agreement was reached.
Regarding the present cases, no difference of view appears to exist
concerning the above-nientioned interpretation of the phrase "in the

ab.~cnccof agreement" and the prior holding of effective negotiation
between the States concerned.
The secoiid condition for the application of the equidistance principle
is the absence of special circumstaiices justifying another boundary line.

The ruirori tl'6rr. f this provision is thatthe inechanical application of

the equidistance principle would sometimes produce an unpalatable
result for a State concerned. Hence the necessity of supplementing the
prescription of the equidistance principle with a clause that provides for
special circumstances and constitutes an exception to the main principle
of equidistance.
It is argued on behalf of the Federal Republic that the special-circum-

stances clause does not constitute an exception to the principle of equi-
distance, but that these two rules are valid on an equal footing, so that
the equidistance principle Ilas no priority over the special-circumstances
clause. However, it may be submitted that it could not have been the
intention of the legislator to leave the matter in a legal vacuuni, to be
decided by the nebulous criteria of justice and equitableness, but that, to

ensure certainty and stability, he would have prescribed some precise rule
to be applied in principle for so long as the existence of exceptional
circumstances did not exclude its application.
It follows froin the foregoing that the condition of the non-existence
of special circumstances for the application of the equidistance principle
has quite a different significance from that of thecondition of the absence

of agreement. The latter condition is a sine yuu non for the application;
therefore the absence of agreement despite genuine negotiations must be
proved by the party wanting to rely on the equidistance principle: it is
not, on the contrary, necessary that such party provc the former con-
dition, namely the non-existence of special circumstances, because the
equidistance principle is available to immediately and automatically fil1

the gap produced by the absence of agreement.
From what is stated above, the limit and scope of the application of the
special-circumstances clause should be apparent. The Federal Republic,minimizing the significance of the equidistance principle, advocates a

broad interpretation of this clause, covering the case where a so-called
"ma~rogeo~ra~hical" configuration would give rise, on the equidistance
basis, to an uiijust and inequitable apportionment. On the other hand,
it is argued on behalf of the two Kingdoms that the application of this
clause should be limited to such cases as the existence of insignificant is-
lands, promontories, etc., which should be ignored in drawing the equi-

distance line. This view seems well-founded. The clause does notconstitute
an independent principle which can replace equidistance, but it means
the adaptation of this principle to concrete circumstances. If for the
foregoing reasons the exceptional nature of this clause is admitted, the
logical consequence would be its strict interpretation. Exceptiorîes sunt
strictissimae interpretationis.Accordingly, the configuration of tiie Ger-
man coastline which by application of the two equidistance lines would

produce unsatisfactory consequences for the Federal Republic, cannot
be recognized as special circumstances within the meaning of Article 6,
paragraph 2, of the Convention.

It is maintained on behalf of the Federal Reuublic. from the viewuoint
of just and equitable apportionment on which her aiguments are based,

that the special circumstances clause constitutes an expression of the
just and equitable principle, and it is sought to deny the relationship
of major principle and exception existing between the equidistance
principle and the special circumstances clause.
It is certain thatthe equidistance principle, being of a technical nature,
does not possess in itselfa moral qualification such as justness or equita-

bleness. However, when this principle was incorporated in the Conven-
tion as a legai norm, it must have bien the intention of the legislator that
in ordinary cases the automatic application of this principle would bring
a just and equitable result. Accordingly, it would not be very far from
the truth if we Saythat the consideration of just and equitable apportion-
ment is inherent in the equidistance principle. But this does not mean

that there is no need of an exception which constitutes the special circum-
stances clause.
The special circumstances clause presents itself as a manifestation of
the same spirit of the main principle. This clause implies some degree of
correction or, as 1have said above, adaptation intended to attain what is
really sought by the equidistance principle. The special circumstances
clause, therefore. does not abolish or overrule the main principle, but is

intended to make its functioning more perfect.
In short, the special circumstances clause in Article 6, paragraph 2,
second sentence, does not signify an inclependent principle which may
compete with the equidistance principle onan equalfooting, but constitutes
an exception recognized in concrete cases to correct the possible harsh
effect which inay be produced by the automatic application of the equi-
distance method. This conclusion is clear from the wording of Article 6,paragraph 2, second sentence which provides ". ..and wiless another
line is justified by special circumstances". [Italics added.] This only
means correction in special, individual cases by drawing another linc and
not the substitution of another principle in place of tlie equidistance

principle.
v

If what has been said above is correct, and the equidistance principle
is, on a customary law basis, biiiding vis-à-vis the Federal Rcpublic,
this is the end of tlie matter aiid there \\,ould be no need to examine

certain other questions wliicli were energetically discussed during the
course of the written and oral proccedings. Among these questions, two
must be considered. The first question is conceriied with tlie alternatives
of delimitation and just and equitable apportionment or share. The second
question is conccrncd with the inciivisibility of the two cases before the
Court and tlie coinbined effect of the two Danish-Germnn and German-
Netherlands boundary lines.

Althougli to answer these questions is not absolutely necessary for
the purpose of dcciding the present cases, 1 coiisider it to be sigiiificant
to deal wiih them, because they are fundamentally related with the
German contention that the application of the equidistance principle
should be replaced by just and equitable apportionment in the present
cases and tlierefore their consideration assists in the understanding of

the intrinsic value of the equidistance principle.
First,we shall consider the question of whether the present cases are
conccrned with the question of deliniitation or tl-iatof just and equitable
apportionment.
The two Kingdoins take their stand on déliniitatioii by the equidistance
principle. The Government of the Federal Republic on the othcr hand,
advocates the principle of just and equitable apportionment.

As we have seen above, delimitation by the equidistance principle
constitutes a logical conclusion derived from the fundaniental concept
of the continental shelf provided in Articles 1-3 of the Geneva Convttn-
tioii. It is aimed at the deliniitation, namely ths drawing of a boundary
line, between the continental shelves already belonging to two States,
and not to division.

It can be said that delimitation constitutes an act of a bilateral nature.
If more than two States are intercsted in the saine continental slielf and
participate in the common negotiation, the solution must be not of a
multilateral nature but of a bilateral nature, namely a combination of
bilateral relationships.
Consequently, the delimitation is individualistic in tlie sense tliat it is
made between two parties without regard to a third party. If it is carried

out by the application of the equidistance principle, delimitation would
be effected in an automatic and ne~itral way in so far as special circum-
stances do not exist. On the otherhand, the alleged principle ofjust and equitable apportion-
ment which is contended for on behalf of the Federal Republic seems to be
collectivistic.It implies the concept that delimitation is not demarcation
of two sovereign spheres already belonging to two different States, but
an act of division, or sharing among more than two States of res nullius

or res cotnmunis. Therefore, the concept of apportionment is necessarily
constitutive and multilateral. It requires sorne criteria for the purpose
of theapportionment ofthecontinental shelf aniong the Statesconcerned.
It can be said abstractly that the apportionment should be just and equi-
table; however, it is not easy to demonstrate in what way apportionment
is,under given circumstances, in conformity withjustice and equitableness.

That the present cases are not concerned with the apportionment of
the continental shelf but its delimitation, is derived from the fundamental
concept of the continental shelf. Besides, the Special Agreements request
from the Court a decision on the nrincinles and rules of international
law applicable to delimitotion and not to apportionment.
The Judgmcnt of the Court is right in rejecting the argument of the

Federal Republic which maintains the viewpoint of apportionment and
not delimitation.
It is to be noted that the Federal Republic complains of the unjust
and inequitable consequences of delimitation by the equidistance prin-
ciple applied to the present cases; she does not limit herself to the cor-
rection of the alleged injustice and inequitableness resulting from such

delimitation, but puts forward a quite new claim for just and equitable
apportionment, which belongs to an entirely different concept from
delimitation, as 1have indicated above.
First, it is necessary to examine whether the application of the equi-
distance principle to the present cases would really produce injustice
and inequitableness at the expense of the Federal Republic, as she argues.
What are the reasons why the application of the equidistance principle

would result in an inequitable effect on the German part in the delimita-
tion of the continental shelf in the North Sea and why is the Federal
Republic opposing the application of this principle to the present cases?

The reasons may be summarized as follows:

First: The German part of the continental shelf would be reduced, by
the effect of the two equidistance lines, to a small fraction of the whole
North Sea area, not corresponding to the extent of its contact with the
North Sea (Memorial, p. 73, figure 18).
Secondly: The German part would extend only half-way to the centre
of the North Sea, where the parts of Great Britain, Norway, Denmark

and the Netherlands meet (Reply, p. 430, figure 5).

Thirdly: The area of the German part compared with the Danish or
the Netherlands part would amount only to roughly 40 per cent. of the
area of Denmark's or the Netherlands' part respectively. This would be189 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS. OP. TANAKA)

out of proportion to the breadth of their respective coastal front facing
the North Sea (Hearing of 23 October 1968). The shares of the Federal

Republic, Denmark and the Netherlands would be in the ratio 6:9:9
respectively if they are measured by the breadth of contact of the coast
with the sea-the country's coastal frontage (Menlorial, para. 78, p77).

Are these reasons put forward on behalf of the Federal Republic
well-founded?
1 consider that the Gerinan contention is a simple assertion without
foundation because the German part constitutes a consequence of the
natural configuration (concavity) of the coastline, namely the rectangular
bend in the Danish-German-Netherlands coastline that causes both

equidistance lines to meet before the German coast thereby limiting
the Gerinan share.
Furtliermore. such a geographical configuration cannot be considered
as causing this case to constitute an example of the application of the
special-circumstances clause provided in Article 6. paragraph 2, of the
Convention.
Examples are not lacking of a large State, because of being given too

small a window on the open sea as a result of a special geographic con-
figuration, getting a very small portion of the continental shelf quite
disproportionate to its large land territory (for instance, Syria, Congo,
Guatemala, Romania). (Sketch map E, submitted by the Agent for
Denmark, Hearing of 7 November 1968.)
Morcover, the alleged proportionate smallness of the German part

compared with the Danish or the Netherlands part is not to be considered
as the result of the two equidistance lines only, but is caused by other
factors: relations on the one hand between Denmark and Norway
(Agreement of 8 December 1965), and on the other hand between the
Netherlands, Belgium (Projet de Loi of 23 October 1967,Article 2 deter-
mining Belgium's boundary with the United Kingdon and France and the

Netherlands), and the United Kingdom (Agreement of 6 October 1965).
The treaties on the delimitation of the continental shelf between these
States are not concerned with the present cases. Accordingly what seems
to make the Danish and the Netherlands parts bigger in comparison with
the Gernian part largely comes froin elsewhere, not at the cost of German
sacrifice.
For the above-indicated reasons, the contention on behalf of the

Federal Republic that the application of the equidistance principle tothe
delimitation of the continental shelf in the present cases produces injustice
and inequitableness, is not, 1consider, well-founded.
The Federal Republic however, on the hypothesis that delimitation on
the basis of the equidistance principle is unjust and inequitable, put
forward a contention for the replacement of this principle. This is the

idea of just and equitable apportionment or sharing. It is not clearwhether the Federal Republic presses this ideaconsistently
or whether she would be satisfied simply to replace the equidistance
principle by some other methods. At any rate, she proposes first the so-
called coastal frontage, namely a straight baseline between the extreme
points at either end of the coast concerned, taking into account the
special configuration of the German coast. Then the sector principle is

proposed in consideration of the particularity of the North Sea.

It seems that these proposals are intended indirectly or directly to
realize the principle of just and equitable apportionment. However, so
far as the coastal frontage is concerned, this imaginary line cannot be
recognized as a basis for the delimitation of the continental slielf of the

States concerned, the sea area being unable to be treated identically
with a solid land-mass froin the concept of the continental shelf, namely
the natural prolongation or continuation of the land territory of the
coastal State. So far as the sector principle is concerned, this idea seems
directly derived from the principle of just and equitable apportionment,

and involves the re-examination and rewriting of boundary agreements on
the continental shelf of the North Sea, not only between the States parties
to the present cases but between them and third States. Such consequences
cannot be tolerated.
The standpoint which conceives the delimitation of the continental
shelf as a bilateral relationship independent of the relationship with a

third State and recognizes the effect thereof, may certainly be exposed
to the criticism that it would result in prior iri ternpore, potior injurOf
course every agreement between States on boundary matters inust be in
conformity with international law, therefore it cannot infringe the rights
of a third party. However, since boundary demarcation of the continental
shelf can be made by bilateral agreement, there is no reason to deny that

the agreements concluded between Denmark or the Netherlands and a
third State, or betueen third States on matters of delimitation of the
continental shelf in the North Sea should be prirnu,facievalid erga omnes.
For the sake of the sccurity of the international legal order, the situation
must be avoided whereby the validity of an earlier agreement might be
questioned because it would produce an unsatisfactory effect from the

point of view of a third party effecting a subsequent act. Such unsatis-
factory effect must be tolerated so far as the present system of delimita-
tion of the continental shelf is based on the principle of the priority of
agreement by negotiations on this rnatter (Article 6, paragraphs 1 and 2).
In the event of the principle of just and equitable apportionment in-
stead of the delimitation by the equidistance principle being applied,

what would be the criteria for dividing the continental shelf among the
coastalStates of theNorth Sea? Besidesthe above-mentioned principles of
the coastal frontage and sector many other factors could enter into con-
sideration, for instance, length of the coastline, continuation of theland
frontier, vertical line drawn on the general direction of the coastlineproportion of size of land territories of the States concerned, etc. Finally
the distribution of subsoil natural resources and the unity of the deposit
might also become an important factor for consideration. The reconsid-
eration and rewriting of the evisting continental shelf boundary lines

between the North Sea States are a very complicated matter. It is the
same with the three States Parties to the present cases. Consequently, the
application of the principle of equidistance can be liighly appreciated
even from the standpoint of its negative function, namely the avoidance
of coniplications which might be produced by the introduction of the
idea of apportionment.

For the above-mentioned reasons, the German contention that the
delimitation of the continental shelf between the Parties in the North
Sea should be governed by the principle of just and equitable apportion-
ment is not well-founded.
From what is said above, the following questions, which presuppose
the application of just and equitable apportionment or at least the just
and equitable principle, are to be set aside from the examination as irrel-

evant for the purpose of deciding the present cases:
(a) Questions which are concerned with the boundary agreements on

tlie continental shelf concluded between Denmark or the Netherlands and
a third State, i.e., the United Kingdom or Norway.
(6) Questions which are concerned with tlie validity of the boundary
agreement on the continental shelfbetween Denmark and the Netherlands.
(c) Questions which are concerned with the details of the definition of
the continental shelf, and its outer limits.
(cl) Questions which are concerned with the particularity of the North

Sea continental shelf.
(e) Questions which are concerned with the nature and the location of
natural resources of the seabed and subsoil of the North Sea.
(1) Questions which are concerned with tlie joint exploitation of a
deposit situated on both sides of the boundary of the States concerned.

The second question which is now to be considered is related to the
indivisibility of the two cases before the Court and the combined effect of

the two Danish-German and German-Netherlands boundary lines, or
whether the two cases should be considered separately.

First, it must be noted that this question is esscntially linked with the
foregoing one, namely the question of delimitation as against just and
equitable apportionment. If the answer to the latter question is in favour
of delimitation, the anslver to the former inust be the recognition of the

divisibility of the two cases. If the answer to the latter is in favour of the
apportionment, the answer to the former must be tlie recognition of the
combined effect. It is evident that two cases are pending before the Court: one between
Denmark and the Federal Republic and the other between the Federal
Republic and the Netherlands. They are concerned with different areas
of the North Sea continental shelf. They were brought before the Court

simultaneously but by separate Special Agreements. However, the ques-
tions at issue in these cases are legally identical, and Denmark and the
Netherlands are in the same interest. That is the reason that the Court
ordered (26 April 1968), in implementation of the tripartite Protocol,
the joinder of the proceedings in the two cases and the appointment
of one Judge a(/ hocby the Governments of Denmark and of the Netlier-

lands.
But the joinder of the two cases from the viewpoint of procedural
expediency does not imply that there is from the substantive viewpoint
one case instead of two cases. There is not one and the same case as
occurred with the Sour11 W(>stAfrica cases.
In reality the two cases with which the Court lias to deal are concerned

with two different boundary lines, namely the Dano-German and the
German-Netherlands lines. The result of this is that, in dealing with the
merits of the two cases, the Court should not take into consideration
the simultaneous existence and mutual relationship or "combined effect"
of the two lines which from a procedural point of view does not exist.
Nevertheless, the arguments on behalf of the Federal Republic, which

constitute the contention of unjustness and inequitableness, are based
on the doctrine of the coinbined effect. What the Federal Republic
complains of is concerned with an area which is delimited by the two
equidistance lines and which seems to be unsatisfactory to her.
We must pay attention to the fact that there was no necessity for
simultaneous presentation of the two cases to the Court. If tlie two

Governments could hake foreseen that their procedural CO-operation
might produce, by reason of the "combined effect", an unfavourable
result, they would have preferred to adopt the procedure of postponing
for some years the pi-esentation of one case to the Court or presenting
the two cases with some interval between tliem.

For the reasons mentioned above, the two cases must not beconsidered,
from a substantive viewpoint, as one and the same case, but be conceived
as separate and independent ones.

One of the issues which 1 consider as important is concerned with
tlie hierarchical relationship between two kinds of legal norms, namely
tliat between natural law and p0sitiL.e law. It may be worth while to
draw the attention of students of law to the fact that this time-honoured
academic theme has found its way into the written pleadings and oral
arguments as a contention on behalf of the Federal Republic. The Federal Republic denied, in the first place, the opposability of
the eq~iidistance principle incorporated in Article 6, paragraph 2. Next

she sought to deny also its character as customary international law.
Finally, she tried to attain the same effect from legal-philosophical con-
siderations concerning the two kinds of norms: natural law and positive
law.
According to the contention of behalf of the Federal Republic, the
application of Article 6, paragrapl-i2, of the Convention, which incorpo-

rates the equidistance principle, should be subordinated to a higher
norm of law which is nothing but the principle of just and equitable
apportionment deriving from the idea of "distributive justice" (justifia
distril~utira) (Memorial, para. 30, p. 301, "the general principles of law
recognized by civilized nations" (Article 38, paragraph 1 (c)) and the
so-called natural law of nations (Hearing of 5 November 1968).
Briefly, the Federal Republic seems to deny the application of Article 6,

paragraph 2,of the Convention for the reason that this would produce
a harsh effect and insists that the norm of just and equitable apportion-
ment be applied overruling the eq~iidistance principle. This contention
reminds us of an appeal to the mitigating sole of equity versus cornmon
law in English law. In the present cases the Federal Republic appeals
to the corrective or complementary function of natural law with regard

to positive law.

However, from the viewpoint of traditional natural law doctrine, the
overruling of a positive law rule by a natural law principle does not
seem to include such issue in question. Natural law does not venture
to interfere with positive law except in the case that positive law rules

are manifestly immoral and violate the principles of natural law. Such
a case cannot occur in the matter of the equidistance principle. Natural
law should not very easily permit the validity of positive law rules to be
contested by invoking natural law to the effect that such rules are not
in conformity with the idea of justice and equity, and therefore contrary
to natural law. It should not open a door to al1subjective and arbitrary
contentions denying the validity of positive law at the expense of secu-

rity and expediency. If a positive law rule is supposed to produce a
harsh or inconvenient effect, the correct course is not to deny the validity
of this rule on account of its unjustness and inequitableness, but to
propose its amendment.

