Dissenting Opinion of Judge Tanaka

Document Number
046-19660718-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
046-19660718-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE TANAKA

On 4 November 1960, the Governments of Liberia and Ethiopia
(hereinafter referred to as the "Applicants") submitted an Application
to this Court to institute proceedings against the Union of South Africa,
now the Republic of South Africa (hereinafter referred to as the "Res-
pondent"). The Respondent filed four preliminary objections relating
to the jurisdiction of the Court.These objections having been dismissed
by a Judgrnent dated 21 December 1962 and the written and oral
pleadings on the merits being completed, the Court has now to decide
on the submissions of the Applicants presented to the Court in the
Memorials and amended by the Applicants during the course of the oral
proceedings (on 19 May 1965).
One of these preliminary objections rejected by the 1962 Judgment
was the third preliminary objection which related to the nature of the
dispute brought before the Court by the Applicants, namely to the
question of the existence of their legal right or interest. This matter
again, at this stage of the proceedings, has been taken up by the Court
and examined, but from the viewpoint of the merits.
Here, attention must be drawn to the Court's characterization of
the question of the Applicants' legal interest, namely its statement
that "there was one matter that appertained to the merits of the case
but which had an antecedent character, namely the question of the
Applicants' standing in the present phase of the proceedings ... the
question ... of their legal right or interest regarding the subject-matter

of their claim, as set out in their final submissions".
The result is that the Applicants' claims are declared to be rejected
on the ground of the lack of any legal right or interest appertaining to
them in the subject-matter of the present claims and that the 1962
Judgment is substantively overruled concerning its decision on the third
preliminary objection.
Although we do not deny the power of the Court to re-examine
jurisdictional and oiher preliminary matters at any stage of proceedings
proprio motu, we consider that there arenot sufficientreasons to overrule
on this point the 1962Judgment and that the Court should proceed to
decide the questions of the "ultimate" merits which have arisen from
the Applicants' final submissions.
We are again confronted with the question whether the Applicants
possess a legal right ornterest in theproper discharge by the Respondent,
as the Mandatory, of the obligations incumbent upon it by virtue of
the "conduct clauses" in the mandate agreement. A negative conclusion is derived either from the nature of the interest,
or from the capacity of the Applicants.
It is argued that the dispute brought before the Court by the Applicants
does not affect any material interest of the Applicant States or their
nationals and is not envisagedin Article7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate.

The Mandate, as is stated in more detail below, presents itself, eco-
nomically and sociologically,as an aggregate of several kinds of interest.

The personal structure of the mandates system is very complicated
and sui generis b;sides the mandatory, the League and the inhabitants
of the territories, there are persons who are connected with the mandate
in some way, particularly those who collaborate in the establishment or
in the proper functioning of this system, such as the Principal Allied

and Associated Powers and the Members of the League.

The interests corresponding to the categories of persons mentioned
are multiple. Here, only the interest of Members of the League is in
question, since the question of the existence of a legal interest of the
Applicants as former Members of the League has now to be determined.
The interests which may be possessed by the member States of the
League in connection with the mandates system, are usually classifiedin
two categories. The first one is the so-called national interest which
includes both the interest of the member States as States andthe interest
of their nationals (Article 5 of the Mandate). The second one is the
common or general interest, which the member States possess in the
proper performance by the mandatory of the mandate obligations.
Whether the adjudication clause, namely Article 7, paragraph 2, of
the Mandate can cover both kinds of interests, or only the first one,
namely national interest, is the question that has to be answered in
the present cases.

Here, we must recognize the fact that the above-mentioned two
kinds of interests are different from each other. The first category of
interest although related to the Mandate, is of an individual nature
and each member State of the League may possess such an interest
regarding the mandated territory, incidentally, that is to say, for some
reason other than the Mandate itself. The second category of interest
emanates from the sphere of social or corporate law concerning the
function of the League in regard to the Mandate. The member States
of the League are in the position of constituting a persona1 element of
the League and its organs and, consequently, are interested in the
realization of the objectives of the mandates system and in the proper
administration of mandated territories. The interest which the member
States possess concerning the Mandate is, in its content, the same for
al1Members of the League, and is therefore general and uniform in the
case of each member State, thereby differing from the first category
of interest, which emanates from the individual sphere. However, the
fact that it is of this naturedoes not prevent it from possessing the

249nature of interest. There is no reason why an immaterial, intangible
interest, particularly one inspired by the lofty hiimanitarian idea of a
"sacred trust of civilization" cannot be called "interest".

In short, the interest possessed by the member States of the League
as its Members is corporate and, rit the same time, idealistic. However,
this does not prevent it from being "interest".

The interest which the member States of the League possess regarding
the proper administration of the mandated territory by the Mandatory
is possessed by Members of the League individually, but it is vested
with a corporate character. Each Member of the League has this kind
of interest as a Member of the League, that is to say, in the capacity
of an organ of the League which is destined to carry out a function of
the League.
The question is, whether this kind of interest can be called "legal
interest", and whether law recognizes it as such.
The historical development of law demonstrates the continua1 process
of the cultural enrichment of the legal order by taking into consideration
values or interests which had previously been excluded from the sphere
of law. In particular, the extension of the object of rights to cultural,

and therefore intangible, matters and the legalization of social justice
and of humanitarian ideas which cannot be separated from the gradua1
realization of world peace, are worthy of our attention.

