Dissenting Opinion of Judge Chagla

Document Number
032-19571126-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
032-19571126-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTIKG OPINION OF JC'LIGE CHAGLA

1 regret that 1am unable to agree with the conclusion arrived at
by the majority of my colleagues. As the matter is of considerable
importance, 1 think it necessary to give the reasons for my dissent.

Shere are two unique features in this case-one is the third
condition in the Portuguese Declaration, and the other is that the
Portuguese Application which started this case was fiIed within
three days of the making of the Declaration and before the pro-
vision contained in the second part of Article 36 (4) of the Statute
of the Court could be complied with. Neither of these aspects has
ever been considered by this Court, and they both raise very
important questions w-itli regard to the jurisdiction of the Court.

Turning tothe First Objection of India, itmay be readily granted
that the Optional Clause gives the widest freedom to a State which
submits to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court. This freedom
is in two respects. A State has the right to define the categories
of disputes whicli it is prepared to subnlit to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court. Itmay make any reservation it likes and

it may limit the categories to any extent that it desires. The other
respect is that it can limit the time ofthe pendency ofthe Declaration.
The Declaration may last tu70years, one year, six months, or even
it could be terminable on mere notice. But the third condition of
Portugal is an entirely different ltind of reservation. It reserves
the riglit to I'ortugal to alter and modify the scope of its Declaration
during the pendency of that Declaration.

It was urged by India that this reservation was retroactive and
it was open to Portugal to withdraw a pending litigation by having
resort to this reservation. It is pointed out that the expression
"from the date of the notification" used in the third condition
only indicates the point of time from which the reservation be-
comes effective; it does not refer to its scope or ambit. There is no
limitation placed b3- Portugal upon the extent of the reservation
and, therefore, it is suggested that Portugal, under this third
condition, reserves to itself the right of withdrawing a pending

litigation before the Court. India is not withoiit support in this
interpretation. The reaction of Sweden to this condition was the
same as India. (See Sweden's Note to the Secretary-General of
the United Nations dated 23rd February, 1956.) Portugal replied
to this Note by its h'ote of 5th July, 1956, in which it stated that
this condition did not warrant the conclusion that the PortugueseGovernment would be in a position to withdraw fronl the juris-
diction oi the Court any dispute, or category of disputes, already
referred to it. If the reservation is retroactive, then there can be
no dispute that the reservation is bad. On the other Iiand, it must
be borne in rnind that a court must aluays lean against giving
retroactive or retrospective effect to an instrument, the more so
when quch an interpretation is likely to invalidate the instrument

and to deprive a tribunal of its jurisdiction. Even if the language
of the reservation is susceptible of this interpretation, if the other
interpretation is possible, the Court would raIher give the inter-
pretation to the instrument which would render it valid and which
would not deprive this Court of its jurisdiction.
But nhatever interpretation the Court places upon this condition,
it must be an interpretatiori based upon the language used in the
instrument itself. Xo assistance can be sought from the ex Post
facto and ;n. parte statement made by Portugal to which reference
has been made by which it attempted to clarify and elucidate its
own Declaration. So canon of conçtruction is more firmly estab-
lishcd than the one which lays down that the intention of a party
to an instrument must be gathered from the instrument itself and
not from what the party says its intention was.
But even if no retroactive effect can be given to Portiigal's
Declaration, it sziflers from a defect, which, in my opinion, is
fatal. Once a reservation is made with regard to categories of &s-

putes which are submitted to the compulsory jurisdiction of the
Court, categories over which the Court has jurisdiction must be
specified and defined. The jurisdiction of the Court with regard to
these categories of disputes must be finally accepted when the
Declaration is made.
It is futile to try and draw a distinction between the Portuguese
reservation and the ;ight to terminate a Declaration at any time.
It was suggested in the course of the arguments that, in the latter
case, a State can put an end to its obligation to submit to the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court with regard to all categories
of disputes, while, in the former case, a more limited rjght was
reserved by Portugal in that it could only limit the scope of its
obligation. This argument is specious. In the latter case, bji ter-
minating the Declaration, the juridical bond between a declarant
State and the otl-ier State comes to an end. The State no longer
adheres to the Optional Clause and is not liable to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court with regard to any matter. In the former

case, the juridical bond continues. In the latter case, both the right
to bring a dispute before the Court and the obligation to submit
to the jurisdiction of the Court come to an end. In the former case,
the right remains and the State can put an end to the obligation
with regard to any dispute at its own discretion.
Distinguished authors have regretted the continuous decline of
the Optional Clause, and it is the duty of the Court to prevent any
46further decline of this Clause. Judge Lauterpacht in the Norwegian
Loans case (I.C.J. Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and
Orders, r957), when considering the French reservation in that
case, said (p. 64) that it "tended to impair the legal-and moral-
authority and reality of the Optional Clause", and also (p. 65) that
it "threatens to disintegrate thai minimum of compromise which
is embodied in the Opticnal Clause". These observations also
apply to the novel reservation embodied by Portugal in her Decla-
ration. Acceptance by Portugal of the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court is entirely illusory. The minimum of compromise which
is embodied in the Optional Clause is the right given to the State
to limit the categories of disputes which it is prepared to submit
to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court; but any fiirther
derogaiion from that minimum of compromise should not be
permissible. Once a State, by its Declaration, has expressed its
clear will to submit to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court a
particular dispute, the jurisdiction of the Court with regard to that
dispute must continue so long as the Declaration lasts. As the

intention of the Optional Clause is to make a State accept the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, any reservation which
frustrates that intention must be held to be opposed to the general
purpose of the Optional Clause and therefore invalid.

It was suggested that even if this reservation was invalid, as it
did not affect the present case, it could be severed from the rest
of the Declaration and the rest of the Declaration could be held
valid. The doctrine of severance is well settled in municipal law
and it also applies to international law. If a provision in an instru-
ment is an essential condition, and if the court is satisfied that in
the absence of that ~ssential condition the instrument would not
have been executed, then if the condition is bad, the court is power-
less and the whole instrument must be declared to be invalid.
Otherwise, the court would be writing a new instrument without

the essential condition. In this case there cannot be the slightest
doubt that the reservation we are considenng is an essential
condition of Portugal's adherence to the Optional Clause. It is on
this condition that Portugal has agreed to confer jurisdiction upon
the Court. The condition is of the very essence of the submission
of Portugal to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, and if this
condition is invalid, the whole Declaration must be declared to be
invalid.

As 1 am of the opinion that India's First Objection should
prevail, it would be unnecessary to consider her Second and Fourth
Objections, but as they have been argued at considerable length 169 RIGHT OF PASSAGE (DIS. OPIS. OF JUDGE CHAGLA)

and as they raise questions of considerable irriportance, I would
like to express my opinion on them.
Both the Objections are based on the fact that Portugal's
1)eclaration w-asdeposited witll the Secretary-General of the United
Kations on the 19th December, 1955, and the present Application
was filed on the zznd December, 1955. 1 do not think there is any
instance in the history of this Court where a State fias filed an
Application with such lightning speed. It is urged on behali of
Portugal that adherence to the Optional Clause is a unilateral act
by a State and the Declaration cornes into force immediately it is
deposited u7itl-ithe Secretriry-General of the L7nited Nations. It
is further pointed out that there is nothing in the Statute or the

Rules of the Court which requires that any time should elapse
between the making of the Declaration and the filing of the Appli-
cation. It is therefore said that although copies of the Declaration
were not transmitted by the Secretar--(;eneral to the Parties to
the Statute nor to the Registrar of this Court, and although India
had no knowledge that any such Declaration had been made by
Portugal, the Declaration became immediately effective, and to
the extent that the same obligations were undertaken hy the
Declaration of Portugal and the Declaration of India, India hecame
liable to be called before the Court in answer to any claim made by
Portugal which fell within the scope of the two Declarations.
The narrou- question that Ive have to consider is whether the
Statute of the Court contemplates that the Declaration should be

immediately effective without knowledge, presurnptive or actual,
on the part of the other States rvho have already adhered to the
Optional Clause-in other words, whether a juridical bond can be
created by a new declarant with the other States who are already
Parties to the Optional Clause bj7 the mere deposit of the Declara-
tion with the Secretary-General so as to entitle the new declarant
immediately to file an Application and bring another State before
the Court. India has contended that by this precipitous Application,
Portugal has violated the principle of equality of States before the
court, a principle which is the very basis of the Optional Clause.
Portugal, on the other hand, has relied on theletter of the law and
has urged that apart from the reciprocity of obligations at the date
of the Declaration, there is no other reciprocity or equality which

is contemplated by Article 36 (2)of the Statute. Whether the Sta-
tute permits a Çtate to file an Application before the ink on its
Declaration is dry or not, it will be agreed that this is a practice
rvhicli should not be countenanced by the Court; and if there is
any provision in the Statute which can permit the Court to refuse
to entertain Portugal's Application, it should do so under the
circun~stances of the case.
Article 36 (3) of the Statute consists of two parts: one, making
it incumbcnt upon a State making a Declaration to deposit it with
the Secretary-General of the Ynited Xations, and the second

48making it incumbent upon the Secretary-General to transmit
copies thereof to the Parties to the Statute and to the Registrar of
the Court. It is common ground that unless the Declaration is
deposited as required by Article 36 (4), the Declaration cannot
become effective. It is difficult to understand why, if the first part
of Article 36 (4) is mandatory, the second part is not equally
mandatory. It is said that the second part is purely administrative
or procedural and it merely gives a direction to the Secretary-
General to carryout his duties. It is difficult to accept the argument
that a provision so unimportant should have found a place in so
solenln a document as the Statute of the Court. In my opinion, the
same importance should be attached to both the parts of Article 36
(4). There must have been some reason why the framers of the
Statute inserted this provision in Article 36 (4) and the obvious
reason is that some time should elapse between the making of the
Declaration and the filing of an Application.

It is unnecessary in this case to speculate as to what is the proper
time that should elapse between the making of the Declaration
and the filing of the Application. Sufficient i~ntothe day is the law
thereof: and it will be sufficient to deal only with the facts of this
case. It is clear that in this case an Application has been filed by
Portugal before the second part of Article 36 (4) was complied with,
and it is open to the Court to Say that the Application is premature
and that Portugal should have waited until effect had been given
to the provision of the second part of Article 36 (4).
Emphasis has been placed upon the expression "ipso jacto" used
in Article 36 (2)of the Statute. It is suggested that this expression
makes it clear that the mere deposit of the Declaration, and nothing
more, brings about the consensual bond between the declarant
State and the State which has accepted the same obligation. The
expression "ipso facto" must be read with the words that follow
"and without special agreement". What the Statute emphasizes

is that apart from the Declaration no special agreement is necessary
to attract the Application of the Optional Clause. Article 36 (z), in
my opinion, does not deal with the question as to when the Decla-
ration becomes effective. For this purpose we have to turn to
Article 36 (4).
There is also force in India's contention that by the timing of
Portugal's Application, India was deprived of the right to invoke
in her favour the third condition in Portugal's Declaration. It is
nom7well-settled law that a State which is a Party to the Optional
Clause is entitled to incorporate into its own Declaration any
condition contained in the Declaration of any other State which
has adhered to the Optional Clause. (See the Norwegian Loans case,
I.C.J. Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders, 1957.)
Therefore, it cannot be disputed that India had the right to make
use of the third condition as against Portugal as much as Portugal

39had the right as against India. But if this right is to have any
meaning or significance, it must be a right which can be exercised.

Portugal, by filing the Application when she did, made it impossible
for India to exercise that right. Portugal could have invoked this
condition any time before filing the -4pplication. India could have
only invoked it if she had knowledge of the Declaration before the
Application was filed. Once the Application was filed, inasmuch as
the condition, as 1 have pointed out, is not retroactive, India was
deprived of that right and was compelled to accept the jurisdiction
of the Court whether she liked it or not. In the Norwegialz I,oa~~s
case, it was stated that Norway, eqz~allywith France, was entitled
to except from the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court disputes
falling within the ambit of France's reservation. In the Plzosphates
i~t~%!orocccoase, although a particular limitation in the Declaration
of one Çtate did not appear iri the Declaration of the other, it was

held that the limitation niust hold good as between the Parties;
and in the Electricity Comeany oj Sofia and Bzdgaria case, the Court
said that in consequence of the condition of reciprocity laid down
in paragraph 2 of Article 36, the limitation contained in the Decla-
ration of one State must be applicable as between the Parties.

Now what is the reciprocity that Article 36 (2) contemplates ? 1s
it the narrow reciprocity suggested by Portugal, namely, the reci-
procity that should subsist at the date of the Application, or a
wider reciprocity which would entitle a State to avail itself of eiery
limitation contained in the other Party's Declaration to the same

extent and in the same manner as the other Party?

It should be remembered that in the Norwegian Loalzs case, at
the date of France's Application, Norway had not availed itself
of the reservation contained in France's Declaration with regard
to domestic jurisdiction. Therefore, if reciprocity hâd been narrowly
construed in that case, Norway could not have availed herself of
that limitation. But the Court held that Xorway was as much
entitled as France to plead that the particular dispute fell within
her domestic jurisdiction. Therefore, strictly, the principle of
reciprocity had been given effect to after France's Declaration
had been filed and the Court did not confine itself to considering
the situation as it existed at the date of France's Application. The

question that now arises is whether the Court should not look at the
situation as it existed before Portugal filed her Application. And if
the Court comes to the conclusion that India could only have
exercised the third limitation contained in Portugal's Declaration
before Portugal filed her Application, and if India has been deprived
of thât right, then the principle of reciprocity under Article 36 (2)
has been violated. In any view of the case, in my opinion, the

50 Court should come to the conclusion that the haste with which
Portugal filed this Application has resulted in an abuse of the
Optional Clause and also an abuse of the processes of the Court,

and therefore the Court should refuse to entertain Portugal's
Application.

