Dissenting Opinion of Sir Hersch Lauterpacht

Document Number
034-19590321-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
034-19590321-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISsENTII\;G OPINIOS OF SIR HERSCH L-AL-TERPACHT

In its Judgment, after rejecting three preliminary objections of
the United States ofAmerica, the Court has declared the Application
of the Gcvernment of Switzerland to be inadmissible on account oi
non-exhaustion of local remedies in the courts of the United States.
By doing so the Court has assumed jurisdiction both in the present
case and in any future case connected with the present proceedings
after the local remedies have been exhausted. In mg- riew, there
being before the Court no valid declaration of acceptance of its
jurisdiction and no voluntary submission to it, the Court is not in
a position to exercise any kind of jurisdiction over this case, in-
cluding that of declaring the claim to be inadmissible. The same-
subject to one exception-applies to its jurisdiction to decide on
any of the preliminary objections. That exception arises from the
objection based on the so-called automatic reservation which
peremptorily and decisively rules out any jurisdiction of the Court
witb regard to a crucial aspect of the dispute and which renders the

other objections irrelevant. That objection also necessarily involves
the question of the validity of the Declaration of Acceptance of the
defendant State.

In its Application of October znd, 1957 instituting proceedings in
the present case the Government of Switzerland asked the Court
to adjudge and declare that

"(1) the Government of the United States of America is under an
obligation to restore the assets of tSociétéinternationale pour
participations industrielles et commercialeS. A. (Interhandel!
to that Company;
(2) in the alternative, that the dispute is one which is fit for sub-
mission for judicial settlement, arbitration or conciliation under
the conditions which it will Se for the Court to determine."
In its Memorial andits Observations on the Preliminary Objections

of the United States the Government of Switzerland elaborated and
amplified the above principalrequests formulatedin the Application.
However, the substance of the Application-namely, the restitution
of the assets of Interhandel and the obligation of the Govem-
ment of the United States to submit the dispute to arbitration
or conciliation-has remained unchanged. The successive formula-
tions of the Swiss Conclusions are reproduced in the Judgment of
the Court.
The Government of Switzerland has invoked the jurisdiction of
the Court in reliance upon the Declaration of Acceptance, which96 INTERHANDEL (DISS. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

took effect on August 26th. 1946,of the jurisdiction of the Court on
the part of the Cnited States, as well as upon its own Declaration of
Acceptance of July 28th, 1948. Paragraph 2 (b) of the Declaration oI
Acceptance of the United States provided that the Declaration shall
not apply to "disputes with regard to matters which are essential1~-
within the domestic junsdiction of the United States of America as
determined by the United States of America".
In its Preliminary Objections the Govemment of the United
States invoked the reservation thus formulated. It stated there.
in Part (a) of the Fourth Preliminary Objection, as follows:

"(a) The sale or disposition by the Governrnent of the United
States of America of the stock in General Aniline & Film Corpo-
ration, vested as enemy assets under the United States Trading
with the Enemy Act, has been determined by the United States
of America, pursuant to paragraph (b) of the Conditions attached
to be a matter essentially within the domestic junsdiction of then
United States. Accordingly, pursuant to paragraph (b) of the said
Conditions, the United States of America respectfully declines to
submit to the jurisdiction of the Court the matter of the sale or
disposition of such shares, including the passing of good and clear
title to any person or entity. Such determination by the United
States of America that the sale or disposition by the Government
of the United States of the stockin Ge~eral Aniline & Film Corpo-
ration is a matter essentially within its domeatic jurisdiction applies
to al1 the issues raised in the Swiss Application and Memonal,
including, but not limited to, the Swiss-United States Treaty of
Arbitration and Conciliation of 1931 and the Washington Accord
of 1946."

In the course of the Oral Hearing the Agent of the United States of
America formally maintained that preliminary objection both in
his opening statementand in his Reply. How-ever, while doing so,he
drew the attention of the Court to the fact that according to the
law of the United States the Government of the Cnited States could
not dispose of the assets of Interhandel so long as the case u-as
pending before the courts of the L-nited States. For that reason
he suggested that, at the present stage of the proceedings before
this Court, that preliminary objection was "moot"-i.e., apparent-
ly, without practical importance. Xe\-ertheless, in his Reply, while

insisting that that objection "is somewhat moot in the case at
this time", he formally reiterated that objection and asked the
Court "to judge and decide as there requested". He had previously
said :
"Our use of the automatic reservation limited to the sale or
disposition of the G.A.F. vested shares is not arbitrary; the Court
has never esamined and we assume will not examine into the
motives which lead nations to esercise the automatic reservation." 97 ISTERHAXDEL (DISS.OP. SIR HERSCH L-~UTERPACHT)
It may be added that the Government of the United States had,

on a previous occasion, invoked that reservation in connection
with-and as a reason of its opposition to-the request submitted
by the Government of Switzerland for an indication of provisional
measures of protection. The Court, in its Order of October 24th,
1957,declined-for reasons not connected with that reservation-to
indicate preliminary measures there requested (I.CJ. Reports 1957,
P 105).

In the case now before the Court the Government of the United
States has invoked the automatic reservation only in the matter of
the sale and disposition of the assets of Interhandel, but not

with regard to certain other aspects of the dispute, in particulathe
legality of the original seizure of the assets of the Company. The
Government of the United States has, in repeated statements,
<ttached importance to that limitation of its reliance on the
automatic reservation". However, it does not appear that any
such differentiation corresponds to the terms or objects of the
application of the Swiss Government or that it is of decisive prac-
tical or legal importance. The Swiss Application asks the Court to
declare and adjudicate that the "Government of the United States
of America is under an obligation to restore the assets of Inter-
handel". Now it is clear that if the Government of the United States,
in reliance upon the automatic reservation, proceeds to sell or
otherwise to dispose of the assets of Interhandel, notwith-
standing any judgment of or proceedings before this Court, it will

not be in the position "to restore the assets" of Interhandel.
It may, in pursuance of any judgment of the Court, offer to pay
compensation in place of the assets to be restored. Yet that is not
the object of the Swiss Application which asks for the restoration
of the assets-with the concomitant and, in the estimation of the
Swiss Government, essential rights of control over the affairs of
Interhandel.
In view of this, no decisive importance attaches to the fact that
the Government of the United States has refrained from invoking
the reservation in question with regard to the original seizure and
subsequent retention of the stock of Interhandel-an aspect of the
question which does not appear in the application of the Swiss
Government; with regard to that question the United States, in

Objection 4 (b), challenges the jurisdiction of the Court as being
a matter which according to international law-though not accord-
ing to the determination of the United States-is within its
domestic jurisdiction. The more relevant fact is that the automatic
reservation invoked in Objection 4 (a) has been invoked with
regard to the exclusive subject-matter of the Application and the
principal Conclusion advanced by the applicant Government.

95Court, it can subsequently be acted upon by the interested Govern-

ment whenever it deems it convenient to do so. In the present case
it has been submitted on behalf of the Government of the United
States that it is prevented by the latv of the United States from
selling or otherwise disposing of the assets of Interhandel so
long as a finaldecision of an American court has not declared these
assets to be validly vested in the United States of America. Yet
there is room for the possibility that, unless the automatic reser-
vation has been withdrawn by the United States, or declared
invalid by the Court, the Government of the United States may
be at liberty, subsequent to any such final decision of its courts
in its favour, to proceed to sel1 or otherwise dispose of the assets
of Interhandel notwithstanding any judgment of the Court declaring
itself competent with regard either to the principal request or the
subsidiary request relating to arbitration or merely declaring the
application inadmissible pending the exhaustion of local remedies
before Amencan courts. It is not certain to what extent the Govern-
ment of the Gnited States of America could be prevented from
doing so as the result of any indication of provisional measures of

protection-assuming that the sale had not been accomplished
with utmost expedition prior to any request for interim measures-
seeing that the United States has invoked the automatic reservation
as applying to al1aspects and stages of the dispute. The possibility
cannot be ruled out, although it cannot fittingly be anticipated, of
a change in the law of the United States which at present prevents
the Government from selling theassets of Interhandel prior to
a final decision of American courts.

For these reasons,whatever may be the accuracy of the suggestion
advanced on behalf of the United States of America that the
question of the automatic reservation "had become moot" at the
present stage of the proceedings, a proper administration of justice
requires that its validity-as well as, in that connection, that of
the Declaration of Acceptance as a whole-must be decided at
the very first stage of the proceedings before the Court. The auto-
matic reservation has been invoked by the defendant State; it has
been maintained by it; it has been challenged by the applicant

State; it is of immediate legal relevance. There is, therefore, no
room for accepting the submission of the Government of the United
States of America that the question of the automatic reservation,
having somehow become "moot", should be postponed to a further
stage of the proceedings.
The same considerations render it impossible to accede to the
submission of the Government of Switzerland that that objection
be joined to the merits. The objection based on the automatic
reservation cannot be properly joined to merits for the reason that
being of a forma1 and peremptory character, namely, being depen-dent solely upon the determination by the United States,it cannot

by definition be examinedupon its merits in relation to the substance
of the dispute. For it operates automatically, irrespective of the
merits of the dispute, by its own propulsion-as it were-as the
result of the physical act of having been invoked. This is so unless
the Court decides, at the very first stage of the proceedings, that
the question of the reasonableness and good faith of the reliance
on the automatic reservation must in any case be within the juris-
diction of the Court. For these reasons, the Court has, in my view,
no power to declare itself competent to consider, either directly or
by joining it to the merits, the subsidiary request of the Swiss
Government relating to the obligation of the United States of
America in the matter of arbitration or conciliation until it has
decided that the automatic reservation is invalid, and cannot be
acted upon, or that, if valid, the Courr has the power to pass in
every individual case upon the propriety of the action of the
Government which invokes it. For, as noted, the Government of
the United States has expressly declared that the objection based
on the automatic reservation applies also to the question of arbi-
tration and conciliation. The Court cannot properly declare itself

competent or, by joining the objection to the merits, envisage such
competence, without examining the principal and fundamental
questions decisive for the very possibility of its competence.
These considerations are also relevant to the preliminary ob-
jection of the Government of the United States relating to the non-
exhaustion of local remedies. Any decision of the Court allowing
that objection implies an assumption of the jurisdiction of the
Court both at the present stage and for the future in the event if,
after the local remedies have been unsuccessfully exhausted,
Switzerland once more submits her application to the Court.
A Judgment of the Court, based on the fact of non-exhaustion of
local remedies, implies the assurance to the applicant State that,
once it has done its best to exhaust local remedies. the Court will
proceed to the adjudication of the dispute on the merits-unhamp-
ered by any other objections to its jurisdiction. There would
othenvise be no point in requinng the injured party to exhaust
local remedies-only, once it had done so, to see its claim defeated
on account of some other preliminary objection. It is largely for
that reason that according to the established practice of the Court
preliminary objections must be examined-and rejected-before

the plea of admissibility is examined. If this is so, then the very
decision of the Court declaring the application to be non-admissible
on account of non-exhaustion of local remedies calls for-it implies
-a previous decision as to the validity of the automatic reservation
and of the manner in which it has been invoked. Moreover-and this is the crucial aspect of the jurisdictional
issue before the Court-the automatic reservation now invoked by
the United States of America and contained in its Declaration of
Acceptance raises, for reasons to be outlined presently, the question
of the effectiveness and validity of that Declaration of Acceptance

as a whole. Upon the answer to that question depends whether it
is possible for the Court to enquire intoany preliminary objection
other than that based on the automatic reservation. If the Court
isnot confronted with an effective and valid Declaration of Accept-
ance, there is no object in examining any other preliminary ob-
jections.
In my judgment, there is not before the Court a legally effective
and valid Declaration of Acceptance by reference to which it is in
the position to assume jurisdiction with regard to any aspect of
the dispute or by reference to which it is incumbent upon it-or
permissible for it-to examine any preliminary objection other
than that relying upon the automatic reservation. In my view, the
Government of the United States, having in its Declaration of
Acceptance ofAugust 26th, 1946,purported to accept the jurisdiction

of the Court subject to the reservation of matters essentially within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States as determined by
the Government of the Cnited States, did not, in legal effect,
become a party to an instrument which confers upon it rights
and which imposes upon it obligations. This is so for the following
reasons :
(a) the reservation in question, while constituting an essential
part of the Declaration of Acceptance, is contrary to paragraph 6
of Article 36 of the Statute of the Court; it cannot, accordingly,
be acted upon by the Court; which means that it is invalid;

(b) that, irrespective of its inconsistency with the Statute, that
reservation by effectively conferring upon the Government of the
United States the right to determine with finality whether in any
particular case it is under an obligation to accept the jurisdiction
of the Court, deprives the Declaration of Acceptance of the charac-
ter of a legal instrument, cognizable before a judicial tribunal,
expressing legal rights and obligations;
(c) that reservation, being an essential part of the Declaration of
Acceptance, cannot be separated from it so as to remove from the
Declaration the vitiating element of inconsistency with the Statute

and of the absence of a legal obligation. The Government of the
United States, not having in law become a party, through the pur-
ported Declaration of Acceptance, to the system of the Optional
Clause of Article 36 (2) of the Statute, cannot invoke it as an appli-
cant ;neither can it be cited before the Court as defendant by refer-
ence to its Declaration of Acceptance. Accordingly, there being before the Court no valid Declaration of Acceptance, the Court
cannot act upon it in any way-even to the extent of examin-
ing objections to admissibility and jurisdiction other than that
ex~ressed in the automatic reservation.
in sorne, but not all, respects, the position in the case now
before the Court is the same as in the case of Certain Norwegian
Loans in which, however, it was the defendant State which, availing
itself of the operation of the principle of reciprocity, invoked the
automatic reservation incorporatedin the Declaration of Acceptance
of the applicant Govemment. In that case the Court in refraining
from entering into the question of the validity of the automatic
reservation and of the Declaration of Acceptance attached import-

ance to the fact that these questions were not put in issue by
either Party. In my Separate Opinion in that case 1 expressed
the view that the validity of the instrument invoked as a bais
of the jurisdiction of the Court'must be a matter for the decision
of the Court proprio motu regardless of whether that issue has
been raised by the parties(I.CJ. Reports I957, p. 61). In the pre-
sent case both the validity of the automatic reservation and the
manner of its exercise have been challenged by the applicant
State. Upon the answer to these challenges depends the decision
of the Court upon one of the vital aspects of its jurisdiction. More-
over, the answer of the Court to the challenge to the validity of the
automatic reservation inevitably raises the issue of the effectiveness
and the validity of the Declaration of Acceptance as a basis of any
pronouncement of the Court on any aspect either of jurisdiction
or of the merits. Whatever may be the inconvenience and the diffi-
culties, fromvarious points of view, of a decision on these questions,
it is not possible for a judicial tribunal to postpone it.

My view as to the validity of the automatic reservation and of the

Declaration of Acceptance which incorporates it, is the same as that
expressed in my Separate Opinion in the case of CertainNorwegian
Lonns. In order to avoid repetition 1 must refer generally to
that Opinion for a more detailed exposition of some of the grounds
on which my conclusions in the present case are based. However,
the present case is concemed with different parties, one of which
is the United States of America-a party which has invoked and
maintained the automatic reservation incorporated in its Declara-
tion of Acceptance. Having regard to the long association of the
United States of America with this type of reservation and to the
availability of evidence surrounding the circumstances of its
adoption by that State in its Declaration of Acceptance, it is ne-
cessary to review some aspects of that Opinion in the light of the
above circumstance. On page 57 of that Opinion 1stated as follows: "As is well known, that particular limitation is, substantially,
a repetition of the formula adopted, after considerable discussion,
by the Senate of the United States of America in giving its consent
and advice to the acceptance, in 1946, of the Optional Clause by
that country. That instrument is not before the Court and it would
not be proper for me to comment upon it .except to the extent of
noting that the reservation in question was included therein having
regard to the decisive importance attached toit andnotwithstanding
the doubts, expressed in various quarters, as to its consistency
with the Statute."

No such considerations obtain in the present case. On the con-
trary, the historic antecedents surrounding the adoption of that
Declaration of Acceptance are directly relevant to its interpretation.

It is convenient, before proceeding, to state the meaning of the
expression "automatic reservation". That expression is intended to
convey that once that reservation has been invoked by the Govern-
ment in question the part of the Court is limited to the automatic
function of registering the fact that the reservation has been invoked
and that the Court is bound to hold, without examining its merits,
that it is without jurisdiction.

In the Separate Opinion in the NorwegianLoans case 1 stated (on
p. 43) as follows my view that it was not open to the Court to act
upon the "automatic" reservation :

"1 consider it legally impossiblefor the Court to act in disregard
of itsStatute which imposes upon it the duty and confers upon it
the right to determine its jurisdiction. That right cannot be exercised
treat as admissible the claim that the parties have accepted itss,
jurisdiction subject to the condition that they, and not the Court,
will decide on its jurisdiction. To do so is in my view contrary to
Article 36 (6) of the Statute which, without any qualification,
confers upon the Court the right and imposes upon it Cheduty to
determine its jurisdiction. Moreover, it is also contrary to ArticleI
of the Statute of the Court and Article 92 of the Charter of the
United Nations which lay down that the Court shall function in
accordance with the provisions of its Statute."

It is not necessary to reiterate here in detail the reasons formu-
lated in that Opinion and substantiating the view that the auto-
matic reservation is contrary to the Statute. They include some such
considerations as that if the Court must treat as binding the
determination by one of the parties to the effect that the Court is
without jurisdiction then the Court cannot exercise the duty im-
posed upon itby Article 36 (6)of the Statute (except for registering,
IO1by way of a necessarily automatic act, the fact that it is without

jurisdiction for the reason that a party to the dispute has so deter-
mined) ;that the Court, as shown by its practice and as indicated
by compelling legal principle, cannot act othenvise than in accord-
ance with its Statute, of which it is the guardian; that while gov-
ernments are free not to accept the jurisdiction of the Court at al1
or to accept it subject to reservations and limitations, they cannot
do so in derogation of expressprovisions ofthe Statute; and thatthat
applies with special force to a provision of the Statute relating to
an indispensable-and, indeed, obvious-safeguard of such com-
pulsory jurisdiction as may, by their own free will, be accepted by
the parties to the Statute.

"Article 36 (2)speaks of the recognition by the parties to the
Statute of the 'compulsory' jurisdiction of the Court. But there is
no question of compulsory jurisdiction if, after the dispute has
arisen and after it has been brought before the Court, the defendant
(I.C.J.Reportsle1957,dat p. 47.)her the Court has jurisdiction."

The Court is the guardian of its Statute. It is not within its
power to abandon, in deference to a reservation made by a party, a

function which by virtue of an express provision of the Statute is an
essential safeguard of its compulsory jurisdiction. This is so in
particular in view of the fact that the principle enshrined in Article
36 (6) of the Statute is declaratory of one of the most firmly estab-
lished principles of international arbitral and judicial practice.
That principle is that, in the matter of its jurisdiction, an inter-
national tribunal, and not the interested party, has the power of
decision whether the dispute before it is covered by the instrument
creating its jurisdiction.
What is the legal meaning of the fact that the Court is unable
to act upon-that it is by its Statute precluded from acting upon-
the "automatic" reservation? The legal meaning of that fact is that
the reservation in question is invalid, that is to Say, that the
Court being bound by its Statute is not in a position to apply it;
that that reservation is therefore without force and legal effect.
There is no element of disapproval or adverse moral or legal judg-
ment, offensive to the dignity of a sovereign State, in a proposition

of that nature. Invalidity, in the contemplation of the law, is
nothing else than inherent incapacity to produce legal results.
Sovereign States are free to append to their Acceptance any kind
of reservation or limitation-subject only to the qualification that
reservations and limitations which are contrary to the Statute
cannot be acted upon by the Court. There is otherwise no element
of illegality in an Acceptance of that character. The Court is not
concernedwith the political implications of, and possible objections
to, a Declaration which, while in law incapable of achieving that
object, purports to give expression and support to the principle of
IO2obligatory judicial settlement of disputes between nations. Neither
is the Court called upon to examine in detail arguments of some
dialectical complexion intended to infuse into such Declaration an
element of consistency with the Statute-such as that by per-
forming the automatic function of registering the determination
made by the State in question that a matter is essentially within
itsdomestic jurisdiction the Court in law exercises the substantive
and decisive function entrusted toit by Article 36 (6)of the Statute.
It is impossible for the Court to attach importance to the ar-
gument that as Governments are free to accept or not to accept
the obligations of the Optional Clause of Article 36 of the Statute,
they are free to do so subject to reservations of their unlimited
free choice. A person or a State may be free to join an association
or to accede to a treaty. This does not mean that they are entitled
to join or accede on their own terms in disregard of the rules of the
association or of the provisions of the treaty. Governments possess

no unlimited right to makereservations. In the Advisory Opinion on
the Reservations to the GenocideConvention the Court rejected the
contention that the unanimous consent of allparties to the treaty
is necessary to enable the State to become a party tothe treaty sub-
ject to a reservation. But the Court equally declined to accept the
view that the right to append reservations is unlimited. On the
contrary, it made "the compatibility of a reservation with the
object and purpose of the Convention" the decisive test of their
admissibility (I.C.J. Reports 1951 p,. 24). It said: "The object and
purpose of the Convention thus lirnit both the freedom of making
reservations and that of objecting to them" (at p. 24). It is for that
reason that while most of the recent conventions allow reservations
to their articles, they expressly exclude them with regard to some
of the essential articlesof the Convention. Of that practice, the
Conventions of 1958 relating to the law of the sea provide an in-
structive example. This applies also to conventions regulating
subjects of limited scope such as the Convention of July 28th, 1951,

relating to the Status of Refugees (Article 42 of the Convention).

It must be noted that, unlike in the case of some other States
which adhered to the system of the Optional Clause subject to the
automatic reservation, in the case of the United States of America
the question of the conformity of that reservation with the Statute
of the Court was clearly present to the minds of, and discussed by,
the members of the legislativeorgan responsible for that reservation.
In fact that question constituted the main and most prominent
subject of the discussion in the Senate (see CongressionalRecord,
Vol. 92 (1946), p. 10763 (Senator Donnell) ; ibid. (Senator Connally);
pp. 10764 and 10770 (Senator Morse) ;p. 10837 (Senator Pepper) ;
pp. 10837-10839 (a general discussion) ;p. 10840 (SenatorDonnell)).

103There is thus no question here of a State being confronted with
the consequences of an action the legal import of which was not
clear to the organ responsible for it. This is soquite apart from the
fact, to which detailed reference is made elsewhere in the present
Opinion, thatthat action-approved by a very substantial majority
of fifty-one votes to twelve-was in keeping with the continuous
attitude of the legislative organ in questio:: to obligatory arbitral
and judicial settlement in so far as it concerns the United States
of America.

The second ground why, apart from its inconsistency with the
Statute, it is impossible for the Court to apply the reservation in
question is that, in consequence thereof, the instrument in which
it is contained is not an instrument confemng legal nghts and
creating legal obligations.This is so for the reason that a purported
lindertaking in which one party reserves for itself the exclusive
nght to determine the extent or the very existence of its obligation
is not a legal undertaking and that the instrument embodying
it is not a legal instrument cognizable before a court of law. That
aspect of the question is elaborated on pages 43-48 of my Separate
Opinion in the case of Certain Norwegian Loans and it is
not therefore necessary to repeat here the views there expressed,
in particular those derived from general principles of law applicable
alike to all instruments, whether bilateral or unilateral, intended
to create legal rights and obligations. The only elaboration that
is required in this connection of that view is that dictated by the
fact that the automatic reservation now before the Court is one

incorporated in the Declaration of Acceptance of the United States
of America.
The insistence on the right of unilateral determination of the
existence of a legal obligation to submit a dispute to arbitral or
judicial settlement has been the unvarying feature of the practice
of the United Statesand, in particular, of the branch of the Govern-
ment of the United States endowed by the Constitution with the
power of decisive participation in the process of ratification of
treaties. Although occasionally, in treaties other than treaties
providing generally for compulsory arbitral or judicial settlement,
the United States of America has accepted in advance the juris-
diction of international tribunals in the matter of the interpretation
and the application of those treaties, including necessarily those
relating to the jurisdiction of those tribunals to determine their
competence when acting in that capacity, it has been unwilling to
do so with regard to treaties providing generally for obligatory
arbitral or judicial settlement. lVith regard to those treaties the
consistent attitude of the legislative body entrusted by the Con-stitution with advising and consenting to ratification has been to
reserve the right, for itself or the United States generally, to
determine with regard to any particular dispute whether there

rested upon the United States the obligation of arbitral or judicial
settlement as generally provided for in the instrument.
As already stated, any such condition must be considered to
constitute, in terms of law, a denial of the legal obligation of
compuIsory judicial or arbitra1 settlement. However, that has been
the attitude of the United States both generally and in relation to
the particular instrument now before the Court, namely, the
Declaration of Acceptance of August 26th, 1946.The United States
of America has accepted the obligations of Article 36 (2) of the
Statute on condition that in any particular case it is for the Govern-
ment of the United States of America, and not for the International
Court of Justice, to determine whether a matter is essentially within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States of America. That
condition, covering as it does a potentially dl-comprehensive
category of disputes relating to matters essentiallywithin domestic
jurisdiction, has replaced-in addition to another wide reservation
in the American Declaration of Acceptance relating to the inter-

pretation of multilateral treaties-the traditional formula requiring
the consent of the Senate, or of the Government of the United
States of America, to the submission of any particular dispute
to the international tribunal. This Court, whose jurisdiction is
grounded solely and exclusively in the consent of the defendant
State, must respect that essential condition of the Declaration of
Acceptance.

