Separate opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen

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080-19920626-JUD-01-01-EN
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080-19920626-JUD-01-00-EN
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SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SHAHABUDDEEN

Amajorpoint on whichthe Court hasdivided iswhether Australiamay
be sued in the absence of New Zealand and the United Kingdom. 1pro-
pose to givemyreasonsforagreeing withthe decision ofthe Court onthe
point. Before proceeding, there is, however, an introductory matter to
which 1must refer. It concerns the principle of equality of Statesbefore
the Court. It arises in the followingway.
Nauru is one ofthe smallestStatesin the world; Australia is one ofthe
larger. In his opening remarks, the Solicitor-Generalfor the Common-

wealth observed :
"There isno need for emotivearguments. It isnot a caseof David
and Goliath, or of a tiny island and a large metropolitan power . ..
Before this Court, of course, the equality of the Parties will be
preserved. Rich or poor, large or small, the Court will ensure that
their legalrights have equal protection." (CR 91/15, p. 42,Solicitor-
General Gavan Griffith, Q.C.)

Counsel for Nauru in his turn referred to the contrasting sizes of the
Parties and said :
"Beinga smalldemocratic State,Nauru hasfirmfaith inthe ruleof
lawin the affairs of nations. It has firmfaithin this Court asthe dis-

penser of international justice." (CR 91/18, p. 31, Professor Mani.)

It seemsto methat, whateverthe debates relatingto itsprecisecontent
in other respects,the concept ofequality of Stateshas alwaysapplied asa
fundamental principle to the position of Statesasparties to a casebefore
the Court (Consistency ofCertainDanzigLegislativeDecreeswiththeCon-
stitutionoftheFreeCity,P.C.I.J.,SeriesA/B, No.65,p.66,Judge Anzilotti).
InthewordsofPresidentBasdevant,"BeforethisCourt,thereare nogreat
or small States ..."(I.C.J. Yearbook1950-1951,p. 17).States of al1kinds
and sizes may bring their cases before the Court on a basis of perfect
equality. BigStateshave a right to value this aspectas much as small. In
the Mavrommatis Concessionscase, Greece sued the United Kingdom
before the Permanent Court of International Justice. At one stage in a

livelydebate, counsel for the United Kingdom found himself remarking
that "even the great Powers are entitled to justice at the hands of this
Tribunal" (P.C.I.J.,Series C, No. 5-1,p. 64). So indeed they are; so are
al1States.The matter has neverbeen in doubt.271 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEPO. P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

To return to the questionunder examination, as to whether Australia
may be sued alone, 1consider that an affirmativeanswer is required for
three reasons. First, the obligations of the three Governmentsnder the

Trusteeship Agreementwerejoint and several.Second,assumingthat the
obligations werejoint, this did not by itself prevent Australiafrombeing
sued alone. Third, apossiblejudgment againstAustralia willnot amount
to ajudicial determination of the responsibility of NewZealand and the
United Kingdom. Thesepropositionsare developed below. 1begin,how-
ever,with the initialquestion, overwhich the Parties also joined issue,as
towhethertheobjection should bedeclared to beone whichdoesnot pos-
sessan exclusivelypreliminarycharacter. Similarquestionsarose in rela-
tion to other Australian objections, but it is not proposed to deal with
those. 1would add, by way of general caveat, that any reference in this
opinion to the obligation, orliability,orresponsibilityofAustraliashould
beunderstood asresting on an assumptionmadeforthe purposes ofargu-
ment.Whether ornotAustralia had anyobligation, orliability,or respon-
sibilityis a matter forthe merits.

As is shown by the Military and Paramilitary Activitiesin and against
Nicaragua case,wherethe Court declares that an objection does not pos-
sess,in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary charac-
ter,the objection is not finally disposed of; the Court,at the merits stage,
will return to the point and deal with it (see I.C.J. Reports 1984,
pp. 425-426,and I.C.J.Reports1986,pp. 29-31).Thatbeingso,a question
would seemto arise as to how far Article 79,paragraph 7, of the existing
RulesofCourt is,initspracticaloperation,differentfromthe earlierpro-
visions ofArticle 62,paragraph 5,of the Rules of Court 1946relating to
joinder tothe merits(seeS.Rosenne, ProcedureintheInternationalCourt,
A Commentatyonthe1978RulesoftheInternationalCourtofJustice,1983,

pp. 164-166;and Georg Schwarzenberger,InternationalLawasApplied by
InternationalCourtsand Tribunals, 1986,Vol.IV,p. 617).Because of the
textual changes made in the Rules in 1972,the Court no longer says in
terms that it isjoining a preliminarypoint to the merits; but, the Court's
functions not being activated by the use of formulae, the fact that the
Court no longer says so does not by itself affect the substance of what it
does.

Nor woulditberight to suppose thatprior to 1972theCourt considered
that it had an unfettered discretion toer apreliminaryobjection tobe
joined tothe merits.Theuse ofthe disjunctive"or" inthe firstsentence of
Article 62, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court 1946conveyed no suchnotion. Speaking of its power to make such an order, in 1964the Court
expresslystated that it would

"not do so exceptfor good cause,seeingthat the object of a prelimi-
naryobjection isto avoid not merelya decision on,but evenanydis-
cussionofthemerits" (BarcelonaTraction,Ligha tndPowerCompany,
Limited, Preliminaïy Objections,I.C.J.Reports 1964,p. 44; emphasis
added).
That view reached back a long way (Panevezys-SaldutiskisRailway,

P.C.I.J.,SeriesA/B, No. 76,p. 24,Judges DeVisscherand Rostworowski).
Theactualresults mayhavebeendebatable insomecases,but 1hesitateto
imagine that the Court did not recognize that, in principle, wherever
reasonably possible a preliminary objection should be determined at
the preliminary stage.In the BarcelonaTractioncase, after reviewingthe
previousjurisprudence on the subject, the Court indicated the circum-
stancesin whichit would order ajoinder. It said itwould do so where

"the objectionissorelated to the merits,orto questions offact orlaw

touching the merits, that it cannot be considered separatelywithout
goinginto the merits (whichthe Court cannot do whileproceedings
onthe merits stand suspended under Article62),orwithout prejudg-
ingthe meritsbefore these havebeen fully argued (BarcelonaTrac-
tion, Light and Power Company, Limited, Preliminaïy Objections,
I.C.J.Reports 1964,p. 43).
What, however, isscarcelyopen to dispute is that the new Rules were
intended to stressthe need todecide a preliminaryobjection at the preli-
minary stage whereverreasonably possible, the well-knownobject being
to avoid a repetition ofthe kind of situationwhichultimatelyarose in the

Barcelona Traction case and the criticisms attendant thereon (Barcelona
Traction,Light andPowerCompany,Limited,SecondPhase,I.C.J.Reports
1970,p. 3).Fresh urgency has been imparted to the operation of the old
criteria, particularly in respect of the Court's earlierking that a join-
der should not be ordered "except for good cause" ("pour des motifs
sérieux").Tothelimitedextentnecessaryto enabletheCourt to determine
the objection, the merits may be explored, provided, always, that the
issueraised isnot soinextricablylinkedto the meritsas to be incapable of
determination without determining or prejudging the merits or some
part thereof.

Theseconsiderationsno doubt account forthe caution observed bythe
Court in declaring an objection tobe not exclusivelypreliminary in char-
acter. Sincethe introduction ofthe new provisionsin 1972,the Court has
made such a declaration in one case only, namely,the Militaïyand Para-
militaryActivitiesinand againstNicaraguacase.There,certain objections,
althoughnotpresented bythe respondent aspreliminaryobjections, were273 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

consideredinthe lightoftheprocedural provisionsrelatingtopreliminary
objections (I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 425,para. 76).The Court declared one
of the objections to be not exclusivelypreliminaryin character (ibid.).At

the merits stagethis objection, which related to jurisdiction, was upheld
(I.C.J.Reports1986,p. 38,para. 56).Haditnot been forthe fact that other
grounds ofjurisdiction existed,the result would havebeen a replay ofthe
Barcelona Traction situation. Possibly,anycriticismscould havebeen met
inthe circumstancesofthe case.In the caseatbar, 1amnot confidentthat
this would be so if the particular objection under consideration were
declared to be not exclusively preliminary in character but ultimately
cameto beupheld atthe merits stage.Inthat event(unlikethepositionin
the MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesinandagainstNicaraguacase),the
consequencewould be the immediate andtotal collapse of Nauru's case.
Unlessit couldbe convincinglyshownthat thepoint couldnot havebeen
determined at the preliminary stage, it would be difficult to parry criti-
cismsabout waste of time, expense and effort,not to mention evasion of

the Court's responsibilities.

Nauru's position was that Australia'sobjectiondid not have an exclu-
sivelypreliminarycharacter and couldnotbedetermined now,but that, if
it had that character, it should be rejected. Australia countered that the
objection did have an exclusivelypreliminary character and should be
upheld. Byimplication,the Court has agreed with Australia'scontention
that the objection did have an exclusivelypreliminary character. In my
view,the Court wasright.
WhatisNauru's case?Thoughvariouslystated,it comesto this :Nauru
issayingthat AustraliawasadministeringNauru pursuant to the Trustee-
ship Agreement; that this Agreement (read with the Charter and in the

light of general international law) required Australia to use thegovern-
mental powers exercisedbyitunder the Agreementto ensurethe rehabili-
tation of worked-out phosphate lands; but that, in administering the
Territory,Australiabreached thisobligation.

Australia'sobjection isthis :the obligation to ensure rehabilitation (ifit
existed)was,by virtue ofthe terms ofthe Trusteeship Agreement,ajoint
obligation of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, with the
result that Australia alone couldnot be sued because

(i) aparty to ajoint obligationcannot besuedalone;
(ii) ajudgment againstAustralia in respect ofthe joint obligation would
amount to an impermissible determination of the responsibility of
New Zealand andthe United Kingdom (bothnon-parties) in relation
tothe sameobligation(seeJudgment, para.48).

It will bearguedbelowthat the existenceofthe particular obligationto
ensurerehabilitationhas atthis stageto beassumed.Clearlyalsono ques-274 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP .P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

tion arises at this point as to whether there was in fact a breach of the
obligation. The remaining questions are questions of law which can be
answered now. Theyare clearlyof a preliminarycharacter.
Withrespecttothequestionwhethertheparticular obligation under the
TrusteeshipAgreementwasjoint, itseemsto methat itisopentothe Court
to take the position, as 1think it in effect has, that whatever the precise
juridicalbasis ofthe obligationsofthethreeGovernments under theTms-
teeship Agreement, Nauru is not precluded from suing Australia alone.
On this approach, the Court is not called upon to say, and has not said,
whether ornottheparticular obligation wasjoint, asasserted byAustralia
(seeJudgment,para. 48).
However,ifthe Court were calledupon to determinewhetherthe obli-

gation was joint, this determination could be made by considering the
terms of the Trusteeship Agreement and those terms alone. Previous or
subsequent facts could not make the obligationjoint if it was not joint
under the Trusteeship Agreement.Correspondingly, ifthe obligation was
joint under the Trusteeship Agreement, previous or subsequent facts
couldnot make it other than joint.

1do not intend to suggestthat none ofthe facts maybe considered.The
factsare useful,buttheir utilityliesintheassistancetheyprovideinunder-
standing how the Trusteeship Agreement came to be constructed in the
wayitwasand howitworked in practice. In this respect,an abundance of
factshas beenpresented by both sides,and 1shallbe referring to some of
these.Butthefactsdo not themselvesconstitutethefoundation ofthepar-
ticular issues of law now calling for decision.The situation is materially
differentfromone in whichthe questionwhether a caseagainst a Stateis

maintainable in the absence of other States may conceivably depend
directly on facts which could only be explored and ascertained at the
merits (cf.argumentsin MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesinandagainst
Nicaragua,Jurisdiction andAdmissibility, Memorial of Nicaragua, p. 141,
Section "C";CR 84/19, p. 47, Mr. J. N. Moore; and L. F. Damrosch,
"Multilateral Disputes", inL. F. Damrosch (ed.), fie International Court
ofJusticeat a Crossroads, 1987,pp. 391-393).

1mustnowexplainwhy1considerthat ithasto beassumedatthis stage
that Australiahad an obligation to ensure rehabilitation under the Trus-
teeship Agreement, as alleged by Nauru. The reason is that the question
whetherthe obligation existed is part of the merits and, these being pre-
liminary proceedings, the elements of the merits have to be assumed

(see Nottebohm, I.C.J.Reports1955,p. 34,Judge Read, dissenting); they
cannotbe determined now.
In somenational systems,a wide range of points of law relatingto the
meritsmaybe setdownforargument inadvance ofthenormalhearingon
the merits,provided that al1the relevantmaterial isbefore the Court.The
governing criterion is that the point (which might for convenience be called a preliminary objection on the merits) must be one which, if

decidedin one way,willbe decisiveofthe litigation orat anyrate ofsome
substantialissuein the action1.The objectis,ofcourse,to savetime,effort
and cost. There have been arguments (though not in this case) as to
whetherpreliminaryobjections on the merits may competently be made
beforethis Court2. However,whilereservingmy opinion on that point, 1
would note that the Court's jurisprudence (includingparagraphs 36,38,
56 and 68 of today's Judgment) has proceeded on the basis of a long-
standingdistinction between preliminaryobjections and the merits, even

though one may argue as to whether the distinction, itself rather general
and never easyto draw, was accuratelyapplied in particular cases.

What arethe merits? Broadly speaking

"the merits of a dispute consist of the issues of fact and law which
give rise to a cause of action, and which an applicant State must
establishin order to be entitled to the reliefclairned" (Anglo-Iranian
Oil Co., PreliminaryObjection, I.C.J. Reports 1952,p. 148, Judge
Read, dissenting).

To establish its caseonthe merits, Nauru mustprove, interalia,first,that
Australia had an obligation under the Trusteeship Agreement to ensure
rehabilitation and, second,that Australia wasinbreach ofthat obligation.
An argument that Australia did not have that substantive obligation
would accordinglyconcern the rnerits and lack a preliminary character.

It would touch the substance, as amounting to an assertion that there
was no obligation under international law which Australia could have
breached in relation to Nauru (see the general reasoning in Electricity
Company of Sofiaand Bulgaria,P.C.Z.J., SeriesA/B, No. 77,pp. 82-83;
BarcelonaTraction,LightandPowerCompany,Limited,PreliminaryObjec-
tions, I.C.J. Reports 1964,pp. 44-46, and Judge Morelli, dissenting, at
pp. 110-112;ibid., SecondPhase,I.C.J. Reports1970,pp. 226 ff., Judge

Morelli, concurring; and South West Africa, Second Phase, I.C.J.
Reports 1966,p. 19,para. 7). An argument ofthat kind would gonottothe

See, as to Englishlawne Supreme Court Practice,1979, Vol. 1,London,1978,
pp.282-284, Order18/11/1-4. Andsee NorthernCameroons,I.C.J.Reports1963, sep-
arateopinionof JudgeFitzmaurice,pp. 106-107; NuclearTests (Australv. France),
InterimProtectionI.C.J.Reports 1973dissentingopinion ofJudgeGros, p. 121;and
NuclearTests(Australiv.France),I.C.J.Reports1974separateopinionofJudgeGros,
p.292.
* See, generally,and compareJudge Morelli,in Rivista di diritto internazionale,
Vol.47,1964,p.3;Vol.54,1971,p. 5;Vol.58,1975,pp.5and747;GiuseppeSperduti,
ibid.Vol. 53, 1970,p. 46;Vol. 57, 1974,p. 649;Vol.58, 1975,p. 6;RobertoAgo,
bookofZnternationalLaw,1975,Vol.1,p.206,atp.207;andS.Rosenne,lop.cit.,p160,as-
to Article79 of the new Rules"implyinga re-definitionof the qualificatprelimi-
na$'.276 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP .P. SHAHABUDDEEN)

question whether Australia could be sued alone, but to the question
whether Australiacould beadjudged liable,evenifit couldbe sued alone.

Consequently, the question whether Australia had the obligation to
ensure rehabilitation cannot be determined in this phase of the proceed-
ings; it can only be determined at the merits stage. The existence of the
obligation has simplytobe assumed at this point. Thisbeing so,the only
issues now open are the issues of law referred toabove, that is to Say,
whether the obligation (ifit existed)wasjoint, and, if it was,whether the
propositions at (i) and (ii) above are well founded. These issues can be
determined now and cannot justifiably be resemed for the merits.
Nothingrelatingtothe establishmentatthe meritsstageofthe existenceof
the allegedobligationtoensurerehabilitation canprovide areason fornot
dealing withthose issuesnow.

In my opinion, the Court acted correctly in refraining from declaring
thatthe objection asto the absencefromthe proceedings of NewZealand
and the United Kingdom does not possess an exclusively preliminary
character. So1pass to the objection itself,beginning with a background
reference to Australia's positionder the Trusteeship Agreement.

PARTII. AUSTRALIA P'SSITIONUNDER THE TRUSTEESH AIPREEMENT

An appreciation of Australia's positionunder the Trusteeship Agree-

ment should take account oftwofactors,first,the evolution ofAustralia's
international personalityduring the Mandate period, and, second, the
legalcharacter of a trusteeship agreement.
Thefirstfactor relates to the external aspectsofthe constitutional-
lution of the relations between component units of the British Empire
(see, generally, Sir Ivor Jennings, Constitutionalws of the Common-
wealth, Vol.1, TheMonarchies, 1957,pp. 18ff.). It is probable that the
underlyingdoctrine ofthe unityofthe BritishCrown,whichwas then cur-
rent, explains the fact that, although Nauru wasin practice administered
by Australia under the 1920Mandate, the latter was conferred simplyon
"His Britannic Majesty". Traces of the doctrine are perhaps discernible
eveninthe caseofthe Mandate for New Guinea, in whichthe Mandatory

was described as "His Britannic Majesty for and on behalf of the
Government of the Commonwealth of Australia (hereinafter called
the Mandatory)" (Art. 1 of the Mandate, 17 December 1920,Procès-
Verbal ofthe Eleventh Session of the Council of the League of Nations,
held at Geneva, p. 102;see also the second and third preambular para-
graphs, and A. C. Castles, "International Law and Australia's Overseas
Territories", in International Law inAustralia,ed. D. P. O'Connell, 1965,
pp. 294-295).

By contrast, Article 2 of the 1947Trusteeship Agreement for Naurumade a separate referenceto each ofthe three Governmentswhen speak-
ingofthe "Governments ofAustralia, NewZealand and the United King-
dom" as having been "designated asthe joint Authority which will exer-
cisethe administration ofthe Territory". Further, as willbe shownbelow,
bythe AgreementitselfAustraliawas giventhe leadingrole.The material
beforethe Court makesit clearthat during the Mandateperiod Australia
had been moving in the direction of securing a progressively greater
degree of practical control overthe administration of Nauru, an aspira-

tion which had been earlier manifested in the expression of a desire by
Australia to annexthe Island beforethe granting ofthe Mandate. Corre-
spondingly, by 1947,what Chief Justice Sir Garfield Banvick elegantly
calledthe "imperceptible and, in relativeterms,the uneventfulnature of
theprogressofAustraliafromanumber ofseparate dependent colonies to
a single independent and internationally significant nation" had run its
fullcourse l.
Withrespect to the secondfactor,trusteeshipagreements exhibitpecu-
liarities which have left the precise legal character of such agreements

open to some degree of speculation, as is evidenced by an interesting
literature on the subject.Professor CliveParry'sconclusion isthis :

"As actually achieved in the form of treaties between the United

Nations and the several administering authorities, the trusteeship
agreements are legal acts distinct from the Charter. They possess,
however, a dispositive (or conveyancing) as well as a contractual
character. Intheir 'dispositive'aspecttheyarenotindependent ofthe
Charter. Together with the relevant provisions of the Charter they
constitutea quasi-statutorybasis for the trusteeship systemasin fact
applied to specific territories. They have, as has the régimewhich
they inaugurate and govem, an objective character.This is perhaps
their mostimportant aspect." (CliveParry,"The LegalNature ofthe

Trusteeship Agreements", British YearBook of International Law,
Vol. 27, 1950p ,. 164,at p. 185.)

Theseremarks maybeborne inmind, in conjunction withtheevolution

of Australia's international personality, in considering Article 4 of the
Trusteeship Agreementrelating to Nauru, whichprovided as follows :
"The AdministeringAuthority will be responsible for the peace,
order, good government and defence of the Territory, and for this

l Seegenerally, .P.O'Connell,"TheEvolutionofAustralia'sInternationaPlerson-
ality",inInternational LawinAustraliaed. D. P. O'Connell,1965,Chap.1,and the
forewordby SirGarfield Barwick;D. P.O'Connel1andJamesCrawford,"TheEvolu-
tionofAustralia'sInternationalPersonality",nternationalLawinAustralia2nded.
by K.W.Ryan, 1984,p. 21andW.A.Wynes, Legislative,ExecutiveandJudicialPowers
inAustralia5thed.,p.56.278 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

purpose, inpursuance ofan Agreementmadebythe Governments of
Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, the Government
of Australia will, on behalf of the Administering Authority and
except and untilothenvise agreed by the Governments of Australia,
New Zealand and the United Kingdom, continue to exercise full
powers oflegislation,administration andjurisdiction in and overthe
Territory."

As a result of thedual contractual and "quasi-statutory" character of a
trusteeship agreement, and whatevermighthavebeen the earlierimplica-
tions of the first factor mentioned above, it is possible to read this provi-

sion,whichcameinto forcein 1947,asproviding (withthe approval ofthe
General Assembly),first,for fullpowers ofadministration to be vestedin
the three Governments as constituting the AdministeringAuthority, and,
second, for these powers to be delegated bythem to Australia.This inter-
pretation issupported byother elementsofthe Trusteeship Agreement.It
is difficult,therefore, to resist Australia's argument that, however exten-
sive was its administrative authority over Nauru, that authority fell to
be regarded in law as having been exercised by it on behalf of al1three
Governments.
But,althoughform isnotunimportant, internationallawplaces empha-
sison substancerather than on form(MavrommatisPalestine Concessions,
P.C.I.J.,Series A, No. 2, p. 34; Interhandel,I.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 60,
Judge Spender; BarcelonaTraction,Light and PowerCompanyLimited,
PreliminaïyObjections, I.C.J. Reports1964,pp. 62-63,Judge Koo; and,
ibid., Second Phase, I.C.J. Reports 1970,p. 127,Judge Tanaka). Some

notice may, therefore, be taken of the extent and exclusiveness of the
powers enjoyed by Australia, and, in particular, of certain differences
between its position and that of New Zealand and the United Kingdom
which could have a bearing on some ofthe issuesto be examined.

TheprovisionsoftheTrusteeship Agreementdonotreadilyyieldup the
realityofthe actualpowerstructure whichtheylaiddown.Thefirst part of
Article 4 of the Agreement had the effect of vesting plenary powers of
government in the three Governments as constituting the Administering
Authority;but the second part of the provision made it clearthat, for al1
practical purposes, those powers could be exercised only by Australia,
which was giventhe right to "continue to exercisefull powers of legisla-
tion, administration and jurisdiction in and over the Territory". The
authority so conferred on Australia could be revoked by subsequent

agreementbythe three Governments,but, clearly,there could be no such
revocationwithout the consent ofAustralia. In fact,there was no revoca-
tion: the Agreementmade by the three Governments in 1965,while pro-
viding for a measure of subordinate governmental authority to be exer-
cisèdby the Nauruans, had the effect of further diminishing the role of
New Zealand and the United Kingdom in relation to that of Australia.
Thus,Australiahad exclusiveauthority toadminister Nauru foral1practi- 279 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP.OP. SHAHABUDDEEN)

cal purposes, as well as the even more significant power to prevent any
diminution or withdrawal of that authority. Australia's controllingposi-
tion continuedunimpaired right up to independence.
The implications for an appreciation of the real power structure
established by the Trusteeship Agreement are important. TakeArticle 5,
paragraph 1, of the Trusteeship Agreement. This recorded an under-
taking bythe "Administering Authority" that

"It will CO-operatewith the Trusteeship Council in the discharge
of al1 the Council's functions under Articles 87 and 88 of the
Charter."

Or, consider Article 5, paragraph 2 (b),of the Trusteeship Agreement,
under which the "Administering Authority" undertook to
"Promote, as may be appropriate to the circumstances of the
Territory, the economic, social, educational and culturaladvance-
ment ofthe inhabitants."

Itisnotclearto methatthe AdministeringAuthoritycould do anyof these
thingswithoutan appropriate exerciseby Australia of its "full powers of
legislation, administration and jurisdiction in and over the Territory".
However,theTrusteeship Agreementdidnot reservetotheAdministering
Authorityanycompetence to direct or controlthe wayin whichAustralia
choseto exerciseits "full powers", and the evidencedoes not suggestthat
Australia acknowledged that the AdministeringAuthority had any such
competence as ofright. In so far asthe AdministeringAuthorityhad any
functions under the Trusteeship Agreement that could be discharged
without an exercisebyAustralia ofits "fullpowers oflegislation,adminis-

trationandjurisdiction inand overtheTerritory" (whichseemsdoubtful),
such functions had nothing to do with the substance of the claims pre-
sentedby Nauru. Andthisis apart fromthe consideration that, inthe first
place,theAdministeringAuthoritycouldnot actwithoutthe concurrence
of Australia. The Parties to the case were agreed that the Administering
Authority wasnot a separate subject of international law or a legal entity
distinct from its three member Governments. These could act only by
agreement, and there couldbe no agreement ifAustraliaobjected.
Australiasubmitted that it acted withthe concurrence of New Zealand
and the United Kingdom in appointingAdministrators oftheTrust Terri-
tory (Preliminary Objections of the Government of Australia, Vol. 1,
paras. 36,45,334 ff.,and 341).However,none ofthe pertinent documents
suggeststhat New Zealand and the United Kingdom had any legal basis
on which to demand to be consulted as of right, let alone demand that
their concurrence be obtained. New Zealand and the United Kingdom

participated inthenegotiations and ensuingagreement forthetransfer of
the phosphate undertaking to Nauruan control; but the real basis on
whichtheywereactingthere wasthe commercialonewhichtheyoccupied
as part-owners of the undertaking and future purchasers of Nauruan
phosphates. In sofaras the negotiationsembraced the subjectof rehabili-280 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP.OP. SHAHABUDDEEN)

tation,thisdid not showthat New Zealand and the United Kingdom had
any control ofthe actual administration of the TrustTerritory :under the
Trusteeship Agreement their responsibilityfor non-rehabilitation could
exist without such control.The law is familiar with situations in which a
party maybecome contractuallyliableforthe acts ofanother though hav-
ing no power of direction or control overthem. Possibly,the concurrence
of NewZealand and the United Kingdom waslegallyrequiredin respect
of a proposal, such as that relating to resettlement, which premised a
modification of the fundamental basis of the original arrangements,

or that relating to independence, which premised the termination of the
Trusteeship Agreement itself; but 1 am unable to see that there was
any such requirement, as a matter of law, where the normal administra-
tion ofthe Territory was concerned.

The first preamble of the Trusteeship Agreement recalled that, under
the Mandate, the Territory of Nauru had "been administered .. . by
the Government of Australia on the joint behalf of the Governments of
Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland". Thus, the Trusteeship Agreement itself recognized
thatthe administration ofthe Island had in practicebeen in the hands of
Australia during the Mandate. This,ofcourse,continued under the Trus-
teeship (seepara. 43ofthe Judgment).The position was, 1think, correctly
summed up by counselfor Nauru as follows :

"Nauru was administeredasan integral portion ofAustralian ter-
ritory.Itsadministrationborenorelationtotheterritory ofanyother
State.Asfar as can be discovered,no governmental officia1of either
New Zealand or the United Kingdom lived on Nauru during the
period from 1920to early 1968,or performed governmental acts
there. Throughout the whole ofthat period, the government officials
on Nauru, the Administrator and the persons responsible to him,

were Australian public servants, answerable to other Australian
public servantsin Canberra, and in no sensesubject tothe direction
or control of any other Government. Article 22 of the Covenant
referredto administration 'underthe lawsofthe Mandatory' :infact,
those lawswereAustralian.No Britishor New Zealand lawwas ever
applied to Nauru." (CR 91/20, pp. 75-76,Professor Crawford.)

Theinternational agreements whichapplied to Nauru werea selectionof
international agreements to which Australia was a party (ibid., p. 78).
Althoughindependence had been agreedtobyal1threeGovernments,the
Nauru Independence Act 1967wasan Australianenactment; no counter-
part legislation was enacted by New Zealand or the United Kingdom.
Until independencethe flag - the only one - which flewin Nauru was
the Australian flag.
1 am not persuaded by Australia's argument that its governmentalauthority was excluded from the phosphate industry by reason of
Article 13of the Nauru Island Agreement 1919,reading:

"There shall be no interference by any of the three Governments
with the direction,management, or control of the business of work-
ing, shipping, or sellingthe phosphates, and each of the three Gov-
emmentsbinds itselfnot to do orto permit anyact or thing contrary
to or inconsistent with the terms and purposes of this Agreement."

Referring to this provision, in the case of Titov. Waddell,egarry,V-C.,
observed - correctly,if 1may Sayso - that :
"This article established the independence of the British Phos-

phate Commissionersas against any one or two of the three govern-
ments, though not, of course, against al1three acting in concert."
([1977]3Al1ER 129,at p. 166.)
Article 13ofthe Nauru Island Agreementcouldnot apply to Australia as
Administratorforthe reason that, in administeringNauru under author-
ity delegated by al1three Governments,its actswould in substance have
been the acts of al1three Governments "acting in concert", and not the
acts of Australiaalone.

It is not possible to conceiveof the major industry of a Territory (irre-
spectiveof ownership)beingentirelybeyondthe competence ofthe legis-
lative, executive and judicial powers of the Territory, in whomsoever
these are vested. Consequently, to hold that the governmental powers of
the Australian-appointedAdministrator did not extend to the phosphate
industry andthat this was exclusivelywithinthe competence of the three
Governments acting through the British Phosphate Commissioners
(BPC)iseffectivelyto hold that governmentalpowersconcerningal1mat-
ters relating to the industry were exercisable by the three Governments
actingthrough BPC.This in turn amounts to saying that there were two
governments in Nauru, namely, an economic government administered
bythe three Governmentsactingthrough BPC withexclusiveresponsibi-
lity for the Territory'smain industry, and another government adminis-
tered by Australia with responsibilityfor residualmatters. 1cannot read
the Trusteeship Agreement as meaning that the régime whichit intro-
duced in Nauru in 1947consisted of two such governments. It is, 1 think,
unquestionable that al1governmental power must derive from the Trus-

teeship Agreement (see, as to a mandate, International Status of South
West Africa,I.C.J. Reports1950,p. 133).BPC (whose undertaking could
equally have been carried on by an ordinary commercial Companyas,
indeed, had beenearlier the case)didnot professto be exercisinggovern-
mental powers under the Trusteeship Agreement: it simplyhad nostand-
ing under that Agreement.Onthe other hand, asthe legislativeand other
evidence shows, Australia did not consider that its Administrator was
wholly without competence over the industry. The Trusteeship Agree-ment was concluded on the basis that al1governmental functions in
Nauru, though formally vested in al1three Governments,would be exer-
cisedbyAustraliaalone. Itisuntenable to supposethat the "fullpowersof
legislation, administration and jurisdiction in and over the Territory",
which were conferred on Australia by the Trusteeship Agreement, were
not "full" enough to extend to the overwhelmingbulk of the Territory's
economy.

Part ofthe problem concerns the correctappreciation of Nauru's case.

There could be an impression that Nauru's claimsdirectlyconcern Aus-
tralia'spart inthe commercialoperations ofthephosphate industry.That
impression would not be accurate. No doubt, Nauru's case has many
branches; but the essenceofthe case - whetherit is wellfounded or not
being a matter forthe merits - is that Australia, while having under the
Trusteeship Agreement "full powers of legislation, administration and
jurisdiction in and over the Territory", failed to exercisehese compre-
hensivegovernmentalpowers so asto regulatethe phosphate industry in
such a way as to secure the interests of the people of Nauru (CR 91/20,
p. 83, and CR 91/22, p. 45, Professor Crawford). In particular, says
Nauru, there wasfailureto institute the necessaryregulatorymeasures to
ensurethe rehabilitation ofworked-out areas,not inthe caseofminingin
any country, but in the case of large-scaleopen-cast mining in the min-
uscule area ofthisparticular TrustTerritory.Theconsequence,according
to Nauru, was that the Territory became, or was in danger of becoming,
incapable of serving as the national home of the people of Nauru, con-

trary to the fundamental objectivesof the Trusteeship Agreement and of
theCharter ofthe UnitedNations. Inthisrespect,the question,as 1under-
stand it, is not simply whether rehabilitation was required by such
environmental noms as were applicable at the time; the question is
whetherrehabilitation was required by an implied obligationof Australia
under the Trusteeship Agreement not to allow the destruction of the
smallnational homeland of the Nauruan people, or any substantial part
of it, through an unregulated industrial process which went so far as to
result at one stage in theaking and consideration of serious proposals
for resettlement of the Nauruan people altogether outside of Nauru.
That, 1think, is Nauru's case.