India's Third Objection is that the present dispute was brought
before this Court without preliminary diplomatic negotiations and
without the negotiations reaching a deadlock. It is urged by India
that the jurisdiction of the Court is confined to deciding legal
disputes, and before there can be a dispute, it must be clear that
the controversy cannot be settled by negotiations. It is pointed out
that before a State is brought before the bar of the International
Court, every attempt should firçt be made to see whether the
controversy in question could not be amicably settled. Our atten-
tion has been drawn to the various Notes that were exchanged
between India and Portugal, and it does appear that Portugal
never raisedin these Notes the generalquestion of a right of passage

as such. What was discussed in these Notes was certain concrete
questions relating to special situations arising out of disturbances
which had occurred within the Portuguese enclaves; and what
Portugal insisted on was that India had incurred an international
responsibility by its behaviour at a given time and in a specific
situation. Our attention is drawn to the fact that if the general
question of a right of passage had been raised in this diplomatic
exchange of Notes, this Court would have had a better conception
of the nght claimed by Portugal. As it is, the Court is not in a
position to know or judge what is the actual nature of the right
claimed by Portugal. Nor had India been given an opportunity
to formulate or express her views with regard to the right claimed
by Portugal before the matter was brought before the Court.
Reliance is placed on the observations of the Court in the Electricity
Comfiany ofSofia and Balgaria case (P.C.I. J., Series A/B, No. 77,
p. 132): "What is essential is that, prior to the filing of an Appli-
cation by one Party bringing a dispute before the Court, the other
Party must have been given the opportunity to formulate and to

express its views on the subject of the dispute. Only diplomatic
negotiations wiU have afforded such an opportunity."

It is also urged by India that this de with regard to preliminary
diplomatic negotiations does not operate only in those cases where
there is a provision to this effect in a treaty between the Parties.
The nile is of generalapplication and is based ontwo considerations :
(1) the need of the Court to know what is the subject-matter of the
dispute, and (2)efforts made by the Parties to reach an agreement
have been fruitless. There can be no doubt as to the desirability of States negotiating
with regard to a dispute and trying to arrive at a fair solution
before tliey avail themselves of the compulsory jurisdiction of the
Court. But what we have to consider is whether failure to pursue
this desirable course deprives the Court of its jurisdiction. It is
clear on the authorities that what the Court has insisted upon is
the mere existence of a dispute, and a dispute has been defined as
a divergence of opinions or views between two States: It has also
been held that this divergence is established after one Government
finds that the attitude of the other is contrary to its own. In the
Ch.6rzozo Factory case (Series A, No. 13, p. IO), the Court pointed
out that "it would no doubt be desirable that a State should not
proceed to take as serious a step as summoning another State to
appear before the Court without having previously, witliin reason-

able limits, endeavoured to make it quite clear that a difference of
views is in question which has not been capable of being otherwise
overcome. But, in view of the wording of the article, the Court
considers that it cannot require that the dispute should have
manifested itself in a forma1 way; according to the Court's view,
it should be sufficient if the two Governments have in fact shown
themselves as having opposite views." Therefore, it is clear that the
dispute should not be manifested in any formal way and all that
is necessary is that two Governments should show themselves as
holding opposite views. It has also been observed in the case of
Certain GermanInterests in Upper Silesia (Series A, No. 6, p. 14) :
".., a difference of opinion does exist as soon as one of the Govern-
ments concerned points out that the attitude adopted by the other
conflicts with its own views". It is difficult to take the view that
the attitude of India on the question of Portugal's claim with
regard to a right of passage does not conflict with the view held
by Portugal. 1 would therefore overrule this Objection.

Turning to the Fifth Objection, we heard very learned arguments
astothe burden of proof. In my opinion, now that all the arguments
are before the Court, the question of burden of proof loses much
of its importance. But even so, 1 should like to Say a few words
about it. It is always for a party which comes before a court or
a tribunal to make out a prima facie case that the tribunal or court
has jurisdiction. If that prima facie burden is discharged, it may
be that the burden would shift on to the other party. When India
objects to the jurisdiction of the Court on the ground that the
subject-matter of the dispute falls exclusively within her domestic
jurisdiction, it would not be correct to describe her attitude as it
has been described by Counsel for Portugal as attempting to obstruct
the normal course of statutory procedure. Undoubtedly the party
coming to the Court hasthe right to have the benefit ofthe procedureprovided by the Statute and the Rules for contentious matters.
But that is so only on the assumption that the Court has jurisdiction.
All that India has done is to draw the attention of the Court to the
fact that, looking to her Declaration, the Court has no jurisdiction
over this particular dispute. It is ultimately for the Court to decide

the question of jurisdiction and it is only if the Court takes the
view that the dispute falls within the ambit of India's Declaration
that the matter can go on and the rules of statutory procedure can
be given effect. It is equally incorrect to Say that inasmuch as
India is relying on an exception contained in her Declaration which
confers jurisdiction upon the Court the burden is upon her to make
good that exception. India has accepted the compulsory jurisdiction
with regard to certain categories of disputes, and the particular
category with regard to matters falling exclusively within her
domestic jurisdiction has been excluded.Therefore, it is for Portugal
to establish that the dispute which she has brought before the
Court falls within the scope of India's Declaration, and she can
only establish that provided she satisfies the Court that the dispute
is not exclusively within the domestic jurisdiction of India. T'le
reservation made by India with regard to matters falling exclusively
within her domestic jurisdiction is not an exception: it is an essen-
tial-an integral-part of her acceptance of the jurisdiction of the

Court.

Coming to the substance of the matter, there are certain points
which are bevond controversy. The first is that India has exclusive
territorial sivereignty over the territory through which Portugal
claims a right of passage or a right of transit. 1 think it is equally
indisputable that primaiacie a State enjoying territorial sover-
eignty has the right to allow or to prohibit a right of passage or
transit through her territories to any other State or to permit a
right of passage or transit under such terms and conditions as she
thinks proper. It is true that even though a subject-matter may
fa11within the domestic jurisdiction of a State, the State may not
have complete discretion with regard to it but its discretion may
be controlled by any international obligation undertaken by it. If
India has undertaken any international obligation, then the matter

is no longer exclusively within her domestic jurisdiction. In other
words, the matter would not be within the reserved domain but
would be within the international domain into which the Court can
enquire and determine what are her obligations according to inter-
national law.
It is true that in a large majority of cases, when an Objection
is taken on the ground of domestic jurisdiction, the Court is
inclined to join the Objection to the merits because the Court feels
that it is impossible to arrive at a decision on this issue without
investigating into the merits of the subject. But this is not always 175 RIGHT OF PASSAGE (DISS.OPIN. OF JUDGE CHAGLA)
so. Otherwise it would never be open to a State to take a Preliminary

Objection on this ground. The test has been clearly laid down by
this Court as to what has to be established in order that the Court
will not uphold the Objection at a preliminary stage but would
stand it over to the hearing. Portugal must establish that the legal
grounds relied upon by her justify a provisional conclusion that
they are of juridical importance for a decision of the dispute
according to international law. (See the classical statement of the
law in the Nationality Decreesof Tzenisia and Morocco, Series B,
No. 4, p. 25.) To use simpler language, Portugal must show that
her claim discloses an arguable cause of action under international
law. Again, to use a different language, Portugal must show that
the general rule that the subject-matter being within the domestic
jurisdiction of India is within her discretion has been displaced by
sonle rule of international law.

Now what is the subject-matter of the dispute between Portugal
and India? 1will not consider the various metamorphoses which
Portugal's claim has undergone. But as finally indicated to this
Court it is a right of transit between Daman and the Portuguese
enclaves of DadrA and Nagar-Aveli in order to maintain communi-
cations between Ilaman and these two enclaves. The first striking
thing about this alleged right is that it is completely indefinitand
vague and, as was described by Counsel for India, "something
undefined and disembodied, hard both to exercise and to enforce".
M'hen a State comes to this Court claiming a right against another
State, it must be a right which should be enforceable. It must be
a right which, if conceded by the Court, could be given effect to by
the defendant State. No Court would give judgment which could not
be carried out by the losing party. And the most surprising feature
of Portugal's claim in this case is that if she were to succeed in her

contentions, the judbment slie would obtain from this Court could
never be given effect to by India. If the Court were to declare that
Portugal has a right of transit over Indian territory from Daman to
the enclaves, it would be impossible for India to know what the
nature, extent or content of that right would be. Would Portugal
be entitled under this right to transport a whole army from Daman
to the enclaves in order to suppress the revolt ti-hich has taken place
there? Would she be able to transport tanks and artillery and al1
the paraphernalia of modern arms and armaments? Would she be
able to fly aeroplanes over Indian territory, in order to bomb the
enclaves in order to reduce them to subjection? Or would the right
be confined to transit facilities to be given to diplomatic envoys or
a small unit in order to maintain law and order in the enclaves?
These queries conclusively establish that Portugal has failed to

formulate any legal right which she can assert against India. It
is only by negotiations which may result in a treaty that the modali-
ties of a right of transit can be settled between India and Portugal.
But the Court cannot be called upon to draft a treaty between these176 RIÇHT OF PASSAGI? (L~ISS. OPIN. OF JUDGE ~11.4~1-:l)

two States. The Court can only pronounce upon an existing right,
and if the right claimed is so insubstantial as to be incapable of
being translated into soinething which is enforceable, the Court
must come to the conclusion that the right claimed is not a legal
right, much less a right recognized by international law or a right
with regard to which India's discretion is controlled by any inter-
national obligation. It seeins to me that on this ground alone
India's Preliminary Objection must be sustained. It would be a
slieer waste of time of this Court to join this issue to the merits
when at the end of it the Court would have to come to the con-
clusion that no effective declaration can be made in favour of
Portugal.

1 have already pointed out that it is an elementary principle of
international law that a State has exclusive competence within its
own territory. This principle was emphatically pronounced by
Chief Justice 3larshall in the Schoone~ Excltngzge case (1812, 7
Cranch 116) :"The jurisdiction of the nation within its own territory
is necessarily exclusive and absolute. It is susceptible of no limi-
tation not imposed by itself. Any restriction upon it, deriving
validity from an external source, would imply a diminution of its
sovereignty to the extent of the restriction, and an investment of
that sovereignty to the same extent in that power which could
impose sucli restriction. Al1 exceptions, therefore, to the full and
complete power of a nation within its own territories, must be
traced up to the consent of the nation itself. They can flow from no
other legitimate source." It is not suggested by Portugal that

India has ever given her consent to any limitation upon her terri-
torial sovereignty over the territory in question. Although in her
Memorial Portugal reliecl upon treaties between the Maratha rulers
and herself, this contention was given up or at least not pressed at
the hearing. As a matter of fact, the only treaty which deals with
this subject atal1is the Portuguese-Maratha Treaty of 1741 ,hich,
surprising as it may seem, provides expressly that soldiers of either
power are not to enter the territory of the other without permission.
If, therefore, India has not given her consent to any linlitation upon
her sovereignty, is there any other international obligation under-
taken by India independently of any treaty or her consent? 1 may
observe in passing that Portugal concedes that the right of transit
claimed by her, even though it may be without any immunity,
does constitute a limitation upon India's sovereignty.

An international obligation may arise through local custom. If
for a considerable period of time Portugal has been exercising this
right, then the right may be upheld by international law. But in
order that local custom should be established, it is not sufficient for
Portugal merely to state that for a long period she n~aintainedcon~munications between Daman and the enclaves. She must go
further and establish that the transit facilities that she had were

enjoyed by her as a matter of right and not as a matter of grace or
concession on the part of the Indian Government. And if one thing
is clear beyond anything else from the record that we have before
us, it is that throughout the period in question-from 1818 when
the British appeared on the scene onwards-the facilities enjoyed
by Portugal with regard to communicating with her enclaves were
entirely at the discretion of theIndian Government and they were
granted to Portugal as a matter of grace and indulgence. The Indian
Government always reserved to itself the right to control the passage
or transit facilities and even, if occasion arose, torohibit it alto-
gether. We have instances where a complete embargo uras placed
by the Indian Gollernment on the carriage of certain goods. We
have instances where no less a person than the Consul-General of
Portugal reminded the Governor of Diu that authorization by the
British authoritieswas indispensable before any Portuguese troops
could cross British territory. Therefore,ndia is right lvhen she says

that a right of passage subject to be revoked in whole or in part by
somebody else is not a right at all. 1 think that Portugal realizes
the weakness of her case under this head and therefore what has
been really urged before us by Portugal is that this right which she
claims is warranted by general principles of international law. Gen-
eral principles of international law would be applicable if Portugal
establishes a general custom in contradistinction to a local custom
by which a State has the right to have access to enclaves by transit
facilities being given to her in order to maintain communications
between herself and her enclaves. Kow the only general custom
which is comparable to the question we have to consider which
international law recognizes is the right of innocent passage in
territorial seas and in maritime parts of international rivers, and
also immunity given to diplomatic representatives when they are
in transit bet~veen one State and another. No general custom has
ever been established permitting a State to have access to her
enclaves as of right. Portugal has relied on a learned study made

by Professor Bauer of other enclaves, but this studyonlysh~ws that
the right of passage either arises out of treaty or out of local custom
which is not applicable to ,the present case.

