Dissenting opinion of Judge Padilla Nervo

Document Number
055-19730202-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
055-19730202-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE PADILLA NERVO

1 cannot concur in the Judgment of the Court in the present pro-
ceedings.
1am unable to agree with the manner and reasoning through which the
Court easily disposed of and rejected the objections and arguments raised
against its jurisdiction toal with the merits of the Application.
The Court might give the impression by the development of too dog-
matic and formalisticassertions that its main concern has been the search
for juridical foundations to justify a previously admitted premise of
somewhat axiomatic character.
That of course is not the case, but, in my view, the objections raised
have not been answered convincingly.
The formulation of general principles and the invocation of a settled
practice of the Court regarding certain issues in former decisions, do not

necessarily solve the problem in a case like the present one, which has
exceptional characteristics and very special features, and where juris-
diction and merits are interdependent from several points of view.

Al1 these circumstances were in fact apparent in the Fisheries Juris-
diction case, Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972. The views 1
then expressed are still valid now.

In the present proceedings ajudgment is given regarding a State which
denies its consent to jurisdiction of the Court, which is not a party to
such proceedings, and whose rights as a sovereign State are placed in
jeopardy.
The claim of the Republic of Iceland to extend its fisheriesjurisdiction
to a zone of 50 nautical miles around lceland, has not been proved to be
contrary to international law.
The Court relies mainly as a source of itsjurisdiction on theExchange
of Notes of 11 March 1961,an agreement which the Republic of Iceland
contends has fully achieved its purpose and object, and the provisions

of which. it considers no longer to be applicable and, consequently,
terminated.
The Minister for Foreign Affairs of lceland sent to the Registrar on
29 May 1972a letter regarding the filing on 14 April 1972of an Appli-
cation by the Government of the United Kingdom, instituting proceedings
against Iceland.
With that letter were sent several documents dealing with the back-ground and termination of the agreement of 11 March 1961,and "with

the changed circumstances resulting fromthe ever-increasing exploitation
of the fishery resources in theeas surrounding Iceland".
The letter refers to the dispute with the United Kingdom who opposed
the 12-milefishery limit established by the Icelandic Government in 1958,
and to the 1961 Exchange of Notes.
Iceland States that "the 1961 Exchange of Notes took place under
extremely difficult circumstances, when the British Royal Navy had been
using force to oppose the 12-milefishery limit".

In paragraph 4 of the United Kingdom Application instituting pro-
ceedings, it is said:

"The validity of this action was not accepted by the United King-
dom and fishing vessels from the United Kingdom continued to
fish inside the twelve-mile limit. There then ensued a number of
incidents involving, on the one hand, Icelandic coastguard vessels
and, on the otherhand, British fishingvesselsand fisheriesprotection
vessels of the Royal Navy."

It appears from the above-quoted statements, that such circumstances
were not the most appropriate to negotiate and conclude the 1961Agree-
ment. The Foreign Minister of Iceland further indicates:
"The agreement by which that dispute was settled, and conse-
quently the possibility of such recourse to the Court (to which the

Government of Iceland was consistently opposed as far as concerns
disputes over the extent of its exclusive fisheries jurisdiction, as
indeed the United Kingdom recognizes), was not of a permanent
nature. In particular, an undertaking for judicial settlement cannot
be considered to be of a permanent nature. There is nothing in that
situation, or in any general rule of contemporary international law,
to justify any other view.

After the termination of the agreement recorded in the Exchange
of Notes of 1961, there was on 14 April 1972 no basis under the
Statute for the Court to exercisejurisdiction in the case to which the
United Kingdom refers.
The Government of Iceland, considering that the vital interests
of the people of Iceland are involved, respectfully informs the Court
that it is not willing to conferjurisdiction on the Court in any case
involving the extent of the fishery limits of Iceland, and specifically

in the case sought to be instituted by the Government of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland on 14April 1972."

The Exchange of Notes on which the Application founds the juris-diction of the Court, dated 11 March 1961, makes reference to the
Resolution of the Parliament of Iceland of 5 May 1959,which declared
that a recognition of the rights of Iceland to fisherieslimits extending to
tlie wholecontinental sheif"should be sought".
In the Note of 11March 1961it is stated that: "The Icelandic Govern-
ment will continue to work for the implementation of the Althing reso-
lution of May 5, 1959, regarding the extension of fisheries jurisdiction

around Iceland ..." (italics added).
The claim of lceland that its continental shelf must be considered to
be a part of the country itself, has support in the Convention on this
subject, done at Geneva on 29 April 1958.
This Court, in its Judgment of 20 February 1969,stated:
". ..the most fundamental of al1 the rules of law relating to the
continental shelf, enshrined in Article 2 of the 1958 Geneva Con-
vention, ... namely that the rights of the coastal state in respect of
the area of continental shelf that constitutes a natural prolongation
of its land territory into and under the sea exist ipso facto and ab

initio, by virtue of its sovereignty over the land, and as an extension
of it in an exercise of sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring
the seabed and exploiting its natural resources. In short, there is
here an inherent right. In order to exercise it, no special legal process
has to be gone through, nor have any special legal acts to be per-
formed. Its existence can be declared (and many States have done
this) but does not need to be constituted. Furthermore, the right
does not depend on its being exercised. To echo the language of the
Geneva Convention, it is 'exclusive' inthe sense that if the coastal
State does not choose to explore or exploit the areas of shelf apper-
taining to it, that is its own affair, but no one else mal. do so without
its express consent." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 22, para. 19.)

The Government of Iceland in its information and documents sent to
the Court, has given well-founded reasons and explanations of its
sovereign right to extend its fisheriesjurisdiction to the entire continental
shelf area.
The coastal fisheries in Iceland have always been the foundation of the
country's economy.
The coastal fisheries are the conditio sine qua norzfor the Tcelandic
economy; without them the country would not have been habitable.
Iceland rests on a platform or continental shelf whose outlines follow
those of the country itself. In these shallow underwater terraces, ideal
conditions are found for spawning areas and nursery grounds upon
whose preservation and utilization the livelihood of the nation depends.
It is increasingly being recognized that coastal fisheries are based on the
special conditions prevailing in the coastal areas which provide the
necessary environment for the fishstocks. This environment is an integralpart of the natural resources of the coastal State.

The continental shelf is really the platform ofthe country and must be
considered to be a part of the country itself.
The vital interests of the Icelandic people are therefore at stake. They

must be protected.
The priority position of the coastal State has then always been recog-
nized through the system of fishery limits. In the past these limits have
to a great extent not been established with any regard to the interests of
the coastal State. They owe their origin rather to the preponderant
influence of distant water fishery nations, who wished to fish as close as
possible to the shores of other nations, frequently destroying one area
and then proceeding to another.
In a system of progressive development of international law the
question of fishery limits has to be reconsidered interms of the protection
and utilization of coastal resources regardless of other considerations
which apply to the extent of the territorial sea. The international com-
munity has increasingly recognized that the coastal fishery resources are
to be considered as a part of the natural resources of the coastal State.
The special situation of countries who are overwhelmingly dependent on
coastal fisheries, was generally recognized at both Geneva Conferences
in 1958 and 1960. Since then this view has found frequent expression

both in the legislation of various countries and in important political
statements. The course of eventsis decidedly progressing in this direction.

Reiterating the considerations which led the Government of Iceland
to issue new regulations relating to exclusive fisheries jurisdiction in
continental shelf areas, it stated the following:

"In the aide-mémoireof 31 August, 1971, it was intimated that

'in order to strengthen the measures of protection essential to safe-
guard the vital interests of the Icelandic People in the seas sur-
rounding its coasts, the Government of Iceland now finds it essential
to extend further the zone of exclusive fisheries jurisdiction around
its coasts to include the areas of sea covering the continental shelf'.
Tt was further stated that in the opinion of the Icelandic Govern-
ment, the object and purpose of the provisions in the 1961Exchange
of Notes for recourse to judicial settlement in certain eventualities
have been fully achieved. The Government of Iceland, therefore,
considers the provisions of the Notes exchanged no longer to be
applicable and consequently terminated." (Government of Iceland's
aide-mémoireof 24 February 1972, Annex H to United Kingdom
Application.)
"In the period of ten years which has elapsed, the United King-
dom Government enjoyed the benefit of the Icelandic Government's
policy to the effect that further extension of the limits of exclusive fisheries jurisdiction would be placed in abeyance ,for a reasonable
and equitableperiod. Continuation of that policy by the Icelandic
Government, in the light of intervening scientific and economic
evolution (including the ever greater threat of increased diversion

of highly developed fishing effort to the Icelandic area) has become
excessively onerous and unacceptable, and is harmful to the main-
tenance of the resources of the sea on which the livelihood of the
Icelandic people depends." (Italics added.) (Government of Iceland's
aide-mémoire of 31 August 1971, Annex C to United Kingdom
Application.)
Not only lceland but many coastal States in al1regions of the world
know by experience the harmful effects of the ever greater threat of

highly developed fishing effort near their shores, by foreign fishing fleets
equipped-like the modern trawlers of the United Kingdom-with
sophisticated teclinical gear. Technical progress in this field implies a
change of circumstances which may fundamentally change the former
situation.

In the Exchange of Notes of 1 1 March 1961, the agreement already
enrisaged the prospect that the Republic of Iceland would extend the
fisheriesjurisdiction beyond the 12-milelimit.
If it is contrary to international law to envisage such extension, the
United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany would not have
accepted the inclusion of such statement in the forma1Exchange of Notes.

There is insuch Exchange of Notes an implicit recognition of the right
of Iceland to extend its fisheriesjurisdiction.
The United Kingdom. in view of its recognition of the exceptional
dependence of the Icelandic nation upon coastal fisheries for their

livelihood and economic development, accepted the proposals put for-
ward by the Government of Iceland, amongthem,the proposal contained
in the penultimate paragraph, which states that "the Government of
Iceland would continue to work for the intplementation of the Althing
Resolution of May 5. 1959, regarding the extension of fisheries juris-
diction around Iceland" (italics added), which declares that a recognition
of its rights to the whole continental shelf should be sought, as provided
in the Law concerning the Scientific Conservation of the Continental
Shelf Fisheries of 1948.

