Dissenting Opinion of Judge Alvarez (translation)

Document Number
016-19520722-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
016-19520722-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ
[Translation]

1

Nature o,ithe disfiute

The case now before the Court has given rise to long discussions,
both in the written proceedings and in the oral arguments. Al1the
legal questions relating to jurisdiction involved in the dispute have
not, however, in my opinion, been fully brought out.
There are four important questions which have to be considered
by the Court :
(1) What is the scope of the Declaration by which Iran accepted

the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2,of the Statute of the Court,
or rather, how is this Declaration to be construed ?
(2) 1s the nationalization by Iran of the oil industry, which
directly affected the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, a measure solely
within the reserveddomain of Iran, and thus outside the jurisdiction
of the Court ?
(3) What is the nature of the United Kingdom Government's
intervention in this case ?
(4) What is the scope of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute
of the Court ? 1s the Court competent to deal with questions other
than those expressly specified in the said article ?

1shall follow the scheme of my previous individual and dissenting
opinions, and consider the questions indicated above from the point
of view of the law, after which 1 shall apply the law to the facts of
the present dispute.
One preliminary observation of cardinal importance must be
made in this connection. As a result of the profound and sudden
transformations which have recently occurred in the life of peoples,
it is necessary to consider in respect of the above questions, first
the way they have been settled until recent times, that is to Say,
in accordance with classical international law, and secondly, how
they are settled to-day, that is to Say, in accordance with the new

international Law.
There is a fundamental difference between the two. Classicalinter-
national law was static, it scarcely altered at all, because the life of
peoples was subject to few changes ;moreover, it was based on the
indiviriualisfic regime. The new international law is dynamic; it is
subject to constant and rapid transformations in accordance with
the new conditions of international life which it must ever reflect.
This law, therefore, has not the character of quasi-immutability ;it
is co~istantly heing created. Moreover, it is based upon the reginze

35 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ 125

of interdependencewhich has arisen and which has brought into being
the Lawof socialinterdependence,the outcome of the revitalized juri-
dical conscience, which accords an important place to the general
interest. This issocialjztstice.This law is not, therefore, mere specu-
lation ; nor is it the ideal law of the future, but it is a reality ;it is
in conformity with the spirit of the Charter as it appears from the
Preamble and from Chapter 1 thereof.

The Court must not apply classical international law, but rather
the law which it considers exists at the time the judgment is deli-
vered, havi~igdue regard to the modifications itmay have undergone
following the changes in the life of peoples ;in other words, the Court
must apply the new international Law.

Scope of the Declaration by which Iran acceptedthe provisions of
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statz~teof the Court

It was this question which gave rise to the most lengthy argu-
ment. The Parties resorted to arguments of al1 kinds, especially to
arguments based on the rules of grammar. The question whether
Iran's Declaration of adherence was unilateral or bilateral in char-

acter was also argued. 1 shall not dwell long upon this latter point ;
the Declaration is a multilateral act of a special character ;it is the
basis of a treaty made by Iran with the States which had already
adhered and with those which would subsequently adhere to the
provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court.
The Iranian Declaration of adherence should not be coristrüed by
the methods hitherto employed for the interpretation of unilateral
instruments, conventions and legal texts, but by methods more in
accordance with the new conditions of international life.
The traditional methods of interpretation may be summarized
by the following points :

(1) It is considered that the texts have an everlasting and
fixed character as long as they have not been expressly abrogated.
(2) Strict respect for the letter of the legal or coilventional
texts.
(3) Examination of these texts, considered by themselves
without regard to their relations with the institution or convention

as a whole.
(4) Recourse to travaz~xpréparatoiresin case of doubt as to
the scope of these texts.
(5) Use, in reasoning, of out-and-out logic, almost as in the
case of problems of mathematics or philosophy.

(6) Application of legal concepts or doctrines of the law of
mations as traditionally conceived.

36 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ 126

(7)Application of the decisions of the present International
Court, or of the earlier Court, in similar cases which arise, without
regard to the question whether the law so laid down must be
modified by reason of the new conditions of international life.

(8) Disregard for the social or international consequences
which may result from the construction applied.

Some form of reaction is necessary against these postulates
because they have had their day.
In the first place the legal or conventional texts must be modified
and even regarded as abrogated if the new conditions of intcr-
national life or of States which participated in the establishment
of those texts, have undergone profound change.
Then it is necessary to avoid slavish adherence to the literal
meaning of legal or conventional texts ;those who drafted them
did not do so with a grammar and a dictionary in front of them ;
very often, they used vague or inadequate expressions. The
important point is, therefore, to have regard above al1to the s$irit
of such documents, to the intention of the parties in the case
of a treaty, as they emerge from the institution or convention as a

whole, and indeed from the new requirements of international life.
Recourse should only be had to travaux préparatoireswhen it
is necessary to discover the will of the parties with regard to
matters which affect their interests alone. A legal institution, a
convention, once established, acquires a life of its own and evolves
not in accordance with the ideas or the will of those who drafted
its provisions, but in accordance with the changing conditions
of the life of peoples.
A single example will suffice to show the correctness of this
assertion. Let us assume that in a commercial convention there
is a stipulation that al1 questions relating to maritime trade are
to be governed by the principles of international law in force.
These principles may have been followed by the parties for a
century, perhaps, without any disputes arising between them ;

but one of the parties may, at the present time, by reason of
the changes which have recently taken place in such matters,
come to Court to claim that the century-old practice hitherto
followed should be changed on the ground that it must be held
that the will of the parties is no longer the same as it was at the
time when the convention was signed. This is in many ways
similar to the rebus sic stantibus clause which is so well knolvn
in the law of nations.
It is, moreover, to be observed that out-and-out reliance upon
the rules of logic is not the best method of interpretation of legal
or conventional texts, for international iifeis not based on logic ;
States follow, above all, their ou7n interests alid feelings in their
relations with one another. Reason, pushed to extremes, may
easily result in absurdity. DISSENTING OPINION OF J UDGE ALVAREZ 127
It is also necessary to bear in mind the fact that certain
fundamental legal conceptions have changed and that certain
institutions and certain problems are not everywhere understood

in the same way : democracy is differently understood in Europe
and in America, and in the countries of the Eastern group and
those of the Western group in Europe ;the institution of asylum
is not understood in the same way and is not governed by the
same rules in Europe and in Latin America ; the Polar question,
particularly in the Antarctic, is not looked at in the same way
in America as on other continents, and so forth.
Finally, it is necessary to take into consideration the conse-
quences of the interpretation decided upon in order to avoid
anomalies.
Applying the foregoing considerations to the determination of
the scope of Iran's adherence to the provisions of Article 36, para-

graph 2, of the Statute of the Court, this adherence must be inter-
preted as giving the Court jurisdiction to deal with the present
case. The scope of this adherence is not to be restricted by giving
too great an importance to certain grammatical or secondary
considerations. Justice must not be based upon subfleties but upon
realities.
1 shall not dwell on this point, because 1 think it is necessary to
consider other elements, perhaps more important than the will of
the Parties, in order to decide as to the Court% jurisdiction, as will
subsequently be seen.

III

Iran's nationalization of the oil indzrsiry and the "reserved
domain" of that State
The Iranian Government, in its "Observations prhliminaires",

filed on February 4th, 1952, expressly asserted that the nationali-
zation of the oil industry which it had put into effect was a measure
exclusively within its reserveddomain and that the Court therefore
had no jurisdiction to deal with this case.

It is necessary in the first place briefly to examine the nature of
the resevveddomnin, its origin and its present state.
This domain was established by classical internatioilal law as a
natural consequence of the individualistic regimeand of the absolute
sovereignty of States upon which this law was founded.
This reserved domain covered a very wide field. In particular,
States could, without regard to the will or the interests of other

States, do. the following :
(a) Every State could set up the interna1 political organization
which it considered the most suitable \vithout being accountable
to anybody.

38 DISSENTING OPINION OF J UDGE ALVAREZ 128

(b) It could enact such laws as it considered necessary, even if
these were contrary to international law, and its courts were required
to apply only these laws.
(c) It could freely determine who were its nationals.

(d) It could, in entire freedom, determine the civil rights of its
nationals and those of foreigners residing on its territory, oftcn
differentiating in important respects between these two categories.

(e) Foreigners were in al1respects subject to the authority of the

State in which they resided and had no redress even if they were
prejudiced as the result of the action of that State.

(f) Each State could, by virtue of what was called its domaine
éminent, make such use as it desired of the natural resources of its
territory, which might or might not be the subject of exploitation
concessions to private perçons and which might be reclaimed hy
the State if it so desired.
(g) It could freely exercise its sovereign rights over the whole
extent of its territory, free from any obligation towards other
States or towards the international community. It could, in parti-
cular, take or refrain from taking the measures necessary to ensure
internal order, carry out surveillance of its coasts, facilitate naviga-
tion, etc.

(h) Each State could, as it pleased, conclude treaties with other
States without any means existing for their modification or abroga-
tion.

From the middle of the 19th century, as the result of the appear-
ance of important factors which had not previously existed, the
traditional individz~alistic regime of the absolute sovereignty of
States began to give place to a new regime, that of interdependence,
which gave rise, as 1have said, to the lazetof social interdependence.
This resulted in the beginning of the total or partial internation-
alization of al1 the matters referred to above as within the reservtd
domain. It is now admitted that a State which. in the exercise of
its sovereignty, causes damage to another State, must indemnify

that other State. Moreover. the conce~t of abus du droit. of which 1
shall have more to Say later, is beginning to be introtluced irito
international law. As a result of these various factors. the reservecl
domain of States has been modified and considerably reducecl ;
in many cases it is possible to present a claim against a State
relating to matters which it ,?llegesto be within its reserved domain.
1 shall merely give one example : although it is true that every
Statemay establish the internal organization wliich it chooses, this
organization must iievertheless be such that the State can fulfil its
international obligations ; if the State does not do so, it canriot bt.
admitted as a Member of the Cniteù Sations or it may be expelled DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ 129

from the United Nations (Articles 4 and 6 of the Charter) and, in
any event, if by reason of defects in its interna1 organization it
causes injury to another State, it is under an obligation to com-
pensate that State.
IV

Nature of the intervention by the United Kiqdom Governmenfin
the present case.
This point is of cardinal importance.