Thereisnobasisforsuggestingthat NewZealand and the United King-
dom had any capacity,as of right, to require Australiato use the govern-
mental powers, which it alone could exercise,for the purpose of legally
ensuring rehabilitation. No doubt, havingaccepted that Australiawasact-

ing on their behalf, withthe possibilitythat theycould in consequencebe
liableforitsacts,NewZealand and theUnited Kingdomhadan interestin
seeingthat Australiadischarged the responsibilitiesofthe Administering
Authority in asatisfactoryway.But"the existenceofan'interest' doesnot 283 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP.OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

ofitselfntai1that thisinterestisspecificallyjuridical in character" (South
WestAfrica,SecondPhase, I.C.J.Reports1966,p. 34,para. An)interest
is not always a right (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited,econdPhase,I.C.J.Reports1970,pp. 36,38,and Judge Morelliat
pp. 235-237):in this case, giventhe terms ofle 4 of the Trusteeship
Agreement,New Zealand andthe United Kingdom had no capacityas of
rightto controlthe course ofAustralia'sconduct ofthe administration of
the Island.resumably,they had someinfluence;but, asJenksremarked,
even where influence is considerable, "influence is less than power"
(C.W. Jenks, The WorldBeyond theCharter, 1969,p. 99).

Judge Hudson once warned that "[a]juristic conception must not be
stretchedto thebreaking-point" (LighthousesinCreteand Samos,P.C.I.J.,
SeriesA/B, No. 71,p. 127).In the circumstances ofthat case,hehad occa-
sion to add that "a ghost of a hollow sovereigntycannot be permittedto
obscure the realities of [the]situation" in Crete. No questions of
eignty arise here; nevertheless, those remarks may be borne in mind in
. consideringthe realities of the situation in Nauru. In law, Australia was
actingonbehalf ofal1three Governments; and Australia isrightin saying
that this circumstancewas consistentlyreflectedinthe positionsby
the United Nations and by Nauru. Butit would be erroneousto suppose
that New Zealand and the United Kingdom were also administering
Nauru in the sense of having any real Sayin itsadministration; they had
none.

PARTIII. THEOBLIGATIO NFSTHETHREE GOVERNMENW TERE JOINT
AND SEVERA WLITH THECONSEQUEN THEATAUSTRALC IOULD
BESUED ALONE

1comenowtothequestionwhether the obligationsofthethree Govern-
ments werejoint, as contended by Australia, or whether they werejoint
and several,as contended by Nauru.
1understoodcounsel forAustraliatobeacceptingthat theinternational
case-lawdoes not support the Australian viewthat the obligations of the
three Governments werejoint, even if he considered that neitherit
support the Nauruan view that the obligations were joint anderal
(CR 91/21, pp. 63-64,Professor Pellet,statingthat "le match estnul").

As regardsthe work produced by the International Law Commission,
whichwas laid by either side before the Court, the statement of counsel
for Australia wasthis

"the International Law Commission has never expressly adopted
a position on the problemunder consideration, displaying great
reticence as regards the very idea of joint andveral liability"
(ibid.,65). 284 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

But reticence is not resistance. The Parties disputed the precise meaning
of paragraph 2 of the commentary on Article 27 of the Commission's
Draft Articles on State Responsibility of 1978.That paragraph Statesin
relevant part :

"Asimilarconclusionis calledforin casesofparallelattribution of
a single course of conduct to several States,as when the conduct in
question has been adopted by an organ common to a number of
States.Accordingto theprinciples on whichthe articles ofchapter II
of the draft are based, the conduct of the commonorgan cannot be
considered othenvisethan as anact ofeach ofthe Stateswhosecom-
mon organ it is. If that conduct is not in conformity with an interna-
tional obligation, then two or more States will concurrently have
committed separate, although identical, internationally wrongful

acts. It is self-evident that the parallel commission of identical
offences by two or more States is altogether different from partici-
pation by one ofthose Statesin an internationallywrongfulact com-
mitted by the other." (Yearbook of the International Law Com-
mission,1978,Vol.II, Part Two,p. 99.)

It isnot necessaryto enterintothe generalaspects ofthe difficultques-
tion carefullyexamined by the Commission as to when a State is to be
regarded as participating in the internationally wrongful act of another
State. It suffices to note that the Commission considered that, where
Statesact through a commonorgan, each State is separatelyanswerable
forthe wrongfulactofthe commonorgan.That view,it seemsto me,runs
in the direction of supporting Nauru's contention that each of the three
States in this case isjointly and severallyresponsible for the way Nauru

was administered on their behalf by Australia,whether or not Australia
maybe regardedtechnicallyas a commonorgan.

Judicialpronouncementsare scarce.However,speakingwithreference
tothe possibilitythat anon-party State had contributed tothe injuryinthe
CorfuChannelcase,Judge Azevedodid have occasion to say :

"The victimretainsthe rightto submita claim againstone only of
the responsible parties, in solidurn,in accordance with the choice
whichisalwaysleftto the discretion ofthe victim,inthe purely econ-
omicfield; whereas a criminaljudge cannot, inprinciple,pronounce
an accomplice or a principal guilty without at the same time estab-
lishingthe guilt of the main author or the actual perpetrator of the
offence." (I.C.J.Reports1949,p. 92.)'

On the facts,the CorfuChannelcase allowsfor a number of distinctions.

-- -
' Astothelastpoint,however,comparei,nEnglishlaw,Archbold,Pleading,Evidence
andPracticeinCriminalCases,40thed.p.1898,para4.136;Halsbury'sLawsofEngland,
4thed.,Vol.11(l), pp.49-50,para.50;andR v.Howe [1987]1Al1ER771HL.However,it isto be observedthat Judge Azevedo'sbasic viewof the gen-
eral law was that the right to sue "one only of the responsibleparties, in
solidum"wasavailableto theinjuredparty "in accordance withthechoice

whichis alwaysleftto the discretion ofthe victim,in the purely economic
field.. ."(emphasisadded). This approach would seemto be consistent
with the viewthat Nauru does have the right to sueAustraliaalone.

If domestic analogies are to be considered, the most likely area lies
within the broad principles of the law of trust in English law and of cog-
nate institutionsinother systems.AUnited Nations Trusteeship mustnot,
of course, be confused with a trust as understood in any specific system
of municipal law; but, used with discretion, the principles relating to
the latter are not unhelpful in elucidating the nature of the former. As
Judge McNair said, in relation to Mandates, it "is primarily from the
principles ofthetrustthat help canbeobtained onthe sideofprivate law"
(International Status ofSouth WestAfrica,I.C.J.Reports 1950,p. 151 ;and
see,ibid.,pp. 148,149,152,and the Namibiacase, I.C.J.Reports1971,p. 16,

atp. 214,Judge de Castro).Now,the applicable ruleinthe Englishlawof
trustshas been stated thus:

"Whereseveraltrustees areimplicatedin abreach oftrust,there is
no primary liabilityfor it between them, but they are al1jointly and
severally liable to aperson who is entitled to sue in respect of it."
(Halsbuy's Laws ofEngland, 4th ed., Vol.48,p. 522,para. 939; see
also, ibid.,p. 539,para. 971,and ibid.,Vol. 35,para. 68.)

Thisbeing so, 1do not find it surprising that, in regard to Nauru, the
viewhasbeenexpressed"that thethreecountriesare jointly and severally
responsible under international law for the administration of the terri-
tory" (A.C.Castles,"International Lawand Australia's OverseasTerrito-
ries", in InternationalLawinAustralia,ed.D.P.O'Connell, 1965,p.332).1
think this view is to be preferred to the view that the responsibility was

exclusivelyjoint.
This conclusion, that the obligation to ensure rehabilitation (if it
existed)wasjoint and several,disposesofAustralia'scontention that pro-
ceedingswillnot lieagainstone only ofthethree Governments. It should
alsodispose ofAustralia'scontention that anyjudgment againstAustralia
will amount to a judgment against New Zealand and the United King-
dom. ButAustralia does notthink so; it considersthat, evenifthe obliga-
tion was joint and several, a judgment against it would still imply a
determination oftheresponsibility of NewZealand and the United King-
dom. The issue concerning the implications of a possible judgment
againstAustralia for New Zealand and the United Kingdom isnot being
examined here; it willbe examined in Part V.However,to anticipatethe
conclusion reached there, even if the obligation was joint, a judgment 286 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP .P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

against Australia willnotount to a determination ofthe responsibility
of New Zealand and the United Kingdom. This conclusion, if correct,
would apply afortioriif theobligation wasjoint and several.

PARTIV. EVENIF THE OBLIGATIO NFSTHE THREE GOVERNMEN WTESRE
JOINT,THIS BY ITSELFDIDNOTPREVENA TUSTRAL IROM BEING SUED
ALONE

Assumingthat 1am wrong in the foregoing,the result would be no dif-
ferent, in my opinion, even if the obligations of the three Governments
under the Trusteeship Agreement werejoint. It is possible, as 1think is
recognized in paragraphs8 and 49 of the Judgment of the Court, to see
Australia's argument as raising two questionsst, whether the factthat
an obligation is joint by itselfs that a suit will not lie against one
CO-obligoralone;and, second,whether ajudgment againstoneCO-obligor
will constitute a determination of the responsibility of the other co-
obligors and a resulting breach of the consensual basis of the Court's

jurisdiction. The second question is examined in Part V; the first is
considered below.

Onthe question beingconsidered, 1agreewithAustraliathat "there are
in reality twoeparate and distinct issues", namely, "whether Australia
alone canbesued,and, ifso,whetheritcanbesuedforthe wholedamage"
(Preliminary Objections of the Government of Australia, Vol. 1,p. 131,
para. 320). However, in rny view, if the answer to the first issue is that
Australiaalone canbesued,the secondissue,concerningthe extentofthe
damageforwhichitmaybesued, isa matterforthe merits.Thetwoissues

beingadmittedly "separate and distinct", onceit isacceptedthat Australia
alone maybesued, 1do not seehowthe question ofthe exact extentofthe
damage for which it isresponsible can be madetotakethe form of a plea
in bar of a suit othenvise properly brought against 1tbelieve this
approach accordswiththe position taken bythe Court inparagraph 48of
the Judgment. Accordingly,1shall be focusing on the first of these two
issues,that is to Say,whether Australia alone maybe sued in respect of a
joint obligation.

While refraining from citing and discussing particular texts, 1cannot
Saythat 1have the impression that the valuable work ofthe International
Law Commission,whichwasplaced before the Court bythe Parties, was
directed to the question of pure principle as to whether a party to an act
done atone leveloranother ofassociationwithanotherparty maybesued
alone. In sofar astheworkofthe Commissiondealswithactsofthat kind,
itappears to be directed tothe question whether,in a suitbrought against
any one such party, the claim may be for the entirety of the resulting287 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

damage or only for such part as is proportionate to the extent of that
party's own participation in the causative act, done in the exercise of its
separate sovereignpower. If ajoint obligation is conceived of as an obli-
gationwhichinlawiscapable ofexistingonlyinrelationto al1the co-obli-
gorsas a group, withoutany one of them being individuallysubject to it,
thiswould beaground for sayingthat proceedings willnot lieagainstany
one of them separately. On this aspect, Australia'spleadingsare opento
differentinterpretations(CR 91/20, p.63,ProfessorCrawford, and Preli-
minary Objections of the Govemment of Australia, Vol. 1,p. 3,para. 2,

penultimatesentence, and p. 131,para. 321).However, 1do notthink that
Australia is contending that, standing by itself,it was not subject to the
obligationsofthe TrusteeshipAgreement; ifitwere,itwould,forreasons
givenunderPart 1above,beraisinganissueofthe merits,sinceitwould in
effect be saying that the obligation at intemational law, which Nauru
allegesthat itbreached, simplydidnot exist.Thegeneraltendency ofdoc-
trinal writings,as1appreciate them, does not take the matter anyfurther.

While properly acknowledging the need for caution in transposing
legal concepts from domestic societies to the international community,
both Partiespresentedmunicipal lawmaterials and soughtsome support
fromthemfortheir respectivecontentions. 1amnot acquainted withnon-

Anglo-saxon legalsystemsbut, subject to the same need for circumspec
tion - a need that 1emphasize - 1will consider brieflythe position in
Englishlaw,as 1understand it.

Inthe caseofajoint tort, in Englishlawthe plaintiff can alwayssueany
or al1ofthetortfeasors, because,asitwassaidovertwohundred yearsago,
"a tort is in its nature the separate act of each individual" (Egger v.
ViscountChelmsford[1964]3 Al1ER 412 CA; and Clerkand Lindsellon
Torts,16thed., p.179,para. 2.53).This ruleappliesalso totorts committed
by partners (Halsbury'sLaws ofEngland,4th ed., Vol.35,para. 67).The
realproblem wasdifferent;it wasthis,that "recoveryofjudgment against
one ofanumber ofjoint tortfeasorsoperatedasa bar to anyfurther action
against the others, even though the judgment remained unsatisfied"

(Clerk and Lindsellon Torts, 16th ed., p. 180,para. 2.54).This bar was
removed by Section6of the Law Reform (Married Women and Tortfea-
sors) Act 1935(replaced by the Civil Liability (Contribution) Act 1978),
under which judgment against one joint tortfeasor is no bar to action
againstothers,subject to considerations ofaggregationand costs.Clearly,
however,evenbefore the 1935enactment,there was nothingin priilciple
to prevent the plaintiff from suing one only of a number of joint tort-
feasors.

In the case of joint contractors the procedural position in 1967was
stated thus :

"A defendant has a prima facie right to have his CO-contractor 288 PHOSPHATE LANDS INNAURU (SEP.OP. SHAHABUDDEEN)

joined as defendant and in the absence of special circumstances
showing that [an]order [stayingthe proceedings until joinder was
effected]shouldnot be made, it isthe practice to make it ..Butifit
is shown that there is any good reason to the contrary, e.g.,that the
newparty isout ofthejurisdiction (Wilsonv.Balcarres,etc., Co.1893]
1QB 422),or that every effort has been made to serve him without
success,then the action may be allowed to proceed withoutjoinder
(Robinson v. Geisel [1894]2 QB 685, CA)." (The Supreme Court
Practice1967,Vol. 1,p. 154, Order 15/4/10; and see Chittyon Con-
tracts,26thed., Vol. 1,pp. 807-808,para. 1303,and G.H.Treitel, The
Law of Contract,6th ed.,p. 444.)

Therelated common lawrule wasthat "an actionagainst ajoint contrac-
tor servedtobar any other proceedingsagainst another joint contractor"
(Chitty on Contracts,26th ed., Vol. 1,p. 807,para. 1303).This rule was
later abolished by Section 3 of the Civil Liability (Contribution) Act
1978,under which a plaintiff may sue one of several joint contractors
withoutprejudice to hisright to sue otherslater (ibid.,p. 809,para. 1306,
and The Supreme Court Practice, 1991, Vol. 1, London, 1990,p. 185,
Order 15/4/ 10).
Nauru argues persuasivelythat

"the Court is not competentin the present proceedings to interpret
any provisions in the Optional Clause declarations of the United
Kingdom and New Zealand that they might seek to rely on if they
werepartiestoproceedings commencedbyNauru" (CR91/20, p.90,
Professor Crawford);

and certainlythe position under the two declarationsisnot equally clear.
But,ifthe Court maynot makeanyinterpretation ofitsown,itmay never-
thelessnotice that it isAustralia,the proponent ofthe preliminary objec-
tion, which is itself affirming that the Court would not havejurisdiction
under those declarationsagainstNewZealand and the United Kingdomif
Nauru wereto suethem (CR91/17, pp. 20,21,26,46,48, ProfessorPellet;
and PreliminaryObjectionsofthe Governmentof Australia,Vol. 1,p. 138,
para. 346).In myview,the possibility,insisted on by Australia itself,that
there would be no jurisdiction in respect of New Zealand and the United
Kingdom constitutes a reasonable approximation to the exception in
English law (even as it stood before 1978)which permitted of an action
beingbrought against one of a number ofjoint contractors if,for reasons
of jurisdiction or service,it was not practicable to join the others. That
possibility also servesto attract attention to the Court's statementin 1984

tothe effectthat, inthe absence ofanysystemofcompulsoryintervention,
and barring the operation ofthe MonetaryGoldprinciple(anaspectdealt
with in the following Part), "it must be open to the Court, and
indeed its duty,to givethe fullest decision it may in the circumstances of289 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP .P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

each case" (Continental Shelf(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Applica-
tionfor Permissionto Intemene,I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 25,para. 40).

One ofthe books cited by Australia, and relied on by it, in its surveyof
domestic legal systems, was Glanville Williams, Joint Obligations,Lon-
don, 1949(PreliminaryObjectionsof the Governmentof Australia,Vol. 1,
p. 128,para. 309).The particular reference was to page 35,paragraph 2.
Two pages earlier, speaking of joint promises, that learned author
expressedthe viewthat "Bowen L.J.statedthe ruleclearly"whenhe said:

"There is in the cases of joint contract and joint debt as distin-
guished from the cases of joint and several contract and joint and
severaldebt, only one cause of action. The party injured may sue at
lawal1thejoint contractorsor hemaysueone,subjectinthelattercase
to the right of the single defendant to plead in abatement; but
whether an action in the case of ajoint debt is brought against one
debtor or against al1the debtors . . .it is for the same cause of

action - there is only one cause of action. This rule, though the
advantage or disadvantage of it may have been questioned in times
long past, has now passed into the law of this country." (Glanville
Williams,op. cit.,pp. 33-34,citing Re Hodgson,Beckettv. Ramsdale,
(1885)31Ch. D. 177,at p. 188,CA; emphasisadded.)

Subject to the right to plead in abatement, Glanville Williams did not

appearto think that the fact that a contractualobligation isjoint operates
in principle to precludethe plaintiff fromsuing one only ofthejoint con-
tractors.
Itdoes not appear to me that recourse to municipal law, in so far as 1
havebeen able to exploreit, yields any satisfactoryanalogiessupportive
ofthe suggestedexistenceof any rule of international lawprecludingthe
presentaction ontheground that theobligation wasjoint. Onbalance,the
generaltrend of the references givenby the Parties to non-Anglo-saxon
legal systemsis not, 1believe,at variance with this conclusion (see, also,
the authorities cited in the Memorial of the United States of America of
2 December 1958in I.C.J. Pleadings, Aerial Incident of 27 JuZy1955,
pp. 229ff.).
As has often been remarked, to overestimate the relevance of private
law analogies is to overlook significant differences between the legal
framework ofnational societiesandthat ofthe international community,
as well as differences between thejurisdictional basis and powers of the

Court and those of national courts; "lock, stock and barrel" borrowings
would of course be wrong (International Status of South WestAfrica,
I.C.J.Reports1950,p. 148,Judge McNair). Onthe otherhand, nothing in290 PHOSPHATE LANDS INNAURU (SEP.OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

those differencesrequiresmechanicaldisregard ofthe situation atmunici-
pal law;to speak of ajoint obligation isnecessarilyto speak of a munici-
pal law concept. The compulsory or involuntarycharacter of municipal
jurisdiction, with its facilities for enforcingcontribution among co-obli-
gors,doesnot, 1think, whollyaccountforthefactthat, at municipal law,a
suit may be competentlybrought against one CO-obligorin respect of a
joint obligation. Ifforanyreasonit isimpossibleto enforceor obtaincon-

tribution among the CO-obligors,this does not absolve an available co-
obligor from liability to the obligee.The obligee is not entitled to collect
thefull amount repetitivelyfromeach ofthe CO-obligorsb ; ut he isentitled
to collectthe fullmount by suing any or al1ofthem. Possibly,at interna-
tional law,there couldbe a question asto whether a suit againstone co-
obligormaybe forthe full amount;but 1am unable to seehow thiscould
affecthis liabilityin principle toparate suit.

Further, any question whether there is a right of contribution would

constitute a separate dispute between CO-obligorsto be separately
resolved by any appropriate means of peaceful settlement. As indicated
above, international judicial settlement differs from municipal judicial
settlement in important ways; though it is in a real sense the ultimate
method ofpeacefulsettlement ofinternational disputes, it does not enjoy
the jurisdictional primacy enjoyed by municipal judicial settlement
among other settlement mechanisms. Thefact that recourse to the Court
may not be open to a party seeking contribution is not decisive
(cf.J. H.RaynerLtd.v.Department ofTrade[1990]2AC418HL,atp. 480,
letter F). The claim to contribution may be pursued in other ways. This
perspective isnot,1believe,verydifferentin principle from that adopted
by counsel for Australia when he argued, as 1 understood him, to the
effect that a decision of the Court upholding Australia's preliminary

objection as to the absence of New Zealand and the United Kingdom
would result in Nauru not obtaining any legal ruling on the merits,
but would not deprive Nauru of the opportunity of pursuing its claim
in other ways (CR 91/21, p. 68). In international law a right may well
existevenin the absence of anyjuridical method of enforcingit (Eugène
Borel, "Les voiesde recours contre les sentences arbitrales", Recueildes
coursde l'Académie de droit internationalde La Haye, Vol.52 (1935-II),
pp. 39-40).Thus, whetherthere is a right to contribution does not neces-
sarily depend on whether there exists a juridical method of enforcing
contribution.

In consideringwhetherthe legalrule contended forbyAustralia exists,
1wouldremind myself ofthe followingstatementbyCharles DeVisscher :291 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

"Thetemptation to formalism,and theproneness togeneralization
byabstractconcepts andto prematuresystematization,representone
of the most serious dangers to which international-law doctrine is
still exposed. It escapes only by constant return to respect for facts
and by exactobservation ofthe concrete and veryspecialconditions
which in the international domain contribute to forming the legal
rule and govern its applications. Of course the legal rule never

embracessocialreality in al1itsfullness and complexity.Attempting
to do so,lawwouldriskcompromisingitsproper endsas wellasover-
shootingits possibilities. If abstractioncarried to an extreme degen-
erates into unreality,individualization pushed to excessleads to the
destruction ofthe rule.International justice especiallymustmaintain
a proper relationship between social data and the rules designedto
govern them." (Charles De Visscher, ïheoïy and Reality in Public
IntemationalLaw, trans. P.E.Corbett, 1968,p. 143.)

Possibly, thesewordscould offercomfort to both ofthe competingpoints

of viewon the questionwhetherthere is a legal rule precluding an action
againstone only of a number ofjoint actors.Theimplications of holding
that there issucha rule can onlybegrasped and evaluated byreferenceto
concrete casesexemplifyingits operation.

In this case,Australia (whichisbeforethe Court) accepts that it "exer-
cised actual administration of the territory of Nauru" (Preliminary
Objections of the Government of Australia, Vol. 1,p. 136,para. 339); its
argument isthat it was doing so on behalf of itself, New Zealand and the
United Kingdom astogetherconstitutingthe AdministeringAuthority. 1
do not understand it to be sayingthat in lawthere isno conceivablebasis
onwhichitcouldbeindividuallysubject to the obligations ofthe Trustee-
ship Agreement; it contends that the issue whether it was in breach of

those obligations can onlybe determinedin a suitbrought againstitself,
New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Sothe substance ofthe matter is
this:itisnot a question of Nauru proposingatechnical devicefor attach-
ingresponsibilityto Australiaforsomething whichAustraliadidnot itself
door for breach of an obligation which Australia could not conceivably
have in law, but rather a question of Australiaproposing a formula pre-
cludingthe Court fromadjudicating on the issuewhether Australia'sown
actswerein breach ofitstrusteeshipobligations, onthe ground that these
obligations were jointly shared by Australia with two other States on
whose behalf Australia was acting but which are not parties to the pro-
ceedings.
Itseemsto methatto hold,insuchcircumstances,that there existsarule

of law,asasserted by Australia,whichhas the effect ofbarring these pro-
ceedingsinthe absence of NewZealand and the United Kingdom on the
ground that the obligation wasjoint isto import a levelof formalism and
abstraction that is incompatible with the "proper relationship between292 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEPO.P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

socialdata and theulesdesignedtogovernthem" - arelationship which
Judge De Visschertellsus it isthety of international justice especially
to maintain.

PART V. A JUDGMEN TGAINSTAUSTRALW IAILLNOTAMOUN TO A
JUDICIADLETERMINATI OOFTHE RESPONSIBIL IFY
NEWZEALAN AND THE UNITED KINGDOM

1come finally to ~ustralia's argument that a judgment against it will
amount to a determination ofthe responsibility of New Zealand and the
United Kingdom, andthat, consequently,Nauru's action isreallyagainst
al1three Governments,two of which, however, are absent and have not
accepted thejurisdiction of the Court in the case.
Australiaemphasizedthat the argument wasnot that NewZealand and
the United Kingdomwere"indispensable parties". In litigationbeforethe

Court thereare,indeed,twoelementswhich advisecautioninadopting an
"indispensableparties" rule. These elements,which are interrelated,are,
first,that thejurisdiction ofthe Court isconsensual, and, second,that the
Court has no power toorder joinder of third parties. There are circum-
stancesin whichitmaybeincompetent orimproperforthe Courtto heara
case in the absence of a third party: the case of the Monetary Gold
RemovedfromRomein1943showsthat (I.C.J.Reports1954,p. 32).But,as
was indicated by that case and emphasizedinater cases expounding it,
the Court would only decline to exerciseitsjurisdiction where the legal

interests of a State not party to the proceedings "would not only be
affectedby adecision,but wouldformthe verysubject-matter ofthe deci-
sion" (ibid.).Thatthis wasthe position inthat caseisshownbythe follow-
ingpart of the Judgmen:

"Thefirst SubmissionintheApplicationcentresaround a claimby
Italy againstAlbania, a claim to indemnification for an alleged
wrong.Italybelievesthat shepossessesarightagainst Albaniaforthe
redress of an international wrong which,according to Italy,a
has committed againsther. In order, therefore, to determinewhether
Italy is entitled to receive the gold, it is necessary to determine
whether Albania has committed any international wrong against

Italy,and whethersheis under an obligation to pay compensation to
her; and, if so, to determine also the amount of compensation. In
order to decide such questions,it is necessaryto determinewhether
theAlbanian lawofJanuary 13th,1945,wascontraryto international
law. In the determination ofthese questions- questions which
relate to the lawful or unlawful character of certain actions of Alba-
nia vis-à-visIta-y only two States,Italy and Albania, are directly
interested." (Ibid.) Thus, in that case the Court was being asked to determine whether
Albania, a non-party, had by its actions engaged international responsi-
bility to Italy,the Applicant,and, if so, whether, in consequence,certain
monetarygold belonging to Albania should be treated as due to Italy by
way ofcompensation.Withoutdetermining these issues asbetween Italy
and Albania, the Court could not pass on to determine the issues pre-
sented in the Application as between the parties thereto: Italy's claims
againsttheparties tothe casedepended onthe outcomeofaclaimwhichit
was assertingagainstAlabania in itsApplicationagainst those parties. Tt
was not a case in which the decision which the Court was asked to pro-
nounce as between the parties before it might be based on a course of
reasoning which could be extended to a non-party; the decision would
constitute a direct determination of the responsibility of the non-party,

with concrete and juridically dispositive effects for its admitted owner-
shipofthegold.Acourt(includingthis Court) mayinsomecircumstances
givejudgmentagainstaparty inabsentia;butno court, not evenamunici-
pal court exercising jurisdiction on a non-consensual basis, can give
judgment againstsomeone who wasnot in some sensea party to the pro-
ceedings, or to the relevantphase thereof leading to the particularjudg-
ment, with a correspondingentitlementto beheard.To do sowould beto
offend againsta cardinalprinciple ofjudicial organization whichforbids
a court from adjudicating in violation of the audi alterampartem rule.
That precept ofjudicial behaviour, which is of general application to al1
courts, would clearlyhavebeenaffronted ifthe Courthad adjudicated on
Albania's responsibility. Additionally, the requirement for consent to
jurisdiction, which is specific to this particular Court, would also have
beennegated.

It followsthat the testto be applied in decidingwhetherthe Court may
not properly act is not simply whether it would have been more con-
venient to decide an issue with the presencebefore the Court of al1the
Statesthat might be affected by the decision,but whetherthe absence of
such a State is,in the particular circumstances,such asto make it impos-
siblefor the Court judicially to determine the issues presented before it
even when account is taken of the protective provisions of Article 59 of
the Statute.
The passage quoted above from the Monetary Goldcase was cited by
counsel for Nicaragua in the Military and Paramilitary Activitiescase
(CR 84/14, p. 26,Mr. Reichler).Itwas citedin opposition to an argument
by counsel for the United States to the effect that not only would the
responsibilities of certain non-party Statesbe necessarily determined by
any decision againstthe United States, but that the decision would have
practical effects on those States. The effects would be practical, it was

argued, in the sense that, if the Court, as it was requested by Nicaragua,
were to enjoin the United Statesfrom CO-operatingmilitarily with those
States,theconsequencewouldbeto preventthemfromobtainingany law- 294 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP. OP. SHAHABUDDEEN)

ful military assistancefrom the United States and in tum to impair their
legalright of self-defence(CR 84/19, pp. 42ff.,Mr. J. N. Moore; seealso
CR 84/10, pp. 76-77,Mr. McGovem, and Counter-Memorialsubmitted
bythe United States of America, Part IV,Chap. 1).Theargumentdid not
find favour with the Court (Military and Paramilitary Activitiesin and
against Nicaragua,I.C.J.Reports 1984,pp. 184-186,429-431).And yet,the
argumentwould seemto have been stronger than Australia'scontention
in this case:unlikethe position taken by the United States,Australia has
not been able to argue that a decision against it would have the practical
effectofdepriving NewZealand and the United Kingdomoftheabilityto
make use of anyright whichthey maypossess under international law.It
is useful to note that the question, as the Court understood it, was not
whether Nicaragua had a claim against any other State in an absolute
sense (as Nauru might conceivably have against New Zealand and the

United Kingdom),butwhether such a claimwaspresentedinthe particu-
lar proceedingsbefore the Court. In this respect, the Court recalled that
Nicaragua

"emphasizes that inthepresentproceedingsNicaragua asserts claims
against the United States only, and not against any absent State,so

that the Court is not required to exercisejurisdiction over anysuch
State" (I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 430,para. 86; emphasisadded).

Wasthe conclusionreached in the Monetary Goldcase overthrown by
the position taken by the Court on Italy'sapplication to intervenein the
case of the ContinentalShelf(LibyanArabJamahiriya/Malta)?Refusing
the application,the Court said:

"The future judgment will not merely be limited in its effectsby
Article59ofthe Statute:itwillbeexpressed,uponitsface, to bewith-
out prejudice to the rights and titles of third States." (I.C.J.Reports
1984,pp. 26-27,para. 43.)

Although, strictly speaking, the second part of the statement seemed
unnecessary, the substance ofthe statement was in keeping with the pre-
viously settledjurisprudence of the Court. However, at the merits stage
the Court said:

"The present decision must, as then foreshadowed [in 19841,
be limited in geographical scope so as to leave the claims of Italy
unaffected, that is toaythat the decision of the Court mustbe con-
finedto the area in which, asthe Court has been informed by Italy,
that Statehas no claims to continental shelf rights."(I.C.J.Reports
1985,p. 26,para. 21.)

Arguably,the position so taken by the Court went beyond, and was not
really foreshadowed by, the position previously taken by it in 1984,for 295 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP. OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

now the Court was not merely saying that its decision would not in law
affect Italy's interests,but was in fact refraining from adjudicating as
betweenthe partiesbefore itwithrespectto any areas in relation to which
Italymighthavea claim.It seemsto methat apoint ofsomedifficulty was
raised by the argumentthat, if Italy's claimshad been sufficientlyexten-
sive,this, on the view which the Court eventuallytook, could well have
prevented the Court from giving any judgment at al1 as between the
parties before it(I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 28,para. 23).Possibly,the cited
dictumofthe Court in its 1985 decisionisto be explainedby certain "spe-
cialfeatures" to whichitreferred (ibid.).Alternatively,itistobe explained
by the particular terms of the SpecialAgreement,under whichthe Court
was expected to decide

"in absolute terms, in the sense of permittingthe delimitation of the
areas of shelf which 'appertain' to the Parties, as distinct from the
areas to which one of the Parties has shown a better title than the
other, but which might neverthelessprove to 'appertain' to a third
State if the Court had jurisdiction to enquire into the entitlement of
that third State,. ."(ibid.,p. 25,para. 21).