The United Kingdom did not object to the existence of such rights; it
accepted the proposal which contained as counterpart or consideration
the obligation of Iceland to give six months' notice of anysuch extension.

If a dispute did arise in respect of such extension,itwould not affect
the previous implicit recognition of Iceland's right toextend its fisheries
jurisdiction. The most essential asset of coastal States is to be found in the living
resources of the sea covering their continental shelf and in the fishing
zone contiguous to their territorial sea.
The progressive development of international law entails the recog-

nition of the concept of the patrimoizial sea, which extends from the
territorial waters to a distance fixed by the coastal State concerned, in
exercise of its sovereign rights. forhe purpose of protecting the resources
on which its econoniic development and the livelihood of its people
depends.
This concept is not a new one. It has found expression in declarations
by many governments proclaiming as their international maritime policy,
their sovereignty and exclusive fisheries jurisdiction over the sea con-
tiguous to their shores.

There are nine States which have adopted a distance of 200 nautical
miles from their shores as their exclusive fisheriesjurisdiction. Some of
them have enacted and enforced regulations to that effect since 20 years
ago, when the "Santiago Declaration" was signed by the Governments
of Chile, Ecuador and Peru in August 1952.
The text of the Notes dated 11 March 1961is susceptible of different

interpretations as regards its duration, its purpose, and the obligations
itcontains.
The compromissory clause cannot be said to be of a permanent nature,
or one binding Iceland for ever to freeze its fisheries jurisdiction to the
12-milelimit.
If the ohject and purpose of the provision to recourse to judicial
settlement has been fully achieved and validly terminated, there would
be no basis in that provision for the jurisdiction of the Court-and that
is in my opinion the case.
There are many valid arguments and reasons in favour of the rcelandic
thesis to the effect that the Exchange of Notes has lapsed.

Since the Exchange of Notes was negotiated, a fundamental change of
circumstances has taken place, and newcustomary international rules and
norms have emerged and developed, permitting coastal States to claim
fisheriesjurisdiction over the waters covering their continental shelves.

At the present time (and since the two Conferences on the Law of the
Sea took place) it has been a universal understanding that any coastal
State has the right toextend to a distance of 12milesits territorial waters.
Many States have adopted that limit, including the United Kingdom.
Iceland could not be legally bound to pay the price or quidpro quoforthe
recognition of its own right. But it is more important that with respect
to exclusiveor preferential rights regarding fisheries in waters beyond the
territorial sea, many States in America have claimed jurisdiction to a
distance of 200 nautical miles from their shores. In other regions several
States have made similar claims and new norms have been adopted inthat respect. Senegal, by a law dated 19April 1972,claimedjurisdiction
to a distance of 110nautical miles beyond the limit of its territorialsea.

Other instances regarding the emerging of new norms may be found
in the Conclusions and Recommendations of the African States' Regional
Seminar on the Law of the Sea, among which is the following:

"The Participants: Recommend to African States to extend their
sovereignty over al1the resources of the high sea adjacent to their

Territorial Sea within an economic zone to be established and
which will include at least the continental shelf.
Cal1upon al1African States to uphold the principle of this exten-
sion at the next International Conference on the Law of the Sea."

In the penultimate paragraph of the Exchange of Notes it was stated
that Iceland will go on working for the implementation of the Althing
Resolution. The admission of such a statement meant an implicit reçog-
nition that if and when Iceland were to do so, no violation of interna-
tional law would take place.
In the submissions on the meaning and intention of the Exchange of

Notes, contained in the Memorial on Jurisdiction submitted by the
United Kingdom, it is said:
". .. the Exchange of Notes of 1961 ... [had] effect ... as an
agreement which would remain valid until such time as either the
United Kingdom consented to an extension of fisheries jurisdiction
by Iceland beyond the limits fixed in the agreement or the Inter-
national Court of Justice should decide that such an extension was
consistent with international law." (ltalics added.)

The implication of that submission is that the consent of the United
Kingdom is enough to make consistent with internationallaw any exten-
sion by Iceland of its fisheriesjurisdiction.
In the Application it is said that there is no foundation in international
,law for the claim by Iceland to extend fts fisheries jurisdiction to 50
nautical miles from the baselines. If such extension was in itselfcontrary
to international law, the consent of the United Kingdom could not make
it consistent with it.

The interest of the Government of Iceland in seeking the recognition
of its rights to fisherieslimits extending to thehole continental shelf is
a continuous and permanent interest as affecting its own sovereignty and
is an interest which will be fortified each day by the will and resolve of
the people of Iceland and will endure for ever as the country itself.The aim, the intention and the purpose of Iceland's claim to exclusive
fishery rights over itsntire continental shelf area was asserted since 1959
and in the 1961 Exchange of Notes such a claim was recognized to exist.
In my view Iceland's rigl-itto seek the implementation of the Althing
Resolution cannot be denied.

1cannot subscribe therefore to the assertion in the Judgment that the
right of the United Kingdorn to challenge such an extension would last
"so long as Iceland might seek to implement the Althing Resolution".

The consequence appears to be (theoretically) that the right of the
United Kingdom to invoke the Court's jurisdiction in this matter would
last for ever, regardless of fundamental changes of circumstances. the
emerging of new customary norms, and other factors which challenge the
actual validity of the so-called"compron~issory clause".

On 29 September 1972, in the general debate of the United Nations

General Assembly, the Foreign Minister of Iceland said.

"My Government's view is that the absence of jurisdiction is
manifest since its consent no longer existed when the proceedings
were sought to be instituted" (italics added) (Art. 34, Vienna Con-
vention).

It may be concluded, therefore, that the circunistances existing in
1961 when the Exchange of Notes took place, have changed in many
fundamental respects, which Iceland has validly invoked to sustain that
the agreement is no longer is force.
In the last decades great changes have taken place in the political,
social, economic and technical fields. The need to strike a fair balance
between strong and weak nations, between industrialcountries and those
in the course of development, iseach day more urgent.

The struggle for freedom and self-determination of dependent peoples

has been successful. Many new States are now giving fresh views, force
and co-operation to the cominunity of nations.

The struggle to assert their sovereign rights over the natural resources
belonging to them is a common denominator among the coastal States
the world over.
Old practices and unfair so-called traditional situations have already
ended or will soon disappear. The need and the will to liquidate the
unjust privileges obtained through the assertion of superior strength,
is each day more pressing. These facts have created new circumstances
producing new changes.
Emerging customary laws on the problems of the sea have found
expression in many political statements, in declarations of governments,44 FISHERIES JURISDICTION (DISSO. PPADILLA NERVO)

in laws and regulations implemented by coastal States in many parts of
the world, for the purpose of asserting their sovereign rights and juris-
diction not only over their territorial sea but over the waters covering
their continental shelves.

In international regional conferences, important declarations of prin-
ciples were proclaimed, which advance the progressive development of
the law of the sea.
The concepts and ideas which found new expression in the adoption of
such principles were prevalent among jurists and statesmen in America
more than two decades ago. Those principles apply to the situation of
other coastal States in other continents as well, and Iceland could not be
excluded.
The Specialized Conference of the Caribbean Countries formulated a
Declaration of Principles; some of them are quoted below because of
their relevance to the points in issue:

"Recalling: That the International American Conferences held
in Bogotà in 1948, and in Caracas in 1954, recognized that the
peoples of the Americas depend on the natural resources as a means
of subsistence, and proclaimed the right to protect, conserve and
develop those resources, as well as the right to ensure their use and
utilization.
That the 'Principles of Mexico on the Legal Régimeof the Sea'
which were adopted in 1956 and which were recognized 'as the
expression of the juridical conscience of the Continent and as
applicable, by the American States', established the basis for the
evolution of the Law of the Sea which culminated, that year, with
the annunciation by the Specialized Conference in the Capital of the

Dominican Republic, of concepts which deserved endorsement by
the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Geneva,
1958.
Considering. ..That the renewable and non-renewable resources
of the sea contribute .to improve the standard of living of the
developing countries and to stimulate and accelerate their pro-
gress;
That such resources are not inexhaustible since even the living
species may be depleted or extinguished as a consequence of irra-
tional exploitation or pollution;...
Formulate the following Declaration of Principles:

Territorial Sea .. . The breadth of the territorial sea and
the manncr of its delimitation should be the subject of an inter-
national agreement, preferably of a worldwide scope. In the mean-
time, each Statehas the right to establish the breadth of its territorial
sea up to a limit of 12nautical miles to bemeasured from the appli-
cable baseline ...
Patrimonial Sea. The coastal State has sovereign rights over FISIIERIESJlIRISDIC1.101 (DlSS. OP. PADILLA NERVO)

the renewable and non-renewable natural resources, which are
found in the waters, in the seabed and in the subsoil of an area
adjacent to the territorial sea called the patritnonial sea.
The coastal State has the duty topromote and the right to regulate
the conduct of scientific research within the patrimonial sea, as
well as the right to adopt the necessary measures to prevent marine

pollution and to ensure its sorereignty orer the resourcesof the area.
The breadth of this zone sliould be the subject of an international
agreement, preferably of a worldwide scope. The whole of the area
of both the territorial sea and the patrimonial sea, taking into
account geographic circumstances, shoiild not exceed a maximum of

200 nautical miles . . .
Continental Slielf: The coastal State exercises over the continental
shelf sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring it and exploi-
ting its natural resources.
The continental shelf includes the sea-bed and subsoil of the
submarine areas adjacent to the coast, but outside the area of the

territorial sea, to a depth of 200 metres or, beyond that limit, to
where the depth of the siiperjaccnt waters admits the exploitation of
the natural resources of the said areas.
In addition, the States participating in this Conference consider
that the Latin An-ierican Delegations in the Committee on the
Sea-bed and Ocean Floor of the United Nations should promote a

study concerning the adbisability and timing for the establishment
of precise oiiter linlits of the continentalshelf taking into account
the outer limits of the continental rise.
In that part of the continental shelf covered by the patrimonial
sea the legal régimeprovided for this area shall apply. With respect

to the part beyond the patrimonial sea, the régime established for
the continental shelt' by International Law shall apply." (Italics
added.)