In the present cases the application of the equidistance principle pro-

duces neither injustice nor inequitableness as is argued on behalf of the
Federal Republic. In reality, the question regarding the equidistance
principle is concerned with that of expediency, namely what method is
more practical and convenient for the purpose of delimitation of the
continental shelf and therefore it is of a technical character and not of
a character subject to moral evaluation and overruling by a natural lawprinciple. Of'course, the application of the technical rule of equidistance
may produce an unjust and inequitable result. The Federal Republic

iiisists on the existence of suçh a result in the present cases. However,
as it has been indicated above, such unjust and inequitable result cannot
be recognized in the application of the equidistance principle to the
delimitation of the present cases.
Incidentally, one of the three Aristotelean justices, justifia distributiva
which was referred to on behalf of the Federal Republic, appears to
have only very slight association with her cause. Justifia distributiva is

to govern the relationship between a corporate body and its members,
namely the obligation of a corporation versus its niembers. If we wish
to apply some category of justitia, it would be the justitia commutativa
which prevails in the relationships between individual members in a
corporate body, because the issue is concerned with justice between
individual States in the international community and not an obligation

in the international community versus individual States as its members.

In short, the reference by the Federal Republic to natural law or
distributive justice as a basis for the principle of just and equitable
apportionment does not mean more than asserting the idea: jus est ars
boni et aequi.

The Federal Republic puts forth an argument, namely the principle
of just and equitable delimitation, as an alternative to the principle of
just and equitable apportionment foi-the purpose of denying the exclusive
application of the equidistance principle. It seemsto methat the difference
between the two alternatives is only nominal in the sense that just and
equitable delimitation implies in itself the idea of apportionment. We

can see it from the fact that in both cases the factors to enter into con-
sideration to achievejustness and equitableness are identical. Therefore,
1venture to Say that the above-stated reasons denying the principle of
just and equitable apportionment advocated on belialf of the Federal
Republic can be mutatis mutatzclisapplied to the principle of just and
equitable delimitation.

In this context we must recall that the Judginent has categorically
rejected the principle of just and equitable apportionment. However,
so far as the Judgment recognizes the factors to be coiisidered which
were put forth by the Federal Republic under the said principle, there
is no substantial difference from recognizing that principle itself. The
principle of just and equitable delimitation does not mean more than the
repetitioii of the idea of law.

Next the same can be said concerning the Federal Republic's reference
to Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), as a basis for the prii~ciple of just and
equitable apportionment in the sense that this principle being vague and
abstract cannot offer any criterion for the decision of the present cases.

The character of "general principles of law" is more notably to berecognized in the principle of equidistance than in tiie alleged principle of
just and equitable apportionment. 1consider tliat the legislative process
of the Geneva Convention and, parallel with it, the forrnalioii of custo-
mary international law on the matter of the equidistance principle indicate

the existence of a principle or method of a technical, therefore universal
character on this matter as a common denominator for coiiventional
law and customary law.
My conclusion is that the application of the principle of equidistance
is not overruled by the principle of just and equitable apportionnient
or delimitation. The reference of the Federal Republic to natural law
doctrine or the general principles of law is out of place.

For the reasons indicated above, my conclusion is as follo\vs

1. The first principle of international law to be applied to the delimita-
tion as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the
North Sea is that of obligation to enter into negotiations with a view to
arriving at an agreement as 1 stated above. Accordiiigly, 1agree on this

point with the view of the Court, which is incontrovertible. This con-
clusion cannot be deiiied by the fact that t'ne presentation of the two
Special Agreements \vas preceded by Jetailed negotiations between the
Governinents of the States Parties. The repeated eKort to arrive at agree-
ment by effective negotiation is not excluded at this stage, but is obliga-
tory.

2. The priority of negotiation and agreement is a principle of a pro-
cedural nature. A question arises concerning what kind of substantive
principle must prevail in the matter of delimitation of the continental
shelf: the equidistance principle or the equitable principle?

1 regret that, contrary to the Court's decision, 1 share the view in
favour of the equidistaiice principle instead of the equitable priiiciple
for the reasons indicated above. Particularly, 1 cannot agree with the
Court's view of the application of the latter principle to the present
cases by the reason that it amounts to the following three points:

First, the Court recognizes that delirnitation by the application of the
equidistance principle would produce in the present cases an unjust and
inequitable effect Jetrimental to the Federal Rep~iblic of Germany,
which is not the case, as stated above.

Secoridly, on this hypothesis, the Court admits in favour of the Federal
Republic an appeal to higher ideas of law siich as justice, equity or
equitableness, and reasonableness, which are self-evident but which,
owing to their general and abstract character, are unable to furnish any196 CONTINENTALSHELF (DISS.OP. TANAKA)

concrete criteria for delimitation in the present cases. Reference to the
equitable principle is nothinglse but begging the question.
Thirdly, the factors which may be taken into consideration to carry
out the equitable principle are of diverse nature and susceptible of
different evaluations. Consequently, it appears extremely doubtful
whether the negotiations could be expected to achieve a successful result,
and more likely that they would engender new complications and chaos.

It may be said that the Coiirt's answer amounts to the suggestion to
the Parties that they settle their dispute by negotiations according to
ex aequo etbono without any indication as to what are the "principles
and rules of international law", namely juridical principles and rules
vested with obligatory power rather than considerations of expediency-
factors or criteria-which are not incorporated in the legal norm and
about which the Parties did not request an answer.
It may be said also that the Court seems, by this decision, to be making
a legislative consideration on the apportionment of the continental shelf

which is not of declaratory but of constitutive nature contrary to the
concept of the delimitation and which has been denied by it.
The important matter in connection with the present cases is that
the Parties should have a guarantee of being able to terminate the
possibly endless repetition of detailed negotiations by the final applica-
tion of the equidistance principle. Another importantmatter should be
that, the Court by according the equidistance principle the status of a
world law would make a contribution to the progressive development
of international law.

(Signed K)otaroTANAKA.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE TANAKA

In spite of my great respect for the Court, 1 am unable, to iny deep
regret, to share the views of the Court concerning some important points
in the operative part as well as in the reasons of the Judgment.
What is requested of the International Court of Justice by virtue of the
two Special Agreements (Article 1, paragraph 1)is to givea decisioii on
the question :

"What principles and rules of international law are applicable to the
delimitation as between the Partie of the areas of the continental
shelf in the North Sea wliich appertain to each of them beyond the

partial [boundaries] determined [in the previous agreements con-
cluded by them namely: the Convention of 9 June 1965 between
the Kingdom of Denmark and the Federal Republic of Germany
and the Convention of 1 December 1964 between the Federiil
Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of the Netherlands]?"

From the Special Agreements it is clear that what is requested consti-
tutes the "principles and rules of international law" applicable to the
said delimitation of the continental shelf and nothing else.
The cases before the Court are concerned with disputes relative to the

delimitation of the continental shelf in the North Sea areas. The fact
that such disputes arose and the decision of the Court was asked indicates
the followingfact. An originally geological and geographical concept, Le.,
that of the continental shelf, by reason of its intrinsic economic interests
(natural resources, particularly minerals such as oil, gas froin the subsoil
of the seabed) which have become susceptible of exploration and exploi-

tation as the result of recent technological development, has been vested
with legal interest and presents itself as a subject-matter of rights and
duties subject to the rule of law and constituting an institution belonging
to international law.
It is beyond the slightest doubt that this original field of international
maritime law involves many new and difficult questions. The fact that
after the "Truman Proclamation" of Septenlber 1945 there followed a

succession of unilateral declarations, decrees and other acts issued by
coastal States declaring theiexclusive sovereign rights over the adjacent
continental shelves was without the slightest doubt a main motive for
starting the legislative work of the Geneva Conference on the Continental OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. TANAKA

Malgréle profond. respect que je porte à la Cour, je suis, à mon grand
regret, dans l'impossibilité de partager ses vues sur certains points
importants, tant en ce qui concerne le dispositif que les motifs de l'arrêt.
La question que la Cour internationale de Justice est appeléeàtrancher

en vertu du paragraphe 1 de l'article premier des deux compromis, est
la suivante:

quels sont les principes et les règles du droit international
applicables à la délimitation entre les Parties des zones du plateau
continental de la mer du Nord relevant de chacune d'elles au-delà
des lignes de clélimitation partielle déterminées [dans les accords

antérieurement conclus par elles. savoir: la Convention du 9 juin
1965 entre la P.épublique fédérale d'Allemagneet le Danemark et
la Convention du 1 décembre 1964entre la République fédéraleet
les Pays-Bas]? JI

Il ressort clairement des compromisque ce qui est demandé à la Cour,
c'est d'indiquer les (principes et règlesde droit international 1applicables
à ladite délimitation du plateau continental et rien d'autre.

Les affaires dont I,aCour est saisie portentsur des différendsconcernant
la délimitation du plateau continental dans la mer du Nord. Le fait que
ces différends ont surgi et que la Cour est priéede les trancher prouve
ceci: en raison des intérêtséconomiques en jeu (ressources naturelles,

en particulier minérales, telles que le pétrole ou le gaz du sous-sol du
lit de la mer, que les progrès récents de la technique permettent au-
jourd'hui d'inventorier et d'exploiter) une notion purement géologique
et géographique à l'origine - celle de plateau continental - revêt
désormais une importance juridique, de sorte que l'on se trouve devant

un ensemble de droits et d'obligations soumis à des règles de droit et
constituant une institution qui relèvedu droit international.
Il ne fait aucun doute que cette branche particulière du droit maritime
international soulève bien des questions nouvelles et difficiles. Le fait
que la proclamatiori Truman de septembre 1945 a étésuivie d'une série

de déclarations, décrets etautres actesunilatéraux d7Etats maritimes, par
lesquels ceux-ci proclamaient leurs droits souverains exclusifs sur le
plateau continental adjacent à leurs côtes, est sans conteste l'une des
raisons - et non cles moindres - qui ont amené à entreprendre, à laShelf prepared by the Tnternational Law Commission of the United
Nations. By the Geneva Convention of 1958, the system of the con-
tinental shelf definitively acquired the status of a legal institution.

As to the idea and the fundamental principle which govern the conti-
nental shelf as a legal institution, it is evidently the realization of harmony
between the two interests: the one the interest of individual coastal
States for exploration of their continental shelves and exploitation of
natural resources; the other the interest of the international community,
particularly the safeguarding of the freedom of the high seas.

In this context one point must be emphasized, namely that the institu-
tion of the continental shelf adopts as fundamental principles that the
coastal State exercises over the continental shelf sovereign rights for the
purpose of exploring it and exploiting its natural resources, that these
rights are exclusive and that these rights do not depend on occupation,
effective or notional, or on any express proclamation (Article 2, para-
graphs 1-3, of the Geneva Convention). It must be noted that this funda-

mental concept of the continental shelf, being established as customary
international law, exercises an important influence upon the decision of
the question of delimitation of the continental shelf, as we shall seebelow.

The necessity for legal regulation on the matter of delimitation of the
continental shelf between coastal States can naturally be understood

from the fact that boundary disputes between them as a result of extend-
ing their jurisdiction over areas of the continental shelf nlay involve a
serious threat to international peace, as in case of disputes over land
boundaries. On the contrary, peaceful CO-existence of well-ordered
activities of exploration and exploitation of the seabed and subsoil
natural resources by the States concerned would enormously contribute
to the welfare of mankind.

From the above-mentioned viewpoint it beconles clear that the matter
concerning the delimitation of the same continental shelf between two or
more opposite States or between two adjacent States plays a very im-
portant role-the question which is provided in Article 6, paragraphs 1
and 2,of the said Convention. In thepresent cases this question is involved.
In respect of the delimitation of the continental shelf, as well as of the

continental shelf as a whole, rule of law and not anarchy must prevail.

On the matter of the delimitation, the opinions of the Parties, one the
Federal Republic of Germany and the other the Kingdoms of Denmark

and the Netherlands, are radically opposed. The former denies the
application of equidistance to the present cases; the latter approves itsconférence de Cenc!ve sur le plateau continental, une Œuvre de Iégisla-
tion que la Commission du droit international des Nations Unies avait
préparée.Par la Convention de Genève de 1958, le régime du plateau
continental a définitivement assumé le caractère d'une institution juridi-
que.
Quant à l'idée de base, au principe fondamental, qui régissent le

plateau continental1 en tant qu'institution juridique, il est évident que
c'est la nécessitéde:concilier les deux intérêtsen présence: celui de tout
Etat riverain, qui eistd'explorer son plateau continental et d'en exploiter
les ressources naturelles et celui de la con~munauté internationale,
touchant en particulier la sauvegarde de la libertéde la haute mer.
A ce sujet, il corivient de souligner ceci: l'institution du plateau con-
tinental repose sur certains principes fondamentaux, à savoir que 1'Etat

riverain exerce des droits souverains sur le plateau continental aux fins
de l'exploration de icelui-ciet de l'exploitation de ses ressources naturelles,
que ces droits sont exclusifs et qu'ils sont indépendants de l'occupation
effective ou fictive, aussi bien que de toute proclamation expresse (art. 2,
par. 1-3 de la Convention de Genève). Ilfaut constater que cette con-
ception fondamentale du plateau continental, consacrée par le droit

international coutumier,joue un rôle important quand il s'agit de décider
de la délimitation du plateau continental, comme nous le verrons ci-
après.
On conçoit la nécessitéde réglementer, sur le plan juridique, la délimi-
tation du plateau continental entre Etats riverains, si l'on songe que les
querelles de limites qui peuvent surgir entre ces Etats dès lors qu'ils

étendent leur juridiction sur des zones du plateau continental risquent
de gravement menacer la paix internationale, de mêmeque les différends
concernant les frointières terrestres. Au contraire, la coexistence, dans
la paix et dans l'ordre, d'activités d'exploration et d'exploitation des
ressources naturelles du lit de la mer et de son sous-sol par les Etats
intéressés,contribuerait énormément au bien de l'humanité.

Dans ces conditilons, il est clair que la délimitation d'un même plateau
continental entre deux ou plusieurs Etats dont les côtes se font face ou
entre deux Etats adjacents est une question extrêmement importante.
C'est cette question mêmequi fait l'objet des dispositions de l'article 6,
paragraphes 1 et 2, de la Convention, et c'est celle qui est en jeu dans
les présentesaffaires. Dans la délimitation du plateau continental, comme
du reste pour tout ce qui touche à celui-ci, c'est ledroit - et non l'anar-

chie - qui doit régner.

Sur la délimitation, la République fédérale d'Allemagne d'une part
et les Royaumes du Danemark et des Pays-Bas de l'autre ont des opinions

radicalement opposées. La première nie que l'équidistance s'applique en
l'espèce; les secondls sont en faveur de cette application. Essentiellement,application. The core of the present cases constitutes the question of the
opposability or non-opposability to the Federal Republic of Article 6,
paragraph 2, which provides for the principle of equidistance.
It is evident that the 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf,
particularly its Article,is not opposable as such to the Federal Republic
for the reason of absence of her consent. It is true that she positively
participated in the work of the Convention and became one of the sig-
natory States on 30 October 1958,but she did not ratify the Convention.
This lack of ratification is the reason for the denial of her contractual
obligation regarding the Convention asa whole or in part, and therefore
niakes it unopposable to her. Although the Geneva Convention of 1958,
as a kind of "law-making" treaty, has a great number of States parties,
still it cannot bind outsiders to the Convention,among which the Federal
Republic belongs.

The fact that the two Kingdoms on the contrary ratified the Conven-

tion does not alter this unopposability vis-à-vis the Federal Republic.
This isnot contested bythe two Governments. Therefore it seemsunneces-
sary to deal with this matter further. Still 1 consider it to have some
significance in relation to other contexts.
The followingcircumstances, namelyinaddition to the afore-mentioned
German positive participation in the work of the Convention and its
signature, are to be noted:

The Government Proclamation of 20 January 1964, the esposé des
mot@ to the Bill for the Provisional Determination of Rights over the
Continental Shelf of 15May 1964,and the conclusion of the two "partial
boundary" treaties betwecn the Federal Republic and the Netherlands
of 1December 1964and between the Federal Republic and Denmark of
9 June 1965; in particular, the Proclamation of 20 January 1964 is
extremely significant in the sense that the Federal Republic expressly
recognized the Geneva Convention asthe basis for the exclusivesovereign
rights on her continental shelf. Furthermore, the conclusion of the last
two treaties regarding the delimitation of the continental shelf, seems to
approve the provision of Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Conven-

tion.
These circumstances, operating as a whole, contribute to justification
of the binding power of the equidistance principle provided in Article 6,
paragraph 2, vis-à-vis the Federal Republic should she be bound by a
ground other than contractual obligation, namely by the customary law
character of the Convention.

As to whether a situation of estoppel exists or not, 1hesitate to rec-
ognize this latter because there is no evidence that Denmark and the
Netherlands were caused to change position or suffer some prejudice inla présente affaire se ramène à la question de savoir si l'article 6, para-

graphe 2, de la Convention, qui prévoit l'application du principe de
l'équidistance, est opposable ou non à la République fédérale.
Il est évident que la Convention sur le plateau continental de 1958,
et en particulierson article 6, n'est pas opposable en tant que telle à la
République fédérale puisque son consentement fait défaut. II est exact
que la République fiidéralea participé de manière positive à l'élaboration

de la Convention et qu'elle en est devenue l'un des Etats signataires le
30 octobre 1958, mais elle ne l'a pas ratifiée. C'est en raison de cette
absence de ratification qu'elle nieavoir assumé l'obligation contractuelle
d'appliquer tout ou partie de la Convention, de sorte que celle-ci ne lui
est pas opposable. Bien que la Convention de Genève de 1958 soit un
traité à caractère normatif, et que ses parties contractantes soient par

conséquent nombreuses, elle ne peut cependant lier les Etats qui sont
restésen dehors de la Convention, parmi lesquels se trouve précisément
la République fédérale.
Que le Danemark et les Pays-Bas aient au contraire ratifiéla Conven-
tion ne change rien au fait que celle-ci est inopposable à la République
fédérale. Lesdeux ,gouvernements ne le contestent d'ailleurs pas. J1n'y
aurait donc pas lieu d'approfondir cette question, mais elle me parait

revêtirune certaine importance à d'autres points de vue.
Un certain nombre d'éléments méritent d'être ris en considération.
outre le fait que la République fédéralea, comme on l'a dit plus haut,
contribué positiven~ent à l'élaboration de la Convention et qu'elle l'a
signée.
Ce sont la proclamation gouvernementale du 20janvier 1964, l'exposé

des motifs du projet de loi allemand sur la détermination provisoire
des droits sur le plateau continental en date du 15 mai 1964 et les deux
traités de délimitation partielle conclus l'un entre la République fédérale
et les Pays-Bas le1"' décembre 1964,l'autre entre la République fédérale
et le Danemark le 9 juin 1965; la proclamation du 20 janvier 1964 en
particulier est extrEmenient importante en ce sens que la République

fédérale y a expressémentreconnu que la Convention de Genève cons-
tituait la base de ses droits souverains exclusifs sur son plateau con-
tinental. Les deux traités de délimitation du plateau continental susvisés
paraissent d'autre part s'appuyer sur les dispositions de l'article 6, para-
graphe 2, de la Convention de Genève.
Ces divers éléments,pris ensemble, tendent à confirmer que le principe
de l'équidistance prévu à l'article 6, paragraphe 2, de la Convention,

serait obli~atoire pour la République fédéralesi elle était liéeautrement
que par une obligation contractuelle, c'est-à-dire, en l'occurrence, parce
que les dispositions de la Convention auraient le caractère de règles de
droit coutumier.
A la question de savoir s'il existe ou non une situation d'estoppel,
j'hésiterai à répondre par l'affirmative, parce que rien n'indique que le

Danemark et les Pays-Bas, se fondant sur l'attitude de la République reliance on the conduct of the Federal Republic, as is properly stated by
the Court's Judgment.
If, in the first place, the Geneva Convention, including Article 6,

paragraph 2, is as such not opposable to the Federal Republic, the
Court, in the second place, is confronted with the task of examining the
contention put forward by the two Kingdoms as to the existence of the
customary law character (Article 38, paragraph 1 (b), of the Statute) of
the Convention as a whole or the equidistance principle of Article 6,
paragraph 2, of the Convention. If the customary law character of the
Geneva Convention and the principle of equidistance is established, the
latter principlecan be applied to the present cases, and that will be the
end of the matter.
The history of the continental shelf as a legal institution indicated by
theabove-mentioned Truman Proclamation of 28 September 1945,does
not appear to be long enough to have enabled more or less complete
customary international law to have been formulated on this matter.
The practical necessity of regulating a great number of claims of coastal
States on their adjacent continental shelf soas to avoid a cliaotic situation
which may be caused by competition and conflict among them, seemed
to be a primary consideration of the international community. ln 1949

the International Law Cominission, representing the main legal systems
of the world, took the initiative by appointing the Committee of Experts
for the question relating to the territorial sea including the continental
shelf. This Committee of Experts terminated its Report, to which refer-
ence has been made abolie, in 1953.
Parallel with the efforts of the International Law Commission, various
governmental and non-governmental, as well as academic organizations
and institutions, contributed to promoting the legislative work on the
continental shelf by study, examination and preparation of drafts.