The fact that international law has long recognized that States may
have legal interests in matters which do not affect their financial, eco-
nomic, or other "material" or so-called "physical" or "tangible" interests
was exhaustively pointed out by Judge Jessup in his separate opinion
in the South West Africa cases, 1962 Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 1962,
pp. 425-428). As outstanding examples of the recognition of the legal
interests of Statesingeneral humanitarian causes,theinternational efforts
to suppress the slave trade, the minorities treaties, the Genocide Con-
vention and the Constitution of the International Labour Organisation
are cited.

We consider that in these treaties and organizations common and

humanitarian interests are incorporated. By being given organizational
form, these interests take the nature of "legal interest" and require
to be protected by specificprocedural means.
The mandates system which was created under the League, presents
itself as nothing other than an historical manifestation of the trend
of thought which contributed to establish the above-mentioned treaties
and organizations. The mandates system as a whole, by incorporating
humanitarian and other interests, can be said to be a "legal interest".

However, what is in question is not whether the Mandate is a legal
interest or not. What we are considering is not legal interest in itself,

250but its relationship with persons who possess it, that is to say, the
question of the existence of a legal interest as a condition on which the
Applicants, as Members of the League, possess the right to have recourse
to the International Court.

Each member of a human society-whether domestic or international
-is interested in the realization of socialjustice and humanitarian ideas.
The State which belongs as a member to an international organization
incorporating such ideas must necessarily be interested. So far as the
interest in this case affects the rights and obligations of a State, it may
be called a legal interest. The State may become the subject or holder
of a legal interest regarding social justice and humanitarian matters,
but this interest includes its profound concern with the attitude of
other States, particularly member States belonging to the same treaty or
organization. In short, each State may possess a legal interest in the

observance of the obligations by other States.

In the mechanism of the above-mentioned treaties and organizations,
the procedural means to guaranteethe obsewance are provided, although
not in a uniform way, taking into consideration the difference in the
objective and structure of each treaty and organization.

The question is whether under Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate,
the Applicants possess a right to have recourse to the Court by reason
of a violation by the Respondent of certain conduct clauses provided by
the Mandate, namely whether the Applicants have a legal interest in
invoking the Court's jurisdiction concerning the obligations imposed
on the Respondent by the conduct clauses.
One of the arguments in denial of the Applicants' legal interest in
the Respondent's observanceof the conduct clausesisthat the Applicants
do not suffer any injuries from non-observance of the conduct clauses.

The Applicants, however, may not suffer any injuries in the sense that
their own State interests or the interests of their nationals are injured.
The injuries need not be physical and material, but may be psychological
and immaterial, and this latter kind of injuries may exist for the Appli-
cants in the case of non-observance by the Respondent of the conduct
clauses.
The supreme objectivesof the mandates system,namely the promotion
of the well-being and social progress of the inhabitants of the Territory
mentioned in Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate, in spite of their
highly abstract nature, cannot be denied the nature of a legal interest
in which al1Members of the League participate.

As we have seen above, there exist two categories of legalrelationships
in the mandates system from the viewpoint of the Members of the
League: the one is its individual side and the other is its corporate side. Now, the existence of the corporate side in regard to the Mandate
is in question.
One ground for denying to a Member of the League the right to
have recourse to the International Court of Justice under Article 7,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate, seems to be that this right, being of a
public nature, cannot be exercised by a Member of the League. Only
the League could possess such right and exercise it notwithstanding
the fact that States only may become parties in cases before the Court.
If a Member of the League exercises a right which should belong to the
League as a whole, this would be nothing but an act ultra vires.

Here we must consider whether it is not legally impossible that in
the case of an organization an individual member of it can act as an
organ of the whole.
In the field of corporation law, such phenomena are highly developed.
In some countries we find the institution of a representative suit by
a shareholder against the administration. Each shareholder not only
possessesindividual rights in respect of dividends and rights to participate
in the assembly and to vote, but can behave independently of the ad-
ministration and of the assembly in bringing a law suit on behalf of
the corporation. In this case, in the position of a shareholder, the

corporate and individual elements are intermingled. As a result, even
if a Member of the League has a right to have recourse to the Inter-
national Court by virtue of Article 7, paragraph 2, on the ground of
non-compliance by the Mandatory with the obligations of Article 2,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate, it cannot be considered as unjuristic.
In the present cases, the Applicants appear formally in an individual
capacity as Members of the League, but they are acting substantially
in a representative capacity. That notonly the Council, but the Member
States of the League are equally interested in the proper administration
of the mandated territory, isquite natural and significant. In this respect,
the individual Member States of the League penetrate the corporate veil
of the League and function independently of the League.

There are two main reasonings upon which the Court's denial of
the Applicants' legal right now appears to be based. The one is the
juridical character and structureof the institution, the League of Nations,
within the framework of which the mandates system is both created
and enshrined. The League functions "through the instrumentality of
an Assembly and a Council" and "no role was reserved either by the
Covenant or the mandate instruments to individual members ...".

We cannot deny that the League and the mandates system possess

such structure that the member States as individuals are fundamentally
excluded from participation in the functioning of the League and the
mandates system and that rights cannot be derived from the mere fact
of membership of the organization in itself. The question remains as
252 to whether the corporate structure of the League excludesthe possibility
that the mandate instrument may confer upon the individual member
States the right to have recourse to the International Court on matters
concerning the "conduct" clause. The answer depends upon the inter-
pretation of Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate.
The other reasoning is, that, in the Court's opinion, the Applicants
do not possessa legal rjght directly or by a clearlynecessaryimplication,
through a substantive andnot merelyadjectivalprovision of theMandate
in the same way as they possess it by virtue of Article 5 of the Mandate
which is concerned with the so-called "national rights" of the Member
States. But in this case, whether a substantive right is conferred on

member States by that provision or not, is highly doubtful.