It is of importance, as showing both the consistency of the
determination of the United States of America to preserve the
ultimate power of decision with regard to its commitments on the
subject and the absolute character of that condition, to review
some of the principal events in the history of the attempts, since
the beginning of the modern practice of compulsory arbitration at
the end of the nineteenth century, to associate the United States

of America with the practice of compulsory judicial and arbitral
settlement .
On January t th, 1897, a general treaty of arbitration was signed
between the United States of America and Great Britain containing
provisions for the adjudication of disputes concerning pecuniary
claims against either Party and controversies involving the deter-
mination of "temtorial claims". Provisions of some stringency
surrounded both groups of disputes. Thus with regard to territorial
claims it was laid down that disputes shall be submitted to a
tribunal composed of sixmembers, three of whom were to be judges
of the Supreme Court of the United States or of the circuit courtsand the other three were to be judges of the British Supreme Court
of Judicature or members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council. It was laid down that only an award given by a majority
of not less than five to one was to be final (unless within three
months either party protested against it). Moreover, it was provided

that, in case one of the tribunals, constituted for the decision of
matters not involving the determination of territorial claims,should
decide that the determination of the case before it necessarily
involved "the decision of a disputed question of pnnciple of grave
general importance affecting the national rights of such party as
distinguished from the private rights whereof it is merely the inter-
national representative", the jurisdiction of the tribunal should
cease and the case should "be dealt with in the same manner as
if it involved the determination of a territorial claim" (Moore,
A Digest of International Law, Vol. VI1 (1go6), p. 77). Notwith-
standing these safeguards the Senate declined to give its consent
to the treaty.

In 1904 and 1905 the Government of the United States, following
the pattern of the arbitration treaty concluded in 1903 between
Great Britain and France, negotiated arbitration treaties with a

number of States, including France, Switzerland, Great Bntain,
Italy, and Mexico. The treaties contained the then customary
reservations of vital interests, independence and national honour.
The Senate amended these treaties by stipulating that the "special
agreement" therein provided in respect of any particular dispute
should be in the form of a treaty requinng the consent and advice
of two-thirds of the Senate (CongressionalRecord,February 13th,
190.59P. 2477).
When in 1907 the United States signed the Hague Convention
on Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, the "advice and
consent" in respect of ratification was given by the Senate subject
to the "understanding" in the matter of Article 53of the Convention
relating to the formulation of the "compromis" by the tribunal in
case the parties are unable to agree on the subject; the "under-
standing" expresslyexcluded from the competence ofthe Permanent
Court of Arbitration the power to frarne the "compromis" (Malloy,
Treaties between theUnited States and OtherPowers, Vol. II (I~IO),

pp. 2247, 2248).
On August 3rd, 1913,the Government of the United States, in an
effort to achieve a measure of obligatory arbitration, signed two
bilateral general arbitration treaties-commonly known as the
Taft-Knox treaties-providing for submission to arbitration of
disputes involving a "claim of right" made by one party against
anotherand "justiciable in their nature by reason of being suscept-
ible ofdecision by the application of the principles oflaworequity".
The treaties, which in each case provided for a special agreement,
laid down that should the parties disapree as to whether a disputeis justiciable the question of justiciability should be submitted to

a Joint High Commission of Enquiry and that the dispute should
proceed to arbitration only ifal1but one members of the Commission
reported that the dispute was justiciable. The Senate amended the
treaties but substituted the term "treatyW-requiring the consent
of two-thirds of the Senate-for "agreement" in relation to the
requirement of special agreement ; it struck out the provisions
relating to determination of the matter by the Joint Commission.
Thereupon the Government of the United States abstained from
proceeding with the ratification of those treaties (S. Doc. 476;
62nd Congress, 1st and 2nd Sessions).

On occasions the power of final decision on the part of the Senate
has been reserved even in bilateral treaties limited to arbitral

settlement of pecuniary claims. This was the case in the Special
Agreement of August 18th, 1910, between the United States of
America and Great Britain providing for the submission to arbitra-
tion of pecuniary claims between the two countries.Article I of that
Agreementprovided that the claims submitted to arbitration "shall
be grouped in one or more schedules which, on the part of the
United States, shall be agreed on by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate" (InternationalArbitral '4wards,Vol. VI, p. 9).
At the close of the First World War the insistence on the right
of final determination with regard to matters of domestic juris-
diction showed itself, in a different sphere, in the fifth reservation of
the "Lodge reservations" approved by the Senate on November 13th,
1919, in connectionwith the Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant
of the League of Nations. The Senate reserved to the United States

"exclusively the right to decide what questions are within its
domestic jurisdiction" .
Sirnilar considerations, as shown by a study of the record of the
discussions in the Senate, underlay the principal reservation of the
United States when on January 27th, 1926, the Senate passed a
Resolution consenting to the adherence of the United States to
the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice. That
reservation provided that the Court shall not entertain without the
consent of the United States a request for an advisory opinion
touching any dispute or question in which the United States had
or claimed to have an interest. Members of the League of Nations
were not in a position to accept the reservation in that form and,
in consequence, the United States did not become a party to the
Statute (League of Nations, Ogicial Joztrnal, Suppl. 75, p. 122;

OgicialJournal, 1929, p. 1857).
The insistence on the part of the United States, in the matter
of treaties of obligatory arbitration and judicial settlement, that
it must reserve for itself the ultimate right to determine the
existence of the obligation to submit a particular dispute to arbi-
1O7tration or judicial settlement continued to manifest itself in the
period preceding and following the Second World War. Between
1928 and 1931 the United States concluded a large number of

arbitration treaties-nearly thirty of them, including the Treaty
with Switzerland of February 16th, 1931-which, while invariably
incorporating the reservation of matters which are "within the
domestic jurisdiction of either of the Contracting Parties", provided
at the same time for the necessity of a special agreement in each
case. Such agreement was "in each case [to] be made on the part of
the United States of America by the President thereof, by and
with the advice and consent of Senate".
On January 5th, 1929, the United States of America signed the
General Treaty of Inter-American Arbitration-a treaty which
contained the reservation relating to disputes "which are within
the domestic jurisdiction of any of the Parties to the dispute and
are not controlled by international law". The following "under-
standing" was made part of the ratification of the United States of
America : "that the special agreement in each caseshall be made only
by the President, and then only byand with the advice and consent
of the Senate, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur"

(SystematicSurvey of Treatiesfor thePacificSettlementofInternational
Disputes 1928-1948, p. 504).
In the period following upon its Declaration of Acceptance, of
August 26th, 1946,ofthe compulsoryjurisdiction ofthe Court subject
to the automatic reservation, the United States have attached
importance to extending the principle involved therein to other
instruments, both multilateral and bilateral, of obligatory judicial
or arbitral settlement to which they have become a party. They did
so, for instance, in relation to the American Treaty of Pacifie
Settlement of April3oth, 1948(Pact ofBogotk) which, inits Article V,
provided that the procedures of pacific settlementlaid down therein
shall not apply "to matters which, by their nature, are within the
domestic jurisdiction of the State" and that "if the parties are not
in agreement as to whether the controversy concerns a matter of
domestic jurisdiction, this preliminary question shall be submitted
to decision by the International Court of Justice, at the request
of any of the parties". The United States appended to that Treaty

a reservation which reads, in part, as follows:

"The acceptance by the United States of the jurisdiction of the
International Court of Justiceascompulsoryipso factoand without
special agreement, asprovided in this Treaty, is limited by any
jurisdictional or other limitations contained in any Declaration
deposited by the United States under Article 36, paragraph 4, of
the Statute of the Court, and in forceat the time of the submission
of any case" (ibid.,p.1174). A similar limitation has been incorporated in a number of bilateral
agreements relating to specific matters, such as economic aid.
Thus the Treaty of July 3rd, 1948, between the United States and
China relating to economic aid provides as follows:

"It is understood that the undertaking of each Government
[relating to the jurisdiction of the Cour..is limited by the terms
and conditions of such effective recognition as it has heretofore
given to the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice under Article 36 of the Statute of the Court" (Yearbook,
I.C.J.,1948-194 PP. 152-155).

In view of this consistent and persistent assertion, as here
surveyed, of freedom of action in the matter of the justiciability
or arbitrability of any particular dispute, notwithstanding the
general obligation of arbitral or judicial settlement, and in view
of the determination of the United States of America to retain the
righC of decision as to the existence of its obligation in any parti-
cular case, it must be abundantly clear that the Court must give
full effect and weight to that attitude, so uniformly manifested,
of the United States of America. As a matter of possible develop-
ments that attitude may not be enduring for al1 time; sovereign
States, including the United States of America, have occasionally
changed their historic attitude in matters equally or more funda-
mental. But it is not within the province of the Court to speculate
on-or anticipate-these developments. Neither can it with any

propriety be influenced by any speculation as to differing attitudes
of the legislative and executive branches of the Government of the
United States in this matter. The principle as expressed in the
automatic reservation of the Declaration of the United States of
America must be regarded as representing the consistent and deli-
berate position of that country.

The Court cannot arrogate to itself the competence to curtail
that right of final determination by assuming the power to decide
whether that right has been exercised reasonably or in good faith.
To assume any such power would mean to deny to the United States
of America the very right which it stipulated as a condition of its
Declaration of Acceptance and which, if there were any doubt on
the subject, is substantiated as rooted in an historic tradition of
striking continuity. Of that tradition it is beyond the power of
the Court to approve or to disapprove. This would be so even if
there did not exist the additional and weighty reason that the
greatest caution must guide the Court, in the matter of its juris-
diction, in attributing to a sovereign State bad faith, an abuse of
a right, or unreasonableness in the fulfilment of its obligations. No assistance can be derived in this respect from the suggestion
that, in deciding whether a matter is essentially within ïhe
domestic jurisdiction, the Court shall assume that, unless there
are obvious reasons to the contrary, the Government in question
has made the determination reasonably and in good faith. Even
assuming that a differentiation between a determination which is
wrong,one whichis obviously and unreasonably wrong, andone which,
although unreasonable, is not arbitrarily and abusively so, provides
a proper basis for judicial decision in a matter affecting the juris-
diction of the Court itself, the fact remains that the United States
of America has not conceded to the Court-that it has expressly
denied to it-the right to make any such decision, however fa-
vourably influenced in advance by a presumption that the United
Stateshas acted correctly in determining a matter to be essentially
within its domestic jurisdiction. It is impossible for the Court to
base its decision on the shifting sands of the proposition that a
contention advanced by a party is plausible, or at least that it may
be given the benefit of being held plausible, although it is in law

wholly untenable. 1 find it juridically repugnant to acquiesce in the
suggestion that in deciding whether a matter is essentially within
the domestic jurisdiction of a State the Court must be guided not
by the substance of the issue involved in a particdar case but by a
presumption-by a leaning-in favour of the rightfulness of the
determination made by the Government responsible for the auto-
matic reservation. Any such suggestion conveys a maxim of policy,
not of law. Moreover, the very existence, if admitted, of any such
presumption in favour of the State relying upon its automatic
reservation wodd make particularly odious and offensive a finding
of the Court to the effect that, notwithstanding that presumption,
the reservation has been invoked unreasonably and in bad
faith. Any such construction of the function of the Court which is
calculated to put the Court in the invidious position of having to
make pronouncements of that kind in the matter of its own juris-
diction is, for that additional reason, open to objection.

The circumstances of the case now before the Court show clearly
the delicate and wholly discretionary nature of the task with which
the Court may be confronted if it were to assume the function of
deciding the accuracy or propriety or good faith of the determin-
ation made by the Government of the United States that the sale
and disposition of the assets of Interhandel is a matter falJing
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of the United States.
What are the considerations to which the Court must attach weight
in this connection? 1s it the fact that Interhandel is incorpo-
rated under the laws of one of the States of the United States of
America; that its physical assets are located in the United States
of America; that it is engaged in fields of production essential to

II0the defence efforts and war-time needs of the United States of

America; that the law of the United States (the Trading with the
Enemy Act) empowers the President to vest the property of
Interhandel, to sel1or liquidate it in the interests of and for the
benefit of the United States; and, moreover, that it requires the
President to sel1 that property to American citizens only-all
these facts confirming, it is asserted, the contention that the
matter is essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of the United
States? Or shall the Court attach importance to the view that the
sale and disposal of assets which have become, or may become, the
subject-matter of a Judgment of this Court or of an arbitration
tribunal are excluded by that very fact from the sphere of domestic
jurisdiction; that, according to the firmly established jurisprudence
of the Court, the fact that a matter is governed by national legis-
lation does not prevent it from being governed at the same time by
the international obligations of the State; and that the differen-
tiation, adopted by the Government of the United States, between
the seizure of the assets by virtue of the legislation of the United

States (a seizure which is merely asserted to be essentially within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States of America) and the
sale and disposa1 of the proceeds of that seizure (which sale and
disposa1 are conclusively determined by the United States to be
within its domestic jurisdiction) is solely an act of will authorized
by the terms of the Declaration of Acceptance but wholly unrelated
to the merits of the case? Canthe Court Saythat such differentiation,
though unreal, is not unreasonable; or that, though unreasonable,
it is not wholly arbitrary; or that, if arbitrary, itis not in bad
faith seeing that it relies on the unqualified terms of the Declaration
of Acceptance? These questions, which it is not intended to answer
in this Opinion, show the nature of the task confronting the Court,
if it were to sit in judgment on the legality or good faith of the
determination made by the Government of the United States of
America.
In my separate opinion in the case of Certain Norwegian Loans
1 pointed to the special difficulties arising in applying the

tests of good faith and reasonableness-assuming that the
application of any such tests were consistent with the terms of the
Declaration of Acceptance-to the elastic, indefinite and potentially
all-comprehensive notion of matters essentially within the domestic
jurisdiction of the State. It may comprise practically every act or
omission within national territory. That comprehensiveness of the
notion of matters of domestic jurisdiction renders impracticable
the attempt to review the accuracy of the determination, made by
a government, that a matter is essentially within domestic juris-
diction. Thereis no question here of ruling out altogether the abiding
duty of every State to act in good faith. The decisive difficulty is
that in view of the comprehensiveness of the notion of domestic
jurisdiction~oupled in the case of the United States with a uniforminsistence on the right of unilateral determination-that right
assumes in effect the complexion of an absolute right not subject
to review by the Court. This might not necessarily be the case if,
for instance, a government were to make a reservation of matters
arising in the course of hostilities as determined by that govern-
ment and if subsequently it were to proceed to determine as such
an event which arose in time of peace undisturbed by any armed
contest, whether amounting to war or not.

The above considerations apply also to the question whether, as
reyuested by Switzerland, the Court can join to the merits the
preliminary objection of the Government of the United States of
America based on the automatic reservation. To join the objection
to the merits is to assert the competence of the Court to decide,
by reference to the merits of the case, whether the matter of the
sale and disposition of the assets of Interhandel is in law essen-
tially within the domestic jurisdiction, or whether it can reasonably

and in good faith be determined that it is so. However, it is exactly
the power to make a decision of this kind that has been denied
to the Court by virtue of the explicit reservation of the United
States. If the Court has the power to declare that the determination
made by the Government of the United States is wholly devoid
of legal foundation so as not to constitute a reasonable exercise of
the right reserved inthe Declaration then, contrary to that Declara-
tion, it is the Court and not the United States of America that makes
the decisive determination in question. The joining of that objec-
tion to the merits would arrogate to the Court the power of a
decision of that nature; it could have no other purpose. It cannot
aim at enabling the Court to decide on the validity of the auto-
matic reservation or of the Declaration as a whole. For these ques-
tions cannot conceivably be answered by reference to the merits oi
the dispute. In fact, the joining of the objection based on the auto-
matic reservation to the merits implies the recognition in principle
of the validity of that reservation as well as of the Declaration
as a whole.
Any decision of the Court which arrogates to it a competence

denied to it by the express terms of the jurisdictional instrument
relied upon by the parties disturbs the continuity of the established
jurisprudence of the Court. That jurisprudence has been based on
the accepted principle of international law that the jurisdiction of
the Court is based invariably on the consent of the parties, given
in advance or in relation to a particular dispute. Admittedly, once
that consent has been given the Court will not allow the obligation
thus undertaken, or the effectiveness of that obligation, to be
defeated by technicalities or evasion. Thus the Court has assumed
jurisdiction by virtue of implied consent through so-called forum
prorogatum; on occasions, in order to make its jurisdiction effective,
it has declared itself competent to award compensation in cases in

II2which the parties conferred upon it jurisdiction to adjudicate upon
the main issue of responsibility. But the Court has not assumed
jurisdiction-and cannot properly do so-if jurisdiction is expressly
denied to it. The Court cannot pronounce whether a State has
reasonably determined that a matter is essentially within its
domestic jurisdiction if that State has expressly, deliberately and

as a conspicuous condition of its Declaration of Acceptance,
reserved to itself-and to itself alone-the right to determine that
question. This is so in particular in relation to a State whose
attitude in that matter has for over half a century exhibited a
pronounced degree of uniformity and consistency.

In fact, by virtue ofits Judgment in the case of CertairtNorwegian
Loans the Court is precluded, unless it decides to depart from the
principle therein acted upon, from reviewing the propriety or the
accuracy or the good faith of the determination made by the
United States of America. There the Court applied the French
automatic reservation, as invoked by Norway, without entering into
the question whether the subject of the dispute was in law actually
within the domestic jurisdiction of Norway:

"The Court considersthat the NorwegianGovemment is entitled,
by virtueof the condition of reciprocity, to invoke the reservation
contained in the French Declaration of March ~st, 1949; that this
which has been referred to it by the Application of the Frenchpute
Government; that consequently the Court is without jurisdiction
to entertain the Application." (I.C.J. Refiorts I957, p. 27.)

The position was made even clearer by the passage immediately
following. The Court said: "In view of the foregoing it is not
necessary for the Court to examine the first ground of the first
Objection", namely, the objection of Norway that the matter was
according to international law-and not merely by virtue of her
own determination-essentially within her domestic jurisdiction.

The very fact that, by virtue of its Statute, the Court, in inter-
preting a particular jurisdictional instrument, is the ultimate judge
of the question, imposes upon it a special and exacting responsi-
bility. The circumstance that the Court has no power to pronounce
on the manner and justification of the exercise of the automatic
reservation adds substance to the view that, in a Declaration of

Acceptance of that kind, there is absent the indispensable element
of legal obligation. The Court being a legal tribunal cannot apply
what, as a matter of legal effect, is essentially no more than a
declaration of principle and of generalwillingness to submit disputes
to the jurisdiction of the Court. Attention has been drawn in this connection to the protestations,

the sincerity of which is open neither to examination nor doubt,
that the faculty of determination would not be used capriciously
but with due regard to the reputation and the traditions of the
United States in the matter of international judicial and arbitral
settlement. However, these very assurances emphasize the sense of
the absence of a legal bond-as distinguished from political and
moral considerations-restricting the freedom of action of the
United States in this res~ect. Moreover. while the nation which
accepts the Optional claise subject to the automatic reservation
may vouch for its own good faith and moderation in invoking that
reservation, it is not in a position to do so with regard to the other
signatories of the Optional Clause who, by virtue of reciprocity,
automatically acquire as against that State the right to invoke the
automatic reservation. In the case of Certain Norwegian Loans,
Norwav-who had adhered to the O~tional Clause without
reserv~tions-considered herself fully entked to invoke the auto-
matic reservation against the State which had incorporated it in
its Declaration of Acceptance. The Court held that she was entitled

to do so. The legal consequences of the automatic reservation are
not limited to the State which incorporates it in its Declaration of
Acceptance; these consequences are automatically multiplied, as
against the Declaring State, by the number of other Signatories
of the Optional Clause. In fact, in so far as it is possible or per-
rnissible at al1to refer to any legal sanction for what is an entirely
legitimate act, this is the only legal sanction of the automatic
reservation.

The preceding considerations also supply,substantially, an answer
to the question whether although the Court cannot act upon the
automatic reservation-that is to say, although that reservation is
invalid-the Declaration of Acceptance may, apart from that
reservation, be treated as otherwise subsistent and given effect by
the Court. In the case concerning Certain Norwegian Loans

1 gave reasons in my Separate Opinion-which must be read
as forrning part of the present Opinion-why that question
must be answered in the negative. These reasons included the
general principle of lawgoverning the subject, namely, the principle
that a condition which, having regard to the intention of the party
making it, is essential to and goes to the roots of the main obligation,
cannot be separated from it. This is not a mere refinement of
private law, or of any municipal system thereof, but-as al1general
principles of law-a maxim based on common sense and equity.
A party cannot be held to be bound by an obligation divested ofa condition without which that obligation would never have been
undertaken.

These considerations of fair and reasonable interpretation must

be applied to a Declaration in which a State accepts the obligations
of the Optional Clause subject to the automatic reservation. If
that reservation is an essential condition of the Acceptance in the
sense that without it the declaring State would have been wholly
unwilling to undertake the principal obligation, then it is not open
to the Court to disregard that reservation and at the same time
to hold the accepting State bound by the Declaration. In the case
of the United States of America that aspect of the situation seems
so compelling as to be outside the realm of controversy. As has been
shown above in connection with the asserted right of the Govern-
ment of the United States of America to determine in each case
the existence of the obligation to resort to judicial or arbitral settle-
ment, that safeguard has been of the essence of every general
commitment which the United States of America has been willing
to undertake in that sphere. Having regard to these reasons-and
.to the reasons which 1 set forth in greater detail in the Separate
Opinion in the case of Certain Norwegian Loans (I.C.J. Reports
1957, pp. 55-5g)-I come to the conclusion that there is not

before the Court a valid and effective Declaration of Acceptance
by reference to which the Court can assume jurisdiction in the
present case with regard to any aspect of the dispute.
Neither is there any legal possibility of postponing the decision
of the Court on that fundamental jurisdictional issue. Unlike in
the case of Certain Norwegian Loans, that question is now
directly before the Court and, as a matter of ordinary adminis-
tration of justice, it must be decided before the Court gives a
judgment which implies the possibility of future proceedings on
the merits. The automatic reservation has been invoked; although
stated to have become "moot", it has been formally maintained
by the defendant Government. It has been challenged by the
applicant Government. 1 have already given reasons why the
submission that the automatic reservation has become "moot" in
the present case cannot be accepted as a matter either of fact or
legal relevance. In the case of Certain NorzeiegianLoans it was
possible to maintain-though 1 was unable to subscribe to
that view-that as neither party challenged the validity either of

the automatic reservation or of the Declaration as such the Court
was not in a position to raise the issuepropriomotu. In the present
case the question of the validity of the automatic reservation and
of the manner of its application-and, with it, inevitably the
question of the validity of the Declaration of Acceptance as a
whole-are squarely before the Court. There may be reasons
militating in favour of postponing a decision holding that that
11.5particular Declaration of Acceptance-and, by necessary impli-
cation, similar Declarations of Acceptance-are ineffective in law
whether invoked by or against the declaring State. However, these
are not reasons of a legal nature.

There is a further additional factor of decisive importance which,
in my view, renders it impossible to avoid the principal juris-
dictional issue as presented by the Parties. In the case of Certain
NorzeregianLoans it was the applicant State which had made its
Declaration of Acceptance subject to the automatic reservation;
that State was not in a position to raise the issue of the validity
of that reservation and of its own Acceptance. The defendant
State, for reasons which need not be examined here, acted on the
view that the success of its case would be best assured by invoking,
through the mechanical operation of the principle of reciprocity,
the automatic reservation incorporated in the Acceptance of the
applicant State. The position is wholly different in the case now
before the Court. The defendant State has formally availed itself,
in respect of the crucial aspect of the dispute, of the automatic
reservation contained in its Declaration of Acceptance. Its right to
do so effectively was challenged by the applicant Government on
the alternative grounds of the invalidity of the automatic reserva-

tion and the alleged arbitrary manner in which it had been invoked.
Whatever may be the basis of the challenge to the automatic
reservation as such or the propriety of the appeal to it in the case
before the Court, it is clear that the issue has been raised before
the Court and that the Court cannot discharge its duty without
examining and answering it.