The efforts of the International Law Commission were crowned by
the birth of the Convention on the Continental Shelf adopted on 26April
1958by the Geneva Conference which was attended by 86delegations.
That 46 States have signed and 39 States ratified or acceded to the
Convention is already an important achievement towards the recognition
of customary international law on the matter of the continental shelf.
To decide whether the equidistance principle of Article 6, paragraph 2,

of the Convention can be recognized as customary international law, it
is necessary to observe State practice since the Geneva Convention of
1958. In this respect it may be enough to indicate the following five
Agreements as examples of the application of the equidistance principle
concerning the North Sea continental shelf:

(a) United Kingdom-Norway of 10 Marcli 1965;
(b) Netherlands-United Kingdom of 6 October 1965;
(c) Denmark-Norway of 8 December 1965;fédérale,aient étéarnenésà modifier leur position ou à subir un préjudice
quelconque, comme la Cour le fait à juste titre observer.
Si I'on peut conclure que la Convention de Genève, y compris le
paragraphe 2 de son article 6, n'est pas opposable en tant que telle à

la République fédérale,il reste a examiner la thèse des deux gouverne-
ments, suivant laquelle la Convention dans son ensemble, ou bien le
principe de l'équidistance énoncéau paragraphe 2 de son article 6,
présenterait le caractère de coutume internationale (art. 38, par. 1b),
du Statut). Au cas où il serait établi que la Convention de Genève et
le principe de l'équidistance ont le caractère de droit coutumier, le
principe de I'équidiistances'appliquerait en l'espèce et I'on pourrait s'en

tenir à cette constatation.
L'histoire du plateau continental en tant qu'institution juridique, dont
le point de départ lest la proclamation Truman du 28 septembre 1945,
rappelée ci-dessus, ne semble pas avoir étéassez longue pour qu'une
coutume plus ou moins complète se soit formée en droit international.
La communauté ini.ernationale s'est avant tout ~réoccuoée.semble-t-il.
. ,
de la nécessitépratique de régler un grand nombre de revendications
d'Etats riverains sur le vlateau continental adjacent A leur territoire. de
façon à éviterle chaos que risquaient de provoquer leur rivalité et leurs
conflits. En 1949, 1;1Commission du droit international, représentative
des principaux systkmes juridiques du monde, a pris l'initiative dans ce
domaine en chargeant un comitéd'experts d'étudier laquestion relative
à la mer territoriale, y compris le plateau continental. Ce comitéd'experts

a terminé en 1953 la rédaction de son rapport.
En même temps que la Commission du droit international, diverses
institutions gouvernementales et non gouvernementales, ainsi que des
centres académiques, ont apporté leur concours au travail législatifcon-
sacré au plateau continental, par l'étude, l'examen et l'élaboration de
projets.
Les travaux de 1;aCommission du droit international ont abouti, le

26 avril 1958. à l'adoption de la Convention sur le plateau continental
par la conférence de Genève, a laquelle assistaient 86 délégations.
Que 46 Etats aient signéla Convention, et que 39 l'aient ratifiée ou y
aient adhéré, constitue déjàen soi un élémentpositif important dans le
sens de la reconnaissance d'une coutume internationale dans ce domaine.
Pour décider si le principe de l'équidistance énoncéau paragraplie 2
de l'article6 de la Convention peut êtrereconnu comme règle de droit

international coutumier, il convient d'examiner quelle a étéla pratique
des Etats depuis la Convention de Genève de 1958. A cet égard,il suffira
peut-êtrede citer les cinq traités ci-après à titre d'exemples de I'applica-
tion du principe de: l'équidistance au plateau continental de la mer du
Nord:

O) traité entre la Norvège et le Royaume-Uni du 10 mars 1965:
b) traité entre les Pays-Bas et le Royaume-Uni du 6 octobre 1965;
c) traité entre le Danemark et la Norvège du 8 décembre 1965;175 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP.TANAKA)

(d) Denmark-United Kingdom of 3 March 1966;
(c) Netherlands-Denmark of 31March 1966.

1 must also mention the two partial boundary treaties concluded by
the Federal Republic already indicated.
Ttmust be noted that Norway, who is a party to two of these Agree-
ments, acted on the basis of the equidistance principle notwithstanding
the fact that she has not yet acceded to the Geneva Convention, that the
Netherlands adopted the equidistance principle in her Agreement with
the United Kingdom at a time when she had not yet ratified the Con-
vention and that Belgium had recently adopted the equidistance prin-
ciple for the delimitation of her continental shelf boundaries, although
she is not a party to the Convention (23 October 1967 "Projet de
Loi", Art. 2).
It is not certain that before 1958the equidistance principle existed as a

rule of customary international law, and was as such incorporated in
Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention, but it is certain that equidis-
tance in its median line form has long been known in international law
for drawing the boundary lines in sea, lake or river, that, therefore, it is
not the simple invention of the experts of the International Law Com-
mission and that this rule has finally acquired the status of customary
international law accelerated by the legislative function of the Geneva
Convention.

The formation of a customary law in a given society, be it municipal
or international, is a complex psychological and sociological process,
and therefore, it is not an easy matter to decide. The first factor of
customary law, which can be called its corpus, constitutes a usage or a

continuous repetition of the same kind of acts; in customary international
law State practice isrequired. Ttrepresents aquantitative factor ofcustom-
ary law. The second factor of customary law, which can be called its
clnimus,constitutes opiniojuri.r sive ncccssitntby which a simple usage
can be transformed into a custom with the bindingpower. Ttrepresents a
qualitative factor of customary Iaw.
To decide whether these two factors in the formative process of a
customary law exist or not, is a delicate and difficult matter. The repeti-
tion, the number of examples of State practice, the duration of time
required for the generation of customary law cannot be mathematically
and uniformly decided. Each fact requires to be evaluated relatively
according to the different occasions and circumstances. Nor is the situa-
tion the same in different fields of law such as family law, property law,
commercial law, constitutional law, etc. It cannot be denied that the

question of repetition is a matter of quantity; therefore there is no
alternative to denying the formation of customary law on the continental
shelf in general and the equidistance principle if this requirement of
quantity is not fulfilled. What 1want to emphasize is that what is impor-d) traité entre le Danemark et le Royaume-Uni du 3 mars 1966;

e) traité entre le Danemark et les Pays-Bas du 31 mars 1966.
Je rappellerai également les deuxtraités de délimitation partielle conclus
par la République fkdérale,dont il a déjàété fait mention.
Ilconvient de relever que la Norvège, qui est partie à deux des accords

énumérésci-dessus, s'est fondée sur le principe de l'équidistance bien
qu'en fait elle n'ait pas encore adhéré à la Convention de Genève; que
les Pays-Bas ont adopté également ce principe dans leur accord avec le
Royaume-Uni à un moment où ils n'avaient pas encore ratifié la Con-
vention; et que la ]Belgique a récemment décidéde retenir le principe

de l'équidistance pour la délimitation de son plateau continental bien
qu'elle ne soit pas partie à la Convention (art. 2 du projet de loi du
23 octobre 1967).
11n'est pas certain qu'antérieurement à 1958 le principe de I'équidis-
tance ait étéune règle de droit international coutumier, et qu'il ait été

incorporé en tant quietel au paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la Convention;
ilest cependant hors de doute que l'équidistance, sous la forme du tracé
d'une ligne médiane, est connue depuis longtemps en droit international
et appliquée au tract5de limites en mer, dans des lacs ou dans des fleuves.
Ce n'est donc pas une invention pure et simple des experts de la Com-
mission di1 droit international, et le principe a acquis en définitive

l'autorité de rèule cle droit international coutumier au terme d'un Dro-
cessus que la Convention de Genève, par son rôle normatif, a contribué
a accélérer.
La formation d'un droit coutumier dans une sociétédonnée, nationale
ou internationale, est un processus psychologique et sociologique com-

plexe - et donc assez difficile2 identifier. Le premier élément constitutif
du droit coutumier, que I'on peut appeler son corpus, consiste en un
uwge ou en la répétition persistante d'une mêmecatégorie d'actes; en
un mot le droit international coutumier repose sur la pratique des Etats.
C'est son aspect quantitatif. Le second Clément du droit coutumier,
que I'on peut appeler son animus, consiste en l'opiniojuris sive t~ecessitritis

par laquelle un simple usage peut se tranformer en une coutume à force
obligatoire. C'est l'aspect qualitatif du droit coutumier.
Déterminer si ces deux facteurs sont réunis ou non dans le processus
de formation d'un droit coutunlier soulève des problèmes délicats et
dificiles à résoudre. On ne peut pas niesurer selon des critkres mathé-

matiques et uniformes la répétition,le nombre d'exemples de la pratique
des Etrits ou la durée nécessaires à la formation d'un droit coutumier.
Chaque fait doit être appréciéenfonction des circonstances particulières.
La situation ne se présente pas non plus de la mêmemanière dans les
différentsdomaines du droit - droit de la famille, droit des biens, droit
conirnercial. droit constitutionnel, etc.Il est indéniable que la question

de la répktitionse pose entermes de quantité; on ne saurait donc admettre
1~formation d'un droit coutumier concernant le plateau continental en
généralet le principe de l'équidistance en particulier si cette condition tant in the matter at issue is not the number or figure of ratifications of
and accessions to the Convention or of examples of subsequent State
practice, but the meaning which they would imply in the particular
circumstances. We cannot evaluate the ratification of the Convention
by a large maritime country or the State practice represented by its
concluding an agreement on the basis of the equidistance principle, as
having exactly the same importance as similar acts by a land-locked

country which possesses no particular interest in the delirnitation of the
continental shelf.

Next, sofarasthequalitativefactor, namely opiniojuris sive necessitatis
is concerned, it is extremely difficult to get evidence of its existence in
concrete cases. This factor, relating to internal motivation and being of
a psychological nature, cannot be ascertained very easily, particularly
when diverse legislative and executive organs of a government participate
in an internal process of decision-making in respect of ratification or
other State acts. There is no other way than to ascertain the existence of
opiniojuris from the fact of the external existence of a certain custom
and its necessity felt in the international community, rather than to seek
evidence as to the subjective motives for each example of State practice,
which is something which is impossible of achievement.

Therefore, the two factors required for the formation of customary

law on matters relating to the delimitation of the continental shelf inust
not be interpreted too rigidly. The appraisal of factors must be relative
to the circumstances and therefore elastic; it requires the teleological
approach.
As stated above, the generation of customary law is a sociological
process. This process itself develops in a society and does not fail to
reflect its characteristic upon the manner of generation of customary
law. This is the question of the tempo which has to be considered.

Here can be enumerated some sociological factors whichmay bedeemed
to have played a positive role in the speedy formation of customary
international law on the subject-matter of the continental shelf, including
the principle of equidistance.
First, the existence of the Geneva Convention itself plays an important
role in the process of the formation of a customary international law in
respect of the principle of equidistance. The Geneva Convention con-
stitutes the termirial point of the first stage in the development of
law concerning the continental shelf. It consolidated and systematized

principles and rules on this matter although its validity did not ex-
tend beyond the States parties to the Convention. Furthermore, the
Convention constitutes the starting point of the second stage in thede quantité n'est pas remplie. Ce que je veux souligner ici c'est que

l'important en la m,atière n'est pas tant le nombre de ratifications et
d'adhésions dont la Convention a fait l'objet ni le nombre des exemples
tirésde la pratique ultérieure des Etats, mais plutôt la signification qu'on
peut leur attribuer dans les circonstances dont elles s'entourent. Nous
ne pouvons pas considérer que la ratification de la Convention par une

grande puissance miiritime ou le fait qu'elle conclut une convention
consacrant le principe de l'éqiiidistance ont exactement la mêmeim-
portance que des actes semblables, accomplis par un Etat sans litto-
ral, qui n'a pas d'intérêt particulierà la délimitation du plateau conti-
nental.

D'autre part, l'existence du facteur qualitatif, c'est-à-dire de I'opinio
juris siile necessitatis, est extrêmement difficile à établir dans des cas
concrets. Comme ce facteur met en cause les motifs profonds et présente
de ce fait un caractère psychologique, il est assez malaisé d'en constater
la présence, notamment lorsque, dans l'ordre interne, divers organes

législatifs et exécutif!;prennent part à l'élaboration des décisions, qu'il
s'agisse de ratification ou d'autres actes de 1'Etat. Le seul moyen d'établir
I'opiniojuris est de se fonder sur l'existence d'une certaine coutume et
sur le fait que la communauté internationale en ressent la nécessité,
plutôt que d'essayer - ce qui est d'ailleurs impossible - d'apporter la

preuve des motifs siibjectifs à la base de chaque exemple de pratique
étatique.
Ainsi, ilne faut pas interpréter de manière trop rigide les deux éléments
nécessairesil la formation d'un droit coutumier en matière de délimita-
tion du plateau contiinental, mais au contraire les apprécier en fonction
des circonstances - et donc avec une certaine souplesse; en d'autres

termes, il faut se placer dans une perspective téléologique.
Comme je l'ai indiqué plus haut, la genèse du droit coutumier est un
processus sociologiqile, qui s'inscrit dans le cadre d'une société déter-
minéeet les caractériistiquesde cette dernière se reflètent immanquable-
ment dans la manière dont le droit coutumier prend naissance. Ceci nous

amène à la question du délai de formation plus ou moins grand, qu'il
faut maintenant prendre en considération.
On peut énumérerici certains facteurs sociaux qui peuvent êtrecon-
sidéréscomme ayanit positivement contribué à la formation rapide du
droit international coutumier relatif au plateau continental et en par-

ticulier au principe de l'équidistance.
En premier lieu l'existence de la Convention de Genève elle-même
joue un rôle important dans le processus de formation du droit inter-
national coutumier, en ce qui concerne le principe de l'équidistance.
La Convention de Genève a marqué l'aboutissement d'une première

étape dans le développement du droit relatif au plateau continental.
Elle a consacré et systématiséun certain nombre de principes et de règles,
bien que son application se limite aux Etats parties. Elle a été enoutre
le point de départ d'une deuxième étape du développement du droit dudevelopment of law concerning the contineiital shelf. Tt has without
doubt provided the necessary support and impetus for the growth of law

on this matter.
The coming into existence of the Geneva Convention itself would
psychologically and politically facilitate the adherence of non-party
States to the Convention or the introduction of the equidistance principle
into their practice.
The role played by the existence of a world-wide international orga-

nization like the United Nations, its agency the International Law
Commission, and their activities generally do not fail to accelerate the
rapid formation of a customary law. Ttis similar to the way in which a
customary conimercial law speedily evolves from a standard contract
drafted by experts of business circles to a universal commercial custom.
The Geneva Convention of 1958 on the Continental Shelf, first Iex e.u
corztractuamong the States parties, has been promoted by the subsequent

practice of a number of other States through agreements, unilateral acts
and acquiescence to the law of the international community which is
nothing else but world law or universal law.

Secondly, the legal, scientific and technical, and less political character

of the Convention, and the fact that itsbirth is mainly due to the activities
of the International Law Commission composed of highly qualified inter-
nationally well-known legal scholars representing the main legal systenis
of the world in collaboration with a group of experts, would not fail to
exercise rapidly a positive influence for the formation of opiiliojurissive
neccs.ritatiin the international community.

Thirdly, the urgent necessity of avoiding international conflict and
disorder which may be feared to occur between coastal States in propor-
tion to the rapidly increasing economic necessity of the exploration and
exploitation of natural resources in the subsoil of submarii-ie areas, has
becorne a matter of serious preoccupation not only to coastal States,
but to the whole international community in which consciousness of

solidarity is more than ever intensified.
Fourtlily, it can be recognized that the speedy tempo of present
international life promoted by highly developed communication and
transportation had minimized the importance of the time factor and has
made possible the acceleration of the formation of custoniary interna-
tional law. What required a hundred years in former days now may re-

quire less than ten years.
Fifthly, the circumstance that with regard to the continental shelf,
iilcluding the equidistance principle, there had been no legal system in
existence, either written or customary law, and that therefore a legal
vacuum had existed, has certainly facilitated the realization of the
Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf and customary law on the PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. TANAKA) 177

plateau continental. Il est certain qu'elle a fourni la base et l'élannéces-

siires au progrès du droit en la matière.

Le fait mêmeque !laConvention de Genève a vu lejour devrait faciliter
psychologiquement et politiquement l'adhésion h ladite convention
d'Etats qui n'y sont pas partie ou encore l'introduction du principe de
I'équidistancedans leur pratique.
L'existence d'une organisation mondiale comme les Nations Unies,

celle de la Comniission du droit international, et leur activité, d'une
manière générale,ne peuvent qu'accélérerla formation rapide d'un droit
coutumier. Le processus est comparable à la manière dont le droit
comn~ercial coutumier se dkveloppe rapidement à partir d'un modèle
de contrat rédigépar les spécialistesdes milieux commerciaux et devient
coutume commerciale universelle. La Convention de Genève de 1958

sur le plateau continental, qui était d'abord une tex ex contractu entre
les Etats parties, a étéélevéeau rang de droit de la communauté inter-
nationale. ce qui n'est rien d'autre que le droit mondial ou le droit
universel. sous l'effet de la pratique ultérieure d'un certain nombre
d'autres Etats, qui s'est traduite par des accords, des actes unilatéraux
ou simplement par 11consentement tacite de ces Etats.