In effect,the SpecialAgreement itselfrequired the Court to refrainfrom
adjudicating over areas which were subject to Italy's claimsand which
might thereforenot "appertain" in "absolute terms" to the parties to the
case. In my opinion, the case did not modify the general principle laid
down in the MonetaryGoldcase.
That principle was applied in the caseconcerning the Land,Islandand
Maritime FrontierDispute (I.C.J.Reports 1990,p. 92). For present pur-
poses,thereasoning ofthe Chamber, particularly on questionsofopposa-
bility, is to be found in the passage from its decision set out in the

dissentingopinion of Judge Schwebelin the present case. The decision
was closely canvassed by both sides. On a consideration of the views
expressed,itseemsto methat somethingcouldbe said fortheproposition
that, exhypothesi,a condominium of the three States(the case advanced
by El Salvador), or a "community of interests" among them (the case
advanced by Honduras), could not take effect in law as between two of
them only. To determine that the rights of two States are governed by a
condominium or by a "community of interests" of three is arguably to
determine, on a basis ofnecessaryinterdependence, that the rights ofthe
third State are also thereby governed. It is not easy to see how a declara-
tion upholding the existence of either of the two suggested régimes
could apply as between two of the three States Saveon the basis that it
had the same legal effect in relation to the third State. By contrast, in
the present case, anyjudgment against Australia can have full effect as

between the two litigating States without needing to produce any legal
effects in relation to the two absent States. The reasoning of the Cham-
ber, in holding that it was not precluded from hearing the casebefore it
in the absence of Nicaragua as a Party, applies afortiori to justify the
hearing ofthe presentcase inthe absenceof New Zealand andthe United296 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

Kingdom. 1have difficulty in seeinghow it may be possible to reconcile
the decision in that casewith a differentconclusionin this.

Australiaaccepts that, unlike the position in the MonetaryGoldcase,it
is not necessary for the Court in this case to make a determination of
responsibilityagainst New Zealand and the United Kingdom as a pre-
requisite to making a determination of responsibilityagainst Australia.
However,Australia takesthe viewthat any determinationagainstit would
necessarilyimplysimultaneousdeterminationsagainst NewZealand and
the United Kingdom,and itconsidersthat thiswouldbeequallybarred by

the ratio decidendiof the MonetaryGoldcase in so far asthis rests on the
incompetence of the Court to determine the responsibility of any State
without itsconsent. 1agreethat ifthe Court isinfact makinga determina-
tion of the responsibility of a non-party, the particular stage in the deci-
sion-makingprocess at whichit is doingsocannot makethe decision less
objectionable. Butthiswouldbe so only ifwhat was involvedwas a judi-
cial determination purporting to produce legal effects for the absent
Party, as was visualized in the Monetaly Goldcase, and not merely an
implicationin the sense of an extended consequence of the reasoning of
the Court. It seemsto methat an approachbased on simultaneityofdeter-
minations is likelyto involvean implication ofthat kind, and not an adju-
dication.TheCourt'sjurisprudence showsthat such implicationsarenot

a bar to the exerciseofjurisdiction.

As1readthe MonetaryGoldcase,thetest isnot merelyone ofsameness
ofsubject-matter,but alsoone ofwhether,in relation to the samesubject-
matter, the Court is making ajudicial determination ofthe responsibility
of a non-party State. Leavingaside the question of sameness of subject-
matter,woulda decisioninthis caseconstituteajudicial determination of
the responsibility of New Zealand and the United Kingdom? Or, if it
would not technicallyconstitute such a determination, would it be tanta-
mount to such a determination in the very real sense in which the Court
was asked to determine the responsibility ofAlbania?

In considering whether a possible judgment against Australia would
amount to a determination of the responsibility of New Zealand and the
United Kingdom, it is relevant, and, indeed, necessary, to consider the
legalelernentson which such ajudgment mightbebased.Thesuitbefore
the Court isconstitutedas between Nauru and Australia.Nauru isasking
the Court to Saythat Australiais in breach of a certain obligation which
Australia allegedlyhadto Nauru under international law.Theobligation,
assumingthat it existed,was alsothe obligation of New Zealand andthe
United Kingdom. But Nauru does not need to rely on this fact, and the
Court, whileit maynotice the fact, doesnot need to found itsdecision on
it.That others had the same obligation does not lessen the factthat Aus-tralia had the obligation. It is only with Australia's obligation that the
Court is concerned. In contrast with the situation in the Monetary Gold
case,the decisionofthe Court asbetween Nauru and Australia willnotbe
based onthe obligation of New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Also,
even if the obligation was joint, the decision of the Court need not be
foundedonthat fact :in that connection,ashas been noticed in Part 1,in
today'sJudgment the Court has not found it necessaryto Saywhether or
not the obligation wasjoint (seeparagraph 48ofthe Judgment). If it was
joint, this would not mean that it was any the lessthe obligation of Aus-
tralia. Al1the Court isconcerned with inthese proceedingsiswhether the
obligation, ifit existed,was Australia'sobligation.

Therefore, there need be nothing in the legal elements of a possible
judgment infavourofNauru whichwouldrequirethejudgment tobe con-
strued as perse constituting or amounting to ajudicial determination of
the responsibility ofNew Zealand and the United Kingdom. Onthe basis
of argument that the obligation was intrinsically and inseverablyjoint, it
mightbe contended that the conclusionreached in thejudgment could in
logic be extended to New Zealand and the United Kingdom; but this
would be a matter of extendingthe reasoning of the Court to a case to
whichitsjudgment perse does not apply and onaground not relied on by
thejudgment itself.Sofar asthejudgment isconcerned,byitselfitwillnot
affectthe rights of NewZealand orthe United Kingdom in the sense in
which a judgment deploys its effects, as would have been the case with
Albania. New Zealand and the United Kingdom will not be deprived of
anyrights inthe subject-matterofthe case,oratall.Certainly,noproperty
or property rights belonging to them will be transferred or otherwise
affectedasa result of such a decision. It isdifficultto see what protection

will be needed beyond that provided by Article 59 of the Statute of the
Court.
In any proceedings by Nauru against them, New Zealand and the
United Kingdom willbe freeto deny liability on any ground,whether or
not it is a ground pleaded by Australia in these proceedings; in this
respect, differenceshave been noticed in Part IIabove between the posi-
tion of Australia, on the one hand, and that of New Zealand and the
United Kingdom, on the other, under the Trusteeship Agreement, and it
cannot be assumed apriorithat these differencescouldnot be reflected in
thedefenceto anysuchproceedings. Howeverstrongmaybethetendency
of the Court to follow a possible decision given in this case in favour of
Nauru in any proceedingsbrought by Nauru against New Zealand and
the United Kingdom, that tendency still falls short of being a judicial
determinationmadeinthis caseofthe responsibilityof thosetwo Statesin
the sense in which the Court was asked to make a determination of the

responsibility of Albania in the Monetaty Goldcase. A decision in this
case, if,as 1think,it does not per seconstituteajudicial determination of
the responsibility of NewZealand and the United Kingdom, can at besthave onlyprecedentialvaluein anyproceedingsconcerningtheir respon-
sibility; and that value, however high one may be disposed to rate it, is
onlyinfluential,not controlling.Thepossibilityofacourt deciding differ-
ently on the same issues in differently constituted proceedings is not a
phenomenon less known to the lawthan the generalpropensity of courts
to be guided by their rulings insimilar cases.To use the propensity to be
guided by previous rulings to exclude the possibility of deciding dif-
ferentlyin a later case would be even lessright in international litigation
than it would be in municipal.

It has been correctly pointed out that "[als interstate relationships
become more complex,it is increasingly unlikelythat any particular dis-
pute willbe strictlybilateralin character" (L.F. Damrosch,"Multilateral
Disputes", in L. F. Damrosch (ed.), fie InternationalCourt ofJusticeat a
Crossroads, 1987,p. 376). Counsel writing for Nicaragua in the Military
and Paramilitary Activities case had earlier spelt out the implications of
that considerationin the followingway :

"The rule established in Monetary Gold is soundly grounded in
the realities of contemporaryinternational relations. Legal disputes
between Statesare rarely purelybilateral. As in the case of delimita-
tion ofthecontinental shelf,theresolution ofsuchdisputeswilloften
directly affect the legal interests of other States. If the Court could
not adjudicatewithoutthepresence of al1suchStates,evenwherethe
parties before it had consented fully to its jurisdiction, the result
wouldbeasevereand unwarrantedconstriction ofthe Court'sability
to carryoutits functions." (MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesinand
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. UnitedStates ofAmerica),Jurisdic-
tionandAdmissibility,Memorial of Nicaragua,para. 248.)

1agreewith Australia thatthe

"fact that international disputes may be increasinglymultilateral in
nature is no reason to ignore the fundamental international law
principles of sovereignty of States and the requirement of consent
to adjudication" (Preliminary Objections of the Government of
Australia, Vol.1,p. 144,para. 363).

But 1do not think that these principles are in danger of being violatedin
this case.That the wider implications of a dispute do not necessarilypre-
ventadjudication inlitigationbetween someonlyofthe interestedparties
would seemtohavebeen implicitlyanticipated bythePermanent Court of
International Justiceas early as 1932(FreeZonesof UpperSavoy and the
DistrictofGex,P.C.Z.J.,SeriesA/B, No.46,p. 136).Asobservedabove,this299 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP.OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

Court has recognizedthat, unless barred bythe MonetaryGoldprinciple,
it should seek "to givethe fullest decision it may in the circumstances of
each case" (ContinentalShelf (LibyanArab Jamahiriya/Malta), Applica-
tionfor PermissiontoIntervene,I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 25,para. 40).

Thejurisprudence ofthe Court is under constant review;no case,how-
ever venerable, is exempt from scrutiny and re-evaluation. However, it
would not appearthat therehasbeen any movementawayfromthe stand
taken by the Court when it stated in 1984that the "circumstances of the
MonetaryGoldcaseprobablyrepresent the limitofthe power oftheCourt
to refuse to exerciseitsjurisdiction"(Militaryand ParamilitaryActivities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. UnitedStates ofAmerica),I.C.J.
Reports1984,p. 431,para. 88;emphasisadded). It may be that that limit

hasbeen setat apoint whichenablesthe Courtto adjudicateinsituations
in which a municipal court would refrain from adjudicatingunlessthere
was joinder; but, if so, there are good reasons for the difference. The
danger to the authority of the Court presented by any tendency to act on
the basis of a lowjurisdictional threshold is not something to be lightly
dismissed;but 1do not feeloppressed byanyapprehension inthe circum-
stances of this case if, as 1consider,it can be treated as beingwithinthe
limitspermitted bythe MonetaryGoldcaseand asthereforenot involving
the exerciseofjurisdiction againstnon-parties.

The decision in the Monetary Goldcase turned in part on the fact that
the rule enunciated in Article 59of the Statute "rests on the assumption
that the Court isat leastable to render abinding decision" (I.C.J.Reports
1954, p. 33).Forthereasonsalready given,inthat casethe Court couldnot
give a decision on the seminal issue concerning Albania's international

responsibility that would be "binding upon any State, either the third
State,or any ofthe parties before it" (ibid.).Aecision in this casewould
ofcoursenotbebinding on NewZealand and the United Kin$dom; but 1
am unable to see why it would not be binding on Australia. Australia is
beforethe Court; evenifthe allegedresponsibilitywasjoint,this doesnot
by itselfean that Australiacouldnot ultimately sharein the responsibi-
lity (if any) on any basis whatsoever. It is for the Court to determine
whetherthere isanybasis on which Australiasharesthe responsibility. If
the Court determinesthat there isa basis,it isdifficultto seewhyitsdeci-
sionwould not bebinding on Australia.

1 should also Say something about Australia's contention that the
absence of NewZealand and the United Kingdom fromthe proceedings
deprives the Court of "critical factual information" (Preliminary Objec-
tions ofthe Government of Australia,Vol. 1,p. 140,para. 354).Australia's

reliance on the Status of Eastern Carelia case (P.C.I.J.,Series B, No.5,
p. 27) overlooks the fact that the absence of an interested State does not
necessarily operate to deprive the Court of evidence if the evidence is
othenvise available (WesternSahara, I.C.J. Reports 1975,pp. 28-29).Thelatter was also an advisory opinion case,but this does not affectthe gen-
eral proposition.Aperson who cangiverelevant evidencemaybe a neces-
sarywitness,not a necessarypartyl. In systemswhichprovide forit,join-
der isnotjustified forthe sole purpose of securing or facilitatingthe pro-
duction of evidence: evidence must be produced inthe normal ways. A
contention similar to Australia'swas advanced in the MilitaryandPara-
militalyActivitiesinand against Nicaragua,JurisdictionandAdmissibility
case, but without success (I.C.J.Reports 1984,p. 430, para. 86; United

States Counter-Memorial,para. 443; and Mr. J.N. Moore, CR 84/19, at
pp. 42,47,48,51). In any event,the arguments do not persuade me that
Australia, having infactbeenin chargeofthe administration of Nauru at
al1material times, is not, or cannot be, in possession of al1the relevant
evidence.

Australia'sargumentsare worthy of consideration, and there couldbe

more than oneview oftheir value.Forthe reasons given,1have not, how-
ever,been able to feel persuaded. In my opinion, the obligations of the
three Governments under the Trusteeship Agreement were joint and
several,and Australiacould accordinglybesuedalone. In the alternative,
ifthe obligations werejoint, thiscircumstance stilldid notpreventNauru
from suing Australia alone. Nor do 1 think that a possible judgment
againstAustralia willamount to a determination ofthe responsibilities of
New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Whether Australia in fact had an
international obligation toensure the rehabilitation of worked-outphos-
phate lands,whether, ifso,itwasinbreach ofthat obligation, and what,if
so, is theextent of responsibility which it thereby engaged,are different
questions.

(Signed) Mohamed SHAHABUDDEEN.

lAmon v.RaphaelTuck& Sons,Ltd.[1956]1Al1ER273,at pp.286-287.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SHAHABUDDEEN

Amajorpoint on whichthe Court hasdivided iswhether Australiamay
be sued in the absence of New Zealand and the United Kingdom. 1pro-
pose to givemyreasonsforagreeing withthe decision ofthe Court onthe
point. Before proceeding, there is, however, an introductory matter to
which 1must refer. It concerns the principle of equality of Statesbefore
the Court. It arises in the followingway.
Nauru is one ofthe smallestStatesin the world; Australia is one ofthe
larger. In his opening remarks, the Solicitor-Generalfor the Common-

wealth observed :
"There isno need for emotivearguments. It isnot a caseof David
and Goliath, or of a tiny island and a large metropolitan power . ..
Before this Court, of course, the equality of the Parties will be
preserved. Rich or poor, large or small, the Court will ensure that
their legalrights have equal protection." (CR 91/15, p. 42,Solicitor-
General Gavan Griffith, Q.C.)

Counsel for Nauru in his turn referred to the contrasting sizes of the
Parties and said :
"Beinga smalldemocratic State,Nauru hasfirmfaith inthe ruleof
lawin the affairs of nations. It has firmfaithin this Court asthe dis-

penser of international justice." (CR 91/18, p. 31, Professor Mani.)

It seemsto methat, whateverthe debates relatingto itsprecisecontent
in other respects,the concept ofequality of Stateshas alwaysapplied asa
fundamental principle to the position of Statesasparties to a casebefore
the Court (Consistency ofCertainDanzigLegislativeDecreeswiththeCon-
stitutionoftheFreeCity,P.C.I.J.,SeriesA/B, No.65,p.66,Judge Anzilotti).
InthewordsofPresidentBasdevant,"BeforethisCourt,thereare nogreat
or small States ..."(I.C.J. Yearbook1950-1951,p. 17).States of al1kinds
and sizes may bring their cases before the Court on a basis of perfect
equality. BigStateshave a right to value this aspectas much as small. In
the Mavrommatis Concessionscase, Greece sued the United Kingdom
before the Permanent Court of International Justice. At one stage in a

livelydebate, counsel for the United Kingdom found himself remarking
that "even the great Powers are entitled to justice at the hands of this
Tribunal" (P.C.I.J.,Series C, No. 5-1,p. 64). So indeed they are; so are
al1States.The matter has neverbeen in doubt. OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. SHAHABUDDEEN

[Traduction]

La Cour s'estdiviséesur le point essentiel de savoir si l'Australiepeut
êtreassignéeenl'absencd eela Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni.Je
me propose de donner les raisons pour lesquellesj'approuve la décision
de la Cour sur ce point. Mais il faut d'abord que j'évoqueune question
liminaire.Cettequestionconcerne leprincipe del'égalitédesEtatsdevant
la Cour. Elle sepose de la manière suivante.

Nauru est l'un des plus petits Etats du monde; l'Australieest l'un des
plus grands. Dans ses remarques liminaires, le Solicitor-Generaldu
Commonwealtha dit :
«Il n'ya pas lieu de faire intervenirlà lessentiments.Ce n'estpas
David contre Goliath, ni une petite île contre une grande puissance
métropolitaine ..Devant la Cour, bien entendu, l'égalitédes Parties

sera préservée. Qu'ellessoientriches ou pauvres,grandes ou petites,
la Cour veillera à ce que leurs droits juridiques soient également
protégés.)) (CR91/15, p. 42, le Solicitor-GeneralGavan Griffith,
Q.C.)
De son côté,le conseil de Nauru, ayant relevé lecontraste entre l'impor-
tance des Parties,a déclaré:

«Etant un petitEtat démocratique,Nauru aune foiprofondedans
lerègnedu droit dans lesaffairesdesnations, ellea une foiprofonde
en la Cour en tant que dispensatrice de la justice internationale.))
(CR91/18, p. 31,M. Mani.)

Quels que soient les débats concernantsa teneur précise à d'autres
égards,il mesembleque la notion d'égalité desEtatsatoujours étéappli-
quéecommeun principe fondamental àla situation des Etats en tant que
parties dans une affaire soumise à la Cour (Compatibilitéde certains
décrets-loisantzikoisaveclaconstitutiondela Villelibre,C.P.J.Z.sérieA/B
no65,p. 66, M.Anzilotti).Pour reprendre lestermes du PrésidentBasde-
vant :«DevantlaCour, iln'yanigrandsnipetitsEtats ..»(C.Z.J.Annuaire
1950-1951,p. 11.)Les Etats de toutes espèceset de toutes taillespeuvent
saisirla Cour de leursaffaires surune base deparfaite égalitéL. esgrands

Etats sont en droit d'appréciercettepossibilitétoutautant que lespetits.
Dans l'affaire desConcessionsMavrommatis,la Grècea intenté devantla
Courpermanente deJusticeinternationale une actioncontreleRoyaume-
Uni. Lors d'un débatanimé,le conseil du Royaume-Uni en est venu à
déclarerque«mêmelesgrandespuissancesontdroit à lajustice devant ce
tribunal»(C.P.J.Z.sérieCno5-1,p. 64).Telesteffectivementleur droit; tel
est ledroit de tous les Etats. n'yajamais eu de doute àcesujet.271 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEPO. P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

To return to the questionunder examination, as to whether Australia
may be sued alone, 1consider that an affirmativeanswer is required for
three reasons. First, the obligations of the three Governmentsnder the

Trusteeship Agreementwerejoint and several.Second,assumingthat the
obligations werejoint, this did not by itself prevent Australiafrombeing
sued alone. Third, apossiblejudgment againstAustralia willnot amount
to ajudicial determination of the responsibility of NewZealand and the
United Kingdom. Thesepropositionsare developed below. 1begin,how-
ever,with the initialquestion, overwhich the Parties also joined issue,as
towhethertheobjection should bedeclared to beone whichdoesnot pos-
sessan exclusivelypreliminarycharacter. Similarquestionsarose in rela-
tion to other Australian objections, but it is not proposed to deal with
those. 1would add, by way of general caveat, that any reference in this
opinion to the obligation, orliability,orresponsibilityofAustraliashould
beunderstood asresting on an assumptionmadeforthe purposes ofargu-
ment.Whether ornotAustralia had anyobligation, orliability,or respon-
sibilityis a matter forthe merits.

As is shown by the Military and Paramilitary Activitiesin and against
Nicaragua case,wherethe Court declares that an objection does not pos-
sess,in the circumstances of the case, an exclusivelypreliminary charac-
ter,the objection is not finally disposed of; the Court,at the merits stage,
will return to the point and deal with it (see I.C.J. Reports 1984,
pp. 425-426,and I.C.J.Reports1986,pp. 29-31).Thatbeingso,a question
would seemto arise as to how far Article 79,paragraph 7, of the existing
RulesofCourt is,initspracticaloperation,differentfromthe earlierpro-
visions ofArticle 62,paragraph 5,of the Rules of Court 1946relating to
joinder tothe merits(seeS.Rosenne, ProcedureintheInternationalCourt,
A Commentatyonthe1978RulesoftheInternationalCourtofJustice,1983,

pp. 164-166;and Georg Schwarzenberger,InternationalLawasApplied by
InternationalCourtsand Tribunals, 1986,Vol.IV,p. 617).Because of the
textual changes made in the Rules in 1972,the Court no longer says in
terms that it isjoining a preliminarypoint to the merits; but, the Court's
functions not being activated by the use of formulae, the fact that the
Court no longer says so does not by itself affect the substance of what it
does.

Nor woulditberight to suppose thatprior to 1972theCourt considered
that it had an unfettered discretion toer apreliminaryobjection tobe
joined tothe merits.Theuse ofthe disjunctive"or" inthe firstsentence of
Article 62, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court 1946conveyed no such TERRES À PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP.IND. SHAHABUDDEEN)271

Pourrevenir à la questionàl'examen, cellede savoirsi l'Australiepeut
être assignéeseulej,estime qu'ily a lieu derépondreaffirmativement et

celapour trois raisons. Premièrement,lesobligationsdestrois gouverne-
ments envertu de l'accordde tutelle étaient solidaires.Deuxièmement, à
supposer que lesobligationsaient étéconjointes,celan'empêchap itas en
soi d'engager des poursuites contre l'Australie seule.Troisièmement,un
arrêt éventuellement rendu contre l'Australie n'équivaudrp aas à une
déterminationjudiciairedelaresponsabilitédela Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu
Royaume-Uni. Ces propositions seront développées plus loin. Je
commencetoutefois parla question initiale,controverséeelleaussi entre
les Parties, qui est cellede savoir si l'exception doit être décnee pas
posséderde caractère exclusivementpréliminaire. Des questionssimi-
laires se sont posées en liaison avec d'autres exceptionsde l'Australie,
maisje n'aipasl'intention d'en traiter.J'ajouterai,itre de miseengarde
de caractère généralq,ue toute mention, dans cette opinion, de l'obliga-
tion, ou de l'engagement,ou de la responsabilitéde l'Australie doit être

comprisecommefondéesurune hypothèseprésentép eour lesbesoins de
la discussion.Laquestion de savoirsil'Australiea ounonune obligation,
ou un engagement,ou une responsabilité,estune question de fond.

Comme le montre l'affaire des Activités militairestparamilitairesau
Nicaraguaetcontrecelui-ci,lefaitquela Cour déclarequ'une exceptionne
possède pas, dans les circonstances de l'espèce,un caractèreexclusive-
ment préliminaire n'écartepas définitivement cette exception; au stade
du fond, la Cour reviendra à la question et la réglera(voir C.I.J.Recueil
1984,p. 425-426,et C.I.J.Recueil1986,p. 29-31).Dans ces conditions, il

semblequ'ilyait lieu de sedemanderdans quellemesure leparagraphe 7
de l'article79du Règlementactuelde la Cour diffère,dans son applica-
tion pratique, desdispositionsantérieuresduparagraphe 5de l'article62
du Règlementde la Cour de 1946,qui a trait à la possibilitéde joindre
l'exceptionaufond (voirS.Rosenne, ProcedureintheInternationalCourt,
A Commentaryonthe 1978RulesoftheInternationalCourtof Justice,1983,
p. 164-166,et Georg Schwarzenberger, International Law as Appliedby
International Courtsand Tribunals, 1986,vol. IV, p. 617).En raison des
modifications apportéesautexte du Règlementen 1972,laCour ne peut
plus dire expressémentqu'elle jointau fond une question préliminaire;
toutefois, l'exercicedesfonctions de la Cour ne résultantpas de l'utilisa-
tion de formules,le fait qu'elle ne s'exprime plusdans cestermes n'apas
par lui-même pour effetde modifier substantiellement ce qu'ellefait.

Il ne serait pas juste non plus de supposer qu'avant 1972la Cour esti-
maitqu'elle disposaitd'un pouvoir discrétionnaireetillimitpour ordon-
ner de joindre au fond une exception préliminaire. L'emploi de la
particule disjonctive«ou » dans la première phrase du paragraphe 5 denotion. Speaking of its power to make such an order, in 1964the Court
expresslystated that it would

"not do so exceptfor good cause,seeingthat the object of a prelimi-
naryobjection isto avoid not merelya decision on,but evenanydis-
cussionofthemerits" (BarcelonaTraction,Ligha tndPowerCompany,
Limited, Preliminaïy Objections,I.C.J.Reports 1964,p. 44; emphasis
added).
That view reached back a long way (Panevezys-SaldutiskisRailway,

P.C.I.J.,SeriesA/B, No. 76,p. 24,Judges DeVisscherand Rostworowski).
Theactualresults mayhavebeendebatable insomecases,but 1hesitateto
imagine that the Court did not recognize that, in principle, wherever
reasonably possible a preliminary objection should be determined at
the preliminary stage.In the BarcelonaTractioncase, after reviewingthe
previousjurisprudence on the subject, the Court indicated the circum-
stancesin whichit would order ajoinder. It said itwould do so where

"the objectionissorelated to the merits,orto questions offact orlaw

touching the merits, that it cannot be considered separatelywithout
goinginto the merits (whichthe Court cannot do whileproceedings
onthe merits stand suspended under Article62),orwithout prejudg-
ingthe meritsbefore these havebeen fully argued (BarcelonaTrac-
tion, Light and Power Company, Limited, Preliminaïy Objections,
I.C.J.Reports 1964,p. 43).
What, however, isscarcelyopen to dispute is that the new Rules were
intended to stressthe need todecide a preliminaryobjection at the preli-
minary stage whereverreasonably possible, the well-knownobject being
to avoid a repetition ofthe kind of situationwhichultimatelyarose in the

Barcelona Traction case and the criticisms attendant thereon (Barcelona
Traction,Light andPowerCompany,Limited,SecondPhase,I.C.J.Reports
1970,p. 3).Fresh urgency has been imparted to the operation of the old
criteria, particularly in respect of the Court's earlierking that a join-
der should not be ordered "except for good cause" ("pour des motifs
sérieux").Tothelimitedextentnecessaryto enabletheCourt to determine
the objection, the merits may be explored, provided, always, that the
issueraised isnot soinextricablylinkedto the meritsas to be incapable of
determination without determining or prejudging the merits or some
part thereof.

Theseconsiderationsno doubt account forthe caution observed bythe
Court in declaring an objection tobe not exclusivelypreliminary in char-
acter. Sincethe introduction ofthe new provisionsin 1972,the Court has
made such a declaration in one case only, namely,the Militaïyand Para-
militaryActivitiesinand againstNicaraguacase.There,certain objections,
althoughnotpresented bythe respondent aspreliminaryobjections, were TERRES À PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP. IND.SHAHABUDDEEN)272

l'article 62 du Règlementde la Cour de 1946ne va pas dans ce sens. En
1964,la Cour,àpropos de son pouvoir d'ordonner dejoindre l'exception

au fond, a expressémentindiquéqu'elle
«ne lefera quepourdesmotifssérieuxc ,onsidérantque l'objetd'une
exceptionpréliminaireest d'éviternon seulement une décisionmais
aussitoute discussiondu fond»(BarcelonaTractionL , ightandPower
Company,Limited, exceptionspréliminaires, .I.J.Recueil1964,p. 44;
lesitaliquessont de moi).

Cepoint devuen'étaitpas nouveau (Chemindefer Panevezys-Saldutiskis,
C.P.J.I.sérieA/B no76,p. 24, MM. De Visscher et Rostworowski). Les
résultatseffectifs peuvent avoir été discutablesdans certains cas, mais
j'hésiteàcroire que la Cour n'ait pas reconnu qu'en principe, chaquefois
que cela est raisonnablement possible, une exception préliminaire doit
être tranchéeau stade préliminaire.Dans l'affaire de laarcelona Trac-
tion,après avoirpassé enrevue lajurisprudence en la matière, laCour a

indiquélescirconstancesdans lesquelleselleordonnerait lajonction. Elle
a déclaréqu'elleleferaitlà où
((l'exceptionesttellement liéeau fond ouà des points de fait ou de
droit touchant au fond qu'on ne saurait l'examiner séparément sans
aborder lefond, ceque la Cour ne saurait faire tant que laprocédure
sur lefond estsuspendue auxtermes de l'article62,ou sanspréjuger

lefond avantque celui-ciaitfaitl'objet d'une discussionexhaustive
(Barcelona Traction,Lightand PowerCompany, Limited, exceptions
préliminaires, .I.J.Recueil964,p. 43).
Cequi n'estguèrediscutabletoutefois,c'estque lenouveau Règlement
devaitsoulignerlanécessité deréglerune exceptionpréliminaireaustade
préliminaire chaque foisque cela était raisonnablementpossible, le but

bien connu étantd'éviterque se répètentle type de situation qui s'est
présenté àla fin dans l'affairede la BarcelonaTractionet lescritiques qui
en résultent(Barcelona Traction,Light and Power Company, Limited,
demièmephase, C.I.J.Recueil1970, p. 3). Une urgence nouvelle a été
conférée à l'application des critères anciens, notamment en ce qui
concernela conception antérieuredelaCour selonlaquellelajonction ne
devait pas être ordonnée, sauf«pour des motifs sérieux» («except for
good cause »).Le fond peut être examinéd,ans la mesure limitéeoù cela
estnécessairepour permettre àla Cour de seprononcersur l'exception, à
condition, toujours, que le problème soulevé ne soit pasliéau fond de
manièresi inextricable qu'ilsoitimpossible de seprononcer sans statuer
sur lefond ouunepartie du fond ou d'en préjuger.
Ces considérations expliquent sansdoute la prudence dont la Cour a
faitpreuveendéclarant qu'une exceptionn'étaip tas exclusivementpréli-

minaire par nature. Depuis l'introduction des nouvelles dispositions en
1972,laCour n'afaitcettedéclarationquedansune seuleaffaire, àsavoir
celledesActivités militairstparamilitairesauNicaraguaetcontrecelui-ci.
Dans cette affaire, certaines exceptions,bien que le défendeurne les ait273 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

consideredinthe lightoftheprocedural provisionsrelatingtopreliminary
objections (I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 425,para. 76).The Court declared one
of the objections to be not exclusivelypreliminaryin character (ibid.).At

the merits stagethis objection, which related to jurisdiction, was upheld
(I.C.J.Reports1986,p. 38,para. 56).Haditnot been forthe fact that other
grounds ofjurisdiction existed,the result would havebeen a replay ofthe
Barcelona Traction situation. Possibly,anycriticismscould havebeen met
inthe circumstancesofthe case.In the caseatbar, 1amnot confidentthat
this would be so if the particular objection under consideration were
declared to be not exclusively preliminary in character but ultimately
cameto beupheld atthe merits stage.Inthat event(unlikethepositionin
the MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesinandagainstNicaraguacase),the
consequencewould be the immediate andtotal collapse of Nauru's case.
Unlessit couldbe convincinglyshownthat thepoint couldnot havebeen
determined at the preliminary stage, it would be difficult to parry criti-
cismsabout waste of time, expense and effort,not to mention evasion of

the Court's responsibilities.

Nauru's position was that Australia'sobjectiondid not have an exclu-
sivelypreliminarycharacter and couldnotbedetermined now,but that, if
it had that character, it should be rejected. Australia countered that the
objection did have an exclusivelypreliminary character and should be
upheld. Byimplication,the Court has agreed with Australia'scontention
that the objection did have an exclusivelypreliminary character. In my
view,the Court wasright.
WhatisNauru's case?Thoughvariouslystated,it comesto this :Nauru
issayingthat AustraliawasadministeringNauru pursuant to the Trustee-
ship Agreement; that this Agreement (read with the Charter and in the

light of general international law) required Australia to use thegovern-
mental powers exercisedbyitunder the Agreementto ensurethe rehabili-
tation of worked-out phosphate lands; but that, in administering the
Territory,Australiabreached thisobligation.