It seems that by the effect of this provision the member States and
their nationals are simply accorded an interest as beneficiaries in con-
nection with the proper administration of the Mandate. This fact is
clear from the first half of thesaid Article which is concerned with the
guarantee of freedom of conscience and the free exercise of al1 forms
of worship-matters which concern the inhabitants in general, and not
only the member States.
Although Article 5 of the Mandate is partly concerned with the
national interest of the member States of the League, the nature of this
provision is not fundamentally different from that of the rest of the
provisions of the Mandate. It possessesthe same nature asthe "conduct"
clause. It does not confer upon the member States any substantive right.
They receive only a certain benefit as a "reflective" effect ofthe mandate
instrument, but not any right as an effect of an independent juridical
act which does not exist.

Incidentally, Article5 of the Mandate mentions "al1 missionaries,
nationals of any State Member of the League of Nations". But this
phrase does not mean that any member State possessesa right concerning
its missionaries and nationals, because it is used simply to identify the
missionaries and nationals. Whether the member States of the League
possess the right of diplomatic protection is another matter.

Accordingly, the distinction between the "conduct" clause and the
"national" clause is not an essential one. The latter must be considered
as an integral part of the Mandatory's obligations which are derived
from the objectives of the mandates system, namely the promotion of
material and moral well-being and social progress. Whether some of
the obligations are related to theinterest of some of the member States
of the League or not, is quite immaterial to the nature of Article 5 of
the Mandate.

Therefore the classification of the mandate provisions into two

categories, namely the conduct clause and the national clause is of
secondary importance.
As to the argument that the substantive right of the Applicants must
253be found, not in the jurisdictional, adjectival provision but in the sub-
stantive provision, we feel we should point out that in the Mandate the
substantive and procedural elements are inseparably intermingled and
that Article 7, paragraph 2, can confer substantive rights on the indi-
vidual member States of the League. This conclusion must be justified,
if we approve the above-mentioned viewpoint that ArticIe 5 of the
Mandate does not confer upon the member States of the League any
substantive right. The source of their right cannot be sought elsewhere
than in Article 7, paragraph 2, in connection with other provisions of
the Mandate.

In this connection, we cannot overlook the dissenting opinions of
Judges de Bustamante and Oda appended to the Judgment of the
Mavrommatis Concessions case. Both emphasize what they consider as
essential in the compromissory clause. Judge de Bustamante says:

"As the latter [the League of Nations] could not appear as a
party to a dispute concerning the application or interpretation of

the Mandate, having regard to the restrictive terms of Article 34
of the Court's Statute, it is the Members of the League who have
been authorized, in their capacity as Members, to bring before the
Court questions regarding the interpretation or application of the
Mandate." (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 81.)
"Whenever Great Britain as Mandatory performs in Palestine
under the Mandate acts of a general nature affecting the public
interest, the Members of the League-from which she holds the

Mandate-are entitled, provided that al1 other conditions are
fulfilled, to have recourse to the Permanent Court. On the other
hand, when Great Britain takes action affecting private interests
and in respect of individuals andprivate companies in her capacity
as the Administration of Palestine, there is no question of juridical
relations between the Mandatory and the Members of the League
from which she holds the Mandate, but of legal relations between
third parties who have nothing to do with the Mandate itself from
the standpoint of public law." (Ibid., pp. 81-82.)

Next, Judge Oda, pursuing the same idea more clearly, says:
"Since the Mandate establishes a special legal relationship, it is
natural that the League of Nations, which issued the Mandate,
should have rights of supervision as regards the Mandatory. Under
the Mandate, in addition to the direct supervision of the Council
of the League of Nations (Articles 24 and 25) provision is made
for indirect supervision by the Court; but the latter may only be

exercised at the request of a Member of the League of Nations
(Article 26). It is therefore to be supposed that an application by
such a Member must be made exclusively with a view to the pro-
tection of general interests and that its not admissible for a state simply to substitute itself for a private person in order to assert
his private claims." (Ibid., p. 86).
Although these views of the two dissenting Judges have remained
minority opinions on this matter and were recently criticized by Judge
Winiarski (dissenting opinion in South West Africacases, I.C.J. Reports

1962, pp. 450, 451), we cannot fail to attach importance to the fact
that, shortly after the inception of the mandates system, such opinions.
even if they were minority, existed.

Another strong argument raised by Judges Sir Percy Spender and
Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice in the joint dissenting opinion to the 1962
Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 1962, pp. 552, 553), against the admissibility
of the Applicants' claim is related to the character of interest which,
it is contended, does not allow a settlement to be achieved. The argu-
ments are related to the question of competencewith regard to settlement.
The dispute within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 2, must be
one which cannot be settled by negotiation.
Well, in the present cases, the dispute in which the interest is incorpo-
rated is of a humanitarian character which does not appear to be com-
patible with the possibility of settlement by negotiation. It will furnish
a strong reason to support the argument denying the admissibility of
the claim in the present cases, because the law suit is in some sense an
act ofdisposal ofinterest and, in this case,the dispute ismainly concerned

with fundamental human rights which are called inalienable.
The joint dissenting opinion (ibid., p. 551), denies the possibility of
settlement of the dispute by negotiation inter se-namely between the
Applicant and Respondent States. The reason seemsto be based, on the
one hand on the nature of the dispute which does not relate to their
own State interests or those of their nationals, but belongs to the
"conduct of the Mandate" type-the "sacred trust"; on the other hand,
on the incapability of any settlement negotiated between single States,
such as the Applicant States and the Mandatory.