En second lieu le caractère juridique, scientifique et technique, et,
dans une moindre mesure, politique de la Convention, ainsi que le
fait qu'elle a étéélaboréegrâce surtout aux travaux de la Commis-
sion du droit international, composée d'éminents juristes de renom-
mée internationale, qui représentent les principaux systèmes juridiques
du monde, et avec ]lacollaboration d'un groupe d'experts, ne peuvent

manquer d'exercer rapidement une influence positive sur la formation
d'une opinio juris sire tlecessitatis dans la communauté internationale.
Troisièmen-ient,l'urgente nécessité d'évitelres conflits et les désordres
internationaux qui risquent de se produire entre Etats riverains à mesure
que l'exploration et l'exploitation des ressources du sous-sol des régions
sous-marines revêtent un caractère de nécessitééconomique de plus en
plus pressante est rriaintenant une source de grave préoccupation, non

seulement pour les E:tats riverains. mais aussi pour toute la communauté
internationale. ou le sentiment de la solidarité est plus fort que jamais.
Quatrièmement, il est clair que le rythme rapide de la vie internationale
actuelle, favorisé par des cominunications et des modes de transports
extrêmement efficaces,a réduit l'importance du facteur temps et permis
d'accélérerla formation du droit international coutumier. Ce qui nécessi-

tait une centaine d'années autrefois peut en prendre moins de dix à
présent.
Cinquièmement, l'élaboration de la Convention de Genève sur le
plateau continental et la formation du droit coutumier en la matière
ont certainement étiifacilitées par le fait qu'il n'existait aucun système
juridique, écrit ou coutumier, relatif au plateau continental ou au prin-

cipe de l'équidistance etquel'on setrouvait donc devant un videjuridique.same matter. Similar circumstances can be recognized in the fields of air
law and space law.
In short, the process of generation of a customary law is relative in

its manner according to the different fields of law, as 1 have indicated
above. The time factor, namely the duration of custom, is relative; the
same with factor of number, namely State practice. Not only must each
factor generating a customary law be appraised according to the occasion
and circumstances, but the formation as a whole must be considered as
an organic and dynamic process. We must not scrutinize formalistically

the conditions required for customary law and forget the social necessity,
namely the importance of the aims and purposes to be realized by the
customary law in question.

The attitude which one takes vis-à-vis customary international law
has been influenced by one's view on international law or legal philosophy

in general. Those who belong to the school of positivism and voluntarism
wish to seek the explanation of the binding power of international law in
the sovereign wiil of States, and consequeiitly, their attitude in recog-
nizing the evidence of customary law is rigid and forinalistic. On the
other hand, those who advocate the objective existence of law apart from
the will of States, are inclined to take a more liberal and elastic attitude

in recognizing the formation of a customary law attributing more im-
portance to the evaluatioii of the content of law than to the process of its
formation. I wish to share the latter view. The rearon for that is derived
from the essence of law, namely that law, being an objective order vis-à-
vis those who are subject to it, and goveriiing above them, does not
constitute their "auto-limitation" (Jellinek), even in the case of inter-

national law, in which the sovereign will of States plays an extremely
important role.
In this context, 1 venture to quote the statements of two eminent
writers which appear to be valuable for the affirmative conclusion on the
formation of customary international law concerning the nlatter of the
continental shelf.
J. L. Brierly, in TllLa,v of'Nations, 6th edition, 1963,page 62:

"The growth of a new custom is always a slow process, and the
character of international society makes it particularly slow in the
international sphere. The progress of the law therefore has coine to

be more and more bound up with that of the law-making treaty.
But it ispossible even today for ne\v customs to de\,elop and to win
acceptance as law wlien the need is sufficiently clear and urgent.
A striking recent illustration of this is the rapid development of the
principle of sovereignty over the air."Des situations anal,ogues se sont présentéesdans le domaine du droit

aérienet du droit de l'espace.
En bref, comme je l'ai indiquéplus haut, le mode de formation d'une
règle coutumière est.différentselon qu'il s'agit de tel ou tel domaine du
droit. Le facteur temps (la durée de la coutume) est relatif; il en va de
mêmedu facteur numérique (la pratique des Etats). Non seulement faut-

il évaluerchacun des facteurs qui contribuent à la naissance d'une règle
coutumière compte tenu de toutes les circonstances, mais encore con-
sidérer la formation du droit dans son ensemble comme un processus
organique et dynamique. On ne doit pas envisager les conditions requises
pour l'existence d'un droit coutumier d'un point de vue purement for-

maliste et oublier ce faisant le point de vue de la nécessitésociale, c'est-
à-dire l'importance des buts et des objectifs de la règle coutumière con-
sidérée.
L'opinion que l'on se fait du droit international ou de la philosophie
du droit en généralinfluence nécessairement l'attitude que l'on adopte à

l'égard du droit inti-rnational coutumier. Les adeptes du positivisme et
du volontarisme veulent chercher l'explication du caractère obligatoire
du droit international dans la volonté souveraine des Etats. et leur
position face à l'existence du droit coutumier est donc rigide et formaliste.
Les tenants de la thèse selon laquelle le droit existe objectivement et

indépendamment de la volontédes Etats,en revanche, adoptent générale-
ment une attitude plus libérale et plus souple au sujet de la formation
du droit coutumier et ils accordent plus d'importance au contenu du
droit qu'à la façon dont il s'est formé. Je me range parmi ces derniers.
Mes raisons procèdent de l'essence mêmedu droit, c'est-à-dire du fait

que le droit constitue un ordre objectif et supérieur pour ceux qui en
sont les su.jets et ne représente pas al'auto-limitation 1(Jellinek) desdits
sujets, mêmedans le cas du droit international, où la volonté souveraine
des Etats joue un r6le extrêmementimportant.
A ce propos, je me permets de citer deux éminentsauteurs qui semblent

confirmer la formation d'un droit international coutumier concernant
le plateau continental.

J. L. Brierly, TheLaw of Notions, 6' édition,1963, page 62:

(1Le développement d'une coutume nouvelle est toujours un pro-
cessus lent, et le caractère de la sociétéinternationale le rend particu-
lièrement lent à l'échelon international. Le progrès du droit est

donc devenu de plus en plus étroitement lié à celui du traité normatif.
II se peut toutefois que, même aujourd'hui, des coutumes nouvelles
apparaissent el: soient acceptées comme étant le droit lorsque la
nécessités'en fait sentir avec suffisamment de clarté et d'urgence.
On en trouvera un exemple frappant et tout récentdans l'apparition

rapide du principe de la souveraineté sur l'air. 11[Traduction du
GrefSe,] D. P. O'Connell, in Iritcnlatio~inlLcrii,,1. 1965, pages 20-21 :
"Much of the traditional discussion of customary law suttèrs

froin the rigidity and narrow-mindedness of iiineteenth-centur>
positivism, which \vas itself the product of a static conception of
society. The ernp!iasis that the positi\~ist places oii the \vil1 of the
State over-formalises the law and obscures its basic evolutionary
tendency. He looks to positive practice without possessing the
criteria for evaluating it, and hence is powerless to explain the
mystical process of Ics,ferrr~rla,which he is compelled to distinguish

sharply, and iinproperly, from 1e.ylirtu . . ."

ln the event that the customary law character of the principle of
equidistance cannot be proved, there exists another reason which seems
more cogent for recognizing this chai-:icter. That is the deduction of the
necessity of this principle frorn the fundamental concept of the continental

shelf.
The starting point is the concept of thecontinental shelf. This concept is
clearly expressed in Articles 1-3of the Geneva Conveiition.
Before we examine this concept, we sliall clarify its nature, iiamely its
customary law character.
There is no doubt that Articles 1-3,wiiich coiistitute the fundamental

concept of the coiitiiiental shelf, are mainly formulated on the basis of the
State practice established since President Truma:i's Proclamation of
September 1945, and that, accordingly, they have the character of
customary law. Thei-efore, even those States whicli have not ratified or
acceded to the Convention could not deny the validity of these provisions
against them. Denying the principles enuiiciated in Articles 1-3 would

depi-ive the non-contracting States of the basis of al1 rights over their
continental shelves.
The fundamental pi-incipleupon which the institution of the continental
shelf is based constitutes the recognition of the solereign rights of the
coastal State for the purpose of its exploration and the exploitation of its
natiiral resources (Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Conventioii). These

sovereigii riglits are exclusive in the sense that if the coastal State does not
explore or exploit its natural i-esour-ces,no one may undcrtake these
acti~ities, or make a claini to the continental shelf, without the express
consent of the coastal State (Article 2,paragapli 2, of the Conventioii).
Tliese rights of the coastal State do not depend on occupation, effective
or notional, or on any express proclamation (Article 2, paragraph 3,of
the Convention).

The fact that the coastal State exercises oter the continental shelf
exclusi\e sovereign rights, and that these rights do not depend on oc- D. P. O'Connel, Ir~ternational Law, 1, 1965, pages 20-21:

(Une bonne partie des discussions classiques sur le droit coutu-
mier souffre de la rigiditéet de l'étroitessede vue du positivisme du
XIXe siècle, lui-mêmele produit d'une conception statique de la

société.L'accent que les positivistes placent sur la volonté de 1'Etat
aboutit à une conception excessivementformelle du droit et obscurcit
sa tendance natiirelle à l'évolution. Les positivistes étudient la pra-
tique positive sans posséder les critères d'évaluation nécessaires et
ils sont donc im1puissants à expliquer le processus mystérieux de la
lex,frretidu, qu'ils sont amenés à distinguer nettement, et à tort, de

la 1e.ylutu..)).[lraduction di1Greffe.,'

Même s'ilétait impossible de prouver le caractère de droit coutumier
du principe de l'équidistance, il subsisterait - semble-t-il - une autre
raison de Iiii reconciaitre ce caractère. En effet, ce principe découle
nécessairement de la notion fondamentale de plateau continental.

Le point de départ est la notion de plateau continental. Cette notion
est exprimée clairement aux articles 1 à 3 de la Convention de Genève.
Avant de l'examinei, nous allons en préciser la nature, c'est-A-dire le
caractère de droit coutumier.

II ne fait aücun do,ute que les articles 1 à 3, qui définissent la notion
fondamentale de plateau continental, traduisent pour l'essentiel la pra-
tique des Etats depuis la proclamation du président Truman de septem-
bre 1945 et qu'ils oni:, par conséquent, le caractère de droit coutumier.
Dans ces coitditions, mêmeles Etats qui n'ont pas ratifié la Convention
ou qui n'y ont pas adhéréne peuvent pas nier que ces dispositions leur

soient opposables. Contester la validitédes principes énoncésaux articles
1 à 3 ôterait tout fondement aux droits des Etats non parties à la Con-
vention sur leurs plateaux continentaux.
L'institution du plateau continental repose sur un principe fondamental
qui est la reconnaissance des droits souverains de 1'Etat riverain aux fins
de l'exploration du plateau et de l'exploitation de ses ressouices naturelles

(par. 1 de I'art. 2 de la Convention). Ces droits souverains sont exclusifs
en ce sens que, si 1'Et.atriverain n'explore pas le plateau continental ou
n'exploite pas ses ressources naturelles, nul ne peut entreprendre de telles
activités ni revendiquer de droit sur le plateau continental sans le con-
sentement exprès de 1'Etat riverain (par. 2 de I'art.2 de la Convention).

Les droits de 1'Etat riverain sont indépendants de l'occupation effective
ou fictive aussi bienqiuede toute proclamation expresse (par. 3 de l'art. 2
de la Convention).
Le fait que 1'Etat riverain exerce des droits souverains exclusifs sur le
plateau continental et. que ces droits sont indépendants de l'occupation cupation or any express proclamation, explains eloquently the legal
status of the continental shelf asan institution. First, the continental shelf
does not constitute rcs riulliuwhich is susceptible of occiipation by any

State-not only an adjacent coastal State but any other State. Next, the
continental shelf does not constitute a rcs conlnlurlisof the coastal States
which must bejointly exploited or divided by them. The continental shelf
beloiigs exclusively to the coastal State according to the principle fixed
by Iaw which gives the definition of the continental shelf. According to
Article 1 of the Convention, the term "continental shelf" is used as

referring to the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas adjacent to the
Coast. Bythis provision the law prescribes the only condition for a coastal
State to be able to have sovereign rights over the continental shelf. This
condition is of a geographical nature; the existence of the relationship of
adjacency between the continental shelf and the coastal State is required.

The criterion of adjacency-or proximity, propinquity, contiguity-

seems a most reasonable one if one adopts the principle of the sovereign
rights of the coastal State, excluding the régime of res nullius or rcJs
cornmunis. The idea that the continental shelf constitutes the natural
continuation or extension of the coastal State is most natural and reason-
able from the geographical and economic viewpoints.

The principle which governs the delimitation of the continental shelf
and which is provided for in Article 6 is the corollary of the concept
declared in Articles 1and 2. The present cases are related to Article 6,
paragraph 2. This stipulates:

"In the absence of agreement, and unless another boundary line
is justified by special circumstat-ices, the boundary shall be deter-
mined by application of the principle of equidistance from the
nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the ter-
ritorial sea of each State is measured."

The equidistance principle which is incorporated in Article 6, paragraph 2,
fows froin the fundamental concept of the continental shelf as the
logical conclusion on the matter of the delimitation of the continental

shelf. The equidistance principle is integrated in the concept of the con-
tinental shelf. The former is inherent in the latter, being inseparably
connected with it. Therefore, if the law of the continental shelf were
devoid of the provision concerning delimitation by means of the eqiii-
distance principle, satisfactory f~iiictioning of the institution of the
continental shelf could not be expected.
The Federal Republic denies the opposability of the GenevaConvention

as a whole, and consequeiitly denies the opposability of its part, nainely
Ai-ticle6, paragraph 2. However, the Federal Republic has not the slight-
est doubt that she exercises sovereign rights over the continental shelf
of the disputed area. But on what title can she exercise such rights?et de toute proc1am;ition expresse confirme éloquemment le caiactère
d'institution juridiqulr du plateau continental. Tout d'abord, le plateau
continental ne constitue pas une res nullitrssusceptible d'occupation par
un Etat, qu'il s'agisse d'un Etat riverain adjacent ou de tout autre. En-
suite, le plateau contiinental n'est pasne res c30rnrnunidses Etats riverains

qui doive êtreexploitéeen commun par ces Etats ou partagée entre eux.
Le plateau continental appartient exclusivement à 1'Etat riverain le plus
proche en vertu du principe, consacréen droit, qui définitle plateau con-
tinental. Selon l'article 1 dû la Convention, l'expression «plateau con-
tinental )est utiliséepour désignerle lit de la mer et le sous-sol des régions
sous-marines adjacentes aux côtes. Cette disposition énonce la seule

condition que doive remplir, juridiquement, un Etat maritime, pour
posséder desdroits souverains sur le plateau continental. Ladite condition
est de caractère géographique; son effet est que l'existence d'un rapport
d'adjacence entre leplateau continentalet l'Etat riverain est indispensable.
Le critère de I'adjacence - ou celui de la pioximité, du voisinage ou
de la contiguïté - parrait des plus raisonnables si l'on admet le principe

des droits souverains de 1'Etatriverain, excluant par là mêmeun régime
de resnztlliusou de re:?cornmunis. L'idéeque le plateau continental cons-
titue la continuation ou le prolongement naturel de 1'Etat riverain est
paifaitement logique et raisonnable du point de vue de la géographie
comme de l'économie.
Le principe qui régit la délimitation du plateau continental et qui est

énoncéà l'article 6 est le corollaire de la notion poséeaux articles 1et 2.
Les piésentes affaires ont trait à l'application du paragraphe 2 de I'ar-
ticle6. La deuxième partie de ce paragraphe stipule:

((A défaut d'accord, et à moins que des circonstances spéciales
ne justifient une autre délimitation, celle-ci s'opère pal application
du principe de l'équidistance despoints les plus proches des lignes
de base à partir desquellesest mesuréela largeur de la mer territoriale
de chacun de ces Etats. 1)

Le principe de l'équidistance énoncéau paragraphe 2 de l'article 6
découle de la notion fondamentale de plateau continental et constitue
la solution logique au problème de la délimitation du plateau continental.
II est inhérentàcette notionet lui est indissolublement lié.Par conséquent,

I'instit~ition du plateau continental ne pourrait êtremise en Œuvre de
manière satisfaisante si le droit qui la régit necontenait aucune disposi-
tion prévoyantque la 'délimitationdoit s'effectuer conformément au prin-
cipe de l'équidistance.

La République fédérale nieque la Convention de;Genève dans son

ensemble lui soit opposable et lefuse par conséquent d'admettre que l'un
de ses éléments,à savoir le paragraphe 2 de l'article6, puisse êtrein-
voqué contre elle. 11 n'empêcheque la République fédérale nedoute
aucunement qu'elle exerce des droits souverains sur la zone litigieuse duThere should be no other possibility of justification other than by
customary law on the matter of the continental shelf. And indeed she
recognizes the applicability of Articles 1-3 of the Geneva Convention
vis-à-vis herself on a customary law basis. Can the Federal Republic deny
the application of Article 6, paragraph 2, concerning the delimitation of
the continental shelf which she claims as her own? The answer is in the

negative.
The viewpoint of the Federal Republic is to consider the question of
delimitation separately from the fundamental concept of the continental
shelf. However, the rule with regard to delimitation by means of the
equidistance principle constitutes an integral part of the continental
shelf as a legal institution of teleological construction. For the existence

of the continental shelf as a legal institution presupposes delimitation
between the adjacent continental shelves of coastal States. The delimita-
tion itself is a logical consequence of the concept of the continental shelf
that coastal States exercise sovereign rights over their own continental
shelves. Next, the equidistance principle constitutes the method which is
the result of the principle of proximity or natural continuation of land

territory, which is inseparable from the concept of continental shelf.
Delimitation itself and delimitation by the equidistance principle serve to
realize the aims and purposes of the continental shelf as a legal institution.
The Federal Republic, in so far as she insists upon her rights on the
continental shelf, cannot deny the application of itsdelimitation by means
of the equidistance principle. As 1 have said above, the equidistance
principle provided for in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention, is

inherent in the concept of the continental shelf, in the sense that without
this provision the institution as a whole cannotattain its own end.

The doctrine that the equidistance principle is inherent in the institution
of the continental shelf would certainly make a highly controversial

impression. However, even if Article 6,paragraph 2, did not exist or is not
opposable to the Federal Republic, the interpretation of Articles 1-3
would produce the same conclusion. Customary law, being vague and
containing gaps compared with written law, requires precision and com-
pletion about its content. This task, in its nature being interpretative,
would be incumbent upon the Court.