The obligation to negotiate is a principle of general international law.
The United Kingdom and lceland agreed to negotiate with the aim of
arriving at an agreement by peaceful means. There were many reasonable
offers by lceland during the nepotiations. If the United Kingdom wanted
more concessions and unilaterally stopped the negotiating process, by

instituting proceedings before the Court, that does not mean that agree-
ment by negotiation was impossible and that al1efforts in that direction
should be abandoned.

The United Kingdom sent to the Court information regarding the
proposals made by Iceland during their negotiations for a provisional

agreement.
No objection was then made by the United Kingdom to the right of
Iceland to exercise jurisdiction over fishing areas inside the 50-mile limit.
The United Kingdom does not dispute the right of Iceland to imposerestrictions and to establish conditions according to which British vessels
could be permitted to fish in the waters claimed by Iceland in implemen-
tation of the Althing's Resolution.

In examining the first specific Icelandic proposa1 made in the course
of negotiations, the United Kingdom did not argue that it was contrary
to international law to claim jurisdiction over waters beyond the 12-mile
limit. The United Kingdom objected to the nature of the proposed
restrictions and their effects on the British vessels'catch of fish.

Iceland proposed that the arrangement should run until 1 January
1974.
In subsequent proposals Iceland modified its stand to the extent that
the area permanently closed to British vessels would be bounded by a
line whose distance from the baselines would Vary between 14 and 27
miles. In this respect the UnitedKingdom informed the Courtas follows:

"On this basis Her Majesty's Government calculated that the
areas in question during the respective periods in which they would
be open currently produced only 20 percent. of the United Kingdom
catch."

Instead of continuing negotiation, the United Kingdom by its Appli-
cation to the Court and by requesting measures of protection expected
Iceland to give way to its demands in circumstances as difficult as those
which prevailed when the Exchange of Notes of 11 March 11961put an
end to the opposition of theLUnitedKingdom to the 12-milefisherylimit.

The very fact of negotiating an arrangement which will allow the
United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany to fish in certain
areas within the 50-mile zone of Iceland's fishery jurisdiction, is an
explicit recognition of the right of Iceland to extend its fishery limit and
is an implicit admission thatsuch extensionis not contrary to international
law, because the right to do it either exists or does not exist, but cannot
be the subject of bilateral negotiation. Ifsuch extension was encroach-
ment on the freedom of the high seas, the consent of the United Kingdom
cannot make legal an illegal act, nor can its consent determine what

extension of the so-called "high seas" Iceland may take-12 nautical
miles in 1961and 50 nautical miles now, provided that the United King-
dom gives its consent and a bilateral agreement is concluded to that
effect. e

The assertion that the 1961 Exchange of Notes took place under
extremely difficult circumstances, when the British Royal Navy had been
using force to oppose the 12-milefishery limit, is not denied (para. 4 of
the United Kingdom's Application). The Court should not overlook that
fact, and does not need to request documentary evidence as to the kind,shape and manner of force which was used (Art. 52, Vienna Convention
on the Law of Treaties).

A big power can use force and pressure against a small nation in
many ways, even by the very fact of diplomatically insisting in having
its view recognized and accepted. The Royal Navy did not need to use

armed force, its mere presence on the seas inside the fishery limits of the
coastal State could be enough pressure. It is well known by professors,
jurists and diplomats acquainted with international relations and foreign
policies, that certain "Notes" delivered by the goverilment of a strong
power to the government of a small nation, may have the same purpose
and the same effectas the use or threat of force.

There are moral and political pressures which cannot be proved by the
so-called documentary evidence, but which are in fact indisputably real
and which have, in history, given rise to treaties and conventions claimed
to be freelyconcluded and subjected to the principle ofpactaunt sertlanda.

(Signed) Luis PADILLN AERVO.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE PADILLA NERVO

1 cannot concur in the Judgment of the Court in the present pro-
ceedings.
1am unable to agree with the manner and reasoning through which the
Court easily disposed of and rejected the objections and arguments raised
against its jurisdiction toal with the merits of the Application.
The Court might give the impression by the development of too dog-
matic and formalisticassertions that its main concern has been the search
for juridical foundations to justify a previously admitted premise of
somewhat axiomatic character.
That of course is not the case, but, in my view, the objections raised
have not been answered convincingly.
The formulation of general principles and the invocation of a settled
practice of the Court regarding certain issues in former decisions, do not

necessarily solve the problem in a case like the present one, which has
exceptional characteristics and very special features, and where juris-
diction and merits are interdependent from several points of view.

Al1 these circumstances were in fact apparent in the Fisheries Juris-
diction case, Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972. The views 1
then expressed are still valid now.

In the present proceedings ajudgment is given regarding a State which
denies its consent to jurisdiction of the Court, which is not a party to
such proceedings, and whose rights as a sovereign State are placed in
jeopardy.
The claim of the Republic of Iceland to extend its fisheriesjurisdiction
to a zone of 50 nautical miles around lceland, has not been proved to be
contrary to international law.
The Court relies mainly as a source of itsjurisdiction on theExchange
of Notes of 11 March 1961,an agreement which the Republic of Iceland
contends has fully achieved its purpose and object, and the provisions

of which. it considers no longer to be applicable and, consequently,
terminated.
The Minister for Foreign Affairs of lceland sent to the Registrar on
29 May 1972a letter regarding the filing on 14 April 1972of an Appli-
cation by the Government of the United Kingdom, instituting proceedings
against Iceland.
With that letter were sent several documents dealing with the back- OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. PADILLA NERVO

[Traduction]

Je ne suis pas en mesure de souscrireà l'arrêtde la Cour dans la pré-
sente procédure.
Je ne puis pas approuver la méthode et le raisonnement suivis par la
Cour pour écarter et rejeter un peu rapidement les objections et les
argumentsopposés à s,acompétencepour connaître dela requêteau fond.
En formulant des assertions par trop dogmatiques et formalistes, la
Cour risque de donne:r l'impression qu'elle a surtout eu le souci de re-

chercher lajustificatioinjuridique d'une prémissedéjà admisede caractère
quelque peu axiomaticlue.
Certes, il n'en est rien, maisà mon avis les objections élevéesn'ont
pas étéréfutéesde façon convaincante.
L'exposé de principesgénérauxet l'invocation de la pratique établie
de la Cour concernant certaines questions mises en jeu par des décisions
antérieures ne fournissent pas nécessairement une solution valable pour
le problème qui se pose dans l'affaire actuelle, qui présente des caracté-
ristiques exceptionnelles et des particularités toutait inédites,et où la
question de la compdtence et la question de fond sont mutuellement
liéesà plusieurs points de vue.
Tous ces élémentsétaient d'ailleurs présentsdans l'affaire relative la
Compétencecn matièrede pêcheries, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance
du 17 août 1972. Les opinions que j'avais expriméesalors demeurent
valables.
Dans la présente procédure,un arrêtaété prononcéconcernant un Etat

qui refuse dereconnai.tre la compétence dela Cour, qui n'est pas partieà
cette procédure et dont les droits souverains sont compromis.

11n'est pas établi quela prétentionde la République d'Islandeàétendre
sa compétenceen matière de pêcheriesjusqu'à 50 milles marins autour
de ses côtes soit contraire au droit international.
La Cour invoque surtout pour fonder sa compétence l'échange de
notes du 11 mars 1961, accord qui, d'après la République d'Islande, a
entièrement atteint son but et son objet, dont elle considère que les dis-
positions ne sont plus;applicableset sont donc devenues caduques.

Le ministre des Affaires étrangères d'Islande aenvoyé au Greffier,
le 29 mai 1972, une 1e:ttreau sujet du dépôt, intervenu le 14 avril 1972,
d'une requêtepar laquelle le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni introdui-
sait une instanceontre l'Islande.
A cette lettre étaieritjoints plusieurs documents concernant l'origineground and termination of the agreement of 11 March 1961,and "with

the changed circumstances resulting fromthe ever-increasing exploitation
of the fishery resources in theeas surrounding Iceland".
The letter refers to the dispute with the United Kingdom who opposed
the 12-milefishery limit established by the Icelandic Government in 1958,
and to the 1961 Exchange of Notes.
Iceland States that "the 1961 Exchange of Notes took place under
extremely difficult circumstances, when the British Royal Navy had been
using force to oppose the 12-milefishery limit".

In paragraph 4 of the United Kingdom Application instituting pro-
ceedings, it is said:

"The validity of this action was not accepted by the United King-
dom and fishing vessels from the United Kingdom continued to
fish inside the twelve-mile limit. There then ensued a number of
incidents involving, on the one hand, Icelandic coastguard vessels
and, on the otherhand, British fishingvesselsand fisheriesprotection
vessels of the Royal Navy."

It appears from the above-quoted statements, that such circumstances
were not the most appropriate to negotiate and conclude the 1961Agree-
ment. The Foreign Minister of Iceland further indicates:
"The agreement by which that dispute was settled, and conse-
quently the possibility of such recourse to the Court (to which the

Government of Iceland was consistently opposed as far as concerns
disputes over the extent of its exclusive fisheries jurisdiction, as
indeed the United Kingdom recognizes), was not of a permanent
nature. In particular, an undertaking for judicial settlement cannot
be considered to be of a permanent nature. There is nothing in that
situation, or in any general rule of contemporary international law,
to justify any other view.

After the termination of the agreement recorded in the Exchange
of Notes of 1961, there was on 14 April 1972 no basis under the
Statute for the Court to exercisejurisdiction in the case to which the
United Kingdom refers.
The Government of Iceland, considering that the vital interests
of the people of Iceland are involved, respectfully informs the Court
that it is not willing to conferjurisdiction on the Court in any case
involving the extent of the fishery limits of Iceland, and specifically

in the case sought to be instituted by the Government of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland on 14April 1972."