The inherent incapability of settlement of subject-matter such as
the sacred trust, to be settled by negotiation, however,does not exclude
the possibility of compromise concerning detailed policies and measures
in order to implement the fundamental principles of the Mandate.
Implementation is essentially a matter of degree and is therefore sus-
ceptible of compromise. Accordingly, we cannot consider that the
nature of a dispute which is concerned with the sacred trust is incom-

patible with settlement by negotiation.

The question of competence to settle by negotiation must be decided
from the point of view that the Applicants as Members of the League
individually and at the same time as its organ possess a legal interest
in the realization of the sacred trust and therefore competence to settle
the dispute by negotiation. It may reasonably be feared that, if each individual Member of the
League possesses a right to institute proceedings against the Mandatory
by reason of non-compliance with the conduct clauses, repetitious
suits against the Mandatory would arise, procedural chaos would
prevail and the legal situation of the Mandatory would be highly pre-
carious.
In circumstances in which the binding power, erga omnes effect,
of a decision of this category is lacking, one is obliged to rely solely

upon the possibility of intervention (Articles 62, 63 of the Statute),
the wisdom of the Court and the common-sense of those concerned
until legislative arrangement and adjustment will be made to attain
uniformity of decision. These possible abnorrnalities, arising from the
defect of the machinery, however, should not be a reason for denying
a right to have recourse to the International Court by reason of non-
compliance by the Mandatory of the conduct clauses of the Mandate.

As we have seen above, the interests involved in the mandates system
are multiple. The Applicants in their capacity as Members of the
League possess a legal interest in compliance by the Respondent with
the obligations imposed by the conduct clauses of the Mandate. The
Applicants, on the other side, can have individual interests which
are classifiedin two categories: on the one hand, State interests and on
the other, the interests of their own nationals. Although these interests
may exist in connection with the administration of the Mandate, they
are only incidental to the mandates system. Far more important are

the general interests which are inherent in the Mandate itself and which
cannot be ignored in the interpretation of the compromissory clause
in the Mandate.

As wehave seenabove, it is argued that the supervision of the Mandate
belongs to the Council of the League and to this body only, not to
individual Members of the League; therefore they possess no right to
invoke the Court's jurisdiction in matters concerning the general ad-
ministration of the Mandate, nor does the Court possess power to
adjiidicate on such matters.

However, the existence of the Council as a supervisory organ of
the Mandate cannot be considered as contradictory to the existence of
the Court as an organ of judicial protection of the Mandate. The
former, being in charge of the policies and administration of the Man-
datory and thelatter, being in charge of the legal aspects of the Mandate,
they cannot be substituted the one for the other and their activities

need not necessarily overlap or contradict one another. They belong
to different planes. The one cannot be regarded as exercising appellate
jurisdiction over the other.
As long as the compromissory clause is adopted in a mandate agree-
ment and the scope and limit of its application are by reason of the
vagueness of the terms of the provision not clear, it is quite natural
256 that we should seek the just criterion of interpretation inthe principle
of the Mandate, that the well-being and development of peoples not
yet able to stand by themselves form a sacred trust of civilization. This
principle presents itself as a criterion of interpretation of the provisions
of the Mandate including Article 7, paragraph 2. Such is the conclusion
of a teleological interpretation of Article 7,paragraph 2, of the Mandate.
Article 7,paragraph 2, does not specifythe dispute; it says, "any dispute
whatever". The dispute may relate to the interpretation or the application
of the "provisions" of the Mandate. There is no reason for concluding
that this dispute should be limited to the kinds of dispute involving
the individual interests of the member States of the League and that
the provisions should mean only those which protect such kinds of

interest.

The above-mentioned conclusion is precisely in conforrnity with a
literal interpretation of Article 7, paragraph 2, namely the "natural
and ordinary meaning" of the terms of its text.
In sum, Article 7, paragraph 2, as the means of judicial protection
of the Mandate cannot be interpreted in such a way that it ignores the
most fundamental and essential obligations of the Mandatory to carry
out the "sacred trust" and excludes the "conduct clauses" from the
"provisions" to which Article 7, paragraph 2, shall be applied. We must
not lose sight of what is essential in the face of what is incidental.

For the above-mentioned reasons, we consider that the Applicants
are entitled to have recourse to the International Court of Justice,
because Our view is that the present dispute, involving a legal interest

of the Applicants, falls within the scope and limit of the application
of Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate. Accordingly, we are unable
to concur in the Court's opinion that the Applicants' claims are, on
the ground of the lack of any legal right or interest, to be rejected.

Before going into the examination on the merits of the present cases,
we are confronted with a preliminary question concerning the res
judicata which shall be recognized or denied to the Court's foregoing
decisions on identical matters.
The first question which we must decide at the stage of the merits,
is the question of the existence or otherwise of the Mandate after the
dissolution of the League. This question is, without doubt, the core
of the present cases in the sense that whole obligations and rights of
the Respondent as Mandatory depend on the solution of this question.