The United Kingdom Government applied to the Court on
May 26th, 1951, in order to protect the interests of the Anglo-
Iranian Oil Company, an English Company, on the ground that
Iran, by nationalizing the oil industry, had violated the rights of
that Company, rights derived, in particular, from the Concession
Agreement of 1933 concluded between the Company and Iran.
The cnited Kingdom Government is therefore not appearing in
this case in defence of its own interests, but to protect the interests
of itsnationals, which is a very different matter.
In accordance with the international law in force, a State may
formulate a claim against another State in three cases :

ln) When one of its rights has been violated by that State.
(b) To protect the rights of its nationals if these rights have been
disregarded or violated by that State.
(c) To defend the rights of a State which has entrusted it with
this defence because it cannot directly undertake its own defence,
for instance, if it has broken off diplomatic relationswith the State
%-hichhas violated its rights.
The position of the claimant State is quite different in each of the
three cases.

In the first case, thats to Say, where the State is acting in defence
of itç own interests, attention must be confined to the agreements
which have been concluded between the two States.
In the second case, the claimant State acts in virtue of a right
conferred by the law of nations and universally recognized in
practice, the right of diplomatic protection of its nationals. In
accordance with this law, the action of the claimant State cannot
be met by ariy of the arguments that couId be raised against it if
it nere acting on its own behalf :the only objections which can be
raised to such a claim are those which are based upon international
law or which result from the nature of the right which the ciaimant
relies on.
No difficultyarises in respect of the third case. The Sta'ceagainst
which the claim is made can, as against a State accing on behalf of
the claimant State, rely only upon conventions or agreements
concluded between the last-named State and itself.

It must be pointed out as regards diplomatic protection that,
according to the new international law, it may assume thrce different
40 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ
I3O
forms which depend upon the organ before which that protection is
exercised :(a) direct protection or claim against a State ; (b) protec-
tion before the Security Council of the United Nations ;(c) protec-
tion before the International Court of Justice.
These three aspects of diplomatic protection will disappear or

will undergo changes when the new international law clearly estab-
lishes the international rights of the individual, i.e. those rights
which he will be entitled to invoke directly against a State without
resorting to the diplomatic protection of the country of which he is
a national.

What is the scope of Article 36, paragraph 2, O/ the Statute of the
Court ? Is the Court competent to deal with matters otlzerthan those
specifically indicatedil1tli.at Articl?

These questions,in my opinion, constitute the crucialpoint of the
present case.
The arguments which we have heard proceeded from the basis,
which was regarded as indisputable, that the Court's jurisdiction
is determined solely by Article 36, paragraphs I and 2, of its Statute
and that it is consequently derived almost entirely from the consent
of the Parties. This explains the long arguments as to the scope of
Iran's adherence to the provisions of that Article.
This view is incorrect.
It should be pointed out, in the first place, that Articles 36
and 38 of the Statute of the Court, in Chapter II relating to the

competence of the Court, are very defective. Article 38, which
reproduces Article 38 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of
International Justice, has long been the subject of strong criticism,
of which no account was taken at the San Francisco Conference
when that Article was revised. It is therefore for the International
Court of Justice to determine its true scope. The same must be
said of Article 36.
That article, Article 36, refers to disputes which may arise
between States ; these relate to rights flowing from agreements
concluded between these States or from rules established by
international law with regard to given questions (land domain,

maritime domain, etc.). What are involved therefore are disputes
ordinarily relating to instruments to which two or more States
are parties.
But in addition to such rights there are others,directly established
by international law, which have not been sufficiently brought out
in the present case to determine the Court's jurisdiction. These
rights do not result from the will of States or from other juridical
acts, but from the revitalized conscience of the people which
takes account of the çeneral intcrest. These rights do iiot create

4 1 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ I3I

direct obligations between States ; their existence may not give
rise to discussion but must be protected in the event of their
violation.
Among these rights, it is necessary to mention in particular
those which are said to be fundamental ri"hts of States (the
right to independence, to sovereignty, to equality, etc.), as well
as certain other rights conferred by the law of nations, such as
that of the protection of nationals, the right to be indemnified

for injuries, and so forth.
Article 36 of the Statute of the Court does not refer to the
rights falling within this second category, for they do not give
rise to disputes and, perhaps for this reason, no thought \vas
given to them. But Article 36 does not exclude them from the
Court's jurisdiction ; if this had been the intention, it u~ould
have been stated expressly.
How then is this gap to be filled, or in short, how is the Court's
jurisdiction with regard to this second category of rights to be
determined ? In order to do this, it is necessary to have recourse
to the spirit of the Charter of the United Nations, of which the
Statute of the Court forms an integral part (Article 92 of the
Charter), and to the general principles of the law of nations. It

is moreover necessary to have regard to the international conse-
quences which might result from a restrictive interpretation of
A4rticle 36.
The Charter seeks to add to the prestige of the law of nations,
as appears from the Preamble, paragraph 3, from Article 1,
paragraph 1, of Chapter 1, from Article 2, paragraph 3, as well
as from Article 13 (a) and from Articles 36 and 38. International
law and the International Court of Justice are, at the present
time, closely linked together : it is impossible to conccive of an
international Court which does not apply the law of nations,
or of this law without a Court to apply it.
In accordance with the spirit of the Charter, and with the
general principles of international law, al1 the rights 01 States

miist bc fully recognized and protected and the conflicts to which
they may give rise must be settled by peaceful means.
There is a fundamental difference between classical international
law and thc new international law with regard to the means
available to States to assert the two categories of rights indicated
above.
Under classical international law, disputes between States
arising from conventions or facts g&ing ;ise to legal relations,
or from rules established by the law of nations on given matters,
had to be settled by means freely chosen by the parties ; but
if the parties could not agree as to these means, the dispute
remained unresolved and consequently the stronger State coiild
to some extent impose its u-il1 upon the weaker. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ 132

The same is true with regard to the exerciseof a right expressly
recognized by the law of nations, that is to say those rights which
fa11within the second category referred to above. Here again, if
some peaceful settlement is not reached, a strong State can impose
its will upon a weak State ;and if the latter be the claimant, its
right remains of no practical value.
In the new international law the matter is wholly different. In
accordance with this law, and in particular with the spirit of the
Charter, al1 disputes between States must be resolved by peaceful
means, and al1the rights recognized by the law of nations must be
respected and must have a sanction.
To this end, the Charter created an international organization
comprising, among other organs, the Security Council and the

International Court of Justice.
If the Statute of the Court were intended to limit the powers of
the Court solely to the solution of disputes relating to rights of the
first category referred to above, it would, as 1 have said, have
expressly so provided. The Court then would be, in effect, a mere
international court of arbitration. It would have been better, in
these circumstances, to have confirmed the Permanent Court of
Arbitration set up in 1899, which has the advantage of being
composed of judges selected in each case by the parties themselves.
But the present Court is, according to its Statute, a Court of justice
and, as such, and by virtue of the dynamism of international life,
it has a double task : to declare the law and develop the law. Its
first task includes the settlement of disputes between States as well
as the protection of the rights of those States as recognized by the
law of nations. As regards the Court's second task, namely, the
development of law, it consists of deciding the existing law, modify-
ing it and even creating new precepts, should this be necessary.
This second mission is justified by the great dynamism of inter-

national life. The Third Session of the General Assembly of the
United Nations has recognized the Court's rights to develop inter-
national law in its Resolution No. 171. The Institute of Inter-
national Law has on its side in the recently held Session at Siena
expressly recognized this right of the Court. In creating a commis-
sion, the Institute unanimously adopted the following Resolution :
[Translation] "The Institute of International Law, keenly aware
of the growing importance of the International Court of Justice
and of its rôle in the development of international law...." In
discharging this task the Court must not proceed in an arbitrary
maiiner, but must seek inspiration in the great principles of the
new international law.
With regard to the protection of these rights, it is unnecessary
to ascertain whether the complainant or the State against which
the claim is made has or has not accepted the jurisdiction of the
Court, or whether it is or is not a Member of the United Nations.
Every State in the world is to-day a member of the international

43 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ
I33
community, or rather, of the international society ; al1 are subject
to the law of nations and have the rights and obligations laid down
by that law. It is impossible to suppose that a State not a Member
of the United Nations, or one which has not accepted the juris-
diction of the Court, should be able to violate the rights of other

Statesand that it should not be possible to bring it before the Court ;
or, conversely, that a State which is a Rfember of the United
Nations should be able so to act with regard to a non-member
State.
The Court, in its Advisory Opinion of April t th, 1949, on
"Reparations for Injuries suffered in the Service of the Unitecl
Nations" expressly adopted the above-mentioned point of view.
It held that "in the event of an'agent of the United Nations in the
performance of his duties suffering injury in circumstances involv-
ing the responsibility of a State which is not a member, the United
Nations, as an Organization, has the capacity to bring an inter-
national claim against the responsible dejz~reor defactogovernmeilt
with a view to obtaining the reparation duein respect of the damage
caused to the United Nations".