Australia'sobjection isthis :the obligation to ensure rehabilitation (ifit
existed)was,by virtue ofthe terms ofthe Trusteeship Agreement,ajoint
obligation of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, with the
result that Australia alone couldnot be sued because

(i) aparty to ajoint obligationcannot besuedalone;
(ii) ajudgment againstAustralia in respect ofthe joint obligation would
amount to an impermissible determination of the responsibility of
New Zealand andthe United Kingdom (bothnon-parties) in relation
tothe sameobligation(seeJudgment, para.48).

It will bearguedbelowthat the existenceofthe particular obligationto
ensurerehabilitationhas atthis stageto beassumed.Clearlyalsono ques- TERRES À PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP.IND. SHAHABUDDEEN)273

pas présentées commedes exceptionspréliminaireso ,nt été examinéesà
la lumièredesrèglesde procédurerelativesaux exceptionspréliminaires
(C.I.J.ecueil1984,p.425,par. 76).LaCoura déclaré quel'une desexcep-
tions n'étaitpas de caractèreexclusivementpréliminaire (ibid.).Au stade

du fond, cette exception, qui avait trait la compétence,a été retenue
(C.I.J. Recueil1986,p. 38, par. 56). N'étaitle fait qu'il existait d'autres
motifs de compétence,il en serait résulté une répétitiod ne la situation
dans l'affairedela BarcelonaTraction.Dans lescirconstances del'espèce,
on aurait peut-être pu répondre aux critiques.Dans l'affaire qui nous
occupe,je nesuispas certain qu'ilenseraitainsi dans lecasoù l'exception
particulièreen question aurait été déclarédeenature non exclusivement
préliminaire,maisseraitfinalementretenue austade du fond. Dans cecas
(aucontraire delasituation dans l'affaire destivitésmilitairestparami-
litairesauNicaraguaet contrecelui-ct),la cause de Nauru seraitimmédia-
tement réduite à néant.A moins que l'on ne puisse montrer de façon
convaincante que la question ne pouvait pas avoir étérégléeau stade

préliminaire,ilseradifficiled'éviterlescritiques au sujet du gaspillagede
temps, de dépenseset d'efforts, pour ne rien dire du manquement aux
responsabilitésincombantàla Cour.
Selonlepoint devue deNauru, l'exception avancéepar l'Australien'a
pas de caractère exclusivement préliminaireet ne peut être prise en
compte maintenant et si elle avait ce caractère,elle devrait être rejetée.
L'Australierépliqueque l'exception possèdeun caractèreexclusivement
préliminaireetdoitêtreretenue.LaCoura implicitementadmislavalidité
de l'affirmation de l'Australie selon laquelle l'exception a un caractère
exclusivementpréliminaire.Amon avis,laCour avaitraison.
Quels sont les arguments de Nauru? Ils ont étéénoncésde diverses
manières,maisreviennent àceci :Nauru déclare quel'Australie adminis-

trait Nauru conformément à l'accorddetutelle,que cetaccord (interprété
à lalumièredela Charte etdudroit international général)impose à 1'Aus-
traliel'obligationdefaireusagedespouvoirsd'administration exercéspar
elle en vertu de l'accordpour assurer la remise en état des terreshos-
phates épuisées,mais quel'Australieafailliàcetteobligationdansl'admi-
nistration du Territoire.
L'exceptionavancéepar l'Australie estla suivante :l'obligationd'assu-
rerlaremiseenétat(sielleexistait)était,envertudestermesdel'accordde
tutelle,une obligationconjointe de l'Australie,de la Nouvelle-Zélandeet
du Royaume-Uni,aveccerésultatque l'Australienepouvait pas être assi-
gnéeseuleparce que :

i) unepartie àune obligationconjointenepeut êtreassignéeseule;
ii) un arrêt prononcé contrel'Australiaeu sujet de l'obligation conjointe
équivaudrait à une détermination inadmissiblede la responsabilitéde
la Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni(qui ne sont parties ni l'une
nil'autre) enliaisonaveclamême obligation(voirarrêt,par.48).

Il sera soutenu plus loin que l'existence de l'obligation particulière
d'assurer la remise en état doit être admiseàce stade. Il est clair aussi274 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP .P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

tion arises at this point as to whether there was in fact a breach of the
obligation. The remaining questions are questions of law which can be
answered now. Theyare clearlyof a preliminarycharacter.
Withrespecttothequestionwhethertheparticular obligation under the
TrusteeshipAgreementwasjoint, itseemsto methat itisopentothe Court
to take the position, as 1think it in effect has, that whatever the precise
juridicalbasis ofthe obligationsofthethreeGovernments under theTms-
teeship Agreement, Nauru is not precluded from suing Australia alone.
On this approach, the Court is not called upon to say, and has not said,
whether ornottheparticular obligation wasjoint, asasserted byAustralia
(seeJudgment,para. 48).
However,ifthe Court were calledupon to determinewhetherthe obli-

gation was joint, this determination could be made by considering the
terms of the Trusteeship Agreement and those terms alone. Previous or
subsequent facts could not make the obligationjoint if it was not joint
under the Trusteeship Agreement.Correspondingly, ifthe obligation was
joint under the Trusteeship Agreement, previous or subsequent facts
couldnot make it other than joint.

1do not intend to suggestthat none ofthe facts maybe considered.The
factsare useful,buttheir utilityliesintheassistancetheyprovideinunder-
standing how the Trusteeship Agreement came to be constructed in the
wayitwasand howitworked in practice. In this respect,an abundance of
factshas beenpresented by both sides,and 1shallbe referring to some of
these.Butthefactsdo not themselvesconstitutethefoundation ofthepar-
ticular issues of law now calling for decision.The situation is materially
differentfromone in whichthe questionwhether a caseagainst a Stateis

maintainable in the absence of other States may conceivably depend
directly on facts which could only be explored and ascertained at the
merits (cf.argumentsin MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesinandagainst
Nicaragua,Jurisdiction andAdmissibility, Memorial of Nicaragua, p. 141,
Section "C";CR 84/19, p. 47, Mr. J. N. Moore; and L. F. Damrosch,
"Multilateral Disputes", inL. F. Damrosch (ed.), fie International Court
ofJusticeat a Crossroads, 1987,pp. 391-393).

1mustnowexplainwhy1considerthat ithasto beassumedatthis stage
that Australiahad an obligation to ensure rehabilitation under the Trus-
teeship Agreement, as alleged by Nauru. The reason is that the question
whetherthe obligation existed is part of the merits and, these being pre-
liminary proceedings, the elements of the merits have to be assumed

(see Nottebohm, I.C.J.Reports1955,p. 34,Judge Read, dissenting); they
cannotbe determined now.
In somenational systems,a wide range of points of law relatingto the
meritsmaybe setdownforargument inadvance ofthenormalhearingon
the merits,provided that al1the relevantmaterial isbefore the Court.The
governing criterion is that the point (which might for convenience be TERRESÀ PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP.IND. SHAHABUDDEEN) 274

qu'aucune questionne sepose à cestadesur lepoint de savoirs'ily avait
effectivement manquement à l'obligation. Les questions restantes sont
desquestions de droit auxquelles ilpeut êtrerépondumaintenant.
En cequiconcernela question de savoirsil'obligation particulière aux

termesdel'accorddetutelleétaitconjointe,ilmesemblequ'il estloisible à
la Cour d'estimer, comme je pense qu'elle l'a fait, que rien n'empêche
Nauru d'engager despoursuites contre la seuleAustralie,quelle que soit
la base juridique précise des obligations des trois Etats aux termes de
l'accorddetutelle.Aveccetteapproche, la Cour n'estpastenuede dire,et
ellen'apas dit, sil'obligation particulièreest conjointe,commel'affirme
l'Australie,oune l'estpas (voirarrêt, par.48).
Toutefois,silaCour avait àseprononcer surlepoint de savoirsil'obli-
gationétaitconjointe,ellepourrait lefaireenprenant enconsidérationles
termesdel'accorddetutelleeteux seuls.Desfaitsantérieurs ouultérieurs
ne peuvent conférerde caractère conjoint à l'obligation si elle n'est pas
conjointe aux termes de l'accord de tutelle. D'une manière correspon-
dante, sil'obligation était conjointe auxtermesde l'accordde tutelle,des
faitsantérieurs oupostérieursnepouvaientmodifier son caractèred'obli-

gation conjointe.
Il n'estpas dans mes intentions de soutenir qu'aucun des faitsne peut
êtreprisenconsidération.Lesfaitssontutiles,maisleurutilitéréside dans
l'aide qu'ils apportentà la compréhensionde la manièredont l'accord
de tutelle en est venuà être interprété commie l l'a été etde la manière
dont il s'appliquait dans la pratique. A cet égard,quantitéde faits ont été
présentéspar les deux Parties, et je reviendrai sur certains d'entre eux.
Mais les faits ne constituent pas par eux-mêmes le fondement des ques-
tions de droit au sujetdesquelles une décisiondoitintervenirmaintenant.
La situation est essentiellementdifférentede celle dans laquelle la ques-
tion de savoir si une instance introduite contre un Etat est recevable en
l'absenced'autres Etatspeutdépendredirectementdefaitsqui nepeuvent
êtreexaminéestdéterminésqu'à propod su fond (voirécrituresetplaidoi-
ries,Activités militaires et paramilitairsu Nicaragua etcontre celui-ci,

compétence et recevabilité,moiredu Nicaragua, p. 141,section «C»;
CR 84/19, p. 47, M. J. N. Moore; et L. F. Damrosch, «Multilateral
Disputes»,dans L. F. Damrosch (dir. publ.), TheInternational Court of
Justiceat a Crossroads,1987,p. 391-393).
Je dois expliquermaintenant pourquoi j'estime qu'à cestade il y a lieu
d'admettreque l'Australieavaitl'obligation d'assurer laremiseen état en
vertu de l'accorddetutelle,ceque soutient Nauru. La raison en estque la
question de savoir si l'obligation existaitrelève dufond et, s'agissant ici
d'une procédure préliminaire,il y a lieu d'admettre les élémentsu fond
(voir Nottebohm, C.Z.J.Recueil 1955, p. 34, opinion dissidente de
M. Read); il ne peut en être décidé maintenant.
Dans certains systèmesnationaux, un large éventail dequestions de
droit touchant au fond peut donner lieuà discussionavant lesaudiences

habituellesconsacréesaufond, àcondition que laCour soitsaisiedetous
les éléments pertinents.Le critère décisif estque la question (que par called a preliminary objection on the merits) must be one which, if

decidedin one way,willbe decisiveofthe litigation orat anyrate ofsome
substantialissuein the action1.The objectis,ofcourse,to savetime,effort
and cost. There have been arguments (though not in this case) as to
whetherpreliminaryobjections on the merits may competently be made
beforethis Court2. However,whilereservingmy opinion on that point, 1
would note that the Court's jurisprudence (includingparagraphs 36,38,
56 and 68 of today's Judgment) has proceeded on the basis of a long-
standingdistinction between preliminaryobjections and the merits, even

though one may argue as to whether the distinction, itself rather general
and never easyto draw, was accuratelyapplied in particular cases.

What arethe merits? Broadly speaking

"the merits of a dispute consist of the issues of fact and law which
give rise to a cause of action, and which an applicant State must
establishin order to be entitled to the reliefclairned" (Anglo-Iranian
Oil Co., PreliminaryObjection, I.C.J. Reports 1952,p. 148, Judge
Read, dissenting).

To establish its caseonthe merits, Nauru mustprove, interalia,first,that
Australia had an obligation under the Trusteeship Agreement to ensure
rehabilitation and, second,that Australia wasinbreach ofthat obligation.
An argument that Australia did not have that substantive obligation
would accordinglyconcern the rnerits and lack a preliminary character.

It would touch the substance, as amounting to an assertion that there
was no obligation under international law which Australia could have
breached in relation to Nauru (see the general reasoning in Electricity
Company of Sofiaand Bulgaria,P.C.Z.J., SeriesA/B, No. 77,pp. 82-83;
BarcelonaTraction,LightandPowerCompany,Limited,PreliminaryObjec-
tions, I.C.J. Reports 1964,pp. 44-46, and Judge Morelli, dissenting, at
pp. 110-112;ibid., SecondPhase,I.C.J. Reports1970,pp. 226 ff., Judge

Morelli, concurring; and South West Africa, Second Phase, I.C.J.
Reports 1966,p. 19,para. 7). An argument ofthat kind would gonottothe

See, as to Englishlawne Supreme Court Practice,1979, Vol. 1,London,1978,
pp.282-284, Order18/11/1-4. Andsee NorthernCameroons,I.C.J.Reports1963, sep-
arateopinionof JudgeFitzmaurice,pp. 106-107; NuclearTests (Australv. France),
InterimProtectionI.C.J.Reports 1973dissentingopinion ofJudgeGros, p. 121;and
NuclearTests(Australiv.France),I.C.J.Reports1974separateopinionofJudgeGros,
p.292.
* See, generally,and compareJudge Morelli,in Rivista di diritto internazionale,
Vol.47,1964,p.3;Vol.54,1971,p. 5;Vol.58,1975,pp.5and747;GiuseppeSperduti,
ibid.Vol. 53, 1970,p. 46;Vol. 57, 1974,p. 649;Vol.58, 1975,p. 6;RobertoAgo,
bookofZnternationalLaw,1975,Vol.1,p.206,atp.207;andS.Rosenne,lop.cit.,p160,as-
to Article79 of the new Rules"implyinga re-definitionof the qualificatprelimi-
na$'.commodité on peut désignercomme exception préliminaire quant au
fond) doit, si une décisionest prise dans un sens donné, avoir un effet
décisifsur le litigeou, àtout le moins, sur une questionimportante dans

l'affaire1. Le but est évidemmentde faire des économies de temps,
d'effortsetde frais.Ilyaeudiscussion (maispas dans laprésenteaffaire)
sur le point de savoir si la présentation à la Cour d'exceptions prélimi-
naires quant au fond estjustifiée2.Je noterai toutefois,tout en réservant
mon opinion sur cepoint, que lajurisprudence de la Cour (ycompris les
paragraphes 36,38,56 et 68de l'arrêd t e cejour) s'appuie sur une distinc-
tion établie de longuedate entre les exceptionspréliminaireset le fond,

encorequ'on puissesedemander sicettedistinctiona étéappliquée avec
justesse dans certains cas.
Qu'est-cealors que le fond? Pour reprendre les termes employéspar
M. Read:

«le fond d'un différend comprendles points de fait et de droit qui
donnent lieu à une cause d'action et qu'un Etat demandeur doit
établir pour avoir droit à la réparation demandée» (Anglo-Zranian
Oil Co., exception préliminaireC ,.Z.J.Recueil 1952,p. 148,opinion
dissidente).

Pour établirle bien-fondéde son argumentation quant au fond, Nauru
doitprouver,entre autres, d'abord quel'Australieétaittenue,auxtermes
de l'accord de tutelle, d'assurer la remise en état et, en second lieu, que
l'Australieavaitviolécetteobligation.Soutenirque l'Australie n'avaitpas
cetteobligationfondamentaleconcernerait donclefondetn'aurait pas de
caractèrepréliminaire.Cela toucherait le fond de l'affaire puisque cela

équivaudrait àdirequ'il n'existaitpas d'obligationendroitinternational à
laquelle l'Australieaurait pu manquer à l'égardde Nauru (voirleraison-
nement général dans Compagnied'électricité de Sofia et de Bulgarie,
C.P.J.Z.série A/B no 77,p. 82-83; BarcelonaTraction,Light and Power
Company, Limited, exceptionp sréliminairesC , .Z.J.Recueil1964,p. 44-46,
et opinion dissidente de M. Morelli, p. 110-112; ibid., deuxième phase,
C.Z.J.Recueil 1970,p. 226et suiv.,opinion individuellede M. Morelli; et

Sud-Ouest africain,deuxièmephase ,.Z.J.Recueil1966,p. 19,par. 7).Un

Voir,en cequiconcernele droitanglaisTheSupremeCourtPractice,1979, vol.1,
Londres,1978,p. 282-284,ordonnance18/11/1-4. VoiraussiCamerounseptentrional,
C.I.J.Recueil1963opinion individuellede sirGerald Fitzmauri, . 106-107Essais
nucléaire(sAustralcFrance),mesuresconservatoire, .I.J.Recueil19opiniondissi-
dentede M.Gros,p. 121 ;etEssais nucléaires(Australice. France),C.I.J.Recueil1974,
opinion individuelledeM.Gros,p.292.
Voir,pourles aspectsgénéraud xu problème,M. Morelli, dansRivista di diritto
internazionale,l.47,1964,p.3;vol. 54,1971,p. 5;vol.58,1975,p.5et747;Giuseppe
Sperduti,ibid., vol. 53, 1970,p. 461; vol. 57, 1974,p. 649; vol. 58, 1975,p. 657;
YearbookofInternationalLaw,1975,vol.1,p. 207;etJ.Rosenne,op. citp. 160, surle
pointde savoirsi l'arte9dunouveauRèglement((impliqueunenouvelledéfinition
duterme préliminaire)).276 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP .P. SHAHABUDDEEN)

question whether Australia could be sued alone, but to the question
whether Australiacould beadjudged liable,evenifit couldbe sued alone.

Consequently, the question whether Australia had the obligation to
ensure rehabilitation cannot be determined in this phase of the proceed-
ings; it can only be determined at the merits stage. The existence of the
obligation has simplytobe assumed at this point. Thisbeing so,the only
issues now open are the issues of law referred toabove, that is to Say,
whether the obligation (ifit existed)wasjoint, and, if it was,whether the
propositions at (i) and (ii) above are well founded. These issues can be
determined now and cannot justifiably be resemed for the merits.
Nothingrelatingtothe establishmentatthe meritsstageofthe existenceof
the allegedobligationtoensurerehabilitation canprovide areason fornot
dealing withthose issuesnow.

In my opinion, the Court acted correctly in refraining from declaring
thatthe objection asto the absencefromthe proceedings of NewZealand
and the United Kingdom does not possess an exclusively preliminary
character. So1pass to the objection itself,beginning with a background
reference to Australia's positionder the Trusteeship Agreement.

PARTII. AUSTRALIA P'SSITIONUNDER THE TRUSTEESH AIPREEMENT

An appreciation of Australia's positionunder the Trusteeship Agree-

ment should take account oftwofactors,first,the evolution ofAustralia's
international personalityduring the Mandate period, and, second, the
legalcharacter of a trusteeship agreement.
Thefirstfactor relates to the external aspectsofthe constitutional-
lution of the relations between component units of the British Empire
(see, generally, Sir Ivor Jennings, Constitutionalws of the Common-
wealth, Vol.1, TheMonarchies, 1957,pp. 18ff.). It is probable that the
underlyingdoctrine ofthe unityofthe BritishCrown,whichwas then cur-
rent, explains the fact that, although Nauru wasin practice administered
by Australia under the 1920Mandate, the latter was conferred simplyon
"His Britannic Majesty". Traces of the doctrine are perhaps discernible
eveninthe caseofthe Mandate for New Guinea, in whichthe Mandatory

was described as "His Britannic Majesty for and on behalf of the
Government of the Commonwealth of Australia (hereinafter called
the Mandatory)" (Art. 1 of the Mandate, 17 December 1920,Procès-
Verbal ofthe Eleventh Session of the Council of the League of Nations,
held at Geneva, p. 102;see also the second and third preambular para-
graphs, and A. C. Castles, "International Law and Australia's Overseas
Territories", in International Law inAustralia,ed. D. P. O'Connell, 1965,
pp. 294-295).

By contrast, Article 2 of the 1947Trusteeship Agreement for Nauru TERRES À PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP.IND.SHAHABUDDEEN) 276

tel argument concernerait non pas la question de savoir si l'Australie
pouvait êtreassignéeseulem , ais cellede savoirsil'Australiepouvait être
déclaréeresponsable,mêmse i ellepouvait êtreassignéeseule.
En conséquence,onnepeut dire, àcettephase del'instance,si1'Austra-
lie était tenue d'assurerla remise en état;ce n'est qu'à la phase du fond
qu'il estpossible de seprononcerà cesujet.Dans la phase actuelle,ilfaut
simplement admettre l'existence de l'obligation. Cela étant,les seules
questions à traiter maintenant sont les questions de droit mentionnées
plus haut, c'est-à-dire savoir si l'obligation (en admettant qu'elle ait
existé)étaitconjointe,et,dans l'affirmative,sicequi esténoncéplushaut,

sousi)etii),estbienfondé. Il estpossible deseprononcer maintenant sur
cesquestions,dont lerenvoi àla phase dufond ne sejustifierait pas. Rien
de ce qui a trait l'établissement,dans la phase du fond, de l'existence
d'une obligationd'assurerlaremiseenétatnepeutfournirde raison dene
pas traiter cesquestionsmaintenant.
A mon avis,la Cour a agicorrectement en s'abstenant de déclarerque
l'exceptionau sujet de l'absencede la Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-
Uni ne possédaitpas de caractèreexclusivement préliminaire.Je passe
donc àl'exception elle-mêmee ,n commençant par un rappel de la posi-
tion de l'Australie dansle cadre de l'accordde tutelle.

Pourévaluerlasituationdel'Australiepar rapport à l'accorddetutelle,
il faut tenir compte de deux facteurs, dont lepremier est l'évolutionde la
personnalité internationalede l'Australiedurant l'exercicedu mandat et
le second le caractèrejuridique d'un accordde tutelle.
Lepremierfacteuratrait auxaspectsextérieursdel'évolution constitu-
tionnelle des relations entre les composantes de l'Empire britannique
(voir pour l'ensemble de la question, sir Ivor Jennings, Constitutional
LawsoftheCommonwealth,vol. 1,TheMonarchies, 1957,p.18et suiv.).Il
estprobable queladoctrinesous-jacente del'unitédelaCouronnebritan-

nique,courante à l'époque, expliquelefaitque,dans lapratique,bien que
Nauru ait été administrép ear l'Australie en vertu du mandat de 1920,
celui-ci ait été conféré simplement à «Sa Majestébritannique)). Des
traces de cette doctrine sont peut-être discernables mêmeans le cas du
mandat pour la Nouvelle-Guinée, oùle mandataire étaitdéfinicomme
étant «Sa Majesté britannique, agissant pour le Gouvernement du
Commonwealth de l'Australie (ci-après dénommé le mandataire) et en
son nom» (article 1 du mandat, 17décembre1920,procès-verbalde la
onzième sessiondu Conseil de la Sociétédes Nations,tenue à Genève,
p. 102;voir aussi les deuxièmeet troisième paragraphes du préambule;
et A. C. Castles, «International Law and Australia's Overseas Terri-

tories », dans International Law inAustralia,publiésous la direction de
D. P.O'Connell, 1965,p. 294-295).
Au contraire,l'article 2de l'accordde tutelle de 1947pour leterritoiremade a separate referenceto each ofthe three Governmentswhen speak-
ingofthe "Governments ofAustralia, NewZealand and the United King-
dom" as having been "designated asthe joint Authority which will exer-
cisethe administration ofthe Territory". Further, as willbe shownbelow,
bythe AgreementitselfAustraliawas giventhe leadingrole.The material
beforethe Court makesit clearthat during the Mandateperiod Australia
had been moving in the direction of securing a progressively greater
degree of practical control overthe administration of Nauru, an aspira-

tion which had been earlier manifested in the expression of a desire by
Australia to annexthe Island beforethe granting ofthe Mandate. Corre-
spondingly, by 1947,what Chief Justice Sir Garfield Banvick elegantly
calledthe "imperceptible and, in relativeterms,the uneventfulnature of
theprogressofAustraliafromanumber ofseparate dependent colonies to
a single independent and internationally significant nation" had run its
fullcourse l.
Withrespect to the secondfactor,trusteeshipagreements exhibitpecu-
liarities which have left the precise legal character of such agreements

open to some degree of speculation, as is evidenced by an interesting
literature on the subject.Professor CliveParry'sconclusion isthis :

"As actually achieved in the form of treaties between the United

Nations and the several administering authorities, the trusteeship
agreements are legal acts distinct from the Charter. They possess,
however, a dispositive (or conveyancing) as well as a contractual
character. Intheir 'dispositive'aspecttheyarenotindependent ofthe
Charter. Together with the relevant provisions of the Charter they
constitutea quasi-statutorybasis for the trusteeship systemasin fact
applied to specific territories. They have, as has the régimewhich
they inaugurate and govem, an objective character.This is perhaps
their mostimportant aspect." (CliveParry,"The LegalNature ofthe

Trusteeship Agreements", British YearBook of International Law,
Vol. 27, 1950p ,. 164,at p. 185.)

Theseremarks maybeborne inmind, in conjunction withtheevolution

of Australia's international personality, in considering Article 4 of the
Trusteeship Agreementrelating to Nauru, whichprovided as follows :
"The AdministeringAuthority will be responsible for the peace,
order, good government and defence of the Territory, and for this

l Seegenerally, .P.O'Connell,"TheEvolutionofAustralia'sInternationaPlerson-
ality",inInternational LawinAustraliaed. D. P. O'Connell,1965,Chap.1,and the
forewordby SirGarfield Barwick;D. P.O'Connel1andJamesCrawford,"TheEvolu-
tionofAustralia'sInternationalPersonality",nternationalLawinAustralia2nded.
by K.W.Ryan, 1984,p. 21andW.A.Wynes, Legislative,ExecutiveandJudicialPowers
inAustralia5thed.,p.56. TERRESÀ PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP.IND. SHAHABUDDEEN)277

de Nauru mentionne séparément chacun des trois gouvernements en
parlant des«Gouvernements del'Australie,dela Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu

Royaume-Uni »comme étant«conjointement désignés ..comme l'auto-
rité qui exerceral'administrationdu territoire».En outre,commenous le
montrerons plus loin,l'accord lui-mêmeconfère à l'Australiele rôle diri-
geant. Les documents dont est saisie la Cour montrent clairement que
durant la période du mandat l'Australie a évolué de façon às'assurerun
contrôle pratique progressivement croissant sur l'administration de
Nauru, aspiration qui s'était manifestéeantérieuremenp tar l'expression
du désirde l'Australie d'annexer l'île, avant que le mandat ne lui soit
confié. D'où vient qu'en 1947 ce que sir Garfield Banvick appelait
élégamment «le progrèsimperceptibleet,entermesrelatifs,sanshistoire
de l'Australie, partie d'un certain nombre de colonies distinctes pour

aboutir à une nation unique, indépendanteet internationalement impor-
tante »,avaitachevéson cours1.
En ce qui concerne le deuxième facteur,les accords de tutelle présen-
tent des particularités qui ont laisséune certaine place aux conjectures
quant au caractèrejuridique précisde tels accords, comme le montrent
d'intéressantes études consacrées àlaquestion. Leprofesseur CliveParry
formule la conclusionsuivante :

«Tels qu'ilssontréaliséssous la forme detraités entrelyOganisa-
tion des Nations Unies et les diversesautorités administrantes, les
accords de tutelle sont des actes juridiques distincts de la Charte.
Toutefois, ils possèdent en mêmetemps le caractère de traitésde
disposition etceluidecontrats.Sousleuraspect detraitésdedisposi-
tion, ils ne sont pas indépendantsde la Charte. Ils constituent, avec
les dispositions pertinentes de la Charte, une base quasi légale
pour le systèmede tutelle tel qu'il est appliqué en fait à des terri-
toires déterminés. Ilsont, comme le régimequi les instaure et les
gouverne, un caractère objectif. C'est là peut-être leur aspectle

plus important. » (Clive Parry, «The Legal Nature of the Trustee-
ship Agreements», British YearBookof International Law,vol. 27,
1950,p. 185.)
Il y a lieu de garder présentàsl'esprit cesremarques, en mêmetemps
que l'évolutionde la personnalité internationale de l'Australie, en exa-

minant l'article4 de l'accordde tutelle pour Nauru, qui dispose:
«L'autoritéchargéede l'administration répondrade la paix, de
l'ordre, de la bonne administration et de la défense duterritoire. A

' On trouverades considérations générasluersce problèmedansD. P.O'Connell,
«The Evolutionof Australia'sInternational Personay,dansInternational Lawin
Australia,publiésous la directioD. P.O'Connell,1965,chap.1,et la préfacede
sirGarfield Banvick;D. P.O'Connel1etJamesCrawford,«The Evolutionof Austra-
lia's International Personalit»y, dInternational Law in Austral2e éd.par
Australia5eéd.,p.56. ;etW.A.Wynes, Legislative,Executiveand Judicial Powersin278 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

purpose, inpursuance ofan Agreementmadebythe Governments of
Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, the Government
of Australia will, on behalf of the Administering Authority and
except and untilothenvise agreed by the Governments of Australia,
New Zealand and the United Kingdom, continue to exercise full
powers oflegislation,administration andjurisdiction in and overthe
Territory."

As a result of thedual contractual and "quasi-statutory" character of a
trusteeship agreement, and whatevermighthavebeen the earlierimplica-
tions of the first factor mentioned above, it is possible to read this provi-

sion,whichcameinto forcein 1947,asproviding (withthe approval ofthe
General Assembly),first,for fullpowers ofadministration to be vestedin
the three Governments as constituting the AdministeringAuthority, and,
second, for these powers to be delegated bythem to Australia.This inter-
pretation issupported byother elementsofthe Trusteeship Agreement.It
is difficult,therefore, to resist Australia's argument that, however exten-
sive was its administrative authority over Nauru, that authority fell to
be regarded in law as having been exercised by it on behalf of al1three
Governments.
But,althoughform isnotunimportant, internationallawplaces empha-
sison substancerather than on form(MavrommatisPalestine Concessions,
P.C.I.J.,Series A, No. 2, p. 34; Interhandel,I.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 60,
Judge Spender; BarcelonaTraction,Light and PowerCompanyLimited,
PreliminaïyObjections, I.C.J. Reports1964,pp. 62-63,Judge Koo; and,
ibid., Second Phase, I.C.J. Reports 1970,p. 127,Judge Tanaka). Some

notice may, therefore, be taken of the extent and exclusiveness of the
powers enjoyed by Australia, and, in particular, of certain differences
between its position and that of New Zealand and the United Kingdom
which could have a bearing on some ofthe issuesto be examined.