A principle of international law may also be imported from
municipal law where the principle in municipal law is universally
recognized and when that principle is not in conflict with any rule
of international law itself; and the strongest reliance is placed by
Portugal on the principle of municipal law which may be described
as an easement of necessity. It is said that when you have an owner

56of land and his land is surrounded by the lands of other owners, the
former has a right of access to a public road. This right of access
arises out of necessity because but for this access the owner would
be landlocked and would not be able to get out of his land, and
therefore, in these circumstances, municipal law presupposes a

right of way in the first owner over the lands of other owners. In
my opinion, it would be extremely unsafe to draw an analogy
between the rights of an owner and the obligations of other owners
under municipal law and the rights and obligations of States under
international law. There can be no comparison between private
property and territorial sovereignty nor can there be any compar-
ison between a citizen and a sovereign State. A sovereign State can
pass any legislation affecting private property. It can compel the
owner of land to cede any right to neighbouring owners. But that
surely cannot be true of territorial sovereigns. Portugal cannot
compel India to cede any right to her nor can India be placed under
any obligation because Portugal is under a necessity to have
access to her enclaves. Further, such a rule would obviously be in
contradiction with the one undisputed well-established principle
of international law, namely, territorial sovereignty, and therefore

there is no scope for importing this principle of municipal law into
the domain of international law.

Even in municipal law parties may agree as to the nature and
extent of an easement, and if parties agree, then municipal law will
not presume an easement of necessity. In this case, the relations
between Portugal and the territorial sovereign of India clearly
demonstrate that the conditions of Portugal's Dassage or transit
over Indian territory were clearly settled aGd thise cozditions were
that Portugal had no right to a passage or transit but she could
only be afforded such facilities as the Indian Government, in its
absolute discretion, thought fit to concede. Therefore, Portugal
has failed to make out any case, let alone an arguable case, that
India's discretion with regard to this particular subject-matter,
which clearly falls within her owndomestic jurisdiction, is controlled
by any international obligation or that there is any rule of inter-

national law which takes this matter out of the reserved domain.
Under the circumstances, 1think that the Court should uphold this
Objection raised by India and should decide that there is no neces-
sity for further investigation of the facts and no useful purpose
would be served by joining this Objection to the hearing.

1 now come to the last and final Objection of India, which is
Objection Six. It is with regard to ratione temporis, and India's
contention is that the dispute brought before the Court arose179 RIGHT OF PASSAGE (DISS. OPIN. OF JUDGE CHAGLA)
prior to 5th February, 1930, with regard to situations or facts
prior to that date and that therefore the dispute is clearly excluded

from the competence of the Court by reason of her reservation
in her Declaration of 28th February, 1940. It is clear from the juris-
prudence of the Court that the only facts or situations which can
be considered for the purpose of this Objection are those facts or
situations which are the source or cause of the dispute. It is clear
to my mind that the source of the dispute is the divergence of
opinion between India and Portugal as to the legal implications
of what transpired from 1812 onwards. The divergence is not only
as to what happened in 1954. The divergence is as to the whole
concatenation of facts and situations relied on by Portugal for
asserting her right. Portugal says that India has acted contrary
to her obligation to allow right of passage to Portugal and the
breach of her obligation only took place in 1954, and therefore it
is irrelevant to consider for the purpose of this Objection any facts

or situations prior to 1954. This is clearly a fallacy. The obligation
of India itself is in dispute and according to Portugal herself the
obligation of India arises from facts and situations prior to 1930.
The question that the Court has to consider is not whether there
was any breach of Portugal's legal right by India in 1954. The
question is whether Portugal had any legal right at al1and Portugal
can only establish the legal right by a body of evidence from 1818
to 1954 which forms a single and continuous whole. This is not a
new dispute which Portugal seeks to bring before the Court. The
confict of views between the two Governments stretches back to
1818. It is a dispute as to the true result in law offactsandsituations
from 1818 onwards. In the Phosphates in Morocco case (P.C.I. J.,
Series A/B, No. 74, p. 24), the Court observed that the expression
"facts and situations" was wide enough to embrace al1the different

facts capable of giving rise to a dispute, and a situation would
include within its connotation not merely facts but also legaI
consequences resulting from a given set of facts. Again, in the
Phosphates in Moroccocase, dealing with the general object of the
limitation ratione temporis, it is stated (p. 24):" ..it was inserted
with the object of depriving the acceptance of the compulsory
jurisdiction of any retroactive effects, in order both to avoid, in
general, a revival of old disputes, and to preclude the possibility
of the submission to the Court by means of an application of situa-
tions or facts dating from a period when the State whose action
was impugned was not in a position to foresee the legal proceedings
to which these facts and situations might give rise". This obser-
vation in al1 its force applies to the present case. The Govemment
of India was not in a position to foresee the legal proceedings to

which the facts and situations from 1818 onwards might give rise.
And the whole object of India's limitation contained in her Declara-
tion is to prevent adjudication by the Court with regard to such

Bilingual Content

DISSENTIKG OPINION OF JC'LIGE CHAGLA

1 regret that 1am unable to agree with the conclusion arrived at
by the majority of my colleagues. As the matter is of considerable
importance, 1 think it necessary to give the reasons for my dissent.

Shere are two unique features in this case-one is the third
condition in the Portuguese Declaration, and the other is that the
Portuguese Application which started this case was fiIed within
three days of the making of the Declaration and before the pro-
vision contained in the second part of Article 36 (4) of the Statute
of the Court could be complied with. Neither of these aspects has
ever been considered by this Court, and they both raise very
important questions w-itli regard to the jurisdiction of the Court.

Turning tothe First Objection of India, itmay be readily granted
that the Optional Clause gives the widest freedom to a State which
submits to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court. This freedom
is in two respects. A State has the right to define the categories
of disputes whicli it is prepared to subnlit to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court. Itmay make any reservation it likes and

it may limit the categories to any extent that it desires. The other
respect is that it can limit the time ofthe pendency ofthe Declaration.
The Declaration may last tu70years, one year, six months, or even
it could be terminable on mere notice. But the third condition of
Portugal is an entirely different ltind of reservation. It reserves
the riglit to I'ortugal to alter and modify the scope of its Declaration
during the pendency of that Declaration.

It was urged by India that this reservation was retroactive and
it was open to Portugal to withdraw a pending litigation by having
resort to this reservation. It is pointed out that the expression
"from the date of the notification" used in the third condition
only indicates the point of time from which the reservation be-
comes effective; it does not refer to its scope or ambit. There is no
limitation placed b3- Portugal upon the extent of the reservation
and, therefore, it is suggested that Portugal, under this third
condition, reserves to itself the right of withdrawing a pending

litigation before the Court. India is not withoiit support in this
interpretation. The reaction of Sweden to this condition was the
same as India. (See Sweden's Note to the Secretary-General of
the United Nations dated 23rd February, 1956.) Portugal replied
to this Note by its h'ote of 5th July, 1956, in which it stated that
this condition did not warrant the conclusion that the Portuguese OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. CHAGLA

[T~aductin~ z
Je regrette de ne pouvoir me rallier à la conclusion adoptée par
la majorité de mes collègues. Etant donné l'importance considérable
de la question, j'estime nécessaire d'exposer les raisons de mon
désaccord.

Cette affaire présente deux traits remarquables - d'abord, la
troisième condition de la déclaration portugaise, ensuite le fait que
la requête portugaise introductive d'instance a étédéposéetrois
jours après qu'eut étésouscrite la déclaration et avant qu'il âit
étépossible de se conformer à la disposition contenue dans la
deuxième partie de l'article 36, paragraphe 4, du Statut de la Cour.
-4ucun de ces aspects n'a étéexaminé par la Cour, quojqu'ils

soulèvent tous les deux des questions très importantes à propos
de sa juridiction.
En ce qui concerne la premikre exception de l'Inde, on peut
facilement admettre que la disposition facultative donne une trks
grande liberté d'action à un État qui se soumet à la juridiction
obligatoire de ,la Cour. Cette liberté existe sous deux aspects
différents. Un Etat a le droit, d'une part, de définirles catégories de
différendsqu'il est disposéà soumettre à la juridiction obligatoire de
la Cour. Il peut faire toute réserve qu'il désireet il peut limiter les
catégories dans la mesure où il l'entend. D'autre part, il peut limiter

la duréede la déclaration. La déclaration peut êtrevalablepour deux
ans, un an, six mois, ou mêmeelle peut êtredénoncéepar simple
notification. Mais la troisième réserve portugaise est d'une nature
tout à fait différente. Elle réserve au Portugal ledroit de changer
et de modifier le champ d'application de sa déclaration au cours
de sa validité.
11a étésoutenu par l'Inde que cette réserve avait un caractère
rétroactif et laissait au Portugal la faculté de retirer un litige
pendant en ayant recours à cette réserve. On a fait remarquer
que l'expression ((à la date où elle aura étédonnée ))employée
dans la troisième condition n'indique que le moment de l'entrée
en vigueur de la réserve ;elle ne se réfère niàson champ d'applica-

tion, nià sa portée. Le Portugal ne limitepasl'étendue de la réserve
et, pour cette raison, on a suggéréqu'aux termes de la troisième
condition, le Portugal se réservait le droit deretirerun litige pendant
devant la Cour. L'Inde n'est pas la seule à adopter cette interpré-
tation. La réaction de la Suède devant cette réservea été lamême
que celle de l'Inde. (Voir la note de la Suède au Secrétaire général
des Nations Unies datée du 23 février1956.) Le Portugal a répondu
par une note du 5 juillet1956 dan's laquelle il a déclaréque cette
condition ne justifiaitpas la conclusion selon laquelle le Gouverne-Government would be in a position to withdraw fronl the juris-
diction oi the Court any dispute, or category of disputes, already
referred to it. If the reservation is retroactive, then there can be
no dispute that the reservation is bad. On the other Iiand, it must
be borne in rnind that a court must aluays lean against giving
retroactive or retrospective effect to an instrument, the more so
when quch an interpretation is likely to invalidate the instrument

and to deprive a tribunal of its jurisdiction. Even if the language
of the reservation is susceptible of this interpretation, if the other
interpretation is possible, the Court would raIher give the inter-
pretation to the instrument which would render it valid and which
would not deprive this Court of its jurisdiction.
But nhatever interpretation the Court places upon this condition,
it must be an interpretatiori based upon the language used in the
instrument itself. Xo assistance can be sought from the ex Post
facto and ;n. parte statement made by Portugal to which reference
has been made by which it attempted to clarify and elucidate its
own Declaration. So canon of conçtruction is more firmly estab-
lishcd than the one which lays down that the intention of a party
to an instrument must be gathered from the instrument itself and
not from what the party says its intention was.
But even if no retroactive effect can be given to Portiigal's
Declaration, it sziflers from a defect, which, in my opinion, is
fatal. Once a reservation is made with regard to categories of &s-

putes which are submitted to the compulsory jurisdiction of the
Court, categories over which the Court has jurisdiction must be
specified and defined. The jurisdiction of the Court with regard to
these categories of disputes must be finally accepted when the
Declaration is made.
It is futile to try and draw a distinction between the Portuguese
reservation and the ;ight to terminate a Declaration at any time.
It was suggested in the course of the arguments that, in the latter
case, a State can put an end to its obligation to submit to the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court with regard to all categories
of disputes, while, in the former case, a more limited rjght was
reserved by Portugal in that it could only limit the scope of its
obligation. This argument is specious. In the latter case, bji ter-
minating the Declaration, the juridical bond between a declarant
State and the otl-ier State comes to an end. The State no longer
adheres to the Optional Clause and is not liable to the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court with regard to any matter. In the former

case, the juridical bond continues. In the latter case, both the right
to bring a dispute before the Court and the obligation to submit
to the jurisdiction of the Court come to an end. In the former case,
the right remains and the State can put an end to the obligation
with regard to any dispute at its own discretion.
Distinguished authors have regretted the continuous decline of
the Optional Clause, and it is the duty of the Court to prevent any
46 ment portugais pourrait retirer à la juridiction de la Cour tout
différend, ou catégoriede différends, àelle déjàsoumis. Si laréserve
a un caractère rétroactif, il est alors incontestable qu'elle est
mauvaise. D'autre part, il faut se souvenir qu'un tribunal doit
toujours avoir tendance à ne pas donner un effet rétroactif ou

rétrospectifà un texte, et cela surtout quand cette interprétation
est susceptible d'en entraîner la nullité et de priver un tribunal
de sa juridiction. Mêmesi le texte de la réserve se prête à cette
interprétation, le tribunal devrait, si l'autre interprétation est
possible, préférercelle qui rend le texte valable et qui ne prive
pas le tribunal de sa juridiction.