The Exchange of Notes on which the Application founds the juris- COMPÉTENCE PÊCHERIES (OP.DISS.PADILLA NERVO) 37

et l'extinction de l'accord du 11mars 1961,ainsi que «le changement de

circonstances résultant de l'exploitation toujours croissante desressources
de la pêchedans les riers entourant l'Islande».
La lettre mentionni: le différend avec leRoyaume-Uni, qui s'opposait
à la limite de pêchede 12 milles établiepar le Gouvernement islandais
en 1958,et se réfèreà l'échangede notes de 1961.
L'Islande déclareque ((l'échangede notes de 1961estintervenu dans des
circonstancesextrêmementdifficiles, àun moment où la flotte britannique
employait la force pour s'opposer à l'application de la limite de pêche
de 12milles)).
Au paragraphe 4 de la requête introductive d'instance du Royaume-
Uni, il est dit:

((La validité de cette mesure n'ayant pas étéreconnue par le
Royaume-Uni, d.es navires de pêchede ce pays continuèrent à
pêcher endeçà d'ela limite de douze milles. Il s'ensuivit un certain
nombre d'incidents où furent impliqués, d'une part, des navires
garde-côtes islandais et, de l'autre, des navires de pêchebritanniques
et des bâtiments de la marine royale chargés de la protection des
pêcheries»

II ressort des déclarationsci-dessus que de telles circonstancesn'étaient
pas des plus favorables pour négocieret conclcre l'accord de 1961.
Le ministre des Affsliresétrangères d'Islande indique enoutr:

((L'accordréglantle différenddont il s'agissait et par conséquent
la possibilité'une instance devant la Cour (à laquelle le Gouver-
nement islandais s'est constamment opposé pour les différendscon-
cernant l'étenduede sacompétenceexclusiveenmatièrede pêcheries,
ainsi que le reconnaît d'ailleurs le Royaume-Uni) n'avaient pas un
caractère permancent.En particulier on ne saurait considérer comme
permanent un engagement de se soumettre au règlement judiciaire.
Rien dans cette situation ni dans une règle généraledu droit inter-
national contemporain nejustifierait une autre manière de voir.

L'accord enregistré dans l'échangede notes de 1961 ayant pris
fin, la Cour ne pouvait se fonder sur son Statut leavril 1972pour
exercer sa compéitencedans l'affaire viséepar le Royaume-Uni.

Considérantque les intérêtsvitaux du peuple islandais sont enjeu,
le Gouvernement islandais porte respectueusement à la connais-
sance de la Cour qu'il n'estpas disposé à lui attribuer compétence
dans une affaire qui concernerait l'étenduedes pêcheries islandaises,
en particulier dans l'instance que le Gouvernement du Royaume-
Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord a voulu introduire le
14avril 1972,))

L'échangede notes du II mars 1961 sur lequel la requêtefonde ladiction of the Court, dated 11 March 1961, makes reference to the
Resolution of the Parliament of Iceland of 5 May 1959,which declared
that a recognition of the rights of Iceland to fisherieslimits extending to
tlie wholecontinental sheif"should be sought".
In the Note of 11March 1961it is stated that: "The Icelandic Govern-
ment will continue to work for the implementation of the Althing reso-
lution of May 5, 1959, regarding the extension of fisheries jurisdiction

around Iceland ..." (italics added).
The claim of lceland that its continental shelf must be considered to
be a part of the country itself, has support in the Convention on this
subject, done at Geneva on 29 April 1958.
This Court, in its Judgment of 20 February 1969,stated:
". ..the most fundamental of al1 the rules of law relating to the
continental shelf, enshrined in Article 2 of the 1958 Geneva Con-
vention, ... namely that the rights of the coastal state in respect of
the area of continental shelf that constitutes a natural prolongation
of its land territory into and under the sea exist ipso facto and ab

initio, by virtue of its sovereignty over the land, and as an extension
of it in an exercise of sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring
the seabed and exploiting its natural resources. In short, there is
here an inherent right. In order to exercise it, no special legal process
has to be gone through, nor have any special legal acts to be per-
formed. Its existence can be declared (and many States have done
this) but does not need to be constituted. Furthermore, the right
does not depend on its being exercised. To echo the language of the
Geneva Convention, it is 'exclusive' inthe sense that if the coastal
State does not choose to explore or exploit the areas of shelf apper-
taining to it, that is its own affair, but no one else mal. do so without
its express consent." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 22, para. 19.)

The Government of Iceland in its information and documents sent to
the Court, has given well-founded reasons and explanations of its
sovereign right to extend its fisheriesjurisdiction to the entire continental
shelf area.
The coastal fisheries in Iceland have always been the foundation of the
country's economy.
The coastal fisheries are the conditio sine qua norzfor the Tcelandic
economy; without them the country would not have been habitable.
Iceland rests on a platform or continental shelf whose outlines follow
those of the country itself. In these shallow underwater terraces, ideal
conditions are found for spawning areas and nursery grounds upon
whose preservation and utilization the livelihood of the nation depends.
It is increasingly being recognized that coastal fisheries are based on the
special conditions prevailing in the coastal areas which provide the
necessary environment for the fishstocks. This environment is an integralcompétencede la Cour mentionne la résolution du Parlement islandais
du 5mai 1959,aux termes de laquelle «il convient de s'efforcerd'obtenir))
la reconnaissance des droits de pêchede l'Islande surl'ensembleduplateau
continental.
Dans la note du 1 ;Imars 1961,il est dit que ((LeGouvernement islan-
dais continuera de s'employer àmettre en ceuvrela résolutionde 1'Althing
en date du 5 mai 1959relative à l'élargissementde la juridiction sur les
pêcheriesautour del'Islande ..»(lesitaliques sontde nous).
Quand l'Islande aflirmeque son plateau continental doit êtreconsidéré
comme une partie di1pays lui-même, ellepeut s'appuyer sur la conven-
tion relativeà cette question, signéà Genèvele 29 avril 1958.
Dans son arrêtdu 20 février1969,la Cour a énoncé:

((la plus fondamentale de toutes les règles de droit relatives au
plateau continental et qui est consacréepar l'article2 de la Conven-
tion de Genève de 1958 ..: les droits de 1'Etat riverain concernant
la zone de plateau continental qui constitue un prolongement naturel
de son territoire sous la mer existentipso facto et ab initio en vertu
de la souveraineté de 1'Etatsur ce territoire et par une extension de
cette souveraineté souslaforme de l'exercicede droits souverains aux

fins del'exploraitiondu lit de la mer et de l'exploitation de ses res-
sources naturelles. II a là un droit inhérent. Point n'est besoinpour
l'exercer desuivireun processus juridique particulier ni d'accomplir
des actes juridiques spéciaux. Son existence peut être constatée,
comme cela a été faitpar de nombreux Etats, mais elle ne suppose
aucun acte constitutif. Qui plus est, ce droit est indépendant de son
exercice ((effectif)).Pour reprendre le terme de la Convention de
Genève,il est ccexclusif»en ce sens que, si un Etat riverain choisit de
ne pas explorer ou de ne pas exploiter les zones de plateau continen-
tal lui revenant, cela ne concerne que lui et nul ne peut le faire sans
son consentemenit exprès.))(C.Z.J. Recueil 1969,p. 22, par. 19.)

Le Gouvernement islandais, dans les renseignements et les documents
envoyés à la Cour, donne des raisons et des explications bien motivées
de son droit souverain d'étendre sa compétenceen matière de pêcheries
à la totalitéde la zone du plateau continental.
Depuis toujours leispêcheriescôtières de l'Islande constituent le fon-
dement mémede l'économiedu pays.
Les pêcheriescôtièressont indispensables à l'économieislandaise; sans
elles, le pays n'aurait pas été habitable.
L'Islande est situér:sur une plate-forme ou plateau continental, dont

les contours sont con.centriquesà ceux du pays lui-même.Ces terrasses
sous-marines peu profondes présentent des conditions idéalespour les
zones de frai et d'al'evinage dont la préservation et l'utilisation sont
indispensables à la vie du pays. II est de plus en plus généralement admis
que les pêcheries côtikres dépendent des conditions particulières existant
dans les zone littorale:lesquelles fournissent l'environnement nécessairepart of the natural resources of the coastal State.

The continental shelf is really the platform ofthe country and must be
considered to be a part of the country itself.
The vital interests of the Icelandic people are therefore at stake. They

must be protected.
The priority position of the coastal State has then always been recog-
nized through the system of fishery limits. In the past these limits have
to a great extent not been established with any regard to the interests of
the coastal State. They owe their origin rather to the preponderant
influence of distant water fishery nations, who wished to fish as close as
possible to the shores of other nations, frequently destroying one area
and then proceeding to another.
In a system of progressive development of international law the
question of fishery limits has to be reconsidered interms of the protection
and utilization of coastal resources regardless of other considerations
which apply to the extent of the territorial sea. The international com-
munity has increasingly recognized that the coastal fishery resources are
to be considered as a part of the natural resources of the coastal State.
The special situation of countries who are overwhelmingly dependent on
coastal fisheries, was generally recognized at both Geneva Conferences
in 1958 and 1960. Since then this view has found frequent expression

both in the legislation of various countries and in important political
statements. The course of eventsis decidedly progressing in this direction.

Reiterating the considerations which led the Government of Iceland
to issue new regulations relating to exclusive fisheries jurisdiction in
continental shelf areas, it stated the following:

"In the aide-mémoireof 31 August, 1971, it was intimated that

'in order to strengthen the measures of protection essential to safe-
guard the vital interests of the Icelandic People in the seas sur-
rounding its coasts, the Government of Iceland now finds it essential
to extend further the zone of exclusive fisheries jurisdiction around
its coasts to include the areas of sea covering the continental shelf'.
Tt was further stated that in the opinion of the Icelandic Govern-
ment, the object and purpose of the provisions in the 1961Exchange
of Notes for recourse to judicial settlement in certain eventualities
have been fully achieved. The Government of Iceland, therefore,
considers the provisions of the Notes exchanged no longer to be
applicable and consequently terminated." (Government of Iceland's
aide-mémoireof 24 February 1972, Annex H to United Kingdom
Application.)
"In the period of ten years which has elapsed, the United King-
dom Government enjoyed the benefit of the Icelandic Government's
policy to the effect that further extension of the limits of exclusiveaux réserves de poisson. Cet environnement fait partie intégrante des
ressources naturelles du pays riverain.
Le plateau continental est en réalité l'assisesur laquelle le pays repose

et il doit êtreconsidérécomme une partie du pays lui-même.
Les intérêtsvitaux dlupeuple islandais sont donc en jeu. Ils doivent être
protégés.
La position prioritaire de 1'Etat côtiera toi~jours été reconnue grâce
au systèmedes limites de pêche.Dans le passé, ces limites ont été souvent
établies sans que l'on i.ienne aucun compte des intérêts de1'Etat riverain.