This question has been envisaged by the Court twice. The Advisory
Opinion of 11July 1950denied the annihilative effect of the dissolution
of the League and recognized the continuance of the obligations of the
257 Respondent under the Mandate. Next, in the preliminary objections
stage of the present cases the Respondent's first preliminary objection
was the denial to the Mandate of the character of "a treaty or convention
in force" within the meaning of Article 37 of the Statute, an argument
based on the doctrine of the lapse of the Mandate automatically caused
by the dissolution of the League. This objection, however, was dismissed
by the Judgment of 1962.
The effect of the dissolution of the League upon the survival of the
Mandate is questioned for the third time in the proceedings on the
merits of the present cases.
Before we go into the examination of the issue of the survival or
otherwise of the Mandate, we must solve a question concerning the
effect of the Court's Advisory Opinion in 1950and the decision of the
Court in 1962. If the Court's finding of 1950 or the decision of 1962

establish any resjudicata the examination de novo of this issue would
become as a whole or partially impermissible or at least superfluous.
Firstly, concerning the Advisory Opinion of 1950, it has no binding
force upon those concerned, namely no res judicata results from an
advisory opinion for the purposes of subsequent litigation, even if the
issue is identical. This point constitutes a difference between advisory
and contentious proceedings. The structure of the proceedings is not
the same, and the concept of parties in the same sense as in the latter
does not exist in the former. This legal nature of an advisory opinion
does not prevent that, as an authoritative pronouncement of what the
law is, its content will have an influence upon the Court's decision 011
the same legal issue, irrespective of whether or not this issue constitutes
a part of a subsequent stage of the same affairs.
Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht expressed in a separate opinion his
view that:

"The Opinion of 11 July 1950 has been accepted and approved
by the General Assembly. Whatever may be its binding force as
part of international law-a question upon which the Court need
not express a view-it is the law recognized by the United Nations.
It continues to be so although the Government of South Africa
has declined to accept it as binding upon it and although it has
acted in disregard of the international obligations as declared by
the Court in that Opinion." (I.C.J. Reports 1956, pp. 46-47.)

The opinion of Judge Lauterpacht does not appear to attribute res
judicata to the 1950Opinion, but to recognize its authoritative meaning
as to the interpretation of an issue of the same kind.
There is no doubt that-
". ..the International Court does not adhere to the doctrine of
stare decisis; nevertheless it will not readily depart from a prior

ruling, especially if the subsequent proceeding involves issues of
fact and law identical in every respect to those in the prior proceed-
ing". (Memorials, p. 97.)
258 The advisory opinion has de facto authority upon which the Court
may rely in decidingsubsequent caseswhich are identical with it or which
involve the same kind of issue.
Judge Winiarski stated :
"Opinions are not formally binding on States nor on the organ
which requests them, they do not have the authority of resjudicata;
but the Court must, in view of its high mission, attribute to them

great legal value and a moral authority." (Interpretation of Peace
Treaties witlt Bulgaria, Hungary andRomania, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1950,p. 91.)
Next, the decision of 1962needs to be considered.
It may be thought that the Court's finding in the 1962 Judgment
in favour of the survival of the Mandate would have the force of res
judicata (Article 59 of the Statute), but that the effect of res judicata
of this Judgmentshould be limited to the operative part of the Judgment

and not extend to the reasons underlying it.
The effect of res judicata concerning a judgment on jurisdictional
matters must be confined to the point of the existence or otherwise
of the Court's jurisdiction. In case of an affirmative decision, the only
effect is that the Court shall proceed to examine the question of the
merits. To the preliminary stage must not be attached more meaning
than this.
At the preliminary objection stage of the present cases the question
of the survival of the Mandate was examined. But this examination
was made from the viewpoint of Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate
and Article 37of the Statute, Le.,mainly fromthe angle of thejurisdiction
of the Court and more thorough and exhaustive investigations and
arguments might be expected at the merits stage. Therefore, the Court's
reasoning underlying its finding in the 1962Judgment does not prohibit
or make superfluous de novo arguments on the question of the survival
or otherwise of the Mandate after the dissolution of the League. We
could consider that the first preliminary objection which was linked
with the question of the survival or otherwise of the Mandate could
have been more appropriately joined to the merits.

This conclusion is justified by the distinction between preliminary
objection proceedings and proceedings on the merits from the viewpoint
of their objectives. What was decided in a finding in the preliminary
objection proceedings as a basis of jurisdiction, must not be prejudicial
to the decision on the merits, therefore may not have binding force
vis-à-vis the parties; accordingly, in the present cases, it is permissible
that the Respondent should deny and continue to deny the survival of
the Mandate after the dissolution of the League, despite the fact that
this issue was dealt with by the Court at the stage on jurisdiction, and
despite the fact that the arguments might become repetitive.
Incidentally it should be indicated that the Applicants conceded that
the 1950 Advisory Opinion was not binding upon the Respondent in
the strictsense of res judicata, and that the Court's 1962 Judgmentrelated to theissue of competence and did not constitute an adjudication
upon the merits of the dispute (Reply, p. 303).
Before going into an examination of the individual items of the
Applicants' submissions,wemust solveanother question of a prelirninary
nature which is concerned with the matter of the scope and limit, freedom
of expression for a dissenting judge. In the present cases, a question
arises as to whether a dissentingjudge is permitted to deal in his opinion
with matters which are not included in the majority opinion, particularly
questions regarding the alleged violations by the Respondent of the
obligations under Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate and Article 22
of the Covenant, the policy of apartheid, Respondent's accountability
to the United Nations, etc.
This question is concerned with the interpretation of Article 57 of
the Statute. As regards this question, we must first consider it from a
general point of view.
In countries where the institution of separate (concurring and dis-
senting) opinions is adopted, an individual judge is not absorbed in an
anonymous majority even in the system where an incognito majority

opinion is elaborated, but he can maintain his own individual viewpoint
by appending a concurring opinion. The opinion of the majority is
nothing but the common denominator among the opinions ofjudges who
constitute the majority, but do not necessarily agree on the reasoning.