The method of logical and teleological interpretation can be applied in
the case of customary law as in the case of written law. Even if the Fed-
eral Republic recognizes the custoinary la\v character of only the fuiida-
mental concept incorporated in Articles 1-3 of the Convention, and denies
it in respect of other matters, she cannot escape from the application of
what is derived as a logical conclusion from the fundamental concept,-a
conclusion which, in respect of the delimitation of the contiriental shelf,

would reach the same result as Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention. PLATElAUCONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. TANAKA) 181

plateau continental. Mais à quel titre peut-elle exercer ces droits? II
semble que l'on ne puisse les justifier que par le droit coutumier ielatif

au plateau continent,al. En fart, la République fédéralereconnaît que les
articles1 à 3 de la Convention de Genève lui sont applicables a titre de
dioit coutumier. Peut-elle alors s'opposer à ce que le paragraphe 2 de
l'article6 s'applique à la délimitation du plateau continental qu'elle
revendique? 11faut riipondre par la négative.
Selon la République fédérale,la question de la délimitation est à con-
sidérer indépendamnient de la notion fondamentale du plateau continen-
tal. Mais la règlestipulant que la délimitation s'opère par application du

principe de l'équidisi.ancefait paitie intégrante de l'institution juridique
du plateau continental envisagéedans sa finalité. En effet, l'existence du
plateau continental en tant qu'institution juridique suppose la délimita-
tion entre Etats riverains des plateaux continentaux adjacents.La délimi-
tation elle-m$ne n'est qu'une conséquence logique de la notion selon
laquelle chaque Etat riverain exerce des droits souverains sur son plateau
contineiital. De plus, la méthode de délimitation fondée sur le principe
de l'équidistance découle du principe de proximité ou de continuation

naturelle di1 territoire, qui est inséparable de la notion de plateau con-
tinental. Aussi bien la délimitation en elle-mêmeque la délimitation
fondée sur le principe de l'équidistance visentà atteindre les buts et les
objectifs de l'institution juridique du plateau continental. A partir du
moment où la République fédéraleievendique des droits sur le plateau
continental, elle ne peut s'opposer a ce que celui-ci soit délimité con-
formément au principe de l'équidistance. Comme je l'ai indiqué plus

haut, le principe de l'équidistance prévu au paragraphe 2 de l'article6
de la Convention est inhérent à la notion de plateau continental, en ce
sens que cette institut ion, considéréecomme un tout, ne pourrait atteindre
son but sans cette disposition.
La doctrine selon laquelle le principe de l'équidistance est inhérent à
l'institution du plateau continental ne peut manquei de susciter bien des
controverses. Pourtant, mêmesi le paragraphe 2 de l'article6 n'existait
pas ou s'il n'étaitpas opposable à la République fédérale,l'interprétation

des aiticles 1à 3 conduirait à la mêmeconclusion. Le droit coutumier,
à la fois plus vague et moins complet que le droit écrit,doit êtreprécisé
et complété.C'est cette tâche, c'est-à-dire en fait une tâche d'interpréta-
tion. qui incomberait à la Cour.
La méthode d'inte:rprétationlogique et téléologiquepeut être appliquée
au droit coutumier comme au droit écrit.Mêmesi la République fédérale
ne reconnaît le caractère de droit coutumiei qu'à la notion fondamentale
énoncéeaux articles 1 à 3 de la Convention et le conteste pour les autres

dispositions, elle ne saurait échapper à l'application de ce qui n'en est
qu'une conséquence logique - et qui aboutit, en ce qui concerne la
délimitation du p1ate.a~continental, au mêmerésultat que le paragraphe 2
de l'aiticle 6 de la Convention.
*
* *182 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP. TANAKA)

The Federal Republic, referring to the right of the States parties to the

Convention to make reservations to articles other than to Articles 1-3
(Article 12of the Convention), argues in favour of the non-applicability
afortior ofiArticle 6 to the Federal Republic, which is not a State party
to the Convention. This question has been very extensively discussed.
However, if areservation were concerned with the equidistance principle,
it would not necessarily have a negative effect upon the formation of

customary international law, because in this case the reservation would
in itself be nul1 and void as contrary to an essential principle of the
continental shelf institution which must be recognized as jus cogens. It
is certain that this institution cannot properly function without being
completed by some method of delimitation provided by law. It is obvious
that a State party to the Convention cannot exclude by reservation the
application of the provision for settlement by agreement, since this is

required by general international law, notwithstanding the fact that
Article 12 of the Convention does not expressly exclude Article 6, para-
graphs 1 and 2, from the exercise of the reservation faculty. The pos-
sibility of reservation could apply to the application of the special-cir-
cumstances clause, but not to that of the equidistance principle, which, as
indicated above, constitutes an integral part of the continental shelf

régime. In short, a reservation to Article 6, paragraph 2, so far as the
application of the equidistance principle is concerned, is not permissible,
because it would produce a legal vacuum and thus prevent normal
functioning of the institution of the continental shelf.

The Danish and Netherlands Governments have sought to establish
their claim to apply the equidistance principle either by way of the

applicability of Article6, paragraph 2, of the Convention, or by way of
direct inference from the fundamental concept of the continental shelf
which is supposed to be inherent in Articles 1and 2 of the Convention.
For the reasons mentioned above, the contention of the Danish and
Netherlands Governments as to the customary law character of the
eqiiidistance rule applicable to non-contracting States of the Convention,

including the Federal Republic, is well-founded.

The equidistance principle provides a method of delimiting the con-
tinental shelf which must be deemed most practical and appropriate.
Specifically, concerning a boundary matter, it is desirable that the method
be objective and clear. This is the requirement from the standpoint of the
international community's need for certainty.

In this connection 1 would like to make some observations on the
logical relationship between law and technique for the purpose of
considering the nature of the equidistance rule.
We have before us a technical norm of a geometrical nature, which is
calied the equidistance rule, and may serve a geographical purpose.
This norm, being in itself of a technical nature, constitutes a norm of La République fédérale,prenant argument du droit des Etats parties
à la Conventiond'apporter des réservesaux articles autres que les articles
1à 3 (art. 12 de la Convention), en conclut que, n'étant pas elle-même
partie à la Convention, l'article 6 ne lui està fortioii, pas applicable.

Cette question a été longuementdébattue.Cependant une réserveportant
sur le principe de l'équidistance n'aurait pas nécessairement d'effet
négatif sur la formation du droit international coutumier car, dans ce
cas, la réserveelle-m2meserait nulle et non avenue, comme allant à I'en-
contre d'un principe esientiel de l'institution du plateau continental qui
doit être reconnu comme jus cogens.Tlest ce1tain que cette institution ne
pourrait fonctionner de manière satisfaisante sans êtrecomplétéepar
une méthodede déliinitation obligatoire en droit. De toute évidence,un
Etat partieà la Convention ne peut pas échapper, par une réserve, à
l'obligation de cherc'her unesolutioii par voie d'accord, car cette obliga-
tion découledu dloit international généralet elle continue de s'imposer
mêmesi I'article 12de la Convention n'exclut pas expressément lespara-
graphes 1et 2 de l'article 6 du nombre des dispositions qui peuvent faire
l'objet de réserves.II est possible de formuler une réservel'égardde la
clause des circonstarices spéciales,is non pas à l'égarddu principe de

I'équidistancequi, comme il est indiquéplus haut, fait partie intégrante
di1 régimedu p1atea.ucontinental. En somme, on ne peut apporter de
réserve à la partie du paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 qui a àrl'application
du piincipe de I'équidistance,car une réservecréeraitdans ce cas un vide
juridique et porterait ainsi atteinte au fonctionnement normal de l'insti-
tution du plateau continental.
Pour les Gouvernements du Danemark et des Pays-Bas, le principe de
l'équidistance doit Etre appliqué, soit par le jeu du paragraphe 2 de
l'article6 de la Convention, soit parce qu'il s'agit d'une conséquence
directe de la notion fondamentale de plateau continental, qui est censée
être inhérenteaux airticles 1et 2 de la Convention.
Pour les raisons e:xposéeaplus haut, la thèse des Gouvernements du
Danemark et des Pays-Bas selon laquelle la règle de I'équidistancea le
caractère d'une règlede droit coutumier et est applicable aux Etats non
pa. ties laConvention, ycompris àlaRépubliquefédérale, estbien fondée.

Le piincipe de l'équidistancefournit une méthode de délimitationdu
plateau continental qui doit êtreconsidéréecomme la plus pratique et
la mieux appropriée. On désire généralement, lorsqu'ils'agit de tracer
des limites, disposeir d'une méthode qui soit objective et claire. C'est
là une exigence qui tientà la nécessité defonder les rapports de la com-
munauté internation.ale sur des bases sûres.
A ce propos, j'ainierais formuler quelques observations sur la relation
logique qui existe entre le droit et la technique, ce qui permettra de déter-
miner la nature de la règlede I'équidistance.
Nous sommes en présenced'une norme technique de caractère géo-
métrique, appelée regle de I'équidistance,qui peut être appliquéedans
le domaine géographique. Cette norme, qui est en elle-mêmed'ordre expedieiicy which is of an optional, i.e., not obligatory character, and the
non-observation of which does not produce any further efTectthan fai 'ure
to achieve the result it woiild have rendered possible. This technical norm
of a geometrical nature can be used as a method for delimitiiig the

continental shelf. The legislator, being aware of the utility of this method
for legal purposes, has adopted it as the content of a legal norm.

Thus the equidistance method aî a simple technique is embodied in
law, whether in Article 6,paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention or in
corresponding customary international law. By being submitted to a

juridical evaluation and in\,ested with the character of a legal norm, it has
acquired an obligatory force which it did not have as a simple technical
norm.

The incorporation of the equidistance rule as e geometrical technique

into a legal norm exemplifies an cxtremely svidespread phenomenon
which can be observed in regard to several kinds of extra-legal, social and
cultural norms and in such fields as usage, ethics and technique whicli has
drawn the attention of Professor Gustav Radbruch, who characterizes it
as the investing of one and the same material with a dual axiological
character (Utnk/ei(lung (lr~ssc~/bcMizutc'rialstnit rloppc,ltctlW(>rtcharakter:

Rerlir.~p/~i/o.sopli~r,d ed., 1932, p. 43). He has also described the same
phenomenon as "naturalization". In the case of the equidistance principle,
a technical norm of geometrical nature,after being submitted to juridical
evaluation has become incorporated or naturalized in law as a legal
norm vested with obligatory force.
This distinction between the rule of equidistance as a mere technique

and as a norm of law is very important in relation to the correct discharge
by the Court of the task laid upon it by the Special Agreements.

In the present context, 1 would like to add that there is a wider pos-
sibility of applying scientifico-technical methods to the delimitation of
territorial sea and continental shelf areas than in the case of frontier-

demarcation on land. This is because in the former the particular and
individual feat~ires in the historical, ethnological, social and cultural
sense, which are usually to be found in the latter, do not exist. Here
technique can have full play, as in the case of the delimitation and
division of newly discovered and uninhabited territories, which permit of
automatic demarcation by the drawing of geometrical lines.

Therefore technique, particularly geometrical technique, can have
particular importance for the delimitation of the territorial sea and
continental shelf. It is understandable that in the maritime field the
relation between law and techniques should be more intimate than irithe
field of the delimitation of land territory, that elements of uniformity and
abstraction should be prevalent, and that the role of technique ~itilized

by law should be an outstandingone. PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. TAN.\KA) 183

technique, constitrie uiie solution commode mais dont l'application est
laisséeau choix de:; intéressés, c'est-à-direqu'elle est facultative; le seul

effet de son inobsei-vation est que le résultat qu'elle aurait permis d'at-
teindre ne sera pas obtenu. Cette norme technique et géométrique peut
ëtre utiliséepourdélimite1le plateau continental. Le législateur, conscient
de l'utilitéde cette rnéthode du point de vuejuridique, en a fait une iiorine
de droit.
Aiiisi la niéthode de l'équidistance, en tant que technique de délimita-

tion simple, se trouve consac~éeen droit, que ce soit au paragraphe 2
de l'article6 de la iCoii\~entionde Genève ou dans le droit iiiteinational
coutumier relatif au mêmesujet. Du fait que sa valeur juridique a été
reconnue et qu'elle a étéérigéeen norme de di nit, elle a acquis une force
obligatoire qu'elle n'avait pas lorsqu'il s'agissait simplement d'une noi me
technique.

L'incorporation de la règle de I'équidistance, technique géométrique,
i unc norine juridique, constitue un exemple d'un phénomèneextrême-
ment répandil, qui intervient pour diverses noimes extra-juridiques,
sociales et culturelles ct dans des domaines comme l'usage, l'éthique et la
technique; le professeur Gustav Radbruch s'est penchésur ce phénomène,

qu'il analyse comme un processus revenant à conférerà un seul et unique
élémentLindouble caractère axiologique (V~~?kleidzrndgesselbcn Muterials
tnit dopprltcn Wertcharakter, Rechtsphilosophie, 3e éd., 1932,p. 43).
11n également qualifié ce phénomène de 1natiiralisation)).Dan5 le cas
du principe de l'équidistance, urie norme techruque de caractère géomé-
trique a étésoumise à une analysejuridique puis incorporée ou naturalisée

en drc.it eri tant que norme juridique dotée d'une force obligatoire.
11importe de distinguer I'aspect de simple technique et l'aspect de
norme de droit de la règle de l'équidistance pour que la Cour puisse
s'acquitter coriectemeiit de la tache qui lui a étéconfiée par les deux
comnroniis.
A cet égard, j'aimerais ajouter que, clans la délimitation de la mer

territoriale et du plateau continental, les possibilités d'appliquer uiie
méthode scientifique ou technique sont plus grandes que lorsqu'il s'agit
de tracer les limites de territoires terrestres.En effet, les paiticularités
historiques, ethniques, sociales et culturelles qui existent normalement
dans le second cas lie se rencontient pas dans Ic premier. Ici, la technique
peut se donner libre cours de mêmequ'en matière de délimitation et de

division de territoires nouvellement découverts, qui se prêtent à une
démarcation automatique par le tracé de lignes géométriques.
Ainsi, la technique (notamment les procédés géométriques) peurtevêtir
urie importance particulière dans la délimitation de la mer territoriale
et du plateau coiitinental. 11est compréhensible que, dans le domaine
maritime, la relation entrc le droit et la techniquc soit plus étroite qu'en

matière de délimita.tion de territoires terrestres, que les éléments d'uni-
formité et d'abstraction l'emportent et que le rôle de la technique utilisée
par IL'droit soit capital. In short, law can be more consistent with its idea of objectivity and
certainty in maritime international law than in other fields of law.

The following opinion of Lord McNair in the Fislleries case (I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 161) may be appropriately cited in justification of the
applicability of the equidistance principle in the present cases:

"The method of delimiting territorial waters is an objective one
and, while the coastal State is free to make minor adjustments in its
maritime frontier when required in the interests of clarity and its

practical object, it is not authorized by the law to nianipulate its
maritime frontier in order to give effect to its economic and other
social interests. There is an overwhelming consensus of opinion
amongst maritime States to the effect that the baseline of territorial
waters, . . is a line which follows the coastline along low-water
mark and not a series of imaginary lines drawn by the coastal State
for the purpose of giving effect, even within reasonable limits, to its

econoniic and other social interests and to other sibjective factors."

Article 6, paragraph 2,of the Geneva Convention provides:
"2. Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the ter-

ritories of two adjacent States, the boundary of the continental shelf
shall be determined by agreement between them. In the absence of
agreement, and unless another boundary line is justified by special
circumstances, the boundary shall be determined by application of
the principle of equidistance from the nearest points of the base-
lines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is
measured."

This provision deterinines the application of the equidistance principle.
However, this application is not absolute and immediate. It presupposes
the existence of two negative conditions: namely the absence of agree-

ment and the absence of special circuinstances. Theone is of a procedural,
the other of a substantive nature.
The boundary of the continental shelf shall in the first place be deter-
mined by agreement between the two States before recourse to other
means. The principle thus recognized by the said provision is fully in the
spirit of the Charter of the United Nations, Article 33 (1)of which lays
down that "the parties to any dispute ... shall, first of all, seek a solution

by negotiation", it is also appropriatefrom the psychological and political
viewpoint. Besides, the validity of an agreement concerning delimitation
as between two States can be justified on the ground that the interests
involved are of a disposable nature between them. En bref, le droit peut se montrer plus conséquent pour ce qui est de son
objectivité et de son caractère certain dans le domaine du droit inter-
national de la mer que dans d'autres domaines juridiques.

L'opinion ci-apréts,émisepar lord McNair dans l'affaire des Pêcheries
(C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 161) est ici pertinente comme justification de
l'applicabilité du principe de l'équidistance en l'espèce:

(La méthode pour délimiter des eaux territoriales est une méthode
objective, et si 1'Etat côtier est libre de faire certains ajustements
secondaires de sa frontière maritime, quand cela est nécessaire pour
éclaircir la position et répondre à ses fonctions pratiques, le droit

ne lui permet pas de modifier sa frontière maritinle de manière à
donner effet à ses intérêts économiquesou sociaux. Les Etats mari-
times sont en très grande majorité d'accord pour reconnaître que
les lignes de base des eaux territoiiales... doivent suivre la ligne de
côte, le long de la laisse de basse mer, et non pas une série de lignes

imaginaires, tracées par 1'Etatcôtier pour satisfaire, mêmedans des
limites raisonnables, à ses intérêts économiquesou à d'autres fac-
teurs subjectifs. ))

Le paragraphe 2 de l'article6 de la Convention de Genève stipule:

12. Dans le cas où un mêmeplateau continental est adjacent aux
territoires de deux Etats limitrophes, la délimitation du plateau
continental est déterminéepar accord entre ces Etats. A défaut d'ac-

cord, et à moins que des circonstances spéciales ne justifient une
autre délimitation, celle-ci s'opère par application du principe de
l'équidistance des points les plus proches des lignes de base à partir
desquelles est mesurée la largeur de la mer territoriale de chacun

de ces Etats. 1)
Cette disposition détermine l'application du principe de l'équidistance,
qui n'est cependant ni absolue ni immédiate. Elle suppose en effet que

deux conditions négatives soient réunies: l'absence d'accord et l'absence
de circonstances spkciales. L'une d'entre elles est une condition de pro-
cédure, l'autre une condition de fond.
La délimitation du plateau continental doit tout d'abord s'effectuer

par voie d'accord entre les deux Etats avant qu'il puisse être fait appel à
d'autres procédés.Le principe ainsi reconnu dans cette disposition est
parfaitement confclrme à l'esprit de la Charte des Nations Unies, dont
l'article 33, paragraphe 1, dispose que: 1Les parties à tout différend .. .
doivent en rechercher la solution, avant tout, par voie de négociation )),
et c'est aussi le principe le mieux appropiié des points de vue psycholo-

gique et politique. De plus, la validité de la délimitation conventionnelle
est renforcéepar le fait que les intérêtsen jeu sont de ceux dont les Etats
peuvent librement ,disposel.185 CONTINENTAL SHELF(DISS. OP. TANAKA)

For the settlement of a dispute on delimitation, therefore. the régime

of the continental shelf requires, as a necessary step for the application
of the principle of equidistance, an agreement betweeil the parties to the
dispute. This agreement must be preceded by negotiations.
This requirement is evident. If we adhere too closely to the wording of
the Article, the conclusion would be that the simple fact of the non-
existence of agreement would always authorize the application of the

equidistance principle. But this mere parsiiig of the words is surely
insufficient to elicit the real meaning of the provision. It is a precondition
that genuine negotintions must have taken place and thai, not\r~ithstand-
ing, no agreement was reached.
Regarding the present cases, no difference of view appears to exist
concerning the above-nientioned interpretation of the phrase "in the

ab.~cnccof agreement" and the prior holding of effective negotiation
between the States concerned.
The secoiid condition for the application of the equidistance principle
is the absence of special circumstaiices justifying another boundary line.