It is not permissible to attach importance to the circumstance
that a decision of the Court holding the Declaration of Acceptance
made by the United States of America to be ineffective and invalid
would, in this particular case, enure to the benefit of the very State
which made that kind of Declaration. This is not a case of a State
benefiting from its own wrong. As already stated, there is no element
of illegality involved in a Declaration of Acceptance which is in-
consistent with the Statute of the Court. No rule of international
law forbids governments to perform acts and make declarations
which are incapable of producing legal effects. The Court cannot
be concerned with the question of the propriety or effectiveness,
from any point of view other than the legal one, of a Declaration

which purports to accept the compulsory junsdiction of the Court
but which, in law, fails to do itfor the reason that it leaves it to
the State concerned to determine whether a particular dispute is
subject to the jurisdiction of the Court.
Neither is there any sanction involved in treating such a Decla-
ration of Acceptance as legally non-existent. For it operates equally
116in relation to the declarant State and to its actual or potential
opponents. There is no sanction involved in giving full effect to the
condition on which, and on which alone, a State has accepted the
jurisdiction of the Court. The United States cannot avail itself of
its-legally ineffective-Declaration of Acceptance in order to
bring an action before the Court against another State;but for the
very reason that the Declaration is legally ineffective no State can
invoke it against the United States. Such indirect sanction as there
is-and itis one with which the Court cannot be concerned-is of
a different nature. While it unfailingly protects the declarant Gov-
ernment from the jurisdiction of the Court, it deprives it, with
equal certainty, of the benefits of that jurisdiction in cases in
which the declarant Government is the plaintiff.

For the reasons which 1 have stated and which compel me to
dissent from the Judgment of the Court, 1 have come to the con-
clusion that, having regard to the invalidity of the automatic
reservation and, consequently, of the Declaration of Acceptance
as a whole, the scope of a jurisdictional judgment of the Court in
the present case must be reduced to a minimum. The Court is not
in a position to act negatively by declining jurisdiction on account
of Objections I and 2 (the Objections ratione temporis) and
Objection 4 (b) (relating to matters alleged, but not determined, by
the United States of America to be within its domestic jurisdiction).
For any such negative decision presupposes the existence of a valid
Declaration of Acceptance in relation to which jurisdictional ob-
jections can be examined,and answered. For the same reason the
Court cannot declare the Application to be inadmissible on account
of non-exhaustion of local remedies. Moreover, any such declaration
of inadmissibility implies admissibility after local remedies have
been exhausted-a contingency which cannot properly be contem-
plated on the basis of the existing Declaration of Acceptance of the

United States of America. The only course which, in my opinion,
is properly open to the Court is to hold that in view of the invalidity
of the automatic reservation and the consequent invalidity of the
Declaration of Acceptance there is not before itan instrument by
reference to which it can assume jurisdiction in relation to any
aspect of the dispute. These consequences may seem to be startling.
However, they appear to be so only if we disregard the nature and
the contents of the instrument by reference to which the jurisdic-
tion of the Court is here being invoked.

As the Court has decided, at least provisionally, to proceed
on the basis that the Declaration of Acceptance of the United States
is a valid legal instrument cognizable by the Court, 1 considered it
my duty to participate in the formation of the Court's Judgment.

117 1have concurred in it with regard to the first and second Objections
ratione temporis. On the other hand, 1would have been in favour of
joining to the merits thethird Objection, relating to the exhaustion

of local remedies, in so far as it bears upon the principal claim for
the restitution of theassets of Interhandel. In this respect 1concur
generally in the reasons expressed in the dissenting opinims of
President Klaestad and Judge Armand-Ugon.
1 have also been unable to associate myself with the decision hold-
ing that the subsidiary claim ofthe Government ofSwitzerland relat-
ing to the obligation of the United States to submit the dispute
to arbitration or conciliation is inadmissible on account of the non-
exhaustion of local remedies by Interhandel. 1 cannot accept the
contention of the United States that the demand for restitution
which forms the subject-matter of the Swiss Application and which,
in substance, is now being litigated before the Courts of the United
States and the demand by the Swiss Government for arbitration
and conciliation are essentially one dispute. 1 consider that with
regard to that aspect of the claim of Switzerland there apply, with
some ccgency, the principles which are now firmly rooted in the

jurisprudence of the Court and which were clearly expressed in the
Judgment of the Permanent Court in the Chorz6w Factory case
(Series A, No. 17, p. 28). The Court said there:
"...The rules of law governing the reparation are the rules of
international law in force between the two States concerned, and
not the law governing relations between the State which has com-
mitted a wrongful act and the individual who has suffered damage.
Rights or interests of an individual the violation of which rights
causes damage are always in a different plane to rights belonging
to a State, which rights may also be infringed by the same act.
The damage suffered by an individual is never therefore identical
in kind with that which will be suffered by a State; it can only
afford a convenient scale for the calculation of the reparation due
to the State."
There must exist weighty reasons for any departure from that
principle so clearly formulated. That principle is not a mere doc-
trinal refinement. An international award may give to a State

satisfaction different frorn restitution of the property seized; a
State may have a legal interest, independent of any material
compensation and restitution, in vindicating the remedy of arbi-
tration provided for in the Treaty. It may also have a legal interest
in having its right to arbitral proceedings determined as soon as
possible without being exposed, after the local remedies have been
exhausted, to a further considerable delay in establishing that
right by a decision of this Court.

Moreover, the Judgments of the Court in the Ambatielos case
(I.C.J. Reports I952, p. 44, and Igj3, p. 18) were based on the
proposition that, in deciding whether the Court is competent to

118determine whether a State is under an obligation to submit a
dispute to arbitration, this Court will not anticipate the decision of
that tribunal on any question dividing the Parties. Thus, the arbi-
tration tribunal may have views of its own on the extent of the obli-
gation, in the present case, to comply with the rule of exhaustion
of local remedies. This being so, it would seem to follow from the
Judgments in the Ambatielos case and from general considerations
that that question must be left to the decision of the arbitra-
tion tribunal and that the Court ought not to decline to consider
the request of Switzerland on the subject on the ground that local
remedies have not been exhausted.
Finally, in so far as the procedure of conciliation is concerned,
it must not be taken for granted that the legal requirement of
exhaustion of local remedies would be fully or invariably applied
by a conciliation commission which is not bound to proceed ex-
clusively on the basis of law.

1 deem it necessary to add some observations with regard to
Preliminary Objection 4(b) in which the Government of the United

States challenges the jurisdiction of the Court on the ground that
the issues relating to the seizure and retention of the assets of
Interhandel "are, according to international law, matters within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States" (as distinguished
from the question of the sale and disposition of the assets of Inter-
handel-a question which the Govemment of the United States has
determined, in reliance upon the automatic reservation, to be within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States). The Court has
rejected Preliminary Objection 4 (b) by reference to the prin-
ciple enunciated by the Permanent Court of International Justice
in the Advisory Opinion on Nationality Decrees in Tunis and Mo-
rocco (P.C.I.J., SeriesB, No. 4). 1 concur in that result although
it is clear that the test adopted by reference tothat Opinion reduces
to the bare minimum the practical effect envisaged by the reserv-
ation in question. For itis not often that a case may anse in which
the grounds of international law relied upon by the applicant State
are not, upon provisional examination, relevant to the issue.
However, the main interest of that preliminary objection lies
in the fact that there is in the Declaration of Acceptance of the
United States no reservation which covers that objection. While
concentrating on the reservation of matters of domestic jurisdiction
as determined by itself, the United States did not in fact append
the more usual reservation of matters which according to interna-

tionallaw are essentially within its domestic jurisdiction. Now a
State is not entitled to advance a preliminary objection againstthe jurisdiction of the Court unless there is a limitation to that
effect either in the Declaration of Acceptance or in the Statute of
the Court. The Court, in examining and rejecting that objection
on its merits, has held, by implication, that a reservation of that
kind is inherent in every Declaration of Acceptance and that there
is no need to spell it out expressly. 1 am in agreement with that
conclusion so indirectly formulated. As stated, and that view is
confirmed by the rejection by the Court of that objection in
conformity with the generous and elastic test laid down in the
Opinion on the Tanis and MoroccoNationality Decrees, the advan-
tage accruing to the defendant State by a recognition of an implied
existence of that reservation is distinctly limited. From whatever
angle the question is approached, it matters little whether a reser-
vation of this kind is incorporated in a Declaration of Acceptance.
States are in any case fully protected from any interference whatso-
ever by the Court in matters which are according to international
law essentially within their jurisdiction. They are so protected not
by virtue of any reservation but in consequence of the fact that
if a matter is exclusively within the domestic jurisdiction of a
State, not circumscribed by any obligation stemming from a source
of international law as formulated in Article 38 of its Statute, the
Court must inevitably reject the claim as being without foundation
in international law.

As the United States has made no reservation of matters which

according to international law are within its domestic jurisdiction,
Preliminary Objection 4(b) must properly be regarded as a defence
on the merits and normally-namely, if there existed a valid
Declaration of Acceptance-would have to be examined, during
the proceedings on the merits, as being a substantive plea in the
sense that there is no rule of international law limiting the freedom
of action of the United States on the subject. That defence, if
justified,is of a potency transcending that of any reservation. In
view of the difficulties and uncertainties to which the reservation
of matters of domestic jurisdiction has given rise in the past,
1 consider it useful to draw attention to someconsiderationsrelevant
to the fact that the Court has treated the non-existing reservation
of matters which according to international law are within domes-
tic jurisdiction as if it were part of the American Declaration of

(Signed) Hersch LAUTERPACHT.

Bilingual Content

DISsENTII\;G OPINIOS OF SIR HERSCH L-AL-TERPACHT

In its Judgment, after rejecting three preliminary objections of
the United States ofAmerica, the Court has declared the Application
of the Gcvernment of Switzerland to be inadmissible on account oi
non-exhaustion of local remedies in the courts of the United States.
By doing so the Court has assumed jurisdiction both in the present
case and in any future case connected with the present proceedings
after the local remedies have been exhausted. In mg- riew, there
being before the Court no valid declaration of acceptance of its
jurisdiction and no voluntary submission to it, the Court is not in
a position to exercise any kind of jurisdiction over this case, in-
cluding that of declaring the claim to be inadmissible. The same-
subject to one exception-applies to its jurisdiction to decide on
any of the preliminary objections. That exception arises from the
objection based on the so-called automatic reservation which
peremptorily and decisively rules out any jurisdiction of the Court
witb regard to a crucial aspect of the dispute and which renders the

other objections irrelevant. That objection also necessarily involves
the question of the validity of the Declaration of Acceptance of the
defendant State.

In its Application of October znd, 1957 instituting proceedings in
the present case the Government of Switzerland asked the Court
to adjudge and declare that

"(1) the Government of the United States of America is under an
obligation to restore the assets of tSociétéinternationale pour
participations industrielles et commercialeS. A. (Interhandel!
to that Company;
(2) in the alternative, that the dispute is one which is fit for sub-
mission for judicial settlement, arbitration or conciliation under
the conditions which it will Se for the Court to determine."
In its Memorial andits Observations on the Preliminary Objections

of the United States the Government of Switzerland elaborated and
amplified the above principalrequests formulatedin the Application.
However, the substance of the Application-namely, the restitution
of the assets of Interhandel and the obligation of the Govem-
ment of the United States to submit the dispute to arbitration
or conciliation-has remained unchanged. The successive formula-
tions of the Swiss Conclusions are reproduced in the Judgment of
the Court.
The Government of Switzerland has invoked the jurisdiction of
the Court in reliance upon the Declaration of Acceptance, whichOPINIOS DISSIDESTE DE SIR HERSCH LACTERPACHT
-Traduction]
,\près avoir rejeté trois des exceptions préliminaires des États-
Unis d'Amérique, la Cour a déclaréquela requêtedu Gouvernement

suisse était irrecevable en raison, du non-épuisement des recours
internes devant les tribunaux desEtats-Vnis. Cefaisant, la Cour s'est
déclaréecompétente, tant pour la présente affaire que pour toute
affaireà venir, liéeà la présente procédure, après l'épuisement des
recours internes. A mes yeux, à défaut d'une déclaration valable
d'acceptation de la juridiction de la Cour età défaut d'une accepta-
tion volontaire de cette juridiction, la Cour n'est en mesure
d'exercer dans cette affaire aucune sorte de compétence, y compris
celle de déclarer la requêteirrecevable. 11en est de même - à une
exception près -- de sa compétence pour trancher l'une quelconque
des exceptions préliminaires. Ce cas spécial dérivede l'exception
fondée sur la réserve dite automatique, qui écartede façon péremp-

toire et définitive toute compétence de la Cour à l'égard d'un aspect
fondamental du différend et qui retire toute pertinence aux autres
exceptions. Cette exception porte nécessairement aussi sur la ques-
tion de la validité de la déclaration d'acceptation deEtat défendeur.

Dans sa requête du 2 octobre 1957 introduisant l'instance dans
Pa présente affaire, le Gouvernement suisse a demandé à la Cour de
dire et juger que
c1) Le Gouvernement des États-unis d'Amérique est tenu de
restituer les avoirs de la Sociétéinternationale pour partici-
pations industrielles et commerciales S. A. (Interhandel) à
cette société;
2) subsidiairement, que le différendest de nature à êtresoumis
à la juridiction,à l'arbitrage ouà la conciliation dans les
conditions qu'il appartiendra à la Coiir de déterminer.»

Dans-sonmémoire et ses observations sur les exceptions préliminaires
des Etats-Unis, le Gouvernement suisse a développéet élargi les
demandes principales ci-dessus,énoncées dans la requête.Néanmoins,
le fond de la requête - à savoir, la restitution des avqirs de l'Inter-
handel et l'obligation pour le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis de
soumettre le différend à l'arbitrage ou à la conciliation - est

demeuré inchangé. Les énoncés successifs des conclusions suisses
sont reproduits dans l'arrêt de la Cour.

Le Gouvernement suisse a invoqué la juridiction de la Cour en
se fondant sur la déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction de la96 INTERHANDEL (DISS. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

took effect on August 26th. 1946,of the jurisdiction of the Court on
the part of the Cnited States, as well as upon its own Declaration of
Acceptance of July 28th, 1948. Paragraph 2 (b) of the Declaration oI
Acceptance of the United States provided that the Declaration shall
not apply to "disputes with regard to matters which are essential1~-
within the domestic junsdiction of the United States of America as
determined by the United States of America".
In its Preliminary Objections the Govemment of the United
States invoked the reservation thus formulated. It stated there.
in Part (a) of the Fourth Preliminary Objection, as follows:

"(a) The sale or disposition by the Governrnent of the United
States of America of the stock in General Aniline & Film Corpo-
ration, vested as enemy assets under the United States Trading
with the Enemy Act, has been determined by the United States
of America, pursuant to paragraph (b) of the Conditions attached
to be a matter essentially within the domestic junsdiction of then
United States. Accordingly, pursuant to paragraph (b) of the said
Conditions, the United States of America respectfully declines to
submit to the jurisdiction of the Court the matter of the sale or
disposition of such shares, including the passing of good and clear
title to any person or entity. Such determination by the United
States of America that the sale or disposition by the Government
of the United States of the stockin Ge~eral Aniline & Film Corpo-
ration is a matter essentially within its domeatic jurisdiction applies
to al1 the issues raised in the Swiss Application and Memonal,
including, but not limited to, the Swiss-United States Treaty of
Arbitration and Conciliation of 1931 and the Washington Accord
of 1946."

In the course of the Oral Hearing the Agent of the United States of
America formally maintained that preliminary objection both in
his opening statementand in his Reply. How-ever, while doing so,he
drew the attention of the Court to the fact that according to the
law of the United States the Government of the Cnited States could
not dispose of the assets of Interhandel so long as the case u-as
pending before the courts of the L-nited States. For that reason
he suggested that, at the present stage of the proceedings before
this Court, that preliminary objection was "moot"-i.e., apparent-
ly, without practical importance. Xe\-ertheless, in his Reply, while

insisting that that objection "is somewhat moot in the case at
this time", he formally reiterated that objection and asked the
Court "to judge and decide as there requested". He had previously
said :
"Our use of the automatic reservation limited to the sale or
disposition of the G.A.F. vested shares is not arbitrary; the Court
has never esamined and we assume will not examine into the
motives which lead nations to esercise the automatic reservation."Cour par les États-unis qui est entrée en vigueur le 26 août 1946
et sur sa propre déclaration d'acceptation, datée du 28 jqillet 1948.

Le paragraphe 2 b) de la déclaration d'acceptation des Etats-Unis
dispose que la déclaration ne s'appliquera pas aux (différends rela-
tifsà des ,questions relevant essentiellement de la compétence patio-
nale des Etats-Unis d'Amérique, telle qu'elle est fixéepar les Etats-
Unis d'Amérique 1).
Dans ses exceptions préliminaires, le Gouvernement des États-
Unis a invoqué la réserve ainsi libellée. Dans le paragraphe a) de

la quatrième exception préliminaire, il déclare ce qui suit:
«a) La vente ou la disposition par le Gouvernement des États-
Unis des actions de la GeneralAniline & Film CovPora:ionplacées
sous séquestrecomme biens ennemis en vertu du Trading with the
Enemy Act des Etats-Unis ont été définiespar les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique,en vertu du paragraphe b) des réserves attach-ées à
l'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour par les Etats-
Unis, comme relevant essentiellement de la compétencenationale
des États-unis. En conséquence,et conformémentau paragraphe b)
desdites réserves, lesEtats-Unis d'Amériquerefusent respectueuse-
ment de soumettre à la compétencede la Cour la question de la
vente ou de la disposition de ces actions, y compris la transmission
de titre valable et incontestable à toute personne physique ou
morale. Les Etats-Unis estimant que la vente ou la disposition des
actions de la GeneralAniline 6 Film Corporationpar le Gouver-
nement des Etats-Unis relèvent essentiellement de sa compétence

nationale, cette décisions'applique à toutes les questions soulevées
dans la requêteet le mémoiredu Gouvernement de la Confédération
suisse, y compris, sans y être toutefois limitée,le Traitéd'arbitrage
et de conciliation de 1931 entre la Suisse et les Etats-Unis et
l'Accord de Washington de 1946."
Au cours de la procédure orale, l'agent des États-unis d'Amérique
a formellement maintenu cette exception préliminaire, tant dans

la première partie de sa plaidoirie que dans sa réplique orale. En
le faisant,cependant, il a attiré l'attention de la Coursyr le fait que,
selon le droit des États-unis, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis ne
pouvait pas disposer des avoirs de 1'Interhandel aussi>ongtemps
que l'affaire restait pendante devant les tribunaux des Etats-Unis.
Il a suggéré,pour cette raison, qu'au présent stade de la procédure
devant la Cour cette exception préliminaire était (moot ))c'est-à-
dire, apparemment,sansimportancepratique. Néanmoins,danssa ré-

plique orale, alorsqu'ilinsistait que l'exception était«somewhatmoot ))
à ce stade de l'affaire, il a formellement répétéles termes de cette
exception et demandé à la Cour de « dire et juger conformément à
la demandequi s'y trouvait formulée )).Auparavant, il avait déclaré:

((L'utilisation que nous avons faite de la réserve automatique
en la limitant à la vente ou à l'aliénationdes actions séquestrées
de la GAF n'est pas arbitraire; la Cour n'a jamais examiné et
nous supposons qu'elle n'examinera pas les motifs qui ont incité
les nationsà exercerla réserveautomatique. )) 97 ISTERHAXDEL (DISS.OP. SIR HERSCH L-~UTERPACHT)
It may be added that the Government of the United States had,

on a previous occasion, invoked that reservation in connection
with-and as a reason of its opposition to-the request submitted
by the Government of Switzerland for an indication of provisional
measures of protection. The Court, in its Order of October 24th,
1957,declined-for reasons not connected with that reservation-to
indicate preliminary measures there requested (I.CJ. Reports 1957,
P 105).

In the case now before the Court the Government of the United
States has invoked the automatic reservation only in the matter of
the sale and disposition of the assets of Interhandel, but not

with regard to certain other aspects of the dispute, in particulathe
legality of the original seizure of the assets of the Company. The
Government of the United States has, in repeated statements,
<ttached importance to that limitation of its reliance on the
automatic reservation". However, it does not appear that any
such differentiation corresponds to the terms or objects of the
application of the Swiss Government or that it is of decisive prac-
tical or legal importance. The Swiss Application asks the Court to
declare and adjudicate that the "Government of the United States
of America is under an obligation to restore the assets of Inter-
handel". Now it is clear that if the Government of the United States,
in reliance upon the automatic reservation, proceeds to sell or
otherwise to dispose of the assets of Interhandel, notwith-
standing any judgment of or proceedings before this Court, it will

not be in the position "to restore the assets" of Interhandel.
It may, in pursuance of any judgment of the Court, offer to pay
compensation in place of the assets to be restored. Yet that is not
the object of the Swiss Application which asks for the restoration
of the assets-with the concomitant and, in the estimation of the
Swiss Government, essential rights of control over the affairs of
Interhandel.
In view of this, no decisive importance attaches to the fact that
the Government of the United States has refrained from invoking
the reservation in question with regard to the original seizure and
subsequent retention of the stock of Interhandel-an aspect of the
question which does not appear in the application of the Swiss
Government; with regard to that question the United States, in

Objection 4 (b), challenges the jurisdiction of the Court as being
a matter which according to international law-though not accord-
ing to the determination of the United States-is within its
domestic jurisdiction. The more relevant fact is that the automatic
reservation invoked in Objection 4 (a) has been invoked with
regard to the exclusive subject-matter of the Application and the
principal Conclusion advanced by the applicant Government.

95 IXTERHAXDEL (OP. DISS. SIR HERSCH LAUTERP-~CHT)
97
On peut ajouter que le Gouvernement des États-Unis avait
auparavant invoqué cette réserve à propos de la requête du Gou-
vernement suisse en indication de mesures conservatoires - et
comme motif de son opposition à cette requête.Dans son ordon-
nance du 24 octobre 1947, la Cour - pour des raisons étrangères

à cette réserve - a refusé d'indiquer les mesures préliminaires
demandées (C. 1.J. ReczteilI9.57, p. 105).

Dans l'affai~equi est actuellement soumise à la Cour, le Gouver-
nement des Etats-Unis n'a invoqué la réserve automatique qu'à
propos de la vente et de la disposition des avoirs de lJInterhandel,

et non pas à propos de certains autres aspects di1 différend, en
particulier de la légalité dela saisie des avoirs de cette société
e-ffectuée à l'origine. ,4 plusieurs reprises, le Gouvernement des
Etats-Unis a attaché de l'importance à cette limitation à son
invocation de la ccréserve automatique 1).Il ne semble néan-
moins pas qu'une telle différenciation corresponde aux termes ou
aux buts de la requête du Gouvernement suisse ni qu'elle ait une
importance décisive sur le plan pratique ou juridique. La requête
s,~sse demande à la Cour de dire et juger que (le Gouvernement des
Etats-Unis d'Amérique est tenu de restituer les avoirs pe l'Inter-

handel ». Or, il est clair que si le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis,
se fondant sur la réserveautomatique, procède à la vente des avoirs
de 1'Interhandel ou en dispose d'une autre manière, sans tenir
compte d'un jugement ou de la procédure engagéedevant la Cour,
il ne sera plus en mesure de ((restituer les avoirs» de 1'Interhandel.
En application d'un arrêt de la Cour, il pourrait offrir une compen-
sation à la place des avoirs à restituer. Tel n'est cependant pas
l'objet de la requête suisse, qui vise la restitution des avoirs -
avec les droits accessoires et, aux yeux du Gouvernement suisse,
essentiels de direction sur les affaires de IlInterhandel.