Mais, quelle que soit l'interprétation donnée par la Cour à cette
condition, elle doit se fonder sur l'énoncémême du texte. On ne
peut faire appel à la déclaration ex Post facto et ex parte du Por-
tugal qui a étéinvoquée et par laquelle ce pays a essayé de clarifier
et d'élucider sa propre déclaration. Il n'existe pas de règle d'inter-
prétation plus fermement établie que celle qui stipule que l'inten-
tion d'une partie à un instrument doit être dégagéede l'instru-
ment lui-même et non pas de l'intention que la partie déclare

avoir eue.
Mais, même sila déclaration du Portugal ne peut pas avoir de
caractère rétroactif, elle a un défaut qui, à mon avis, lui est fatal.
Une fois formulée une réserve se rapportant à des catégories
de différends soumis à la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, les
catégories sur lesquelles la Cour a juridiction doivent êtrespécifiées
et définies. La juridiction de la Cour en ce qui concerne ces catégo-
ries de différends doit être acceptée de façon définitive lorsque la
déclaration est faite.
C'est en vain que l'on essaie de différencier la réserve por-
tugaise du droit de dénoncer une déclaration à tout moment. On
a suggéré en plaidoirie que, dans ce dernier cas, un Etat peut
mettre fin àson obligation de se soumettre àla juridiction obligatoire
de la Cour pour toute catégorie de différends, tandis que, dans le

premier, le Portugal s'était réservéun droit plus limité, du fait
qu'il ne pouvait que restreindre la portée de son obligation. C'est
une argumentation spécieuse.Dans le deuxième cas, la dénonciafion
de la déclaration met fin au lien juridique existant entre 1'Etat
déclarant et l'autre État. L'Etat cesse d'adhérer à la disposition
facultative et n'est plus dans aucun domaine soumis à la juri-
diction obligatoire de la Cour. Dans le premier cas, le lien juridique
continue d'exister. Dans le second, le droit de porter un différend
devantla Cour et l'obligation de se soumettre à sa juridictipn n'exis-
tent plus. Dans le premier cas, le droit subsiste et 1'Etat peut
à son gré mettre fin à l'obligation à l'égard de n'importe quel
différend.
D'éminents auteurs ont regretté le déclinincessant de la disposi-
tion facultative et il est du devoir de la Cour d'empêcher que le

46further decline of this Clause. Judge Lauterpacht in the Norwegian
Loans case (I.C.J. Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and
Orders, r957), when considering the French reservation in that
case, said (p. 64) that it "tended to impair the legal-and moral-
authority and reality of the Optional Clause", and also (p. 65) that
it "threatens to disintegrate thai minimum of compromise which
is embodied in the Opticnal Clause". These observations also
apply to the novel reservation embodied by Portugal in her Decla-
ration. Acceptance by Portugal of the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court is entirely illusory. The minimum of compromise which
is embodied in the Optional Clause is the right given to the State
to limit the categories of disputes which it is prepared to submit
to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court; but any fiirther
derogaiion from that minimum of compromise should not be
permissible. Once a State, by its Declaration, has expressed its
clear will to submit to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court a
particular dispute, the jurisdiction of the Court with regard to that
dispute must continue so long as the Declaration lasts. As the

intention of the Optional Clause is to make a State accept the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, any reservation which
frustrates that intention must be held to be opposed to the general
purpose of the Optional Clause and therefore invalid.

It was suggested that even if this reservation was invalid, as it
did not affect the present case, it could be severed from the rest
of the Declaration and the rest of the Declaration could be held
valid. The doctrine of severance is well settled in municipal law
and it also applies to international law. If a provision in an instru-
ment is an essential condition, and if the court is satisfied that in
the absence of that ~ssential condition the instrument would not
have been executed, then if the condition is bad, the court is power-
less and the whole instrument must be declared to be invalid.
Otherwise, the court would be writing a new instrument without

the essential condition. In this case there cannot be the slightest
doubt that the reservation we are considenng is an essential
condition of Portugal's adherence to the Optional Clause. It is on
this condition that Portugal has agreed to confer jurisdiction upon
the Court. The condition is of the very essence of the submission
of Portugal to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, and if this
condition is invalid, the whole Declaration must be declared to be
invalid.

As 1 am of the opinion that India's First Objection should
prevail, it would be unnecessary to consider her Second and Fourth
Objections, but as they have been argued at considerable length déclin de cette disposition ne se poursuive. M. le juge Lauter-
pacht, examinant la réserve française dans l'affaire relative à

Certains Emprunts norvégiens (C. I. J. Recueil des Arvêts,Avis
consultatifs et Ordonnances, 1957), a dit (p. 64) qu'elle((a tendance
à porter atteinte à l'autorité juridique - et morale - et à la
réalitéde la disposition facultative ))et également (p. 65) qu'elle
participe d'c(une tendance qui menace de désintégrerle minimum
d'accord incorporé dans la disposition facultative 1).Ceci s'appli-
que aussi à la réserve nouvelle incorporée par le Portugal à
sa déclaration. L'acceptation par le Portugal de la juridiction
obligatoire de la Cour est entièrement illusoire. Le minimum de

compromis incorporé dans la disposition facultative est le droit
accordé à 1'Etat de limiter les catégories de différends qu'il est
disposé à soumettre à la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour; mais
aucune dérogation supplémentaire à ce minimum de compromis
ne saurait êtrepermise. Une fois qu'un Etat, par sa déclaration,
a clairement exprimé sa volonté de soumettre un différend donné
à la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, la juridiction de la Cour à
l'égardde ce différend doit subsister aussi longtemps que la décla-
ration. Comme l'intention de la disposition facultative est de faire

accepter par un Etat la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, toute
réserve qui contrecarre cette intention doit êtreconsidérée comme
contraire au but généralde la disposition facultative et, de ce fait,
nulle.
Il a étésuggéréque, mêmesi cette réserveétait nulle, comme elle
n'affecte pas la présente espèce, on pourrait la séparer du reste de
la déclaration et que le reste de la déclaration pourrait ester
valable. La doctrine de la séparation est bien établie en droit
interne et elle s'applique également en droit international. Si l'une

des clauses d'un acte donné constitue une condition essentielle, et
si le tribunal constate qu'en l'absence de cette condition essentielle
l'acte n'aurait pas étéconclu, alors, si la condition est viciée, le
tribunal est sans pouvoirs et tout l'acte doit être déclarénul.
Autrement, on rédigerait un nouvel acte dépourvu de cette condi-
tion essentielle. Dans le cas que nous examinons, il ne peut y avoir
le moindre doute que la réserve en question est une condition
essentielle à l'adhésion du Portugal à la disposition facultative.
C'est à cette condition que le Portugal a accepté de conférer juri-

diction à la Cour. La condition est de l'essence même dela soumis-
sion du Portugal à la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour et, si cette
condition est nulle. toute la déclaration doit êtredéclarée nulle.

Comme je suis d'avis que la première exception de l'Inde doit
êtremaintenue, il n'est pas nécessaireque je considère la seconde et

la quatrième exception, mais puisqu'elles ont étédiscutées très 169 RIGHT OF PASSAGE (DIS. OPIS. OF JUDGE CHAGLA)

and as they raise questions of considerable irriportance, I would
like to express my opinion on them.
Both the Objections are based on the fact that Portugal's
1)eclaration w-asdeposited witll the Secretary-General of the United
Kations on the 19th December, 1955, and the present Application
was filed on the zznd December, 1955. 1 do not think there is any
instance in the history of this Court where a State fias filed an
Application with such lightning speed. It is urged on behali of
Portugal that adherence to the Optional Clause is a unilateral act
by a State and the Declaration cornes into force immediately it is
deposited u7itl-ithe Secretriry-General of the L7nited Nations. It
is further pointed out that there is nothing in the Statute or the

Rules of the Court which requires that any time should elapse
between the making of the Declaration and the filing of the Appli-
cation. It is therefore said that although copies of the Declaration
were not transmitted by the Secretar--(;eneral to the Parties to
the Statute nor to the Registrar of this Court, and although India
had no knowledge that any such Declaration had been made by
Portugal, the Declaration became immediately effective, and to
the extent that the same obligations were undertaken hy the
Declaration of Portugal and the Declaration of India, India hecame
liable to be called before the Court in answer to any claim made by
Portugal which fell within the scope of the two Declarations.
The narrou- question that Ive have to consider is whether the
Statute of the Court contemplates that the Declaration should be

immediately effective without knowledge, presurnptive or actual,
on the part of the other States rvho have already adhered to the
Optional Clause-in other words, whether a juridical bond can be
created by a new declarant with the other States who are already
Parties to the Optional Clause bj7 the mere deposit of the Declara-
tion with the Secretary-General so as to entitle the new declarant
immediately to file an Application and bring another State before
the Court. India has contended that by this precipitous Application,
Portugal has violated the principle of equality of States before the
court, a principle which is the very basis of the Optional Clause.
Portugal, on the other hand, has relied on theletter of the law and
has urged that apart from the reciprocity of obligations at the date
of the Declaration, there is no other reciprocity or equality which

is contemplated by Article 36 (2)of the Statute. Whether the Sta-
tute permits a Çtate to file an Application before the ink on its
Declaration is dry or not, it will be agreed that this is a practice
rvhicli should not be countenanced by the Court; and if there is
any provision in the Statute which can permit the Court to refuse
to entertain Portugal's Application, it should do so under the
circun~stances of the case.
Article 36 (3) of the Statute consists of two parts: one, making
it incumbcnt upon a State making a Declaration to deposit it with
the Secretary-General of the Ynited Xations, and the second

48 DROIT DE PASSrlGE (OP. DISS.DE M. CHAGLA) 169
longuement et qu'elles ont soulevé des questions d'une importance

considérable, j'aimerais donner mon opinion à leur sujet.
Ces deux exceptions sont fondées sur le fait que la déclaration
du Portugal a étéremise au Secrétaire général des Kations Cnies
le 19 décembre 1955 et que la présente requête a étédéposéele
22 décembre 1955. Je ne crois rpas qu'il existe d'autre exemple,
dans l'histoire de la Cour, d'un Etat ayant déposéune requête avec
une telle précipitation. On a soutenu, au nom du Portugal, que
l'adhésion à la disposition facultative est un acte unilatéral de la
part d'un Etat et que la déclaration entre en vigueur aussitôt
qu'elle a été déposéeentre les mains du Secrétaire général des
Nations Cnies. On a de plus souligné qu'il n'existe aucune disposi-

tion dans le Statut ou le Règlement spécifiant qu'un laps de temps
doit s'écouler entre le dépôt de la déclaration et le dépôt de la
requête. C'est pourquoi on affirnxe que, bien que les copies de la
déclaration n'aient ététransmises par le Secrétaire généralni aux
Parties au Statut, ni au Greffier de la Cour et bien que l'Inde n'ait
pas connaissance du dépôt par le Portugal de cette déclaration, la
déclaration est entrée en vigueur immédiatement et, dans la mesure
où les déclarations portugaise et indienne assumaient lesmêmesobli-
gations, l'Inde était exposée à se voir citée devant la Cour pour
répondre à toute demande du Portugal rentrant dans le domaine
des deux déclarations.

La question restreinte que nous devons examiner est celle de
savoir si le Statut de la Cour prescrit que la déclaration doit entrer
en vigueur immédiatement sans connaissance, présumée ou réelle,
de la part des autres Etats qui ont déjà adhéré à la disposition.
facultative,- en d'autres termes, celle de savoir si un lien juridique
peut être créépar un nouveau déclarant avec les autres États
déjà parties à la disposition facultative par le simple dépôt de la
déclaration entre les mains du Secrétaire général,de manière à per-
mettre au nouveau déclajant de déposerimmédiatement une requête
et de traduire un autre Etat devant la Cour. L'Inde a soutenu que,
par cette requête précipitée, le Portugal a violé le principe de

l'égalitédes États devant la Cour, principe qui est à la base même
de la disposition facultative. Le Portugal, au contraire,s'est fondé
sur le droit strict et a soutenu que l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du
Statut n'envisage. d'autre réciprocitéou égalitéque la réciprocité
des obligations à la date de la déclaration. Que le Statut per-
mette ou non à un État de déposer une requête avant que l'encre
n'ait séchésur sa déclaration, on reconnaîtra quec'est là une prati-
que qui ne devrait pas êtresanctionnée par la Cour; et s'il existe
dans le Statut une disposition permettant à la Cour de refuser de
connaître de la requête du Portugal, elle doit le faire, eu égard aux
circonstances de l'espèce.

L'article 36, paragraphe 4,du Statut se compose de deux parties:
selon la première, il incombe àun Etat qui fait une déclaration de la
déposer entre les mains du Secrétaire général des Kations L-nieset,
48making it incumbent upon the Secretary-General to transmit
copies thereof to the Parties to the Statute and to the Registrar of
the Court. It is common ground that unless the Declaration is
deposited as required by Article 36 (4), the Declaration cannot
become effective. It is difficult to understand why, if the first part
of Article 36 (4) is mandatory, the second part is not equally
mandatory. It is said that the second part is purely administrative
or procedural and it merely gives a direction to the Secretary-
General to carryout his duties. It is difficult to accept the argument
that a provision so unimportant should have found a place in so
solenln a document as the Statute of the Court. In my opinion, the
same importance should be attached to both the parts of Article 36
(4). There must have been some reason why the framers of the
Statute inserted this provision in Article 36 (4) and the obvious
reason is that some time should elapse between the making of the
Declaration and the filing of an Application.