TheprovisionsoftheTrusteeship Agreementdonotreadilyyieldup the
realityofthe actualpowerstructure whichtheylaiddown.Thefirst part of
Article 4 of the Agreement had the effect of vesting plenary powers of
government in the three Governments as constituting the Administering
Authority;but the second part of the provision made it clearthat, for al1
practical purposes, those powers could be exercised only by Australia,
which was giventhe right to "continue to exercisefull powers of legisla-
tion, administration and jurisdiction in and over the Territory". The
authority so conferred on Australia could be revoked by subsequent

agreementbythe three Governments,but, clearly,there could be no such
revocationwithout the consent ofAustralia. In fact,there was no revoca-
tion: the Agreementmade by the three Governments in 1965,while pro-
viding for a measure of subordinate governmental authority to be exer-
cisèdby the Nauruans, had the effect of further diminishing the role of
New Zealand and the United Kingdom in relation to that of Australia.
Thus,Australiahad exclusiveauthority toadminister Nauru foral1practi- cette fin, en vertu d'un accord conclu entre les Gouvernements de
l'Australie,de la Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni, le Gouver-
nement del'Australiecontinuera àexercerdansleditterritoirepleins
pouvoirs législatifs,administratifsetjudiciaires, aunom del'autorité
chargéede l'administration - àmoins que lestrois gouvernements
susmentionnés en décident autrementet jusqu'au moment où une

décisiondanscesensinterviendrait. »

En raison de la nature double, àla fois contractuelle et «quasi légaB,
querevêu tn accorddetutelle,etquellequ'ait pu êtreaudébutlaportéedu
premierfacteurmentionnéci-dessus,onpeut interprétercettedisposition,
qui est entréeen vigueur en 1947,commeprévoyant (avecl'approbation
de l'Assembléegénérale), premièrement, pleins pouvoirs d'administra-
tionà confier auxtroisgouvernements entant qu'ilsconstituentl'autorité
administrante et, deuxièmement,la délégation par eux de cespouvoirs à
l'Australie.D'autres élémentdse l'accordde tutelleviennentà l'appui de
cetteinterprétation.C'estpourquoi il estdifficile de résisterargument
de l'Australie selon lequel son autorité administrative sur Nauru, si
grande qu'elle aitétée,nestvenue àêtreconsidéré en droit commeayant

étéexercépear elleau nom destroisgouvernements.
Maissilesformesnesontpas dénuéesd'importancel,edroitinternatio-
nal fait porter l'accent surla substanceplutôt que sur lesformes (Conces-
sions Mavrommatisen Palestine,C.P.J.I.série A no2, p. 34; Interhandel,
C.I.J.Recueil1959,p.60,M.Spender; BarcelonaTraction,LightandPower
Company, Limited, exceptionp sréliminairesC, .I.J.Recueil964,p. 62-63,
M. Koo; et ibid.,deuxièmephase,C.I.J.Recueil1970,p. 127,M. Tanaka).
Onpeut doncprendreen compte,dans une certainemesure,la portéeetle
caractèreexclusif des pouvoirs dont disposait l'Australie et,en particu-
lier, certaines différences entre sa situation et celle de la Nouvelle-
Zélandeet du Royaume-Uni,qui peuvent avoir des incidences sur quel-
ques-unesdes questions àexaminer.
Lesdispositions del'accorddetutellene donnent pas d'idée précisd ee
la structure réelledu pouvoir qu'ellesont établi.La premièrepartie de

l'article4 de l'accord avaitpour effetde conférerpleinspouvoirs d'admi-
nistration aux trois gouvernementsen tant qu'ilsconstituaient l'autorité
administrante; mais la deuxièmepartie de la disposition précisait qu'à
toutes finspratiques cespouvoirsnepouvaientêtreexercésquepar 1'Aus-
tralieà laquelle était conférle droit de continue«à exercer dans ledit
territoirepleinspouvoirs législatifs,administratifs etjudiciairesuto-
rité ainsi conféréel'Australiepouvait être révoqué pear un accord ulté-
rieur des trois gouvernements, mais il était clairque cette révocation ne
pouvaitintervenirsans leconsentement del'Australie.Enfait,iln'ypas eu
révocation: l'accord conclupar les trois gouvernements en 1965, s'il
prévoyaitquelesNauruans exerceraientune certaine autoritéadministra-
tive,de caractèresubordonné, a eupour effetde réduire encorelerôle de
la Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni par rapport àceluide 1'Austra-
lie. Ainsi,l'Australie avaitpratiquement l'autoritéexclusivepour l'admi- 279 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP.OP. SHAHABUDDEEN)

cal purposes, as well as the even more significant power to prevent any
diminution or withdrawal of that authority. Australia's controllingposi-
tion continuedunimpaired right up to independence.
The implications for an appreciation of the real power structure
established by the Trusteeship Agreement are important. TakeArticle 5,
paragraph 1, of the Trusteeship Agreement. This recorded an under-
taking bythe "Administering Authority" that

"It will CO-operatewith the Trusteeship Council in the discharge
of al1 the Council's functions under Articles 87 and 88 of the
Charter."

Or, consider Article 5, paragraph 2 (b),of the Trusteeship Agreement,
under which the "Administering Authority" undertook to
"Promote, as may be appropriate to the circumstances of the
Territory, the economic, social, educational and culturaladvance-
ment ofthe inhabitants."

Itisnotclearto methatthe AdministeringAuthoritycould do anyof these
thingswithoutan appropriate exerciseby Australia of its "full powers of
legislation, administration and jurisdiction in and over the Territory".
However,theTrusteeship Agreementdidnot reservetotheAdministering
Authorityanycompetence to direct or controlthe wayin whichAustralia
choseto exerciseits "full powers", and the evidencedoes not suggestthat
Australia acknowledged that the AdministeringAuthority had any such
competence as ofright. In so far asthe AdministeringAuthorityhad any
functions under the Trusteeship Agreement that could be discharged
without an exercisebyAustralia ofits "fullpowers oflegislation,adminis-

trationandjurisdiction inand overtheTerritory" (whichseemsdoubtful),
such functions had nothing to do with the substance of the claims pre-
sentedby Nauru. Andthisis apart fromthe consideration that, inthe first
place,theAdministeringAuthoritycouldnot actwithoutthe concurrence
of Australia. The Parties to the case were agreed that the Administering
Authority wasnot a separate subject of international law or a legal entity
distinct from its three member Governments. These could act only by
agreement, and there couldbe no agreement ifAustraliaobjected.
Australiasubmitted that it acted withthe concurrence of New Zealand
and the United Kingdom in appointingAdministrators oftheTrust Terri-
tory (Preliminary Objections of the Government of Australia, Vol. 1,
paras. 36,45,334 ff.,and 341).However,none ofthe pertinent documents
suggeststhat New Zealand and the United Kingdom had any legal basis
on which to demand to be consulted as of right, let alone demand that
their concurrence be obtained. New Zealand and the United Kingdom

participated inthenegotiations and ensuingagreement forthetransfer of
the phosphate undertaking to Nauruan control; but the real basis on
whichtheywereactingthere wasthe commercialonewhichtheyoccupied
as part-owners of the undertaking and future purchasers of Nauruan
phosphates. In sofaras the negotiationsembraced the subjectof rehabili- TERRES À PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP. IND.SHAHABUDDEEN)279

nistration de Nauru, de mêmeque le pouvoir, plus important encore,
d'empêcher toute réduction ou tout retrait de cette autorité.La position

dominante de l'Australiea durésans entravejusqu'à l'indépendance.
Lesincidences àfaire entrer en ligne de compte pour évaluerla struc-
ture réelledu pouvoir établipar l'accord de tutelle sont importantes.
Prenons par exemplele paragraphe 1de l'article5de l'accordde tutelle.
Letexte établitque l'aautoritéchargéede l'administration»s'engage:
«A coopérer avecle Conseil de tutelle dans l'exercicede toutes
les fonctions de ce conseil prévues aux articles 87 et 88 de la

Charte. »
Ou encore, considéronsle paragraphe 2 b)de l'article 5de l'accord de
tutelle, par lequel'«autoritéchargéede l'administration Ds'engage :

«A favoriser, d'une manièreappropriéeaux conditions particu-
lièresdu Territoire, le progrès économiqueet social de ses habi-
tants..»

Je ne voispas commentl'autoritéadministrante pouvait fairel'une quel-
conque de ces chosessans que l'Australie exercede manièreappropriée
«dans ledit territoire pleins pouvoirs législatifs,administratifs et judi-
ciaires».Toutefois,l'accord de tutelle ne conféraitpasàl'autoritéadmi-
nistrante lesmoyensd'orienter oudecontrôlerlamanièredont l'Australie
exerçait ses pleins pouvoirs », et les indications disponibles ne portent
pas àcroirequel'Australiereconnaissaitàl'autorité administrante lapos-
session de plein droit de ces moyens. Dans la mesure où l'accord de tu-
telleconféraitàl'autorité administrantedesfonctionsdont ilétaitpossible
de s'acquitter sansquel'Australieexerce((dansleditterritoirepleinspou-
voirs législatifs,administratifs etjudiciairesequi paraît douteux), ces
fonctionsétaientsansrapportaveclefond des griefsformuléspar Nauru,
et cela indépendamment du fait que d'abord l'autorité administrante

ne pouvait agir sans le consentement de l'Australie. LesParties étaient
convenues de ce que l'autorité administranten'étaitni un sujet distinct
de droitinternational,ni une entitéjuridique distinctedestroisgouverne-
mentsquienétaientmembres.Ceux-cinepouvaientagirquepar accordet
il nepouvait y avoir accord s'ily avait objectionde la part de l'Australie.
L'Australie a soutenu qu'elle agissait avec l'accord de la Nouvelle-
Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uniennommantlesadministrateurs duterritoire
sous tutelle (exceptions préliminaires de l'Australie, vol.1,par. 36, 45,
334et suiv.et 341).Toutefois, aucun des documents pertinents ne porte
à croireque la Nouvelle-Zélandeet leRoyaume-Unipouvaients'appuyer
sur une basejuridique quelconque pour exiger d'être consultéd se plein
droit, et encore moins pour exiger que leur accord soit obtenu. La
Nouvelle-Zélandeet leRoyaume-Uni ont participéaux négociationset à
l'accord qui enestrésultépour letransfert sousadministration nauruane

de l'entreprise d'exploitation de phosphates; mais la base réellesur
laquelleilsagissaientétaitlabasecommercialequiétaitlaleurentantque
propriétaires partiels de l'entreprise et futurs acheteurs de phosphates280 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP.OP. SHAHABUDDEEN)

tation,thisdid not showthat New Zealand and the United Kingdom had
any control ofthe actual administration of the TrustTerritory :under the
Trusteeship Agreement their responsibilityfor non-rehabilitation could
exist without such control.The law is familiar with situations in which a
party maybecome contractuallyliableforthe acts ofanother though hav-
ing no power of direction or control overthem. Possibly,the concurrence
of NewZealand and the United Kingdom waslegallyrequiredin respect
of a proposal, such as that relating to resettlement, which premised a
modification of the fundamental basis of the original arrangements,

or that relating to independence, which premised the termination of the
Trusteeship Agreement itself; but 1 am unable to see that there was
any such requirement, as a matter of law, where the normal administra-
tion ofthe Territory was concerned.

The first preamble of the Trusteeship Agreement recalled that, under
the Mandate, the Territory of Nauru had "been administered .. . by
the Government of Australia on the joint behalf of the Governments of
Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland". Thus, the Trusteeship Agreement itself recognized
thatthe administration ofthe Island had in practicebeen in the hands of
Australia during the Mandate. This,ofcourse,continued under the Trus-
teeship (seepara. 43ofthe Judgment).The position was, 1think, correctly
summed up by counselfor Nauru as follows :

"Nauru was administeredasan integral portion ofAustralian ter-
ritory.Itsadministrationborenorelationtotheterritory ofanyother
State.Asfar as can be discovered,no governmental officia1of either
New Zealand or the United Kingdom lived on Nauru during the
period from 1920to early 1968,or performed governmental acts
there. Throughout the whole ofthat period, the government officials
on Nauru, the Administrator and the persons responsible to him,

were Australian public servants, answerable to other Australian
public servantsin Canberra, and in no sensesubject tothe direction
or control of any other Government. Article 22 of the Covenant
referredto administration 'underthe lawsofthe Mandatory' :infact,
those lawswereAustralian.No Britishor New Zealand lawwas ever
applied to Nauru." (CR 91/20, pp. 75-76,Professor Crawford.)

Theinternational agreements whichapplied to Nauru werea selectionof
international agreements to which Australia was a party (ibid., p. 78).
Althoughindependence had been agreedtobyal1threeGovernments,the
Nauru Independence Act 1967wasan Australianenactment; no counter-
part legislation was enacted by New Zealand or the United Kingdom.
Until independencethe flag - the only one - which flewin Nauru was
the Australian flag.
1 am not persuaded by Australia's argument that its governmentalnauruans. Dans la mesure où les négociations s'étendaient à la question
de la remise en état,il n'en ressortait pas que la Nouvelle-Zélande etle
Royaume-Uni détenaient un pouvoir quelconque sur l'administration
effective du territoire sous tutelle: en vertu de l'accord de tutelle, leur
responsabilitépour la non-remiseen étatpouvait existersans cepouvoir.
Lessituations où une partie peut devenir contractuellement responsable
des actes commispar une autre sans avoir le pouvoir de les diriger ou de
lescontrôlersontbienconnues endroit.L'accorddela Nouvelle-Zélande
et du Royaume-Uni pouvait être juridiquement requiss'agissant d'une
proposition comme celle concernant la réinstallation, qui supposaitune
modification de la base fondamentale des arrangements conclus à l'ori-
gine ou celleconcernant l'indépendance, qui supposaitlafin de l'accord
de tutelle lui-même; maisje ne vois pas qu'il y ait eu, en droit, une

exigencedecegenre,s'agissantdel'administration normaleduTerritoire.
Le premier préambule de l'accord de tutelle rappelait que, sous le
mandat, le Territoire de Nauru avait«étéadministré ..par le Gouverne-
ment de l'Australie, au nom des Gouvernements de l'Australie, de la
Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande
du Nord». Ainsi donc, l'accord de tutelle lui-mêmereconnaissaitle fait
que, pratiquement, l'administration de l'île avait étéentre les mains de
l'Australiedurant l'exercicedu mandat. Cela s'estévidemmentpoursuivi
sous le régimede tutelle (arrêt, par.43). Je crois que la situation a été
correctementrésumée par le conseilde Nauru, comme suit:

«Nauru aétéadministré commeunepartie intégranteduterritoire
australien. Sonadministration n'étaitliéeau territoire d'aucun autre
Etat. Pour autant qu'on puisse le savoir, aucun représentant du
Gouvernement de la Nouvelle-Zélandeou du Royaume-Uni n'a
vécuà Nauru pendant la période quis'estécoulée entre1920et le
débutde1968ou n'ya accomplidesactes degouvernement.Pendant
touteladuréedecettepériode,lesagentsgouvernementaux àNauru,
c'est-à-dire l'administrateuret lespersonnes relevant de lui, étaient
desfonctionnaires australiens qui relevaientd'autres fonctionnaires
australiensàCanberra etquin'étaient aucunement soumis à ladirec-
tion ou au contrôle d'un autre gouvernement. L'article 22 du Pacte

mentionnait que l'administration devait être conduite«sous leslois
du mandataire» et, en fait, ces lois étaient deslois australiennes.
Aucuneloi britanniqueou néo-zélandaise n'ajamais étéappliquée à
Nauru. »(CR 91/20, p. 75-76,M.Crawford.)
Les accords internationaux qui s'appliquaient à Nauru se trouvaient
parmi les accords internationaux auxquels l'Australie étaitpartie(ibid.,

p. 78). Les trois gouvernements ont approuvé l'indépendance, maisle
NauruIndependenceActde 1967étaitune loiaustralienne; ni la Nouvelle-
Zélande ni le Royaume-Uni n'ont promulguéde législationscorrespon-
dantes. Jusqu'à l'indépendance,le drapeau - le seul - qui flottaià
Nauru étaitle drapeau australien.
Je ne suis pas convaincu par l'argument avancépar l'Australie selonauthority was excluded from the phosphate industry by reason of
Article 13of the Nauru Island Agreement 1919,reading:

"There shall be no interference by any of the three Governments
with the direction,management, or control of the business of work-
ing, shipping, or sellingthe phosphates, and each of the three Gov-
emmentsbinds itselfnot to do orto permit anyact or thing contrary
to or inconsistent with the terms and purposes of this Agreement."

Referring to this provision, in the case of Titov. Waddell,egarry,V-C.,
observed - correctly,if 1may Sayso - that :
"This article established the independence of the British Phos-

phate Commissionersas against any one or two of the three govern-
ments, though not, of course, against al1three acting in concert."
([1977]3Al1ER 129,at p. 166.)
Article 13ofthe Nauru Island Agreementcouldnot apply to Australia as
Administratorforthe reason that, in administeringNauru under author-
ity delegated by al1three Governments,its actswould in substance have
been the acts of al1three Governments "acting in concert", and not the
acts of Australiaalone.

It is not possible to conceiveof the major industry of a Territory (irre-
spectiveof ownership)beingentirelybeyondthe competence ofthe legis-
lative, executive and judicial powers of the Territory, in whomsoever
these are vested. Consequently, to hold that the governmental powers of
the Australian-appointedAdministrator did not extend to the phosphate
industry andthat this was exclusivelywithinthe competence of the three
Governments acting through the British Phosphate Commissioners
(BPC)iseffectivelyto hold that governmentalpowersconcerningal1mat-
ters relating to the industry were exercisable by the three Governments
actingthrough BPC.This in turn amounts to saying that there were two
governments in Nauru, namely, an economic government administered
bythe three Governmentsactingthrough BPC withexclusiveresponsibi-
lity for the Territory'smain industry, and another government adminis-
tered by Australia with responsibilityfor residualmatters. 1cannot read
the Trusteeship Agreement as meaning that the régime whichit intro-
duced in Nauru in 1947consisted of two such governments. It is, 1 think,
unquestionable that al1governmental power must derive from the Trus-

teeship Agreement (see, as to a mandate, International Status of South
West Africa,I.C.J. Reports1950,p. 133).BPC (whose undertaking could
equally have been carried on by an ordinary commercial Companyas,
indeed, had beenearlier the case)didnot professto be exercisinggovern-
mental powers under the Trusteeship Agreement: it simplyhad nostand-
ing under that Agreement.Onthe other hand, asthe legislativeand other
evidence shows, Australia did not consider that its Administrator was
wholly without competence over the industry. The Trusteeship Agree-lequel son autoritéde gouvernementétaitexcluedu domainede l'indus-
trie des phosphates en raison de l'article 13de l'accord de 1919relatif
l'îlede Nauru, ainsiconçu :

«Les trois gouvernements s'engagent à ne pas intervenir dans la
direction, la gestion ou le contrôle des opérations d'exploitation,
d'expéditionou deventedesphosphates ;chacundestroisgouverne-
ments s'engage à n'accomplir et àne permettre d'accomplir aucun
acte ou aucune chose contraire aux dispositions et fins du présent
accord ou incompatible avec celles-ci.

Seréféran t cettedispositiondansl'affaireTitov. WaddellM, egarry,V-C.,
a fait observer- à juste titre, sije puis d-,eque :

«Cet article établissait l'indépendance des British Phosphate
Commissioners à l'égardde l'un ou de deux quelconques des trois
gouvernements,maisnonpas,bienentendu, àl'égarddetouslestrois
agissant de concert.([1977]3Al1ER 129,p. 166.)
L'article13del'accord relatifàNauru nepouvaits'appliquer àl'Australie
entant qu'administrateurpour laraisonque, dufaitdel'administrationde
Nauru sous l'autorité délégué paer les trois gouvernements, les actes de

l'Australie auraient, en substance, étéles actes des trois gouvernements
«agissant de concert »,et non pas lesactes de la seuleAustralie.
Il n'estpas concevable que l'industrie principale d'un territoire (indé-
pendamment de la question de la propriété)échappeentièrement aux
pouvoirs législatifs,exécutifsetjudiciairesdu territoire, quels que soient
ceuxauxquelsilssontdévolus.En conséquence,soutenirque lespouvoirs
de gouvernement de l'administrateur nommépar l'Australie ne s'éten-
daient pas àl'industrie des phosphates et que celle-ci relevait exclusive-
ment de la compétence des trois gouvernements agissantpar l'intermé-
diaire des British Phosphate Commissioners (BPC),c'estsoutenir en fait
que les pouvoirs d'administration concernant toutes les questions rela-
tives àcette industrie pouvaient êtreexercéspar lestrois gouvernements
agissant par l'intermédiaire desBPC.Et cela équivaut à dire qu'ily avait

deux administrations à Nauru, àsavoir,une administration économique
relevant destrois gouvernementsagissant par l'intermédiaire desBPC et
ayant la responsabilitéexclusivede l'industrie principale du Territoire, et
uneautre administration,relevant del'Australieetayantlaresponsabilité
des autres questions. Je ne peux interpréter l'accord de tutelle comme
signifiantquelerégimequ'il aintroduit àNauru en 1947comprenaitdeux
gouvernements de cette espèce.Il meparaît incontestable que l'ensemble
des pouvoirs de gouvernement doivent découler de l'accord de tutelle
(au sujet du mandat, voir Statut internationaldu Sud-Ouestafricain,.I.J.
Recueil1950,p. 133).Les BPC(dont les activitésauraient aussi bien pu
êtreexercéepsar une sociétécommercialeordinairec ,equid'ailleurs avait
été le cas antérieurement) ne prétendaient pas exercer des pouvoird se
gouvernement dans le cadre de l'accord de tutelle: ils n'avaient tout
simplementpas ce pouvoir en vertu de l'accord. D'autrepart, ainsi qu'ilment was concluded on the basis that al1governmental functions in
Nauru, though formally vested in al1three Governments,would be exer-
cisedbyAustraliaalone. Itisuntenable to supposethat the "fullpowersof
legislation, administration and jurisdiction in and over the Territory",
which were conferred on Australia by the Trusteeship Agreement, were
not "full" enough to extend to the overwhelmingbulk of the Territory's
economy.

Part ofthe problem concerns the correctappreciation of Nauru's case.

There could be an impression that Nauru's claimsdirectlyconcern Aus-
tralia'spart inthe commercialoperations ofthephosphate industry.That
impression would not be accurate. No doubt, Nauru's case has many
branches; but the essenceofthe case - whetherit is wellfounded or not
being a matter forthe merits - is that Australia, while having under the
Trusteeship Agreement "full powers of legislation, administration and
jurisdiction in and over the Territory", failed to exercisehese compre-
hensivegovernmentalpowers so asto regulatethe phosphate industry in
such a way as to secure the interests of the people of Nauru (CR 91/20,
p. 83, and CR 91/22, p. 45, Professor Crawford). In particular, says
Nauru, there wasfailureto institute the necessaryregulatorymeasures to
ensurethe rehabilitation ofworked-out areas,not inthe caseofminingin
any country, but in the case of large-scaleopen-cast mining in the min-
uscule area ofthisparticular TrustTerritory.Theconsequence,according
to Nauru, was that the Territory became, or was in danger of becoming,
incapable of serving as the national home of the people of Nauru, con-

trary to the fundamental objectivesof the Trusteeship Agreement and of
theCharter ofthe UnitedNations. Inthisrespect,the question,as 1under-
stand it, is not simply whether rehabilitation was required by such
environmental noms as were applicable at the time; the question is
whetherrehabilitation was required by an implied obligationof Australia
under the Trusteeship Agreement not to allow the destruction of the
smallnational homeland of the Nauruan people, or any substantial part
of it, through an unregulated industrial process which went so far as to
result at one stage in theaking and consideration of serious proposals
for resettlement of the Nauruan people altogether outside of Nauru.
That, 1think, is Nauru's case.

Thereisnobasisforsuggestingthat NewZealand and the United King-
dom had any capacity,as of right, to require Australiato use the govern-
mental powers, which it alone could exercise,for the purpose of legally
ensuring rehabilitation. No doubt, havingaccepted that Australiawasact-

ing on their behalf, withthe possibilitythat theycould in consequencebe
liableforitsacts,NewZealand and theUnited Kingdomhadan interestin
seeingthat Australiadischarged the responsibilitiesofthe Administering
Authority in asatisfactoryway.But"the existenceofan'interest' doesnotressort des preuves d'ordre législatif etautres, l'Australie ne considérait
passon administrateur commetotalement privéde compétenceencequi
concernel'industrie. L'accorddetutellea étéconclu surla base del'exer-
cice, par l'Australie seule, de toutes les fonctions de gouvernement à
Nauru, bien que celles-ci eussent, formellement, été confiéesaux trois
gouvernements. On ne peut absolument pas soutenir que l'exercice,
«dans ledit territoire [des]pleins pouvoirs législatifs,administratifs et
judiciaires)) qui avait été conféréà l'Australie par l'accord de tutelle
n'étaitpas suffisamment «plein» pour s'étendre à la quasi-totalitéde
l'économiedu Territoire.

Unepartiedu problèmerésidedans lajuste appréciationdela causede
Nauru. Onpourrait avoirl'impression quelesgriefsde Nauru concernent
directement la part de l'Australie dans les activitéscommerciales de
l'industrie desphosphates. Cetteimpression ne seraitpasjuste. Certes,la
cause de Nauru contient de nombreux élémentsm , ais son essence- son
bien-fondé étantune question qui relèvedufond - est que l'Australie, si
ellepossédaitauxtermesdel'accorddetutelle «dansleditterritoirepleins
pouvoirs législatifs,administratifs et judiciaires)), n'a pas exercé ces
vastespouvoirs de gouvernement pour réglementerl'industrie des phos-
phates de manière à sauvegarder les intérêtsdu peuple de Nauru
(CR 91/20, p. 83,et CR 91/22, p.45,M.Crawford). Nauru déclarequ'en
particulier l'on a omis d'adopter les mesures réglementairesnécessaires
pour assurer la remise en état des terres épuisén,on pas dans le cas de

l'exploitation minièred'un paysquelconque,maisdans lecas del'exploi-
tation minièreàcielouvert àgrande échellesurlasuperficieminuscule de
ce territoire sous tutelle particulier. La conséquence, selon Nauru, c'est
que le Territoire devenait, ou était en dangerde devenir, incapable de
servirdefoyernational dupeuple nauruan, cequi estcontraireauxobjec-
tifsfondamentaux del'accorddetutelleet delaCharte desNations Unies.
A cet égard, la question,telle que je la conçois, n'est pas simplement de
savoirsilaremiseenétatétaie txigéepar lesnormesenmatièred'environ-
nementapplicables à l'époque;laquestionestdesavoirsilaremiseenétat
étaitexigéeauxtermesd'une obligationimpliciteincombant à l'Australie
envertu de l'accordde tutelle de ne pas permettre la destruction du petit
foyer national du peuple nauruan, ni d'une partie substantielle de ce
foyer,par un processusindustriel non réglementéallantsiloin qu'ilavait
abouti, àun moment donné, à la formulation età l'examen de proposi-

tions sérieusesde réinstallationdu peuple nauruan hors de Nauru. Je
pense que c'estcelaqui constitue la thèsede Nauru.
Rienne fonde àsoutenir que la Nouvelle-Zélandeet le Royaume-Uni
avaient, en droit, la capacitéd'exiger de l'Australie qu'elle utiliseles
pouvoirs de gouvernement,qu'elle seulepouvait exercer,aux fins d'assu-
rerlégalementlaremiseen état.Indubitablement, la Nouvelle-Zélandeet
le Royaume-Uni,ayantacceptéquel'Australieagisseenleurnom,avecla
possibilitéqu'ilspuissent en conséquenceêtretenus de sesactes,avaient
intérêtà veillerà ce qu'elle s'acquitte de manière satisfaisante de ses
responsabilités d'autorité administrante. ais cen'estpas parce qu'un 283 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP.OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

ofitselfntai1that thisinterestisspecificallyjuridical in character" (South
WestAfrica,SecondPhase, I.C.J.Reports1966,p. 34,para. An)interest
is not always a right (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited,econdPhase,I.C.J.Reports1970,pp. 36,38,and Judge Morelliat
pp. 235-237):in this case, giventhe terms ofle 4 of the Trusteeship
Agreement,New Zealand andthe United Kingdom had no capacityas of
rightto controlthe course ofAustralia'sconduct ofthe administration of
the Island.resumably,they had someinfluence;but, asJenksremarked,
even where influence is considerable, "influence is less than power"
(C.W. Jenks, The WorldBeyond theCharter, 1969,p. 99).

Judge Hudson once warned that "[a]juristic conception must not be
stretchedto thebreaking-point" (LighthousesinCreteand Samos,P.C.I.J.,
SeriesA/B, No. 71,p. 127).In the circumstances ofthat case,hehad occa-
sion to add that "a ghost of a hollow sovereigntycannot be permittedto
obscure the realities of [the]situation" in Crete. No questions of
eignty arise here; nevertheless, those remarks may be borne in mind in
. consideringthe realities of the situation in Nauru. In law, Australia was
actingonbehalf ofal1three Governments; and Australia isrightin saying
that this circumstancewas consistentlyreflectedinthe positionsby
the United Nations and by Nauru. Butit would be erroneousto suppose
that New Zealand and the United Kingdom were also administering
Nauru in the sense of having any real Sayin itsadministration; they had
none.

PARTIII. THEOBLIGATIO NFSTHETHREE GOVERNMENW TERE JOINT
AND SEVERA WLITH THECONSEQUEN THEATAUSTRALC IOULD
BESUED ALONE

1comenowtothequestionwhether the obligationsofthethree Govern-
ments werejoint, as contended by Australia, or whether they werejoint
and several,as contended by Nauru.
1understoodcounsel forAustraliatobeacceptingthat theinternational
case-lawdoes not support the Australian viewthat the obligations of the
three Governments werejoint, even if he considered that neitherit
support the Nauruan view that the obligations were joint anderal
(CR 91/21, pp. 63-64,Professor Pellet,statingthat "le match estnul").

As regardsthe work produced by the International Law Commission,
whichwas laid by either side before the Court, the statement of counsel
for Australia wasthis

"the International Law Commission has never expressly adopted
a position on the problemunder consideration, displaying great
reticence as regards the very idea of joint andveral liability"
(ibid.,65).intérêt existeque cet intérêt aun caractère spécifiquementjuridique»
(Sud-Ouest africain, deuxièmephase, C.I.J. Recueil1966, p.34, par. 50).
Un intérêtn'est pas toujours un droit (Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company,Limited, deuxième phase, C.I.J.Recueil1970,p. 36,38, et
M. Morelli, p. 235-237):en l'occurrence, étant donnéles termes de l'ar-
ticle 4 de l'accord de tutelle, la Nouvelle-Zélande et le Royaume-Uni
n'avaientpas de capacité, en droit, d'exercerun contrôle sur la conduite,
par l'Australie, de l'administration de l'île. On peut présumer qu'ils
avaient une certaine influence; mais, comme le fait observer M. Jenks,
mêmelorsque l'influence est considérable, ((l'influenceest moins que le
pouvoir)) (C. W.Jenks, fie World BeyondtheCharter, 1969,p.99).
M. Hudson a autrefois énoncé l'avertissementqu'«une conception
juridique ne doit pas êtretendue jusqu'au point de menacer rupture))
(PharesenCrèteet à Samos,C.P.J.I.sérieA/B no71,p. 127).Dans lecadre
de cette affaire, il a eu l'occasion d'ajouter que ((l'on ne saurait laisser

obscurcir lesréalitésde [la]situation [enCrète]par l'ombre d'une souve-
raineté dépourvuede substance D. Aucunproblèmede souveraineténese
pose ici; néanmoins,on peut garder présentes à l'esprit cesremarques en
considérant lesréalitédse la situationNauru. En droit, l'Australie agis-
sait au nom des trois gouvernements; et l'Australie a raison de dire que
cettecirconstanceétaitconstammentreflétéd eans lespositionsprises par
l'organisation des Nations Unies et par Nauru. Mais il serait erronéde
supposer que la Nouvelle-Zélande et le Royaune-Uni administraient
aussiNauruau sensoù ellesauraient effectivementeuleurmot àdiredans
son administration; ilsne l'avaient pas.

J'en viensmaintenant àla question de savoirsilesobligationsdestrois
gouvernements étaient conjointes, comme le soutient l'Australie, ou si
ellesétaient solidaires,commele soutient Nauru.
Je croiscomprendre que le conseildel'Australieadmetque lajurispru-
dence internationale ne vient pas à l'appui du point de vue australien,
selon lequel les obligations des trois gouvernements étaient conjointes,

mêmes'ilestime qu'ilne vient pas non plus à l'appui du point de vue de
Nauru, selonlequel lesobligationsétaient solidaires(CR 91/21, p. 63-64,
M. Pellet,disant que «le match estnul»).
Encequiconcernelestravaux delaCommissiondu droitinternational,
dont la Cour a été saisie par les deux Parties, le conseil de l'Australiea
déclaré:
«la Commission du droit international n'a jamais expressément

pris position sur le problème à l'examen tout en se montrant fort
réticente...vis-à-vis de l'idée mêmd ee solidarité))(ibid., p. 65,
M. Pellet). 284 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

But reticence is not resistance. The Parties disputed the precise meaning
of paragraph 2 of the commentary on Article 27 of the Commission's
Draft Articles on State Responsibility of 1978.That paragraph Statesin
relevant part :

"Asimilarconclusionis calledforin casesofparallelattribution of
a single course of conduct to several States,as when the conduct in
question has been adopted by an organ common to a number of
States.Accordingto theprinciples on whichthe articles ofchapter II
of the draft are based, the conduct of the commonorgan cannot be
considered othenvisethan as anact ofeach ofthe Stateswhosecom-
mon organ it is. If that conduct is not in conformity with an interna-
tional obligation, then two or more States will concurrently have
committed separate, although identical, internationally wrongful

acts. It is self-evident that the parallel commission of identical
offences by two or more States is altogether different from partici-
pation by one ofthose Statesin an internationallywrongfulact com-
mitted by the other." (Yearbook of the International Law Com-
mission,1978,Vol.II, Part Two,p. 99.)

It isnot necessaryto enterintothe generalaspects ofthe difficultques-
tion carefullyexamined by the Commission as to when a State is to be
regarded as participating in the internationally wrongful act of another
State. It suffices to note that the Commission considered that, where
Statesact through a commonorgan, each State is separatelyanswerable
forthe wrongfulactofthe commonorgan.That view,it seemsto me,runs
in the direction of supporting Nauru's contention that each of the three
States in this case isjointly and severallyresponsible for the way Nauru

was administered on their behalf by Australia,whether or not Australia
maybe regardedtechnicallyas a commonorgan.