Compte tenu de cela, le fait que le Gouvernement des États-unis
s'est abstenu d'invoquer la réserve en question à propos de la saisie
effectuée à l'origine et de la rétention des actions de 1'Interhandel
qui a suivi, n'a pas une importance décisive - c'est un aspect de la
question qui n'apparaît pas dans larequêtedu Gouvernement suisse ;
à propos de cette question, dans l'exception 4 b), les Etats-Unis
contestent la compétence de la Cour, alléguant qu'il s'agit d'une
question qui, çelon le droit international - mais non pas selon la

décision des Etats-Gnis -, relève de sa compétence nationale.
Le fait le plus pertinent est que la réserve automatique invoquée
dans l'exception 4 a) est invoquée à propos du seul objet sur
lequel porte la requête et la conclusion principale du Gouverne-
ment demandeur. Au surplus, dans la mesure où, dans la présente affaire, se pose la question de la validité de la réserve automatique
et de la déclaration dans son ensemble - et ce sont ces auestions
qu'il faut inévitablement résoudre avant que la Cour ne iuisse en
aucune manière se déclarer compétente en l'espèce, mêmepour
trancher les autres exceptions préliminaires - il semble qu'il
soit sans importance de savoir si la réserve automatique s'applique
à l'ensemble de l'affaire ou seulement à l'un de ses aspects.
Les mêmes considérations s'appliquent à la demande et à la
conclusion subsidiaires du Gouvernement suisse qui visent l'obli-
gation des États-unis de soumettre le différend aux procédures
d'arbitrage ou de conciliation. L'exception préliminaire 4 a) -

celle qui invoque la réserve automatique des États-unis - s'appli-
que selon ses termes exprès également à la question de l'arbitrage
et de la conciliation; il est doncimpossible que la Cour se déclare
compétente pour statuer sur cet aipect de la requête suisse sans
prendre position à propos de la validité de la réserve automatique
et de la déclaration d'acceptation comme telles. Si cette réserve est
efficace, il est impossible pour la Cour de déclarer que les États-
Unis sont tenus de soumettre l'ensemble du différend à l'arbitrage
ou àla conciliation car, dans ce cas- c'est-à-dire si la réserveauto-
matique est valable -, un tribunal arbitral ou une commission de
conciliation n'a pas le pouvoir de rendre une décision ni de faire
desrecommandations à propos de la principale requêteet conclusion

suisses, à savoir l'obligation pour les Etats-Unis de restituer les
avoirs de 1'Interhandel. La Cour ne peut se déclarer compétente
à propos de l'obligation d'arbitrage et de conciliation que si l'on
suppose que la réserve en question est dénuée d'efficacitéet de va-
lidité ou qu'elle a étéinvoquée sans raison et qu'il ne faut, par
conséquent, pas en tenir compte pour ces raisons, ou du moins que
le tribunal arbitral ou la commission de conciliation ont le pouvoir
de ne pas tenir compte de cette réserve, pour ces motifs. Il en va de
même, pour des raisons qui seront énoncéesplus loin, pour la de-
mande tendant à la jonction au fond de cet aspect du différend. A
aucun stade de la procédure la Cour ne peut agir sans tenir compte
de l'instrument qui a pour but de lui conférercompétence àl'égard
de cette procédure ni, pour des raisons étrangères au domaine des

considérations juridiques, remettre à plus tard une décision en la
matière.
La Cour ne peut pas non plus s'estimer relevéede cette obligation
en raison du fait que le Gouvernement auteur dela réserve auto-
matique incluse dans sa déclaration d'acceptation, et qui la main-
tient formellement comme le fait l'État défendeur dans la présente
espèce, juge opportun, à un stade donné de la procédure, de dire
que cette réserve est dénuée d'importance et de la qualifier de
« moot ».Il en est ainsi pour des raisons plus impératives que le fait
qu'un Gouvernement ne peut pas en mêmetemps maintenir for-
mellement une exception et inviter la Courà la traiter comme sans
importance. Si cette exception est maintenue et si elle n'est pas

96Court, it can subsequently be acted upon by the interested Govern-

ment whenever it deems it convenient to do so. In the present case
it has been submitted on behalf of the Government of the United
States that it is prevented by the latv of the United States from
selling or otherwise disposing of the assets of Interhandel so
long as a finaldecision of an American court has not declared these
assets to be validly vested in the United States of America. Yet
there is room for the possibility that, unless the automatic reser-
vation has been withdrawn by the United States, or declared
invalid by the Court, the Government of the United States may
be at liberty, subsequent to any such final decision of its courts
in its favour, to proceed to sel1 or otherwise dispose of the assets
of Interhandel notwithstanding any judgment of the Court declaring
itself competent with regard either to the principal request or the
subsidiary request relating to arbitration or merely declaring the
application inadmissible pending the exhaustion of local remedies
before Amencan courts. It is not certain to what extent the Govern-
ment of the Gnited States of America could be prevented from
doing so as the result of any indication of provisional measures of

protection-assuming that the sale had not been accomplished
with utmost expedition prior to any request for interim measures-
seeing that the United States has invoked the automatic reservation
as applying to al1aspects and stages of the dispute. The possibility
cannot be ruled out, although it cannot fittingly be anticipated, of
a change in the law of the United States which at present prevents
the Government from selling theassets of Interhandel prior to
a final decision of American courts.

For these reasons,whatever may be the accuracy of the suggestion
advanced on behalf of the United States of America that the
question of the automatic reservation "had become moot" at the
present stage of the proceedings, a proper administration of justice
requires that its validity-as well as, in that connection, that of
the Declaration of Acceptance as a whole-must be decided at
the very first stage of the proceedings before the Court. The auto-
matic reservation has been invoked by the defendant State; it has
been maintained by it; it has been challenged by the applicant

State; it is of immediate legal relevance. There is, therefore, no
room for accepting the submission of the Government of the United
States of America that the question of the automatic reservation,
having somehow become "moot", should be postponed to a further
stage of the proceedings.
The same considerations render it impossible to accede to the
submission of the Government of Switzerland that that objection
be joined to the merits. The objection based on the automatic
reservation cannot be properly joined to merits for the reason that
being of a forma1 and peremptory character, namely, being depen- ISTERHANDEL (OP.DISS. SIR HERSCH L-~UTERPACHT) 99

rejetée par la Cour, le Gouvernement intéressé pourra s'en prévaloir
chaque fois qu'il lui conviendra de le faire. Dans la présente espèce
il a étédit, au nom du Gouvernement des Etats-Unis, que le droit
interne des Etats-Unis lui interdit de vendre ou de disposer de toute
autre manière des avoirs de l'Interhande1, tant que la décision

définitive d'un tribunal américain n'a Das déclaré valable la mise
sous séquestre de ces avoirs aux États-enis d'Amérique. Toutefois,
à moins que la réserve automatique n'ait été retirée par les Etats-
Gnis, ou que la Cour ne l'ait-déclaréenon valable, il est possible
que le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis, à la suite d'une telle
décision définitive rendue par ses tribunaux en sa faveur, soit
libre de commencer à vendre les avoirs de YInterhandel ou à en
disposer de toute autre manière, en dépit de tout arrêt par lequel
la Cour se déclarerait compétente en ce qui concerne soit la demande
principale soit la demande subsidiaire relative à l'arbitrage, ou

déclarerait simplement la requêteirrecevable jusqu'à l'épuisement
des recours internes devant les tribunaux américains. On ne voit
pas exactement dans quelle mesure le Gouvernement des Etats-
Unis pourrait être empêchéde le faire par suite d'une quelconque
indication de mesures conservatoires provisoires - àsupposerque la
vente n'ait pas étéréaliséedans les plus brefs délais, avant Joute
demande de mesures conservatoires - étant donné que les Etats-
Unis ont invoqué la réserve automatique comme s'appliquant à
tous les aspects et à tous les stades du différend. On ne saurait
écarter complètement la possibilité d'une modification apportée au

droit des Etats-Unis qui, à l'heure actuelle, interdit au Gouverne-
ment de vendre les avoirs de 1'Interhandel avant une décisiondéfi-
nitive des tribunaux américains, encore qu'une telle éventualité
ne puisse guère êtreenvisagée.
C'est pourquoi, quelle que,puisse être l'exactitude de la sug-
gestion présentée au nom des Etats-Unis d'Amérique selon laquelle
la question de la réserve automatique (had becomemoot »au stade
actuel de la procédure, une saine administration de la justice exige
au'il soit statué sur sa validité - tout comme. en l'occurrence. de
celle de la déclaration d'acceptation dans son &semble - au t'out

premier stade de la procédure devant la Cour. La réserve auto-
matique ? étéinvoquée par l'Etat défendeur; elle a étémaintenue
par cet Etat; elle a étécontestée par 1'Etat demandeur; elle est
d'une pertinence juridique-immédiate. Il n'y a donc pas lieu d'ac-
cepter la conclusion des Etats-Unis d'Amérique selon laquelle la
question de la réserve automatique, devenue en quelque sorte
« moot )),doit êtreremise à un stade ultérieur de la procédure.

Les mêmes considérations font qu'il est impossible d'accueillir
la conclusion du Gouvernement suisse selon laquellel'exception doit

êtrejointe au fond. L'exception fondéesur une réserve automatique
ne saurait êtrejointe au fond pour la raison qu'étant d'un caractère
formel et péremptoire, c'est-à-dire dépendant uniquement de ladent solely upon the determination by the United States,it cannot

by definition be examinedupon its merits in relation to the substance
of the dispute. For it operates automatically, irrespective of the
merits of the dispute, by its own propulsion-as it were-as the
result of the physical act of having been invoked. This is so unless
the Court decides, at the very first stage of the proceedings, that
the question of the reasonableness and good faith of the reliance
on the automatic reservation must in any case be within the juris-
diction of the Court. For these reasons, the Court has, in my view,
no power to declare itself competent to consider, either directly or
by joining it to the merits, the subsidiary request of the Swiss
Government relating to the obligation of the United States of
America in the matter of arbitration or conciliation until it has
decided that the automatic reservation is invalid, and cannot be
acted upon, or that, if valid, the Courr has the power to pass in
every individual case upon the propriety of the action of the
Government which invokes it. For, as noted, the Government of
the United States has expressly declared that the objection based
on the automatic reservation applies also to the question of arbi-
tration and conciliation. The Court cannot properly declare itself

competent or, by joining the objection to the merits, envisage such
competence, without examining the principal and fundamental
questions decisive for the very possibility of its competence.
These considerations are also relevant to the preliminary ob-
jection of the Government of the United States relating to the non-
exhaustion of local remedies. Any decision of the Court allowing
that objection implies an assumption of the jurisdiction of the
Court both at the present stage and for the future in the event if,
after the local remedies have been unsuccessfully exhausted,
Switzerland once more submits her application to the Court.
A Judgment of the Court, based on the fact of non-exhaustion of
local remedies, implies the assurance to the applicant State that,
once it has done its best to exhaust local remedies. the Court will
proceed to the adjudication of the dispute on the merits-unhamp-
ered by any other objections to its jurisdiction. There would
othenvise be no point in requinng the injured party to exhaust
local remedies-only, once it had done so, to see its claim defeated
on account of some other preliminary objection. It is largely for
that reason that according to the established practice of the Court
preliminary objections must be examined-and rejected-before

the plea of admissibility is examined. If this is so, then the very
decision of the Court declaring the application to be non-admissible
on account of non-exhaustion of local remedies calls for-it implies
-a previous decision as to the validity of the automatic reservation
and of the manner in which it has been invoked. décision des États-unis, on ne peut par définition en examiner les
mérites à propos du fond du litige. Car elle agit automatiquement
sanstenir compte du fond du différend - et en quelque sorte - de
son propre mouvement par le simple fait matériel d'avoir été
invoquée. Il en est ainsi à moins qu'au tout premier stade de la
procédure la Cour ne décide que la question de savoir si la réserve
automatique est invoquée de façon raisonnable et de bonne foi
doit, en tout état de cause,relever de sa compétence. C'est pourquoi,

àmon avis, la Cour n'est pas habilitée àse déclarer compétente pour
examiner, soit directement soit en la joignant au fond, la demande
subsidiaire du Gouvernement suisse touchant l'obligation des
Etats-Unis d'Amérique dans la question de l'arbitrage ou de la
conciliation, jusqu'à ce qu'elle ait jugé que la réserve automatique
n'est pas valable et ne peut servir de base à une action ou que, si
elle est valable, la Cour est habilitée à juger, dans chaque cas in-
dividuel, du bien-fondé de l'action du Gouvernement qui l'invoque.
En effet, comme je l'ai fait observer, le Gouvernement des États-
Unis a déclaré expressément que l'exception fondée sur la réserve
automatique s'applique également à la question d'arbitrage et de
conciliation. La Cour ne saurait donc se déclarer compétente ni, en
joignant l'exception au fond, envisager cette compétence sans
examiner les questions principales et fondamentales d'une portée

décisivesur la possibilité mêmede sa compétence.
Ces considérations sont égalemen: pertinentes pour l'exception
préliminaire du Gouvernement des Etats-Unis touchant le fait que
les recours internes n'ont pas étéépuisés.Tout arrêt de la Cour
admettant cette exception implique la supposition que la Cour est
compétente à la fois au stade actuel et dans l'avenir au cas où,
après que les recours internes auront étéépuiséssans succès, la
Suisse soumettrait une fois de plus sa requête à la Cour. Un arrêt
de la Cour fondé sur le fait que les recours internes n'ont pas été
épuisés implique l'assurance donnée à 1'Etat demandeur que,
lorsqu'il aura fait tout ce qui est en son pouvoir pour épuiser les
recours internes, la Cour procédera au jugement du différendsur le
fond - sans être arrêtéepar aucunrs autres exceptions à sa
compétence. Il ne servirait de rien, autrement, d'exiger que la
partie léséeépuiseles recours internes - si, après l'avoir fait, elle

devait voir sa demande rejetée en raison d'une autre exception
préliminaire. C'est en grande partie pourquoi les exceptions préli-
minaires, conformément à la pratique établie de la Cour, doivent
être examinées - et rejetées - avant l'examen de la demande
portant sur la recevabilité. S'il en est ainsi, la décisionmêmede la
Cour déclarant que la requête est irrecevable en raison du non-
épuisement des recours internes exige - et mêmeimplique - une
décisionantérieure quant à la validité de la réserve automatique et
de la façon dont elle a étéinvoquée. Moreover-and this is the crucial aspect of the jurisdictional
issue before the Court-the automatic reservation now invoked by
the United States of America and contained in its Declaration of
Acceptance raises, for reasons to be outlined presently, the question
of the effectiveness and validity of that Declaration of Acceptance

as a whole. Upon the answer to that question depends whether it
is possible for the Court to enquire intoany preliminary objection
other than that based on the automatic reservation. If the Court
isnot confronted with an effective and valid Declaration of Accept-
ance, there is no object in examining any other preliminary ob-
jections.
In my judgment, there is not before the Court a legally effective
and valid Declaration of Acceptance by reference to which it is in
the position to assume jurisdiction with regard to any aspect of
the dispute or by reference to which it is incumbent upon it-or
permissible for it-to examine any preliminary objection other
than that relying upon the automatic reservation. In my view, the
Government of the United States, having in its Declaration of
Acceptance ofAugust 26th, 1946,purported to accept the jurisdiction

of the Court subject to the reservation of matters essentially within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States as determined by
the Government of the Cnited States, did not, in legal effect,
become a party to an instrument which confers upon it rights
and which imposes upon it obligations. This is so for the following
reasons :
(a) the reservation in question, while constituting an essential
part of the Declaration of Acceptance, is contrary to paragraph 6
of Article 36 of the Statute of the Court; it cannot, accordingly,
be acted upon by the Court; which means that it is invalid;

(b) that, irrespective of its inconsistency with the Statute, that
reservation by effectively conferring upon the Government of the
United States the right to determine with finality whether in any
particular case it is under an obligation to accept the jurisdiction
of the Court, deprives the Declaration of Acceptance of the charac-
ter of a legal instrument, cognizable before a judicial tribunal,
expressing legal rights and obligations;
(c) that reservation, being an essential part of the Declaration of
Acceptance, cannot be separated from it so as to remove from the
Declaration the vitiating element of inconsistency with the Statute

and of the absence of a legal obligation. The Government of the
United States, not having in law become a party, through the pur-
ported Declaration of Acceptance, to the system of the Optional
Clause of Article 36 (2) of the Statute, cannot invoke it as an appli-
cant ;neither can it be cited before the Court as defendant by refer-
ence to its Declaration of Acceptance. Accordingly, there being En outre - et c'est l'aspect essentiel de la question de compé-
tence soumise à la-Cour - la réserve automatique actuellement

invoquée par les Etats-Unis d'Amérique et qui figure dans leur
déclaration d'acceptation soulève, pour les raisons que nous allons
indiquer tout à l'heure, la question de l'efficacitéet de la validité
de cette déclaration d'acceptation dans son ensemble. De la réponse
faite à cette question il dépendra de savoir s'il est possible que la
Cour étudie toute exception préliminaire autre que celle qui est
fondéesur la réserveautomatique. Faute d'une déclaration d'accep-
tation effective et valable, il ne servirait à rien que la Cour examine
toute autre exception préliminaire.
A mon avis, la Cour n'est pas en présence d'une déclaration
d'acceptation juridiquement effective et valable sur la base de
laquelle elle peut se déclarer compétente à l'égard d'un aspect
quelconque du différend ou sur la base de laquelle il lui incombe -
ou il luiest permis - d'examiner toute exception préliminaire autre

que celle qui est fondée sur la réserve automatique. Selon moi, le
Gouvernement des Etats-Unis, ayant prétendu dans sa déclaration
d'acceptation du 26 août 1946 accepter la juridiction de la Cour
sous réserve de l'exclusion des qyestions relevant essentiellement
de la compétence nationale des Etats-Vnis, telle qu'elle est fixée
par le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis, n'est pas, juridiquement,
devenu partie à un instrument qui lui confère des droits et qui lui
impose des obligations. Il en est ainsi pour les raisons suivantes:

a) la réserveen question, tout en étant une partie essentielle de
la déclaration d'acceptation, est en contradiction avec le paragra-

phe 6 deel'article 36 du Statut de la Cour; la Cour ne peut donc
pas l'appliquer; ce qui signifie qu'elle n'est pas valable;
b) sans tenir compte de son incompatibilité avec le Statut,,cette
réserve. en conférant effectivement au Gouvernement des Etats-
Unis le droit de juger en dernier ressort si, dans une affaire parti-
culière, il est tenu d'accepter la compétence de la Cour, retire à la
déclaration d'acceptation le caractère d'un instrument juridique,
exprimant des droits et des obligations juridiques dont un tribunal
judiciaire peut connaître;

c) cette réserve, étant un élément essentiel de la déclaration
d'acceptation, ne peut en êtreséparéeafin de retirer de la déclara-
tion l'élémentqui la vicie la rendant incompatible avec le Statut,et
lui retire le caractère d'une obligation juridique. Le Gouvernement
des Etats-Unis n'étant pas, par la prétendue déclaration d'accepta-
tion qu'il avait souscrite, devenu partie en droit au système de la
clause facultative de l'article36 (2)du Statut, ne saurait l'invoquer
en qualité de demandeur; non plus qu'il ne saurait être citédevant
la Cour en vertu de sa déclaration d'acceptation. En conséquence, before the Court no valid Declaration of Acceptance, the Court
cannot act upon it in any way-even to the extent of examin-
ing objections to admissibility and jurisdiction other than that
ex~ressed in the automatic reservation.
in sorne, but not all, respects, the position in the case now
before the Court is the same as in the case of Certain Norwegian
Loans in which, however, it was the defendant State which, availing
itself of the operation of the principle of reciprocity, invoked the
automatic reservation incorporatedin the Declaration of Acceptance
of the applicant Govemment. In that case the Court in refraining
from entering into the question of the validity of the automatic
reservation and of the Declaration of Acceptance attached import-

ance to the fact that these questions were not put in issue by
either Party. In my Separate Opinion in that case 1 expressed
the view that the validity of the instrument invoked as a bais
of the jurisdiction of the Court'must be a matter for the decision
of the Court proprio motu regardless of whether that issue has
been raised by the parties(I.CJ. Reports I957, p. 61). In the pre-
sent case both the validity of the automatic reservation and the
manner of its exercise have been challenged by the applicant
State. Upon the answer to these challenges depends the decision
of the Court upon one of the vital aspects of its jurisdiction. More-
over, the answer of the Court to the challenge to the validity of the
automatic reservation inevitably raises the issue of the effectiveness
and the validity of the Declaration of Acceptance as a basis of any
pronouncement of the Court on any aspect either of jurisdiction
or of the merits. Whatever may be the inconvenience and the diffi-
culties, fromvarious points of view, of a decision on these questions,
it is not possible for a judicial tribunal to postpone it.

My view as to the validity of the automatic reservation and of the

Declaration of Acceptance which incorporates it, is the same as that
expressed in my Separate Opinion in the case of CertainNorwegian
Lonns. In order to avoid repetition 1 must refer generally to
that Opinion for a more detailed exposition of some of the grounds
on which my conclusions in the present case are based. However,
the present case is concemed with different parties, one of which
is the United States of America-a party which has invoked and
maintained the automatic reservation incorporated in its Declara-
tion of Acceptance. Having regard to the long association of the
United States of America with this type of reservation and to the
availability of evidence surrounding the circumstances of its
adoption by that State in its Declaration of Acceptance, it is ne-
cessary to review some aspects of that Opinion in the light of the
above circumstance. On page 57 of that Opinion 1stated as follows:la Cour n'étant pas en présence d'une déclaration d'acceptation
valable, ne saurait en aucune manière l'appliquer, pas mêmepour
examiner les exceptions à la recevabilité et5 la compétence autres
que celle qui est exprimée dans la réserve automatique.
A certains égards, mais non à tous, la situation dans l'affaire dont
la Cour est actuellement saisie est la mêmeque dans l'affaire de
Certains emFunts norvégiensdans laquelle, toutefois, c'était l'Etat
défendeur qui, demandant à bénéficierde l'application du principe
de réciprocité, invoquait la réserve automatique incluse dans la
déclaration d'acceptation du Gouvernement demandeur. Dans cette
affaire, la Cour, en s'abstenant de décider de la question de la

validité de la réserveautomatique et deladéclaration d'acceptation,
a attaché de l'importance au fait que ces questions n'avaient
étésoulevéespar aucune des deux Parties. Dans mon opinion indi-
viduelle relativeà cette affaire, j'ai exprimé l'avis que la validité
de l'instrument invoqué comme base de la compétence de la Cour
doit êtresoulevée d'office par la Cour, que la question ait étéou
non soulevéepar les parties (C. I. J.Recueil1957, p.61). Dans la
présente affaire, la validité de la réserveautomat?que et les con-
ditions de son application ont étécontestéespar 1'Etat demandeur.
C'est de la réponseapportée àces contestations que dépend l'arrêt
de la Cour sur l'un des aspects essentiels de sa compétence. En
outre, la réponse de la Courà la question de la validité de la réserve
automatique soulève inévitablement la question de savoir si la
déclaration d'acceptation peut fournir une base efficace et valable

à toute décision de la Cour, sur un quelconque aspect, soit de la
compétence soit du fond. Quels que puissent êtreles inconvénients
et les difficultésqui s'attachent,pour diverses raisons,à une déci-
sion sur ces questions, un tribunal judiciaire ne saurait la remettre
à plus tard.
* * -i:

Mon avis quant à la validité de la réserve automatique et de la
déclaration d'acceptation dans laquelle elle est incorporée est
semblable à celui que j'ai formulé dans mon opinion individuelle
en l'affaire relative à Certains emprz~nts norvégiens. En vue
d'éviter les répétitions, je dois renvoyer, d'une manière générale,
à cette opinion pour un exposéplus détaillé decertains des motifs
sur lesquels se fondent mes conclusions en la présente instance.

Cependant, celle-ci met en cause des parties différentes, dont l'une
est les Etats-Unis d'Amérique - partie qui a invoqué et maintenu
la réserveautomatique incorporéedanssa déclaration d'acceptation.
Eu égard à la longue expérience qu'ont les Etats-Unis d'Amérique
de ce type de réserve et aux élémentsde preuve disponibles quant
aux circonstances de son adoption par cet Etat dans sa déclaration
d'acceptation, il est nécessaire de reprendre certains aspects de
cette opinion à la lumière des circonstances susmentionnées. A la
page 57 de cette opinion, j'ai déclaréce qui suit:
1O0 "As is well known, that particular limitation is, substantially,
a repetition of the formula adopted, after considerable discussion,
by the Senate of the United States of America in giving its consent
and advice to the acceptance, in 1946, of the Optional Clause by
that country. That instrument is not before the Court and it would
not be proper for me to comment upon it .except to the extent of
noting that the reservation in question was included therein having
regard to the decisive importance attached toit andnotwithstanding
the doubts, expressed in various quarters, as to its consistency
with the Statute."

No such considerations obtain in the present case. On the con-
trary, the historic antecedents surrounding the adoption of that
Declaration of Acceptance are directly relevant to its interpretation.

It is convenient, before proceeding, to state the meaning of the
expression "automatic reservation". That expression is intended to
convey that once that reservation has been invoked by the Govern-
ment in question the part of the Court is limited to the automatic
function of registering the fact that the reservation has been invoked
and that the Court is bound to hold, without examining its merits,
that it is without jurisdiction.

In the Separate Opinion in the NorwegianLoans case 1 stated (on
p. 43) as follows my view that it was not open to the Court to act
upon the "automatic" reservation :

"1 consider it legally impossiblefor the Court to act in disregard
of itsStatute which imposes upon it the duty and confers upon it
the right to determine its jurisdiction. That right cannot be exercised
treat as admissible the claim that the parties have accepted itss,
jurisdiction subject to the condition that they, and not the Court,
will decide on its jurisdiction. To do so is in my view contrary to
Article 36 (6) of the Statute which, without any qualification,
confers upon the Court the right and imposes upon it Cheduty to
determine its jurisdiction. Moreover, it is also contrary to ArticleI
of the Statute of the Court and Article 92 of the Charter of the
United Nations which lay down that the Court shall function in
accordance with the provisions of its Statute."