The ruirori tl'6rr. f this provision is thatthe inechanical application of

the equidistance principle would sometimes produce an unpalatable
result for a State concerned. Hence the necessity of supplementing the
prescription of the equidistance principle with a clause that provides for
special circumstances and constitutes an exception to the main principle
of equidistance.
It is argued on behalf of the Federal Republic that the special-circum-

stances clause does not constitute an exception to the principle of equi-
distance, but that these two rules are valid on an equal footing, so that
the equidistance principle Ilas no priority over the special-circumstances
clause. However, it may be submitted that it could not have been the
intention of the legislator to leave the matter in a legal vacuuni, to be
decided by the nebulous criteria of justice and equitableness, but that, to

ensure certainty and stability, he would have prescribed some precise rule
to be applied in principle for so long as the existence of exceptional
circumstances did not exclude its application.
It follows froin the foregoing that the condition of the non-existence
of special circumstances for the application of the equidistance principle
has quite a different significance from that of thecondition of the absence

of agreement. The latter condition is a sine yuu non for the application;
therefore the absence of agreement despite genuine negotiations must be
proved by the party wanting to rely on the equidistance principle: it is
not, on the contrary, necessary that such party provc the former con-
dition, namely the non-existence of special circumstances, because the
equidistance principle is available to immediately and automatically fil1

the gap produced by the absence of agreement.
From what is stated above, the limit and scope of the application of the
special-circumstances clause should be apparent. The Federal Republic, En cas de différeriden matière de délimitation, le régimedu plateau
coiitinental subordoiine doi-icl'application du principe de l'équidistance
à l'accord des parties, qui doit Stre obtenu pal négociation.

La nécessitéde cette condition est évidente. A suivre de trop près les
ternies lie l'article, on pouriait conclure que la simple absence d'accoid
pei met dans tous le:;cas d'appliquer le principe de I'équidistance. Alais

(ette interprétation trop attachée à la lettre ne permet certainement pas
de préciser la signification véritable de cette disposition. Il faut - et
c'est là un préalable - que des négociations réellesaient eu lieu et qu'il
ait étécependant impossible de paivenir à un accord.
11ne sen-ibley avoir aucune divergence de vues, en I'espece, qiiaitt à

cette interprétaiion de l'expiession à défui r'accord et i la nécessité
de négociations effectives préalablesentre les Etats intéresse>.

La deuxiime contlition pour que le principe de I'équidistailce puisse
s'al,pliqucr est l'absence de circonstances spéciales justifiant une autre
délimitation.

La raisoii d'êtrede cette disposition est que l'application automatique
du principe de l'équidistance pourrait parfois aboutir à un résultat inac-
ceptable pour un Etat donné. D'où la necessitéde compléterle principe
de l'équidistance par une clause concernant les circonstances spéciales,
exception ail principe général.

La Répiihlique fiédéralemaintient que la clause des ciiconstances
spéciales ne constitue pas une exception au principe de I'équidistance,
niais que 1'~ineet l'autre sont valables sur un pied d'égalité,le second ne
l'emportant en rien sur la première. On peut répondie à cela que l'in-
teiition du législateurne pouvait êtrede laisser les choses dans une sorte
de vide juridique, pou1 Ctre résolues d'après les critères nébuleux de la

justice et de I'éqiiitk,mais que, pour que la situation soit à la fois cer-
taine et stable, il luillait prévoirilne règle préciseapplicable en principe,
tant que des circonstances exceptionnelles n'excluaient pas son applica-
tion.
II s'ensuit que la <:ondition d'application du principe de I'équidistance

concernant I'absenci: de circonstances spéciales a une signification toute
différentede celle qui vise l'absence d'accord. Cette dernière est une con-
dition sitr((/LU rlor?;il appartient à la partie qui demande l'application
du piincipe de I'équidistancede prouver que l'accoid n'a pu êtreréalisé,
malgrédcs négociations \éritables; ce n'est pas à clle, en ievanche, qu'il
incombe de prouver l'absence de circonstances spéciales,car le principe

de I'équidistance permetde combler immédiatenient et automatiquement
la lacune laisséepar I'absence d'accord.

L'exposéqui précèdepermet de dégager une conclusion au sujet des
limites et tlu champ d'application exacts de la clause des circonstancesminimizing the significance of the equidistance principle, advocates a

broad interpretation of this clause, covering the case where a so-called
"ma~rogeo~ra~hical" configuration would give rise, on the equidistance
basis, to an uiijust and inequitable apportionment. On the other hand,
it is argued on behalf of the two Kingdoms that the application of this
clause should be limited to such cases as the existence of insignificant is-
lands, promontories, etc., which should be ignored in drawing the equi-

distance line. This view seems well-founded. The clause does notconstitute
an independent principle which can replace equidistance, but it means
the adaptation of this principle to concrete circumstances. If for the
foregoing reasons the exceptional nature of this clause is admitted, the
logical consequence would be its strict interpretation. Exceptiorîes sunt
strictissimae interpretationis.Accordingly, the configuration of tiie Ger-
man coastline which by application of the two equidistance lines would

produce unsatisfactory consequences for the Federal Republic, cannot
be recognized as special circumstances within the meaning of Article 6,
paragraph 2, of the Convention.

It is maintained on behalf of the Federal Reuublic. from the viewuoint
of just and equitable apportionment on which her aiguments are based,

that the special circumstances clause constitutes an expression of the
just and equitable principle, and it is sought to deny the relationship
of major principle and exception existing between the equidistance
principle and the special circumstances clause.
It is certain thatthe equidistance principle, being of a technical nature,
does not possess in itselfa moral qualification such as justness or equita-

bleness. However, when this principle was incorporated in the Conven-
tion as a legai norm, it must have bien the intention of the legislator that
in ordinary cases the automatic application of this principle would bring
a just and equitable result. Accordingly, it would not be very far from
the truth if we Saythat the consideration of just and equitable apportion-
ment is inherent in the equidistance principle. But this does not mean

that there is no need of an exception which constitutes the special circum-
stances clause.
The special circumstances clause presents itself as a manifestation of
the same spirit of the main principle. This clause implies some degree of
correction or, as 1have said above, adaptation intended to attain what is
really sought by the equidistance principle. The special circumstances
clause, therefore. does not abolish or overrule the main principle, but is

intended to make its functioning more perfect.
In short, the special circumstances clause in Article 6, paragraph 2,
second sentence, does not signify an inclependent principle which may
compete with the equidistance principle onan equalfooting, but constitutes
an exception recognized in concrete cases to correct the possible harsh
effect which inay be produced by the automatic application of the equi-
distance method. This conclusion is clear from the wording of Article 6, spéciales. La République fédérale,minimisant la significntion du prin-
cipe de I'équidistance, préconise uneinterprétation large de cette clause,

englobant les cas dans lesquels une configuration dite ((macre-géogra-
phique ))entraînerait une répartition jn.iuste et inéquitable sur la base
de l'équidistance. A l'opposé, les deux royaumes soutiennent que l'ap-
plication de cette clause doit êtrelimitéeà certains cas, par exemple celui
de la présence d'îles ou d'îlots insignifiants, de promontoires, etc., dont
il ne devrait pas être tenucompte dans le tracé dela ligne d'équidistance.

Cette opinion semblie bien fondée. La clause en question ne constitue
pas Lin principe inclépendant qui remplacerait celui de I'équidistance
mais plutôt une adaptation de ce principe à des circonstances concrètes.
Si, pour les raisons indiquées ci-dessus, on admet que la clause a le
caractère d'une exception, il faut logiquement conclure qu'elle est d'inter-
prétation stricte. E.~ceptionessunt strictissimae interprctatiorris. Dans ces

conditions, la configuration de la côte allemande ne peut pas être con-
sidérée comme une circonstance spéciale au sens du paragraphe 2 de
l'article6de la Convention, mêmesi le tracédes deux lignes d'équidistance
donne des résultats peu satisfaisants pour la République fédérale.
La République fédérale,se plaçant dans l'optique d'un partage juste
et équitable, affirme que la clause des circonstances spécialesdécouledu

principe de justice et d'équité;elle s'efforce de démontrer que la ielation
entre le principe de 1"équidistanceet ladite clause n'est pas celle qui existe
entre un piincipe essentiel et une exception à ce principe.

Le principe de I'équidistance a un caractère technique et ne possède
donc pas en soi une tonalité morale comme ceux de justice ou d'équité.

Mais lorsque le Iégislateui a incorporé ce principe dans la Convention
en tant que norme juridique, c'était certainement en pensant qu'en temps
ordinaire, I'application automatique de ce principe produirait un résultat
juste et équitable. A.ussi ne serait-il pas entièrement inexact de dire que
la notion de partage juste et équitable est inhérente au principe de l'équi-

distance. Cela ne signifie pas qu'une exception constituée par la clause
des circonstances spéciales nesoit pas nécessaire.

La clause des circonstances spéciales se présente comme une autre
manifestation du principe essentiel. Elle implique une certaine rectifica-
tion de ce principe ou, comme je l'ai dit plus haut, une adaptation pour

lui permettre d'atteindre son but véritable. Elle n'est pas destinée à
abolir le piincipe essentiel ni à l'emporter sur celui-ci mais plutôt à en
perfectionner la mise en Œuvre.
En un mot, la clause des circonstances spéciales énoncée à la deuxième
phrase du paragraphe 2 del'article6neconstitue pas un principe indépen-
dant qui 1ivaliserait avec le principe de I'équidistancesur un pied d'égalité,

mais plutôt une exception admise dans des cas concrets pour corriger
l'effet brutal que pouriait avoir l'application automatique de la méthode
de I'équidistance. Cette conclusion ressort clairement du libellé de laparagraph 2, second sentence which provides ". ..and wiless another
line is justified by special circumstances". [Italics added.] This only
means correction in special, individual cases by drawing another linc and
not the substitution of another principle in place of tlie equidistance

principle.
v

If what has been said above is correct, and the equidistance principle
is, on a customary law basis, biiiding vis-à-vis the Federal Rcpublic,
this is the end of tlie matter aiid there \\,ould be no need to examine

certain other questions wliicli were energetically discussed during the
course of the written and oral proccedings. Among these questions, two
must be considered. The first question is conceriied with tlie alternatives
of delimitation and just and equitable apportionment or share. The second
question is conccrncd with the inciivisibility of the two cases before the
Court and tlie coinbined effect of the two Danish-Germnn and German-
Netherlands boundary lines.

Althougli to answer these questions is not absolutely necessary for
the purpose of dcciding the present cases, 1 coiisider it to be sigiiificant
to deal wiih them, because they are fundamentally related with the
German contention that the application of the equidistance principle
should be replaced by just and equitable apportionment in the present
cases and tlierefore their consideration assists in the understanding of

the intrinsic value of the equidistance principle.
First,we shall consider the question of whether the present cases are
conccrned with the question of deliniitation or tl-iatof just and equitable
apportionment.
The two Kingdoins take their stand on déliniitatioii by the equidistance
principle. The Government of the Federal Republic on the othcr hand,
advocates the principle of just and equitable apportionment.

As we have seen above, delimitation by the equidistance principle
constitutes a logical conclusion derived from the fundaniental concept
of the continental shelf provided in Articles 1-3 of the Geneva Convttn-
tioii. It is aimed at the deliniitation, namely ths drawing of a boundary
line, between the continental shelves already belonging to two States,
and not to division.

It can be said that delimitation constitutes an act of a bilateral nature.
If more than two States are intercsted in the saine continental slielf and
participate in the common negotiation, the solution must be not of a
multilateral nature but of a bilateral nature, namely a combination of
bilateral relationships.
Consequently, the delimitation is individualistic in tlie sense tliat it is
made between two parties without regard to a third party. If it is carried

out by the application of the equidistance principle, delimitation would
be effected in an automatic and ne~itral way in so far as special circum-
stances do not exist.deuxième phrase di1 paragraphe 2 de l'article 6: 1et à moinsque des
circonstances spéciales ne justifient une autre délimitation 1)[les italiques

ne sont pas dans l'original]. Cela signifie que l'on apporte une correction
dans des cas particuliers et précisen traçant une autre ligne et non pas
en substituant un autre priricipe à celui de I'équidistance.

Si ce qui est dit ci-dessus est exact et si, par conséquent, le principe de
I'équidistance est obligatoire pour la République fédéraleen tant que
droit coutumier, le problème est résoluet il n'est pas nécessaire,à stricte-
ment parler, d'exanuner certaines autres questions qui ont étévivement
débattues au cours des procédures écrite et orale. IIparait cependant

utile de sepencher sur deux d'entre elles. La première a trait àl'alternative:
délimitation ou répartition juste et équitable. La seconde concerne I'indi-
visibilité des deux affaires portées devant la Cour et l'effet combiné des
deuxdélimitationsentre le Danemark et l'Allemagne et entre l'Allemagne
et les Pavs-Bas.
Bien qu'il ne soit pas rigoureusement nécessaire de répondre à ces

questions pour statuer sur les présentes affaires, il me paraît important
d'en dire un mot ici car elles sont intimement liées à la thèse de 1'Alle-
magne, selon laquelle leprincipe de I'équidistancedevrait êtreremplacéen
l'espècepar celui de la répartition juste et équitable; leur examen aide par
conséquent à mieux apprécier la valeur intrinsèque du principe de l'équi-

distance.
Nous nous demanderons tout d'abord si les présentes affaires mettent
en jeu la question de la délimitation ou celle d'une répartition juste et
équitable.
Les deux Royauines se fondent sur la délimitation effectuée selon le

principe de l'équidistance. Le Gouvernement de la République fédérale
soutient le principe de la part juste et équitable.
Ainsi que nous l'avons vu, la délimitation effectuéeconformément au
principe de l'équidistance est la conséquence logique de la notion fonda-
mentale du plateau continental, préciséeauxarticles 1 à3 de la Convention
de Genève. II s'agit bien de délimiter, c'est-à-dire de tracer une limite

entre des plateaux continentaux relevant déjà de deux Etats et non pas
d'opérer leur division.
On peut dire qui: la délimitation est un acte bilatéral par sa nature
même.Si plus de deux Etats revendiquent un mêmeplateau continental
et prennent part à des négociations communes, la solution ne doit pas

revêtirun caractère multilatéral mais un caractère bilatéral. c'est-à-dire
constituer une combinaison de rapports bilatéraux.
La délimitation est donc individualiste en ce sens qu'elle est op6rée
entre deux parties sans égardaux tiers. Si elle s'effectue par application du
principe de l'équi~distance,la délimitation se réalise d'une maiiikre
automatique et neutre, pour autant qu'il n'existe pas de circonstances

spéciales. On the otherhand, the alleged principle ofjust and equitable apportion-
ment which is contended for on behalf of the Federal Republic seems to be
collectivistic.It implies the concept that delimitation is not demarcation
of two sovereign spheres already belonging to two different States, but
an act of division, or sharing among more than two States of res nullius

or res cotnmunis. Therefore, the concept of apportionment is necessarily
constitutive and multilateral. It requires sorne criteria for the purpose
of theapportionment ofthecontinental shelf aniong the Statesconcerned.
It can be said abstractly that the apportionment should be just and equi-
table; however, it is not easy to demonstrate in what way apportionment
is,under given circumstances, in conformity withjustice and equitableness.

That the present cases are not concerned with the apportionment of
the continental shelf but its delimitation, is derived from the fundamental
concept of the continental shelf. Besides, the Special Agreements request
from the Court a decision on the nrincinles and rules of international
law applicable to delimitotion and not to apportionment.
The Judgmcnt of the Court is right in rejecting the argument of the

Federal Republic which maintains the viewpoint of apportionment and
not delimitation.
It is to be noted that the Federal Republic complains of the unjust
and inequitable consequences of delimitation by the equidistance prin-
ciple applied to the present cases; she does not limit herself to the cor-
rection of the alleged injustice and inequitableness resulting from such

delimitation, but puts forward a quite new claim for just and equitable
apportionment, which belongs to an entirely different concept from
delimitation, as 1have indicated above.
First, it is necessary to examine whether the application of the equi-
distance principle to the present cases would really produce injustice
and inequitableness at the expense of the Federal Republic, as she argues.
What are the reasons why the application of the equidistance principle

would result in an inequitable effect on the German part in the delimita-
tion of the continental shelf in the North Sea and why is the Federal
Republic opposing the application of this principle to the present cases?

The reasons may be summarized as follows:

First: The German part of the continental shelf would be reduced, by
the effect of the two equidistance lines, to a small fraction of the whole
North Sea area, not corresponding to the extent of its contact with the
North Sea (Memorial, p. 73, figure 18).
Secondly: The German part would extend only half-way to the centre
of the North Sea, where the parts of Great Britain, Norway, Denmark

and the Netherlands meet (Reply, p. 430, figure 5).

Thirdly: The area of the German part compared with the Danish or
the Netherlands part would amount only to roughly 40 per cent. of the
area of Denmark's or the Netherlands' part respectively. This would be En revanche le prétenduprincipe de la part juste et équitable,défendu
au nom de la Répubsliquefédéralep, arait êtrecollectiviste. Il implique que
la délimitation n'est pas une démarcation de deux domaines relevant
déjàde la souveraineté de deux Etats différents,mais une opération de
division ou de partage d'uneresnulliusou rescommunisentre plus de deux
Etats. Aussi, la notion de répartition est-elle nécessairementconstitutive
de droit et multilatférale.La répartition du plateau continental entre les
Etats intéresséssuppose d'autre part l'application de certains critères. On
peut dire iiabsrrac,roque la répartition doit êtrejuste et équitable; il est
cependant malaisé d'indiquer précisémenten quoi une répartition est
juste et équitable dans des circonstances concrètes.
Il découle de la notion fondamentale du plateau continental que les

présentesaffaires ni?concernent pas sa répartition mais sa délimitation.
Les compromis dernandent d'autre part à la Cour de se prononcer sur
les principes et les règlesdu droit international applicablesà la délimi-
tation et non pas à la répartition.
L'arrêt dela Cour rejette àjuste titre la thèsede la République fédérale
qui repose sur l'idée:e répartition et non pas sur celle de la délimitation.

II convient de noter que la République fédéralese plaint des consé-
quences injustes et inéquitables, dans le cas présent, d'une délimitation
effectuée selonle principe de I'équidistance; elle ne se borne pas à de-
mander la rectificai.ion des conséquencesinjustes et inéquitables qu'elle
allègue, mais réclameune part juste et équitable, ce qui est tout-à-fait
nouveau et procède d'une conception totalement différentede la délimi-
tation, ainsi que je l'aiindiquéci-dessus.

Il convient d'exaiminer tout d'abord si l'application du principe de
I'équidistanceen l'espèceaurait vraiment des conséquences injustes et
inéquitables pour la République fédérale,comme celle-ci le prétend.
Quelles sont les raisons pour lesquelles l'application du principe de
I'équidistanceà la d.élimitationdu plateau continental de la mer du Nord
aurait un effet inéquitable sur la part allemande et qui justifieraient
l'opposition de la République fédérale à l'application de ce principe aux
présentesaffaires?
Ces raisons peuvent êtrerésumées ainsi

Premièrement: la.part allemande du plateau continental serait réduite,
par l'effet des deux lignes d'équidistance, à une petite fraction de la
superficie totale de la mer du Nord, ne correspondant pas a l'importance
des points de contact de l'Allemagne avec celle-ci(mémoire,p. 73,fig.18).
Deuxièmement: la part de l'Allemagne ne s'étendrait qu'à mi-chemin
du centre de la mer du Nord, où se rejoignent les parts de la Grande-
Bretagne, de la Norvège,du Danemark et des Pays-Bas (réplique,p. 430,
fig. 5).
Troisièmement: la superficie de la part allemande, comparée à celles
du Danemark et cles Pays-Bas, serait seulement d'environ 40% de la
superficie revenant respectivement au Danemark ou aux Pays-Bas. Cela189 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS. OP. TANAKA)

out of proportion to the breadth of their respective coastal front facing
the North Sea (Hearing of 23 October 1968). The shares of the Federal

Republic, Denmark and the Netherlands would be in the ratio 6:9:9
respectively if they are measured by the breadth of contact of the coast
with the sea-the country's coastal frontage (Menlorial, para. 78, p77).