Judicialpronouncementsare scarce.However,speakingwithreference
tothe possibilitythat anon-party State had contributed tothe injuryinthe
CorfuChannelcase,Judge Azevedodid have occasion to say :

"The victimretainsthe rightto submita claim againstone only of
the responsible parties, in solidurn,in accordance with the choice
whichisalwaysleftto the discretion ofthe victim,inthe purely econ-
omicfield; whereas a criminaljudge cannot, inprinciple,pronounce
an accomplice or a principal guilty without at the same time estab-
lishingthe guilt of the main author or the actual perpetrator of the
offence." (I.C.J.Reports1949,p. 92.)'

On the facts,the CorfuChannelcase allowsfor a number of distinctions.

-- -
' Astothelastpoint,however,comparei,nEnglishlaw,Archbold,Pleading,Evidence
andPracticeinCriminalCases,40thed.p.1898,para4.136;Halsbury'sLawsofEngland,
4thed.,Vol.11(l), pp.49-50,para.50;andR v.Howe [1987]1Al1ER771HL.Maisréticencen'estpas résistance.LesParties ontdébattudusensprécis

du paragraphe 2 du commentaire de l'article27 du projet d'articles de la
Commissionsur la responsabilitédes Etats,de 1978.La partie pertinente
de ceparagraphe est ainsi conçue :
«Une conclusion similaire s'impose dans les cas d'attribution
parallèled'un comportement unique à plusieurs Etats. C'est cequi
arrive lorsque le comportement en question a étéadopté par un
organe commun d'une pluralitéd'Etats. D'après les principes qui
inspirent les articles du chapitre II du projet, le comportement de

I'organecommunnepeut eneffetqu'être considérécomm un faitde
chacun des Etats dont il est I'organecommun. Si ce comportement
n'est pas conforme à une obligation internationale, il se trouvera
alors que deux ou plusieurs Etats auront commisparallèlement des
faits internationalement illicites distincts, encore qu'identiques.
Mais il va de soi que la perpétration parallèlepar deux ou plusieurs
Etatsd'infractions identiquesesttout àfaitautre chosequelapartici-
pation par l'un de ces Etats à un fait internationalement illicite
commispar l'autre Etat. »(Annuairedela Commissiondu droit inter-
national, 1978,vol. II, deuxièmepartie, p. 112.)

Il n'estpas nécessairede s'étendresur lesaspects générauxde la ques-
tion délicate, soigneusement examinéepar la Commission, qui est de
savoir quand un Etat doit être considérécomm pearticipant au faitter-
nationalement illicited'un autre Etat. Il suffit denoter que, de l'avisde la
Commission,lorsque des Etats agissent par l'intermédiaire d'un organe
commun, chaque Etat est séparément responsabledu fait illicite de
l'organe commun. Il mesembleque cepoint de vueva dans lemêmesens
que l'affirmation de Nauru selon laquelle, dans cetteaffaire, chacun des
trois Etats est solidairementresponsable de la manièredont Nauru a été
administréeenleurnompar l'Australie,quel'Australiepuisseounon être
considérée,strictemenp t arlant, commeun organe commun.
Lesdécisionsjudiciaires sont rares. Toutefois,parlant de la possibilité
qu'a eue un Etat non partie de contribuer aux dommages causésdans

l'affairedu Détroitde Corfou,M.Azevedoa eu l'occasionde dire :
Lavictimeconservelafacultédeprésenter lademande contreun
seul des responsables, insolidum,d'aprèsun choix qui est toujours
laisséàsa discrétion,dans ledomaine purement économique,tandis
qu'un magistratcriminelne doitpas, enprincipe, se prononcersur la
responsabilitéd'un compliceou d'un mandant, sansétablirenmême
tempsl'imputabilitépar rapport àl'auteurprincipal ou à l'exécutant
matérielde l'infraction.»'(C.I.J. Recueil1949,p. 92.)

Sur les faits, l'affaire du Détroitde Corfoupermet de faire un certain

' Encequiconcernecedernierpoint,voirtoutefois,endroitanglais,Archbold,Plea-
ding,EvidenceandPracticeinCriminalCases,40e, . 1898,par.4136;HalsburySLaws
ofEngland,4eéd.,vol. 11(I), p. 49-50,par.50v.Howe[1987]1AI1ER771 HL.However,it isto be observedthat Judge Azevedo'sbasic viewof the gen-
eral law was that the right to sue "one only of the responsibleparties, in
solidum"wasavailableto theinjuredparty "in accordance withthechoice

whichis alwaysleftto the discretion ofthe victim,in the purely economic
field.. ."(emphasisadded). This approach would seemto be consistent
with the viewthat Nauru does have the right to sueAustraliaalone.

If domestic analogies are to be considered, the most likely area lies
within the broad principles of the law of trust in English law and of cog-
nate institutionsinother systems.AUnited Nations Trusteeship mustnot,
of course, be confused with a trust as understood in any specific system
of municipal law; but, used with discretion, the principles relating to
the latter are not unhelpful in elucidating the nature of the former. As
Judge McNair said, in relation to Mandates, it "is primarily from the
principles ofthetrustthat help canbeobtained onthe sideofprivate law"
(International Status ofSouth WestAfrica,I.C.J.Reports 1950,p. 151 ;and
see,ibid.,pp. 148,149,152,and the Namibiacase, I.C.J.Reports1971,p. 16,

atp. 214,Judge de Castro).Now,the applicable ruleinthe Englishlawof
trustshas been stated thus:

"Whereseveraltrustees areimplicatedin abreach oftrust,there is
no primary liabilityfor it between them, but they are al1jointly and
severally liable to aperson who is entitled to sue in respect of it."
(Halsbuy's Laws ofEngland, 4th ed., Vol.48,p. 522,para. 939; see
also, ibid.,p. 539,para. 971,and ibid.,Vol. 35,para. 68.)

Thisbeing so, 1do not find it surprising that, in regard to Nauru, the
viewhasbeenexpressed"that thethreecountriesare jointly and severally
responsible under international law for the administration of the terri-
tory" (A.C.Castles,"International Lawand Australia's OverseasTerrito-
ries", in InternationalLawinAustralia,ed.D.P.O'Connell, 1965,p.332).1
think this view is to be preferred to the view that the responsibility was

exclusivelyjoint.
This conclusion, that the obligation to ensure rehabilitation (if it
existed)wasjoint and several,disposesofAustralia'scontention that pro-
ceedingswillnot lieagainstone only ofthethree Governments. It should
alsodispose ofAustralia'scontention that anyjudgment againstAustralia
will amount to a judgment against New Zealand and the United King-
dom. ButAustralia does notthink so; it considersthat, evenifthe obliga-
tion was joint and several, a judgment against it would still imply a
determination oftheresponsibility of NewZealand and the United King-
dom. The issue concerning the implications of a possible judgment
againstAustralia for New Zealand and the United Kingdom isnot being
examined here; it willbe examined in Part V.However,to anticipatethe
conclusion reached there, even if the obligation was joint, a judgmentnombre de distinctions. Il convienttoutefois de faire observerque, selon
la conception de M. Azevedo en matière de droit commun, le droit
d'intenter une action ((contreun seul des responsables in solidurno est
ouvert à la partie lésée«d'après un choix qui est toujourslaissé à [la]
discrétion[déla victime]dans le domaine purement économique ..))(les
italiques sont de moi). Ce mode d'approche semble compatible avec le
point de vueselon lequel Nauru a effectivementledroit d'assigner1'Aus-

iralie seule.
S'ilfaut examiner les analogies tiréesdu droit interne, le domaine le
plus appropriésetrouve dans les grands principes du droit des trustsen
droitanglaisetdesinstitutionsapparentées d'autressystèmes.Certes,une
tutelle de l'organisation des Nations Unies ne doit pas êtreconfondue
avec un trust au sens d'un systèmedéterminéde droit interne; mais,
utilisésavecdiscernement,lesprincipes applicables à celui-cinesontpas
dépourvusdevaleurpour aider à éluciderlanaturedecelle-là.Commel'a
déclaré M.McNair à propos desmandats, c'estprincipalement desprin-
cipes du K trustDque l'on peut s'aider, en ce.qui est de l'aspect de droit
privé))(Statut international du Sud-Ouest africain, C.Z.J.Recueil 1950,
p. 151;voir aussi ibid.,p. 148,149,152;et l'affaire de la Namibie,C.Z.J.

Recueil1971,p. 214,M. de Castro). Or, la règleapplicable dans le droit
anglaisdes trustsa été énoncé dee la manière suivant:
Quand plusieurs trusteessont impliquésdans la violation d'un
trust,iln'existepasde responsabilitéprincipalede ce chefdans leurs
relations mutuelles:ils sont tous solidairementresponsables envers

quiconque est fondé à intenter une action pour ladite violation.»
(Halsbuly'sLawsofEngland,4eéd.,vol.48,p.522,par. 939 ;voiraussi
ibid.,p. 539,par. 971,et ibid.,vol.35,par. 68.)
Cela étant,je ne suispas surpris qu'à propos de Nauru on ait exprimé
l'avis«quelestroispayssontsolidairementresponsables del'administra-

tion du Territoire en droit internationa))(A. C. Castles, «International
Law and Australia's Overseas Territoriesa, dans International Law in
Australia, publié sous la direction de D. P. OYConnell,1965,p. 332).
J'estime que cette manière de voir les choses est préférable à celle qui
consiste àdireque la responsabilité étaituniquement conjointe.
Cette conclusion, àsavoir que l'obligationde veilleràla remiseen état
(sielleexistait)était solidaire,privede toute portéel'allégationde1'Aus-
tralie selon laquelle l'instance ne peut être intentée contl'un des trois
Etats seulement. Elle devrait aussi ôter tout fondement à l'allégation
australienne d'après laquelletoute décisionprononcée contre l'Australie
équivaudra à une décision contrela Nouvelle-Zélandeet le Royaume-
Uni. Maisl'Australien'estpas de cetavis;selon elle,mêmesil'obligation
était solidaire,prononcerune décision contreelleéquivaudrait à statuer

sur la responsabilitéde la Nouvelle-Zélandeet du Royaume-Uni. La
question des effets qu'une éventuelle décision défavorable à l'Australie
produirait àl'égarddela Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni n'estpas
icià l'examen; on l'étudieradans la cinquièmepartie. Cependant, pour 286 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP .P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

against Australia willnotount to a determination ofthe responsibility
of New Zealand and the United Kingdom. This conclusion, if correct,
would apply afortioriif theobligation wasjoint and several.

PARTIV. EVENIF THE OBLIGATIO NFSTHE THREE GOVERNMEN WTESRE
JOINT,THIS BY ITSELFDIDNOTPREVENA TUSTRAL IROM BEING SUED
ALONE

Assumingthat 1am wrong in the foregoing,the result would be no dif-
ferent, in my opinion, even if the obligations of the three Governments
under the Trusteeship Agreement werejoint. It is possible, as 1think is
recognized in paragraphs8 and 49 of the Judgment of the Court, to see
Australia's argument as raising two questionsst, whether the factthat
an obligation is joint by itselfs that a suit will not lie against one
CO-obligoralone;and, second,whether ajudgment againstoneCO-obligor
will constitute a determination of the responsibility of the other co-
obligors and a resulting breach of the consensual basis of the Court's

jurisdiction. The second question is examined in Part V; the first is
considered below.

Onthe question beingconsidered, 1agreewithAustraliathat "there are
in reality twoeparate and distinct issues", namely, "whether Australia
alone canbesued,and, ifso,whetheritcanbesuedforthe wholedamage"
(Preliminary Objections of the Government of Australia, Vol. 1,p. 131,
para. 320). However, in rny view, if the answer to the first issue is that
Australiaalone canbesued,the secondissue,concerningthe extentofthe
damageforwhichitmaybesued, isa matterforthe merits.Thetwoissues

beingadmittedly "separate and distinct", onceit isacceptedthat Australia
alone maybesued, 1do not seehowthe question ofthe exact extentofthe
damage for which it isresponsible can be madetotakethe form of a plea
in bar of a suit othenvise properly brought against 1tbelieve this
approach accordswiththe position taken bythe Court inparagraph 48of
the Judgment. Accordingly,1shall be focusing on the first of these two
issues,that is to Say,whether Australia alone maybe sued in respect of a
joint obligation.

While refraining from citing and discussing particular texts, 1cannot
Saythat 1have the impression that the valuable work ofthe International
Law Commission,whichwasplaced before the Court bythe Parties, was
directed to the question of pure principle as to whether a party to an act
done atone leveloranother ofassociationwithanotherparty maybesued
alone. In sofar astheworkofthe Commissiondealswithactsofthat kind,
itappears to be directed tothe question whether,in a suitbrought against
any one such party, the claim may be for the entirety of the resulting TERRES À PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP.IND.SHAHABUDDEEN) 286

anticiper la conclusionàlaquelle on aboutit dans cette partie, mêmesi
l'obligationétait conjointe,rendre un arrêt contrel'Australien'équivau-
dra pas à statuer sur la responsabilité de la Nouvelle-Zélandeet du

Royaume-Uni.Cette conclusion, si elle est exacte,s'appliqueplus forte
raison au cas où l'obligation seraitsolidaire.

QUATRIÈM PARTIE. MÊME SI LESOBLIGATIONS DES TROIS GOUVERNEMENTS
ETAIENTCONJOINTES, CELA, PRIS ENSOI, N'EMPÊCHAIT PASD'ASSIGNER
L'AUSTRAL SEULE

Sil'onsupposeque je me trompe dans ce qui précède, celane change

rien aurésultat,mesemble-t-il,même au casoù lesobligationsquiincom-
baient auxtroisgouvernementsenvertu del'accorddetutelleauraient été
conjointes. Comme l'arrêtde la Cour le reconnaît, me semble-t-il, aux
paragraphes 48 et49,il estpossible de considérerque l'argumentation de
l'Australie pose deux questions: premièrement celle de savoir si le fait
qu'une obligationsoitconjointesignifie,en soi,qu'une actionnepeut être
intentéecontrel'undescoobligésseul; etdeuxièmement,celledesavoirsi
prononcer une décisioncontrel'un descoobligéséquivaut àstatuer surla

responsabilité des autres,ce qui entraîne la violation de la base consen-
suelle de la compétencede la Cour. La deuxièmequestion est examinée
dans la cinquièmepartie;la premièreest étudiée ci-dessous.
Apropos de la question dont il s'agit,je suis d'accord avecl'Australie
pour admettre «qu'ilya enréalitédans cetteaffairedeux questions sépa-
rées etdistinctes, à savoir: «l'Australie peut-elle être assigseule?
Dans l'affirmative, peut-elle être poursuiviepour la totalitédu préju-
dice?» (Exceptions préliminairesde l'Australie,vol. 1,p. 131,par. 320.)
Toutefois,me semble-t-il,sil'onrépond à la première question en disant

que l'Australie peut être assignéeseull, deuxième question, relativà
l'ampleur du préjudicepour lequel elle peut êtreassignée,concerne le
fond. En admettant que les deux questions soient ((séparéeset
distinctes», dès lors qu'on accepte la possibilité d'assigner l'Australie
seule,je ne vois pas commentla question de l'ampleur précisedu préju-
dicedont elleestresponsablepeut revêtirlaformed'uneexceptiond'irre-
cevabilitéopposée dans une instance par ailleurs dûment introduite
contre elle. Je pense que cette façon de voir s'accorde avec la position

prise par laCour auparagraphe 48del'arrêtJ.'examineraidonc surtout la
premièredecesdeuxquestions,celledesavoirsil'Australiepeut être assi-
gnéeseulepour une obligationconjointe.
J'évitede citeret de discuterdestextesdéterminés,maisje ne puis dire
quej'ai l'impressionque lesprécieuxtravauxde la Commission du droit
international, quelesParties ontprésentéslaCour,portaientsur laques-
tion de pur principe de savoir si une partie acte accompli àquelque
niveau d'association avecune autrepartie peut être assigneeule.Dans
lamesureoù lestravaux dela Commissiontraitent d'actes de cettenature,

ils semblent porter sur le point de savoirsi, dans une instance introduite
contre une telle partie, la demande peut être formépour la totalitédu287 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

damage or only for such part as is proportionate to the extent of that
party's own participation in the causative act, done in the exercise of its
separate sovereignpower. If ajoint obligation is conceived of as an obli-
gationwhichinlawiscapable ofexistingonlyinrelationto al1the co-obli-
gorsas a group, withoutany one of them being individuallysubject to it,
thiswould beaground for sayingthat proceedings willnot lieagainstany
one of them separately. On this aspect, Australia'spleadingsare opento
differentinterpretations(CR 91/20, p.63,ProfessorCrawford, and Preli-
minary Objections of the Govemment of Australia, Vol. 1,p. 3,para. 2,

penultimatesentence, and p. 131,para. 321).However, 1do notthink that
Australia is contending that, standing by itself,it was not subject to the
obligationsofthe TrusteeshipAgreement; ifitwere,itwould,forreasons
givenunderPart 1above,beraisinganissueofthe merits,sinceitwould in
effect be saying that the obligation at intemational law, which Nauru
allegesthat itbreached, simplydidnot exist.Thegeneraltendency ofdoc-
trinal writings,as1appreciate them, does not take the matter anyfurther.

While properly acknowledging the need for caution in transposing
legal concepts from domestic societies to the international community,
both Partiespresentedmunicipal lawmaterials and soughtsome support
fromthemfortheir respectivecontentions. 1amnot acquainted withnon-

Anglo-saxon legalsystemsbut, subject to the same need for circumspec
tion - a need that 1emphasize - 1will consider brieflythe position in
Englishlaw,as 1understand it.

Inthe caseofajoint tort, in Englishlawthe plaintiff can alwayssueany
or al1ofthetortfeasors, because,asitwassaidovertwohundred yearsago,
"a tort is in its nature the separate act of each individual" (Egger v.
ViscountChelmsford[1964]3 Al1ER 412 CA; and Clerkand Lindsellon
Torts,16thed., p.179,para. 2.53).This ruleappliesalso totorts committed
by partners (Halsbury'sLaws ofEngland,4th ed., Vol.35,para. 67).The
realproblem wasdifferent;it wasthis,that "recoveryofjudgment against
one ofanumber ofjoint tortfeasorsoperatedasa bar to anyfurther action
against the others, even though the judgment remained unsatisfied"

(Clerk and Lindsellon Torts, 16th ed., p. 180,para. 2.54).This bar was
removed by Section6of the Law Reform (Married Women and Tortfea-
sors) Act 1935(replaced by the Civil Liability (Contribution) Act 1978),
under which judgment against one joint tortfeasor is no bar to action
againstothers,subject to considerations ofaggregationand costs.Clearly,
however,evenbefore the 1935enactment,there was nothingin priilciple
to prevent the plaintiff from suing one only of a number of joint tort-
feasors.

In the case of joint contractors the procedural position in 1967was
stated thus :

"A defendant has a prima facie right to have his CO-contractorpréjudice causé ou seulementpour une part proportionnée au degréde
participation de la partie dont il s'agit, dans l'exercice de son pouvoir
souverainindividuel, àl'acte qui a causéledit préjudice.Si l'on entend,
par obligationconjointe,une obligation qui ne peut exister,en droit, que
vis-à-visdetous lescoobligés,envisagéscommu en groupe,sansincomber
àaucun d'eux àtitreindividuel, ilpourraityavoir làuneraison dedireque
l'action ne saurait être intentée contre aucund'eux séparément.De ce
point devue, lesexposésde l'Australieseprêtent àdifférentesinterpréta-

tions (CR9 1/20, p.63,M.Crawford,etexceptionspréliminairesde1'Aus-
tralie, vol. 1,p. 3,par. 2, avant-dernièrephrase, et p. 131,par. 321).Je ne
croispourtant pas quel'Australiesoutienne qu'ellen'étaitpas elle-même
tenue des obligationsissues de l'accord detutelle; siellelesoutenait, elle
soulèverait,pour desraisonsindiquéesdans lapremièrepartie ci-dessus,
une question de fond, puisqu'en fait elle dirait que l'obligation en droit
international qui, selon Nauru, aurait étévioléepar elle, n'existait tout
simplement pas. La tendance généraledes auteurs, dans la doctrine telle
queje la comprends,ne va pas plus loin à cepropos.
Les deux Parties, tout en reconnaissant dûment la nécessitd'user de
prudence quand on transpose dans la communauté internationale des
concepts juridiques provenant de sociétésnationales, ont verséaux
débatsdesdonnéesde droitinterne etsesont efforcéesde s'enservirpour

justifier leurs allégationsrespectives.Je ne connaispas bien les systèmes
juridiques autres que les systèmesanglo-saxons, mais, sous réservedu
même besoin deprudence,surlequel j'insiste,j'examinerai brièvementla
situationen droit anglais, telle queje la comprends.
Dans le cas d'un délitcivil imputableà plusieurs personnes, en droit
anglais,ledemandeurpeut toujours assignerl'unquelconquedesauteurs
du délit,ou tous, car, comme on l'adit il y a plus de deux centsans,n
tort[délitcivil]est par nature l'acteséparéde chaque individu»(Eggerv.
ViscountChelmsford[1964]3Al1ER 412CA; et Clerkand LindsellonTorts,
16eéd.,p. 179,par. 2.53). Cette règles'applique aussi aux délitscivils
commis par des associés (Halsbury'sLaws of England, 4e éd., vol.35,
par. 67). Le problème véritable étaitautre; il consistait en ceci quee
jugement obtenu contre l'un des coauteurs d'un délit rendait irrecevable
toute nouvelle action intentée contre les autres, mêmesi le jugement

n'avait pas été exécuté( ) lerk and Lindsell on Torts,16eéd.,p. 180,
par. 2.54).Cette irrecevabilitéfut abrogéepar l'article 6 du Law Reform
(Married Womenand Tortfeasors)Actde 1935(remplacépar le CivilLiabi-
lity (Contribution)Act de 1978),en vertu duquel le jugement prononcé
contrel'undescoauteursd'un délitnefaitpasobstacle àuneactioncontre
lesautres,sous réservede considérationsdecumulet defrais.Toutefois, à
l'évidence, mêmaevant l'adoption de la loi de 1935,rien en principe
n'empêchaitle demandeur d'assignerun seul des coauteursd'un délit.
Dans lecasdecontractantsconjoints, la situation, du point devuedela
procédure,fut définiecomme suiten 1967 :

«A premièrevue un défendeur ale droit d'appeler engarantieun 288 PHOSPHATE LANDS INNAURU (SEP.OP. SHAHABUDDEEN)

joined as defendant and in the absence of special circumstances
showing that [an]order [stayingthe proceedings until joinder was
effected]shouldnot be made, it isthe practice to make it ..Butifit
is shown that there is any good reason to the contrary, e.g.,that the
newparty isout ofthejurisdiction (Wilsonv.Balcarres,etc., Co.1893]
1QB 422),or that every effort has been made to serve him without
success,then the action may be allowed to proceed withoutjoinder
(Robinson v. Geisel [1894]2 QB 685, CA)." (The Supreme Court
Practice1967,Vol. 1,p. 154, Order 15/4/10; and see Chittyon Con-
tracts,26thed., Vol. 1,pp. 807-808,para. 1303,and G.H.Treitel, The
Law of Contract,6th ed.,p. 444.)

Therelated common lawrule wasthat "an actionagainst ajoint contrac-
tor servedtobar any other proceedingsagainst another joint contractor"
(Chitty on Contracts,26th ed., Vol. 1,p. 807,para. 1303).This rule was
later abolished by Section 3 of the Civil Liability (Contribution) Act
1978,under which a plaintiff may sue one of several joint contractors
withoutprejudice to hisright to sue otherslater (ibid.,p. 809,para. 1306,
and The Supreme Court Practice, 1991, Vol. 1, London, 1990,p. 185,
Order 15/4/ 10).
Nauru argues persuasivelythat

"the Court is not competentin the present proceedings to interpret
any provisions in the Optional Clause declarations of the United
Kingdom and New Zealand that they might seek to rely on if they
werepartiestoproceedings commencedbyNauru" (CR91/20, p.90,
Professor Crawford);

and certainlythe position under the two declarationsisnot equally clear.
But,ifthe Court maynot makeanyinterpretation ofitsown,itmay never-
thelessnotice that it isAustralia,the proponent ofthe preliminary objec-
tion, which is itself affirming that the Court would not havejurisdiction
under those declarationsagainstNewZealand and the United Kingdomif
Nauru wereto suethem (CR91/17, pp. 20,21,26,46,48, ProfessorPellet;
and PreliminaryObjectionsofthe Governmentof Australia,Vol. 1,p. 138,
para. 346).In myview,the possibility,insisted on by Australia itself,that
there would be no jurisdiction in respect of New Zealand and the United
Kingdom constitutes a reasonable approximation to the exception in
English law (even as it stood before 1978)which permitted of an action
beingbrought against one of a number ofjoint contractors if,for reasons
of jurisdiction or service,it was not practicable to join the others. That
possibility also servesto attract attention to the Court's statementin 1984

tothe effectthat, inthe absence ofanysystemofcompulsoryintervention,
and barring the operation ofthe MonetaryGoldprinciple(anaspectdealt
with in the following Part), "it must be open to the Court, and
indeed its duty,to givethe fullest decision it may in the circumstances of contractant conjoint à titre de codéfendeur et, s'il ne résultede
circonstancesspéciales[qu'une]ordonnance [prononçant le sursis à
statuer jusqu'à la jonction de l'appel en garantie]ne doive pas être
prononcée,il est conforme à la pratique habituelle d'en prononcer
une; ..Sitoutefois l'existenced'une bonne raison en sens contraire
est établie,par exemple que la nouvelle partie n'est pas dans le
ressort(Wilsonv.Balcarres,etc.,Co.[1893]1QB422),ou quetout a été
fait envain pour lui notifier l'assignation, alorsilpeut êtredééedd
laisser l'instance se poursuivre sans jonction (Robinson v. Geisel
[1894]2 QB 685, CA).» (The Supreme Court Practice 1967, vol. 1,
p. 154,ordonnance 15/4/ 10.Voiraussi Chittyon Contracts,26eéd.,
vol. 1,p. 807-808,par. 1303,et G. H. Treitel, TheLaw of Contract,

6eéd.,p. 444.)

La règleconnexe de commonlawétait:«l'instance introduite contre un
contractant conjointservait àfaire obstacle àtouteautre procédure enga-
géecontre un autre contractant conjoint » (Chitty on Contracts,26eéd.,
vol. 1,p. 807,par. 1303).Plustard cetterèglefut abrogéepar l'article 3du
CivilLiability (Contributio) ctde 1978,auxtermesduquel un demandeur
peut assigner un des contractants conjoints sans préjudice de son droit
d'assigner les autres par la suite (ibid., p.809,par. 1306,et TheSupreme
CourtPractice,1991,vol. 1,Londres, 1990,p. 185,ordonnance 15/4/10).
Nauru soutient de façon convaincante que

«la Cour n'a pas compétence,dans la présente instance,pour inter-
préterles dispositions des déclarations faitesen vertu de la clause
facultative du Royaume-Uniet de la Nouvelle-Zélandequ'ilspour-
raient invoquer s'ils étaient parties une instance introduite par
Nauru »(CR 91/20, p. 90,M.Crawford);
et la situation instauréeen vertu des deux déclarationsn'est pas égale-

ment claire dans les deux cas. Cependant, si la Cour ne peut d'aucune
manière formuler sa propre interprétation, elle n'en a pas moins la
facultéde constater que c'estl'Australie,l'auteur de l'exception prélimi-
naire, qui affirme elle-mêmeque la Cour ne serait pas compétente aux
termes de ces déclarationspour se déclarer compétentevis-à-vis de la
Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni si Nauru lesassignait (CR 91/17,
p. 20,21,26,46,48, M. Pellet; et exceptionspréliminairesde l'Australie,
vol.1,p. 138,par. 346).Selonmoi la possibilité,sur laquelle insiste 1'Aus-
tralie elle-mêmeq,u'iln'yaitpas de compétence àl'égardde la Nouvelle-
Zélandeet du Royaume-Uni,représente à peu de chose près l'exception
prévueendroitanglais(mêmeavant 1978),qui autorisait àintroduire une
instancecontredescontractants conjointssi, pour desraisons touchant la
compétence ou la notification de l'assignation,il n'étaitpas possible de
mettre en cause les autres dans la même instance. Cette éventualitésert
aussiàattirerl'attentionsurcequ'a déclarélaCour en 1984, à savoirqu'en
l'absence de tout sytème d'intervention obligatoire et sauf au cas où
s'applique le principe de l'Or monétaire(on examinera cet aspect de la289 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP .P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

each case" (Continental Shelf(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Applica-
tionfor Permissionto Intemene,I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 25,para. 40).

One ofthe books cited by Australia, and relied on by it, in its surveyof
domestic legal systems, was Glanville Williams, Joint Obligations,Lon-
don, 1949(PreliminaryObjectionsof the Governmentof Australia,Vol. 1,
p. 128,para. 309).The particular reference was to page 35,paragraph 2.
Two pages earlier, speaking of joint promises, that learned author
expressedthe viewthat "Bowen L.J.statedthe ruleclearly"whenhe said:

"There is in the cases of joint contract and joint debt as distin-
guished from the cases of joint and several contract and joint and
severaldebt, only one cause of action. The party injured may sue at
lawal1thejoint contractorsor hemaysueone,subjectinthelattercase
to the right of the single defendant to plead in abatement; but
whether an action in the case of ajoint debt is brought against one
debtor or against al1the debtors . . .it is for the same cause of

action - there is only one cause of action. This rule, though the
advantage or disadvantage of it may have been questioned in times
long past, has now passed into the law of this country." (Glanville
Williams,op. cit.,pp. 33-34,citing Re Hodgson,Beckettv. Ramsdale,
(1885)31Ch. D. 177,at p. 188,CA; emphasisadded.)

Subject to the right to plead in abatement, Glanville Williams did not

appearto think that the fact that a contractualobligation isjoint operates
in principle to precludethe plaintiff fromsuing one only ofthejoint con-
tractors.
Itdoes not appear to me that recourse to municipal law, in so far as 1
havebeen able to exploreit, yields any satisfactoryanalogiessupportive
ofthe suggestedexistenceof any rule of international lawprecludingthe
presentaction ontheground that theobligation wasjoint. Onbalance,the
generaltrend of the references givenby the Parties to non-Anglo-saxon
legal systemsis not, 1believe,at variance with this conclusion (see, also,
the authorities cited in the Memorial of the United States of America of
2 December 1958in I.C.J. Pleadings, Aerial Incident of 27 JuZy1955,
pp. 229ff.).
As has often been remarked, to overestimate the relevance of private
law analogies is to overlook significant differences between the legal
framework ofnational societiesandthat ofthe international community,
as well as differences between thejurisdictional basis and powers of the

Court and those of national courts; "lock, stock and barrel" borrowings
would of course be wrong (International Status of South WestAfrica,
I.C.J.Reports1950,p. 148,Judge McNair). Onthe otherhand, nothing inquestion dans lapartie suivante),«la Cour doitavoirlafaculté,etelleaen
fait l'obligation,de se prononcer aussi complètement que possible dans
les circonstances de chaque espèce)) (Plateau continental (Jamahiriya
arabe libyennec. Malte), requête à fin d'intervention,C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 25,par. 40).
L'un des ouvragescitéspar l'Australieet sur lequel elle sefonde dans
sonexamendes systèmesdedroit interneétaitceluideGlanvilleWilliams,
Joint Obligations,Londres, 1949(exceptionspréliminairesde l'Australie,

vol. 1,p. 128,par. 309). Lepassage auquel ellerenvoyaitfigurait aupara-
graphe 2 de la page 35. Deux pages plus haut, a propos des promesses
conjointes, cet éminentauteur exprime l'avisque «Bowen L.J. a claire-
ment énoncé la règle»quand il a dit:
«Dans lescas de contrats créant des obligationsconjointeset des
dettes conjointes, par opposition aux cas de contrats créant des

obligations solidaires et des dettes solidaires, l'action n'a qu'une
seule cause. La partie lésée peut assignertousles contractants con-
joints, ou ellepeut en assignerun seul,sous réserve,dans cettehypo-
thèse du droit du défendeur unique, d'invoquer la réduction de
responsabilité; mais, dans le cas d'une dette conjointe, que l'ins-
tance soit introduite contre un seul débiteurou contre tous, elle
l'estpourune seuleetmêmecause - l'actionn'aqu'une seulecause.
Bien que les avantages et inconvénientsde cette règle aient pu
être débattusa des époques reculées, ellefait maintenant partie
du droit de ce pays. » (Glanville Williams, op. cit.,p. 33-34,citant
Re Hodgson, Beckettv. Ramsdale,(1885)31Ch. D. 177,p. 188,CA;
lesitaliquessont de moi.)