It must be noted that in that Opinion, the Court actually created
the law.
The State responsible may therefore be brought before the Court
without its being necessary to inquire whether it has or has not
accepted the jurisdiction of the Court or whether it has adhered to
the provisions of Article 36 (2) of its Statute.
If the United Nations brought before the Court a claim against
a State on the grounds above referred to, could it be possible for
the Court to reject the claim brought by this Organization, on the
basis of Article 34 (1) of the Statute, which provides that : "only
Statesmay be parties in cases before the Court", and on the grouiid
that the United Nations are not a State ?This would be nonsense.
It should be pointed out too, with regard to rights of the second
category above referred to, that the new international 1aw has

reinforced and amplified the rights which already existed and it
has recognized or conferred others which are of great importance
and which have no existence in classical international law. 1 shall
mention but three, because they are closely linked with the sub-
stance of the present dispute : that of the protection of nationais,
which is reinforced, that resulting from a denial O!jz~stict:and that
resiilting from an abus dz~droit. This last concept, which is relatively
new in municipallaw (it finds a place in the Civil Codes of Germany
and Switzerland) is finding its way into international law and
the Court will have to give it forma1 recoonition at the appropriate
time.
Efforts are moreover being made at the present time to establish
a universal declaration of the rights of the individual, and in order
to give these rights protection on an international level, it is sought

to create a special Court. It is clear that it will be enough for the
44 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ I34
State concerned to present itself before that Court or, failing that,
before the International Court of Justice for it to obtain satis-

faction.
Lastly, if the Court should hold that it lacks jurisdiction when-
ever rights of the second category of which 1 have spoken are
concerned, very important cases might occur in which such a hold-
ing of lack of jurisdiction would cause disappointment and would
considerably damage the prestige of this tribunal.
In conclusion, the Court should interpret and even develop
Article 36 of its Statute in the sense indicated above.
In conclusion, 1 shall merely indicate briefly certain other obser-
vations with regard to the jurisdiction of the Court for the purpose
of completing what may be called a general theory of the Court's
competence.
(1)The Court is competent to give an opinion on al1 questions

submitted to it by the Security Council or the Assembly of the
United Nations. Its jurisdiction results from the fact that the Court
is one of the organs of the United Nations (Article 7 of the Charter).
(2) Many international relations have at the present tiine a poli-
tical as well as a juridical aspect;this was recognized by the Court
in its Advisory Opinion of May 28th, 1948. In such cases, the Court
must consider both these aspects of cases submitted to it.

(3) It may happen that a dispute has entirely separate juridical
and political aspects. In such a case, the Court is competent to deal
with the juridical aspect and the Security Council is competent to
deal with the political aspect.

(4) If a case submitted to the Court should constitute a threat to
world peace, the Security Council may seise itself of the case and
put an end to the Court's jurisdiction. The competence of the
Council results from the nature of the international organization
established by the Charter, and from the powers of the Council.

The following conclusions result from the legal consideratioils
which 1 have set out, in the case now before the Court :

(1) The Court has jurisdiction to deal with the claiin preseiited
against Iran by the United Kingdom by reason of the Iraniail
Declaration of adherence to the provisions of Article 36, para-
graph 2, of the Statute of the Court.
(2) The Court has jurisdiction, in particular, because the United
Kingdom is not acting in the present case in defence of its owii
interests, but to protect the interests of one of its nationals, the
Anglo-lranian Oil Company.

45 DISSENTIXG OPINIOS OF JUDGE ALVAREZ I3.5
Since the United Kingdom is exercising this right of protection,
it cannot be met with arguments as to the scope of the Iranian
Declaration of adherence to the provisions of Article 36, para-

graph 2, of the Statute of the Court, because what is involved is
not a dispute between these two countries, but the exercise of a
right recognized by the law of nations.
(3) In view of the nature of the reserved domain at the present
day, the Court's jurisdiction cannot be limited by the Iranianconten-
tions with regard to this domain.
(4) The Court has a very wide jurisdiction for the protection of
rights directly conferred upon States by international law (those
relating to the protection of nationals, to reparation for injury
unjustly suffered, to denials of justice, to absrsdzt droit, etc.). Its

jurisdiction in this connection cannot be limited by the non-
adherence of the State against whom the claim is made to the provi-
sions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court.
The exercise of some of these rights may constitute the merits of
the dispute between the United Kingdom and Iran.

(Signed) A. AI~VAREZ.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

Natz~redu litige
L'affaire actuellement soumise à la Cour a donnélieu à de longues
discussions tant dans les écritures des Parties que dans les débats

oraux. Malgrécela, on n'a pas élucidédûment, à mon avis, tous les
points de droit relatifs àla compétence que comporte ce différend.
Il y a quatre grandes questions qui doivent retenir l'attention de
la Cour :
I" Quelle est la portée de la déclaration d'adhésion de l'Iran à
la clause de l'article 36, 2, du Statut de la Cour, ou plutôt, com-
ment interpréter cette déclaration ?
z0 La nationalisation de l'industrie du pétrole par l'Iran et qui
a affecté directement 1'Anglo-Iranian Oil Company est-elle une
mesure qui relève uniquement du domaine réservéde l'Iran et

échappe, par suite, à la compétence de la.Cour ?
3OQuel est le caractère de l'intervention du Gouvernement du
Royaume-Uni dans cette affaire ?
4OQuelle est la portée de l'article 36, n2, du Statut de la Cour ?
Celle-ci est-elle compétente pour connaître d'autres matières que
celles indiquées expressément dans ledit article ?
En suivant la méthode que j'ai employée dans mes précédentes
.opinions individuelles ou dissidentes,je vais examiner les matières
ci-dessus indiquées, au point de vue du droit, pour l'appliquer

ensuite aux cas concrets du différend.
Et d'abord, une remarque capitale s'impose à cet égard. Par
suite des transformations profondes et soudaines survenues der-
nièrement dans la vie des peuples, il convient de considérer dans
les matières ci-dessus, d'abord comrnent elles ont été,réglées
jusqu'à ces derniers temps, c'est-à-dire d'après le droit international
classique, puis comment elles le sont actuellement, c'est-à-dire
d'après le droit international nouveau.

Une différence fondamentale existe entre ces deux droits. Le
droit international classiqueétait statique, ne changeait presque pas
parce que la vie des peuples subissait très peu de modifications ;
en outre, il était fondé sur le régimeindividualiste. Le droit inter-
national nouveazt est dynamique ;il se transforme constamment et
rapidement en conformité avec les nouvelles conditions de la vie
internationale qu'il doit toujours refléter. Ce droit n'a donc pas
un caractère de quasi-immuabilité ; il est une création continue.

35 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ
[Translation]

1

Nature o,ithe disfiute

The case now before the Court has given rise to long discussions,
both in the written proceedings and in the oral arguments. Al1the
legal questions relating to jurisdiction involved in the dispute have
not, however, in my opinion, been fully brought out.
There are four important questions which have to be considered
by the Court :
(1) What is the scope of the Declaration by which Iran accepted

the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2,of the Statute of the Court,
or rather, how is this Declaration to be construed ?
(2) 1s the nationalization by Iran of the oil industry, which
directly affected the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, a measure solely
within the reserveddomain of Iran, and thus outside the jurisdiction
of the Court ?
(3) What is the nature of the United Kingdom Government's
intervention in this case ?
(4) What is the scope of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute
of the Court ? 1s the Court competent to deal with questions other
than those expressly specified in the said article ?

1shall follow the scheme of my previous individual and dissenting
opinions, and consider the questions indicated above from the point
of view of the law, after which 1 shall apply the law to the facts of
the present dispute.
One preliminary observation of cardinal importance must be
made in this connection. As a result of the profound and sudden
transformations which have recently occurred in the life of peoples,
it is necessary to consider in respect of the above questions, first
the way they have been settled until recent times, that is to Say,
in accordance with classical international law, and secondly, how
they are settled to-day, that is to Say, in accordance with the new

international Law.
There is a fundamental difference between the two. Classicalinter-
national law was static, it scarcely altered at all, because the life of
peoples was subject to few changes ;moreover, it was based on the
indiviriualisfic regime. The new international law is dynamic; it is
subject to constant and rapid transformations in accordance with
the new conditions of international life which it must ever reflect.
This law, therefore, has not the character of quasi-immutability ;it
is co~istantly heing created. Moreover, it is based upon the reginze

35IZ5 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

En outre, il est fondé sur le régime d'interdépendancq eui s'est fait
jour et qui a donné naissance au droit d'interdépendancesociale,
fruit de la conscience juridique renouvelée, qui fait une large place
rii'intérêtgénéral :c'est la justice sociale.Ce droit n'est donc pas une
pure spéculation; il n'est pas, non plus, le droit idéal, de l'avenir,
mais une réalité ; il est conforme à l'esprit de la Charte tel qu'il
ressort du préambule et du chapitre premier de celle-ci.
La Cour doit appliquer non pas le droit international classique,

mais le droit tel qu'elle estime qu'il existe au moment de rendre sa
sentence, en tenant compte des modifications qu'il a pu subir par
suite des changements survenus dans la vie des peuples ; c'est-à-dire
elle doit appliquer le droit international nouveau.