It is not necessary to reiterate here in detail the reasons formu-
lated in that Opinion and substantiating the view that the auto-
matic reservation is contrary to the Statute. They include some such
considerations as that if the Court must treat as binding the
determination by one of the parties to the effect that the Court is
without jurisdiction then the Court cannot exercise the duty im-
posed upon itby Article 36 (6)of the Statute (except for registering,
IO1 ((Comme on le sait, cette limite particulière est au fond une
répétition de!a formule adoptée aprPs de longues discussions par
le Sénat des Etats-Unis d'Amériquequand il a donnéson consen-
tement et son avis à l'acceptation en 1946 par ce pays de la dispo-
sition facultative. La Cour n'étant pas saisie de cet instrument,
je ne puis le commenter, si ce n'est pour noter que la réserve en
question a étéinclue eu égard à l'importance décisive qu'on y a
attachée, et nonobstant les doutes exprimésde divers côtéssur sa
compatibilité avec le Statut. ))

Aucune considkration de cette nature ne s'applique à la présente
instance. Au contraire, les antécédents historiques qui entourent
l'adoption de cette déclaration d'acceptation sont directement
pertinents pour son interprétation.
Il est bon, avant de poursuivre, de définir le sens de l'expression
((réserveautomatique ». Cette expression veut dire que, une fois
cette réserve invoquée par le Gouvernement en question, le rôle de
la Cour se limite à enregistrer automatiquement le fait que la réserve
a étéinvoquée et que la Cour est tenue de dire, sans statuer au fond,

qu'elle n'est pas compétente.

Dans mon opinion individuelle en l'affaire relative à Certains em-
prunts norvégiens, j'ai formulé comme suit (à la page 43) l'avis qu'il
n'était pas permis àla Cour d'agir en vertu de la réserve ((automati-
que 1):

«Il est,à mon avis, juridiquement impossible pour la Cour d'agir
à l'encontre du Statut qui lui impose le devoir et lui confèrele droit
de déciderde sa compétence.Cedroit ne saurait êtreexercépar une
partie au litige. La Cour ne saurait en aucun cas considérercomme
recevable la thèse d'après laquelle les parties auraient accepté sa
juridiction sous réserve que ce soient elles et non la Cour qui en
décident. Une telle manière d'agir est, selon moi, en contradiction
avecl'article 36 (6)du Statut, lequel, sans aucunelimitation, confère
le droit et impose le devoir à la Cour de déciderde sa compétence.
Au surplus, ce procédéest égalementen contradiction avec l'article
lesquels stipulent que la Cour fonctionne conformément aux dispo-
sitions de son Statut. 1)

Il n'est pas nécessaire derépéter ici en détail les raisons formulées
dans cette opinion à l'appui du point de vue selon lequel la réserve
automatique est contraire au Statut. Parmi ces raisons intervien-

nent les considérations qui suivent: si la Cour doit s'estimer comme
liéepar le fait que l'une des parties décide qu'elle n'est pas compé-
tente, la Cour ne peut alors remplir le devoir que lui impose l'arti-
cle 36 (6) du Statut (sinon pour enregistrer, par un acte nécessaire-by way of a necessarily automatic act, the fact that it is without

jurisdiction for the reason that a party to the dispute has so deter-
mined) ;that the Court, as shown by its practice and as indicated
by compelling legal principle, cannot act othenvise than in accord-
ance with its Statute, of which it is the guardian; that while gov-
ernments are free not to accept the jurisdiction of the Court at al1
or to accept it subject to reservations and limitations, they cannot
do so in derogation of expressprovisions ofthe Statute; and thatthat
applies with special force to a provision of the Statute relating to
an indispensable-and, indeed, obvious-safeguard of such com-
pulsory jurisdiction as may, by their own free will, be accepted by
the parties to the Statute.

"Article 36 (2)speaks of the recognition by the parties to the
Statute of the 'compulsory' jurisdiction of the Court. But there is
no question of compulsory jurisdiction if, after the dispute has
arisen and after it has been brought before the Court, the defendant
(I.C.J.Reportsle1957,dat p. 47.)her the Court has jurisdiction."

The Court is the guardian of its Statute. It is not within its
power to abandon, in deference to a reservation made by a party, a

function which by virtue of an express provision of the Statute is an
essential safeguard of its compulsory jurisdiction. This is so in
particular in view of the fact that the principle enshrined in Article
36 (6) of the Statute is declaratory of one of the most firmly estab-
lished principles of international arbitral and judicial practice.
That principle is that, in the matter of its jurisdiction, an inter-
national tribunal, and not the interested party, has the power of
decision whether the dispute before it is covered by the instrument
creating its jurisdiction.
What is the legal meaning of the fact that the Court is unable
to act upon-that it is by its Statute precluded from acting upon-
the "automatic" reservation? The legal meaning of that fact is that
the reservation in question is invalid, that is to Say, that the
Court being bound by its Statute is not in a position to apply it;
that that reservation is therefore without force and legal effect.
There is no element of disapproval or adverse moral or legal judg-
ment, offensive to the dignity of a sovereign State, in a proposition

of that nature. Invalidity, in the contemplation of the law, is
nothing else than inherent incapacity to produce legal results.
Sovereign States are free to append to their Acceptance any kind
of reservation or limitation-subject only to the qualification that
reservations and limitations which are contrary to the Statute
cannot be acted upon by the Court. There is otherwise no element
of illegality in an Acceptance of that character. The Court is not
concernedwith the political implications of, and possible objections
to, a Declaration which, while in law incapable of achieving that
object, purports to give expression and support to the principle of
IO2 ment automatique, le fait qu'elle n'est pas compétente pour la
raison qu'une partie au différenden a ainsi décidé);laCour, comme

il ressort de sa pratique et comme l'indique un principe juridique
impératif, ne peut agir autrement que conformément à son Statut,
dont elle est la gardienne; les gouvernements, tout en étant libres
de ne pas accepter du tout la juridiction de la Cour, ou de ne l'accep-
ter que sous certaines réserves et limites, ne sauraient agir ainsi en
dérogation aux dispositions expresses du Statut; cette considéra-
tion s'applique tout particulièrement à une disposition du Statut
qui vise une garantie indispensable - et, en vérité, évidente - de

la juridiction obligatoire telle que les parties au Statut peuvent, de
leur plein gré, l'accepter.
(L'article 36, paragraphe 2, parle de la reconnaissance par les
parties au Statut de la juridiction (obligatoire ))de la Cour. Maisil
n'est pas question de juridiction obligatoire si, aprèsqu'un différend
s'est élevé et après qu'il a étésoumis à la Cour,1'Etatdéfendeur a
le droit de décidersi la Courest compétente. ))(C.I. J.Recueil I957,

P.47.)
La Cour est la gardienne de son Statut. Il n'est pas dans son

pouvoir d'abandonner, en déférant à une réserve formulée par une
partie, une fonction qui, en vertu d'une disposition expresse du
Statut, est une garantie essentiellede sa juridiction obligatoire. Elle
ne le peut eu égard, en particulier, au fait que le principe consacré
par l'article 36 (6) du Statut est l'affirmation d'un des principes les
plus fermement établis de la pratique arbitrale et judiciaire inter-
nationale et qui est le suivant: en ce qui concernesa compétence, le
tribunal international, et non la partie intéressée,a le pouvoir de

décider si le différend dont il est saisi est couvert par l'instrument
qui établit sa compétence.
Quel est le sens juridique du fait que la Cour n'est pas en mesure
d'appliquer - que son Statut l'empêche d'appliquer - la réserve
((automatique D? Le sens juridique de ce fait est que la réserve en
question est nulle, c'est-à-dire que la Cour, liéepar son Statut, n'est
pas en mesure de l'appliquer; que cette réserve est par conséquent
sans portée et sans effet juridique. Cette affirmation ne contient
aucun élément de désapproba!ion ni de critique morale ou juridi-

que, offensant la dignitéd'un Etat souverain. La nullité endroit n'est
pas autre chose -que l'incapacité inhérente de produire des effets
juridiques. LIS Etats souverains sont libres d'assortir leur accep-
tation de n'importe quelle réserve ou limitation - à cette seule
restriction près que la Cour ne saurait appliquer des réserves et des
limitations qui sont contraires au Statut. Il n'y a par ailleurs aucun
élément d'illégalité dans une acceptation de cette nature. La Cour
ne tient compte ni desincidencespolitiques d'une déclaration qui,

tout en étant en droit incapable d'atteindre cet objet, prétend for-
muler et appuyer le principe du règlement judiciaire obligatoire des
différends entre nations, ni des objections possibles à une telleobligatory judicial settlement of disputes between nations. Neither
is the Court called upon to examine in detail arguments of some
dialectical complexion intended to infuse into such Declaration an
element of consistency with the Statute-such as that by per-
forming the automatic function of registering the determination
made by the State in question that a matter is essentially within
itsdomestic jurisdiction the Court in law exercises the substantive
and decisive function entrusted toit by Article 36 (6)of the Statute.
It is impossible for the Court to attach importance to the ar-
gument that as Governments are free to accept or not to accept
the obligations of the Optional Clause of Article 36 of the Statute,
they are free to do so subject to reservations of their unlimited
free choice. A person or a State may be free to join an association
or to accede to a treaty. This does not mean that they are entitled
to join or accede on their own terms in disregard of the rules of the
association or of the provisions of the treaty. Governments possess

no unlimited right to makereservations. In the Advisory Opinion on
the Reservations to the GenocideConvention the Court rejected the
contention that the unanimous consent of allparties to the treaty
is necessary to enable the State to become a party tothe treaty sub-
ject to a reservation. But the Court equally declined to accept the
view that the right to append reservations is unlimited. On the
contrary, it made "the compatibility of a reservation with the
object and purpose of the Convention" the decisive test of their
admissibility (I.C.J. Reports 1951 p,. 24). It said: "The object and
purpose of the Convention thus lirnit both the freedom of making
reservations and that of objecting to them" (at p. 24). It is for that
reason that while most of the recent conventions allow reservations
to their articles, they expressly exclude them with regard to some
of the essential articlesof the Convention. Of that practice, the
Conventions of 1958 relating to the law of the sea provide an in-
structive example. This applies also to conventions regulating
subjects of limited scope such as the Convention of July 28th, 1951,

relating to the Status of Refugees (Article 42 of the Convention).

It must be noted that, unlike in the case of some other States
which adhered to the system of the Optional Clause subject to the
automatic reservation, in the case of the United States of America
the question of the conformity of that reservation with the Statute
of the Court was clearly present to the minds of, and discussed by,
the members of the legislativeorgan responsible for that reservation.
In fact that question constituted the main and most prominent
subject of the discussion in the Senate (see CongressionalRecord,
Vol. 92 (1946), p. 10763 (Senator Donnell) ; ibid. (Senator Connally);
pp. 10764 and 10770 (Senator Morse) ;p. 10837 (Senator Pepper) ;
pp. 10837-10839 (a general discussion) ;p. 10840 (SenatorDonnell)).

103déclaration. La Cour n'est pas davantage appelée à examiner en
détail des arguments d'un caractère dialectique, destinés à intro-
duire dans une telle déclaration un élémentde compatibilité avec

le Statut, comme celui-ci: en s'acquittant de la fonction automa-
tique qui consiste à enregistrer le fait que 1'Etat en question
décide qu'une affaire relève essentiellement de sa compétence
nationale, la Cour exerce en droit la fonction substantielle et
décisivequilui est confiéepar l'article 36 (6) du Statut.
Il est impossible à la Cour d'attacher de l'importance à l'argu-
ment selon lequel, étant donné que les gouvernements sont libres
d'accepter ou de ne pas accepter les obligations de la clause faculta-
tive à l'article36 du Statut, ils sont libres d'assortir leur accepta-
tion de toutes réservesque bon leur semble. Vne personne ou un État
peuvent êtrelibres dedevenir membre d'une association ou d'accéder

à un traité; cela ne signifie pas qu'ils soient habilités à le faire en
définissantleurspropresconditions, àl'encontre des règles de l'asso-
ciation ou des dispositions du traité. Les gouvernements ne possè-
dent pas un droit illimitéde formuler des réserves. Dans son avis
consultatif en l'affaire des Réserves à la Convention powr la préven-
tion et la répressiondu crime de génocide,la Cour a rejeté la thèse
suivant laquelle le consentement unanime d: toutes les parties au
traité est nécessaire pour permettre à un Etat de devenir partie
audit traité en y apportant une réserve. Mais la Cour a également
refuséd'accepter l'opinion selon laquelle le droit de faire des réser-
ves est illimité. Au contraire, elle a posé ((la compatibilité de la
réserve avec l'objet et le but de la convention ))en critère décisifde
sa recevabilité (C. I. J. Recqteil 1951, p. 24). La Cour a déclaré:

((l'objet et le but [de la convention] assignent ainsi des limites tant
à la liberté d'apporter des réserves qu'à celle d'y objecter 1)(p. 24).
C'est pour cette raison que la plupart des conventions récentes,tout
en permettant d'apporter des réserves à leurs articles, l'interdisent
expressément à l'égard de certains de leurs articles essentiels. Les
Conventions de 1958 relatives au droit de la mer fournissent un
exemple instructif de cette pratique. Cela s'applique également aux
conventions régissant des sujets de portée limitée telle que la
Convention du 28 juillet 1951 relative au Statut des réfugiés(arti-
cle 42 de la Convention).
Ily a lieu de noter que, contrairement au cas de certains autres
États qui ont adhéréau système de la clause f-acultative en y appor-
tant la réserveautomatique, dans le cas des Etats-Cnis d'Amérique

la question de la conformité de cette réserve avec le Statut de la
Cour était clairement présente à l'esprit des membres de l'organe
législatif promoteur de cette réserve et a étédiscutée par eux. En
fait, cette question a constitué le sujet principal qui a dominé la
discussion au Sénat (voir Congressional Record, vol. 92 (1946),
p. 10763 (sénateur Donnell); ibid. (sénateur Connally), pp. 10764
et 10770 (sénateur Morse); p. 10837 (sénateur Pepper) ;pp. 10837-
10839 (discussion générale) ; p. 10840 (sénateur Donnell)). Il n'est

103There is thus no question here of a State being confronted with
the consequences of an action the legal import of which was not
clear to the organ responsible for it. This is soquite apart from the
fact, to which detailed reference is made elsewhere in the present
Opinion, thatthat action-approved by a very substantial majority
of fifty-one votes to twelve-was in keeping with the continuous
attitude of the legislative organ in questio:: to obligatory arbitral
and judicial settlement in so far as it concerns the United States
of America.

The second ground why, apart from its inconsistency with the
Statute, it is impossible for the Court to apply the reservation in
question is that, in consequence thereof, the instrument in which
it is contained is not an instrument confemng legal nghts and
creating legal obligations.This is so for the reason that a purported
lindertaking in which one party reserves for itself the exclusive
nght to determine the extent or the very existence of its obligation
is not a legal undertaking and that the instrument embodying
it is not a legal instrument cognizable before a court of law. That
aspect of the question is elaborated on pages 43-48 of my Separate
Opinion in the case of Certain Norwegian Loans and it is
not therefore necessary to repeat here the views there expressed,
in particular those derived from general principles of law applicable
alike to all instruments, whether bilateral or unilateral, intended
to create legal rights and obligations. The only elaboration that
is required in this connection of that view is that dictated by the
fact that the automatic reservation now before the Court is one

incorporated in the Declaration of Acceptance of the United States
of America.
The insistence on the right of unilateral determination of the
existence of a legal obligation to submit a dispute to arbitral or
judicial settlement has been the unvarying feature of the practice
of the United Statesand, in particular, of the branch of the Govern-
ment of the United States endowed by the Constitution with the
power of decisive participation in the process of ratification of
treaties. Although occasionally, in treaties other than treaties
providing generally for compulsory arbitral or judicial settlement,
the United States of America has accepted in advance the juris-
diction of international tribunals in the matter of the interpretation
and the application of those treaties, including necessarily those
relating to the jurisdiction of those tribunals to determine their
competence when acting in that capacity, it has been unwilling to
do so with regard to treaties providing generally for obligatory
arbitral or judicial settlement. lVith regard to those treaties the
consistent attitude of the legislative body entrusted by the Con-donc Das auestion ici d'un État aui serait confronté avec les consé-
quences i'une action dont la portée juridique n'était pas claire
pour l'organe responsable. Celaest vrai, tout à fait indépendamment
du fait, dont il est fait ailleurs état d'une manière circonstanciée
dans la présente opinion, que cette action - approuvée à une très
importante majorité de cinquante et une voix contre douze -
était conforme à l'attitude continuellement adoptée par l'organe
législatif en question à l'égard du règlement arbitral et judiciaire
obligatoire, pour ce qui concerne les États-unis d'Amérique.

Le second motif pour lequel, en dehors de l'incompatibilité de
la réserveen question avec le Statut, il est impossible à la Cour de

l'appliquer est que, par voie de conséquence, l'instrument dans
lequel elle figure ne confère pas de droits juridiques ni ne crée
d'obligations juridiques. Cela pour la raison qu'un prétendu enga-
gement, dans lequel une partie se réservele droit exclusif de décider
de l'étendue ou de l'existence mêmede l'obligation qui la lie, n'est
pas un engagement juridique et que l'instrument le contenant n'est
pas un instrument juridique dont un tribunal puisse connaître. Cet
aspect de la question est développéaux pages 43-48 de mon opinion
individuelle en l'affaire relative à Certains emprunts norvégiens,
et il n'y a donc pas lieu de répéter ici les vues qui y sont for-
mulées, notamment celles qui découlent des principes généraux du
droit applicables au mêmetitre à tous les instruments, bilatéraux
ou unilatéraux, visant à créerdesdroitset obligationsjuridiques. Le
seul développement qu'il soit enl'occurrence nécessaired'apporter à
ce point de vue est celui dictépar le fait que la réserveautomatique
dont la Cour est maintenant saiçie est une réserveincorporée dans
la déclaration d'acceptation des Etats-Unis d'Amérique.
L'importance attachée au droit de décider unilatéralement de

l'existence d'une obligation juridique de soumettre un différend à
un règlement arbitral ou judiciaire a étérineconstante de la pratique
des États-unis et, notamment, de la branche du Gouvernement des
États-unis dotée par la Constitution du pouvoir de participation
décisive au processus de ratification des traités. Bien qu'à l'occa-
sion, dans des traités autres que ceux qui stipulent d'une manière
généralele règlement arbitral ou judiciaire obligatoire, les États-
Unis d'Amérique aient accepté à l'avance la juridiction de tribu-
naux internationaux en matière d'interprétation et d'application
desdits traités, y compris nécessairement ceux relatifs à la compé-
tence de ces tribunaux pour décider de leur compétence lorsqu'ils
agissent en cette capacité, ils n'ont cependant pas étédisposésàle
faire à l'égardde traités stipulant d'une manière généralele règle-
ment arbitral ou judiciaire-obligatoire. A l'égard deces traités, l'at-
titude constante du corps législatif chargé par la Constitution de
donner son avis et son consentement en matière de ratification astitution with advising and consenting to ratification has been to
reserve the right, for itself or the United States generally, to
determine with regard to any particular dispute whether there

rested upon the United States the obligation of arbitral or judicial
settlement as generally provided for in the instrument.
As already stated, any such condition must be considered to
constitute, in terms of law, a denial of the legal obligation of
compuIsory judicial or arbitra1 settlement. However, that has been
the attitude of the United States both generally and in relation to
the particular instrument now before the Court, namely, the
Declaration of Acceptance of August 26th, 1946.The United States
of America has accepted the obligations of Article 36 (2) of the
Statute on condition that in any particular case it is for the Govern-
ment of the United States of America, and not for the International
Court of Justice, to determine whether a matter is essentially within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States of America. That
condition, covering as it does a potentially dl-comprehensive
category of disputes relating to matters essentiallywithin domestic
jurisdiction, has replaced-in addition to another wide reservation
in the American Declaration of Acceptance relating to the inter-

pretation of multilateral treaties-the traditional formula requiring
the consent of the Senate, or of the Government of the United
States of America, to the submission of any particular dispute
to the international tribunal. This Court, whose jurisdiction is
grounded solely and exclusively in the consent of the defendant
State, must respect that essential condition of the Declaration of
Acceptance.

It is of importance, as showing both the consistency of the
determination of the United States of America to preserve the
ultimate power of decision with regard to its commitments on the
subject and the absolute character of that condition, to review
some of the principal events in the history of the attempts, since
the beginning of the modern practice of compulsory arbitration at
the end of the nineteenth century, to associate the United States

of America with the practice of compulsory judicial and arbitral
settlement .
On January t th, 1897, a general treaty of arbitration was signed
between the United States of America and Great Britain containing
provisions for the adjudication of disputes concerning pecuniary
claims against either Party and controversies involving the deter-
mination of "temtorial claims". Provisions of some stringency
surrounded both groups of disputes. Thus with regard to territorial
claims it was laid down that disputes shall be submitted to a
tribunal composed of sixmembers, three of whom were to be judges
of the Supreme Court of the United States or of the circuit courtsétéde réserverle droit, pour lui-mêmeou pour les États-Unis d'une
manière générale,de trancher, à l'égard detout différendparticu-
lier, le point de savoir si les Etats-Unis étaient liéspar l'obligation
d'un règlement arbitral ou judiciaire, dans les conditions générale-
ment poséesdans l'instrument.
Comme je l'ai déjà dit, toute condition de cette nature doit
être, en droit, tenue pour un refus d'accepter l'obligation juridi-
que du règlement judiciaire ou arbitral. Cependant, telle a été
l'attitude des Etats-Unis tant sur le plan généralqu'à l'égard de
l'instrument particulier dont est saisie la Cour, à savoir la décla-

ration d'acceptation du 26 août 1946. Les États-unis d'Amérique
ont accepté les obligations découlant de l'article36 (2)du Statut,
à la condition que-dans tout cas d'espèce il appartiendrait au
Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'Amérique,et non à la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice, de décider si une affaire relevait essentiel-
lement de la compétence nationale des Etats-Unis d'Amérique.
Cette condition, qui couvre une catégorie virtuellement exhaustive
de différendsrelatifs à des questions relevant essentiellement de la
compétence nationale, a remplacé - en sus d'une autre réserve
d'une portée étendue figurant dans la déclaration d'acceptation des
Etats-Unis et relativeà l'interprétation des traités multilatérau-
la formule traditionnelle exigeant le consentement du Sénat ou du
Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'Amérique pour soumettre tout
différend particulierà un tribunal international. La Cour, dont la
compétence se fonde uniquement et exclusivement sur le consente-

ment de 1'Etat défendeur, doit respecter cette condition essentielle
de la déclaration d'acceptation.

Pour montrer à la fois la détermination constante des États-
Unis d'Amérique de se réserver le pouvoir de décider en dernier
ressor'i de leurs engagements à cet égard et le caractère absolu de
cette condition, il est important de reprendre certains des princi-
paux événementsmarquant la suite des tentatives faites, dès l'ins-
tauration de la pratique moderne de ,l'arbitrage obligatoire à la
fin du XIXme siècle,pour associer les Etats-Unis d'Amérique avec
la pratique du règlement judiciaire et arbitral obligatoire.

Le II janvier 1897 a étésignépar les États-unis d'Amérique
et la Grande-Bretagne un traité générald'arbitrage prévoyant le
règlement judiciaire des différends relatifs à des réclamations
pécuniaires forméescontre l'une ou l'autre des Parties et des diffé-
rends ayant le caractère d'une «réclamation temtoriale n. Des
dispositions d'une certaine rigueur étaient définies à l'égard des
deux groupes de différends.Ainsi,en ce qui concerneles réclamations
territoriales, il était stipulé que les différends seraient soumisà
un tribunal de six membres, dont trois seraient des juges de laand the other three were to be judges of the British Supreme Court
of Judicature or members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council. It was laid down that only an award given by a majority
of not less than five to one was to be final (unless within three
months either party protested against it). Moreover, it was provided

that, in case one of the tribunals, constituted for the decision of
matters not involving the determination of territorial claims,should
decide that the determination of the case before it necessarily
involved "the decision of a disputed question of pnnciple of grave
general importance affecting the national rights of such party as
distinguished from the private rights whereof it is merely the inter-
national representative", the jurisdiction of the tribunal should
cease and the case should "be dealt with in the same manner as
if it involved the determination of a territorial claim" (Moore,
A Digest of International Law, Vol. VI1 (1go6), p. 77). Notwith-
standing these safeguards the Senate declined to give its consent
to the treaty.

In 1904 and 1905 the Government of the United States, following
the pattern of the arbitration treaty concluded in 1903 between
Great Britain and France, negotiated arbitration treaties with a

number of States, including France, Switzerland, Great Bntain,
Italy, and Mexico. The treaties contained the then customary
reservations of vital interests, independence and national honour.
The Senate amended these treaties by stipulating that the "special
agreement" therein provided in respect of any particular dispute
should be in the form of a treaty requinng the consent and advice
of two-thirds of the Senate (CongressionalRecord,February 13th,
190.59P. 2477).
When in 1907 the United States signed the Hague Convention
on Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, the "advice and
consent" in respect of ratification was given by the Senate subject
to the "understanding" in the matter of Article 53of the Convention
relating to the formulation of the "compromis" by the tribunal in
case the parties are unable to agree on the subject; the "under-
standing" expresslyexcluded from the competence ofthe Permanent
Court of Arbitration the power to frarne the "compromis" (Malloy,
Treaties between theUnited States and OtherPowers, Vol. II (I~IO),

pp. 2247, 2248).
On August 3rd, 1913,the Government of the United States, in an
effort to achieve a measure of obligatory arbitration, signed two
bilateral general arbitration treaties-commonly known as the
Taft-Knox treaties-providing for submission to arbitration of
disputes involving a "claim of right" made by one party against
anotherand "justiciable in their nature by reason of being suscept-
ible ofdecision by the application of the principles oflaworequity".
The treaties, which in each case provided for a special agreement,
laid down that should the parties disapree as to whether a disputeCour suprême des États-unis ou des Circuit Coztrts, et les trois
autres juges de la Supreme Court of Juriicatztrebritannique ou des
membres du Comité judiciaire du Privy Council. Il était stipulé
que seule une sentence rendue à une majorité d'au moins cinq voix
contre une serait définitive (àmoins que, dans un délai detrois mois,
l'une ou l'autre des parties n'ait protesté contre cette sentence).