Are these reasons put forward on behalf of the Federal Republic
well-founded?
1 consider that the Gerinan contention is a simple assertion without
foundation because the German part constitutes a consequence of the
natural configuration (concavity) of the coastline, namely the rectangular
bend in the Danish-German-Netherlands coastline that causes both

equidistance lines to meet before the German coast thereby limiting
the Gerinan share.
Furtliermore. such a geographical configuration cannot be considered
as causing this case to constitute an example of the application of the
special-circumstances clause provided in Article 6. paragraph 2, of the
Convention.
Examples are not lacking of a large State, because of being given too

small a window on the open sea as a result of a special geographic con-
figuration, getting a very small portion of the continental shelf quite
disproportionate to its large land territory (for instance, Syria, Congo,
Guatemala, Romania). (Sketch map E, submitted by the Agent for
Denmark, Hearing of 7 November 1968.)
Morcover, the alleged proportionate smallness of the German part

compared with the Danish or the Netherlands part is not to be considered
as the result of the two equidistance lines only, but is caused by other
factors: relations on the one hand between Denmark and Norway
(Agreement of 8 December 1965), and on the other hand between the
Netherlands, Belgium (Projet de Loi of 23 October 1967,Article 2 deter-
mining Belgium's boundary with the United Kingdon and France and the

Netherlands), and the United Kingdom (Agreement of 6 October 1965).
The treaties on the delimitation of the continental shelf between these
States are not concerned with the present cases. Accordingly what seems
to make the Danish and the Netherlands parts bigger in comparison with
the Gernian part largely comes froin elsewhere, not at the cost of German
sacrifice.
For the above-indicated reasons, the contention on behalf of the

Federal Republic that the application of the equidistance principle tothe
delimitation of the continental shelf in the present cases produces injustice
and inequitableness, is not, 1consider, well-founded.
The Federal Republic however, on the hypothesis that delimitation on
the basis of the equidistance principle is unjust and inequitable, put
forward a contention for the replacement of this principle. This is the

idea of just and equitable apportionment or sharing.serait hors de proportion avec I'étendue desfaqades maritimes respectives
des trois pays sur la :merdu Nord (audience du 23 octobre 1968).Les parts
de la République fédérale,du Danemark et des Pays-Bas seraient dans
la proportioii 6:9:9 respectivement si on les mesurait d'après la distance
sur laquelle la côte est en contact avec la mer, c'est-à-dire d'après la

largeur des façades maritimes (mémoire. par. 78, p. 77).
Ces raisons, avancéesau nom de la République fédérale,reposent-elles
sur des bases valables?
J'estime que lathèsede l'Allemagne est une simple affirmation dépour-

vue de fondement, car la part de l'Allemagne est le résultat de la configu-
ration naturelle (concave) de sa ligne côtière, c'est-à-dire de l'angle droit
formé par les côtes du Danemark, de l'Allemagne et des Pays-Bas qui
fait se rejoindre les deux lignes d'équidistance devant la côte de 1'Alle-
magne, limitant ainsi la part de cette dernière.
En outre, on ne saurait considérer cette configuration géographique

comme illustrative des cas d'application de la clause des circonstances
spécialesénoncée ailparagraphe-2 de l'article 6 de la Convention.
Les exemples ne manquent pas d'Etats qui, n'ayant qu'une ouverture
trop petite sur la mer en raison d'une configuration géographique spéciale,
n'obtiennent qu'une très modeste proportion du plateau continental, tout
à fait disproportionnée à l'étendue deleur territoire (cas de la Syrie, du

Congo, du Guatemala, de la Roumanie, etc.). (Carte no E, déposéepar
l'agent du Danemark le 7 novembre 1968.)

En outre rien ne permet d'affirmer que la surface prétendument réduite
de la part allemande, comparéeaux parts du Danemark et des Pays-Bas,
résulte exclusivemeritdeslignes d'équidistance. Elle tient en effetà d'autres

facteurs: les relations entre le Danemark et la Norvège (accord du 8 dé-
cembre 1965) d'uni: part, et entre les Pays-Bas, la Belgique (art. 2 du
projet de loi du 23 octobre 1967, fixant la démarcation de la Belgique
avec le Royaume-lJni, la France et les Pays-Bas) et le Royaume-Uni
(accord du 6 octobre 1965)d'autre part. Les traités sur la délimitation du

plateau continental entre ces Etats ont un objet différent de celui des
présentes affaires. Par conséquent ce sont en grande partie des facteurs
étrangers ii celles-ci q~iifont paraître les parts du Danemark et des Pays-
Bas très bastes, pa.r rapport à celle de l'Allemagne, sans qu'on puisse
dire que les intérêtsa;llemands ont étésacrifiés.
Pour les raisons qui viennent d'êtreexposées, la tlièsede la République

fédérale,selon laquelle l'application du principe de l'équidistance à la
délimitation du plateau continental dans les présentes affaires a des
effets injustes et inkquitables, est mal fondéeà mon avis.
II reste que, partant de l'hypothèse que la délimitation effectuée selon
le principe de l'équidistance est effectivement injuste et inéquitable, la
République fédéraledemande que ce principe soit remplacé par autre
chose, et c'est alors qu'interviel~t l'idée d'~iiie répartition ou partage

juste et équitable. It is not clearwhether the Federal Republic presses this ideaconsistently
or whether she would be satisfied simply to replace the equidistance
principle by some other methods. At any rate, she proposes first the so-
called coastal frontage, namely a straight baseline between the extreme
points at either end of the coast concerned, taking into account the
special configuration of the German coast. Then the sector principle is

proposed in consideration of the particularity of the North Sea.

It seems that these proposals are intended indirectly or directly to
realize the principle of just and equitable apportionment. However, so
far as the coastal frontage is concerned, this imaginary line cannot be
recognized as a basis for the delimitation of the continental slielf of the

States concerned, the sea area being unable to be treated identically
with a solid land-mass froin the concept of the continental shelf, namely
the natural prolongation or continuation of the land territory of the
coastal State. So far as the sector principle is concerned, this idea seems
directly derived from the principle of just and equitable apportionment,

and involves the re-examination and rewriting of boundary agreements on
the continental shelf of the North Sea, not only between the States parties
to the present cases but between them and third States. Such consequences
cannot be tolerated.
The standpoint which conceives the delimitation of the continental
shelf as a bilateral relationship independent of the relationship with a

third State and recognizes the effect thereof, may certainly be exposed
to the criticism that it would result in prior iri ternpore, potior injurOf
course every agreement between States on boundary matters inust be in
conformity with international law, therefore it cannot infringe the rights
of a third party. However, since boundary demarcation of the continental
shelf can be made by bilateral agreement, there is no reason to deny that

the agreements concluded between Denmark or the Netherlands and a
third State, or betueen third States on matters of delimitation of the
continental shelf in the North Sea should be prirnu,facievalid erga omnes.
For the sake of the sccurity of the international legal order, the situation
must be avoided whereby the validity of an earlier agreement might be
questioned because it would produce an unsatisfactory effect from the

point of view of a third party effecting a subsequent act. Such unsatis-
factory effect must be tolerated so far as the present system of delimita-
tion of the continental shelf is based on the principle of the priority of
agreement by negotiations on this rnatter (Article 6, paragraphs 1 and 2).
In the event of the principle of just and equitable apportionment in-
stead of the delimitation by the equidistance principle being applied,

what would be the criteria for dividing the continental shelf among the
coastalStates of theNorth Sea? Besidesthe above-mentioned principles of
the coastal frontage and sector many other factors could enter into con-
sideration, for instance, length of the coastline, continuation of theland
frontier, vertical line drawn on the general direction of the coastline On ne voit pas très bien si cette idée estfondamentale pour la Répu-
blique fédéraleou si celle-ci se contenterait de remplacer le principe de

l'équidistancepar quelque autre méthode. Quoi qu'il en soit, la Répu-
blique fédérale proposepour commencer le système dit de la façade
maritime, ligne de base droite reliant les extrémités dela côte et tenant
compte de la configuration particulière du littoral de l'Allemagne. Elle
avance ensuite la théorie des secteurs, destinée à répondre aux particu-
larités de la mer du Nord.
TIsemble que ces propositions visent, directement ou indirectement, à
mettre en application le principe de la part juste et équitable.Cependant,
pour prendre d'abord l'idéede lafaçade maritime, on ne saurait voir dans
cette ligne imaginaire la base de ladélimitation du plateau continental des
Etats intéressés,car la notion du plateau continental considéré commele
prolongement naturel ou la continuation du territoire de 1'Etat riverain
empêchede traiter un espace maritime de la mêmemanière qu'une
masse terrestre. Quant à la théorie des secteurs, cette idée,qui semble
découler directement du principe de la part juste et équitable,aurait cette

conséquence inadmissible qu'elle obligerait à réexamineret à refaire les
accords de délimitation du plateau continental de la mer du Nord, non
seulement entre les Etats Parties aux présentes affairesmais entre ces
Etats et les Etatstiers.
La conception qui fait de la délimitation du plateau continental une
affaire de rapports bilatéraux, abstraction faite des relations avec les
Etats tiers, et qui en reconnaît les effets,est sans doute sujetteritique;
on peut lui reprocher de conduire à l'application de la maxime prior in
[empare, potior in jure. 11est évident que tout accord entre Etats en
matière de délimitaitiondoit être conforme audroit international et au'il
ne peut donc porter atteinte aux droits des tiers. Cependant, comme la
délimitation du plateau continental peut sefairepar accord bilatéral, rien
ne permet de prétendre que les accords conclus entre le Danemark ou les
Pavs-Bas et un Etailtiers. ou entre des Etats tiers. en matière de délimi-
tation du plateau continental de la mer du Nord, ne sont pas pritnafacie

valables à l'égardde tous. Au nom de la sécuritéde l'ordre juridique
international, il faut éviterque la validitéd'un accord puisse êtreremise
en cause, motif prii. de ce qu'il aurait une incidence défavorable pour un
Etat tiers désireux d'accomplir un certain acte postérieurement à cet
accord. Cette dernière conséquence doit en effet êtreacceptéedans la
mesure où le système actuel de délimitation du plateau continental se
fonde sur le principe de lapriorité de l'accord négocié(art.6,par. 1et 2).
Si l'on applique leprincipe de la répartitionjuste et équitableau lieu de
la délimitationseloinle principe de l'équidistance, quelsseront lescritères
pour opérerla division du plateau continental entre les Etats riverains de
la mer du Nord? Outre le systèmede la façade maritime et la théorie des
secteurs susmentiorinés,bien desfacteurspeuvent entrer enconsidération:
la longueur de la ligne côtière, le prolongement de la frontière terrestre,
des lignes tracéesperpendiculairement à la direction généralede la côte,proportion of size of land territories of the States concerned, etc. Finally
the distribution of subsoil natural resources and the unity of the deposit
might also become an important factor for consideration. The reconsid-
eration and rewriting of the evisting continental shelf boundary lines

between the North Sea States are a very complicated matter. It is the
same with the three States Parties to the present cases. Consequently, the
application of the principle of equidistance can be liighly appreciated
even from the standpoint of its negative function, namely the avoidance
of coniplications which might be produced by the introduction of the
idea of apportionment.

For the above-mentioned reasons, the German contention that the
delimitation of the continental shelf between the Parties in the North
Sea should be governed by the principle of just and equitable apportion-
ment is not well-founded.
From what is said above, the following questions, which presuppose
the application of just and equitable apportionment or at least the just
and equitable principle, are to be set aside from the examination as irrel-

evant for the purpose of deciding the present cases:
(a) Questions which are concerned with the boundary agreements on

tlie continental shelf concluded between Denmark or the Netherlands and
a third State, i.e., the United Kingdom or Norway.
(6) Questions which are concerned with tlie validity of the boundary
agreement on the continental shelfbetween Denmark and the Netherlands.
(c) Questions which are concerned with the details of the definition of
the continental shelf, and its outer limits.
(cl) Questions which are concerned with the particularity of the North

Sea continental shelf.
(e) Questions which are concerned with the nature and the location of
natural resources of the seabed and subsoil of the North Sea.
(1) Questions which are concerned with tlie joint exploitation of a
deposit situated on both sides of the boundary of the States concerned.

The second question which is now to be considered is related to the
indivisibility of the two cases before the Court and the combined effect of

the two Danish-German and German-Netherlands boundary lines, or
whether the two cases should be considered separately.

First, it must be noted that this question is esscntially linked with the
foregoing one, namely the question of delimitation as against just and
equitable apportionment. If the answer to the latter question is in favour
of delimitation, the anslver to the former inust be the recognition of the

divisibility of the two cases. If the answer to the latter is in favour of the
apportionment, the answer to the former must be tlie recognition of the
combined effect.le rapport avec la surface du territoire des Etats intéressés,etc. Enfin la
répartition des ressources naturelles du sous-sol et l'unité de gisement
peuvent aussi constituer un important facteur à prendre en considération.

Réexaminer et tracer à nouveau les limites du plateau continental déjà
fixéespar les Etats de la mer du Nord n'irait pas sans de très grandes
complicaiioiis. Il en est de mêmepour les limites concernant les trois
Etats Pariiesaux présentes affaires. Par conséquent le principe de I'équi-
distance doit êtreappréciéà sajuste valeur mêmesous sonaspect négatif,

qui est d'éviterles coimplications que pourrait entraîner l'introduction de
l'idéede répartition.
La thèse cle I'Alleniagne selon laquelle la délimitation du plateau con-
tinental de la mer du Nord entre les Parties devrait êtrerégie par le
principe cie ia part juste et équitable n'apparaît donc pas fondée.

Dans ces conditioi-is, il faut renoncer à examiner les questions énumé-
rées ci-après, qui priSsupposent une répartition juste et équitable ou du
moins l'application du principe de justice et d'équité,et qui sont sans
pertinence dans les présentes affaires:

a) Les questions relatikes aux accords de délimitation du plateau con-
tinental conclus entre le Danemark ou les Pays-Bas et un Etat tiers,
par exemple le Royaume-Uni ou la Norvège.

h) Les questions relatives à la validité de l'accord de délimitation du
plateau continental entre le Danemark et les Pays-Bas.
( 7 Les questions portant sur une définition détailléedu plateau con-
tinental ct de ses limites en général.
rl) Les questions qui mettent en jeu les particularités du plateau con-

tinental de la nier du Nord.
c) Les questions coriceriiaiit la nature et l'emplacement des ressources
naturelles du lit et du sous-sol de la mer du Nord.
f) Les questions soulevées par l'exploitation commune d'un gisement
situéde part et dqautre de la limite des Etats en cause.

La deuxième question, qu'il convient à présent d'aborder, est celle de
l'indivisibilité des deux araires dont la Cour est saisie et de l'effetcombiné
des deux lignes de délimitation gemano-danoise et germano-néerlandaise
- ou encore la qur:stion de savoir si les deux atraires devraient être
examinées indépenda.mment l'une de I'autre.

II est tout d'abord à noter que cette question est essentiellement liéeà
celle qui a étéévoquéeprécédemment - celie de la délimitation, par
opposition à une répartition juste et équitable. Si l'on se prononce en
faveur de la délimitaltionil faut, de toute évidence,reconnaître aussi que
les deux affaires sont indépendantes. Si au contraire on penche pour la
rkpartitioii, il faut alors accepter l'effet conjugué des deux lignes. It is evident that two cases are pending before the Court: one between
Denmark and the Federal Republic and the other between the Federal
Republic and the Netherlands. They are concerned with different areas
of the North Sea continental shelf. They were brought before the Court

simultaneously but by separate Special Agreements. However, the ques-
tions at issue in these cases are legally identical, and Denmark and the
Netherlands are in the same interest. That is the reason that the Court
ordered (26 April 1968), in implementation of the tripartite Protocol,
the joinder of the proceedings in the two cases and the appointment
of one Judge a(/ hocby the Governments of Denmark and of the Netlier-

lands.
But the joinder of the two cases from the viewpoint of procedural
expediency does not imply that there is from the substantive viewpoint
one case instead of two cases. There is not one and the same case as
occurred with the Sour11 W(>stAfrica cases.
In reality the two cases with which the Court lias to deal are concerned

with two different boundary lines, namely the Dano-German and the
German-Netherlands lines. The result of this is that, in dealing with the
merits of the two cases, the Court should not take into consideration
the simultaneous existence and mutual relationship or "combined effect"
of the two lines which from a procedural point of view does not exist.
Nevertheless, the arguments on behalf of the Federal Republic, which

constitute the contention of unjustness and inequitableness, are based
on the doctrine of the coinbined effect. What the Federal Republic
complains of is concerned with an area which is delimited by the two
equidistance lines and which seems to be unsatisfactory to her.
We must pay attention to the fact that there was no necessity for
simultaneous presentation of the two cases to the Court. If tlie two

Governments could hake foreseen that their procedural CO-operation
might produce, by reason of the "combined effect", an unfavourable
result, they would have preferred to adopt the procedure of postponing
for some years the pi-esentation of one case to the Court or presenting
the two cases with some interval between tliem.

For the reasons mentioned above, the two cases must not beconsidered,
from a substantive viewpoint, as one and the same case, but be conceived
as separate and independent ones.

One of the issues which 1 consider as important is concerned with
tlie hierarchical relationship between two kinds of legal norms, namely
tliat between natural law and p0sitiL.e law. It may be worth while to
draw the attention of students of law to the fact that this time-honoured
academic theme has found its way into the written pleadings and oral
arguments as a contention on behalf of the Federal Republic. II est évident que la Cour est saisie de deux affaires: l'une entre le

Danemark et la République fédéraleet l'autre entre la République fédé-
rale et les Pays-Bas. Les deux affaires ont trait à des zones différentes du
plateau continental de la mer du Nord. Elles ont étéportées devant la Cour
en mêmetemps mais par des compromis distincts. Ilreste que lesquestions
à trancher sont juridiquement identiques et que le Danemark et les Pays-

Bas font cause commune. C'est la raison pour laquelle la Cour a ordonné
le 26 avril 1968, en application du protocole tripartite, la jonction des
instances et la désignation d'un seul juge ad hoc par les Gouvernements
du Danemark et des Pays-Bas.

La jonction des deux instances, pour des raisons de commodité pro-
cédurale, n'implique nullement que, du point de vue du fond, il y ait une
affaire au lieu de de~ix. La situation n'est pas la mêmeà cet égard que
pour le Sucl-Ouest africain.
En réalitéles deux litiges sur lesquels la Cour doit se prononcer intéres-
sent deux lignes de delimitation différentes,à savoir les limites germano-

danoiseet germano-néerlandaise. Il en découlequ'en statuant sur le fond
la Cour ne devrait pas prendre en considération l'existence simultanée et
l'interrelation ou 1effet combiné » des deux lignes, celles-ci n'ayant au-
cune existence d'un point de vue procédural.
Les arguments présentésau nom de la République fédérale,arguments

qui font appel aux notions d'injustice et d'inéquité, sont néanmoins
fondés sur !a doctrine de l'effet combiné. Le grief de la République
fédéraleporte sur le fait que l'étendue bornée par les deux lignes d'équi-
distance ne lui parait pas satisfaisante.
11ne faut pas perdre de vue que la présentation simultanée des deux

affaires à la Cour n'avait aucuncaractère de nécessité.Si lesdeux Gouver-
nements avaient pu prévoir que leur coopération sur le plan de la procé-
dure pouvait avoir des effets défavorables en raison de 1'1effet combiné »
des deux lignes, ils auraient préféré retarder de quelques années I'ouver-
ture de l'une des instances ou n'auraient porté les deux affaires devant
la Cour qii'avec un certain intervalle.