Elles doivent plutôt leur origine à l'influence prépondérante des nations
pratiquant la pêchelointaine, qui souhaitaient pêcher aussi prèsque
possible des côtes des autres nations et, souvent, ravageaient une zone
avant de passer à une ;autre.
Dans un systèmede développement progressif du droit international, la
question de la limite de pêche exclusivedoit êtreréexaminéedu point

de vue de la protection et de l'utilisation des ressources côtièresindépen-
damment d'autres considérations qui portent sur l'étendue de la mer
territoriale.La communauté internationale reconnaît de plus en plus que
les ressources de la pkhe côtière doivent être considéréescomme un
élément des ressource!;naturelles de 1'Etat riverain. La situation parti-
culière des pays qui sont tributaires avanttout des pêcheriescôtièresaété

admise, d'unr: manière générale, lors des deux conférences de Genève
de 1958 et 1960. Depuis lors cette idéea été maintesfois exprimée, que
ce soit dans la législation de divers pays oii dans d'importantes déclara-
tions politiques.L1évo:lutionse fait résolument dans cette direction.
Rappelant les raisons qui l'avaient amené i adopter une nouvelle
réglementation sur l'exclusivitéde sa compétence en matière de pêcheries

dans la zone du plateau continental, le Gouvernement islandais a déclaré
ce qui suit:
((Dans l'aide-miimoire du 31 août 1971, ilétait indiqué: ((envue de

renforcer les mesures de protection essentielles pour la préservation
des intérêtsvitaux du peuple islandais dans les mers qui entourent
ses côtes, le Gouvernement islandais considère comme essentiel
d'étendre sa zone de compétence exclusive sur les pêcheriesautour
des côtes de manikre à inclure les espaces marins situésau-dessus du

plateau continental)).IIétait ajouté que, de l'avis du Gouvernement
islandais, l'objet et le but des dispositions de l'échangede notes de
1961 visant le recours au règlement judiciaire dans certains cas
avaient été entièrement atteints. En conséquence, le Gouvernement
islandais consideri: que les dispositions des notes échangées ne sont
plus applicables et sont donc devenues caduques.)) (Aide-mémoire
du Gouvernement islandais en date du 24 février 1972.annexe H à la

requêtedu Royaume-Uni.)
((Aucours des dix annéesécoulées,le Gouvernement du Royaume-
Uni a bénéficié de la politique du Gouvernement islandais tendant à
suspendre pour zrfildurt;e raisonnableet 6qliitahlr tout nouvel élar- fisheries jurisdiction would be placed in abeyance ,for a reasonable
and equitableperiod. Continuation of that policy by the Icelandic
Government, in the light of intervening scientific and economic
evolution (including the ever greater threat of increased diversion

of highly developed fishing effort to the Icelandic area) has become
excessively onerous and unacceptable, and is harmful to the main-
tenance of the resources of the sea on which the livelihood of the
Icelandic people depends." (Italics added.) (Government of Iceland's
aide-mémoire of 31 August 1971, Annex C to United Kingdom
Application.)
Not only lceland but many coastal States in al1regions of the world
know by experience the harmful effects of the ever greater threat of

highly developed fishing effort near their shores, by foreign fishing fleets
equipped-like the modern trawlers of the United Kingdom-with
sophisticated teclinical gear. Technical progress in this field implies a
change of circumstances which may fundamentally change the former
situation.

In the Exchange of Notes of 1 1 March 1961, the agreement already
enrisaged the prospect that the Republic of Iceland would extend the
fisheriesjurisdiction beyond the 12-milelimit.
If it is contrary to international law to envisage such extension, the
United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany would not have
accepted the inclusion of such statement in the forma1Exchange of Notes.

There is insuch Exchange of Notes an implicit recognition of the right
of Iceland to extend its fisheriesjurisdiction.
The United Kingdom. in view of its recognition of the exceptional
dependence of the Icelandic nation upon coastal fisheries for their

livelihood and economic development, accepted the proposals put for-
ward by the Government of Iceland, amongthem,the proposal contained
in the penultimate paragraph, which states that "the Government of
Iceland would continue to work for the intplementation of the Althing
Resolution of May 5. 1959, regarding the extension of fisheries juris-
diction around Iceland" (italics added), which declares that a recognition
of its rights to the whole continental shelf should be sought, as provided
in the Law concerning the Scientific Conservation of the Continental
Shelf Fisheries of 1948.

The United Kingdom did not object to the existence of such rights; it
accepted the proposal which contained as counterpart or consideration
the obligation of Iceland to give six months' notice of anysuch extension.

If a dispute did arise in respect of such extension,itwould not affect
the previous implicit recognition of Iceland's right toextend its fisheries
jurisdiction. gissement des liimites de la juridiction exclusive sur les zones de
pêche.Etant donné l'évolutionscientifique et économique qui s'est
produite (et notamment la menace toujours plus grande d'une orien-
tation des activités de pêche intensives versla zone islandaise) la
poursuite de cett'epolitique du Gouvernement islandais a des consé-
quences excessivc:mentlourdes et inacceptables et elleporte préjudice
à la conservation des ressources de la mer dont dépend la subsis-
tance de la population islandaise.)) (Les italiques sont de nous.)
(Aide-mémoiredu Gouvernement islandais en date du 31 août 1971,
annexe C àla requêtedu Royaume-Uni.)

Non seulement l'Islande mais encore bien d'autres pays riverains dans
toutes lesrégionsdu rnonde connaissent par expérienceles effets néfastes
de la menace toujours plus granded'une intensification de la pêcheprèsde
leur littoral que font peser des flottilles étrangères de bateaux depêche
munis,comme leschalutiers modernes du Royaume-Uni, d'un équipement
techniquecomplexe. Les progrès techniques réalisésdans ce domaine se
traduisent par un changement de circonstancesqui peut modifier radicale-
ment la situationantémrieure.
L'accord que constitue l'échangede notes du 11mars 1961envisageait
déjà que la République d'Islande étendrait la limite de sa compétence
sur les pêcheriesau-delà de 12milles.
S'il avait étécontraire au droit international d'envisager une telle
extension, le Royaume-Uni et la République fédérale d'Allemagne

n'auraient pas accepté l'insertion d'une déclaration de ce genre dans
l'échangede notes ofliciel.
Cet échange de notes contient la reconnaissance implicite du droit
de l'Islande d'étendresa compétenceen matière de pêcheries.
Ayant reconnu que la nation islandaise était exceptionnellement
tributaire de ses pêcheriescôtières pour sa subsistance et son développe-
ment économique,le Royaume-Uni a acceptéles propositions formulées
par le Gouvernement islandais et notamment celle qui figure à I'avant-
dernier paragraphe oii il est dit: ((LeGouvernement islandais continuera
de s'employer à mettre en æuitrela résolution de 17Althingen date du
5 mai 1959relative à l'élargissementde la juridiction sur les pêcheries
autour de l'Islande» (les italiques sont de nous); d'après cette résolution,
l'Islande doit s'efforcer d'obtenir la reconnaissance de ses droits sur
toute la zone du plateau contin~ntal, conformément à la loi de 1948
concernant la conservation scientifique des pêcheriesdu plateau conti-
nental.

Le Royaume-Uni ri'a pas objectéque ces droits n'existaient pas; il a
acceptéla proposition dont lacontrepartieétait l'obligation pour'Islande
de notifier sixmoisàl'avancetoute mesure tendant à étendresajuridiction
sur les pêcheries.
A supposer qu'un différendsurvienne en la matière, cela ne concer-
nerait pas la reconnaissance déjà admise implicitement du droit de
l'Islandeà étendresa compétenceen matière de pêcheries. The most essential asset of coastal States is to be found in the living
resources of the sea covering their continental shelf and in the fishing
zone contiguous to their territorial sea.
The progressive development of international law entails the recog-

nition of the concept of the patrimoizial sea, which extends from the
territorial waters to a distance fixed by the coastal State concerned, in
exercise of its sovereign rights. forhe purpose of protecting the resources
on which its econoniic development and the livelihood of its people
depends.
This concept is not a new one. It has found expression in declarations
by many governments proclaiming as their international maritime policy,
their sovereignty and exclusive fisheries jurisdiction over the sea con-
tiguous to their shores.

There are nine States which have adopted a distance of 200 nautical
miles from their shores as their exclusive fisheriesjurisdiction. Some of
them have enacted and enforced regulations to that effect since 20 years
ago, when the "Santiago Declaration" was signed by the Governments
of Chile, Ecuador and Peru in August 1952.
The text of the Notes dated 11 March 1961is susceptible of different

interpretations as regards its duration, its purpose, and the obligations
itcontains.
The compromissory clause cannot be said to be of a permanent nature,
or one binding Iceland for ever to freeze its fisheries jurisdiction to the
12-milelimit.
If the ohject and purpose of the provision to recourse to judicial
settlement has been fully achieved and validly terminated, there would
be no basis in that provision for the jurisdiction of the Court-and that
is in my opinion the case.
There are many valid arguments and reasons in favour of the rcelandic
thesis to the effect that the Exchange of Notes has lapsed.

Since the Exchange of Notes was negotiated, a fundamental change of
circumstances has taken place, and newcustomary international rules and
norms have emerged and developed, permitting coastal States to claim
fisheriesjurisdiction over the waters covering their continental shelves.