Sous réservedu droit de plaider la réductionde responsabilité, Glan-
ville Williams ne semblait pas estimer que le fait qu'une obligation
contractuelle soit conjointe ait en principe pour effet d'empêcherle
demandeur d'assignerun seuldes contractants conjoints.
Il ne me semble pas que le recours au droit interne, dans la mesure
où j'ai pu l'étudier, fournisse des analogies satisfaisantesà l'appui de
l'existence que l'on veut prêter à une règlede droit international ex-
cluant la présente actionau motif que l'obligation était conjointe. Tout

bien considéré, l'orientation générale des indications donnép ear les
Parties sur les systèmesjuridiques autres que les systèmesanglo-saxons
ne s'écarte pas,me semble-t-il,de cetteconclusion (voiraussi les sources
citéesdans le mémoire des Etats-Unis d'Amériquedu 2 décembre1958
dans C.I.J.MémoiresI ,ncidentaériendu 27juillet 1955,p. 229et suiv.).
Commeon l'a souventfaitobserver,surestimerlapertinence des analo-
gies tiréesdu droit privé revientà ne pas tenir compte de différences
importantes entre le cadrejuridique des sociétésnationaleset celui de la
communautéinternationale,nide différencesentrecequesontd'unepart
le fondement de la compétencede la Cour et ses pouvoirs, d'autre part
l'équivalentquand il s'agitdes tribunaux internes; il ne faudrait évidem-
mentpasfairedesemprunts «en bloc»(Statut internationaldu Sud-Ouest290 PHOSPHATE LANDS INNAURU (SEP.OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

those differencesrequiresmechanicaldisregard ofthe situation atmunici-
pal law;to speak of ajoint obligation isnecessarilyto speak of a munici-
pal law concept. The compulsory or involuntarycharacter of municipal
jurisdiction, with its facilities for enforcingcontribution among co-obli-
gors,doesnot, 1think, whollyaccountforthefactthat, at municipal law,a
suit may be competentlybrought against one CO-obligorin respect of a
joint obligation. Ifforanyreasonit isimpossibleto enforceor obtaincon-

tribution among the CO-obligors,this does not absolve an available co-
obligor from liability to the obligee.The obligee is not entitled to collect
thefull amount repetitivelyfromeach ofthe CO-obligorsb ; ut he isentitled
to collectthe fullmount by suing any or al1ofthem. Possibly,at interna-
tional law,there couldbe a question asto whether a suit againstone co-
obligormaybe forthe full amount;but 1am unable to seehow thiscould
affecthis liabilityin principle toparate suit.

Further, any question whether there is a right of contribution would

constitute a separate dispute between CO-obligorsto be separately
resolved by any appropriate means of peaceful settlement. As indicated
above, international judicial settlement differs from municipal judicial
settlement in important ways; though it is in a real sense the ultimate
method ofpeacefulsettlement ofinternational disputes, it does not enjoy
the jurisdictional primacy enjoyed by municipal judicial settlement
among other settlement mechanisms. Thefact that recourse to the Court
may not be open to a party seeking contribution is not decisive
(cf.J. H.RaynerLtd.v.Department ofTrade[1990]2AC418HL,atp. 480,
letter F). The claim to contribution may be pursued in other ways. This
perspective isnot,1believe,verydifferentin principle from that adopted
by counsel for Australia when he argued, as 1 understood him, to the
effect that a decision of the Court upholding Australia's preliminary

objection as to the absence of New Zealand and the United Kingdom
would result in Nauru not obtaining any legal ruling on the merits,
but would not deprive Nauru of the opportunity of pursuing its claim
in other ways (CR 91/21, p. 68). In international law a right may well
existevenin the absence of anyjuridical method of enforcingit (Eugène
Borel, "Les voiesde recours contre les sentences arbitrales", Recueildes
coursde l'Académie de droit internationalde La Haye, Vol.52 (1935-II),
pp. 39-40).Thus, whetherthere is a right to contribution does not neces-
sarily depend on whether there exists a juridical method of enforcing
contribution.

In consideringwhetherthe legalrule contended forbyAustralia exists,
1wouldremind myself ofthe followingstatementbyCharles DeVisscher :africain,C.Z.J. ecueil1950,p. 148,M.McNair). Desurcroît,rien dans ces
différencesn'oblige à méconnaîtrede faqon mécaniquela situation en
droit interne; parler d'une obligation conjointe, c'est nécessairement
parler d'un concept dedroit interne. Le caractèreobligatoireou involon-
taire delacompétencedestribunaux internes,joint auxpossibilitésd'exé-
cution forcéepour faire payer les coobligés,ne me semble pas expliquer
entièrement qu'en droit interneune instance puisse être dûment intro-
duite contre un seul coobligépour une obligation conjointe. S'ils'avère
impossible, pour une raison quelconque, de s'assurer une contribution
des coobligésou de leur enfaireimposer lepaiement, cela n'exemptepas
de sa responsabilité enversle créancierun coobligéaccessible.Le créan-

cier n'est pas fondéà se faire payer le montant total successivementpar
chacundescoobligés;maisilaledroit desefairepayerlemontant total en
assignantl'un quelconqued'entre eux ou en les assignanttous. Peut-être
pourrait-on se demander, en droit international, si un seul coobligépeut
être assigné en paiemend te la somme totale; maisje ne vois pas quelle
incidence cela aurait en principe sur la possibilitéde l'attraire dans une
instanceséparée.
De plus, toute question relative à l'existence d'un droit de contri-
bution constituerait un différend distinct entre coobligés,qui devrait
êtreréglé séparémenp t ar tout moyen de règlementpacifique approprié.
Comme on l'a indiquéplus haut, le règlementpar voiejudiciaire inter-
nationale diffère sensiblementdu règlementpar voiejudiciaire interne;
bien qu'il soit en un sens réel l'ultimemode de règlement pacifique
des différends internationaux, il ne bénéficiepas de la primautéjuri-
dictionnelle qui appartient au règlement judiciaire interne parmi
d'autres procédésL . e fait qu'une partie cherchantàobtenir une contri-
bution puisse n'avoir pas la facultéde saisir la Cour n'est pas décisif

(cf.J. H. RaynerLtd.v. Department of Trade [1990]2 AC 418HL, p. 480,
lettre F). Il y a d'autres moyens de se prévaloirdu droit d'obtenir une
contribution. Une tellemanièrede voirne meparaît pas, enprincipe, très
différente de celle qu'a adoptée le conseil de l'Australie quand il a
soutenu, sije l'aibien compris, qu'une décisionde la Cour faisant droit
à l'exception préliminaireque l'Australie fonde sur l'absence de la
Nouvelle-Zélande et du Royaume-Uni aurait pour effet d'empêcher
Nauru d'obtenir aucun prononcéjudiciaire au fond, mais ne priverait
pas Nauru delafacultédefairevaloirsaréclamationpar d'autresprocédés
(CR91/21, p. 68). Dans le domaine international, un droit peut exister
mêmeen l'absence d'unevoie juridique par laquelle on puisse le faire
valoir (Eugène Borel, «Les voies de recours contre les sentences arbi-
trales»,Recueildescoursde IAcadémiede droit internationalde La Haye,
t. 52 (1935-II),p. 39-40).Ainsi, le droit de contribution ne dépend pas
nécessairementde l'existence d'une méthode judiciaire pour assurer
l'exécutionde la contribution.

En recherchant si la règlede droit invoquéepar l'Australie existe,je
crois souhaitable de ne pas perdre de vue le texte suivant de Charles
De Visscher :291 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

"Thetemptation to formalism,and theproneness togeneralization
byabstractconcepts andto prematuresystematization,representone
of the most serious dangers to which international-law doctrine is
still exposed. It escapes only by constant return to respect for facts
and by exactobservation ofthe concrete and veryspecialconditions
which in the international domain contribute to forming the legal
rule and govern its applications. Of course the legal rule never

embracessocialreality in al1itsfullness and complexity.Attempting
to do so,lawwouldriskcompromisingitsproper endsas wellasover-
shootingits possibilities. If abstractioncarried to an extreme degen-
erates into unreality,individualization pushed to excessleads to the
destruction ofthe rule.International justice especiallymustmaintain
a proper relationship between social data and the rules designedto
govern them." (Charles De Visscher, ïheoïy and Reality in Public
IntemationalLaw, trans. P.E.Corbett, 1968,p. 143.)

Possibly, thesewordscould offercomfort to both ofthe competingpoints

of viewon the questionwhetherthere is a legal rule precluding an action
againstone only of a number ofjoint actors.Theimplications of holding
that there issucha rule can onlybegrasped and evaluated byreferenceto
concrete casesexemplifyingits operation.

In this case,Australia (whichisbeforethe Court) accepts that it "exer-
cised actual administration of the territory of Nauru" (Preliminary
Objections of the Government of Australia, Vol. 1,p. 136,para. 339); its
argument isthat it was doing so on behalf of itself, New Zealand and the
United Kingdom astogetherconstitutingthe AdministeringAuthority. 1
do not understand it to be sayingthat in lawthere isno conceivablebasis
onwhichitcouldbeindividuallysubject to the obligations ofthe Trustee-
ship Agreement; it contends that the issue whether it was in breach of

those obligations can onlybe determinedin a suitbrought againstitself,
New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Sothe substance ofthe matter is
this:itisnot a question of Nauru proposingatechnical devicefor attach-
ingresponsibilityto Australiaforsomething whichAustraliadidnot itself
door for breach of an obligation which Australia could not conceivably
have in law, but rather a question of Australiaproposing a formula pre-
cludingthe Court fromadjudicating on the issuewhether Australia'sown
actswerein breach ofitstrusteeshipobligations, onthe ground that these
obligations were jointly shared by Australia with two other States on
whose behalf Australia was acting but which are not parties to the pro-
ceedings.
Itseemsto methatto hold,insuchcircumstances,that there existsarule

of law,asasserted by Australia,whichhas the effect ofbarring these pro-
ceedingsinthe absence of NewZealand and the United Kingdom on the
ground that the obligation wasjoint isto import a levelof formalism and
abstraction that is incompatible with the "proper relationship between «La tentation du formalisme, le penchant à la généralisationpar
concepts abstraits et une systématisationprématurée représentent
l'un des plus sérieux dangers auxquels reste exposée ladoctrine du
droit international. Elle n'yéchappe quepar un constant retour au
respectdesfaits,par une exacteobservationdesconditionsconcrètes
ettrèsparticulières qui,dans lemilieuinternational, contribueàtla
formation et déterminentlesincidences de la règlede droit. Assuré-
ment, celle-ci n'atteint-elle jamais la réalité socialedans toute sa

plénitude etsa complexité.Alevouloirtenter, le droit s'exposerait
compromettre sesfins propres comme à dépassersespossibilités.Si
l'abstractionconduite àl'extrême verseans l'irréalité, l'individuali-
sation poussée à l'excèsmène à la destruction de la règle. C'est
surtout àla justice internationale qu'il appartient de maintenir un
juste rapport entre les données socialeset lesnormes destinéesles
régir.(Charles DeVisscher,Théories etréalitésndroitinternational
public,2eéd.,.1955, . 176.)

Ce langagepourrait peut-êtreapporter du réconfortaux deux points de
vues opposéssur la question de savoir s'il y a une règlede droit qui
empêche d'assigner seulementun auteur lorsqu'il y a plusieurs auteurs
ayant des obligations conjointes. Les effets d'une décision affirmant
l'existenced'unetelle règlene peuvent être compris et appréciéqsuepar

rapport à des casconcretsillustrant sa miseen Œuvre.
En l'espèce,l'Australie(quia comparu devantla Cour) admet qu'ellea
«procédé àl'administrationeffectivedu Territoirede Nauru »(exceptions
préliminairesdel'Australie,vol.1p. 136,par. 339);son argumentconsiste
à direqu'ellel'afaitensonnompropre, aunomdelaNouvelle-Zélandeet
au nomdu Royaume-Uni,en cesensquetouspris ensembleconstituaient
l'autorité administrante.Je ne croispas qu'ellesoutienne qu'ilnepuissey
avoir en droit aucun fondement possible pour la déclarer individuelle-
menttenue desobligations issuesde l'accorddetutelle; ellesoutient qu'il
nepeut êtrestatuésurlaquestion desavoirsielleaenfreintlesobligations
ainsi assumées quedans une instance introduite contre elle-même,la
Nouvelle-Zélandeetle Royaume-Uni. Voicidonc l'essentielde l'affaire:
Nauru neproposepas unartifice deformepourrendre l'Australierespon-

sabled'unacteque celle-cin'apas accomplielle-mêmeo ,u delaviolation
d'une obligation dont elle ne pouvait d'aucune manière êtretenue en
droit; l'Australiepropose plutôt une formule pour empêcherla Cour de
statuersur lepoint desavoirsilesactesmêmes del'Australieconstituaient
la violation de ses obligations de tutelle, au motif qu'elle partageait les
mêmesobligations avecdeux autres Etats au nom desquels elle agissait,
maisqui ne sontpas parties àl'instance.
Dans cesconditions, me semble-t-il,juger qu'il existe,commel'affirme
l'Australie,une règleayant pour effetde rendre la présente instance irre-
cevableenl'absencedela Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni aumotif
qu'il s'agissaitd'une obligation conjointe équivaudrait à adopter un
niveaudeformalismeetd'abstraction incompatibleavecle«justerapport292 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEPO.P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

socialdata and theulesdesignedtogovernthem" - arelationship which
Judge De Visschertellsus it isthety of international justice especially
to maintain.

PART V. A JUDGMEN TGAINSTAUSTRALW IAILLNOTAMOUN TO A
JUDICIADLETERMINATI OOFTHE RESPONSIBIL IFY
NEWZEALAN AND THE UNITED KINGDOM

1come finally to ~ustralia's argument that a judgment against it will
amount to a determination ofthe responsibility of New Zealand and the
United Kingdom, andthat, consequently,Nauru's action isreallyagainst
al1three Governments,two of which, however, are absent and have not
accepted thejurisdiction of the Court in the case.
Australiaemphasizedthat the argument wasnot that NewZealand and
the United Kingdomwere"indispensable parties". In litigationbeforethe

Court thereare,indeed,twoelementswhich advisecautioninadopting an
"indispensableparties" rule. These elements,which are interrelated,are,
first,that thejurisdiction ofthe Court isconsensual, and, second,that the
Court has no power toorder joinder of third parties. There are circum-
stancesin whichitmaybeincompetent orimproperforthe Courtto heara
case in the absence of a third party: the case of the Monetary Gold
RemovedfromRomein1943showsthat (I.C.J.Reports1954,p. 32).But,as
was indicated by that case and emphasizedinater cases expounding it,
the Court would only decline to exerciseitsjurisdiction where the legal

interests of a State not party to the proceedings "would not only be
affectedby adecision,but wouldformthe verysubject-matter ofthe deci-
sion" (ibid.).Thatthis wasthe position inthat caseisshownbythe follow-
ingpart of the Judgmen:

"Thefirst SubmissionintheApplicationcentresaround a claimby
Italy againstAlbania, a claim to indemnification for an alleged
wrong.Italybelievesthat shepossessesarightagainst Albaniaforthe
redress of an international wrong which,according to Italy,a
has committed againsther. In order, therefore, to determinewhether
Italy is entitled to receive the gold, it is necessary to determine
whether Albania has committed any international wrong against

Italy,and whethersheis under an obligation to pay compensation to
her; and, if so, to determine also the amount of compensation. In
order to decide such questions,it is necessaryto determinewhether
theAlbanian lawofJanuary 13th,1945,wascontraryto international
law. In the determination ofthese questions- questions which
relate to the lawful or unlawful character of certain actions of Alba-
nia vis-à-visIta-y only two States,Italy and Albania, are directly
interested." (Ibid.)entre les données socialeset lesnormes destinéesàles régir» - rapport
qu'il appartient en particulier à la justice internationale de maintenir,
commenous le dit M. De Visscher.

J'en viensenfinàl'argumentde l'Australie selonlequelprononcer une
décision contre elle équivaudra à statuer sur la responsabilité de la
Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni,d'où il résulteque l'action inten-
téepar Nauru l'estenréalitécontre lestroisgouvernements,alorsque deux
sont absents et n'ont pas acceptéla compétencede la Cour en l'espèce.
L'Australie a souligné que l'argument ne consistaitpas à faire de la

Nouvelle-Zélandeet du Royaume-Uni des «parties indispensables ». Il
existeen effet,dans une affaire portéedevant la Cour, deux éléments qui
invitentàuser de prudence en adoptant une règledes «parties indispen-
sables)). Ces éléments, d'ailleurs connexes,sont premièrement que la
compétencede la Cour est consensuelle et, deuxièmement,que la Cour
n'apas lepouvoir d'ordonner laparticipation detiercesparties àlamême
instance. Dans certaines circonstances, il sepeut que la Cour soitincom-
pétentepour connaître d'une affaire en l'absence d'une tierce partie ou
qu'il soit inapproprié qu'elle le fasse: cela ressort de l'affaire de l'Or
monétairepris à Rome en 1943 (C.I.J. Recueil 1954, p. 32). Toutefois,
comme le montrait cette affaire et comme l'avaient fait ressortir les
affaires ultérieures qui l'ont interprétée, a our ne refuse d'exercer sa
compétenceque dans l'hypothèseoù les intérêts d'ordre juridique d'un
Etat qui n'estpaspartie àl'instance((seraientnon seulementtouchéspar

une décision,maisconstitueraientl'objetmême deladitedécision »(ibid.).
Tel étaitalorsle cas,commel'indique lepassage suivant de l'arrêt :
«La premièredemande énoncéedans la requête graviteautour
d'une réclamationde l'Italie contrel'Albanie, réclamation d'indem-
nitépour dommageprétendu. L'Italie estimeavoir contrel'Albanie
droità réparationd'un délit international que, selon l'Italie, l'Alba-
nie aurait commis envers elle. En conséquence,pour déterminersi

l'Italieatitrà recevoirl'or,il estnécessairede déterminersil7Alba-
niea commisun délitinternational contrel'Italie etsi elle esttenueà
réparation envers elle; puis, dans ce cas, de déterminer aussi le
montant de l'indemnité. Pour tranchercesquestions, il est nécesaire
de déterminersila loi albanaise du 13janvier 1945était contraireau
droit international. Ala solution de cesquestions,lesquellesconcer-
nent le caractère liciteou illicite de certains actes de l'Albanievis-
à-vis de l'Italie, deux Etats seulement, l'Italie et l'Albanie, sont
directement intéressés. (Zbid.) Thus, in that case the Court was being asked to determine whether
Albania, a non-party, had by its actions engaged international responsi-
bility to Italy,the Applicant,and, if so, whether, in consequence,certain
monetarygold belonging to Albania should be treated as due to Italy by
way ofcompensation.Withoutdetermining these issues asbetween Italy
and Albania, the Court could not pass on to determine the issues pre-
sented in the Application as between the parties thereto: Italy's claims
againsttheparties tothe casedepended onthe outcomeofaclaimwhichit
was assertingagainstAlabania in itsApplicationagainst those parties. Tt
was not a case in which the decision which the Court was asked to pro-
nounce as between the parties before it might be based on a course of
reasoning which could be extended to a non-party; the decision would
constitute a direct determination of the responsibility of the non-party,

with concrete and juridically dispositive effects for its admitted owner-
shipofthegold.Acourt(includingthis Court) mayinsomecircumstances
givejudgmentagainstaparty inabsentia;butno court, not evenamunici-
pal court exercising jurisdiction on a non-consensual basis, can give
judgment againstsomeone who wasnot in some sensea party to the pro-
ceedings, or to the relevantphase thereof leading to the particularjudg-
ment, with a correspondingentitlementto beheard.To do sowould beto
offend againsta cardinalprinciple ofjudicial organization whichforbids
a court from adjudicating in violation of the audi alterampartem rule.
That precept ofjudicial behaviour, which is of general application to al1
courts, would clearlyhavebeenaffronted ifthe Courthad adjudicated on
Albania's responsibility. Additionally, the requirement for consent to
jurisdiction, which is specific to this particular Court, would also have
beennegated.

It followsthat the testto be applied in decidingwhetherthe Court may
not properly act is not simply whether it would have been more con-
venient to decide an issue with the presencebefore the Court of al1the
Statesthat might be affected by the decision,but whetherthe absence of
such a State is,in the particular circumstances,such asto make it impos-
siblefor the Court judicially to determine the issues presented before it
even when account is taken of the protective provisions of Article 59 of
the Statute.
The passage quoted above from the Monetary Goldcase was cited by
counsel for Nicaragua in the Military and Paramilitary Activitiescase
(CR 84/14, p. 26,Mr. Reichler).Itwas citedin opposition to an argument
by counsel for the United States to the effect that not only would the
responsibilities of certain non-party Statesbe necessarily determined by
any decision againstthe United States, but that the decision would have
practical effects on those States. The effects would be practical, it was

argued, in the sense that, if the Court, as it was requested by Nicaragua,
were to enjoin the United Statesfrom CO-operatingmilitarily with those
States,theconsequencewouldbeto preventthemfromobtainingany law- Ainsi,dans cetteaffaire,ilétaitdemandé àlaCour dedécidersilesactes
de l'Albanie,quin'était pas partie, avaientengagésaresponsabilitéinter-
nationale enversl'Italie,ledemandeur, eten cecas,s'ilfallait,par voiede
conséquence, considérer qu'un certainor monétaire appartenant à
l'Albanie étaitdûà l'Italiàtitre de réparation. Sansréglerces questions
entre l'Italie etl'Albanie,la Cour ne pouvait se prononcer sur les points
litigieux présentésdans la requête entreles parties à l'instance: les
demandes formuléespar l'Italie contre les parties à l'instance dépen-
daient del'issued'unedemande qu'elleformulaitcontrel'Albaniedans sa

requêtecontrecesparties. Encetteaffaire iln'étaitpasdemandé àlaCour
derendre une décisionstatuant entre lesparties àl'instance ensefondant
surdes motifssusceptiblesd'êtreétendus àun Etat quin'yétaitpaspartie;
la décisionaurait statué directementsur la responsabilitéde 1'Etatqui
n'étaitpaspartie et entraîné des effetsconcretsde caractère dispositifen
droit quant à la propriété reconnuede l'or. Un tribunal (y compris la
Cour) peut dans certaines circonstances prononcer une décision contre
unepartie absente; maisaucuntribunal,pas même untribunal de l'ordre
interne quin'exercepassacompétencesurunebaseconsensuelle,nepeut
statuer contre une personne qui n'était pas,d'unemanièreoud'uneautre,
partieà l'instance, oà la phase pertinente de celle-ciaboutissanà une
décision, et avaitdonc le droit d'êtreentendue. Agir de la sorte irait
l'encontre d'un principe cardinalde l'organisationjudiciaire, qui interdit
aux tribunaux de prononcer une décision contre quiconque n'est pas

partie et d'enfreindre ainsi la règlei alterampartem. La Cour aurait
manifestementfait un affront à ce principe de comportementjudiciaire,
dont l'application généralevauptour touslestribunaux, sielleavaitstatué
sur la responsabilitéde l'Albanie.De plus, l'exigencedu consentementà
la compétence,qui vauten particulier pour cetteCour, aurait étédéniée
elleaussi.
Le critère à appliquer pour décidersi la Cour ne peut dûment agir
consiste donc à déterminer, non pas simplement s'il aurait étéplus
commode de statuer surunpoint du litigealorsque'tous lesEtatsdontun
intérêt d'ordre juridique étaet cause auraient comparu, mais si,u les
circonstances de l'affaire, l'absencede 1'Etaten question est de natàre
empêcher laCour de trancher par une décisionjudiciaireles problèmes
posés,même comptetenu des dispositionsprotectrices de l'article 59du
Statut.

Lepassagereproduit ci-dessus del'arrêdtans l'affairedel'Ormonétaire
a été citpar le conseildu Nicaragua dans l'affaire desActivimilitaires
etparamilitaires (CR 84/14, p. 26, M. Reichler). Celui-ci l'a citéafin de
s'opposer àun argumentdu conseildesEtats-Unisselonlequelnon seule-
ment toute décision prononcée à l'encontre des Etats-Unis statuerait
inévitablementsur les responsabilitésde certains Etats qui n'étaientpas
parties, mais qu'elle aurait une incidence concrètesur ces Etats. De tels
effets seraient concrets, soutenait-on, en ce sens que, si la Cour devait
interdire aux Etats-Unis,comme le demandait le Nicaragua, de coopérer
avec ces Etats sur le plan militaire, cela empêcheraitces derniers, par 294 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP. OP. SHAHABUDDEEN)

ful military assistancefrom the United States and in tum to impair their
legalright of self-defence(CR 84/19, pp. 42ff.,Mr. J. N. Moore; seealso
CR 84/10, pp. 76-77,Mr. McGovem, and Counter-Memorialsubmitted
bythe United States of America, Part IV,Chap. 1).Theargumentdid not
find favour with the Court (Military and Paramilitary Activitiesin and
against Nicaragua,I.C.J.Reports 1984,pp. 184-186,429-431).And yet,the
argumentwould seemto have been stronger than Australia'scontention
in this case:unlikethe position taken by the United States,Australia has
not been able to argue that a decision against it would have the practical
effectofdepriving NewZealand and the United Kingdomoftheabilityto
make use of anyright whichthey maypossess under international law.It
is useful to note that the question, as the Court understood it, was not
whether Nicaragua had a claim against any other State in an absolute
sense (as Nauru might conceivably have against New Zealand and the

United Kingdom),butwhether such a claimwaspresentedinthe particu-
lar proceedingsbefore the Court. In this respect, the Court recalled that
Nicaragua

"emphasizes that inthepresentproceedingsNicaragua asserts claims
against the United States only, and not against any absent State,so

that the Court is not required to exercisejurisdiction over anysuch
State" (I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 430,para. 86; emphasisadded).

Wasthe conclusionreached in the Monetary Goldcase overthrown by
the position taken by the Court on Italy'sapplication to intervenein the
case of the ContinentalShelf(LibyanArabJamahiriya/Malta)?Refusing
the application,the Court said:

"The future judgment will not merely be limited in its effectsby
Article59ofthe Statute:itwillbeexpressed,uponitsface, to bewith-
out prejudice to the rights and titles of third States." (I.C.J.Reports
1984,pp. 26-27,para. 43.)

Although, strictly speaking, the second part of the statement seemed
unnecessary, the substance ofthe statement was in keeping with the pre-
viously settledjurisprudence of the Court. However, at the merits stage
the Court said:

"The present decision must, as then foreshadowed [in 19841,
be limited in geographical scope so as to leave the claims of Italy
unaffected, that is toaythat the decision of the Court mustbe con-
finedto the area in which, asthe Court has been informed by Italy,
that Statehas no claims to continental shelf rights."(I.C.J.Reports
1985,p. 26,para. 21.)

Arguably,the position so taken by the Court went beyond, and was not
really foreshadowed by, the position previously taken by it in 1984,for TERRESÀ PHOSPHATESÀ NAURU (OP.IND.SHAHABUDDEEN) 294

voie de conséquence, de recevoir aucune assistance militaire licite
des Etats-Unis et porterait donc atteintàleur droit de légitimedéfense
(CR 84/19, p. 42et suiv.,M. J. N. Moore; voir aussi CR 84/10, p. 76-77,
M. McGovern, et le contre-mémoire présentépar les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique, quatrième partie, chap. 1).L'argumentn'a pas été accueilli
par la Cour (Activitésmilitairesetparamilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci,C.I.J. Recueil 1984,p. 184-186, 429-431).Pourtant, il semble-
rait que cet argument aurait étéplus solide que l'affirmation de1'Aus-

tralieenl'espèce:à ladifférencedelapositionadoptéepar lesEtats-Unis,
l'Australie n'a pas pu soutenir qu'une décisionprononcée contre elle
aurait pour effet concret de priver la Nouvelle-Zélandeet le Royaume-
Uni de la possibilité d'exercerun droit qui peut leur être reconnupar le
droitinternational.Il estutilede releverquela question, telleque la Cour
l'a comprise, ne consistaitpasà savoir si le Nicaragua pouvait, dans un
sens absolu, présenter une réclamation contreun autre Etat (comme il
est concevableque Nauru pouvait le fairecontre la Nouvelle-Zélandeet
le Royaume-Uni), mais si une telle réclamationavait été présenté deans
l'instance introduite devant la Cour. cet égard, la Cour a rappelé que
le Nicaragua

((souligne que, dans la présenteespèce,le Nicaragua exerce une
actioncontre lesseulsEtats-Unis,etnon contreteloutel Etatabsent,
si bien qu'il n'est pas demandéàla Cour d'exercersa juridiction à
l'égard d'untel Etat»(C.I.J. Recueil1984,p.430,par. 86;lesitaliques
sont de moi).

La conclusion retenue dans l'affaire de l'Or monétairea-t-elle été
renverséequandla Courapris positionsurlarequête à fin d'intervention
de l'Italiedans l'affairedu Plateau continental(Jamahiriyaarabelibyenne/
Malte)?En rejetantlarequête,la Cour a déclaré :

((L'arrêtfutur ne sera pas seulement limitédans ses effets par
l'article59du Statut; ilseraexprimésanspréjudicedesdroitsettitres
d'Etatstiers.»(C.I.J. Recueil1984,p. 26-27,par. 43.)

Bienque, àproprementparler,la deuxièmepartie de cepassagesemble
superflue, l'essentielde la déclaration s'accordaitavec la jurisprudence
établiede la Cour. Pourtant, en statuant sur le fond, la Cour a déclaré:

«La présente décision doit,comme on l'aainsi laisséprévoir[en
19841,êtred'une portéegéographiquelimitéede manière à ne pas
affecter lesprétentionsde l'Italie; autrement dit, elle ne doit porter
que sur lazoneoù,selon lesindications qu'ellea donnéesàla Cour,
l'Italie n'émet pas de prétentions sur le plateau continental.))

(C.I.J. Recueil1985,p. 26,par. 21.)
On peut donc soutenirque la position ainsiadoptéepar laCour allait au-
delàdesapositionde 1984etque celle-cinel'avaitpaspréfigurée laCour 295 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP. OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

now the Court was not merely saying that its decision would not in law
affect Italy's interests,but was in fact refraining from adjudicating as
betweenthe partiesbefore itwithrespectto any areas in relation to which
Italymighthavea claim.It seemsto methat apoint ofsomedifficulty was
raised by the argumentthat, if Italy's claimshad been sufficientlyexten-
sive,this, on the view which the Court eventuallytook, could well have
prevented the Court from giving any judgment at al1 as between the
parties before it(I.C.J.Reports1985,p. 28,para. 23).Possibly,the cited
dictumofthe Court in its 1985 decisionisto be explainedby certain "spe-
cialfeatures" to whichitreferred (ibid.).Alternatively,itistobe explained
by the particular terms of the SpecialAgreement,under whichthe Court
was expected to decide

"in absolute terms, in the sense of permittingthe delimitation of the
areas of shelf which 'appertain' to the Parties, as distinct from the
areas to which one of the Parties has shown a better title than the
other, but which might neverthelessprove to 'appertain' to a third
State if the Court had jurisdiction to enquire into the entitlement of
that third State,. ."(ibid.,p. 25,para. 21).