Portéede la déclarationd'adhésionde l'Iran à la claz~sede d'ar-
ticle 36,no 2, d~tStatut de ln Cozir

C'est cette question qui a étéle plus longuement discutée. 1-es
Parties ont eu recours à des arguments de toutes sortes, surtout
de caractère grammatical. On a recherché, aussi, si la déclaration
d'adhésion faite par l'Iran avait un caractère unilatéral ou bilatéral.
Je ne m'attarderai pas sur ce dernier point: ladite déclaration est
un acte plurilatéral de caractère,spécial ; elle est la base d'un
traité que l'Iran a passé avec les Etats qui avaient déjà donné, et

avec ceux qui donneront par la suite, leur adhésion à la clause de
l'article36, no 2,du Statut de la Cour.
La déclaration d'adhésion de l'Iran ne doit pas être interprétée
avec les procédés qu'on a employés jusqu'ici pour les actes uni-
latéraux, les conventions et les textes légaux, mais avec d'autres
plus conformes aux nouvelles conditions de la vie internationale.
Les procédés traditionnels d'interprétation se résument dans
les points suivants :

I" On considère que les textes présentent un caractère de péren-
nité et de fixité tant qu'ils n'ont pas étéexpressément abrogés.
2" Respect rigoureux des textes légaux ou conventionnels en les
prenant à la lettre.
3' Examen de ces textes pris isolément, c'est-à-dire sans rapport
avec l'ensemble de l'institution ou de la convention.

4' Recours aux travaux préparatoires en cas de doute sur la
portée desdits textes.
j0 Emploi, dans l'argumentation, de la logique à outrance, pres-
que comme on le fait pour les problèmes de mathématiques ou de

philosophie.
6" Application des notions juridiques ou des préceptes du droit
des gens tels qu'ils ont étéconçus traditionnellement.
36 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ 125

of interdependencewhich has arisen and which has brought into being
the Lawof socialinterdependence,the outcome of the revitalized juri-
dical conscience, which accords an important place to the general
interest. This issocialjztstice.This law is not, therefore, mere specu-
lation ; nor is it the ideal law of the future, but it is a reality ;it is
in conformity with the spirit of the Charter as it appears from the
Preamble and from Chapter 1 thereof.

The Court must not apply classical international law, but rather
the law which it considers exists at the time the judgment is deli-
vered, havi~igdue regard to the modifications itmay have undergone
following the changes in the life of peoples ;in other words, the Court
must apply the new international Law.

Scope of the Declaration by which Iran acceptedthe provisions of
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statz~teof the Court

It was this question which gave rise to the most lengthy argu-
ment. The Parties resorted to arguments of al1 kinds, especially to
arguments based on the rules of grammar. The question whether
Iran's Declaration of adherence was unilateral or bilateral in char-

acter was also argued. 1 shall not dwell long upon this latter point ;
the Declaration is a multilateral act of a special character ;it is the
basis of a treaty made by Iran with the States which had already
adhered and with those which would subsequently adhere to the
provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court.
The Iranian Declaration of adherence should not be coristrüed by
the methods hitherto employed for the interpretation of unilateral
instruments, conventions and legal texts, but by methods more in
accordance with the new conditions of international life.
The traditional methods of interpretation may be summarized
by the following points :

(1) It is considered that the texts have an everlasting and
fixed character as long as they have not been expressly abrogated.
(2) Strict respect for the letter of the legal or coilventional
texts.
(3) Examination of these texts, considered by themselves
without regard to their relations with the institution or convention

as a whole.
(4) Recourse to travaz~xpréparatoiresin case of doubt as to
the scope of these texts.
(5) Use, in reasoning, of out-and-out logic, almost as in the
case of problems of mathematics or philosophy.

(6) Application of legal concepts or doctrines of the law of
mations as traditionally conceived.

36I26 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

7OApplication de la jurisprudence de la Cour internationale
actuelle, ou de la Cour précédente, dans les cas semblables qui se
présentent, sans rechercher si cette jurisprudence doit subir des
modifications en raison des nouvelles conditions de la vie inter-
nationale.
8" On ne prend pas en considération les conséquences sociales ou
internationales qui peuvent résulter de l'interprétation que l'on fait.
Il faut réagir contre tous ces postulats parce qu'ils ont fait leur

temps.
Et d'abord, les textes légaux ou conventionnels doivent être
modifiés, voire même considérés comme abrogés si les nouvelles
conditions de la vie internationale, ou des États qui ont pris part à
leur établissement, ont profondément changé.
Ensuite, on ne doit pas s'attacher strictement à la teneur
littérale des textes légaux ou conventionnels ; ceux qui les ont
établis ne l'ont pas fait la grammaire et le dictionnaire à la main ;
bien souvent, ils ont employé desexpressionsvagues ou inadéquates.
Ce qui s'impose donc est de prendre en considération surtout
l'esprit de ces textes, la volonté des parties s'il s'agit d'une conven-
tion, en les dégageant de l'ensemble del'institution ou de la conven-
tion, voire même des nouvelles exigences de la vie internationale.
On n- doit recourir aux travaux préparatoires que lorsqu'il s'agit
de rechercher la volonté des parties dans les matières qui affectent

seulement leurs intérêts.Une institution juridique, une convention,
une fois établie, acquiert une vie propre et évolue conformément,
non pas aux idées ou à la volonté de ceux qui ont rédigé ses dispo-
sitions, mais aux conditions changeantes de la vie des peuples.

un seul exemple suffira à prouver l'exactitude de cette affirma-
tion. Supposons que dans une convention d'ordre commercial on ait
stipulé que toutes les questions relatives au trafic maritime seront
régléespar les principes du droit international en vigueur. Ces
principes auront pu êtresuivis pendant un siècle, peut-être, par les
parties sans que des différends s'élèvententre elles ;mais actuelle-
ment, en raison des changements survenus récemment dans cette
matière, l'une de ces parties pourrait se présenter devant la Cour
pour demander que la pratique séculairesuivie jusqu'ici soit changée

parce qu'on doit considérer que la volonté des parties n'est plus la
mêmequ'à l'époqueoù la convention a étésignée. Il y a ici quelque
chose d'analogue à la clause rebus sic stantibus si connue dans le
droit des gens.

Il faut remarquer, en outre, que l'emploi de la logique à outrance
n'est pas le meilleur procédéd'interprétation des textes légaux ou
conyentionnels, car la vie internationale n'est pas faite de logique ;
les Etats, dans leurs rapports réciproques, agissent surtout d'après
leurs intérêts et leurs sentiments. Un raisonnement poussé à
l'extrême peut facilement conduire à des absurdités.

37 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ 126

(7)Application of the decisions of the present International
Court, or of the earlier Court, in similar cases which arise, without
regard to the question whether the law so laid down must be
modified by reason of the new conditions of international life.

(8) Disregard for the social or international consequences
which may result from the construction applied.

Some form of reaction is necessary against these postulates
because they have had their day.
In the first place the legal or conventional texts must be modified
and even regarded as abrogated if the new conditions of intcr-
national life or of States which participated in the establishment
of those texts, have undergone profound change.
Then it is necessary to avoid slavish adherence to the literal
meaning of legal or conventional texts ;those who drafted them
did not do so with a grammar and a dictionary in front of them ;
very often, they used vague or inadequate expressions. The
important point is, therefore, to have regard above al1to the s$irit
of such documents, to the intention of the parties in the case
of a treaty, as they emerge from the institution or convention as a

whole, and indeed from the new requirements of international life.
Recourse should only be had to travaux préparatoireswhen it
is necessary to discover the will of the parties with regard to
matters which affect their interests alone. A legal institution, a
convention, once established, acquires a life of its own and evolves
not in accordance with the ideas or the will of those who drafted
its provisions, but in accordance with the changing conditions
of the life of peoples.
A single example will suffice to show the correctness of this
assertion. Let us assume that in a commercial convention there
is a stipulation that al1 questions relating to maritime trade are
to be governed by the principles of international law in force.
These principles may have been followed by the parties for a
century, perhaps, without any disputes arising between them ;

but one of the parties may, at the present time, by reason of
the changes which have recently taken place in such matters,
come to Court to claim that the century-old practice hitherto
followed should be changed on the ground that it must be held
that the will of the parties is no longer the same as it was at the
time when the convention was signed. This is in many ways
similar to the rebus sic stantibus clause which is so well knolvn
in the law of nations.
It is, moreover, to be observed that out-and-out reliance upon
the rules of logic is not the best method of interpretation of legal
or conventional texts, for international iifeis not based on logic ;
States follow, above all, their ou7n interests alid feelings in their
relations with one another. Reason, pushed to extremes, may
easily result in absurdity.127 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
On doit, aussi, tenir compte du fait que certaines notions fonda-
mentales du droit ont changé et que certaines institutions, ainsi

que certains problèmes, ne sont pas compris de la mêmemanière
partout :la démocratie est entendue autrement en Europe qu'en
Amérique et différemment aussi dans les pays du groupe oriental
et dans ceux du groupe occidental européen ; I'institution de l'asile
n'est pas comprise de la même manièreet n'obéit pas aux mêmes
directives en Europe qu'en Amérique latine ; le problème polaire,
notamment de l'Antarctique, n'est pas envisagé en Amérique
comme dans les autres continents, etc.
Il est nécessaire, enfin, de prendre en considération les consé-
quences del'interprétation que l'on fait, afin d'éviter des anomalies.

En appliquant les considérations précédentes à la détermination
de la portée de l'adhésion de l'Iran à la clause de l'article 36, n2,
du Statut de la Cour, on doit interpréter cette adhésion comme
donnant compétence à la Cour pour connaître de la présente
affaire. Il ne faut pas restreindre la portée de cette adhésion en
donnant une importance excessive à certaines considérations
d'ordre grammatical ou secondaires. La justice ne doit pas se
fonder sur des subtilitésmais sur des réalités.
Je ne m'attarderai pas sur le point ci-dessus, car j'estime qu'il
y a lieu de considérer d'autres éléments, peut-êtreplus importants

que la volonté des parties, pour apprécier la compétence de la
Cour, comme on le verra par la suite.

III

La nationalisation de l'indz~strie dzt pétrole par l'Iran et le
K domaine réservé ))de cet État

Le Gouvernement iranien, dans ses ((Observations préliminaires »
présentées à la Cour le 4 février 1952, a alléguéexpressément que
la nationalisation de I'industrie du pétrole qu'il avait effectuée
était une mesure relevant exclusivement de son dovnaine réservé
et que, par suite, la Cour était incompétente pour connaître de la
présente affaire.