At the present time (and since the two Conferences on the Law of the
Sea took place) it has been a universal understanding that any coastal
State has the right toextend to a distance of 12milesits territorial waters.
Many States have adopted that limit, including the United Kingdom.
Iceland could not be legally bound to pay the price or quidpro quoforthe
recognition of its own right. But it is more important that with respect
to exclusiveor preferential rights regarding fisheries in waters beyond the
territorial sea, many States in America have claimed jurisdiction to a
distance of 200 nautical miles from their shores. In other regions several
States have made similar claims and new norms have been adopted in Pour les Etats riverains, les ressources biologiques de la mer au-dessus

de leur plateau continiental et dans la zone de pêchecontiguë à leur mer
territoriale sont une richesse essentielle.
Le développement progressif du droit international suppose la recon-
naissance de la notion de mer patrimoniale qui s'étend depuis les eaux
territoriales jusqu'à une certaine distance, fixéepar 1'Etat riverain inté-
ressé dans ]"exercice de ses droits souverains, en vue de protéger les

ressources dont dépendent son développement économique et la sub-
sistance de sa population.
Cette notion n'est pas nouvelle. Elle a trouvé expression dans nombre
de déclarations par lesquelles les gouvernements ont proclamé, comme
des éléments deleur politique maritime internationale, leur souveraineté

et leur compétence exclusive en matière de pêcheriessur les eaux adja-
centes à leurs côtes.
Neuf Etats ont fixé à 200 milles marins à partir de leur littoral la zone
de leur compétence exclusive sur les pêcheries. Il y a vingt ans que
certains appliquent une réglementation en ce sens, depuis que la ((déclara-
tion de Santiago)) a étésignée par les Gouvernements du Chili, de

I'Equateur et du Pérou en août 1952.
Le texte des notes du 1I mars 1961 est susceptible d'interprétations
différentes ein ce qui to~iche sa durée d'application, son objet et les
obligations qu'il impose.
on ne saurait. prétendre que la clause compromissoire a un caractère
permanent ou oblige l'Islande à fixer de façon définitive la limite de sa

juridiction sur les pêcheriesà 12 milles.
Si l'objet et le but de la disposition prévoyant le recours au règlement
judiciaire ont été pleinementatteints et ont valablement pris fin, cette
disposition n'offre pliis aucune base sur laquelle fonder la compétence
de la Cour -- et à mcin avis c'est le cas.
Ily a beaucoup d'arguments et de raisons valables qui militent en

faveur de la thèse isla.ndaise selon laquelle l'échange de notes est devenu
cadlrr.
Depuis que cet échange de notes a éténégocié,un changement fon-
damental de circonstances est intervenu et de nouvelles règles et normes
de droit international coutumier sont apparues et se sont développées,
qui permettent aux Etats riverains d'étendre leur juridiction en matière

de pêcheries !surles eaux qui recouvrent leur plateau continental.
A l'heure actuelle (et ce depuis les deux conférences sur le droit de
la mer). ilest univers~ellemententendu que tout Etat riverain a le droit
de porter la limite de ses eaux territoriales à une distance de 12 milles.
Beaucoup d'Etats ont adopté cette limite, y compris le Royaume-Uni.
L'Islande ne saurait être juridiquement tenue de payer le prix ou la
contrepartie de la reconnaissance de son propre droit. Qui plus est,

en matière de droits de pêche exclusifsou préférentielsdans les eaux
situées au-delà de la iner territoriale, beaucoup d'Etats d'Amérique ont
revendiqué une extension de leur juridiction jusqu'à 200 milles marins
à partir de leurs côtes. Dans d'autres régions, plusieurs Etats ont émisthat respect. Senegal, by a law dated 19April 1972,claimedjurisdiction
to a distance of 110nautical miles beyond the limit of its territorialsea.

Other instances regarding the emerging of new norms may be found
in the Conclusions and Recommendations of the African States' Regional
Seminar on the Law of the Sea, among which is the following:

"The Participants: Recommend to African States to extend their
sovereignty over al1the resources of the high sea adjacent to their

Territorial Sea within an economic zone to be established and
which will include at least the continental shelf.
Cal1upon al1African States to uphold the principle of this exten-
sion at the next International Conference on the Law of the Sea."

In the penultimate paragraph of the Exchange of Notes it was stated
that Iceland will go on working for the implementation of the Althing
Resolution. The admission of such a statement meant an implicit reçog-
nition that if and when Iceland were to do so, no violation of interna-
tional law would take place.
In the submissions on the meaning and intention of the Exchange of

Notes, contained in the Memorial on Jurisdiction submitted by the
United Kingdom, it is said:
". .. the Exchange of Notes of 1961 ... [had] effect ... as an
agreement which would remain valid until such time as either the
United Kingdom consented to an extension of fisheries jurisdiction
by Iceland beyond the limits fixed in the agreement or the Inter-
national Court of Justice should decide that such an extension was
consistent with international law." (ltalics added.)

The implication of that submission is that the consent of the United
Kingdom is enough to make consistent with internationallaw any exten-
sion by Iceland of its fisheriesjurisdiction.
In the Application it is said that there is no foundation in international
,law for the claim by Iceland to extend fts fisheries jurisdiction to 50
nautical miles from the baselines. If such extension was in itselfcontrary
to international law, the consent of the United Kingdom could not make
it consistent with it.

The interest of the Government of Iceland in seeking the recognition
of its rights to fisherieslimits extending to thehole continental shelf is
a continuous and permanent interest as affecting its own sovereignty and
is an interest which will be fortified each day by the will and resolve of
the people of Iceland and will endure for ever as the country itself.des revendications analogues et de nouvelles normes ont étéadoptées
à cet égard. Le Sénégal,par une loi en date du 19 avril 1972, a déclaré
étendresa juridiction jusqu'à une distance de 110 milles marins au-delà
de la limite de sa mer territoriale.
D'autres exemples de normes nouvelles apparaissent dans les conclu-
sions et recommandations du Séminaire régionaldes Etats africains sur
le droit de la mer, qui comprennent les dispositions suivantes:

((LesParticipants :

Recommandent aux Etats africains d'étendre leur souveraineté
sur toutes les ressources de la haute mer adjacente à leur mer
territoriale dans le cadre d'une zone économique à établir et qui
comprendra au n-ioinsle plateau continental;
Invitent tous les Etats africains à défendre le principe de cette
extension de souveraineté à la prochaine Conférence internationale
sur le droit de laer.))

L'avant-dernier alinéa de l'échangede ilotes déclarait que l'Islande
continuerait de s'employer à mettre en Œuvrela résolution de 1'Althing.
L'acceptation de cette déclaration revenait à reconnaitre implicitement
qu'en agissant éventiiellement ainsi l'Islande ne se rendrait coupable
d'aucune violation du droit international.
Dans les conclusions qu'a présentéesle Royaume-Uni dans son mé-
moire au sujet de la question de la compétence, il est dit:

((l'échangede notes de 1961 ...avait effet en tant qu'accord devant
rester valable jusqu'au moment où le Royaume-Uni consentirait à
l'élargissement dela compétence del'Islande enmatière depêcheries
au-delà des limites fixéesdans l'accord ou jusqu'au moment ou
la Cour internationale de Justice déciderait que cet élargissement
étaitcompatible avec le droit international)) (les italiques sont de
nous).

Il découle implicitement de cette conclusion que le consentement du
Royaume-Uni sufJità rendre compatible avec le droit internationaltoute
extension par l'Islande de sa juridiction en matière de pêcheries.
Dans la requêteil est dit que la prétention de l'Islande tendant à
porter les limites de sa juridiction en matière de pêcheries à 50 milles
marins àpartir des lignes de base n'est pas fondéeen droit international.

Mais si cette extension était en soi contraire au droit international,
le consentement du Royaume-Uni ne pourrait pas la rendre compatible
avec celui-ci.
L'intérêqtu'a le Gouvernement islandais à chercher àfaire reconnaitre
ses droits sur une zone de pêcherecouvrant l'ensemble du plateau
continental est nécessairement un intérêtcontinu et permanent car il
touche sa propre souveraineté; c'est un intérêt qui serafortifiéchaque
jour par la volontéet la détermination du peuple d'Islande et qui dureraThe aim, the intention and the purpose of Iceland's claim to exclusive
fishery rights over itsntire continental shelf area was asserted since 1959
and in the 1961 Exchange of Notes such a claim was recognized to exist.
In my view Iceland's rigl-itto seek the implementation of the Althing
Resolution cannot be denied.

1cannot subscribe therefore to the assertion in the Judgment that the
right of the United Kingdorn to challenge such an extension would last
"so long as Iceland might seek to implement the Althing Resolution".

The consequence appears to be (theoretically) that the right of the
United Kingdom to invoke the Court's jurisdiction in this matter would
last for ever, regardless of fundamental changes of circumstances. the
emerging of new customary norms, and other factors which challenge the
actual validity of the so-called"compron~issory clause".

On 29 September 1972, in the general debate of the United Nations

General Assembly, the Foreign Minister of Iceland said.

"My Government's view is that the absence of jurisdiction is
manifest since its consent no longer existed when the proceedings
were sought to be instituted" (italics added) (Art. 34, Vienna Con-
vention).

It may be concluded, therefore, that the circunistances existing in
1961 when the Exchange of Notes took place, have changed in many
fundamental respects, which Iceland has validly invoked to sustain that
the agreement is no longer is force.
In the last decades great changes have taken place in the political,
social, economic and technical fields. The need to strike a fair balance
between strong and weak nations, between industrialcountries and those
in the course of development, iseach day more urgent.

The struggle for freedom and self-determination of dependent peoples

has been successful. Many new States are now giving fresh views, force
and co-operation to the cominunity of nations.