From what is indicated above, we may Saythat the majority opinion
presupposes the existence of diverse individual opinions which are
common at least in the operative part of the decision, and that the free
individual opinions of judges are logically foregoing to the majority
opinion, notwithstanding the fact that the former may be gradually
formulated during the process of the deliberations. Accordingly, we
consider that the majority opinion cannot be conceived to establish any
limits to the separate opinions of individual judges. The latter are
perfectly independent of the former. This point must particularly be
emphasized in the case of a dissenting opinion, because standing on a
quite difièrent footing from the majority opinion, its freedom must be
greater.

Next, we shall consider this matter in the light of the present pro-
ceedings. The proceedings have gone through the preliminary objection
stage and are at the stage of the merits. Now the Court has decided on
the merits, but on a preliminary question of the legal interest leaving
the rest of the questions on the merits undecided. The reason that the
Court rejected the Applicants' claims, is the lack of their legal right or
interest.
Disagreement between the d&senting view and the majority view
is not limited to the matter of legal right or interest but it is concerned
with the whole attitude vis-à-vis al1questions on the merits. The dissen-
ting judges are able to argue on the hypothesis that their contention
regarding the existence of the Applicants' legalright or interest is well-
founded.

260 This position is not the same as the position of a dissenting judge
in a decision rejecting an application by reason of the lack of the Court's
jurisdiction, In that casethe dissentingjudge cannot deal with the matters
on the merits on the hypothesis that his view is right, because the pro-
ceedings are limited to the preliminary objection and the proceedings on
the meritshave been suspended. The stage of the question of legal right
or interest. however, does not constitute independent proceedings like
preliminary objection proceedings, but is an integral part of the pro-
ceedings on the merits. Therefore, this question has not been dealt with
distinctly from other questions on the merits in the pleadings and oral
arguments.
In short, for the foregoing reasons the majority opinion cannot place
a limitation upon the separate and dissentingopinions; therefore judges

are entitled to deal with al1matters on the merits entirely irrespective of
the content of the majority opinion.

The controversy between the Applicants and the Respondent on the
sumival of the Mandate was the starting point of the preliminary ob-

jection proceedings of the present cases; the same applies to the pro-
ceedings on the merits. Al1 claims and complaints of the Applicants,
being concerned with the interpretation and application of the Mandate,
are based on the continua1 existence of the Mandate; consequently, if
its existence could not be proved, they would necessarily fa11away.

The Applicants' Final Submissions Nos. 1 and 2 deal with the matter
of the survival of the Mandate. Submission No. 1reads as follows:

"South West Africa is a territory under the Mandate conferred
upon His Britannic Majesty by the Principal Allied and Associated
Powers, to be exercised on his behalf by the Government of the
Union of South Africa, accepted by His Britannic Majesty for and
on behalf of the Government of the Union of South Africa, and
confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations on December 17,
1920."

By Submission No. 1, the Applicants define the international status
of the Territory of South West Africa and contend that this status is
not merely an historical fact, but continues to the present time.

By Submission No. 2 the Applicants further contend the continuation
of the international obligations of the Respondent as Mandatory. It
reads as follows:

"Respondent continues to have the international obligations
stated in Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations and
261 in the Mandate for South West Africa as well as the obligation
to transmit petitions from the inhabitants of that Territory, the
supervisory functions to be exercised by the United Nations, to
which the annual reports and petitions are to be submitted."

The Respondent's final submissions (C.R. 65/95, pp. 53-54) which
are thesame as set forth in the Counter-Memorial, Book 1,page 6, and
the Rejoinder, Volume II, page 483, particularly contend in regard to
the question of the lapse orotherwise of the Mandate on the dissolution
of the League as follows :

"1. That the whole Mandate for South West Africa lapsed on
the dissolution of the League of Nations, and that Respondent is,
in consequence thereof, no longer subject to any legal obligations
thereunder.
2. In the alternative to (1) above, and in the event of it being
held that the Mandate as such continued in existence despite the
dissolution of the League of Nations;

(a) Relative to Applicants' Submissions Nos. 2, 7 and 8,

that Respondent's former obligations under the Mandate to
report and account to, and to submit to the supervision of,
the Council of the League of Nations, lapsed upon the disso-
lution of the League ...

(b) Relative to Applicants' Submissions Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6 and 9,

that Respondent has not, in any of the respects alleged, violated
its obligations..."