Il convient, d'abord, d'examiner brièvement la nature du
domaine réservés ,on origine et son état actuel.
Ce domaine a étéétabli par le droit international classique comme
une conséquence naturelle du régimzindividualiste et de souverai-
neté absolue des Etats qui se trouvait à la base de ce droit.,
Ce domaine réservéétait très étendu. Les actes que les Etats
pouvaient faire sans se préoccuper de la volonté ou des intérêts
des autres Etats étaient, notamment, les suivants :

a) Chaque État pouvait établir l'organisation politique interne
qu'il estimait la plus adéquate, sans avoir à en rendre compte à
personne.
38 DISSENTING OPINION OF J UDGE ALVAREZ 127
It is also necessary to bear in mind the fact that certain
fundamental legal conceptions have changed and that certain
institutions and certain problems are not everywhere understood

in the same way : democracy is differently understood in Europe
and in America, and in the countries of the Eastern group and
those of the Western group in Europe ;the institution of asylum
is not understood in the same way and is not governed by the
same rules in Europe and in Latin America ; the Polar question,
particularly in the Antarctic, is not looked at in the same way
in America as on other continents, and so forth.
Finally, it is necessary to take into consideration the conse-
quences of the interpretation decided upon in order to avoid
anomalies.
Applying the foregoing considerations to the determination of
the scope of Iran's adherence to the provisions of Article 36, para-

graph 2, of the Statute of the Court, this adherence must be inter-
preted as giving the Court jurisdiction to deal with the present
case. The scope of this adherence is not to be restricted by giving
too great an importance to certain grammatical or secondary
considerations. Justice must not be based upon subfleties but upon
realities.
1 shall not dwell on this point, because 1 think it is necessary to
consider other elements, perhaps more important than the will of
the Parties, in order to decide as to the Court% jurisdiction, as will
subsequently be seen.

III

Iran's nationalization of the oil indzrsiry and the "reserved
domain" of that State
The Iranian Government, in its "Observations prhliminaires",

filed on February 4th, 1952, expressly asserted that the nationali-
zation of the oil industry which it had put into effect was a measure
exclusively within its reserveddomain and that the Court therefore
had no jurisdiction to deal with this case.

It is necessary in the first place briefly to examine the nature of
the resevveddomnin, its origin and its present state.
This domain was established by classical internatioilal law as a
natural consequence of the individualistic regimeand of the absolute
sovereignty of States upon which this law was founded.
This reserved domain covered a very wide field. In particular,
States could, without regard to the will or the interests of other

States, do. the following :
(a) Every State could set up the interna1 political organization
which it considered the most suitable \vithout being accountable
to anybody.

38 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
128
b) Il pouvait édicter les lois qu'il jugeait nécessaires, mênw si
elles étaient contraires au droit international, et ses tribunaux
devaient appliquer seulement ces lois.
c) Il pouvait déterminer librement quels étaient ses ressortis-
sants.
d) Il pouvait, en toute liberté, fixer les droits civils de ses
nationaux, ainsi que ceux des étrangers résidant sur ton territoire,

en faisant souvent des distinctions importantes entre ces deux
catégories de personnes.
e) Les étrangers étaient entièrement soumis à l'autorité de
l'État où ils résidaient et ne pouvaient faire aucune réclamation
à cet égard, même s'ilsavaient subi un préjudice de la part dudit
Etat.
f) Chaque État pouvait, en vertu de ce qu'on appelle son
domaine éminent, disposer des richesses naturelles se trouvant sur
son territoire pour concéder, ou non, leur exploitation à des parti-
culiers et reprendre cette exploitation s'il le désirait.

g) Il pouvait exercerlibrement sa souveraineté surtoute l'étendue
de son territoire, sans avoir d'obligation envers les autres Etats
ni envers la communauté internationale. Il pouvait, notamment,
prendre, ou non, les mesures nécessaires pour assurer l'ordre
intérieur, surveiller ses côtes, faciliter la navigation, etc.

h) Cha ue État pouvait passer, à sa guise, des traités avec
d'autres 8tats, sans qu'on puisse demander leur modification ou

leur abrogation.

A partir du milieu du xlxme siècle, par suite de l'apparition de
grands facteurs inconnus auparavant, le régime traditionnel indi-
vidualiste et de souveraineté absolue des Etats commença à céder
la place à un nouveau régime, celui d'interdépendancequi a donné
naissance, comme je viens de le dire, au droit d'interdépendance
sociale. Dès lors, toutes les matières ci-dessus indiquées du domaine
réservé commencèrent à s'internation?lisertotalement ou partiel-
lement. On admet aujourd'hui que 1'Etat qui, dans l'exercice de
sa souveraineté, cause un dommage à un autre État doit l'indem-
niser. En outre, commence à s'introduire dans le droit international
la notion de l'abus du droit dont je parlerai plus loin. En raison
de ces diverses circonstances, le domaine réservé des Etats se
trouve modifié et considérablement réduit ; dans bien des cas,
il est possible de présenter une réclamation contre un Etat sur
des matières pour lesquelies il allègue son domaine réservé.
Je meTcontenterai de donner un seul exemple :s'il est vrai que
chaque Etat peut établir l'organisation interne qui lui convient,
celle-ci doit, cependant, êtretelle qu'il puisse remplir ses obligations

internationales ; autrement cet Etat ne peut être admis comme
Membre des Nations Unies ou il peut en êtreexclu (art. 4 et 6 de la DISSENTING OPINION OF J UDGE ALVAREZ 128

(b) It could enact such laws as it considered necessary, even if
these were contrary to international law, and its courts were required
to apply only these laws.
(c) It could freely determine who were its nationals.

(d) It could, in entire freedom, determine the civil rights of its
nationals and those of foreigners residing on its territory, oftcn
differentiating in important respects between these two categories.

(e) Foreigners were in al1respects subject to the authority of the

State in which they resided and had no redress even if they were
prejudiced as the result of the action of that State.

(f) Each State could, by virtue of what was called its domaine
éminent, make such use as it desired of the natural resources of its
territory, which might or might not be the subject of exploitation
concessions to private perçons and which might be reclaimed hy
the State if it so desired.
(g) It could freely exercise its sovereign rights over the whole
extent of its territory, free from any obligation towards other
States or towards the international community. It could, in parti-
cular, take or refrain from taking the measures necessary to ensure
internal order, carry out surveillance of its coasts, facilitate naviga-
tion, etc.

(h) Each State could, as it pleased, conclude treaties with other
States without any means existing for their modification or abroga-
tion.

From the middle of the 19th century, as the result of the appear-
ance of important factors which had not previously existed, the
traditional individz~alistic regime of the absolute sovereignty of
States began to give place to a new regime, that of interdependence,
which gave rise, as 1have said, to the lazetof social interdependence.
This resulted in the beginning of the total or partial internation-
alization of al1 the matters referred to above as within the reservtd
domain. It is now admitted that a State which. in the exercise of
its sovereignty, causes damage to another State, must indemnify

that other State. Moreover. the conce~t of abus du droit. of which 1
shall have more to Say later, is beginning to be introtluced irito
international law. As a result of these various factors. the reservecl
domain of States has been modified and considerably reducecl ;
in many cases it is possible to present a claim against a State
relating to matters which it ,?llegesto be within its reserved domain.
1 shall merely give one example : although it is true that every
Statemay establish the internal organization wliich it chooses, this
organization must iievertheless be such that the State can fulfil its
international obligations ; if the State does not do so, it canriot bt.
admitted as a Member of the Cniteù Sations or it may be expelled129 OPINION DISSIDENTE I>E hi. ALVAREZ

Charte) et, en tout cas, si par suite de sa,défectueuse organisation
interne il cause un préjudice à un autre Etat, il doit l'indemniser.

CaractèredeL'interventiondu Gouvernementdz~Royaume- Uni dans
la présenteaflaire

Ce point est d'une importance capitale.
Le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni s'est adressé à la Cour à la
date du 26 mai 1951 pour protéger les intérêtsde lJAnglo-Iranian
Oil Company, société anglaise, parce qu'il estimait que l'Iran, en
procédant à la nationalisation de l'industrie du pétrole, a violé les
droits de cette compagnie résultant, notamment, de la convention
de 1933 passéeentre elle et l'Iran.
Le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni n'intervient donc pas dans
cette affaire pour défendre ses propres intérêtsmais pour protéger
ceux de ses nationaux, ce qui est tout autre chos:.
D'après le droit international en vigueur, un Etat peut formuler
une réclamation contre un autre État dans trois cas :

nj Lorsqu'un de ses droits a étéviolépar cet Ctat.
b) Pour protéger !es droits de ses nationaux s'ils ont étéméconnus
ou violéspar ledit Etat.
C) Pour défendreles droits d'un État quilui a confiécette défense
parce qu'il ne peut le faire directement, par exemple s'il a rompu
ses relations diplomatiques avec 1'Etat qui a violé sesdroits.

La situation de l'État réclamant est bien différente dans chacun
de ces trois cas.
Dans le premier, c'est-à-dire lorsqu'un État agit pour défendre
ses propres intérêts,il faut s'en tenir aux accords qu'il a passés
avec l'autre Etat.
Dans le deuxième cas, l'État demandeur agit en vertu d'un droit
conférépar le droit des gens et universellement reconnu dans la
pratique, celui de la protection diplomatique de ses nationaux.
Selon ce droit, l'action de 1'Etat réclamant ne peut êtreentravée

par aucun des motifs qu'on pourrait lui opposer s'il agissait en son
propre nom ;on ne peut opposer à cette demande que les exceptions
qui dérivent du droit international ou de la nature du droit que le
demandeur fait valoir.