The struggle to assert their sovereign rights over the natural resources
belonging to them is a common denominator among the coastal States
the world over.
Old practices and unfair so-called traditional situations have already
ended or will soon disappear. The need and the will to liquidate the
unjust privileges obtained through the assertion of superior strength,
is each day more pressing. These facts have created new circumstances
producing new changes.
Emerging customary laws on the problems of the sea have found
expression in many political statements, in declarations of governments,aussi longtemps que le pays lui-même. La prétention de l'Islande à des
droits de pêcheexclusifs sur toute la zone du plateau continental est

affirméequant à son lbut, son intention et son objet depuis 1959 et cette
prétention a étérecorinue dans l'échangede notes de 1961. A mon avis,
on ne saurait nier le droit de l'Islande de chercher à mettre en Œuvre la
résolution de l'Althin,g.
Je ne peux donc souscrire à l'affirmation qui figure dans l'arrêtselon

laquelle le droit du Royaume-Uni de contester une telle extension devait
durer ((aussi longtemps que l'Islande pourrait chercher à mettre en Œuvre
la résolution de 1'Althing)).
La conséquence de cette affirmation semblerait être(en théorie) que
le droit di1 Royaume-Uni d'invoquer la compétence de la Cour en la
matière devait durer à perpétuité, sans qu'il y ait à prendre en con-
sidération un changement fondamental des circonstances, l'apparition

de nouvelles normes de droit coutumier ou d'autres facteurs portant
atteinte en faitiila validité de la prétendue ((clause comprornissoire».
Le 29 septembre 1972 le ministre des Affaires étrangères d'Islande
a déclaré devant 1'Asijembléegénérale desNations Unies lors du débat
général :

«Mon gouvernement estime que l'absence de compétence est
évidentepuisque :son consentement n'existait plus lorsqu'on a cherché
à obtenir une action de la Cour.))(Cf. art. 34 de la convention de

Vienne sur le droit des traités.) (Les italiques sont de nous.)
On peut donc conclure que beaucoup de changements fondamentaux

sont intervenus dans les circonstances qui existaient en 1961 quand
l'échange de notes a eu lieu, et que c'est à bon droit que l'Islande a
invoqué cet argument pour soutenir que l'accord .:'est plus en vigueur.
Au cours des dernières décennies, de profondes mutations se sont
produites dans les domaines politique, social, économique et technique.
La nécessitéd'établir un juste équilibre entre les nations puissantes et

faibles, entre les pays industriels et ceux qui sont en voie de développe-
ment, se fait chaquejour plus urgente.
La lutte pour la liberté et l'autodétermination des peuples dépendants
a étécouronnée desuccès.De nombreux Etats récemmentcréés apportent
maintenant des façons de voir, des forceset despossibilitésdecoopération
nouvelles à la communauté des nations.

Les efforts déployéspour revendiquer leurs droits souverains sur les
ressources naturelles qui leur appartiennent sont le commun dénomina-
teur des Etats côtiers de par le monde.
Les vieilles pratiques et les situations inéquitables dites traditionnelles
sont déjà révolues et vont bientôt disparaître. Le besoin et la volonté
d'éliminer les injustes privilèges obtenus par la supérioritéaffirméede la

force s'imposent chaque jour davantage. Ces faits ont crééde nouvelles
circonstances qui entraînent à leur tour d'autres changements.
Les règles coutumières qui se font jour sur les problèmes de la mer
ont trouvé leur expression dans de nombreuses proclamations politiques,44 FISHERIES JURISDICTION (DISSO. PPADILLA NERVO)

in laws and regulations implemented by coastal States in many parts of
the world, for the purpose of asserting their sovereign rights and juris-
diction not only over their territorial sea but over the waters covering
their continental shelves.

In international regional conferences, important declarations of prin-
ciples were proclaimed, which advance the progressive development of
the law of the sea.
The concepts and ideas which found new expression in the adoption of
such principles were prevalent among jurists and statesmen in America
more than two decades ago. Those principles apply to the situation of
other coastal States in other continents as well, and Iceland could not be
excluded.
The Specialized Conference of the Caribbean Countries formulated a
Declaration of Principles; some of them are quoted below because of
their relevance to the points in issue:

"Recalling: That the International American Conferences held
in Bogotà in 1948, and in Caracas in 1954, recognized that the
peoples of the Americas depend on the natural resources as a means
of subsistence, and proclaimed the right to protect, conserve and
develop those resources, as well as the right to ensure their use and
utilization.
That the 'Principles of Mexico on the Legal Régimeof the Sea'
which were adopted in 1956 and which were recognized 'as the
expression of the juridical conscience of the Continent and as
applicable, by the American States', established the basis for the
evolution of the Law of the Sea which culminated, that year, with
the annunciation by the Specialized Conference in the Capital of the

Dominican Republic, of concepts which deserved endorsement by
the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Geneva,
1958.
Considering. ..That the renewable and non-renewable resources
of the sea contribute .to improve the standard of living of the
developing countries and to stimulate and accelerate their pro-
gress;
That such resources are not inexhaustible since even the living
species may be depleted or extinguished as a consequence of irra-
tional exploitation or pollution;...
Formulate the following Declaration of Principles:

Territorial Sea .. . The breadth of the territorial sea and
the manncr of its delimitation should be the subject of an inter-
national agreement, preferably of a worldwide scope. In the mean-
time, each Statehas the right to establish the breadth of its territorial
sea up to a limit of 12nautical miles to bemeasured from the appli-
cable baseline ...
Patrimonial Sea. The coastal State has sovereign rights overdans des déclarations de gouvernements, dans les lois et règlements
mis en Œuvrepar les I-tats côtiers dans de nombreuses régionsdu monde
en vue de revendiquer leurs droits souverains et leur juridiction non
seulement sur leur nier territoriale mais sur les eaux recouvrant leur
plateau continental.
D'importantes déclarations de principes ont étéfaites au sein de
conférencesinternationales régionales etle développement progressif du
droit de la mer s'en tirouveaccéléré.
Les concepts et les idéesauxquels l'adoption de ces principes a donné
une nouvelle forme prévalaient déjà parmi les juristes et les hommes
d'Etat d'Amérique il y a plus de vingt ans. Ces principes s'appliquent
aussi à la situation cles autres Etats côtiers dans les autres continents
et l'Islande ne saurait en être exclue.

La conférencespéciale des paysde la région desCaraïbes a formulé
une déclaration de principes; je cite certains d'entre eux parce qu'ils ont
rapport aux points en question:
ctRappelant: Que les Conférences internationales américaines
réunies à Bogota en 1948et à Caracas en 1954ont reconnu que les
populations des Amériquesdépendentde leurs ressources naturelles

comme moyen di: subsistance et ont proclamé le droit de protéger,
conserver et développer ce.richesses,comme d'enassurer l'utilisation
et la jouissance,
Qu'en 1956ont étéadoptés les Principes de Mexico sur le régime
juridique de la mer, qui ont été admis commec(1'expressionde la
conscience juridique du Continent et comme applicables par les
Etats américains,,)et qui ont établiles bases de l'évolutiondu droit
, de la mer qui a abouti, la mêmeannée, lorsde la Conférencespéciale
de la capitale dominicaine, à l'énonciation de concepts qui ont été
reconnus par la Conférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer,
à Genève. en 1958.

Considérant: ...Que les ressources renouvelables et non re-
nouvelables de la mer contribuent à élever le niveau de vie des

pays en voie de développement, ainsi qu'à stimuler et accélérer
leurs progrès;
Que lesdites re:ssources ne sont pas inépuisables, car les espèces
vivantes peuvent se raréfieret mêmes'éteindre comme suite à une
exploitation irrationnelle ou àla pollution; ...
Formule la déclaration de principes ci-après:

Mer territoriale....La largeur de cette zone et la manière dont
elle est délimitéedoivent faire l'objet d'un accord international,
de préférencede portée universelle. Tout Etat a, entre-temps, le
droit de fixer la largeur de sa mer territoriale jusqu'à une limite de
12 milles marins àpartir de la ligne de base applicable...

Merpatrimoniale. L'Etat riverain exerce des droits de souveraineté FISIIERIESJlIRISDIC1.101 (DlSS. OP. PADILLA NERVO)

the renewable and non-renewable natural resources, which are
found in the waters, in the seabed and in the subsoil of an area
adjacent to the territorial sea called the patritnonial sea.
The coastal State has the duty topromote and the right to regulate
the conduct of scientific research within the patrimonial sea, as
well as the right to adopt the necessary measures to prevent marine

pollution and to ensure its sorereignty orer the resourcesof the area.
The breadth of this zone sliould be the subject of an international
agreement, preferably of a worldwide scope. The whole of the area
of both the territorial sea and the patrimonial sea, taking into
account geographic circumstances, shoiild not exceed a maximum of

200 nautical miles . . .
Continental Slielf: The coastal State exercises over the continental
shelf sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring it and exploi-
ting its natural resources.
The continental shelf includes the sea-bed and subsoil of the
submarine areas adjacent to the coast, but outside the area of the

territorial sea, to a depth of 200 metres or, beyond that limit, to
where the depth of the siiperjaccnt waters admits the exploitation of
the natural resources of the said areas.
In addition, the States participating in this Conference consider
that the Latin An-ierican Delegations in the Committee on the
Sea-bed and Ocean Floor of the United Nations should promote a

study concerning the adbisability and timing for the establishment
of precise oiiter linlits of the continentalshelf taking into account
the outer limits of the continental rise.
In that part of the continental shelf covered by the patrimonial
sea the legal régimeprovided for this area shall apply. With respect

to the part beyond the patrimonial sea, the régime established for
the continental shelt' by International Law shall apply." (Italics
added.)

The obligation to negotiate is a principle of general international law.
The United Kingdom and lceland agreed to negotiate with the aim of
arriving at an agreement by peaceful means. There were many reasonable
offers by lceland during the nepotiations. If the United Kingdom wanted
more concessions and unilaterally stopped the negotiating process, by

instituting proceedings before the Court, that does not mean that agree-
ment by negotiation was impossible and that al1efforts in that direction
should be abandoned.

The United Kingdom sent to the Court information regarding the
proposals made by Iceland during their negotiations for a provisional

agreement.
No objection was then made by the United Kingdom to the right of
Iceland to exercise jurisdiction over fishing areas inside the 50-mile limit.
The United Kingdom does not dispute the right of Iceland to impose sur les ressources naturelles, renouvelables et non renouvelables,
qui se trouvent dans les eaux, sur le lit et dans le sous-sol,d'une zone
adjacente à la mer territoriale. dénomméemer patrinzoniale.