To resolve the question of the lapse or otherwise of the Mandate
on the dissolution of the League, some preliminary observations are
required concerning the legal and social nature and characteristics of
the mandates system.
The mandates system, established by the Covenant of the League

of Nations, can be considered as an original method of administering
certain underdeveloped overseas possessions which formerly belonged
to States in the First World War. "The essential principles of the man-
dates system" says the 1962Judgrnent in the South West Africa cases-
"consist chiefly in the recognition of certain rights of the peoples
of the underdeveloped territories; the establishment of a regime
of tutelage for each ofsuch peoples to be exercised by an advanced
nation as a 'Mandatory' 'on behalf of the League of Nations';
and the recognition of 'a sacred trust of civilization' laid upon the
League as an organized international community and upon its

262 Member States. This system is dedicated to the avowed object of
promoting the well-beingand development of the peoples concerned
and is fortified by setting up safeguards for the protection of their
rights." (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 329.)

The idea that it belongs to the noble obligation ofconquering powers
to treat indigenous peoples of conquered territories and to promote
their well-being has existed for many hundred years, at least since the
era of Vitoria. But wehad to wait for the Treaty of Peace with Germany,
signed at Versailles in 1919,and the creation of the League of Nations
for this idea to take the concrete form of an international institution,

narnely the mandates system, and to be realized by a large and compli-
cated machinery of implementation. After the dissolution of the League
the same idea and principles have been continued in the "International
Trusteeship System" in the Charter of the United Nations.

The above-mentioned essential principles of the mandates system
are important to decide the nature and characteristics of the Mandate
as a legal institution.
Here, we are not going to construct a more-or-less perfect definition
or concept of the Mandate. We must be satisfiedto limit ourselves to the
points of which clarification would be necessary or useful to decide the
issue now in question.
The mandates system is from the viewpoint of its objectives, as well
of its structure, highly complicated. Sinceits objectivesare the promotion
of the well-being and social progress of the inhabitants of certain terri-
tories as a sacred trust of civilization, its content and function are inti-
mately related to almost al1branches of the social and cultural aspects
of human life. Politics, law, morality, religion, education, strategy,

economy and history are intermingled with one another in inseparable
complexity. From the point of view of the Court the question is how to
draw the line of demarcation between what is law and what is extra-legal
matter, particularly politics which must be kept outside of justiciability
(weintend to deal with this question below).

The mandates systemisfrom the structural viewpoint very complicated
The parties to the Mandate, as a treaty or convention, are on the one
side the League of Nations and on the other the Mandatory-in the
present cases the Respondent. The latter accepted the Mandate in
respect of the Territory of South West Africa "on behalf of the League
of Nations". Besides these parties, there are persons who are connected
with the Mandate in some way, particularly who collaborate in the
establishment or the proper functioning of this system, such as the
Principal Allied and Associated Powers, to which these territories had
been ceded by the Peace Treaty, Members of the League, and those who
are interested as beneficiaries, namely the inhabitants of the mandated
territories. Whether or not, and to what degree the United Nations and

263its Members can be considered as concerned, belongs to the matters
which fall to be decided by the Court.

The Mandate, constituting an aggregate of the said diverse personal
elements, as we have seen above, presents itself as a complex of many
kinds of interests. The League and Mandatory,as parties to theMandate,
have a common interest in the proper performance of the provisions of
the Mandate. The inhabitants of the mandated territories possess, as
beneficiaries, a most vitalinterest in the performance of the Mandate.
The Mandatory does not exercise the rights of tutelage of peoples
entrusted to it on behalf of itself, but on behalf of the League. The
realization of the "sacred trust of civilization" is annterest of a public
nature. The League is to serve as the existing political organ of the
international community by guarding this kind of public interest.

The Mandate, being of the said personal and reai structure, possesses
in many points characteristics which distinguish it from other kinds
of treaties.
Firstly, the Mandate is intended to establish between parties a certain
legalrelationship of which the aims and purposes are difFerentfrom those
we find in the case of commercial treaties in which two different kinds
of operations stand reciprocally against each other and which are
extinguished with simultaneous performance by the parties. They are
a realization of identical aims, which is a "sacred trust of civilization".
In this sense, the Mandate has characteristics similar to law-making
treaties, defined by Oppenheim as those "concluded for the purpose of
establishing new rules for the law of nations". (Quincy Wright, Mandates
under the League of Nations, 1930, p. 357.)
What is intended by the parties of the mandate agreement as a "sacred
trust of civilization" is the promotion of the material and moral well-
being and social progress of the inhabitants of the territory who are
"not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of

the modern world".
The Mandate is a legal method or machinery for achieving the above-
mentioned humanitarian purposes. Therefore, between the two parties
to the mandate agreement there does not exist a fundamental conflict
of interests or"exchange of balancing services" such as we recognize in
synallagmatic contracts (cf. Judge Bustamante's separate opinion on
South West Africa cases, I.C.J. Reports 1962, pp. 357 and 359) or con-
tracts of the type do-ut-des.The mandate agreement can be characterized
rather as a union of two unilateral declarations, the one by the League,
the other by the Mandatory, a phenomenon which we find in cases of
creation of partnerships or corporations. Incidentally, this conclusion,
in Ourview, does not prevent the construction of the mandate agreement
as a kind of treaty or convention.