Le troisième cas ne présente pas de difficyltés.état qui est
l'objet de la réclamation ne peut opposer à 1'Etat qui agit au nom
de 1'Etat réclamant que les conventions ou actes passés entre ce
dernier et lui-même.
Ily a lieu de remarquer, au sujet de la protection diplomatique,
que, d'après le droit international nouveau, elle peut revêtir trois DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ 129

from the United Nations (Articles 4 and 6 of the Charter) and, in
any event, if by reason of defects in its interna1 organization it
causes injury to another State, it is under an obligation to com-
pensate that State.
IV

Nature of the intervention by the United Kiqdom Governmenfin
the present case.
This point is of cardinal importance.

The United Kingdom Government applied to the Court on
May 26th, 1951, in order to protect the interests of the Anglo-
Iranian Oil Company, an English Company, on the ground that
Iran, by nationalizing the oil industry, had violated the rights of
that Company, rights derived, in particular, from the Concession
Agreement of 1933 concluded between the Company and Iran.
The cnited Kingdom Government is therefore not appearing in
this case in defence of its own interests, but to protect the interests
of itsnationals, which is a very different matter.
In accordance with the international law in force, a State may
formulate a claim against another State in three cases :

ln) When one of its rights has been violated by that State.
(b) To protect the rights of its nationals if these rights have been
disregarded or violated by that State.
(c) To defend the rights of a State which has entrusted it with
this defence because it cannot directly undertake its own defence,
for instance, if it has broken off diplomatic relationswith the State
%-hichhas violated its rights.
The position of the claimant State is quite different in each of the
three cases.

In the first case, thats to Say, where the State is acting in defence
of itç own interests, attention must be confined to the agreements
which have been concluded between the two States.
In the second case, the claimant State acts in virtue of a right
conferred by the law of nations and universally recognized in
practice, the right of diplomatic protection of its nationals. In
accordance with this law, the action of the claimant State cannot
be met by ariy of the arguments that couId be raised against it if
it nere acting on its own behalf :the only objections which can be
raised to such a claim are those which are based upon international
law or which result from the nature of the right which the ciaimant
relies on.
No difficultyarises in respect of the third case. The Sta'ceagainst
which the claim is made can, as against a State accing on behalf of
the claimant State, rely only upon conventions or agreements
concluded between the last-named State and itself.

It must be pointed out as regards diplomatic protection that,
according to the new international law, it may assume thrce different
40I3O OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

aspects différents selon l'organe auprès duquel elle s'exerce :
a) protection, réclamation directe contre un Etat ; b) protection
devant le Conseil de Sécurité des Nations Unies ; cj protection
devant la Cour internationale de Justice.
Ces trois aspects de la protection diplomatique disparaîtront ou
subiront des changements quand le droit international nouveau
établira clairement les droits internationaux de l'individu, c'est-à-
dire ,les droits que celui-ci pourra faire valoir directement contre

un Etat sans recourir à la protection diplomatique du pays dont il
est le ressortissant.

Quelle est la portéede l'article 36, no 2, du Statut de la Cozir ?

Celle-ciest-ellecompétentepoztr connaitre d'autres matières quecelles
indiquées expressémend tans ledit article
Ces questions constituent, à mon sens, le point crucial de la
présente affaire.

Dans les discussions qui ont eu lieu, on est parti de la base,
considéréeincontestée, que la compétence de la Cour est déter-
minée seulement par l'article 36, nos I et 2, de son Statut et, par
suite, dérive presque uniquement du consentement des parties.
C'est pour ce motif qu'on a discuté si longuement sur la portée de
l'adhésion de l'Iran à la clause dudit article.
Ce point de vue est inexact.
Il faut remarquer, d'abord, que les articles 36 et 38 du Statut
de la Cour, dans le chapitre II relatifà la compétence de ce tribunal,
sont très défectueux. L'article 38, qui est la reproduction de l'arti-
cle 38 du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, a
étédepuis longtemps l'objet de vives critiques dont on n'a pas

tenu compte à la Conférence de San-Francisco au moment de la
revision dudit article. C'est donc la Cour internationale de Justice
qui doit déterminer sa véritable portée. Il faut en dire autant de
l'article36.
Cet article 36 parle des différends qui se produisent entre des
États ;ils sont relatifsà des droits résultant d'accords passés entre
eux ou de la réglementation établie par le droit international sur
des matières données (domaine terrestre, domaine maritime, etc.).
Il s'agit donc de différends se rapportant ordinairement à,des actes
auxquels ont participé deux ou un plus grand nombre dJEtats.

Mais à côté de ces droits, il y en a d'autres établis directement
par le droit international et qui n'ont pas été missuffisamment en
relief dans le cas actuel pour déterminer la cpmpétence de la Cour.
Ces droits ne résultent pas de la volonté des Etats ou d'autres actes
juridiques, mais de la conscience renouvelée des peuples qui prend
en considération l'intérêtgénéral.Ces droits ne créent pas d'obliga- DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ
I3O
forms which depend upon the organ before which that protection is
exercised :(a) direct protection or claim against a State ; (b) protec-
tion before the Security Council of the United Nations ;(c) protec-
tion before the International Court of Justice.
These three aspects of diplomatic protection will disappear or

will undergo changes when the new international law clearly estab-
lishes the international rights of the individual, i.e. those rights
which he will be entitled to invoke directly against a State without
resorting to the diplomatic protection of the country of which he is
a national.

What is the scope of Article 36, paragraph 2, O/ the Statute of the
Court ? Is the Court competent to deal with matters otlzerthan those
specifically indicatedil1tli.at Articl?

These questions,in my opinion, constitute the crucialpoint of the
present case.
The arguments which we have heard proceeded from the basis,
which was regarded as indisputable, that the Court's jurisdiction
is determined solely by Article 36, paragraphs I and 2, of its Statute
and that it is consequently derived almost entirely from the consent
of the Parties. This explains the long arguments as to the scope of
Iran's adherence to the provisions of that Article.
This view is incorrect.
It should be pointed out, in the first place, that Articles 36
and 38 of the Statute of the Court, in Chapter II relating to the

competence of the Court, are very defective. Article 38, which
reproduces Article 38 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of
International Justice, has long been the subject of strong criticism,
of which no account was taken at the San Francisco Conference
when that Article was revised. It is therefore for the International
Court of Justice to determine its true scope. The same must be
said of Article 36.
That article, Article 36, refers to disputes which may arise
between States ; these relate to rights flowing from agreements
concluded between these States or from rules established by
international law with regard to given questions (land domain,

maritime domain, etc.). What are involved therefore are disputes
ordinarily relating to instruments to which two or more States
are parties.
But in addition to such rights there are others,directly established
by international law, which have not been sufficiently brought out
in the present case to determine the Court's jurisdiction. These
rights do not result from the will of States or from other juridical
acts, but from the revitalized conscience of the people which
takes account of the çeneral intcrest. These rights do iiot create

4 1 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
I3I
tions directes entre les États ;ils ne peuvent pas êtrediscutés quant
à leur existence et doivent êtreprotégéss'ils sont violés.

Parmi ces droits, il faut citer, notamment, ceux dits fondamen-
taux des Etats (d'indépendance, de souveraineté, d'égalité, etc.),
ainsi que certains autres droits conféréspar le droit des gens, tels
celui de protection des nationaux, celui d'indemnisation pour un

préjudice subi,etc.

L'article 36 du Statut de la Cour ne parle pas des droits de cette
deuxième catégorie, car ils ne produisent pas de différends et, pour
ce motif peut-être, on n'y a mêmepas songé. Mais ledit article 36
ne les exclut pas de la compétence de la Cour ;si on avait voulu
qu'il en soit ainsi, on l'aurait dit expressément.

Comment alors combler cette lacune, et en somme, comment
déterminer la compétence de la Cour à l'égard de cette deuxième
catégorie de dro; .s? Pour cela, il faut recourir àl'esprit de la Charte
des Nations Uriies dont le Statut de la Cour fait partie intégrante
(art. 92 de la Charte), ainsi qu'aux principes générauxdu droit des
gens. Il faut, en outre,tenir compte des conséquencesinternationales
que l'interprétation restrictive dudit article 36 peut entraîner.

La Charte s'efforce de donner du prestige au droit des gens, comme
cela ressort du préambule, alinéa 3; du chapitre premier, article
premier, no I; article 2, no 3 ; ainsi que de l'article 13, lettre a), et
des articles 36 et 38. Le droit international et la Cour internationale
de Justice sont aujourd'hui étroitement liés: on ne peut plus
concevoir une Cour internationale qui n'applique pas le droit des
gens ni ce droit sans une Cour qui l'applique.

D'après l'esprit de la Charte, ainsi que d'après !es principes géné-
raux du droit international, tous les droits des Etats doivent être
amplement reconnus et protégéset les conflits auxquels ils peuvent

donner lieu doivent êtrerésoluspar des moyens pacifiques.
Une différence fondamentale existe entre le droit internationa1
classique et le droit international nouveau en ce qui concerne les
moyens qu'ont les Etats de faire valoir les deux catégories de droits
ci-dessus indiqués.
D'après le droit ilzternational classiqut?,les différends entre États
qui naissent de conventions ou de faits qui créent des rapports
juridiques, ou de la réglementation établie par le droit des gens sur
des matières données, doivent êtrerésolus par les moyens choisis
librement par les parties ; niais si celles-ci ne peuvent pas se mettre
d'accord sur-ces moyens, alors le différend reste sails solution et,
de,ce fait, 1'Etat le plus fort impose, en quelque sorte, sa volonté à
1'Etat faible.