L'Etai. riverain a le devoir de promouvoir et le droit de régle-
menter les recherches scientifiques dans la mer patrimoniale, comme
celui d'adopter 1r:smesures nécessairespour éviterla pollution du
milieu niarin et pour assurer sa souverainetésur les ressources.
La largeur de la mer patrimoniale doit faire l'objet d'un accord
international, de préférencede portée universelle. La somme de
cette zone et de la mer territoriale, compte tenu des circonstances
géographiques, ne doit pas être supérieureau total à 200 milles
marins...
Plateau continental.L'Etat riverain exerce des droits souverains sur
le plateau contin'ental aux fins de l'exploration de celui-ci et de l'ex-
ploitation des ressources naturelles qui s'y trouvent.
Le plateau continental comprend le lit de la mer et le sous-sol
des régions sous-marines adjacentes aux côtes, mais situéesau-delà
de la mer territoriale, jusqu'à une profondeur de 200 mètres ou
davantage jusqu'au point où la profondeur des eaux surjacentes

permet 1'exploitai:iondes ressources naturelles desdites régions.
En outre, les E.tats participanà la présente Conférenceémettent
l'avis que lesdél'égationslatino-américaines au Comité des utilisa-
tions pacifiquesdu fond des mers et des océansdes Nations Unies
devraient préconiser une étuderelative à l'utilitéeà l'opportunité
de fixer pour le plateau des limites extérieuresprécises,compte tenu
de la liniite extérieure de l'émersioncontinentale.
Dans la partie du plateau continental couverte par la mer patri-
moniale, le régirriejuridique prévu pour ladite mer est applicable.
En ce qui conceriie la partie non couverte par la mer patrimoniale,
le régimeétabli p;îr le droit international pour le plateau continental
est applicable.))(Les italiques sont de nous.)

L'obligation de négocier estun principe de droit international général.
Le Royaume-Uni et l'Islande ont accepté denégocier en vuede parvenir
à un accord par des rnoyens pacifiques. Beaucoup d'offres raisonnables
ont été faitespar l'Is1,andeau cours des négociations. Que le Royaume-
Uni ait voulu obtenir plus de concessions et qu'il ait interrompu uni-
latéralement le processus de négociation en introduisant une instance
devant la Cour, cela ne signifie pas qu'un accord par voie de négociation
était impossible et que tous les efforts dans ce sens devaient êtreaban-
donnés.
Le Royaurne-Uni a cornniuniqué à la Cour des renseignements sur les
propositions faites par l'Islande pendant les négociations relativesà un
accord provisoire.

Le Royaume-Uni n'a élevé àl'époqueaucune objection quant au droit
de l'Islande d'exercer sa juridiction sur les zones de pêche situéesen
deçà de la limite des. 50 milles. Le Royaume-Uni ne conteste pas lerestrictions and to establish conditions according to which British vessels
could be permitted to fish in the waters claimed by Iceland in implemen-
tation of the Althing's Resolution.

In examining the first specific Icelandic proposa1 made in the course
of negotiations, the United Kingdom did not argue that it was contrary
to international law to claim jurisdiction over waters beyond the 12-mile
limit. The United Kingdom objected to the nature of the proposed
restrictions and their effects on the British vessels'catch of fish.

Iceland proposed that the arrangement should run until 1 January
1974.
In subsequent proposals Iceland modified its stand to the extent that
the area permanently closed to British vessels would be bounded by a
line whose distance from the baselines would Vary between 14 and 27
miles. In this respect the UnitedKingdom informed the Courtas follows:

"On this basis Her Majesty's Government calculated that the
areas in question during the respective periods in which they would
be open currently produced only 20 percent. of the United Kingdom
catch."

Instead of continuing negotiation, the United Kingdom by its Appli-
cation to the Court and by requesting measures of protection expected
Iceland to give way to its demands in circumstances as difficult as those
which prevailed when the Exchange of Notes of 11 March 11961put an
end to the opposition of theLUnitedKingdom to the 12-milefisherylimit.

The very fact of negotiating an arrangement which will allow the
United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany to fish in certain
areas within the 50-mile zone of Iceland's fishery jurisdiction, is an
explicit recognition of the right of Iceland to extend its fishery limit and
is an implicit admission thatsuch extensionis not contrary to international
law, because the right to do it either exists or does not exist, but cannot
be the subject of bilateral negotiation. Ifsuch extension was encroach-
ment on the freedom of the high seas, the consent of the United Kingdom
cannot make legal an illegal act, nor can its consent determine what

extension of the so-called "high seas" Iceland may take-12 nautical
miles in 1961and 50 nautical miles now, provided that the United King-
dom gives its consent and a bilateral agreement is concluded to that
effect. e

The assertion that the 1961 Exchange of Notes took place under
extremely difficult circumstances, when the British Royal Navy had been
using force to oppose the 12-milefishery limit, is not denied (para. 4 of
the United Kingdom's Application). The Court should not overlook that
fact, and does not need to request documentary evidence as to the kind,droit qu'avait l'Islande d'imposer des restrictions et de fixerlesconditions
dans lesquelles les navires britanniques pouvaient être autorisés pêcher
dans les eaux revendiquéespar l'Islande en application de la résolution
de 1'Althing.
Lorsqu'il a examinéla premièreproposition concrètefaite par l'Islande
au cours des négociations, le Royaume-Uni n'a pas alléguéque la
prétention de l'Islande d'étendre sa zone de juridiction au-delà de la
limite des 12 milles éitaitcontraire au droit international. Le Royaume-
Uni a protesté contre la nature des restrictions proposées et l'effet qu'elles
pouvaient avoir sur les prises de poisson effectuées par les navires

britanniques.
L'Islande apropos6 que l'arrangement s'applique jusqu'au ler janvier
1974.
L'Islande a modifitj par la suite ses propositions, en ce sens que la
zone interdite en permanence aux navires britanniques serait limitée
par une ligne tracée à une distance des lignes de base qui varierait entre
14 et 27 milles.A ce propos, le Royaume-Uni a dit à la Cour:

((Sur cette base le Gouvernement de Sa Majesté a calculé que
les zones en question, dans les périodespour lesquelles elles seraient
ouvertes, produiraient 20pour cent seulement des prises actuelles du
Royaume-Uni. ))

Au lieu de poursuivre les négociations,le Royaume-Uni, en soumettant
sa requête à la Couir et en demandant des mesures conservatoires,
escomptait que l'lslanidese soumettrait à ses exigences dans des circons-
tances aussi difficilesque celles qui existaient lorsque l'échangede notes
du 11mars 1961a mis fin à l'opposition du Royaume-Uni à la limite de
pêchede 12milles.
Le fait même de négocier un arrangement qui permette au Royaume-
Uni et à la République fédérale d'Allemagnede pêcherdans certaines
parties de la zone de 50 milles relevant de la juridiction de l'Islande
en matière de pêcheriesconstitue une reconnaissance explicite du droit
de l'Islande d'élargirles limites de sa zone de pêche et unereconnaissance

implicite que ce1é1ar~:issemenn t'est pas contraire ail droit international;
en effet, le droit d'agir ainsi existe ou n'existe pas, mais ne saurait faire
l'objet de négociations bilatérales. Si cet élargissement constitue une
violation de la liberté dela haute mer, le consentement du Royaume-Uni
ne peut rendre légalun acte illégal;son consentement ne peut non plus
déterminer quelle éteriduede la haute mer l'Islande peut revendiquer -
12 milles marins en 1061et 50 milles marins à présent, pour autant que
le Royaume-Uni donne son consentement et qu'un accord bilat&ralsoit
conclu àcet effet.
L'assertion selon laquelle l'échangede notes de 1961 est intervenu
dans des circonstance:; extrêmementdifficiles,alors que la marine royale
britannique utilisait la force pour s'opposer à la limite de pêchede 12

milles n'est pascontestée(paragraphe 4 de la requêtedu Royaume-Uni).
La Cour ne doit pas négligerce fait et n'a pas besoin de demander desshape and manner of force which was used (Art. 52, Vienna Convention
on the Law of Treaties).

A big power can use force and pressure against a small nation in
many ways, even by the very fact of diplomatically insisting in having
its view recognized and accepted. The Royal Navy did not need to use

armed force, its mere presence on the seas inside the fishery limits of the
coastal State could be enough pressure. It is well known by professors,
jurists and diplomats acquainted with international relations and foreign
policies, that certain "Notes" delivered by the goverilment of a strong
power to the government of a small nation, may have the same purpose
and the same effectas the use or threat of force.

There are moral and political pressures which cannot be proved by the
so-called documentary evidence, but which are in fact indisputably real
and which have, in history, given rise to treaties and conventions claimed
to be freelyconcluded and subjected to the principle ofpactaunt sertlanda.

(Signed) Luis PADILLN AERVO.preuves écritesétablissant la nature de la force qui a étéutiliséeni sous
quelle forme et de quelle manière ellel'a été (article52 de la convention
de Vienne sur le droit des traités).
Une grande puissance dispose de bien des moyens pour utiliser la
force et exercer une pression sur une petite nation, ne serait-ce qu'en

insistant par voie diplomatique pour faire admettre et accepter ses vues.
La marine royale n'avait pas besoin d'utiliser la force armée; sa seule
présence en mer à l'intérieur des limites de pêchede 1'Etat riverain
pouvait constituer unir pression suffisante. Les professeurs, juristes et
diplomates qui sont au fait des relations internationales et de la politique
étrangèresavent bien que certaines ((notes))remises par le gouvernement
d'une grande puissance au gouvernement d'une petite nation peuvent
avoir le mêmeobjet et le mêmeeffet que l'utilisation ou la menace de
la force.
Il y a des pressions morales et politiques qui ne peuvent êtreétablies
au moyen de preuves dites documentaires mais dont l'existence est en
fait incontestable etqui ont, au cours de l'histoire, aboutià des traités
et conventions dont oinprétend qu'ils ont été conclus librementet sont
soumis au principe pacta sunt servanda.

(Signé) Luis PADILLN AERVO.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of Judge Padilla Nervo

Links