Au surplus, il était stipuléce qui suit: quand un tribunal, constitué
pour trancher des questions n'entraînant pas le règlement de récla-
mations territoriales, reconnaît que le règlement du différend dont
il est saisi entraînerait nécessairement (le règlement d'une question
de principe controversée d'une importance généralegrave, affectant

les droits nationaux de la partie intéressée,par opposition aux
droits privés dont elle n'est que le représentant international », la
compétence du tribunal cessera et l'affaire sera ((traitée comme s'il
s'agissait du règlement d'une réclamation territoriale 1). (Moore,
A Digest of International Law, vol. VI1 (1906), p. 77.) Nonobstant
ces garanties, le Sénat a refusé d'accorder son consentement au

traité.
En 1904 et 1905, le Gouvernement des États-unis, suivant le
modèle du rraité d'arbitrage conclu en 1903 entre la Grande-
Bretagne et la France, a négociédes traités d'arbitrage avec un
certain nombre d'Etats, y compris la France, la Suisse, la Grande-

Bretagne, l'Italie et le Mexique. Ces traités contenaient les réserves
alors habituelles relatives aux intérêtsvitaux, à l'indépendance et à
l'honneur des États contractants. Le Sénat a amendéces traités en
stipulant qile le ((compromis spécial ))qu'ils prévoyaient à l'égard
de tout différend particulier devait revêtir la forme d'un traité
exigeant le consentement et l'avis des deux tiers du Sénat(Congres-

sional Record, 13 février 1905, p. 2477).
Lorsqu'en 1907les États-unis ont signéla Convention de La Haye
pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux, ((l'avis et
le consentement ))du Sénat au sujet de sa ratification ont étéas-
sortis d'une ((clause ))visant l'article 53 de la Convention, relatif à

l'établissement du ((compromis ))par le tribunal, dans le cas où les
parties ne peuvent se mettre d'accord sur ce sujet; ladite ((clause »
excluait expressément de la compétence de la Cour permanente
d'arbitrage la faculté d'établir le (compromis 1)(Malloy, Treaties
betweenthe United States and OtherPowers, vol. II (I~IO), pp. 2247-

2248).
Le 3 août 1913, le Gouvernement des États-unis, dans un effort
pour développer dans une certaine mesure l'arbitrage obligatoire, a
signédeux traités générauxd'arbitrage bilatéraux - connus sous le
nom de traités Taft-Knox - prévoyant de soumettre à l'arbitrage
les différendsprovenant d'une (réclamation de droit ))forméepar

l'une des parties contre l'autre et qui sont de nature à comporter
un règlement judiciaire du fait qu'ils peuvent êtrerésoluspar appli-
cation des principes du droit ou de l'équité ». Ces traités qui, dans
chaque cas, prévoyaient l'établissement d'un compromis, dispo-is justiciable the question of justiciability should be submitted to

a Joint High Commission of Enquiry and that the dispute should
proceed to arbitration only ifal1but one members of the Commission
reported that the dispute was justiciable. The Senate amended the
treaties but substituted the term "treatyW-requiring the consent
of two-thirds of the Senate-for "agreement" in relation to the
requirement of special agreement ; it struck out the provisions
relating to determination of the matter by the Joint Commission.
Thereupon the Government of the United States abstained from
proceeding with the ratification of those treaties (S. Doc. 476;
62nd Congress, 1st and 2nd Sessions).

On occasions the power of final decision on the part of the Senate
has been reserved even in bilateral treaties limited to arbitral

settlement of pecuniary claims. This was the case in the Special
Agreement of August 18th, 1910, between the United States of
America and Great Britain providing for the submission to arbitra-
tion of pecuniary claims between the two countries.Article I of that
Agreementprovided that the claims submitted to arbitration "shall
be grouped in one or more schedules which, on the part of the
United States, shall be agreed on by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate" (InternationalArbitral '4wards,Vol. VI, p. 9).
At the close of the First World War the insistence on the right
of final determination with regard to matters of domestic juris-
diction showed itself, in a different sphere, in the fifth reservation of
the "Lodge reservations" approved by the Senate on November 13th,
1919, in connectionwith the Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant
of the League of Nations. The Senate reserved to the United States

"exclusively the right to decide what questions are within its
domestic jurisdiction" .
Sirnilar considerations, as shown by a study of the record of the
discussions in the Senate, underlay the principal reservation of the
United States when on January 27th, 1926, the Senate passed a
Resolution consenting to the adherence of the United States to
the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice. That
reservation provided that the Court shall not entertain without the
consent of the United States a request for an advisory opinion
touching any dispute or question in which the United States had
or claimed to have an interest. Members of the League of Nations
were not in a position to accept the reservation in that form and,
in consequence, the United States did not become a party to the
Statute (League of Nations, Ogicial Joztrnal, Suppl. 75, p. 122;

OgicialJournal, 1929, p. 1857).
The insistence on the part of the United States, in the matter
of treaties of obligatory arbitration and judicial settlement, that
it must reserve for itself the ultimate right to determine the
existence of the obligation to submit a particular dispute to arbi-
1O7saient ce qui suit: lorsque les parties sont en désaccord sur la ques-
tion de savoir si un différend est susceptible d'êtresoumis à un
règlement judiciaire, cette question devra êtresoumise à une Haute
Commission mixte d'enquêteet le différendne sera soumis à l'arbi-
trage que si tous les membres de la Commission moins un déclarent

que le différend est susceptible d'êtresoumis à un règlement judi-
ciaire. Le Sénat a amendé lesdits traités, mais a remplacé par le
terme « treaty» - exigeant le consentement des deux tiers du
Sénat - le mot (agreement »,en ce qui concerne le « special agree-
ment » (compromis) exigé;il a supprimé les dispositionsrelatives au
règlement de l'affaire par la Commission mixte. Là-dessus, le Gou-
vernement des Etats-Unis s'est abstenu de procéder à la ratification
de ces traités (S. Doc. 476; 6zmeCongrès, I~~ et zmesessions).
En certaines occasions, le pouvoir du Sénat de décider en dernier
ressort a étéréservémêmedans des traités bilatéraux se limitant

au règlement arbitral de réclamations pécuniaires. Ce fut le cas de
l'Arrangement du 18 août 1910 entre les Etats-Unis d'Amérique et
la Grande-Bretagne, prévoyant de soumettre à l'arbitrage les récla-
mations pécuniaires s'élevant entre les deux pays. L'article premier
de ce texte dispose que les réclamations soumises à l'arbitrage
((serpnt groupées enune ou plusieurslistes qui, pour ce qui concerne
les Etats-Unis, seront adoptées avec l'avis et le consentement du
Sénat))(Recueil des sentences arbitrales, vol. VI, p. 9).
A la fin de la première guerre mondiale,l'importance attachée au

droit de décider endernier ressort des affaires relevant de la compé-
tence nationale s'est manifestée, dans un domaine différent, dans
la cinquième des ((réserves Lodge 1) approuvées par le Sénat le
13novembre 1919 et portant sur le Traité de Versailles et le Pacte
de la Société desNations. Le Sénat a réservépour les Etats-Unis
« le droit exclusif de décider des questions qui relèvent de leur
compétencenationale 1).
Comme il ressort de l'examen des comptes rendus des débats du
Sénat, des considérations an?logues ont étéà la base de la réserve
principale apportée par les Etats-Unis lorsque, le 27 janvier 1926,

le Sénat a-adopté une résolution par laquelle il consentait à l'adhé-
sion des Etats-Unis au Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale. Cette réserve dispqsait que la Cour ne donnerait pas
suite, sans le consentement des Etats-Unis, à une demande d'avis
consultatif concernant une question ou un différend auquel les
États-unis étaient ou avaient déclaré êtreintéressés.Les Membres
de la Société desNations n'ont pas étéen mesure d'accepter ladite
réservesous cette forme et, en conséquence, les États-unis ne sont
pas devenus partie au Statut (Société des Nations, Journal oficiel,

supplément 75, p. 122; Journal ?ficiel, 1929, p. 1856).
L'insistance avec laquelle les Etats-Unis, en ce qui concerne les
traités prévoyant l'arbitrage et le règlement judiciaire obligatoires,
ont tenu à se réserverle droit de décideren dernier ressort de l'obli-
gation où ils étaient de soumettre un différendparticulier à l'arbi-tration or judicial settlement continued to manifest itself in the
period preceding and following the Second World War. Between
1928 and 1931 the United States concluded a large number of

arbitration treaties-nearly thirty of them, including the Treaty
with Switzerland of February 16th, 1931-which, while invariably
incorporating the reservation of matters which are "within the
domestic jurisdiction of either of the Contracting Parties", provided
at the same time for the necessity of a special agreement in each
case. Such agreement was "in each case [to] be made on the part of
the United States of America by the President thereof, by and
with the advice and consent of Senate".
On January 5th, 1929, the United States of America signed the
General Treaty of Inter-American Arbitration-a treaty which
contained the reservation relating to disputes "which are within
the domestic jurisdiction of any of the Parties to the dispute and
are not controlled by international law". The following "under-
standing" was made part of the ratification of the United States of
America : "that the special agreement in each caseshall be made only
by the President, and then only byand with the advice and consent
of the Senate, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur"

(SystematicSurvey of Treatiesfor thePacificSettlementofInternational
Disputes 1928-1948, p. 504).
In the period following upon its Declaration of Acceptance, of
August 26th, 1946,ofthe compulsoryjurisdiction ofthe Court subject
to the automatic reservation, the United States have attached
importance to extending the principle involved therein to other
instruments, both multilateral and bilateral, of obligatory judicial
or arbitral settlement to which they have become a party. They did
so, for instance, in relation to the American Treaty of Pacifie
Settlement of April3oth, 1948(Pact ofBogotk) which, inits Article V,
provided that the procedures of pacific settlementlaid down therein
shall not apply "to matters which, by their nature, are within the
domestic jurisdiction of the State" and that "if the parties are not
in agreement as to whether the controversy concerns a matter of
domestic jurisdiction, this preliminary question shall be submitted
to decision by the International Court of Justice, at the request
of any of the parties". The United States appended to that Treaty

a reservation which reads, in part, as follows:

"The acceptance by the United States of the jurisdiction of the
International Court of Justiceascompulsoryipso factoand without
special agreement, asprovided in this Treaty, is limited by any
jurisdictional or other limitations contained in any Declaration
deposited by the United States under Article 36, paragraph 4, of
the Statute of the Court, and in forceat the time of the submission
of any case" (ibid.,p.1174).trage ou à un règlement judiciaire, a continué à se manifester dans
les périodes qui ont précédéet suivi la deuxième guerre mondiale.
Entre 1928 et 1931, les Etats-Unis ont conclu un grand nombre de
traités d'arbitrage - presque trente, y compris le Traité du 16 fé-

vrier 1931 avec la Suisse - lesquels, tout en contenant invariable-
ment la réserve relative aux questions crelevant de la compé-
tence exclusive de l'une ou l'autre des parties contractantes », pré-
voyaient en mêmetemps la nécessitéde conclure dans chaque cas
un accord,spécial. Cet accord devait être«dans chaque cas conclu ...
pour les Etats-Unis d'Amérique, par le Président avec l'avis et le
consentement du Sénat N.,
Le 5 janvier 1929, les Etats-Unis d'Amérique ont signé le Traité
générald'arbitrage interaméricain - lequel contient une réserve
relative aux différends (qui relèvent de la juridiction nationaled'une

quelconque des parties en litige et qui,ne sont pas régispar le droit
international 1).La ratification des Etats-Unis d'Amérique a été
assortie de la ((réserve 1)suivante: (le compromis sera dans chaque
cas conclu par le Président seul et seulement avecl'avis et le consen-
tement du Sénat à une majorité des deux tiers des sénateurs pré-
sents » (Systematic Survey of Treaties for the Pacific Settlement of
Interrlational Disputes 1928-1948, P. 504).

Dans la période qui a suivi la déclaration d'acceptation de la

juridiction obligatoire de la Cour du 36 août 1946, déclaration
assortie de la réserve automatique, les Etats-Unis se sont attachés
à étendre le principe mis en cause dans ce document à d'autres ins-
truments, tant multilatéraux que bilatéraux, prévoyant un règle-
ment judiciaire ou arbitral obligatoire auxquels ils sont devenus
partie. Telle a étéleur attitude, par exemple, à l'égard du Traité
américain de règlement pacifique du 30 avril 1948 (Pacte de Bogotk)
qui, dans son article V, dispose que les procédures de règlement
pacifique définies dans ledit traité ne s'appliqueront pas « aux
questions qui, par leur nature, relèvent de la compétence nationale

des Etats 1et que, « si les parties ne tombent pas d'accord sur le fait
que le différend est une question relevant de la compétence natio-
nale », sur la demande de l'une quelconque d'entre elles, cette
question préjudicielle sera soumise au jugement de la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice. Les Etats-Unis ont assorti leur adhésion audit
traité d'une réserve qui dit notamment:

«L'acceptation par les États-unis d'Amérique dela juridiction
de la Cour internationale de Justice comme obligatoire ipso facto
et sans accord spécial, telle que cette juridiction est établie au
présentTraité,se trouve déterminéepar toute limitation de juridic-
tion et autre catégoriede limitations contenues dans les déclarations
faites par les Etats-Unis conformément à l'article 36, paragraphe 4,
du Statut de la Cour et qui sont en vigueur au moment de l'étude
d'un cas déterminé. » (Ibid.p. 1174.) A similar limitation has been incorporated in a number of bilateral
agreements relating to specific matters, such as economic aid.
Thus the Treaty of July 3rd, 1948, between the United States and
China relating to economic aid provides as follows:

"It is understood that the undertaking of each Government
[relating to the jurisdiction of the Cour..is limited by the terms
and conditions of such effective recognition as it has heretofore
given to the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice under Article 36 of the Statute of the Court" (Yearbook,
I.C.J.,1948-194 PP. 152-155).

In view of this consistent and persistent assertion, as here
surveyed, of freedom of action in the matter of the justiciability
or arbitrability of any particular dispute, notwithstanding the
general obligation of arbitral or judicial settlement, and in view
of the determination of the United States of America to retain the
righC of decision as to the existence of its obligation in any parti-
cular case, it must be abundantly clear that the Court must give
full effect and weight to that attitude, so uniformly manifested,
of the United States of America. As a matter of possible develop-
ments that attitude may not be enduring for al1 time; sovereign
States, including the United States of America, have occasionally
changed their historic attitude in matters equally or more funda-
mental. But it is not within the province of the Court to speculate
on-or anticipate-these developments. Neither can it with any

propriety be influenced by any speculation as to differing attitudes
of the legislative and executive branches of the Government of the
United States in this matter. The principle as expressed in the
automatic reservation of the Declaration of the United States of
America must be regarded as representing the consistent and deli-
berate position of that country.

The Court cannot arrogate to itself the competence to curtail
that right of final determination by assuming the power to decide
whether that right has been exercised reasonably or in good faith.
To assume any such power would mean to deny to the United States
of America the very right which it stipulated as a condition of its
Declaration of Acceptance and which, if there were any doubt on
the subject, is substantiated as rooted in an historic tradition of
striking continuity. Of that tradition it is beyond the power of
the Court to approve or to disapprove. This would be so even if
there did not exist the additional and weighty reason that the
greatest caution must guide the Court, in the matter of its juris-
diction, in attributing to a sovereign State bad faith, an abuse of
a right, or unreasonableness in the fulfilment of its obligations. Une limitation analogue a été incorporée dans un certain
nombre d'accords bilatéraux relatifs à des questions spéciales,
telles que l'aide économique. Ainsi, l'Accord relatif à l'aide éco-
nomique, conclu le 3 juillet1948 entre les Etats-Unis et la Chine,
dispose ce qui suit:

Il est entendu que l'engagement de chaque Gouvernement (en
ce qui concernela juridiction de la Cour).est pris ...dans la limite
des clauseset conditions de l'acceptation effectivepar Gouverne-
ment dela juridiction obligatoiredela Courinternationale deJustice,
en vertu del'articleduStatut de la Cour))(Annuaire,C.1.J., 1945-
19497PP 152-155.)

Compte tenu de l'affirmation constante et répétée examinée ici
de la liberté d'action pour décider si un différenddonné est suscep-
tible de règlement judiciaire ou arbitral, nonobstant l'obligation de
portée générale de recoqrir à un règlement arbitral ou judiciaire,
et étant donné que les Etats-Unis sont déterminés à conserver le
droit de décider de l'existence de leur obligation dans toute espèce
donnée, il doit apparaître très clairement que la Cour doit donner
plein effet et toute son importance à l'attitude des Etats-Unis

d'Amérique, si constamment manifestée. Pour ce qui est d'une
évolqtionpossible, il se peut que cette,attitude ne dure pas toujours;
des Etats souverains, y compris les Etats-Unis d'Amérique, ont, à
l'occasion, modifiéleur attitude historique dans des questions aussi
fondamentales ou qui l'étaient plus encore. Mais il n'appartient pas
à la Cour de prévoir ou d'anticiper sur cette évolution. Elle ne
saurait à juste titre êtreinfluencéepar une spéculation quelconque
quant aux attitudes divergentes du législatif et de l'exécutif au
sein du Gouvernement des Etats-Unis en cette matière. Tel qu'il
est exprimé dans la réserve automatique de la déclaration des
Etats-Unis d'Amérique, le principe doit être considéré comme
représentant la position adoptée par ce pays de façon constante
et délibérée.
La Cour ne peut s'attribuer la compétence de restreindre ce droit

de décision définitive en s'arrogeant le pouvoir de décider si ce
droit a été exercé de façon raisonnable ou de bonne foi. S'arroger
un tel pouvoir serait refuser aux États-unis d'Amérique le droit
mêmequ'ils ont stipulé comme condition àleur déclaration d'accep-
tation et qui, s'il y avait à ce sujet le moindre doute, est confirmé
par le fait qu'il est issu d'une tradition historique d'une remarquable
continuité. Approuver ou désapprouver cette tradition dépasse la
compétence de la Cour. Il en serait ainsi mêmes'il n'existait pas
une raison supplémentaire et puissante pour que la Cour, en matière
de compétence, use de la plus grande prudence en taxant un Etat
souverain de mauvaise foi, d'abus de droit ou d'exécution déraison-
nable de ses obligations. No assistance can be derived in this respect from the suggestion
that, in deciding whether a matter is essentially within ïhe
domestic jurisdiction, the Court shall assume that, unless there
are obvious reasons to the contrary, the Government in question
has made the determination reasonably and in good faith. Even
assuming that a differentiation between a determination which is
wrong,one whichis obviously and unreasonably wrong, andone which,
although unreasonable, is not arbitrarily and abusively so, provides
a proper basis for judicial decision in a matter affecting the juris-
diction of the Court itself, the fact remains that the United States
of America has not conceded to the Court-that it has expressly
denied to it-the right to make any such decision, however fa-
vourably influenced in advance by a presumption that the United
Stateshas acted correctly in determining a matter to be essentially
within its domestic jurisdiction. It is impossible for the Court to
base its decision on the shifting sands of the proposition that a
contention advanced by a party is plausible, or at least that it may
be given the benefit of being held plausible, although it is in law

wholly untenable. 1 find it juridically repugnant to acquiesce in the
suggestion that in deciding whether a matter is essentially within
the domestic jurisdiction of a State the Court must be guided not
by the substance of the issue involved in a particdar case but by a
presumption-by a leaning-in favour of the rightfulness of the
determination made by the Government responsible for the auto-
matic reservation. Any such suggestion conveys a maxim of policy,
not of law. Moreover, the very existence, if admitted, of any such
presumption in favour of the State relying upon its automatic
reservation wodd make particularly odious and offensive a finding
of the Court to the effect that, notwithstanding that presumption,
the reservation has been invoked unreasonably and in bad
faith. Any such construction of the function of the Court which is
calculated to put the Court in the invidious position of having to
make pronouncements of that kind in the matter of its own juris-
diction is, for that additional reason, open to objection.

The circumstances of the case now before the Court show clearly
the delicate and wholly discretionary nature of the task with which
the Court may be confronted if it were to assume the function of
deciding the accuracy or propriety or good faith of the determin-
ation made by the Government of the United States that the sale
and disposition of the assets of Interhandel is a matter falJing
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of the United States.
What are the considerations to which the Court must attach weight
in this connection? 1s it the fact that Interhandel is incorpo-
rated under the laws of one of the States of the United States of
America; that its physical assets are located in the United States
of America; that it is engaged in fields of production essential to

II0 Il n'y a pas avantage à cet égard àsuggérer qu'en décidant si
une auestion relève essentiellement de la com~étence nationale
la Cour devra présumer qu'à moins de raisons évidentes en sens
contraire le gouvernement intéressé a pris sa décision de façon
raisonnable et de bonne foi. Mêmesi l'on suppose que la distinc-
tion entre une décision qui est incorrecte, une décision qui est
évidemment et déraisonnablement incorrecte, et une décision qui
est déraisonnable sans êtrearbitrairement et abusivement déraison-
nable, offre une base adéquate pour un jugement sur une question
affectant la compétence de la Cour elle-même, il n'en reste pas

moins que les Etats-Unis d'Amérique n'ont pas conféré àla Cour -
qu'ils lui ont même expressément refusé - le droit de prendre
une telle décision, quelque préjugé favorable qu'ait pu exercer
auparavant la présomption que les Etats-Unis avaient agi correc-
tement en décidant qu'une question relevait essentiellement de
leur compétence nationale. Il est impossible que la décision de la
Cour repose sur l'idée mouvante comme le sable qu'une thèse
avancée par une partie est plausible, ou tout au moins qu'elle
puisse être tenue pour plausible, bien qu'en droit elle soit totale-
ment insoutenable. Je répugne à acquiescer, pour des raisons
d'ordre juridique, à la suggestion selon laquelle, pour décider si
?ne question relève essentiellement de la compétence nationale d'un
Etat, la Cour doit prendrepour guide non pas le fond de la question

en cause dans une espèce donnée, mais une présomption - une
tendance - favorable au caractère justifié de la décision prise par
le Uouvernement res~onsable de la réserve automatiaue. Toute
idée de cette nature suggère un principe politique et non pas
juridique. En outre, l'existence même d'une telle présomption, si
elle est admise, en faveur deYEtat qui invoque sa réserve automa-
tique rendrait particulièrement odieuse et injurieuse une conclusion
de la Cour qui déciderait qu'en dépit de cette présomption la
réserve a été invoquée de façon déraisonnable et de mauvaise foi.
Toute interprétation de ce genre de la fonction de la Cour,
qui peut placer la Cour dans la situation ingrate d'avoir à
rendre de telles décisions sur sa propre compétence, est, pour cette
raison supplémentaire, contestable.