Pour les raisons qui précèdent,les deux affaires ne doi~ent pas, quant
au fond. être considéréescomme une seule et mêmeaffaire, mais plutôt
comme des affaires distinctes et indépendantes.

L'LI~des problèmes qui me paraissent importants est celui de la relation
hiérarchique qui existe entre deux types de normes juridiques, à savoir
entre le droit naturel et le droit positif. 11n'est peut-être pas inutile de
souligner, à l'intention de tous ceux que les problèmesjuridiques intéres-

sent, que ce thème éternel de discussion académique a étérepris dans les
écritures et dans les plaidoiries comme l'une des thèses présentéesau nom
de la République fédérale. The Federal Republic denied, in the first place, the opposability of
the eq~iidistance principle incorporated in Article 6, paragraph 2. Next

she sought to deny also its character as customary international law.
Finally, she tried to attain the same effect from legal-philosophical con-
siderations concerning the two kinds of norms: natural law and positive
law.
According to the contention of behalf of the Federal Republic, the
application of Article 6, paragrapl-i2, of the Convention, which incorpo-

rates the equidistance principle, should be subordinated to a higher
norm of law which is nothing but the principle of just and equitable
apportionment deriving from the idea of "distributive justice" (justifia
distril~utira) (Memorial, para. 30, p. 301, "the general principles of law
recognized by civilized nations" (Article 38, paragraph 1 (c)) and the
so-called natural law of nations (Hearing of 5 November 1968).
Briefly, the Federal Republic seems to deny the application of Article 6,

paragraph 2,of the Convention for the reason that this would produce
a harsh effect and insists that the norm of just and equitable apportion-
ment be applied overruling the eq~iidistance principle. This contention
reminds us of an appeal to the mitigating sole of equity versus cornmon
law in English law. In the present cases the Federal Republic appeals
to the corrective or complementary function of natural law with regard

to positive law.

However, from the viewpoint of traditional natural law doctrine, the
overruling of a positive law rule by a natural law principle does not
seem to include such issue in question. Natural law does not venture
to interfere with positive law except in the case that positive law rules

are manifestly immoral and violate the principles of natural law. Such
a case cannot occur in the matter of the equidistance principle. Natural
law should not very easily permit the validity of positive law rules to be
contested by invoking natural law to the effect that such rules are not
in conformity with the idea of justice and equity, and therefore contrary
to natural law. It should not open a door to al1subjective and arbitrary
contentions denying the validity of positive law at the expense of secu-

rity and expediency. If a positive law rule is supposed to produce a
harsh or inconvenient effect, the correct course is not to deny the validity
of this rule on account of its unjustness and inequitableness, but to
propose its amendment.

In the present cases the application of the equidistance principle pro-

duces neither injustice nor inequitableness as is argued on behalf of the
Federal Republic. In reality, the question regarding the equidistance
principle is concerned with that of expediency, namely what method is
more practical and convenient for the purpose of delimitation of the
continental shelf and therefore it is of a technical character and not of
a character subject to moral evaluation and overruling by a natural law La République féd15rals e'est refuséetout d'abord a admettre que leprin-
cipede l'équidistance.,énoncé auparagraphe 2de I'article6, lui soit oppo-

sable. Elles'estensuite efforcéede lui dénierégalementlecaractère de règle
de droit international coutumier. Pour finir, et afin de parvenir au même
résultat, elle a fait appel à diverses considérationsjuridico-philosophiques
au sujet des deux types de normes: le droit naturel et le droit positif.
La République fédéralea plaidéque l'application du paragraphe 2 de

I'article 6 de la Convention, qui consacre le principe de I'équidistance,
devrait être subordonnéeà une norme de droit supérieure qui n'est autre
que le principe de la répartition juste et équitable, découlant de l'idéede
(justice distributive ))(ju.rtitia distriburiva) (mémoire, par. 30, p. 30), des
((principes généraux dedroit reconnus par les nations civilisées ))(art. 38,

par. 1 c), du Statut) et de ce qu'on appelle le droit naturel des nations
(audience du 5 novembre 1968).
En un mot, la République fédérale semble refusertoute application du
paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la Convention, pour la raison que cette
application aurait dans son cas des conséquences rigoureuses; elle insiste

d'autre part pour qu'entre en jeu la norme de la répartition juste et
équitable, comme supérieure au principe de l'équidistance. On songe à ce
propos à la manière clont, en droit anglais, il est possible de faire appel à
I'cquity pour atténuer les effets de la common laiv: dans le cas présent, la
République fédéraleinvoque le rôle correctif ou complémentaire du droit

naturel à l'égarddu droit positif.
Cependant, du pcrint de vue de la doctrine traditionnelle du droit
naturel, il ne semble pas que la possibilité de faire primer une règle de
droit positif par un principe de droit naturel puisse s'appliquer dans le cas
présent. Le droit nadurel n'intervient ainsi que dans la mesure où les

règles du droit positif sont manifestement immorales et contraires à ses
propres principes - question qui ne peut se poser au sujet de l'équi-
distance. Le droit naturel ne peut êtreinvoquéàtout propos pour contester
la validitéde règlesdu droit positif sous le prétexte que ces règlesne sont
pas confornies aux riotions de justice et d'équité, et par conséquent lui

sont contraires. Son rôle n'est pas de laisser le champ libre à toutes
sortes de thèse sub.iectives et arbitraires par lesquelles on refuserait
d'admettre la validité du droit positif, cela aux dépens des nécessités
pratiques et de la cert.itude du droit. Si une réglededroit positif est censée
produire des effets rigoureux ou gênants, la solution n'est pas de lui

refuser toute validitéen raison de son caractère i:ijuste et inéquitable, mais
d'en proposer la modification.
Dans les présentes affaires, l'application du principe de l'équidistance
ne produit ni injustice ni inéquité,contrairement à ce qui a étésoutenu au
nom de la Républiq~iefédérale.En réalité laquestion de l'équidistance se

pose sur le terrain de l'efficacité;en d'autres termes, il s'agit de savoir
quelle est la méthode la plus pratique et la plus commode pour délimiter
le plateau continental. Le problème est donc d'ordre technique; il ne se
prêtepas à une appréciation morale ni à l'entrée en jeu d'un principeprinciple. Of'course, the application of the technical rule of equidistance
may produce an unjust and inequitable result. The Federal Republic

iiisists on the existence of suçh a result in the present cases. However,
as it has been indicated above, such unjust and inequitable result cannot
be recognized in the application of the equidistance principle to the
delimitation of the present cases.
Incidentally, one of the three Aristotelean justices, justifia distributiva
which was referred to on behalf of the Federal Republic, appears to
have only very slight association with her cause. Justifia distributiva is

to govern the relationship between a corporate body and its members,
namely the obligation of a corporation versus its niembers. If we wish
to apply some category of justitia, it would be the justitia commutativa
which prevails in the relationships between individual members in a
corporate body, because the issue is concerned with justice between
individual States in the international community and not an obligation

in the international community versus individual States as its members.

In short, the reference by the Federal Republic to natural law or
distributive justice as a basis for the principle of just and equitable
apportionment does not mean more than asserting the idea: jus est ars
boni et aequi.

The Federal Republic puts forth an argument, namely the principle
of just and equitable delimitation, as an alternative to the principle of
just and equitable apportionment foi-the purpose of denying the exclusive
application of the equidistance principle. It seemsto methat the difference
between the two alternatives is only nominal in the sense that just and
equitable delimitation implies in itself the idea of apportionment. We

can see it from the fact that in both cases the factors to enter into con-
sideration to achievejustness and equitableness are identical. Therefore,
1venture to Say that the above-stated reasons denying the principle of
just and equitable apportionment advocated on belialf of the Federal
Republic can be mutatis mutatzclisapplied to the principle of just and
equitable delimitation.

In this context we must recall that the Judginent has categorically
rejected the principle of just and equitable apportionment. However,
so far as the Judgment recognizes the factors to be coiisidered which
were put forth by the Federal Republic under the said principle, there
is no substantial difference from recognizing that principle itself. The
principle of just and equitable delimitation does not mean more than the
repetitioii of the idea of law.

Next the same can be said concerning the Federal Republic's reference
to Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), as a basis for the prii~ciple of just and
equitable apportionment in the sense that this principle being vague and
abstract cannot offer any criterion for the decision of the present cases.

The character of "general principles of law" is more notably to be 5upérieur de droit riaturel. Bien entendu, l'application de la règle tech-
nique de l'équidistaincepeut avoir des effets injustes et inéquitables. La
République fédéraleaffirme que ce serait le cas en l'espècemais, on l'a vu
plus haut, rien ne permet de dire que I'application du principe de I'équi-
distance eri matière de délimitation aboutisse ici à des résultats injustes

et inéquitables.
On notera en passant que le type de justice aristotélicienne invoquée
au nom de la République fédérale - à savoir la justiticl distributiil-
semble n'avoir qu'uin rapport assez lointain avec les faits de la cause. La
justitiu distributiiu dloit régirles relations entre un corps coiistitué et ses

membres; il s'agit donc d'une obligation du corps constitué à l'égardde
ses membres. Si l'on veut faire intervenir une catégorie particulière de
jusritin, ce devrait êi.rela justitia commutntiva qui gouverne les rapports
entre individus au sein d'une société,le problème étant celui de la justice

entre Etats comme membres individuels de la communauté internationale
et non pas les obligations de la communauté internationale à l'égarddes
Etats qui en sont membres.
En somme, lorsque la République fédérale citele droit naturel ou la
justice distributive comme base du principe de la répartition juste et

équitable, elle ne fait que réaffirmerI'idéeque jus est ars boni et aequi.
La République fédéralepropose le principe de la délimitation juste et
équitable comme variante du principe de la répartition juste et équitable,
afin de faire pièce à l'application exclusive du principe de l'équidistance.
Il me semble que la différenceentre l'une et l'autre notion est purement

verbale, en ce sens qu'une délimitation juste et équitable porte en elle
I'idéede répartition - témoin le fait que, dans les deux cas, les facteurs
L prendre en considération pour parvenir à la justice et à l'équitésont
identiques. Je dirais donc que la réfutation (pour les raisons exposées
plus haut) du principe de la répartition juste et équitable défendu au

nom de la République fédérale peut s'appliquermutatis mutandis au prin-
cipe de la délimitation juste et équitable.

Il convient de rappeler à ce sujet que l'arrêtrejette catégoriquement le

principe de la répartition juste et équitable. Dans la mesure cependant
où il cite les facteurs à prendre en considération qui ont étéavancéspar
la République fédérale à propos dudit principe, la situation n'est pas
sensiblement différente de ce qu'elle serait si le principe lui-mêmeétait
reconnu. Quant au principe de la délimitation juste et équitable, il ne

constitue rien de plus qu'une réaffirmation de I'idéede droit.
II en va de même lorsque la République fédéraleinvoque le para-
graphe 1c) de l'article 38 comme devant servir de base à l'application du
principe de la répairtitionjuste et équitable; ce dernier étant vague et
abstrait ne peut en effet fournir le moindre critère pour parvenir à une

solution dans les présentes affaires.
Le caractère de 11principe généralde droit iest plus aisément décelablerecognized in the principle of equidistance than in tiie alleged principle of
just and equitable apportionment. 1consider tliat the legislative process
of the Geneva Convention and, parallel with it, the forrnalioii of custo-
mary international law on the matter of the equidistance principle indicate

the existence of a principle or method of a technical, therefore universal
character on this matter as a common denominator for coiiventional
law and customary law.
My conclusion is that the application of the principle of equidistance
is not overruled by the principle of just and equitable apportionnient
or delimitation. The reference of the Federal Republic to natural law
doctrine or the general principles of law is out of place.

For the reasons indicated above, my conclusion is as follo\vs

1. The first principle of international law to be applied to the delimita-
tion as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the
North Sea is that of obligation to enter into negotiations with a view to
arriving at an agreement as 1 stated above. Accordiiigly, 1agree on this

point with the view of the Court, which is incontrovertible. This con-
clusion cannot be deiiied by the fact that t'ne presentation of the two
Special Agreements \vas preceded by Jetailed negotiations between the
Governinents of the States Parties. The repeated eKort to arrive at agree-
ment by effective negotiation is not excluded at this stage, but is obliga-
tory.

2. The priority of negotiation and agreement is a principle of a pro-
cedural nature. A question arises concerning what kind of substantive
principle must prevail in the matter of delimitation of the continental
shelf: the equidistance principle or the equitable principle?

1 regret that, contrary to the Court's decision, 1 share the view in
favour of the equidistaiice principle instead of the equitable priiiciple
for the reasons indicated above. Particularly, 1 cannot agree with the
Court's view of the application of the latter principle to the present
cases by the reason that it amounts to the following three points:

First, the Court recognizes that delirnitation by the application of the
equidistance principle would produce in the present cases an unjust and
inequitable effect Jetrimental to the Federal Rep~iblic of Germany,
which is not the case, as stated above.

Secoridly, on this hypothesis, the Court admits in favour of the Federal
Republic an appeal to higher ideas of law siich as justice, equity or
equitableness, and reasonableness, which are self-evident but which,
owing to their general and abstract character, are unable to furnish any PL.4TE:AUCONTINENTAL (OP. DISS.TANAKA) 195

dans Ic principe de I'équidistance que dans le prétendu principe de la
répartition juste et équitable. A mon sens, le processus normatif qui a

abouti à la Convention de Genève et, parallèlement, la formation de
règles de droit international coutumier reprenant le principe de I'équi-
distance, indiquent l'existence d'un principe ou méthode à caractère tech-
nique et donc universel, dénominateur commun du droit conventionnel
et du droit coutumier en la matière.
En somme, le principe de la répartition ou de la délimitation juste et

équitable ne 1'empori:eà mon avis aucunement sur l'application du prin-
cipe de l'éq~iidistance.La doctrine du droit naturel ou les principes géné-
raux de droit invoquiis par la République fédéralen'ont pas d'application
ici.

Pour les raisons précédemment exposées, ma conclusion sera la sui-
vante :
1. Le premier priricipe de droit international à appliquer à la délinii-

tation, entre les Parties, des zones du plateau continental de la mer du
Nord est, comme je l'ai indiquéplus haut, celui de l'obligation de négocier
en vue d'aboutir à uniaccord. Je partage donc sur ce point l'avisde la Cour,
qui me parait irréfutable. Le fait que des négociations approfondies entre
les go~rvernements des Parties ont précédé ledépôtdes compromis ne mo-

difie en rien cette conclusion. Une nouvelle tentative de parvenir à un
accord par des négociations effectives n'est pas exclue au présent stade;
elle est au contraire obligatoire.

2. La priorité à accorder à la négociation et à l'accord est un principe
de caractère procédural. La question se pose alors de savoir quel principe

doit l'emporter quant au fond en matière de délimitation du plateau
continental: le principe de l'équidistance ou celui de I'équité?
Pour les raisons indiquées plus haut, je regrette de ne pouvoir suivre
ici la Cour et de partager au contraire l'opinion de ceux qui donnent la

préférenceau premier principe. En particulier, je ne puis faire mienne la
position adoptée par la Cour au sujet de l'application du principe de
l'équité auxprésente!;affaires, car elle équivaut à formuler une conclusion
en trois points qui sont les suivants:

Premièrement, la (Cour reconnaît que la délimitation par application
du principe de l'équidistance aurait en l'occurrence des effets injustes et
inéquitables pour la République fédéraled'Allemagne, ce qui n'est pas le
cas, ainsi que je l'ai indiqué.
Deuxièmement, partant de cette hypothèse, la Cour admet - donnant

en cela raison à la République fédérale - que l'on fasse appel à des
notions supérieures tle droit telles que la justice, I'équitéet la raison,
évidentes eri elles-mëme mais qui, par leur caractère général etabstrait,196 CONTINENTALSHELF (DISS.OP. TANAKA)

concrete criteria for delimitation in the present cases. Reference to the
equitable principle is nothinglse but begging the question.
Thirdly, the factors which may be taken into consideration to carry
out the equitable principle are of diverse nature and susceptible of
different evaluations. Consequently, it appears extremely doubtful
whether the negotiations could be expected to achieve a successful result,
and more likely that they would engender new complications and chaos.

It may be said that the Coiirt's answer amounts to the suggestion to
the Parties that they settle their dispute by negotiations according to
ex aequo etbono without any indication as to what are the "principles
and rules of international law", namely juridical principles and rules
vested with obligatory power rather than considerations of expediency-
factors or criteria-which are not incorporated in the legal norm and
about which the Parties did not request an answer.
It may be said also that the Court seems, by this decision, to be making
a legislative consideration on the apportionment of the continental shelf

which is not of declaratory but of constitutive nature contrary to the
concept of the delimitation and which has been denied by it.
The important matter in connection with the present cases is that
the Parties should have a guarantee of being able to terminate the
possibly endless repetition of detailed negotiations by the final applica-
tion of the equidistance principle. Another importantmatter should be
that, the Court by according the equidistance principle the status of a
world law would make a contribution to the progressive development
of international law.

(Signed K)otaroTANAKA.ne peuvent fournir en l'espèceaucun critère de délimitationprécis.Ren-
voyer à l'équitén'est rien d'autre qu'une pétition deprincipe.
Troisièmement, lesfacteurs qui peuvent êtrepris en considération pour
mettre en Œuvre le principe d'équitésont de nature diverse et prêtent à
différentesappréciations. Il paraît donc fort douteux que les négociations
aient deschances d'aboutir à un résultat;ilest plus probable, au contraire,
qu'elles engendreront des complications et des confusions nouvelles.

On peut dire que 11%décisionde la Cour revient à suggéreraux Parties
de rigler leur différendpar des négociations e.uaequo et bono sans leur
indiquer quels sont les ((principeset les règlesde droit international-
c'est-à-dire des princiipeset des règlesjuridiques obligatoires et non des
considérations (facteurs ou critères) de pure convenance, extérieurs aux
normes juridiques et au sujet desquels les Parties n'ont pas demandé
d'indications.
On peut égalemenitsoutenir que, par cette décision, laCour semble

légiférer enfaveur de la répartition du plateau continental, qui n'aurait
pas un caractère décliaratoiremais constitutif de droit, celà l'opposéet
en contradiction du concept de délimitation.
L'élémentimportant, dans les présentes affaires,est que les Parties
devraient avoir la certitude de pouvoir conclure des négociationsappro-
fondies et peut-être indéfiniment répétées ea nppliquant finalement le
principe de l'équidistance.Autre considération d'importance: en recon-
naissant au principe de l'équidistancela valeur d'une règlededroit appli-
cable dans le monde entier, la Cour contribuerait au développement
progressif du droit international.

(SignéK )otaro TANAKA.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Tanaka

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