It is unnecessary in this case to speculate as to what is the proper
time that should elapse between the making of the Declaration
and the filing of the Application. Sufficient i~ntothe day is the law
thereof: and it will be sufficient to deal only with the facts of this
case. It is clear that in this case an Application has been filed by
Portugal before the second part of Article 36 (4) was complied with,
and it is open to the Court to Say that the Application is premature
and that Portugal should have waited until effect had been given
to the provision of the second part of Article 36 (4).
Emphasis has been placed upon the expression "ipso jacto" used
in Article 36 (2)of the Statute. It is suggested that this expression
makes it clear that the mere deposit of the Declaration, and nothing
more, brings about the consensual bond between the declarant
State and the State which has accepted the same obligation. The
expression "ipso facto" must be read with the words that follow
"and without special agreement". What the Statute emphasizes

is that apart from the Declaration no special agreement is necessary
to attract the Application of the Optional Clause. Article 36 (z), in
my opinion, does not deal with the question as to when the Decla-
ration becomes effective. For this purpose we have to turn to
Article 36 (4).
There is also force in India's contention that by the timing of
Portugal's Application, India was deprived of the right to invoke
in her favour the third condition in Portugal's Declaration. It is
nom7well-settled law that a State which is a Party to the Optional
Clause is entitled to incorporate into its own Declaration any
condition contained in the Declaration of any other State which
has adhered to the Optional Clause. (See the Norwegian Loans case,
I.C.J. Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders, 1957.)
Therefore, it cannot be disputed that India had the right to make
use of the third condition as against Portugal as much as Portugal

39 DROIT DE PASSAGE (OP. DISS. DE M. CHAGLA) I7O
selon la seconde, il incombe au Secrétaire général d'entransmettre
copie aux Parties au Statut et au Greffier de la Cour. Les Parties
sont d'accord sur le fait que, à moins d'avoir étédéposée comme

le stipule l'article 36, paragraphe 4, la déclaration ne peut sortir
ses effets. On comprend difficilement pourquoi, si la première
partie de l'article 36, paragraphe 4, est impérative, la seconde
partie ne l'est pas également. On a dit que la seconde partie est de
nature purement administrative ou se rapporte à la procédure et
qu'elle donne seulement au Secrétaire général une directive quant
à l'exercice de ses fonctions. Il est difficile d'admettre qu'une dispo-
sition aussi peu importante ait trouvé place dans un document
aussi solennelque le Statut de la Cour. J'estime qu'il faut attacher
la mêmeimportance aux deux parties de l'article 36, paragraphe 4.

Il a dû y avoir une raison pour que les rédacteursdu Statut insèrent
cette disposition dans l'article36,paragraphe 4,ètla raisonévidente
est qu'un certain temps doit s'écoulerentre le dépôt d'une décla-
ration et le dépôt d'une requête.
Dans ces conditions il est inutile de se demander quel délai
doit s'écouler entre l'adhésion à la déclaration et le dépôt de la
requête. A chaque jour suffit sa règlede droit; il suffira de se borner
aux faits de la présente espèce. Il est évident que, dans cette affaire,
une requête a étédéposéepar le Portugal avant qu'on n'ait pu

appliquer la seconde partie de l'article 36, paragraphe 4,et la Cour
peut dire que la requête est prématurée et que le Portugal aurait
dû attendre jusqu'à ce que la disposition contenue dans la seconde
partie de l'article 36, paragraphe 4, ait sorti ses effets.
On a insistésur l'expression Kde plein droit1)(ipso facto)employée
dans l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut. On prétend que cette
expression montre clairement que c'est le seul dépôt de la dé~la-
ration, sans rien de plus, qui crée le lien consensuel entre 1'Etat
déclarant et l'État qui a accepté la mêmeobligation. L'expression
((de plein droit ))doit êtrelue avec les mots qui la suivent (et sans

convention spéciale 1).Ce que le Statut souligne, c'est que,à part la
déclaration, aucune convention spéciale n'est nécessaire pour que
soit appliquée la disposition facultative. J'estime que l'article36,
paragraphe 2,ne touche pas à la question du moment oii la décla-
ration entre en vigueur. A cette fin, il faut se reporter à l'arti-
cle 36, paragraphe 4.
La thèse de l'Inde selon laquelle celle-ci a étéprivée du droit
d'invoquer en sa faveur la troisième condition contenue dans la
déclaration du Portugal, en raison du moment où la requête du

Portugalaétédéposée,est convaincante elleaussi. Il est maintenant
bien établien droit qu'un État partie à la disposition facultative est
fondé à incorporer dans sa propre déclaration toute condition conte-
nue dans la déclaration de tout autre Etat qui a déjà adhéréà la
disposition facultative. (Voir A8aire relative à certains emerunts
norvégiens, C.I. J. Recueil des Arrêts,Avis consultatifs et Ordon-
nances, 1957. ) n ne peut donc pas contester que l'Inde avait le

49had the right as against India. But if this right is to have any
meaning or significance, it must be a right which can be exercised.

Portugal, by filing the Application when she did, made it impossible
for India to exercise that right. Portugal could have invoked this
condition any time before filing the -4pplication. India could have
only invoked it if she had knowledge of the Declaration before the
Application was filed. Once the Application was filed, inasmuch as
the condition, as 1 have pointed out, is not retroactive, India was
deprived of that right and was compelled to accept the jurisdiction
of the Court whether she liked it or not. In the Norwegialz I,oa~~s
case, it was stated that Norway, eqz~allywith France, was entitled
to except from the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court disputes
falling within the ambit of France's reservation. In the Plzosphates
i~t~%!orocccoase, although a particular limitation in the Declaration
of one Çtate did not appear iri the Declaration of the other, it was

held that the limitation niust hold good as between the Parties;
and in the Electricity Comeany oj Sofia and Bzdgaria case, the Court
said that in consequence of the condition of reciprocity laid down
in paragraph 2 of Article 36, the limitation contained in the Decla-
ration of one State must be applicable as between the Parties.

Now what is the reciprocity that Article 36 (2) contemplates ? 1s
it the narrow reciprocity suggested by Portugal, namely, the reci-
procity that should subsist at the date of the Application, or a
wider reciprocity which would entitle a State to avail itself of eiery
limitation contained in the other Party's Declaration to the same

extent and in the same manner as the other Party?

It should be remembered that in the Norwegian Loalzs case, at
the date of France's Application, Norway had not availed itself
of the reservation contained in France's Declaration with regard
to domestic jurisdiction. Therefore, if reciprocity hâd been narrowly
construed in that case, Norway could not have availed herself of
that limitation. But the Court held that Xorway was as much
entitled as France to plead that the particular dispute fell within
her domestic jurisdiction. Therefore, strictly, the principle of
reciprocity had been given effect to after France's Declaration
had been filed and the Court did not confine itself to considering
the situation as it existed at the date of France's Application. The

question that now arises is whether the Court should not look at the
situation as it existed before Portugal filed her Application. And if
the Court comes to the conclusion that India could only have
exercised the third limitation contained in Portugal's Declaration
before Portugal filed her Application, and if India has been deprived
of thât right, then the principle of reciprocity under Article 36 (2)
has been violated. In any view of the case, in my opinion, the

50droit d'invoquer la troisième condition contre le Portugal, demême
que le Portugal avait le droit de l'invoquer contrel'Inde. Maispour
qu'il ait un sens ou une signification, il faut que ce droit puisse être
exercé. Le Portugal, en déposant sa requête au moment où il l'a
fait, a mis l'Inde dans l'impossibilité d'exercer ce droit. Le Portugal

aurait pu invoquer la condition à n'importe quel moment avant
le dépôt de sa requête. L'Inde n'aurait pu l'invoquer que si elle
avait eu connaissance de la déclaration avant le dépôt de cette
requête.Une fois que la requêtea étédéposée,dans la mesure où,
comme je l'ai dit,la condition n'a pas un caractère rétroactif,'Inde
était privée dece droit et forcéed'accepter, bon grémal gré,la juri-
diction de la Cour. Dans l'affaire relatiàeCertazns emprunts norvé-
giens, on a dit que la Norvège, dans les ~ntwzesconditions que la
France, était fondée à exclure de la compétence obligatoire de la
Cour les différends rentrant dans le domaine d'application de la
réservefrançaise. Dans l'affaire desPltosphatesdz~Maroc,quoiqu'u~le
ljmitation particulière contenue dans la déclaration de l'un des
Etats ne figurât pas dans la déclaration de l'autre, il a étédécidé

que la limitation devait subsister entre les Parties. Dans l'affaire
de la CompagniedJElectricité de Sofia etdeBulgarie, la Cour adéclaré
que, par l'effet de la condition de réciprocitéinscrite au paragra-
phe 2, de l'article 36, la limitation contenue dans la déclaration
d'un Etat faisait droit entre les Parties.
En quoi consiste la réciprocité envisagéepar l'article 36, para-
graphe z? S'agit-il de la réciprocitélimitéesuggéréepar le Portugal,
à savoir la réciprocitéqui devra subsister à la date du +pôt de
la requête,ou d'une réciprocité pluslarge, qui fonderait un Etat àse
prévaloir detoute limitation contenue dansla déclaration de l'autre
Partie, dans la mêmemesure et de la mêmemanière que cette autre
Partie ?
Il faut se souvenir que, dans l'affaire des Enzprunts .~?orvégiens,

la date du dépôt de la requêtefrançaise, la Norvège ne s'était pas
prévalue de la réserve contenue dans la déclaration de la France
relative à la juridiction nationale. C'est pourquoi si, dans cette
affaire, on avait adopté une interprétation étroite de la réciprocité,
la Norvège n'aurait pas pu se prévaloir de cette limitation. Mais
la Cour a dit que la Norvège était fondée aussi bien que la France
à soutenir que ce différendrelevait de la juridiction nationale. C'est
pourquoi, strictement, le principe de la réciprocitéavait sorti ses
effets après que la France eut souscrit sa déclaration et la Cour ne
s'est pas bornée à considérer la situation telle qu'elle existait à la
date de la requêtefrançaise. La question soulevéemaintenant est
celle de savoir si la Cour ne devrait pas examiner la situation telle
qu'elle existait avant le dépôt de la requêtedu Portugal. Si la Cour
décide que l'Inde ne pouvait invoquer la troisième condition

contenue dans la déclaration du Portugal avant le dépôt de la
requête portugaise, et si l'Inde a étéprivée de ce droit, alors le
principe de réciprocité,aux termes de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, Court should come to the conclusion that the haste with which
Portugal filed this Application has resulted in an abuse of the
Optional Clause and also an abuse of the processes of the Court,

and therefore the Court should refuse to entertain Portugal's
Application.

India's Third Objection is that the present dispute was brought
before this Court without preliminary diplomatic negotiations and
without the negotiations reaching a deadlock. It is urged by India
that the jurisdiction of the Court is confined to deciding legal
disputes, and before there can be a dispute, it must be clear that
the controversy cannot be settled by negotiations. It is pointed out
that before a State is brought before the bar of the International
Court, every attempt should firçt be made to see whether the
controversy in question could not be amicably settled. Our atten-
tion has been drawn to the various Notes that were exchanged
between India and Portugal, and it does appear that Portugal
never raisedin these Notes the generalquestion of a right of passage

as such. What was discussed in these Notes was certain concrete
questions relating to special situations arising out of disturbances
which had occurred within the Portuguese enclaves; and what
Portugal insisted on was that India had incurred an international
responsibility by its behaviour at a given time and in a specific
situation. Our attention is drawn to the fact that if the general
question of a right of passage had been raised in this diplomatic
exchange of Notes, this Court would have had a better conception
of the nght claimed by Portugal. As it is, the Court is not in a
position to know or judge what is the actual nature of the right
claimed by Portugal. Nor had India been given an opportunity
to formulate or express her views with regard to the right claimed
by Portugal before the matter was brought before the Court.
Reliance is placed on the observations of the Court in the Electricity
Comfiany ofSofia and Balgaria case (P.C.I. J., Series A/B, No. 77,
p. 132): "What is essential is that, prior to the filing of an Appli-
cation by one Party bringing a dispute before the Court, the other
Party must have been given the opportunity to formulate and to

express its views on the subject of the dispute. Only diplomatic
negotiations wiU have afforded such an opportunity."

It is also urged by India that this de with regard to preliminary
diplomatic negotiations does not operate only in those cases where
there is a provision to this effect in a treaty between the Parties.
The nile is of generalapplication and is based ontwo considerations :
(1) the need of the Court to know what is the subject-matter of the
dispute, and (2)efforts made by the Parties to reach an agreement
have been fruitless.a étéviolé. Quelle que soit l'opinion qu'on ait de cette affaire,
j'estime que la Cour devrait dire que la hâte avec laquelle le Portu-
gal a déposésa requêtea entraîné un abus de la disposition facul-
tative et aussi un abus de la procédure de la Cour. Pour ces raisons,
la Cour devrait refuser de connaître de la requête du Portugal.