Les circonstances de l'affaire présentement soumise à la Cour
font apparaître clairement le caractère délicat et entièrement dis-
crétionnaire de la tâche qui peut incomber à la Cour si elle se charge
de décider de l'exactitude, de l'opportunité ov de la bonne foi de
la décision prise par le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis, selon la-
quelle la vente et la disposition des avoirs de 1'Interhandel est une
question relevant essentiellement de la compétence nationale des
États-unis. A quelles considérations la Cour doit-elle attacher de
l'importance àce propos? Est-ce le fait que llInterhandel soit enre-
gistrée conformément aux lois de l'un des ~tats-unis d'Amérique;
que ses avoirs corporels soient situés aux Etats-Unis d'Amérique;
qu'elle se consacre à des domaines de la production qui sontthe defence efforts and war-time needs of the United States of

America; that the law of the United States (the Trading with the
Enemy Act) empowers the President to vest the property of
Interhandel, to sel1or liquidate it in the interests of and for the
benefit of the United States; and, moreover, that it requires the
President to sel1 that property to American citizens only-all
these facts confirming, it is asserted, the contention that the
matter is essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of the United
States? Or shall the Court attach importance to the view that the
sale and disposal of assets which have become, or may become, the
subject-matter of a Judgment of this Court or of an arbitration
tribunal are excluded by that very fact from the sphere of domestic
jurisdiction; that, according to the firmly established jurisprudence
of the Court, the fact that a matter is governed by national legis-
lation does not prevent it from being governed at the same time by
the international obligations of the State; and that the differen-
tiation, adopted by the Government of the United States, between
the seizure of the assets by virtue of the legislation of the United

States (a seizure which is merely asserted to be essentially within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States of America) and the
sale and disposa1 of the proceeds of that seizure (which sale and
disposa1 are conclusively determined by the United States to be
within its domestic jurisdiction) is solely an act of will authorized
by the terms of the Declaration of Acceptance but wholly unrelated
to the merits of the case? Canthe Court Saythat such differentiation,
though unreal, is not unreasonable; or that, though unreasonable,
it is not wholly arbitrary; or that, if arbitrary, itis not in bad
faith seeing that it relies on the unqualified terms of the Declaration
of Acceptance? These questions, which it is not intended to answer
in this Opinion, show the nature of the task confronting the Court,
if it were to sit in judgment on the legality or good faith of the
determination made by the Government of the United States of
America.
In my separate opinion in the case of Certain Norwegian Loans
1 pointed to the special difficulties arising in applying the

tests of good faith and reasonableness-assuming that the
application of any such tests were consistent with the terms of the
Declaration of Acceptance-to the elastic, indefinite and potentially
all-comprehensive notion of matters essentially within the domestic
jurisdiction of the State. It may comprise practically every act or
omission within national territory. That comprehensiveness of the
notion of matters of domestic jurisdiction renders impracticable
the attempt to review the accuracy of the determination, made by
a government, that a matter is essentially within domestic juris-
diction. Thereis no question here of ruling out altogether the abiding
duty of every State to act in good faith. The decisive difficulty is
that in view of the comprehensiveness of the notion of domestic
jurisdiction~oupled in the case of the United States with a uniform indispensables aux efforts de la défenseet aux besoinsdes États-unis
en temps de guerre; que le droit des Etats-Unis (le Trading with
theEnemy Act)habilite le Président à placer sous séquestre les biens
de l'Interhande1, à les vendre ou à les liquider dans l'intérêtet au
profit des États-Unis; et au surplus qu'il prescrit au Président de
ne vendre ces biens qu'à des citoyens américains - tous ces faits
venant confirmer, soutient-on, la thèse selon laquelle la question
relève essentiellement de la compétence nationale des Etats-Unis?
Ou bien la Cour attachera-t-elle de l'importance à l'opinion selon
laquelle la vente ou la disposition des avoirs qui ont fait ou pour-

raient faire l'objet d'une décision de la Cour ou d'un tribunal
arbitral sont, parce seul fait, exclus du domaine de la. compétence
nationale; que, selon la jurisprudence fermement établie de la Cour,
le fait qu'une question est régie par la législation nationale n'em-
pêche pas qu'elje dépende en mêmetemps des obligations inter-
nationales de 1'Etat; et que la distinction adoptée par le Gouverne-
ment des Etats;Unis entre la saisie des avoirs en application de la
législation des Etats-Unis (saisie dont on affirme simplement qu'elle
relève essentiellement de la compétence nationale des Etats-Unis
d'Amérique) et la vente et 15disposition du produit de cette saisie
(venteet disposition dont les Etats-Unis décidentde façonconcluante
qu'elles relèvent de leur compétence nationale) ne résulte que
d'un acte de volonté, autorisé par les termes de la déclaration
d'acceptation, mais sans aucun rapport avec le fond de l'affaire?
La Cour peut-elle dire qu'une telle distinction, aussi irréelle soit-
elle, n'est pas déraisonnable; ou que, si déraisonnable soit-elle,
elle n'est pas totalement arbitraire; ou que, si elle est arbitraire,

elle n'est pas de mauvaise foi, étant donné qu'elle a pour base les
termes généraux de la déclaration d'acceptation? Ces questions,
auxquelles je ne prétends pas répondre dans la présente opinion,
montrent quelle est la nature de la tâche qui incombe à la Cour si
elle doit juger de la légalité-oude la bonne foi de la décision prise
par le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'Amérique.
Dans mon opinion individuelle dans l'affaire relativeà Certains
emprunts norvégiens, j'ai souligné les difficultés particulières
rencontrées pour l'application des critères de la bonne foi et du
caractère raisonnable à la notion souple, indécise et susceptible
de tout recouvrir de questions relevant essentiellement de la com-
pétence nationale de 1'Etat - à supposer que l'application de tels
critères soit conforme aux termes de la déclaration d'acceptation.
Cette notion peut englober pratiquement tout acte ou Ômission
dans le territoire national. La portée large de la notion de ques-
tions relevant de la compétence nationale fait obstacle à toute
tentative d'examiner l'exactitude de la décision d'un gouverne-

ment selonlaquelle une question relèverait essentiellement de la com-
pétencenationale. Il n'est pasquestion ici d'écarterentièrement l'obli-
gation d'agir de bonne foi qui incombe toujours à tout Etat. La
principale difficulté est que, compte tenu de la large portée de lainsistence on the right of unilateral determination-that right
assumes in effect the complexion of an absolute right not subject
to review by the Court. This might not necessarily be the case if,
for instance, a government were to make a reservation of matters
arising in the course of hostilities as determined by that govern-
ment and if subsequently it were to proceed to determine as such
an event which arose in time of peace undisturbed by any armed
contest, whether amounting to war or not.

The above considerations apply also to the question whether, as
reyuested by Switzerland, the Court can join to the merits the
preliminary objection of the Government of the United States of
America based on the automatic reservation. To join the objection
to the merits is to assert the competence of the Court to decide,
by reference to the merits of the case, whether the matter of the
sale and disposition of the assets of Interhandel is in law essen-
tially within the domestic jurisdiction, or whether it can reasonably

and in good faith be determined that it is so. However, it is exactly
the power to make a decision of this kind that has been denied
to the Court by virtue of the explicit reservation of the United
States. If the Court has the power to declare that the determination
made by the Government of the United States is wholly devoid
of legal foundation so as not to constitute a reasonable exercise of
the right reserved inthe Declaration then, contrary to that Declara-
tion, it is the Court and not the United States of America that makes
the decisive determination in question. The joining of that objec-
tion to the merits would arrogate to the Court the power of a
decision of that nature; it could have no other purpose. It cannot
aim at enabling the Court to decide on the validity of the auto-
matic reservation or of the Declaration as a whole. For these ques-
tions cannot conceivably be answered by reference to the merits oi
the dispute. In fact, the joining of the objection based on the auto-
matic reservation to the merits implies the recognition in principle
of the validity of that reservation as well as of the Declaration
as a whole.
Any decision of the Court which arrogates to it a competence

denied to it by the express terms of the jurisdictional instrument
relied upon by the parties disturbs the continuity of the established
jurisprudence of the Court. That jurisprudence has been based on
the accepted principle of international law that the jurisdiction of
the Court is based invariably on the consent of the parties, given
in advance or in relation to a particular dispute. Admittedly, once
that consent has been given the Court will not allow the obligation
thus undertaken, or the effectiveness of that obligation, to be
defeated by technicalities or evasion. Thus the Court has assumed
jurisdiction by virtue of implied consent through so-called forum
prorogatum; on occasions, in order to make its jurisdiction effective,
it has declared itself competent to award compensation in cases in

II2notion de compétence nationale - assortie dans le cas des États-
Unis d'une insistance incessante sur ledroitde décisionunilatérale-
ce droit prend, en fait, l'aspect d'un droit absolu échappant au
contrôle de la Cour. Il n'en serait pas nécessairement ainsi, par
exemple, si un gouvernement faisait une réserve à propos de ques-
tions soulevéespendant deshostilités, telle qu'elle serait définiepar
ce gouvernement et si, par la suite, il qualifiait ainsiun événement
qui se serait produit en temps de paix en l'absence detoute lutte
armée équivalant ou non à une guerre.
Ces considérations s'appliquent également à la question de savoir

si, comme le demande la Suisse, la Cour peut joindre au fond
l'exception préliminaire du Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'Amé-
rique fondée sur la réserve automatique. Joindre l'exception au
fond, c'est affirmer la compétence de la Cour pour décider, en se
référant au fond de l'affaire, si la question de la vente et de la
disposition des avoirs de 1'Interhandel relève, en droit, essentiel-
lement de la compétence nationale, ou si l'on peut raisonnablement
et de bonne foi décider qu'elleen relève. Pourtant, c'est exactement
le pouvoir de prendre une décision de cette sorte qui a étérefusé
à la Cour par la réserve expresse des Etats-Unis. Si la Cour est

habilitée à déclarer que la décision prise par le Gouvernement des
Etats-Unis est dénuéede tout fondement juridique, de telle manière
qu'elle ne constitue pas l'exercice raisonnable du droit réservédans
la déclaration, dans ce cas, contrairement à cette déclaration, c'est
la Cour et non pas les Etats-Unis d'Amériquequi prend la décision
définitive en question. La jonction au fond de cette exception
donnerait à la Cour le pouvoir de prendre une décision de cette
nature; elle ne pourrait avoir d'autre but. Elle ne peut avoir pour
but d'habiliter la Cour à statuer sur la validité de la réserve auto-
matiaue ou de la déclaration tout entière. Car il n'est Dasconcevable
que l'on puisse répondre à ces questions en se référantau fond du

litige. En fait, la jonction au fond de l'exception fondée sur la
réserve automatique implique la reconnaissance du principe de la
validité de cette réserve et de la déclaration tout entière.

Toute décision de la Cour qui lui attribuerait une compétence
que lui refusent les termes exprès de l'instrument conférant la
juridiction invoquée par les parties interrompt la continuité de la
jurisprudence constante de la Cour. Cette jurisprudence a eu pour
base le principe reconnu de droit international que la compétence
de la Cour se fonde invariablement sur le consentement des parties,
donné à l'avance ou à propos d'un différend déterminé.Il est vrai

qu'une fois ce consentement donné, la Cour n'acceptera pas qu'il
soit fait obstacle à l'obligation ainsi assumée,ou à l'efficacité de
cette obligation, par des considérations d'ordre technique et des
échappatoires. La Cour s'est ainsi déclaréecompétente en vertu du
consentement implicite, par le moyen de ce qu'on appelle forum
~rorogatum; à certaines occasions, afin de donner effet à sa juri-which the parties conferred upon it jurisdiction to adjudicate upon
the main issue of responsibility. But the Court has not assumed
jurisdiction-and cannot properly do so-if jurisdiction is expressly
denied to it. The Court cannot pronounce whether a State has
reasonably determined that a matter is essentially within its
domestic jurisdiction if that State has expressly, deliberately and

as a conspicuous condition of its Declaration of Acceptance,
reserved to itself-and to itself alone-the right to determine that
question. This is so in particular in relation to a State whose
attitude in that matter has for over half a century exhibited a
pronounced degree of uniformity and consistency.

In fact, by virtue ofits Judgment in the case of CertairtNorwegian
Loans the Court is precluded, unless it decides to depart from the
principle therein acted upon, from reviewing the propriety or the
accuracy or the good faith of the determination made by the
United States of America. There the Court applied the French
automatic reservation, as invoked by Norway, without entering into
the question whether the subject of the dispute was in law actually
within the domestic jurisdiction of Norway:

"The Court considersthat the NorwegianGovemment is entitled,
by virtueof the condition of reciprocity, to invoke the reservation
contained in the French Declaration of March ~st, 1949; that this
which has been referred to it by the Application of the Frenchpute
Government; that consequently the Court is without jurisdiction
to entertain the Application." (I.C.J. Refiorts I957, p. 27.)

The position was made even clearer by the passage immediately
following. The Court said: "In view of the foregoing it is not
necessary for the Court to examine the first ground of the first
Objection", namely, the objection of Norway that the matter was
according to international law-and not merely by virtue of her
own determination-essentially within her domestic jurisdiction.

The very fact that, by virtue of its Statute, the Court, in inter-
preting a particular jurisdictional instrument, is the ultimate judge
of the question, imposes upon it a special and exacting responsi-
bility. The circumstance that the Court has no power to pronounce
on the manner and justification of the exercise of the automatic
reservation adds substance to the view that, in a Declaration of

Acceptance of that kind, there is absent the indispensable element
of legal obligation. The Court being a legal tribunal cannot apply
what, as a matter of legal effect, is essentially no more than a
declaration of principle and of generalwillingness to submit disputes
to the jurisdiction of the Court.diction elle s'est déclarée compétente pour accorder réparation
dans des cas où les parties lui avaient conféréla compétence de
trancher la question principale de responsabilité. Mais la Cour ne
se reconnaît pas compétente - et elle ne saurait le faire- quand
la compétence lui est expressément fefusée. La Cour ne peut pas
trancher la question de savoir si un Etat a raisonnablement décidé
qu'une questipn relève essentiellement de sa compétence nationale

lorsque cet Etat s'est expressément, délibérémentet au moyen
d'une condition manifeste figurant dans sa déclaration d'accepta-
tion, réservé à lui-même - et à lui seul - le droit dertrancher
cette question. Il en est ainsi en particulieràpropos d'un Etat dont
l'attitude à cet égard a été,depuisplus d'un demi-siècle,manifestée
avec une uniformité et une constance prononcées.
En vérité, conformément à son arrêtdans l'affaire relative à Cer-
tains em+runts norvégiens,la Cour ne peut, à moins qu'elle ne décide
d'abandonner leprincipe sur lequel elle s'étaitalorsfondée, trancher
la question de l'opportunité-ou de l'exactitude ou de la bonne foi
de la décisionprise par les Etats-Unis d'Amérique. Dans cet autre

cas, la Cour avait appliqué la réserve automatique française, telle
qu'elle était invoquée par la Norvège, sans aborder la question de
savoir si le sujet du différend relevait véritablement en droit de
la compétence nationale de la Norvège:
((La Cour considère quele Gouvernement norvégienest fondé
en droit à invoquer, en vertu de la condition de réciprocité,la
réservecontenue dans la déclarationfrançaise du I~~ mars 1949;
que cette réserveexclut de la juridiction de la Cour le différend
portédevant elle par larequêtedu Gouvernement français; que,
par conséquent,la Cour n'est pas compétentepour donner suite
à la requête.» (C. I. J. Recueil I9.5'7,p. 27.)

Le passage qui suit celui-ci rend la situation plus claire encore.
La Cour y dit: « En conséquence, il n'est pas nécessaire pour la
Cour d'examiner la première partie de la première exception »,
c'est-à-dire l'exception soulevée par la Norvège, d'après laquelle
la question relevait, selon le droit international - et non pas
seulement en vertu de sa propre décision - essentiellement de
sa compétence nationale.
Le fait mêmequ'en vertu de son Statut la Cour, lorsqu'elle inter-
prète un instrument donné conférant juridiction, soit juge en der-
nier ressort de la question, lui impose une responsabilité particu-
lière et astreignante. Le fait que la Cour n'est pas habilitée à se

prononcer sur la modalité et le bien-fondé de l'application de la
réserve automatique renforce le fondement de l'opinion selon la-
quelle, dans une déclaration d'acceptation de cette sorte, l'élément
indispensable de l'obligation juridique fait défaut. La Cour étant
un tribunal de droit, ne peut appliquer ce qui, quant à la portée
juridique, n'est au fond qu'une déclaration de principe et de consen-
tement à soumettre en généraldes différends à la juridiction
de la Cour.

113 Attention has been drawn in this connection to the protestations,

the sincerity of which is open neither to examination nor doubt,
that the faculty of determination would not be used capriciously
but with due regard to the reputation and the traditions of the
United States in the matter of international judicial and arbitral
settlement. However, these very assurances emphasize the sense of
the absence of a legal bond-as distinguished from political and
moral considerations-restricting the freedom of action of the
United States in this res~ect. Moreover. while the nation which
accepts the Optional claise subject to the automatic reservation
may vouch for its own good faith and moderation in invoking that
reservation, it is not in a position to do so with regard to the other
signatories of the Optional Clause who, by virtue of reciprocity,
automatically acquire as against that State the right to invoke the
automatic reservation. In the case of Certain Norwegian Loans,
Norwav-who had adhered to the O~tional Clause without
reserv~tions-considered herself fully entked to invoke the auto-
matic reservation against the State which had incorporated it in
its Declaration of Acceptance. The Court held that she was entitled

to do so. The legal consequences of the automatic reservation are
not limited to the State which incorporates it in its Declaration of
Acceptance; these consequences are automatically multiplied, as
against the Declaring State, by the number of other Signatories
of the Optional Clause. In fact, in so far as it is possible or per-
rnissible at al1to refer to any legal sanction for what is an entirely
legitimate act, this is the only legal sanction of the automatic
reservation.

The preceding considerations also supply,substantially, an answer
to the question whether although the Court cannot act upon the
automatic reservation-that is to say, although that reservation is
invalid-the Declaration of Acceptance may, apart from that
reservation, be treated as otherwise subsistent and given effect by
the Court. In the case concerning Certain Norwegian Loans

1 gave reasons in my Separate Opinion-which must be read
as forrning part of the present Opinion-why that question
must be answered in the negative. These reasons included the
general principle of lawgoverning the subject, namely, the principle
that a condition which, having regard to the intention of the party
making it, is essential to and goes to the roots of the main obligation,
cannot be separated from it. This is not a mere refinement of
private law, or of any municipal system thereof, but-as al1general
principles of law-a maxim based on common sense and equity.
A party cannot be held to be bound by an obligation divested of On a souligné à cet égard les protestations, dont la sincériténe
peut êtreni examinée ni mise en doute, selon lesquelles le droit de
décisionne serait pas employé de façon capricieuse, maisren tenant
dûment compte de la réputation et des traditions des Etats-Unis
dans le domaine du règlement judiciaire et arbitral international.
Néanmoins, ces assurances mêmesfont ressortir le sentiment de
l'absence d'obligation juridique - à la différencedes considérations
politiques et morales - qui restreindrait la liberté d'action des
Etats-Unis à cet égard. Au surplus, si la nation qui accepte la

disposition facultative en l'assortissant d'une réserve automatique
est en mesure de garantir sa propre bonne foi et sapropremodération
lorsqu'elle fait appel à cette réserve,elle ne saurait le fairàl'égard
des autres signataires de la disposition facultative qui,en vertu de
la réciprocité,acquièrent automatiquement contre cet Etat le droit
d'invoquer la réserve automatique. Dans l'affaire relative à Cer-
tains emfirunts norvégiens,la Norvège - qui avait adhéré à
la disposition facultative sans réserve aucune - s'est consid$rée
pleinement fondée à invoquer la réserve automatique contre 1'Etat
qui l'avait incluse dans sa déclaration d'acceptation. La Cour a
jugé qu'elle était en droit de le faire. Les conséquences juridiques

de la réserve automatique ne se limitent pas à l'État qui l'a inclus
dans sa déclaration d'acceptation. Ces conséquences se multiplient
automatiquement contre l'État déclarant, en fonction du nombre
des autres signataires de la disposition facultative. En vérité,dans
la mesure où il est possible ou permis de parler d'une sanction juri-
dique quelconque, à propos d'un acte pleinement légitime, c'est
là la seule sanction juridique de la réserve automatique.

Les considérations précédentes fournissent aussi, en substance,
une réponse à la question de savoir si, bien que la Cour ne puisse
appliquer la réserve automatique - c'est-à-dire bien que cette
réserve soit nulle -, elle peut indépendamment de cette réserve
traiter la déclaration d'acceptation comme n'en existant pas moins,
et si elle peut lui donner effet. Dans l'affaire concernant Cer-
tains emprunts norvégiens,j'ai donné, dans mon opinion indi-
viduelle - qui doit êtreconsidérée commeconstituant une partie
de la présente opinion - les raisons pour lesquelles la réponse à
cette question ne peut être que négative. Elles comprennent le
principe général de droit régissant la matière, à savoir, le principe

qui veut qu'une condition qui, eu égard à l'intention de la partie
qui en est l'auteur, est un élément essentielde l'obligation principale
et touche à la base mêmede cette obligation, ne saurait en être
séparée. Il ne s'agit pas ici d'une simple subtilité de droit privé
ni d'un système interne quelconque de ce droit mais - commea condition without which that obligation would never have been
undertaken.

These considerations of fair and reasonable interpretation must

be applied to a Declaration in which a State accepts the obligations
of the Optional Clause subject to the automatic reservation. If
that reservation is an essential condition of the Acceptance in the
sense that without it the declaring State would have been wholly
unwilling to undertake the principal obligation, then it is not open
to the Court to disregard that reservation and at the same time
to hold the accepting State bound by the Declaration. In the case
of the United States of America that aspect of the situation seems
so compelling as to be outside the realm of controversy. As has been
shown above in connection with the asserted right of the Govern-
ment of the United States of America to determine in each case
the existence of the obligation to resort to judicial or arbitral settle-
ment, that safeguard has been of the essence of every general
commitment which the United States of America has been willing
to undertake in that sphere. Having regard to these reasons-and
.to the reasons which 1 set forth in greater detail in the Separate
Opinion in the case of Certain Norwegian Loans (I.C.J. Reports
1957, pp. 55-5g)-I come to the conclusion that there is not

before the Court a valid and effective Declaration of Acceptance
by reference to which the Court can assume jurisdiction in the
present case with regard to any aspect of the dispute.
Neither is there any legal possibility of postponing the decision
of the Court on that fundamental jurisdictional issue. Unlike in
the case of Certain Norwegian Loans, that question is now
directly before the Court and, as a matter of ordinary adminis-
tration of justice, it must be decided before the Court gives a
judgment which implies the possibility of future proceedings on
the merits. The automatic reservation has been invoked; although
stated to have become "moot", it has been formally maintained
by the defendant Government. It has been challenged by the
applicant Government. 1 have already given reasons why the
submission that the automatic reservation has become "moot" in
the present case cannot be accepted as a matter either of fact or
legal relevance. In the case of Certain NorzeiegianLoans it was
possible to maintain-though 1 was unable to subscribe to
that view-that as neither party challenged the validity either of

the automatic reservation or of the Declaration as such the Court
was not in a position to raise the issuepropriomotu. In the present
case the question of the validity of the automatic reservation and
of the manner of its application-and, with it, inevitably the
question of the validity of the Declaration of Acceptance as a
whole-are squarely before the Court. There may be reasons
militating in favour of postponing a decision holding that that
11.5tous les principes généraux de droit - d'une maxime fondée sur
le sens commun et l'équité. Unepartie ne peut être considérée
comme liée par une obligation si on en retire la condition sans la-
quelle cette obligation n'aurait jamais étéassumée.
Ces considérations relevant d'une interprétation juste et raison-
nable doivent être appliquées à une déclaration par laquelle un
Etat accepte les obligations de la disposition facultative sous
condition de la réserve automatique. Si cette réserve est une condi-
tion essenfielle de l'acceptation en ce sens que, faute de cette
réserve, 1'Etat déclarant n'aurait jamais consenti à assumer l'obli-
gation principale, il n'appartient pas à la Cour delpasser outre à
cette réserve et de considérer en mêmetemps l'Etat acceptant
comme liépar la déclaration. Danslecasdes Etats-Unis d'Amérique

cet aspect de la situation semble si évident qu'il échappe à toute
controverse. Comme je l'ai montré ci-dessus au sujet du droit
revendiqué par le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis de déterminer
dans chaque cas si l'obligation de recourirà un règlement judiciaire
ou arbitral existe ou non, cette garantie a étél'essence mêmede
tout engagement de caractère général que les États-unis ont été
prêts à assumer dans ce domaine. Eu égard à ces raisons et à
celles que j'ai exposéesavec plus de détailsdans mon opinion indi-
viduelle sur l'affaire de Certains emprunts norvégiens(C. 1.J.
Recueil 1957, pp. 55-59), j'en arrive à la conclusion que la Cour
n'est pas en présence d'une déclaration d'acceptation valable et
efficace en vertu de laquelle elle peut se déclarer compétente dans
la présents affaire sur un aspect quelconque du différend.
Il n'est pas non plus juridiquement possible de remettre à plus

tard la décisionde la Cour sur cette question juridictionnelle fon-
damentale. A la différence de l'affaire de Certainsemprunts norvé-
giens, la Cour est maintenant saisie directement de cette ques-
tion et dans le cadre de l'administration normale de la justice, elle
doit la trancher avant de rendre un arrêt qui implique l'éventualité
d'une procédure future sur le fond. La réserve automatique a été
invoquée; bien qu'on ait dit qu'elle était devenue « nzoot»,
elle a étéformellement maintenue par le Gouvernement défendeur.
Elle a étécontestée par le Gouvernement demandeur. J'ai déjà
indiqué pourquoi on ne saurait admettre ni comme un fait ni
comme juridiquement pertinente la conclusion selon laquelle la
réserve automatique est devenue «moot » en la présente affaire.
Dans l'affaire de Certains emprunts norvégiens,il était possible

de soutenir - bien que pour ma part je n'aie pu souscrire "
à cette opinion - qu'aucune des parties n'ayant contesté la
validité ni de la réserve automatique ni de la déclaration com-
me telle, la Cour n'était pas en mesure de soulever la question
proprio motu. Dans la présente espèce la question de la validité
de la réserve automatique et des conditions de son application -
et, inévitablement avec elle, la question de la validité de la décla-
ration d'acceptation dans son ensemble - est carrément posée

115particular Declaration of Acceptance-and, by necessary impli-
cation, similar Declarations of Acceptance-are ineffective in law
whether invoked by or against the declaring State. However, these
are not reasons of a legal nature.