In effect,the SpecialAgreement itselfrequired the Court to refrainfrom
adjudicating over areas which were subject to Italy's claimsand which
might thereforenot "appertain" in "absolute terms" to the parties to the
case. In my opinion, the case did not modify the general principle laid
down in the MonetaryGoldcase.
That principle was applied in the caseconcerning the Land,Islandand
Maritime FrontierDispute (I.C.J.Reports 1990,p. 92). For present pur-
poses,thereasoning ofthe Chamber, particularly on questionsofopposa-
bility, is to be found in the passage from its decision set out in the

dissentingopinion of Judge Schwebelin the present case. The decision
was closely canvassed by both sides. On a consideration of the views
expressed,itseemsto methat somethingcouldbe said fortheproposition
that, exhypothesi,a condominium of the three States(the case advanced
by El Salvador), or a "community of interests" among them (the case
advanced by Honduras), could not take effect in law as between two of
them only. To determine that the rights of two States are governed by a
condominium or by a "community of interests" of three is arguably to
determine, on a basis ofnecessaryinterdependence, that the rights ofthe
third State are also thereby governed. It is not easy to see how a declara-
tion upholding the existence of either of the two suggested régimes
could apply as between two of the three States Saveon the basis that it
had the same legal effect in relation to the third State. By contrast, in
the present case, anyjudgment against Australia can have full effect as

between the two litigating States without needing to produce any legal
effects in relation to the two absent States. The reasoning of the Cham-
ber, in holding that it was not precluded from hearing the casebefore it
in the absence of Nicaragua as a Party, applies afortiori to justify the
hearing ofthe presentcase inthe absenceof New Zealand andthe Uniteddésormaisnedéclaraitpassimplementquesadécisionn'affecteraitpasen
droit les intérêts de l'Ital, ais s'abstenait en fait de statuer entre les
parties àl'instancesur des zones où l'Italie pourrait émettredes préten-
tions.Unequestion assezdifficilemesembleavoirété soulevéepar l'argu-
ment selonlequel, silesprétentionsde l'Italieavaientrevêtuune ampleur
suffisante, cela aurait bien pu empêcher totalement la Cour, selon le
point de vue adoptéparelle en fin de compte, de statuer entre lesparties
à l'instance(C.I.J.Recueil 1985,p. 28,par. 23).La déclarationen question
de la Cour dans son arrêt de 1985s'explique peut-êtrepar certaines

a particularité))dont ellefait mention (ibid.).Ou alors il faut l'expliquer
par les termes mêmesdu compromis, d'aprèslesquels la décision dela
Cour devait êtreexprimée :
«en termes absolus, en ce sens qu'elle permettra de délimiterles
zones de plateau qui ((relèvent)des Parties, par oppositionà celles
sur lesquelles l'une des Parties a fait valoir un meilleur titre que

l'autre, maisquipourraient néanmoins relever »en définitived'un
Etat tiers si la Cour avait compétencepour vérifier le titrede celui-
ci..»(ibid.,p. 25,par. 21).
En réalité, le compromis lui-mêmedemandait à la Cour de s'abstenir de
statuer sur des zones où l'Italie pourrait émettre des prétentionset qui
risquaient donc de ne pas relever» en ((termesabsolus » des parties à
l'affaire.Amon avis,cet arrêtn'a rien changéau principe généraldéfini

dans l'affairede l'Ormonétaire.
Ceprincipea été appliquédans l'affairedu DSfférenfdrontalier terrestre,
insulaireetmaritime(C.I.J. Recueil1990,p. 92).Enl'occurrence,leraison-
nement de la Chambre, surtout sur les questions d'opposabilité, figure
dans le passage de sa décision reproduit dans l'opinion dissidente de
M. Schwebel en l'espèce.La décision a été discutéeminutieusemendte
part etd'autre.Aprèsavoirexaminélesvuesexprimées,ilmesemblequ'il
y a quelque chose à retenir dans la proposition selonlaquelle, par hypo-
thèse,un condominiumdestroisEtats(causeplaidée par El Salvador),ou
une a communautéd'intérê» tsentreeux(causeplaidéepar leHonduras)
nepourraitprendre effetendroit dans lesseulesrelations de deuxd'entre
eux.On soutenirque juger que lesdroitsdedeux Etatssont régispar
un condominium ou parune «communautéd'intérê» tsdetroiséquivaut

à décider,surla base de l'interdépendancenécessaire,que les droits du
troisièmeEtat sontaussi régisdela mêmemanièreO . n voit mal comment
une déclarationconfirmantl'existencedel'unoul'autre desdeuxrégimes
évoquép sourraits'appliquer dans lesrapports entredeuxdestroisEtats si
l'on n'admetpas qu'elleproduit le mêmeeffet en droit vis-à-visdu troi-
sième.Aucontraire, en l'espèce,toute décisionprononcée àl'encontre de
l'Australiepeut produire son plein effet dans les rapports entre les deux
Etatsparties àl'instancesansqu'ilsoitnécessairequ'elleaitdeseffetsjuri-
diques à l'égard desdeux Etats absents. Le raisonnement suivi par la
Chambre, quand elleajugé qu'elle n'étap itas empêchée de connaître de
l'affaire portée devant elle alors que le Nicaragua n'avait pas comparu296 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP . P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

Kingdom. 1have difficulty in seeinghow it may be possible to reconcile
the decision in that casewith a differentconclusionin this.

Australiaaccepts that, unlike the position in the MonetaryGoldcase,it
is not necessary for the Court in this case to make a determination of
responsibilityagainst New Zealand and the United Kingdom as a pre-
requisite to making a determination of responsibilityagainst Australia.
However,Australia takesthe viewthat any determinationagainstit would
necessarilyimplysimultaneousdeterminationsagainst NewZealand and
the United Kingdom,and itconsidersthat thiswouldbeequallybarred by

the ratio decidendiof the MonetaryGoldcase in so far asthis rests on the
incompetence of the Court to determine the responsibility of any State
without itsconsent. 1agreethat ifthe Court isinfact makinga determina-
tion of the responsibility of a non-party, the particular stage in the deci-
sion-makingprocess at whichit is doingsocannot makethe decision less
objectionable. Butthiswouldbe so only ifwhat was involvedwas a judi-
cial determination purporting to produce legal effects for the absent
Party, as was visualized in the Monetaly Goldcase, and not merely an
implicationin the sense of an extended consequence of the reasoning of
the Court. It seemsto methat an approachbased on simultaneityofdeter-
minations is likelyto involvean implication ofthat kind, and not an adju-
dication.TheCourt'sjurisprudence showsthat such implicationsarenot

a bar to the exerciseofjurisdiction.

As1readthe MonetaryGoldcase,thetest isnot merelyone ofsameness
ofsubject-matter,but alsoone ofwhether,in relation to the samesubject-
matter, the Court is making ajudicial determination ofthe responsibility
of a non-party State. Leavingaside the question of sameness of subject-
matter,woulda decisioninthis caseconstituteajudicial determination of
the responsibility of New Zealand and the United Kingdom? Or, if it
would not technicallyconstitute such a determination, would it be tanta-
mount to such a determination in the very real sense in which the Court
was asked to determine the responsibility ofAlbania?

In considering whether a possible judgment against Australia would
amount to a determination of the responsibility of New Zealand and the
United Kingdom, it is relevant, and, indeed, necessary, to consider the
legalelernentson which such ajudgment mightbebased.Thesuitbefore
the Court isconstitutedas between Nauru and Australia.Nauru isasking
the Court to Saythat Australiais in breach of a certain obligation which
Australia allegedlyhadto Nauru under international law.Theobligation,
assumingthat it existed,was alsothe obligation of New Zealand andthe
United Kingdom. But Nauru does not need to rely on this fact, and the
Court, whileit maynotice the fact, doesnot need to found itsdecision on
it.That others had the same obligation does not lessen the factthat Aus- TERRES À PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP. IND.SHAHABUDDEEN)296

commepartie, s'applique àplus forte raison pour justifier la décisionde
connaître de la présente instance en l'absencede la Nouvelle-Zélandeet
du Royaume-Uni.Je vois mal comment on pourrait concilier la décision
prononcée dans cette affaire avecune conclusion différenteen l'espèce.
L'Australieadmetqu'àladifférencedelasituation dans l'affairedel'Or
monétaire,la Cour en l'espèce n'apas besoin, à titre de condition préa-

lable, de déciderque la responsabilité de la Nouvelle-Zélande et du
Royaume-Uni est engagéepour décider que l'Australieest responsable.
L'Australie estime cependant que toute décision prononcée à son en-
contre ne pourra manquer d'impliquer des décisions simultanées contre
la Nouvelle-Zélandeet le Royaume-Uni; selon elle,un tel résultat serait
lui aussiinterdit par les motifs de l'arrêtdans l'affairede l'Ormonétaire,
dans la mesure où ceux-ciretiennent commejustification que laCour est
incompétentepour statuersurlaresponsabilitéd'unEtat sanssonconsen-
tement.Jereconnais quesi laCour statue enfaitsurlaresponsabilitéd'un
Etat qui n'est pas partie, une telle décision nesaurait soulever moins
d'objectionsà causedustade particulier delaprocédurejudiciaire auquel

elleintervient.Toutefois,cela ne seraitvrai que s'ils'agissaitd'une déci-
sionjudiciaire prétendant produire deseffetsjuridiques à l'égardde la
partie absente, commecelaavaitété envisagédans l'affairedel'Ormoné-
taire,etnon pas simplementd'une implicationau sensd'unélargissement
deseffetsduraisonnement de la Cour.Sil'onaborde laquestion dupoint
de vue de la simultanéitédes déterminationsc,'estune implication de ce
genre qui semble devoir en résulter et non un prononcé judiciaire. La
jurisprudence de la Cour établit que de telles implications ne font pas
obstacle àl'exercicede la compétence.
Selonmon interprétationde l'affaire de l'Ormonétaire,le critèren'est
pas seulement celuide l'identité d'objet,mais aussicelui de savoirsi,par
rapport àun mêmeobjet,la déterminationjudiciairede laCour porte sur

laresponsabilitéd'unEtat qui n'estpas partie. Sion laissedecôtélaques-
tion de l'identité d'objet,une décisiondans la présente affaire constitue-
rait-elleune déterminationjudiciairede la responsabilitéde la Nouvelle-
Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni? Ou,sansconstituer une telledétermination
dans les formes, cela équivaudrait-il une telle détermination au sens
véritableauquel il fut demandé àlaCour de statuer sur la responsabilité
de l'Albanie?
Quand on se demande si un arrêt éventuellementdéfavorabl e1'Aus-
traliereviendraià une déterminationdelaresponsabilitédela Nouvelle-
Zélandeet du Royaume-Uni, il est pertinent, et mêmenécessaire,de
rechercher sur quels élémentsjuridiques pourraitse fonder un tel arrêt.

L'instance devant la Cour est établie entreNauru et l'Australie. Nauru
demande àla Cour dedireque l'Australiea enfreint une certaine obliga-
tion dont elleserait tenue envers Nauru en droit international. L'obliga-
tion, àsupposer qu'elleait existé,incombait aussàla Nouvelle-Zélande
et au Royaume-Uni.Mais Nauru n'a pas besoin de tirer argument de ce
fait etla Cour,tout en enprenant note, n'apas besoin defondersur lui sa
décision.Le fait que d'autres aient été tenusde la mêmeobligationtralia had the obligation. It is only with Australia's obligation that the
Court is concerned. In contrast with the situation in the Monetary Gold
case,the decisionofthe Court asbetween Nauru and Australia willnotbe
based onthe obligation of New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Also,
even if the obligation was joint, the decision of the Court need not be
foundedonthat fact :in that connection,ashas been noticed in Part 1,in
today'sJudgment the Court has not found it necessaryto Saywhether or
not the obligation wasjoint (seeparagraph 48ofthe Judgment). If it was
joint, this would not mean that it was any the lessthe obligation of Aus-
tralia. Al1the Court isconcerned with inthese proceedingsiswhether the
obligation, ifit existed,was Australia'sobligation.

Therefore, there need be nothing in the legal elements of a possible
judgment infavourofNauru whichwouldrequirethejudgment tobe con-
strued as perse constituting or amounting to ajudicial determination of
the responsibility ofNew Zealand and the United Kingdom. Onthe basis
of argument that the obligation was intrinsically and inseverablyjoint, it
mightbe contended that the conclusionreached in thejudgment could in
logic be extended to New Zealand and the United Kingdom; but this
would be a matter of extendingthe reasoning of the Court to a case to
whichitsjudgment perse does not apply and onaground not relied on by
thejudgment itself.Sofar asthejudgment isconcerned,byitselfitwillnot
affectthe rights of NewZealand orthe United Kingdom in the sense in
which a judgment deploys its effects, as would have been the case with
Albania. New Zealand and the United Kingdom will not be deprived of
anyrights inthe subject-matterofthe case,oratall.Certainly,noproperty
or property rights belonging to them will be transferred or otherwise
affectedasa result of such a decision. It isdifficultto see what protection

will be needed beyond that provided by Article 59 of the Statute of the
Court.
In any proceedings by Nauru against them, New Zealand and the
United Kingdom willbe freeto deny liability on any ground,whether or
not it is a ground pleaded by Australia in these proceedings; in this
respect, differenceshave been noticed in Part IIabove between the posi-
tion of Australia, on the one hand, and that of New Zealand and the
United Kingdom, on the other, under the Trusteeship Agreement, and it
cannot be assumed apriorithat these differencescouldnot be reflected in
thedefenceto anysuchproceedings. Howeverstrongmaybethetendency
of the Court to follow a possible decision given in this case in favour of
Nauru in any proceedingsbrought by Nauru against New Zealand and
the United Kingdom, that tendency still falls short of being a judicial
determinationmadeinthis caseofthe responsibilityof thosetwo Statesin
the sense in which the Court was asked to make a determination of the

responsibility of Albania in the Monetaty Goldcase. A decision in this
case, if,as 1think,it does not per seconstituteajudicial determination of
the responsibility of NewZealand and the United Kingdom, can at bestn'empêcheen rien que l'Australie en était égalementtenue.La Cour ne
s'occupe que de l'obligation de l'Australie.Contrairementà la situation
dans l'affairede l'Ormonétaire,la décisionde la Cour dans le différend
entreNauru etl'Australienesefonderapassurl'obligationdela Nouvelle-
Zélande et du Royaume-Uni. De plus, même sil'obligation était
conjointe,la décisionde laCour n'apasbesoin de sefondersur cefait :à
cet égard,comme on l'a notédans la première partie, dans l'arrêtde ce

jour la Cour n'a pas jugénécessairede dire si l'obligation était ounon
conjointe (voir paragraphe 48 de l'arrêt).Si cette obligation était
conjointe, cela ne signifierait pas qu'elle incombait d'autant moins à
l'Australie.Tout cequiintéresselaCourdans laprésenteinstance,c'estde
savoir si l'obligation, supposer qu'elle ait existé,étaitune obligation
incombant à l'Australie.
Les éléments juridiquesd'un arrêtqui serait en faveur de Nauru
n'auraient doncbesoin deriencontenirqui oblige à l'interpréter encesens
qu'ilconstituerait par lui-mêmeoupar équivalentune décisionjudiciaire
sur la responsabilitéde la Nouvelle-Zélandeet du Royaume-Uni. A se
fonder surl'argumentquel'obligation étaitintrinsèquementet indissocia-
blement conjointe on pourrait soutenir que la logiquepermet d'étendreà
la Nouvelle-Zélandeet au Royaume-Unila conclusiontiréedans l'arrêt;

mais il s'agiraitalorsd'étendre leraisonnementdelaCour àune affaire à
laquellesonarrêtnes'applique pas ensoietpourun motifsurlequelnese
fondepas l'arrêltui-mêmeP . our cequi estdel'arrêti,ln'affectera pas,par
lui-même,les droits de la Nouvelle-Zélandeoudu Royaume-Uni au sens
auquelune décisiondejustice produit ses effets,comme il serait advenu
dans le cas de l'Albanie. La Nouvelle-Zélandeet le Royaume-Uni ne
serontprivés d'aucundroit afférent àl'objetde l'affaire, ni d'aucun droit
quel qu'il soit.l est certain qu'aucun bien ou droit de propriétéleur
appartenant ne seratransféré, nine subira aucuneautre atteinte en vertu
d'une telle décision. On voit mal quelle protection supplémentaire sera
nécessaireoutrecellequ'assure l'article59du Statut de la Cour.
Dans toute instance introduite contre eux par Nauru, la Nouvelle-
Zélandeet le Royaume-Uniseront libres de dénier leur responsabilitéen
invoquantn'importe quelmoyen,qu'ils'agisseou non d'unmoyenplaidé

par l'Australie dans la présente instance;à cet égard, des différences
ont été indiquéesdans la deuxièmepartie ci-dessus entre ce qu'étaient,
en vertu de l'accord de tutelle, d'une part la position de l'Australie, de
l'autre celle de la Nouvelle-Zélande et du Royaume-Uni; et l'on ne
peut partirà priori du principe que ces différencesne pourraient appa-
raître dans les moyensde défenseinvoquésauxfins d'une telle instance.
Quelque marquée que puisse être latendance de la Cour à suivre une
éventuelledécisionprononcée au profit de Nauru en l'espècedanstoute
instanceintroduite par Nauru contrela Nouvelle-ZélandeetleRoyaume-
Uni, on ne peut ériger cettetendance en une décision judiciaire de la
Cour en l'espècesur la responsabilitéde cesdeux Etats au sensauquel il
luifutdemandédestatuer surla responsabilitédel'Albaniedans l'affaire
de l'OrmonétaireS. i,commeje lepense, une décisionenl'espèce necons-have onlyprecedentialvaluein anyproceedingsconcerningtheir respon-
sibility; and that value, however high one may be disposed to rate it, is
onlyinfluential,not controlling.Thepossibilityofacourt deciding differ-
ently on the same issues in differently constituted proceedings is not a
phenomenon less known to the lawthan the generalpropensity of courts
to be guided by their rulings insimilar cases.To use the propensity to be
guided by previous rulings to exclude the possibility of deciding dif-
ferentlyin a later case would be even lessright in international litigation
than it would be in municipal.

It has been correctly pointed out that "[als interstate relationships
become more complex,it is increasingly unlikelythat any particular dis-
pute willbe strictlybilateralin character" (L.F. Damrosch,"Multilateral
Disputes", in L. F. Damrosch (ed.), fie InternationalCourt ofJusticeat a
Crossroads, 1987,p. 376). Counsel writing for Nicaragua in the Military
and Paramilitary Activities case had earlier spelt out the implications of
that considerationin the followingway :

"The rule established in Monetary Gold is soundly grounded in
the realities of contemporaryinternational relations. Legal disputes
between Statesare rarely purelybilateral. As in the case of delimita-
tion ofthecontinental shelf,theresolution ofsuchdisputeswilloften
directly affect the legal interests of other States. If the Court could
not adjudicatewithoutthepresence of al1suchStates,evenwherethe
parties before it had consented fully to its jurisdiction, the result
wouldbeasevereand unwarrantedconstriction ofthe Court'sability
to carryoutits functions." (MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesinand
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. UnitedStates ofAmerica),Jurisdic-
tionandAdmissibility,Memorial of Nicaragua,para. 248.)

1agreewith Australia thatthe

"fact that international disputes may be increasinglymultilateral in
nature is no reason to ignore the fundamental international law
principles of sovereignty of States and the requirement of consent
to adjudication" (Preliminary Objections of the Government of
Australia, Vol.1,p. 144,para. 363).

But 1do not think that these principles are in danger of being violatedin
this case.That the wider implications of a dispute do not necessarilypre-
ventadjudication inlitigationbetween someonlyofthe interestedparties
would seemtohavebeen implicitlyanticipated bythePermanent Court of
International Justiceas early as 1932(FreeZonesof UpperSavoy and the
DistrictofGex,P.C.Z.J.,SeriesA/B, No.46,p. 136).Asobservedabove,thistitue pas en soi une détermination judiciaire de la responsabilitéde la
Nouvelle-Zélandeet du Royaume-Uni, elle ne saurait revêtirau mieux
qu'une valeurde précédentdans toute action relative àleur responsabi-
lité; or,une telle valeur, quelle que soitl'importance qu'onest disposé
lui attribuer, exercebien une influence, mais n'estpas déterminante.La
faculté d'untribunal de statuer différemment surles mêmesquestions
dans des instances différemment constituéesn'est pas un phénomène
moins connu en droit que la propension généraledestribunaux às'inspi-

rer de ce qu'ils ont décidédans des affaires semblables.Il serait encore
moinsjustifiédans le contentieux international que dans le contentieux
interne de s'appuyer sur la propension à s'inspirer des décisions anté-
rieures pour exclure la facultéde statuer d'une autre manièredans une
affaireultérieure.
On a fait observer àjuste titre «qu'au fur àmesure que les relations
entre les Etats deviennent plus complexes,il est de moins en moins pro-
bable qu'undifférend,quelqu'ilsoit,présenteun caractèrestrictementbila-
téral» (L. F. Damrosch, «Multilateral Disputes », dans L. F. Damrosch
(dir.publ.), TheInternationalCourtofJusticeat a Crossroads,1987,p.376).
Dans un exposé écrit présentp éour le Nicaragua dans l'affaire desActi-
vitésmilitairesetparamilitaires,leconseilavaitdéjàprésentédelamanière
suivante lesincidences de cetteobservation :

«Larègleétabliedans l'Ormonétaireestsolidementfondéesurles
réalités des relations internationales contemporaines.Il est rare en
effetquelesdifférendsd'ordre juridique entre Etatssoientpurement
bilatéraux. Commedans le cas de la délimitationdu plateau conti-
nental, le règlement des différendsse répercute souventde façon
directe surlesintérêtsjuridiques d'autres Etats.Vouloirempêcherla
Cour de statuer sans la présencedetous ces Etats, mêmequand les

partiesàla procédureont pleinement accepté sa compétence,serait
donc soumettre à une restriction grave et arbitraire sa facultéde
s'acquitterde sesfonctions.»(Activitéms ilitairesetparamilitaires au
Nicaragua et contre celui-ci(Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis dymérique),
compétence etrecevabilitém, émoiredu Nicaragua, par. 248.)
Je suisd'accord avecl'Australiepour dire:

«les différendsinternationaux sontde plus en plus souventmultila-
téraux,mais cela nejustifie pas que l'on ignoreles principes fonda-
mentaux du droit international que sont la souverainetédes Etats et
la reconnaissance préalable de la compétence judiciaire » (excep-
tions préliminairesde l'Australie,vol.,p. 144,par. 363),

maisje ne croispas que cesprincipes risquent d'être enfreintsenl'espèce.
Que lesincidencesplus étenduesd'un différend n'empêchent pas néces-
sairement de statuer sur un litige qui oppose certaines seulement des
parties intéressées,laCour permanente de Justice internationale semble
l'avoirtacitement admis par anticipation dès 1932(Zonesfranches de la
Haute-Savoieet dupays deGex,C.P.J.IsérieA/B no46,p. 136).Commeon299 PHOSPHATE LANDS IN NAURU (SEP.OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

Court has recognizedthat, unless barred bythe MonetaryGoldprinciple,
it should seek "to givethe fullest decision it may in the circumstances of
each case" (ContinentalShelf (LibyanArab Jamahiriya/Malta), Applica-
tionfor PermissiontoIntervene,I.C.J.Reports1984,p. 25,para. 40).

Thejurisprudence ofthe Court is under constant review;no case,how-
ever venerable, is exempt from scrutiny and re-evaluation. However, it
would not appearthat therehasbeen any movementawayfromthe stand
taken by the Court when it stated in 1984that the "circumstances of the
MonetaryGoldcaseprobablyrepresent the limitofthe power oftheCourt
to refuse to exerciseitsjurisdiction"(Militaryand ParamilitaryActivities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. UnitedStates ofAmerica),I.C.J.
Reports1984,p. 431,para. 88;emphasisadded). It may be that that limit

hasbeen setat apoint whichenablesthe Courtto adjudicateinsituations
in which a municipal court would refrain from adjudicatingunlessthere
was joinder; but, if so, there are good reasons for the difference. The
danger to the authority of the Court presented by any tendency to act on
the basis of a lowjurisdictional threshold is not something to be lightly
dismissed;but 1do not feeloppressed byanyapprehension inthe circum-
stances of this case if, as 1consider,it can be treated as beingwithinthe
limitspermitted bythe MonetaryGoldcaseand asthereforenot involving
the exerciseofjurisdiction againstnon-parties.

The decision in the Monetary Goldcase turned in part on the fact that
the rule enunciated in Article 59of the Statute "rests on the assumption
that the Court isat leastable to render abinding decision" (I.C.J.Reports
1954, p. 33).Forthereasonsalready given,inthat casethe Court couldnot
give a decision on the seminal issue concerning Albania's international

responsibility that would be "binding upon any State, either the third
State,or any ofthe parties before it" (ibid.).Aecision in this casewould
ofcoursenotbebinding on NewZealand and the United Kin$dom; but 1
am unable to see why it would not be binding on Australia. Australia is
beforethe Court; evenifthe allegedresponsibilitywasjoint,this doesnot
by itselfean that Australiacouldnot ultimately sharein the responsibi-
lity (if any) on any basis whatsoever. It is for the Court to determine
whetherthere isanybasis on which Australiasharesthe responsibility. If
the Court determinesthat there isa basis,it isdifficultto seewhyitsdeci-
sionwould not bebinding on Australia.

1 should also Say something about Australia's contention that the
absence of NewZealand and the United Kingdom fromthe proceedings
deprives the Court of "critical factual information" (Preliminary Objec-
tions ofthe Government of Australia,Vol. 1,p. 140,para. 354).Australia's

reliance on the Status of Eastern Carelia case (P.C.I.J.,Series B, No.5,
p. 27) overlooks the fact that the absence of an interested State does not
necessarily operate to deprive the Court of evidence if the evidence is
othenvise available (WesternSahara, I.C.J. Reports 1975,pp. 28-29).The TERRES À PHOSPHATESÀ NAURU (OP.IND. SHAHABUDDEEN)299

l'afait observerplus haut, la Cour a reconnu qu'à moins d'en être empê-
chéepar leprincipe de l'Ormonétaire,elledoit essayer «de seprononcer
aussi complètement que possible dans les circonstances de chaque
espèce »(Plateaucontinental(Jamahiriyaarabe libyenne/Malte),requête à
fin d'intervention,C.I.J.Recueil1984,p. 25,par. 40).
Lajurisprudence delaCour subitunerévisioncontinuelle;aucun arrêt,
même desplusrespectés,n'està l'abri d'un examenetd'uneréévaluation.

Il ne semble pourtant pas que la Cour se soit aucunement écartéede la
position qu'elle a prise quand elle a déclaré, en1984,que «les circons-
tances del'affairedel'Ormonétairemarquentvraisemblablementla limite
du pouvoir de la Cour de refuser d'exercersajuridiction»(Activitéms ili-
tairesetparamilitaires au Nicaragua et contrecelui-ci(Nicaragua c.Etats-
Unisd'Amérique)C , .I.J.Recueil1984,p. 43,par. 88;lesitaliques sont de
moi). Ilsepeut quecettelimiteaitétéfixéd eetellesorte qu'ellepermetteà
la Courde statuer alorsqu'un tribunal interne s'abstiendrait delefaire en
l'absence d'une mise en cause; mais, s'il en a été ainsi, la différence
s'expliquepour de bonnes raisons. Ledanger que représente,pour l'auto-
ritéde la Cour,toute tendance àagiren abaissant beaucoup leseuil de sa
compétencene doitpas être écarté àla légère; maisje ne suis en proieà
aucune crainte, compte tenu des circonstances de la présente affaire,si

l'on peut admettre, comme je le pense, qu'elle rentre dans les limites
admises par l'arrêdt ans l'affairede l'Or monétairee,t qu'ellene fait donc
pas intervenir l'exercicede la compétenceàl'égard d'entiténson parties.
La décisiondans l'affairedel'Ormonétairereposait en partie sur lefait
quelarègleénoncée àl'article59du Statut «supposeque laCour estpour
le moins en mesure de rendre une décision quilie les parties» (C.I.J.
Recueil1954,p. 33). Pour les raisons déjà indiquées,la Cour dans cette
affaire ne pouvait prononcer, sur la question riche en effetsde la respon-
sabilité internationale de l'Albanie, une décisionqui soit ((obligatoire
pour aucun Etat, ni pour l'Etattiers, ni pour aucune des parties qui sont
devant elle» (ibid.).Une décisionen l'espècene lierait évidemmentni la
Nouvelle-Zélande, nile Royaume-Uni; je ne vois pas pourquoi elle ne
lierait pas l'Australie.L'Australie a comparu devant la Cour; même sila
responsabilité alléguée était conjointe, celae signifie pas en soi que

l'Australienesauraitassumer sapart deresponsabilité(sielleexiste)pour
aucune raison quelle qu'ellesoit.C'estla Cour qu'ilappartient de déci-
der si l'on estfondéàattribuerune part de responsabilitéàl'Australie.Si
la Cour dit qu'on est fondéà le faire, il est difficile de voir pourquoi sa
décisionne seraitpas obligatoirepour l'Australie.
Je devrais aussi dire quelque chose de l'allégationde l'Australie selon
laquellel'absencedela Nouvelle-Zélandeetdu Royaume-Uni dans l'ins-
tance prive la Cour de certains ((élémentde fait déterminants»(excep-
tions préliminairesde l'Australie,vol.p. 140,par. 354).Quand 1'Austra-
lie invoque l'affairedu Statut de la Carélieorientale(C.P.J.I.sérieB no5,
p.27),ellenetientpas compte du faitquel'absenced'un Etatintéressé n'a
pas nécessairementpour effet de priver la Cour d'éléments de preuve si
ellepeut seprocurer cesélémentd s'uneautre manière (Sahara occidental,latter was also an advisory opinion case,but this does not affectthe gen-
eral proposition.Aperson who cangiverelevant evidencemaybe a neces-
sarywitness,not a necessarypartyl. In systemswhichprovide forit,join-
der isnotjustified forthe sole purpose of securing or facilitatingthe pro-
duction of evidence: evidence must be produced inthe normal ways. A
contention similar to Australia'swas advanced in the MilitaryandPara-
militalyActivitiesinand against Nicaragua,JurisdictionandAdmissibility
case, but without success (I.C.J.Reports 1984,p. 430, para. 86; United

States Counter-Memorial,para. 443; and Mr. J.N. Moore, CR 84/19, at
pp. 42,47,48,51). In any event,the arguments do not persuade me that
Australia, having infactbeenin chargeofthe administration of Nauru at
al1material times, is not, or cannot be, in possession of al1the relevant
evidence.

Australia'sargumentsare worthy of consideration, and there couldbe

more than oneview oftheir value.Forthe reasons given,1have not, how-
ever,been able to feel persuaded. In my opinion, the obligations of the
three Governments under the Trusteeship Agreement were joint and
several,and Australiacould accordinglybesuedalone. In the alternative,
ifthe obligations werejoint, thiscircumstance stilldid notpreventNauru
from suing Australia alone. Nor do 1 think that a possible judgment
againstAustralia willamount to a determination ofthe responsibilities of
New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Whether Australia in fact had an
international obligation toensure the rehabilitation of worked-outphos-
phate lands,whether, ifso,itwasinbreach ofthat obligation, and what,if
so, is theextent of responsibility which it thereby engaged,are different
questions.

(Signed) Mohamed SHAHABUDDEEN.

lAmon v.RaphaelTuck& Sons,Ltd.[1956]1Al1ER273,at pp.286-287. TERRESÀ PHOSPHATES À NAURU (OP.IND. SHAHABUDDEEN) 300

C.Z.J.Recueil1975,p. 28-29).Il s'agissaitainsi dans cette dernière affaire
d'un avis consultatif,mais cela ne change rienàla proposition générale.
Unepersonne capable d'apporter deséléments depreuvepertinents peut

être un témoin nécessairn e,on une partie nécessaire1.Dans les systèmes
quilaprévoient,lamiseencausen'estpasjustifiée àseulefin d'obtenir ou
de faciliterla présentation d'élémentse preuve :lespreuvesdoivent être
fournies par les moyens normaux. Une allégation semblable à celle de
l'Australiea étéproposéd eans l'affaire destivités militairstparamili-
tairesauNicaraguaet contrecelui-ci,compétence et recevabilité, ais sans
succès(C.Z.J.Recueil1984,p.430,par. 86;contre-mémoiredesEtats-Unis,
par. 443;etM.J. N. Moore, CR 84/19, p.42,47,48,51). Detoute manière,
lesargumentationsprésentéesnemepersuadent pas quel'Australie,qui a
exercéenfaitl'administration de Nauru àtous lesmomentsquicomptent,
ne soitpas ou ne puisse être en possessionde tous lesélémentsde preuve
pertinents.

Les arguments de l'Australie méritent d'être examinés e lts avis
peuvent différerquant à leurvaleur. Pour lesraisons indiquées,je ne suis
pas enmesure dem'estimerpersuadé. Amonavis,lesobligationsdont les
trois gouvernements se trouvaient tenus en vertu de l'accord de tutelle
étaient solidaireset l'Australie pouvait donc être assignéeseule. Danle
cas contraire, si les obligations étaient conjointes, cela n'empêcht as
non plus Nauru d'assignerl'Australieseule.Je ne pense pas qu'un éven-

tuel arrêt rendu contrel'Australie sera l'équivalent d'une décissnr les
responsabilitésde la Nouvelle-Zélandeet du Royaume-Uni. Quand on
pose la question desavoirsil'Australieétaiteffectivementtenuede l'obli-
gation internationale d'assurer la remise en état des terràphosphates
épuisées,si, dans l'affirmative, elle a enfreint cette obligation et, dans
l'affirmative,quelleestl'étenduede sa responsabilitéde ce chef,on pose
trois questions différentes.

(Signé)Mohamed SHAHABUDDEEN.

Amon v.RaphaelTuckand Sons,Ltd.[1956]1Al1ER2773,p. 286-287.

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Separate opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen

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