Selon la troisième exception de l'Inde, le différend actuel a été
porté devant la Cour sans négociations diplomatiques préalables
et avant que les négociations aient atteint une impasse. L'Inde a
soutenu que la juridiction de la Cour se borne à la solution de
différends juridiques, et avant que ne puisse exister un différend,
il doit êtreclair que la controverse ne peut êtrerégléepar voie de
négociations.On a faitremarquer qu'avant qu'un État nesoit traduit
devant la Cour internationale, il faut tout tenter, au préalable,
pour savoir si la controverse en question ne pourrait êtrerégléeà
l'amiable. On a attiré notre attention sur les différentes notes

échangéesentre l'Inde et le Portugal et il apparaît bien que le
Portugal n'a jamais, dans ses notes, soulevéla question généraledu
droit de passage comme tel. Ce qui a étédiscutédans ces notes, ce
sont des questions concrètes se rapportant à des situations spéciales
nées des troubles qui s'étaient produits dans les enclaves portu-
gaises; et le point sur lequel le Portugal a insisté, c'est que l'Inde
avait encouru une responsabilité internationale par sa conduite à
un moment donné et dans une situation particulière. Notre atten-
tion a étéattirée sur le fait que si la question généraledu droit
de passage avait étésoulevéedans l'échange de notes diplomati-
ques, la Cour aurait pu se faire une idée plus claire du droit
revendiqué par le Portugal. Dans l'état actuel des choses, la Cour
ne peut pas savoir ou juger la nature véritable du droit revendiqué

par le Portugal. L'Inde n'a pas non plus eu l'occasion de faire
connaître ou d'exprimer ses opinions sur le droit que le Portugal
revendique avant que la question ne soit portée devant la Cour.
On se fonde çur les déclarations de la Cour dans l'affaire de la
Compagnied'Electricité deSofia et de Bulgarie (C.P. J. I., SérieA/B,
no 77, p. 132): Ce qui est essentiel, c'est qu'avant qu'une Partie
déposeune requêteintroduisant une instance devant la Cour, l'autre
Partie ait eu l'occasion de faire connaître et d'exprimer sa manière
de voir sur l'objet du différend.Cette occasion ne peut être fournie
que par des négociations diplomatiques. ))
On a également soutenu au nom de l'Inde que cette règlesur les
négociations diplomatiques préliminaires ne s'applique pas seule-
ment dans les cas où il existe une disposition à cet effet dans un
traité entre les Parties. La règles'applique d'une manière générale

et repose sur deux considérations: 1) la nécessitépour la Cour de
connaître l'objet du diffésend,et 2) le fait que les efforts des Parties
pour atteindre un accord soient restés infructueux. There can be no doubt as to the desirability of States negotiating
with regard to a dispute and trying to arrive at a fair solution
before tliey avail themselves of the compulsory jurisdiction of the
Court. But what we have to consider is whether failure to pursue
this desirable course deprives the Court of its jurisdiction. It is
clear on the authorities that what the Court has insisted upon is
the mere existence of a dispute, and a dispute has been defined as
a divergence of opinions or views between two States: It has also
been held that this divergence is established after one Government
finds that the attitude of the other is contrary to its own. In the
Ch.6rzozo Factory case (Series A, No. 13, p. IO), the Court pointed
out that "it would no doubt be desirable that a State should not
proceed to take as serious a step as summoning another State to
appear before the Court without having previously, witliin reason-

able limits, endeavoured to make it quite clear that a difference of
views is in question which has not been capable of being otherwise
overcome. But, in view of the wording of the article, the Court
considers that it cannot require that the dispute should have
manifested itself in a forma1 way; according to the Court's view,
it should be sufficient if the two Governments have in fact shown
themselves as having opposite views." Therefore, it is clear that the
dispute should not be manifested in any formal way and all that
is necessary is that two Governments should show themselves as
holding opposite views. It has also been observed in the case of
Certain GermanInterests in Upper Silesia (Series A, No. 6, p. 14) :
".., a difference of opinion does exist as soon as one of the Govern-
ments concerned points out that the attitude adopted by the other
conflicts with its own views". It is difficult to take the view that
the attitude of India on the question of Portugal's claim with
regard to a right of passage does not conflict with the view held
by Portugal. 1 would therefore overrule this Objection.

Turning to the Fifth Objection, we heard very learned arguments
astothe burden of proof. In my opinion, now that all the arguments
are before the Court, the question of burden of proof loses much
of its importance. But even so, 1 should like to Say a few words
about it. It is always for a party which comes before a court or
a tribunal to make out a prima facie case that the tribunal or court
has jurisdiction. If that prima facie burden is discharged, it may
be that the burden would shift on to the other party. When India
objects to the jurisdiction of the Court on the ground that the
subject-matter of the dispute falls exclusively within her domestic
jurisdiction, it would not be correct to describe her attitude as it
has been described by Counsel for Portugal as attempting to obstruct
the normal course of statutory procedure. Undoubtedly the party
coming to the Court hasthe right to have the benefit ofthe procedure DROIT DE PASSAGE (OP. DISS.DE M. CHAGLA)
173
Il est certain qu'il faut souhaiter que les États négocient en cas
de différend et essaient de trouver une solution équitable avant de
se prévaloir de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour. Mais ce que

nous devons examiner, c'est la question de savoir si le fait de ne
pas suivre cette méthode souhaitable prive la Cour de sa juridiction.
Il est évident, d'après les précédents invoqués, que c'est sur la
simple existence d'un différend que la Cour a insisté, et qu'un
différend a étédéfini comme étant une divergence d'opinions ou
de vues entre deux Etats. On a également soutenu que cette diver-
gence est établie lorsqu'un Gouvernement a constaté que l'attitude
de l'autre était en contradiction avec la sienne. Dans l'affaire de
l'Usine de Chdrzow(SérieA, no 13, pp. IO et II), la Cour a dit: ((Il
parait bien désirable qu'un Etat ne procède pas à une démarche

aussi sérieuse que l'assignation d'un autre État devant la Cour,
sans avoir auparavant, dans une mesure raisonnable, tâchéd'éta-
blir clairement qu'il s'agit d'une différencede vues qui ne peut être
dissipéeautrement. Mais, vu la teneur du texte, la Cour estime ne
pas pouvoir exiger que la contestation se soit formellement mani-
festée; à son avis, il doit suffire que les deux Gouvernements aient
en fait manifesté des opinions opposées ..))C'est pourquoi il est
clair que le différend ne doit pas se manifester de façon formelle:
il suffit que deux Gouvernements démontrent qu'ils ont des opinions

divergentes. On a également observédans l'dijaire relativà certains
intérêta sllemands en Haute-Silésiepolonaise (SérieA, no 6, p. 14) :
((...une divergence d'opinion se manifeste dès qu'un des Gouver-
nements en cause constate que l'attitude observée par l'autre est
contraire à la manière de voir du premier n.On peut difficile~~ent
soutenir que l'attitude de l'Inde sur la question de la revendication
par le Portugal d'un droit de-passage n'est pas en conflit avec
celle du Portugal. Par conséquent, je rejetterais cette exception.

Sur la cinquième exception nous avons entendu une argumenta-
tion très savante sur le fardeau de la preuve. Maintenant que tous
les arguments ont étésoumis à la Cour, j'estime que la question du
fardeau de la preuve perd une grande partie de son importance.
Mais je voudrais tout de mêmeen dire quelques mots. Il incombe
toujours à une partie qui se présente devant une cour ou devant un

tribunal de prouver prima facie que le tribunal ou la cour est com-
pétente. Si elle s'est acquittée de ce fardeau prima facie, il se peut
que le fardeau soit déplacésur les épaulesde l'autre partie. Lorsque
l'Inde soulève une exception à la compétence de la Cour parce que
l'objet du différend relève exclusivement de sa compétence natio-
nale, il ne serait pas exact de décrire, ainsi que le fait l'agent du
Portugal, son attitude comme une tentative de faire obstruction au
cours normal de la procédure prévue par le Statut. Sans aucunprovided by the Statute and the Rules for contentious matters.
But that is so only on the assumption that the Court has jurisdiction.
All that India has done is to draw the attention of the Court to the
fact that, looking to her Declaration, the Court has no jurisdiction
over this particular dispute. It is ultimately for the Court to decide

the question of jurisdiction and it is only if the Court takes the
view that the dispute falls within the ambit of India's Declaration
that the matter can go on and the rules of statutory procedure can
be given effect. It is equally incorrect to Say that inasmuch as
India is relying on an exception contained in her Declaration which
confers jurisdiction upon the Court the burden is upon her to make
good that exception. India has accepted the compulsory jurisdiction
with regard to certain categories of disputes, and the particular
category with regard to matters falling exclusively within her
domestic jurisdiction has been excluded.Therefore, it is for Portugal
to establish that the dispute which she has brought before the
Court falls within the scope of India's Declaration, and she can
only establish that provided she satisfies the Court that the dispute
is not exclusively within the domestic jurisdiction of India. T'le
reservation made by India with regard to matters falling exclusively
within her domestic jurisdiction is not an exception: it is an essen-
tial-an integral-part of her acceptance of the jurisdiction of the

Court.

Coming to the substance of the matter, there are certain points
which are bevond controversy. The first is that India has exclusive
territorial sivereignty over the territory through which Portugal
claims a right of passage or a right of transit. 1 think it is equally
indisputable that primaiacie a State enjoying territorial sover-
eignty has the right to allow or to prohibit a right of passage or
transit through her territories to any other State or to permit a
right of passage or transit under such terms and conditions as she
thinks proper. It is true that even though a subject-matter may
fa11within the domestic jurisdiction of a State, the State may not
have complete discretion with regard to it but its discretion may
be controlled by any international obligation undertaken by it. If
India has undertaken any international obligation, then the matter

is no longer exclusively within her domestic jurisdiction. In other
words, the matter would not be within the reserved domain but
would be within the international domain into which the Court can
enquire and determine what are her obligations according to inter-
national law.
It is true that in a large majority of cases, when an Objection
is taken on the ground of domestic jurisdiction, the Court is
inclined to join the Objection to the merits because the Court feels
that it is impossible to arrive at a decision on this issue without
investigating into the merits of the subject. But this is not alwaysdoute, la partie qui se présente devant la Cour a le droit de bénhficier
de la procédure prévue par le Statut et le Règlement en matière
contentieuse. Mais il n'en est ainsi que si l'on suppose que la Cour
est compétente. Tout ce que l'Inde a fait, c'est d'attirer l'attention
de la Cour sur le fait que, si l'on considère sa déclaration, la Cour
n'est pas compétente en ce qui concerne ce différend. C'est à la
Cour qu'il appartient en dernier lieu de tranclier la clilestion de

juridiction et c'est seulement si la Cour estime que le diffPrend
tombe sous la portée de la déclaration de l'Inde que l'affaire peiit
continuer àêtreexaminée et que les règles de la procédure statutaire
peuvent sortir leurs effets.Il est également erronéde dire que, dans
la mesure où l'Inde se fonde sur une exception contenue dans sa
déclaration conférant juridiction à la Cour, le fardeau de la preuve
lui incombe et que c'est à elle d'apporter les preuves à l'appui de
cette exception. L'Inde a accepté la juridiction obligatoire pour
certaines catégories de différends, et la catégorie particulière concer-
nant les questions relevant exclusivement de sa comp6tence natio-
nale a étéexclue. C'est pourquoi il incombe au Portugal de démon-
trer que le différend qu'il a porté devant la Cour rentre dans le
domaine de la déclaration de l'Inde, et il ne peut le prouver qu'en
démontrant à la Cour que le différend ne relève pas exclusiveinent

de la compétence nationale de l'Inde. La réserve formulée par
l'Inde concernant les questions relevant exclusivement de sa com-
pétence nationale n'est pas une exception; c'est une partie essen-
tielle- intégrale - de son acceptationde la juridiction de la Cour.
Pour en venir au centre de la question, certains points ne sont
pas contestables. Premièrement, l'Inde exerce une souveraineté
territoriale exclusive sur le territoire surlequel le Portugal reven-
dique un droit de passage ou un droit de transi!. Je pense qu'il est
également incontestable que, prima /mie, un Etat jouissant de la
souveraineté territoriale a le droit d'accorder ou de refuser à tout
autre Etat un droit de passage ou de transit à travers ses terri-
toires, ou de lui accorder ce droit dans les conditioils et aux termes
qui lui semblent bons. Il est vrai que, mêmesi l'oliiet d'un différend

relève de la compétence nationale d'un Etat, il est possible que
celui-ci n'ait pas un pouvoir discrétionnaire absolu à ce sujet, mais
qu'il puisse êtresouniiç àtoute obligation internationale contractée
par lui. Si l'Inde a assuméune obligation internationale quelconque,
alors la question ne relève plus de sa compétence nationale exclusive.
En d'autres termes, la question ne faitpas partiedu domaine réservé,
mais du domaine international que la Cour peut examiner, et elle
peut définir les obligations de l'Inde selon le droit international.

Il est vrai que dans un grand nombre de cas,lorsqu'une exception
est formulée sur la base de la compétence nationale, la Cour a
tendance à joindre l'exception au fond parce qu'elle pense qu'il est
impossible d'arriver à une décisionsur la question sans, examiner le
fond. Mais il n'en est pas toujours ainsi, sans quoi un Etat n'aurait

53 175 RIGHT OF PASSAGE (DISS.OPIN. OF JUDGE CHAGLA)
so. Otherwise it would never be open to a State to take a Preliminary

Objection on this ground. The test has been clearly laid down by
this Court as to what has to be established in order that the Court
will not uphold the Objection at a preliminary stage but would
stand it over to the hearing. Portugal must establish that the legal
grounds relied upon by her justify a provisional conclusion that
they are of juridical importance for a decision of the dispute
according to international law. (See the classical statement of the
law in the Nationality Decreesof Tzenisia and Morocco, Series B,
No. 4, p. 25.) To use simpler language, Portugal must show that
her claim discloses an arguable cause of action under international
law. Again, to use a different language, Portugal must show that
the general rule that the subject-matter being within the domestic
jurisdiction of India is within her discretion has been displaced by
sonle rule of international law.