42 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ I3I

direct obligations between States ; their existence may not give
rise to discussion but must be protected in the event of their
violation.
Among these rights, it is necessary to mention in particular
those which are said to be fundamental ri"hts of States (the
right to independence, to sovereignty, to equality, etc.), as well
as certain other rights conferred by the law of nations, such as
that of the protection of nationals, the right to be indemnified

for injuries, and so forth.
Article 36 of the Statute of the Court does not refer to the
rights falling within this second category, for they do not give
rise to disputes and, perhaps for this reason, no thought \vas
given to them. But Article 36 does not exclude them from the
Court's jurisdiction ; if this had been the intention, it u~ould
have been stated expressly.
How then is this gap to be filled, or in short, how is the Court's
jurisdiction with regard to this second category of rights to be
determined ? In order to do this, it is necessary to have recourse
to the spirit of the Charter of the United Nations, of which the
Statute of the Court forms an integral part (Article 92 of the
Charter), and to the general principles of the law of nations. It

is moreover necessary to have regard to the international conse-
quences which might result from a restrictive interpretation of
A4rticle 36.
The Charter seeks to add to the prestige of the law of nations,
as appears from the Preamble, paragraph 3, from Article 1,
paragraph 1, of Chapter 1, from Article 2, paragraph 3, as well
as from Article 13 (a) and from Articles 36 and 38. International
law and the International Court of Justice are, at the present
time, closely linked together : it is impossible to conccive of an
international Court which does not apply the law of nations,
or of this law without a Court to apply it.
In accordance with the spirit of the Charter, and with the
general principles of international law, al1 the rights 01 States

miist bc fully recognized and protected and the conflicts to which
they may give rise must be settled by peaceful means.
There is a fundamental difference between classical international
law and thc new international law with regard to the means
available to States to assert the two categories of rights indicated
above.
Under classical international law, disputes between States
arising from conventions or facts g&ing ;ise to legal relations,
or from rules established by the law of nations on given matters,
had to be settled by means freely chosen by the parties ; but
if the parties could not agree as to these means, the dispute
remained unresolved and consequently the stronger State coiild
to some extent impose its u-il1 upon the weaker.132 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

Il en est de mêmequand il s'agit de l'exerciced'un droit expressé-
ment reconnu par le droit des gens, c'est-à-dire des droits de la
deuxième catégorie ci-dessus indiqués. Ici encore, si une solufion
pacifique n'intervient pas, 1'Etat fort impose sa volonté à 1'Etat
faible ; et si celui-ci est leréclamant, son droit reste sans portée
pratique.

Dans le droit international nouveau, il en est tout autrement.
D'après ce droit, et nptamment d'après l'esprit de la Charte, tous
les différends entre Etats doivent être résolus pacifiquement et
tous les droits consacréspar le droit des gens doivent êtrerespectés
et sanctionnés.
Ilans ce but. la Charte a crééune organisa"ion internationale
comprenant, entre autres organes, le Conseil de Sécuritéet la Cour
internationale de Justice.
Si le Statut de la Cour avait voulu réduire les attributions de la
Cour uniquement à la solution des différends relatifs aux droits de

la première catégorie ci-dessiis indiqués, il l'aurait établi expressé-
ment, comme ir l'ai dit plus haut. Cette Cour ne serait alors, en
réalité,qu'une Cour internationale d'arbitrage.Il aurait mieux valu,
dans ces conditions, confirmer la Cour permanente d'arbitrage
créée en 1899 et qui a l'avantage d'êtrecomposée de juges choisis
dans chaque cas par les parties elles-mêmes.Or, la Cour actuelle
est, d'après son Statut, une Coirr de Justice et, de ce fait, ainsi que
du dynamisme de la vie internationale, elle a aujourd'hui une double
mission : dire le droit et dézielopperle droit. Sa première mission
cornprend la solution desdigérendsentre Etats et, en outre. la protec-

tion des droits de ceux-ci reconnus par le droit des gens. Et pour ce
qui concerne la seconde mission de la Coiir, le déaeloppementdu
droit, elle consiste à dégagerle droit existant, à le modifier et même
à créer des préceptes nouveaux, si c'est nécessaire. Cette seconde
mission est justifiée par le grand dynamisme de la vie interna-
tionale. La troisième Assemblée des Nations Unies, dans sa résolu-
tion no 171, a reconnu à la Cour cette faculté de développer le
droit des gens. De son côté, l'Institut de droit international, dans
la session qu'il a tenue dernièrement à Sienne, a reconnu expressé-
ment aussi à la Cour ladite faculté. En créant une commission,

l'Institut a adopté, à l'unanimité, la résoliition suivante : (L'Insti-
tut de droit international, très attentif à l'importance croissante
de la Cour internationale de Justice et de son rôle dans le développe-
ment du droit international ...» Dans l'exercice de cette faculté,
la Cour ne doit pas procéder arbitrairement mais s'inspirer des
grands principes du droit international nouveau.

Pour ce qui concerne la pvotectiondes droits, il n'y a pas lieu de
distinguer si le plaignant ou si lJEtat contre lequel la réclamation est
dirigée a accepté ou non la juridiction de la Cour, ni s'il est ou

non Membre des Nations Vnies. Tous les États du monde font
partie aujourd'hui de la communauté - ou plutôt de la soci6té - DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ 132

The same is true with regard to the exerciseof a right expressly
recognized by the law of nations, that is to say those rights which
fa11within the second category referred to above. Here again, if
some peaceful settlement is not reached, a strong State can impose
its will upon a weak State ;and if the latter be the claimant, its
right remains of no practical value.
In the new international law the matter is wholly different. In
accordance with this law, and in particular with the spirit of the
Charter, al1 disputes between States must be resolved by peaceful
means, and al1the rights recognized by the law of nations must be
respected and must have a sanction.
To this end, the Charter created an international organization
comprising, among other organs, the Security Council and the

International Court of Justice.
If the Statute of the Court were intended to limit the powers of
the Court solely to the solution of disputes relating to rights of the
first category referred to above, it would, as 1 have said, have
expressly so provided. The Court then would be, in effect, a mere
international court of arbitration. It would have been better, in
these circumstances, to have confirmed the Permanent Court of
Arbitration set up in 1899, which has the advantage of being
composed of judges selected in each case by the parties themselves.
But the present Court is, according to its Statute, a Court of justice
and, as such, and by virtue of the dynamism of international life,
it has a double task : to declare the law and develop the law. Its
first task includes the settlement of disputes between States as well
as the protection of the rights of those States as recognized by the
law of nations. As regards the Court's second task, namely, the
development of law, it consists of deciding the existing law, modify-
ing it and even creating new precepts, should this be necessary.
This second mission is justified by the great dynamism of inter-

national life. The Third Session of the General Assembly of the
United Nations has recognized the Court's rights to develop inter-
national law in its Resolution No. 171. The Institute of Inter-
national Law has on its side in the recently held Session at Siena
expressly recognized this right of the Court. In creating a commis-
sion, the Institute unanimously adopted the following Resolution :
[Translation] "The Institute of International Law, keenly aware
of the growing importance of the International Court of Justice
and of its rôle in the development of international law...." In
discharging this task the Court must not proceed in an arbitrary
maiiner, but must seek inspiration in the great principles of the
new international law.
With regard to the protection of these rights, it is unnecessary
to ascertain whether the complainant or the State against which
the claim is made has or has not accepted the jurisdiction of the
Court, or whether it is or is not a Member of the United Nations.
Every State in the world is to-day a member of the international

43I33 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE 11. ALVAREZ

internationale ;tous sont soumis au droit des gens et ont les droits
et obligations établis par celui-ci. On ne peut concevoir qu'un
État non membre des Nations Unies ou qui n'a pas accepté la
juridiction de la Cour puisse violer les droits des autres Etats et
qu'il ne puisse êtretraduit devant la Cour ;ni, inversement, qu'un
Etat Membre des Nations Unies puisse agir de même à l'égard

d'un Etat non membre.

La Cour, dans son avis consultatif du II avril 1949 sur les
((Réparations des dommages causés au service des Nations Unies )),
accepte expressément la manière de voir ci-dessus indiquée. Elle a
déclaré ((qu'au cas où un agent des Xations Unies subit, dans l'exer-
cice de ses fonctions, un dommage dans des conditions de nature à
engager la responsabilité d'un Etat qui n'est pas membre de lJOrga-
nisation, celle-ci a qualité pour présenter contre le gouvernement

de jure ou defacto responsable une réclamation internationale en vue
d'obtenir la réparation du dommage causé aux Nations I-nies ».

Il faut remarquer que, dans cet avis, la Cour a fait une véritable
créatipndu droit.
L'Etat responsable peut donc êtreactionné devant la Cour sans
qu'il y ait lieu de rechercher s'il a accepté ou non sa juridiction
ou s'il a adhéré à la clause de l'article 36, n" 2, de son Statut.