There is a further additional factor of decisive importance which,
in my view, renders it impossible to avoid the principal juris-
dictional issue as presented by the Parties. In the case of Certain
NorzeregianLoans it was the applicant State which had made its
Declaration of Acceptance subject to the automatic reservation;
that State was not in a position to raise the issue of the validity
of that reservation and of its own Acceptance. The defendant
State, for reasons which need not be examined here, acted on the
view that the success of its case would be best assured by invoking,
through the mechanical operation of the principle of reciprocity,
the automatic reservation incorporated in the Acceptance of the
applicant State. The position is wholly different in the case now
before the Court. The defendant State has formally availed itself,
in respect of the crucial aspect of the dispute, of the automatic
reservation contained in its Declaration of Acceptance. Its right to
do so effectively was challenged by the applicant Government on
the alternative grounds of the invalidity of the automatic reserva-

tion and the alleged arbitrary manner in which it had been invoked.
Whatever may be the basis of the challenge to the automatic
reservation as such or the propriety of the appeal to it in the case
before the Court, it is clear that the issue has been raised before
the Court and that the Court cannot discharge its duty without
examining and answering it.

It is not permissible to attach importance to the circumstance
that a decision of the Court holding the Declaration of Acceptance
made by the United States of America to be ineffective and invalid
would, in this particular case, enure to the benefit of the very State
which made that kind of Declaration. This is not a case of a State
benefiting from its own wrong. As already stated, there is no element
of illegality involved in a Declaration of Acceptance which is in-
consistent with the Statute of the Court. No rule of international
law forbids governments to perform acts and make declarations
which are incapable of producing legal effects. The Court cannot
be concerned with the question of the propriety or effectiveness,
from any point of view other than the legal one, of a Declaration

which purports to accept the compulsory junsdiction of the Court
but which, in law, fails to do itfor the reason that it leaves it to
the State concerned to determine whether a particular dispute is
subject to the jurisdiction of the Court.
Neither is there any sanction involved in treating such a Decla-
ration of Acceptance as legally non-existent. For it operates equally
116 devant la Cour. Certaines raisons peuvent militer en faveur de la
remise d'une décisionaffirmant que cette déclaration d'acceptation
particulière - et par voie de conséquence inévitable les déclara-
tions d'acceptation sim?laires - sont inopérantes en droit, qu'elles
soient invoquéespar 1'Etat déclarant ou contre lui. Mais il ne s'agit
pas là de raisons de caractère juridique.
Il existe un autre facteur supplémentaire d'une importance
décisive qui, à mes yeux, rend impossible d'éviter la principale
question de compétence telle qu'elle est présentée parrles Parties.
Dans l'affaire deCertainsempr~ntsnorvégiens,c'était1'Etat deman-
deur qui avait assorti sa déclaration d'acceptation de la réserve

automatique; cet Etat n'était pas en mesure de soulever la quesfion
de la validité de cette réserve ni de sa propre acceptation. L'Etat
défendeur, pour des raisons qui n'ont pas à être examinées ici,
pensait augmenter ses chances de succèsen invoquant, en vertu de
l'application mécanique du principe de reciprocité, la réserve auto-
matique incluse dans l'acceptation de 1'Etat demandeur. La situa-
tion est totalemernt différentedans l'affaire dont la Cour est actuelle-
ment saisie. L'Etat défendeur s'est formellement prévalu, en ce
qui concerne l'aspect crucial du différend,de la réserveautomatique
qui figure dans sa déclaration d'acceptation. Le Gouvernement
demandeur lui a contesté le droit de le faire effectivement en se
fondant sur les motifs subsidiaires de la nullité de la réserve auto-
matique et de la façon prétendument arbitraire dont elle aurait

étéinvoquée. Quels que puissent êtrela base de cette contestation
à l'encontre de la réserveautomatique comme telle et le bien-fondé
du recours qui y est fait dans l'affaire soumise à la Cour, il est
incontestable que la Cour a étésaisie de la question et qu'elle ne
peut s'acquitter de ses fonctions sans l'avoir examinée et y avoir
répondu.
On ne saurait attacher d'importance au fait qu'une décision de
la Cour, tenant la déclaration d'acceptation des États-unis d'Amé-
rique pour inefficace et nulle, pourrait dans ce cas particulier
s'appliquer au profit de 1'Etat mêmequi est l'auteur de cette sorte
de déclaration. Il ne s'agit pas là d'un Etat tirant profit de son
propre tort. Il n'existe, comme je l'aidit, aucun élément d'illégalité

dans une déclaration d'acceptation incompatible avec le Statut de
la Cour. Aucune règle de droit international n'interdit à des gouver-
nements des actes ou des déclarations incapables de produire des
effets juridiques. La Cour ne peut s'occuper de savoir si, à toutautre
point de vue qu'au point de vue juridique, une déclaration qui
implique l'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour mais
qui, en droit, est nulle à cet égard pour la raison qu'elle laisse à
1'Etat intéresséle soin de déterminer si un différend particulier
relève de la compétence de la Cour, est correcte ou efficace.

Le fait de traiter cette déclaration d'acceptation comme juridi-
quement nulle n'implique non plus aucune sanction. Car il jouein relation to the declarant State and to its actual or potential
opponents. There is no sanction involved in giving full effect to the
condition on which, and on which alone, a State has accepted the
jurisdiction of the Court. The United States cannot avail itself of
its-legally ineffective-Declaration of Acceptance in order to
bring an action before the Court against another State;but for the
very reason that the Declaration is legally ineffective no State can
invoke it against the United States. Such indirect sanction as there
is-and itis one with which the Court cannot be concerned-is of
a different nature. While it unfailingly protects the declarant Gov-
ernment from the jurisdiction of the Court, it deprives it, with
equal certainty, of the benefits of that jurisdiction in cases in
which the declarant Government is the plaintiff.

For the reasons which 1 have stated and which compel me to
dissent from the Judgment of the Court, 1 have come to the con-
clusion that, having regard to the invalidity of the automatic
reservation and, consequently, of the Declaration of Acceptance
as a whole, the scope of a jurisdictional judgment of the Court in
the present case must be reduced to a minimum. The Court is not
in a position to act negatively by declining jurisdiction on account
of Objections I and 2 (the Objections ratione temporis) and
Objection 4 (b) (relating to matters alleged, but not determined, by
the United States of America to be within its domestic jurisdiction).
For any such negative decision presupposes the existence of a valid
Declaration of Acceptance in relation to which jurisdictional ob-
jections can be examined,and answered. For the same reason the
Court cannot declare the Application to be inadmissible on account
of non-exhaustion of local remedies. Moreover, any such declaration
of inadmissibility implies admissibility after local remedies have
been exhausted-a contingency which cannot properly be contem-
plated on the basis of the existing Declaration of Acceptance of the

United States of America. The only course which, in my opinion,
is properly open to the Court is to hold that in view of the invalidity
of the automatic reservation and the consequent invalidity of the
Declaration of Acceptance there is not before itan instrument by
reference to which it can assume jurisdiction in relation to any
aspect of the dispute. These consequences may seem to be startling.
However, they appear to be so only if we disregard the nature and
the contents of the instrument by reference to which the jurisdic-
tion of the Court is here being invoked.

As the Court has decided, at least provisionally, to proceed
on the basis that the Declaration of Acceptance of the United States
is a valid legal instrument cognizable by the Court, 1 considered it
my duty to participate in the formation of the Court's Judgment.

117 également à l'égard del'État déclarant et de ses adversaires pré-
sents et éventuels. Aucune sanction ne s'attache au fait de faire
jouer pleinement la condition à laquelle et en raison de laquelle
seul un Etat a accepté la juridiction de la Cour. Les Etats-Unis
ne peuvent se prévaloir de leur déclaration d'acceptation - juridi-
quement nplle - pour introduire une instance devant la Cour contre
un autre Etat; mais, pour 19 raison mêmeque la déclaration est

juridiquement nulle, aucun Etat ne peut l'invoquer àl'encontre des
États-unis. S'il existe une sanction indirecte - et la Cour ne peut
s'en préoccuper -, elle est d'une autre nature. Tout en protégeant
infailliblement le gouvernement déclarant de la juridiction de la
Cour, elle leprive tout aussi infailliblement des avantages de cette
juridiction dans les affaires où ce gouvernement déclarant est le
plaignant.
*

Pour les raisons que je viens d'exposer et qui m'obligent à me
séparerde la Cour dans son arrêt,je suis arrivé à la conclusion que,

compte tenu de la nullité de la réserveautomatique et, par consé-
quent, de celle de la déclaration d'acceptation dans son ensemble,
la portée d'un arrêtjuridictionnel de la Cour en la présente affaire
doit êtreréduite au minimum. La Cour n'est pas en mesure d'agir
négativement en déclinant sa compétence du fait des exceptions
I et 2 (exceptions ratione temporis) et de l'exception 4 b (portantsur
les questions dont les Etats-Unis d'Amériqueont allégué, mais non
pas décidé,qu'elles relevaient de leur compétence nationale). En
effet, toute décision négative de ce genre présuppose l'existence
d'une déclaration d'acceptation valable par rapport à laquelle des
exceptions juridictionnelles peuvent être examinées et résolues.

La Cour. ,oIr la mêmeraison. ne saurait déclarer la reauêteirre-
cevable en raison du non-épuisement des recours internes. En
outre, toute déclaration d'irrecevabilité de ce genre implique la
recevabilité après l'épuisement des recours internes - éventualité
qui ne saurait être envisagéesur la base de la présente déclaration
d'acceptation desÉtats-unis d'Amérique.Laseulemesure, selonmoi,
que la Cour soit justifiée à prendre est d'affirmer qu'étant donné
la nullité de la réserve automatique et la nullité de la déclaration
d'acceptation qui en est la conséquence, elle n'est pas en présence
d'un instrument auquel elle puisse se référer pour se déclarer
compétente sur un aspect quelconque du différend. Ces consé-

quences paraîtront peut-être surprenantes. Il n'en est cependant
ainsi que si nous négligions de tenir compte de la nature et du
contenu de l'instrument sur lequel on se fonde pour invoquer ici
la compétence de la Cour.
La Cour ayant décidé,tout au moins provisoirement, d'agir
comme si la déclaration d'acceptation des Etats-Unis était un
instrument juridique valable dont la Cour pouvait connaître, j'ai
estimé de mon devoir de participer à l'élaboration de l'arrêtde 1have concurred in it with regard to the first and second Objections
ratione temporis. On the other hand, 1would have been in favour of
joining to the merits thethird Objection, relating to the exhaustion

of local remedies, in so far as it bears upon the principal claim for
the restitution of theassets of Interhandel. In this respect 1concur
generally in the reasons expressed in the dissenting opinims of
President Klaestad and Judge Armand-Ugon.
1 have also been unable to associate myself with the decision hold-
ing that the subsidiary claim ofthe Government ofSwitzerland relat-
ing to the obligation of the United States to submit the dispute
to arbitration or conciliation is inadmissible on account of the non-
exhaustion of local remedies by Interhandel. 1 cannot accept the
contention of the United States that the demand for restitution
which forms the subject-matter of the Swiss Application and which,
in substance, is now being litigated before the Courts of the United
States and the demand by the Swiss Government for arbitration
and conciliation are essentially one dispute. 1 consider that with
regard to that aspect of the claim of Switzerland there apply, with
some ccgency, the principles which are now firmly rooted in the

jurisprudence of the Court and which were clearly expressed in the
Judgment of the Permanent Court in the Chorz6w Factory case
(Series A, No. 17, p. 28). The Court said there:
"...The rules of law governing the reparation are the rules of
international law in force between the two States concerned, and
not the law governing relations between the State which has com-
mitted a wrongful act and the individual who has suffered damage.
Rights or interests of an individual the violation of which rights
causes damage are always in a different plane to rights belonging
to a State, which rights may also be infringed by the same act.
The damage suffered by an individual is never therefore identical
in kind with that which will be suffered by a State; it can only
afford a convenient scale for the calculation of the reparation due
to the State."
There must exist weighty reasons for any departure from that
principle so clearly formulated. That principle is not a mere doc-
trinal refinement. An international award may give to a State

satisfaction different frorn restitution of the property seized; a
State may have a legal interest, independent of any material
compensation and restitution, in vindicating the remedy of arbi-
tration provided for in the Treaty. It may also have a legal interest
in having its right to arbitral proceedings determined as soon as
possible without being exposed, after the local remedies have been
exhausted, to a further considerable delay in establishing that
right by a decision of this Court.

Moreover, the Judgments of the Court in the Ambatielos case
(I.C.J. Reports I952, p. 44, and Igj3, p. 18) were based on the
proposition that, in deciding whether the Court is competent to

118 ISTERHANDEL (OP.DISS. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT) 120

la Cour. Je m'y suis rallié en ce qui concerne la première et la
deuxième exceptions ratione temporis. En revanche, j'aurais étéen
faveur de joindre au fond la troisième exception visant l'épuisement
des recours internes, dans la mesure où elle touche à la demande
principale en restitution des avoirs de1'Interhandel. A cet égard,je
me rallie d'une façon généraleaux raisons exprimées dans les opi-
nions dissidentes du Président Klaestad et de M. Armand-Ugon.

Je n'ai pu également m'associer à la décisionqui dit que la demande
subsidiaire du Gouvernement suisse sur l'obligation incombant aux
États-unis de soumettre le différend à l'arbitrage ou à la con-
ciliation est irrecevableen raison du non-épuisement, par l'Inter-
handel, des recours internes. Je ne puis accepter la thèse des
Etats-Unis selon laquelle la demande en restitution qui forme
l'objet de la requête suisse et qui, en s,ubstance, est actuellement
en litige devant les tribunaux des Etats-Unis et la demande
d'arbitrage et de conciliation présentéepar le Gouvernement suisse
sont essentiellement un seul et même différend.Je considère qu'à
l'égard de cet aspect de la demande suisse s'appliquent icià
bon droit les principes solidement établis à présent dans la
jurisprudence de la Cour et qui ont été clairement exprimés
dans l'arrêt de la Cour permanente sur l'affaire de l'Usine de

Chorzo'w(SérieA, no 17, p. 28). La Cour y a dit ce qui suit:
((..Les règles de droit qui déterminent la réparation sont les
règles de droit international en vigueur entre les deux Etats en
question, et non pas le droit qui régit les rapports entre l'État
qui aurait commis un tort et le particulier qui aurait subi le
dommage. Les droits ou intérêts dontla violation cause un dom-
mage à un particulier se trouvent toujours sur unautre plan que
les droits de l'Etat auxquels le mêmeacte peut égalementporter
atteinte. Le dommage subi par le particulier n'est donc jamais
identique en substance avec celui que 1'Etat subira; il ne peqt que
fournir une mesure convenable de la réparation due à 1'Etat.n

Tout abandon de ce principe si clairement formulé doit sefonder
sur des arguments puissants. 11ne s'agit pas là d'une simple sub-

t+té doctrinale. Une sentence internationale peut accorder à un
Etat une réparation autre que la restitution-de la propriété saisie;
il peut êtrejuridiquement de l'intérêt d'unEtat, indépendamment
de toute compensation ou restitution matérielle, de revendiquer
le recours à l'arbitrage prévu dans le traité. Il peut être aussi
juridiquement de l'intérêt d'unEtat de voir définir aussitôt que
possible ses droitsà une procédure arbitrale pour n'être pas exposé,
après l'épuisement des recours internes, à subir un nouveau retard
considérable dans l'établissement de ce droit par une décision de la
Cour.
En outre, les arrêtsde la Cour dans l'affaire Ambatielos (C. 1. J.
Recueils I9.52,p. 44, et 1953, p. 18) se fondaient sur le principe
qu'en décidant si la Cour est compétente pour dire si un État est

118determine whether a State is under an obligation to submit a
dispute to arbitration, this Court will not anticipate the decision of
that tribunal on any question dividing the Parties. Thus, the arbi-
tration tribunal may have views of its own on the extent of the obli-
gation, in the present case, to comply with the rule of exhaustion
of local remedies. This being so, it would seem to follow from the
Judgments in the Ambatielos case and from general considerations
that that question must be left to the decision of the arbitra-
tion tribunal and that the Court ought not to decline to consider
the request of Switzerland on the subject on the ground that local
remedies have not been exhausted.
Finally, in so far as the procedure of conciliation is concerned,
it must not be taken for granted that the legal requirement of
exhaustion of local remedies would be fully or invariably applied
by a conciliation commission which is not bound to proceed ex-
clusively on the basis of law.

1 deem it necessary to add some observations with regard to
Preliminary Objection 4(b) in which the Government of the United

States challenges the jurisdiction of the Court on the ground that
the issues relating to the seizure and retention of the assets of
Interhandel "are, according to international law, matters within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States" (as distinguished
from the question of the sale and disposition of the assets of Inter-
handel-a question which the Govemment of the United States has
determined, in reliance upon the automatic reservation, to be within
the domestic jurisdiction of the United States). The Court has
rejected Preliminary Objection 4 (b) by reference to the prin-
ciple enunciated by the Permanent Court of International Justice
in the Advisory Opinion on Nationality Decrees in Tunis and Mo-
rocco (P.C.I.J., SeriesB, No. 4). 1 concur in that result although
it is clear that the test adopted by reference tothat Opinion reduces
to the bare minimum the practical effect envisaged by the reserv-
ation in question. For itis not often that a case may anse in which
the grounds of international law relied upon by the applicant State
are not, upon provisional examination, relevant to the issue.
However, the main interest of that preliminary objection lies
in the fact that there is in the Declaration of Acceptance of the
United States no reservation which covers that objection. While
concentrating on the reservation of matters of domestic jurisdiction
as determined by itself, the United States did not in fact append
the more usual reservation of matters which according to interna-

tionallaw are essentially within its domestic jurisdiction. Now a
State is not entitled to advance a preliminary objection againstobligé desoumettre un différend à l'arbitrage, la Cour n'anticipera
pas sur la décision du tribunal d'arbitrage sur toute question
divisant les Parties.Il se peut que le tribunal d'arbitrage ait, dans
la présente affaire, des opinions qui lui soient propres sur la portée
de l'obligation d'observer la règle de l'épuisement des recours
internes. S'il en est ainsi, il semble qu'il découle des arrêts dans
l'affaire Ambatielos comme de considérations d'ordre général que
cette question doit être laissée à la décision du tribunal d'arbi-
trage et qu'il n'appartient pas à la Cour de refuser d'examiner la
requêtede la Suisse en la matière, au motif que les recours internes
n'ont pas étéépuisés.
Enfin, dans la mesure où il s'agit de la procédure de conciliation,
il ne faut pas prendre pour acquis que l'exigence juridique de l'épui-
sement des recours internes sera pleinement ou invariablement

imposée par une commission de conciliation qui n'est pas tenue
d'agir en se fondant exclusivement sur le droit.

J'estime nécessaire d'ajouter quelques remarques a? sujet de
l'exception préliminaire 4 b) où le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis
conteste la compétencede la Cour en raison du fait que les questions
concernant la saisie et la rétention des avoirs de lJInterhandel
« relèvent, au? termes du droit international, de la compétence
nationale des Etats-Unis »(à la différence dela question de la vente
et de la disposition des avoirs de1'Interhandel - question dont le
Gouvernement des Etats-Unis a décidé,en s'appuyant sur la r$serve
automatique, qu'elle relève de la compétence nationale des Etats-
Unis). La Cour a rejeté l'exception préliminaire 4 b) en application
du principe énoncépar la Cour permanente de Justice internationale

dans l'avis consultatif sur les Décrets denationalitéfiromulguésen
Tunisie et au Maroc (C. P. J. I., Série B, no 4). Je suis d'accord
avec ce résultat, bien qu'il soit évident que le critère adopté en se
référant à cet avis réduit au strict minimum l'effet pratique envi-
sagépar la réserveen question. Car il est rare que puisse seprésenter
une affaire dans laquelle les motifs de droit international invoqués
par 1'Etat demandeur soient, à première vue, sans pertinence à
l'égard dela question.
L'intérêtprincipal de cette exception préliminaire réside néan-
moin? dans le fait qu'il n'existe dans la déclaration d'acceptation
des Etats-Unis aucune réserve applicable à cette exception. Tout
en insistant sur la réserve des questions relevant de la compétence
nationale telle qu'elle est fixéepar eux-mêmes, lesEtats-Unis n'ont
pas, en fait, joint la réserve plus fréquente touchant les questions
qui, aux termes du droit international, relèvent essentiellement de
la compétence nationale. Or un Etat n'a pas le droit de présenter

119the jurisdiction of the Court unless there is a limitation to that
effect either in the Declaration of Acceptance or in the Statute of
the Court. The Court, in examining and rejecting that objection
on its merits, has held, by implication, that a reservation of that
kind is inherent in every Declaration of Acceptance and that there
is no need to spell it out expressly. 1 am in agreement with that
conclusion so indirectly formulated. As stated, and that view is
confirmed by the rejection by the Court of that objection in
conformity with the generous and elastic test laid down in the
Opinion on the Tanis and MoroccoNationality Decrees, the advan-
tage accruing to the defendant State by a recognition of an implied
existence of that reservation is distinctly limited. From whatever
angle the question is approached, it matters little whether a reser-
vation of this kind is incorporated in a Declaration of Acceptance.
States are in any case fully protected from any interference whatso-
ever by the Court in matters which are according to international
law essentially within their jurisdiction. They are so protected not
by virtue of any reservation but in consequence of the fact that
if a matter is exclusively within the domestic jurisdiction of a
State, not circumscribed by any obligation stemming from a source
of international law as formulated in Article 38 of its Statute, the
Court must inevitably reject the claim as being without foundation
in international law.

As the United States has made no reservation of matters which

according to international law are within its domestic jurisdiction,
Preliminary Objection 4(b) must properly be regarded as a defence
on the merits and normally-namely, if there existed a valid
Declaration of Acceptance-would have to be examined, during
the proceedings on the merits, as being a substantive plea in the
sense that there is no rule of international law limiting the freedom
of action of the United States on the subject. That defence, if
justified,is of a potency transcending that of any reservation. In
view of the difficulties and uncertainties to which the reservation
of matters of domestic jurisdiction has given rise in the past,
1 consider it useful to draw attention to someconsiderationsrelevant
to the fact that the Court has treated the non-existing reservation
of matters which according to international law are within domes-
tic jurisdiction as if it were part of the American Declaration of

(Signed) Hersch LAUTERPACHT.une exception préliminaire à la compétence de la Cour s'il n'existe
une restriction à cet effet, soit dans la déclaration d'acceptation,
soit dans le Statut de la Cour. La Cour, ayant examiné le bien-
fondé de cette exception et l'ayant rejetée, a jugé, implicitement,
qu'une réserve dece genre est inhérente à toute déclaration d'accep-
tation et qu'il est inutile de la formuler expressément. Je suis d'ac-
cord avec cette coficlusion formulée ainsi indirectement. Comme je
l'aidit, et cette opinion est confirméepar le rejet par la Cour decette
exception conformément au critère libéralet souple fixépar l'avis sur
les Décretsde nationalité enTugzisieet au Maroc. L'avantage dont

bénéficie 1'Etat défendeur, du fait de la reconnaissance de l'exis-
tence tacite de cette réserve, est nettement limité. Quel que soit
l'angle sous lequel on envisage la question, il importe peu qu'une
réserve de, ce genre figure ou non dans une déclaration d'accepta-
tion. Les Etats sont en tout cas pleinement protégés de toute ingé-
rence quelle qu'elle soit de la part de la Cour dans des questions qui,
aux termes du droit international, relèvent essentiellement de leur
propre compétence. Ils sont ainsi protégés,non pas en vertu d'une
réserve quelconque, mais par le fait que, si une question relève
exclusivement de la compétence nationale d'un Etat non restreinte
par une quelconque obligation dérivant d'une source de droit inter-
national, comme il est dit à l'article 38 du Statut, la Cour doit
inévitablement rejeter la requête comme dépourvue de fondement
en droif international.
Les Etats-Unis n'ayant fait aucune réserve quant aux questions
qui, aux termes du droit international, relèvent de leur compétence
nationale, l'exception préliminaire 4 b) doit êtreà juste titre consi-
dérée commeun moyen de défensesur le fond et normalement -

c'est-à-dire s'il existe une déclaration d'acceptation valable -
devrait êtreexaminée au cours de la procédure sur le fond, comme
étant une demande sur le fond, en ce sens qu'il n'existe aycune
règle de droit international limitant la liberté d'action des Etats-
Unis à ce sujet. Ce moyen de défense, s'il est biep fondé, a une
efficacitéqui dépasse celle de toutes les réserves. Etant donné les
difficultéset les incertitudes auxquelles la réserve des questions de
compétencenationale a donné naissance dans le passé, j'estime qu'il
est utile d'attirer l'attentiode la Cour sur certaines considérations
relatives au fait que la Cour a traité la réserve, qui n'existe pas
dans la déclaration, relative aux questions qui, selon le droit inter-
national, relèvent de la compétence nationale, comme si elle
figurait dans la déclaration d'acceptation américaine.

(Signé) Hersch LAUTERPACHT.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Sir Hersch Lauterpacht

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