Now what is the subject-matter of the dispute between Portugal
and India? 1will not consider the various metamorphoses which
Portugal's claim has undergone. But as finally indicated to this
Court it is a right of transit between Daman and the Portuguese
enclaves of DadrA and Nagar-Aveli in order to maintain communi-
cations between Ilaman and these two enclaves. The first striking
thing about this alleged right is that it is completely indefinitand
vague and, as was described by Counsel for India, "something
undefined and disembodied, hard both to exercise and to enforce".
M'hen a State comes to this Court claiming a right against another
State, it must be a right which should be enforceable. It must be
a right which, if conceded by the Court, could be given effect to by
the defendant State. No Court would give judgment which could not
be carried out by the losing party. And the most surprising feature
of Portugal's claim in this case is that if she were to succeed in her

contentions, the judbment slie would obtain from this Court could
never be given effect to by India. If the Court were to declare that
Portugal has a right of transit over Indian territory from Daman to
the enclaves, it would be impossible for India to know what the
nature, extent or content of that right would be. Would Portugal
be entitled under this right to transport a whole army from Daman
to the enclaves in order to suppress the revolt ti-hich has taken place
there? Would she be able to transport tanks and artillery and al1
the paraphernalia of modern arms and armaments? Would she be
able to fly aeroplanes over Indian territory, in order to bomb the
enclaves in order to reduce them to subjection? Or would the right
be confined to transit facilities to be given to diplomatic envoys or
a small unit in order to maintain law and order in the enclaves?
These queries conclusively establish that Portugal has failed to

formulate any legal right which she can assert against India. It
is only by negotiations which may result in a treaty that the modali-
ties of a right of transit can be settled between India and Portugal.
But the Court cannot be called upon to draft a treaty between thesejamais la faculté de présenter une exception préliminaire sur cette
base. La Cour a nettement énoncé lesconditions à remplir pour que
l'exception ne soit pas retenue à un stade préliminaire, mais
qu'elle soit jointeà l'examen au fond. Le Portugal doit démon-
trer que les titres qu'il invoque justifient la conclusion provisoire
qu'ils ont une importance juridique pour la solution du différend
en droit international. (Voirl'énoncé classiquedu droit dans l'affaire
des Décretsde nationalitépromulguésen Tunisie et au Maroc, Série
B, no 4,p. 25.) Pour employer un langage plus simple, le Portugal
doit démontrer que sa revendication contient une cause d'action

soutenable selon le droit international. En d'autres termes, le Portu-
gal doit démontrer qu'une règlede droit international a pris la place
de la règle généralesuivant laquelle l'objet du différend qui relève
de la compétence nationale de l'Inde relève de son pouvoir dis-
crétionnaire.
Examinons maintenant l'objet du différend qui s'est élevéentre
le Portugal et l'Inde. Je ne vais pas examiner les différentes méta-
morphoses que la réclamation du Portugal a subies. Mais comme il a
étéfinalement indiqué à la Cour, ce qu'on revendique, c'est un droit
de transit entre Dan120 et les enclaves portugaises de DadrA et de
Nagar-Aveli pour maintenir les communications entre Dam20 et
les deux enclaves. La première chose surprenante au sujet de ce
prétendu droit est qu'il est entièrement indéfiniet vague, et, comme
le dit l'agent du Gouvernement indien, (sans définition ni
consistance, difficileà exercer et à exécuter 1).Lorsqu'un Etat
se présente devant la Cour pour revendiquer un droit contre un
autre Etat. il doit s'agir d'un droit susceptible de s'appliquer.

II doit s'agir d:un droit qui, si la Cour le reconnaît, pourra être
appliqué par 1'Etat défendeur. Une Cour ne peut rendre un arrêt
qui ne puisse êtreexécutépar la partie perdante, et le trait le plus
surprenant de la revendication du Portugal dans cette affaire est
que, si sa thèse était retenue, l'arrêt qu'il obtiendrait de la Cour
ne pourrait jamais êtreexécutépar l'Inde. Si la Cour déclarait que
le Portugal a un droit de transit sur le territoire indien entre Damào
et les enclaves, il serait impossible à l'Inde d'apprécier la nature,
l'étendue ou la teneur de ce droit. Le Portugal est-il fondé, aux
termes de ce droit, à transporter une armée tout entière de Dam20
aux enclaves Dour ré~rirner une révolte dans ces territoires?
Pourra-t-il trahsporterLdes tanks et de l'artillerie, ainsi que tout
ce qui se rapporte aux armes modernes et aux armements?
Pourra-t-il faire survoler par des avions le territoi~e indien pour
bombarder les enclaves afin de les soumettre? Ou le droit sera-t-il
limité au transit des fonctionnaires diplomatiques ou de petites
unités de troupes pour maintenir la légalité et l'ordre dans les

enclaves? Ces questions démontrent d'une façon concluante que
le Portugal n'a pas pu formuler un droit qu'il puisse faire valoir
contre l'Inde. C'est seulement au moien de négociations pouvant
conduire à un traité que les modalités d'un droit de transit peuvent176 RIÇHT OF PASSAGI? (L~ISS. OPIN. OF JUDGE ~11.4~1-:l)

two States. The Court can only pronounce upon an existing right,
and if the right claimed is so insubstantial as to be incapable of
being translated into soinething which is enforceable, the Court
must come to the conclusion that the right claimed is not a legal
right, much less a right recognized by international law or a right
with regard to which India's discretion is controlled by any inter-
national obligation. It seeins to me that on this ground alone
India's Preliminary Objection must be sustained. It would be a
slieer waste of time of this Court to join this issue to the merits
when at the end of it the Court would have to come to the con-
clusion that no effective declaration can be made in favour of
Portugal.

1 have already pointed out that it is an elementary principle of
international law that a State has exclusive competence within its
own territory. This principle was emphatically pronounced by
Chief Justice 3larshall in the Schoone~ Excltngzge case (1812, 7
Cranch 116) :"The jurisdiction of the nation within its own territory
is necessarily exclusive and absolute. It is susceptible of no limi-
tation not imposed by itself. Any restriction upon it, deriving
validity from an external source, would imply a diminution of its
sovereignty to the extent of the restriction, and an investment of
that sovereignty to the same extent in that power which could
impose sucli restriction. Al1 exceptions, therefore, to the full and
complete power of a nation within its own territories, must be
traced up to the consent of the nation itself. They can flow from no
other legitimate source." It is not suggested by Portugal that

India has ever given her consent to any limitation upon her terri-
torial sovereignty over the territory in question. Although in her
Memorial Portugal reliecl upon treaties between the Maratha rulers
and herself, this contention was given up or at least not pressed at
the hearing. As a matter of fact, the only treaty which deals with
this subject atal1is the Portuguese-Maratha Treaty of 1741 ,hich,
surprising as it may seem, provides expressly that soldiers of either
power are not to enter the territory of the other without permission.
If, therefore, India has not given her consent to any linlitation upon
her sovereignty, is there any other international obligation under-
taken by India independently of any treaty or her consent? 1 may
observe in passing that Portugal concedes that the right of transit
claimed by her, even though it may be without any immunity,
does constitute a limitation upon India's sovereignty.

An international obligation may arise through local custom. If
for a considerable period of time Portugal has been exercising this
right, then the right may be upheld by international law. But in
order that local custom should be established, it is not sufficient for
Portugal merely to state that for a long period she n~aintainedêtrerégléesentre l'Inde et le Portugal. Mais onne peut pas demander
à la Cour de rédigerun traité entre ces deux Etats. La Cour ne peut
statuer que sur un droit qui existe, et si le droit revendiqué a si
peu de substance qu'il est impossible de le rendre applicable, la
Cour doit décider que ce droit n'est pas juridicluernent reconnu
et est encore moins un droit reconnii par le droit international
ou un droit au sujet duquel le pouvoir discrétionnaire de 1'Incleest
subordonné a une obligation internationale. II me semble que, pour

ce seul motif, l'exception préliminaire de l'Inde doit êtreretenue.
La Cour perdrait purement et simplement son temps si elle joignait
l'exception au fond, car, en fin de compte, elle devra conclure
qu'une déclaration efficace en faveur du Portugal est inipossible.
J'ai déjà fait remarquer que c'est un principe fondamental du
droit international qu'un Etat exerce une conlpétence exclusive sur
son propre territoire. Ce principe a étéexposé avec force par le
Chief Justice Marshall dans l'affaire du Schvoner Exclzange (1812, 7
Cyanch 116 ):<La compétence de la nation sur son propre territoire
est nécessairenient exclusive et absolue. Elle n'est pas susceptible
de limitations qui ne lui soient imposées par elle-même. Toute
limitation tirant sa va.lidité d'une source extérieure impliquerait
une diminution de souveraineté dans la mesure de ladite limitation

et, dans la mêmemesure, un investissement de souveraineté aux
mains du pouvoir qui est à mêmede l'imposer. Par conséquent,
toute exception au pouvoir entier et conlplet d'une nation sur son
propre territoire doit procéder du consentement de la nation elle-
même. Elle ne saurait procéder d'aucune autre source légitime. ))
Le Portugal ne suggère pas que l'Inde ait jamais donnéson consen-
tement à une limitation quelconque de sa souveraineté territoriale
sur le territoire en question. Hien que dans son mémoire lc Portugal
se soit fondé sur des traités conclus entre les souverains mahrattes
et lui-même, ila renoncé à cette thèse ou di1moins il n'a pas insisté
sur ce point au cours de ses plaidoiries. En fait, le seul traité qui
mentionne cette question est le traité conclu entre les Portugais et
les Mahrattes en 1741 qui, si étonnant que cela soit, prévoit ex-

pressément que les soldats de l'une ou l'autre Puissance ile doivent
pas pénétrerdans le territoire de l'autreans la permission de celle-ci.
Donc, si l'Inde n'a pas donné son consentement à une limitation
quelconque de sa souveraineté, existe-t-il une autre obligation
internationale contractée par elle, indépendamment cle tout traité
ou de son consentenlent? Qu'il me soit permis d'observer en passant
que le Portugal admet que le droit de transit qu'il revendique,
quoique dépourvu d'immunité, constitue bien une limitation à la
souveraineté de l'Inde.
Une obligation internationale peut naître de la coutume locale.
Si le Portugal avait exercé ce droit pendant très longtemps, ce
droit pourrait exister en vertu du droit international. Mais pour

pouvoir démontrer l'existence du droit coutumier local, il ne suffit
pas au Portugal de dire simplement qu'il a depuis longtemps
55con~munications between Daman and the enclaves. She must go
further and establish that the transit facilities that she had were

enjoyed by her as a matter of right and not as a matter of grace or
concession on the part of the Indian Government. And if one thing
is clear beyond anything else from the record that we have before
us, it is that throughout the period in question-from 1818 when
the British appeared on the scene onwards-the facilities enjoyed
by Portugal with regard to communicating with her enclaves were
entirely at the discretion of theIndian Government and they were
granted to Portugal as a matter of grace and indulgence. The Indian
Government always reserved to itself the right to control the passage
or transit facilities and even, if occasion arose, torohibit it alto-
gether. We have instances where a complete embargo uras placed
by the Indian Gollernment on the carriage of certain goods. We
have instances where no less a person than the Consul-General of
Portugal reminded the Governor of Diu that authorization by the
British authoritieswas indispensable before any Portuguese troops
could cross British territory. Therefore,ndia is right lvhen she says

that a right of passage subject to be revoked in whole or in part by
somebody else is not a right at all. 1 think that Portugal realizes
the weakness of her case under this head and therefore what has
been really urged before us by Portugal is that this right which she
claims is warranted by general principles of international law. Gen-
eral principles of international law would be applicable if Portugal
establishes a general custom in contradistinction to a local custom
by which a State has the right to have access to enclaves by transit
facilities being given to her in order to maintain communications
between herself and her enclaves. Kow the only general custom
which is comparable to the question we have to consider which
international law recognizes is the right of innocent passage in
territorial seas and in maritime parts of international rivers, and
also immunity given to diplomatic representatives when they are
in transit bet~veen one State and another. No general custom has
ever been established permitting a State to have access to her
enclaves as of right. Portugal has relied on a learned study made

by Professor Bauer of other enclaves, but this studyonlysh~ws that
the right of passage either arises out of treaty or out of local custom
which is not applicable to ,the present case.