Si les Natipns Enies présentaient devant la Cour une réclamation

contre un Etat pour les motifs ci-dessus indiqués, ce tribunal
pourrait-il débouter cet organisme en se fondant sur l'article 34,
no I, de son Statut qui établit que ((seuls les Etats ont qualité
pour se présenter devant la Cour ))et, en alléguant que l'organi-
sation des Nations Unies n'est pas un Etat ?Ce serait un non-sens.
Il convient de remarquer aussi, au sujet des droits de la deuxième
catégorie ci-dessus indiqués, que le droit international nouveau
a renforcé et amplifié ceux qui existaient déjà et il en a reconnu
ou conféréd'autres qui sont d'une grande importance et ne figurent
pas dans le droit international classique. J'en mentionnerai seule-

ment trois, parce qu'ils sont en rapports étroits avec le fond du
litige actuel : celui de la protection des nationaux, qui se trouve
renforcé, et celui résultant d'un déni de justice ainsi que celui
résultant d'un abus du droit. Cette dernière notion, qui est rela-
tivement récente dans le droit national (elle est consacrée dans les
codes civils de l'Allemagne et de la Suisse), tend à pénétrer dans
le droit international, et il importe que la Cour la reconnaisse
formellement, le moment venu.
D'autre part, on s'efforce aujourd'hui d'établir une déclaration
universelle des droits de l'individu et, pour protéger ces droits

internationalement, on veut créer une Cour spéciale. 11est évident
qu'il suffira que l'État intéressése présente devant cette Cour ou,
44 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ
I33
community, or rather, of the international society ; al1 are subject
to the law of nations and have the rights and obligations laid down
by that law. It is impossible to suppose that a State not a Member
of the United Nations, or one which has not accepted the juris-
diction of the Court, should be able to violate the rights of other

Statesand that it should not be possible to bring it before the Court ;
or, conversely, that a State which is a Rfember of the United
Nations should be able so to act with regard to a non-member
State.
The Court, in its Advisory Opinion of April t th, 1949, on
"Reparations for Injuries suffered in the Service of the Unitecl
Nations" expressly adopted the above-mentioned point of view.
It held that "in the event of an'agent of the United Nations in the
performance of his duties suffering injury in circumstances involv-
ing the responsibility of a State which is not a member, the United
Nations, as an Organization, has the capacity to bring an inter-
national claim against the responsible dejz~reor defactogovernmeilt
with a view to obtaining the reparation duein respect of the damage
caused to the United Nations".

It must be noted that in that Opinion, the Court actually created
the law.
The State responsible may therefore be brought before the Court
without its being necessary to inquire whether it has or has not
accepted the jurisdiction of the Court or whether it has adhered to
the provisions of Article 36 (2) of its Statute.
If the United Nations brought before the Court a claim against
a State on the grounds above referred to, could it be possible for
the Court to reject the claim brought by this Organization, on the
basis of Article 34 (1) of the Statute, which provides that : "only
Statesmay be parties in cases before the Court", and on the grouiid
that the United Nations are not a State ?This would be nonsense.
It should be pointed out too, with regard to rights of the second
category above referred to, that the new international 1aw has

reinforced and amplified the rights which already existed and it
has recognized or conferred others which are of great importance
and which have no existence in classical international law. 1 shall
mention but three, because they are closely linked with the sub-
stance of the present dispute : that of the protection of nationais,
which is reinforced, that resulting from a denial O!jz~stict:and that
resiilting from an abus dz~droit. This last concept, which is relatively
new in municipallaw (it finds a place in the Civil Codes of Germany
and Switzerland) is finding its way into international law and
the Court will have to give it forma1 recoonition at the appropriate
time.
Efforts are moreover being made at the present time to establish
a universal declaration of the rights of the individual, and in order
to give these rights protection on an international level, it is sought

to create a special Court. It is clear that it will be enough for the
44I33 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
à son défaut, devant la Cour internationale de Justice pour obtenir

satisfaction.

Enfin, si la Cour devait se déclarer incompétente toutes les fois
qu'il s'agit de droits de la deuxième catégorie dont je viens de
parler, il pourrait se présenter des cas très importants pour lesquels
cette déclaration d'incompétence causerait des désillusioriset nuirait
considérablement au prestige de ce tribunal.
En somme, la Cour doit interpréter, voire mêmedévelopper,
l'article36 de son Statut, dans le sens ci-dessus indiqué.
Pour terminer, je ne ferai qu'indiquer brièvement d'autres obser-

vations relatives à la compétence de la Cour et destinées à compléter
ce qu'on peut appeler la théoriegénérale de la compétence de ce
tribunal.
IO La Cour est compétente pour donner son avis sur toutes les
questions qui lui sont soumises par le Conseil de Sécuritéou par
1'L4ssemblée des Nations Unies. Sa compétence résulte du fait que
la Cour est un des organes des Nations Unies (art. 7 de la Charte).
2? Bien des rapports internationaux ont aujourd'hui non seu-
lement un aspect juridique mais aussi un aspect politique ;cela a
étéreconnu par la Cour dans son avis consultatif du 28 mai 1948.
Dans ce cas, la Cour doit considérer ces deux aspects dans les

affaires qui lui sont soumises.
3' Il peut arriver qu'un différend présente un aspect juridique et
un aspect politique bien séparés. Dans ce cas, la Cour est compé-
tente pour connaître de l'aspect juridique et le Conseil de Sécurité
l'est pour ce qui a trait à l'aspect politique.
4' Si une affaire soumise àla Cour vient menacer lapaix du monde,
le Conseil de Sécurité peut s'en saisir et mettre fin à la compétence
de la Cour. La compétence du Conseil résulte de la nature de l'Orga-
nisation internationale crééepar la Charte et des attributions du
Conseil.

Conclusions

Des considérations de droit contenues dans le présent exposé
résultent les conclusions suivantes relatives à l'affaire soumise à la
Cour :
IO La Cour est compétente pour connaître de la réclamation pré-
sentéepar le Royaume-Uni contre l'Iran en raison de la déclaration
d'adhésion decelui-ci à la clause de l'article 36, n2,du Statut de la

Cour.
2" La Cour est compétente surtout parce que le Royaume-Uni
agit dans la présente affaire non pas pour défendre ses propres
intérêts,mais pour protéger ceux d'un de ses nationaux, 1'Anglo-
Iranian Oil Company.
45 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ALVAREZ I34
State concerned to present itself before that Court or, failing that,
before the International Court of Justice for it to obtain satis-

faction.
Lastly, if the Court should hold that it lacks jurisdiction when-
ever rights of the second category of which 1 have spoken are
concerned, very important cases might occur in which such a hold-
ing of lack of jurisdiction would cause disappointment and would
considerably damage the prestige of this tribunal.
In conclusion, the Court should interpret and even develop
Article 36 of its Statute in the sense indicated above.
In conclusion, 1 shall merely indicate briefly certain other obser-
vations with regard to the jurisdiction of the Court for the purpose
of completing what may be called a general theory of the Court's
competence.
(1)The Court is competent to give an opinion on al1 questions

submitted to it by the Security Council or the Assembly of the
United Nations. Its jurisdiction results from the fact that the Court
is one of the organs of the United Nations (Article 7 of the Charter).
(2) Many international relations have at the present tiine a poli-
tical as well as a juridical aspect;this was recognized by the Court
in its Advisory Opinion of May 28th, 1948. In such cases, the Court
must consider both these aspects of cases submitted to it.

(3) It may happen that a dispute has entirely separate juridical
and political aspects. In such a case, the Court is competent to deal
with the juridical aspect and the Security Council is competent to
deal with the political aspect.

(4) If a case submitted to the Court should constitute a threat to
world peace, the Security Council may seise itself of the case and
put an end to the Court's jurisdiction. The competence of the
Council results from the nature of the international organization
established by the Charter, and from the powers of the Council.

The following conclusions result from the legal consideratioils
which 1 have set out, in the case now before the Court :

(1) The Court has jurisdiction to deal with the claiin preseiited
against Iran by the United Kingdom by reason of the Iraniail
Declaration of adherence to the provisions of Article 36, para-
graph 2, of the Statute of the Court.
(2) The Court has jurisdiction, in particular, because the United
Kingdom is not acting in the present case in defence of its owii
interests, but to protect the interests of one of its nationals, the
Anglo-lranian Oil Company.

45I35 OPIXIOS DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

Dans l'exercice de ce droit de protection, le Royaume-Uni ne
peut se voir opposer la portée de la déclaration d'adhésion de l'Iran
à la clause de l'article 36, 2, du Statut de la Cour, car il ne s'agit
pas d'un différend entre ces deux pays mais de l'exercice par le
premier d'un droit reconnu par le droit des gens.

3OÉtant donné le caractère que revêt aujourd'hui le domaine
réserriél,a compétence de la Cour ne peut êtreentravée par l'allé-
gation de l'Iran relativeà ce domaine.
4OLa Cour a une compétence ,très étendue pour protéger les

droits conférésdirectement aux Etats par le droit international
(ceux relatifs à la protection des nationaux, à la réparation d'un
préjudice injustement subi, au déni de justice, à l'abus du droit,
etc.).,Cette compétence ne peut êtreentravée par la non-adhésion
de 1'Etat objet de la réclamation à la clause de l'article 36, no2,
du Statut de la Cour.
L'exercice de quelques-uns de ces droits peut constituer le fond
du litige entre le Royaume-Uni et l'Iran.

(Signé) A. ALVAREZ. DISSENTIXG OPINIOS OF JUDGE ALVAREZ I3.5
Since the United Kingdom is exercising this right of protection,
it cannot be met with arguments as to the scope of the Iranian
Declaration of adherence to the provisions of Article 36, para-

graph 2, of the Statute of the Court, because what is involved is
not a dispute between these two countries, but the exercise of a
right recognized by the law of nations.
(3) In view of the nature of the reserved domain at the present
day, the Court's jurisdiction cannot be limited by the Iranianconten-
tions with regard to this domain.
(4) The Court has a very wide jurisdiction for the protection of
rights directly conferred upon States by international law (those
relating to the protection of nationals, to reparation for injury
unjustly suffered, to denials of justice, to absrsdzt droit, etc.). Its

jurisdiction in this connection cannot be limited by the non-
adherence of the State against whom the claim is made to the provi-
sions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court.
The exercise of some of these rights may constitute the merits of
the dispute between the United Kingdom and Iran.

(Signed) A. AI~VAREZ.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Alvarez (translation)

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