A principle of international law may also be imported from
municipal law where the principle in municipal law is universally
recognized and when that principle is not in conflict with any rule
of international law itself; and the strongest reliance is placed by
Portugal on the principle of municipal law which may be described
as an easement of necessity. It is said that when you have an owner

56maintenu ses communications entre Damâo et les enclaves. Il doit
faire plus: il doit démontrer qu'il avait bénéficiédes facilités de
transit en tant que droit et non en tant que faveur ou concession
de lapart du Gouvernement indien. S'ilestune chose plusclairement
établie que toute autre par l'examen des documents que nous avons

devant nous, c'est que, tout au long de la période en question -
à partir de 1818lorsque les Britanniques apparurent surla sckne -,
les facilités dont jouissait le Portugal pour communiquer avec ses
enclaves étaient entièrement subordonnées au pouvoir discrétion-
naire du Gouvernement indien et étaient accordées au Portugal à
titre de faveur et de com~laisance. Le Gouvernement indien s'est
toujours réservéle droit d'exercer un contrôle sur les facilités de
passage ou de transit et même, si l'occasion s'en présentait, de
les prohiber entièrement. Il y a des exemples où un embargo
total a étéproclamé par le Gouvernement indien sur le transport
de certaines marchandises. Il y a des exemples où une personne
de l'importance du consul généraldu Portugal a rappelé au gouver-
neur de Diu que l'autorisation des autorités britanniques était
indispensable pour que les troupes portugaises puissent traverser

le territoire britannique. C'est pourquoi l'Inde a raison lorsqu'elle
soutient qu'un droit de passage qui peut êtrerévoquéen totalité
ou en partie par quelqu'un d'autre ne constitue en aucune façon un
droit. Je pense que le Portugal se rend compte de la faiblesse de
sa thèse sur ce point, et c'est pourquoi ce qu'il a réellement fait
valoir, c'est que le droit qu'il revendique est justifié par les principes
généraux du droit international. Les principes générauxdu droit
international seraientapplicables sile Portugaldémontrait l'existence
d'une coutume générale,par opposition à une coutume locale, don-
nant le droit à un Etat d'avoir accèsà sesenclaves grâce à des facili-
tésde transit qui !ui sont accordées afin de maintenir les communi-
cations entre cet Etat et ses enclaves. Or la seule coutume d'ordre
général reconnue par le droit international qui soit comparable à la
question que nous examinons est le droit de passage innocent dans

les eaux territoriales et dans les parties maritimes des fleuves
internationaux, ainsi que l'immunité dont jouissent les diplomates
lorsqu'ils sont en transit d'un Etat à un autre. Il n'a jamais été
démontré qu'une coutume généralepermettant à un Etat d'avoir
accès à ses enclaves existât en tant que droit. Le Portugal s'est
fondésur une étudesavante faite par le professeur Bauer concernant
d'autres enclaves, mais cette étude prouve seulement que le droit
de passage ne résulte que d'un traité ou d'une coutume locale,
ce qui n'est pas applicable au cas actuel.
On peut aussi introduire en droit international un principe tiré
du droit interne lorsqu'il s'agit, en droit interne, d'un principe
universellement reconnu et si ce principe n'est pas en conflit avec
les règles du droit international lui-même; et c'est avec force que

le Portugal invoque le principe du droit interne que l'on peut
appeler une servitude nécessaire. On soutient que quand le fonds
56of land and his land is surrounded by the lands of other owners, the
former has a right of access to a public road. This right of access
arises out of necessity because but for this access the owner would
be landlocked and would not be able to get out of his land, and
therefore, in these circumstances, municipal law presupposes a

right of way in the first owner over the lands of other owners. In
my opinion, it would be extremely unsafe to draw an analogy
between the rights of an owner and the obligations of other owners
under municipal law and the rights and obligations of States under
international law. There can be no comparison between private
property and territorial sovereignty nor can there be any compar-
ison between a citizen and a sovereign State. A sovereign State can
pass any legislation affecting private property. It can compel the
owner of land to cede any right to neighbouring owners. But that
surely cannot be true of territorial sovereigns. Portugal cannot
compel India to cede any right to her nor can India be placed under
any obligation because Portugal is under a necessity to have
access to her enclaves. Further, such a rule would obviously be in
contradiction with the one undisputed well-established principle
of international law, namely, territorial sovereignty, and therefore

there is no scope for importing this principle of municipal law into
the domain of international law.

Even in municipal law parties may agree as to the nature and
extent of an easement, and if parties agree, then municipal law will
not presume an easement of necessity. In this case, the relations
between Portugal and the territorial sovereign of India clearly
demonstrate that the conditions of Portugal's Dassage or transit
over Indian territory were clearly settled aGd thise cozditions were
that Portugal had no right to a passage or transit but she could
only be afforded such facilities as the Indian Government, in its
absolute discretion, thought fit to concede. Therefore, Portugal
has failed to make out any case, let alone an arguable case, that
India's discretion with regard to this particular subject-matter,
which clearly falls within her owndomestic jurisdiction, is controlled
by any international obligation or that there is any rule of inter-

national law which takes this matter out of the reserved domain.
Under the circumstances, 1think that the Court should uphold this
Objection raised by India and should decide that there is no neces-
sity for further investigation of the facts and no useful purpose
would be served by joining this Objection to the hearing.

1 now come to the last and final Objection of India, which is
Objection Six. It is with regard to ratione temporis, and India's
contention is that the dispute brought before the Court arosed'un propriétaire terrien est entouré par des fonds appartenant à
d'autres propriétaires, le premier a le droit d'accéder à la voie
publique. Ce droit d'accès naît de la nécessité,car, sans lui, le
propriétaire serait enfermé dans ses terres et ne pourrait pas en
sortir. Pour ces raisons, dans ces circonstances, le droit interne
suppose l'existence d'un droit de passage en faveur du premier
propriétaire à travers les fonds des a~tres propriétaires. J'estime
qu'il est fort imprudent de chercher une analogie entre les droits
d'un propriétaire et les obligations d'autres propriétaires en droit
interne, et les droits et les obligations des États en droit internatio-
nal. Aucune comparaison n'est possible entre la propriété privée

et la souveraineté territoriale, ni entre un citoyen et un État
souverain. Un Etat souverain peut passer n'importe quelle loi
affectant la propriété privée. Il peut forcer le propriétaire terrien
à céder sondroit aux propriétaires voisins. Mais il n'en est certaine-
ment pas de mêmedes souverains temtoriaux. Le Portugal ne peut
forcer l'Inde à lui céderun droit, et l'Inde ne peut se trouverdans
l'obligation de le céder, pour le motif que le Portugal devrait, par
nécessité, avoir accès à ses enclaves. De plus, cette règle serait
nettement en contradiction avec le principe de droit international
incontesté et bien établi, à savoir: le principe de la souveraineté
territoriale. Pour cette raison, il n'y a pas lieu d'introduire ce
principe de droit interne dans le domaine du droit international.
Mêmeen droit interne, les parties peuvent se mettre d'accord
quant à la nature ou à l'étendue d'une servitude, et si les parties

sont d'accord, le droit interne ne présume pas une servitude
nécessaire.Dans le cas actuel, les relations entre le Portugal et le
souverain territorial de l'Inde démontrent nettement que les
conditions du passage ou du transit du Portugal sur le temtoire
indien étaient clairement établies. Selon ces conditions, le Portugal
n'avait pas le droit de passage ou detransit, et ne pouvait bénéficier
que des facilités que Ie Gouvernement indien, à son entière dis-
crétion, trouvait bon de lui accorder. Par conséquent, le Portugal
n'a pas réussiàprouver sa thèse - et moins encore àmontrer qu'elle
fût soutenable - selon laquelle le pouvoir discrétionnairede l'Inde,
qui relèvenettement de sa compétencenationale, serait soumis àune
obligation internationale ou à une règle de droit international en
vertu de laquelle la question ne relèverait plus du domaine réservé.

J'estime que, dans ces circonstances, la Cour devrait maintenir
cette exception soulevéepar l'Inde et décider qu'il n'est pas néces-
saire de continuer une enquêtesur les faits et qu'il ne servirait à
rien de joindre cette exception au fond.

Je vais examiner maintenant la sixième et dernière exception de
l'Inde. Elle se rapporte à la limitation ratio.ne temporis. L'Inde
soutient que le différendportédevant la Cour est néavant le 5 février

57179 RIGHT OF PASSAGE (DISS. OPIN. OF JUDGE CHAGLA)
prior to 5th February, 1930, with regard to situations or facts
prior to that date and that therefore the dispute is clearly excluded

from the competence of the Court by reason of her reservation
in her Declaration of 28th February, 1940. It is clear from the juris-
prudence of the Court that the only facts or situations which can
be considered for the purpose of this Objection are those facts or
situations which are the source or cause of the dispute. It is clear
to my mind that the source of the dispute is the divergence of
opinion between India and Portugal as to the legal implications
of what transpired from 1812 onwards. The divergence is not only
as to what happened in 1954. The divergence is as to the whole
concatenation of facts and situations relied on by Portugal for
asserting her right. Portugal says that India has acted contrary
to her obligation to allow right of passage to Portugal and the
breach of her obligation only took place in 1954, and therefore it
is irrelevant to consider for the purpose of this Objection any facts

or situations prior to 1954. This is clearly a fallacy. The obligation
of India itself is in dispute and according to Portugal herself the
obligation of India arises from facts and situations prior to 1930.
The question that the Court has to consider is not whether there
was any breach of Portugal's legal right by India in 1954. The
question is whether Portugal had any legal right at al1and Portugal
can only establish the legal right by a body of evidence from 1818
to 1954 which forms a single and continuous whole. This is not a
new dispute which Portugal seeks to bring before the Court. The
confict of views between the two Governments stretches back to
1818. It is a dispute as to the true result in law offactsandsituations
from 1818 onwards. In the Phosphates in Morocco case (P.C.I. J.,
Series A/B, No. 74, p. 24), the Court observed that the expression
"facts and situations" was wide enough to embrace al1the different

facts capable of giving rise to a dispute, and a situation would
include within its connotation not merely facts but also legaI
consequences resulting from a given set of facts. Again, in the
Phosphates in Moroccocase, dealing with the general object of the
limitation ratione temporis, it is stated (p. 24):" ..it was inserted
with the object of depriving the acceptance of the compulsory
jurisdiction of any retroactive effects, in order both to avoid, in
general, a revival of old disputes, and to preclude the possibility
of the submission to the Court by means of an application of situa-
tions or facts dating from a period when the State whose action
was impugned was not in a position to foresee the legal proceedings
to which these facts and situations might give rise". This obser-
vation in al1 its force applies to the present case. The Govemment
of India was not in a position to foresee the legal proceedings to

which the facts and situations from 1818 onwards might give rise.
And the whole object of India's limitation contained in her Declara-
tion is to prevent adjudication by the Court with regard to such DROIT DE PASSAGE (OP. DISS. DE M. CHAGLA)
179
1930 et se rapporte à des situations ou des faits antérieurs à cette
date et que, pour cette raison, le différendest nettement exclu de
la compétence de la Cour, à cause de la réserve de sa déclaration

du 28 février1940. Si on examine la jurisprudence de la Cou, il est
évident que les seuls faits et situations dont on puisse tenir compte,
aux fins de cette exception, sont les faits ou situations qui sont la
source ou la cause du différend. A mes yeux, il est clair que la source
du différendest la divergence d'opinion entre l'Inde et le Portugal
quant aux conséquencesjuridiques de ce qui s'est produit à partir
de 1812. La divergence ne se rapporte pas seulement à ce qui est
arrivé en 1954: elle couvre tout l'enchaînement des faits et des
situations invoqués par le Portugal pour affirmer son droit. Le

Portugal prétend que l'Inde a agi en violation de son obligation de
permettre le droit de passage au Portugal et que cette infraction
n'a eu lieu qu'en 1954; c'est pourquoi il serait,inutile d'examiner,
aux fins de cette exception, toiis les faits ou toutes les situations
antérieurs à 1954. Ce raisonnement est certainement faux. L'obli-
gation mêmede l'Inde est contestée, et, selon le Portugal lui-mgme,
l'obligation de l'Inde naît de faits et de situations antérieurs à 1930.
Ida question que la Cour doit examiner n'est pas celle de savoir s'il

y a eu, en 1954,infraction par l'Inde au droit juridique du Portugal.
La question à examiner est celle de savoir si le Portugal avait un
droit quelconque, et le Portugal ne peut démontrer l'existence d'un
droit que par un ensemble de preuves qui se situe entre 1818 et 1954
et forme un tout continu. Cen'est pas là un nouveau différend quele
Portugal essaie de soumettreà la Cour. Le conflit d'opinions existant
entre les deux Gouvernements remonte à 1818. C'est un différend
concernant le véritable résultat en droit de faits et de situations
qui se sont produits depuis 1818. Dans l'affaire des Phosphates dzi

Maroc (C.P. J. I., SérieA/B, no 74, p. 24), la Cour a observé que
l'expression ((faits et situations )était assez large pour embrasser
tous les différents faits susceptibles de donner naissance à un diffé-
rend, et que le sens du terme (situation )comprendrait non seule-
ment les faits mais aussi les conséquencesjuridiques résultant d'une
série de faits donnés. Toujours dans l'affaire des Phosphates du
Maroc, la Cour, en parlant de l'objet généralde la limitation ratiolze
temporis, a déclaré: (( ...en la formulant, on a entendu enlever à

l'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire tout effet rétroactif, soit
pour éviter de façon générale deréveiller des griefs anciens, soit
pour exclure la possibilité de voir déférép sar requête à la Cour des
situations ou des faits qui remontent à une époqueoù 1'Etat mis en
cause ne serait pas à mêmede prévoir le recours dont pourraient
êtrel'objet ces faits et situations1)(p.24). Cette observation s'appli-
que à la présente espèceavec toute sa force. Le Gouvernement de
l'Inde ne pouvait pas prévoir les procédures juridiques auxquelles
les faits et situations survenus depuis 1818 pourraient donner lieu.

Le seul but de la limitation de l'Inde contenue dans sa déclarationest d'empêcher la Cour de statuer sur de tels faits et situations.
J'estime qu'iln'existe pas de réponseàla sixièmeexceptionde l'Inde.
J'aimerais faire une observation d'ordre général relative à la
question de la juridiction de la Cour. Il a été soutenu qu'un bon
juge élargitsa compétence.Cette affirmation peut êtrevraie lorsqu'il

s'agit d'un juge dans un tribunal régipar le droit interne; elle ne
l'est certainement pas de la Cour internationale. La, base même
de la juridiction de cette dernière est la volonté de'Etat, et cette
volonté doit clairement démontrer que celui-ci a accepté la juridic-
tion de la Cour à l'égard'detout différendou de toute catégorie de
différends.Pour cette raison, tandis qu'un tribunal de droit interne
peut interpréter libéralement les dispositions juridiques lui confé-
rant compétence, la Cour internationale, au contraire, doit inter-
préter strictement les dispositions du Statut et du Règlemenf et
les instruments signés par les Etats, afin de déterminer si 1'Etat
qui a soulevéune exception à sa compétence l'a, en fait, acceptée.
Pour ces raisons, je serais d'avis de débouter le Portugal de sa
demande pour le motif que la Cour est incompétente pour en
connaître.

(SignéM ,!. C. CHAGIA.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Chagla

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