This characteristic isclearly manifest in the fact that the League can
be considered as a collaborator of the Mandatory by its power of super-

264 vision and an adviser in the performance of the obligations of the

latter.
If we seek some type of legal concept analogous to the mandate
agreement in the field ofprivate law, we can mention the terms "man-
datum", "tutelage" and "trust". Theseinstitutions possesssomecommon
elements with the mandates system, although the principles governing
the latter cannot be exhaustively explained by those govemingthe for-
mer. The point which we indicated above, namely the identity of aims
between the parties, existsin the case of guardianship,tutelageand trust.
Secondly, the long-term nature of the mandate agreement is what
characterizes it from the other contracts. This characterrivesfrom the
nature of the purposes of the mandates system, namely the promotion
of material and moral well-being and social progress of the mandated
territories, which cannot be realized instantaneously or within a fore-
seeable space of time.
Thirdly, the mandate agreement requires from the Mandatory a
strong sense of moral conscience in fulfilling its responsibility as is
required in the case of guardianship,tutelage and trust. "The Mandatory
shall promote to the ut~ost the material and moral well-beingand the
social progress of the inhabitants of the territory.." The obligations
incumbent upon the Mandatory are of an ethical nature, therefore
unlimited. The mandate agreement is of the nature of a bona fide con-
tract. For its performance the utmost wisdom and delicacyare required.
From what is indicated above, it followsthat, although the Mandatory
is conferred "full power of administration and legislation over the
territory", the weight of the mandates system shall be put on the obliga-
tions of the Mandatory rather than on its rights.

The 1962 Judgment, clarifying this characteristic of the mandates
system,declares as follows:
"The rights of the Mandatory in relation to the mandated terri-
tory and the inhabitants have their foundation in the obligations
of the Mandatory and they are, so to speak, mere tools given to
enable it to fulfil its obligations." (I.C.J. Reports 1962,p. 329.)

Judge Bustamante emphasized very appropriately (ibid p. 357) the
more important aspect of responsibility rather than of rights regarding
the function of the Mandatory. The Mandatory must exerciseits power
only for the purpose of realizing the well-being and progress of the
inhabitants of the territory and not for the purpose of serving its ego-
istic ends. As Professor Quincy Wright puts it, "it has been recognized
that the conception of mandates in the Covenant requires that the
Mandatory receive no direct profit from its administration of the terri-
tory". This is called the "principle of gratuitous administration" (Quincy
Wright, op. cit.p,p. 452-453).
From the nature and characteristics of the mandates system and the
mandate agreement, indicated above, we can conclude that, although
the existence of contractual elements in the Mandate cannot be denied,
the institutional elements predominate over the former. We cannot

265explain al1the contents and functions of the mandates system from the

contractual, namely the individualistic, and subjective viewpoint, but
we are required to consider them from the institutional, namely col-
lectivistic, and objective viewpoint also. This latter viewpoint is, ac-
cording to Lord McNair, that of-
". .. certain rights of possession and government (administrative
and legislative) which are valid in rem-erga omnes,that is against
the wholeworld, or at any rate against everyState whichwasa Mem-
ber of the League or in any other way recognized the Mandate".
(I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 156.)

From the purely contractual and individualisticviewpointthe Mandate
would be a persona1 relationship between the two parties, the existence
of which depends upon the continuance of the sameparties. For instance,
a mandate contract in private law lapses by reason of the death of the
mandator. But the international mandate does not remain, as we have
seen above, purely a relationship, but an objective institution, in which
severalkinds ofinterests and valuesare incorporated and whichmaintains
independent existence against third parties. The Mandate, as an insti-
tution, being deprived of persona1character, must be placed outside of
the free disposa1 of the original parties, because its content includes a
humanitarian value, namely the promotion of the material and moral
well-being of the inhabitants of the territories. Therefore, there shall
exist a certain limitation, derived from the characteristics of the Mandate,
upon the possibility of modification for which the consent of theCouncil
of the League of Nations is required (Article 7, paragraph 1, of the
Mandate).

We shall now envisagethe question whether, despite the dissolution of
the League of Nations the Mandate for South West Africa still exists,
and if so, whether the supervisory function of the League has passed to
the United Nations.

Let us consider, firstly, the question whether the Mandate still exists
despite the dissolution of the League.
The solution of this question may depend upon the question of the
essentiality or otherwise of the supervision of the Mandate, but it can
be answered independently of the latter, because if the Mandate as a
whole lapsed for some other reasons; there would be no question of its
supervision. The question of supervision presupposes the prima facie
continued existence of the Mandate. That is why this matter was dealt
with in detail in the 1950 Advisory Opinion and discussed at length
in the preliminary objection stage of the present casesin connection with
the survival of Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate, which is con-
cerned withjudicial supervision. Becausewecan, in the main, agree with
what was decided bytheCourt in 1950and 1962,weneed not go into the

266details ofthe question. Weare satisfiedto state simply the reasons why
we agree with the decisionsof the Court.
The controversy concerning the sumival or lapse of the Mandate on
the dissolution of the League, and accordingly of rights and obligations
created by it, may be, in its final instance, attributed to the fundamental
difference of methods existing in regard to the interpretation of law,.
namely the antagonism between voluntarism and objectivism. Contro-
versies present themselves as to whether law cannot attribute certain
effectsto a treaty or a convention-which the parties did not or could
not foresee at the moment of its inception-or whether law, on the
contrary through its interpretation may be expected to play the function
of filling the lacuna of juridical acts by creating certain legal effects
uncovered by the original intent of the parties.

From the point of view of purely juridical formalism, there is the
conclusion that, sofar as the Mandate is conceivedas a contract between
the two parties, namely the League of Nations on the one hand and the
Mandatory on the other, the dissolution of the League would produce,

as a necessary consequence, the absolute extinction of the Mandate
with al1its legal vincula and that nothing remains thereafter. This is the
fundamental standpoint upon which the arguments of the Respondent
are based. This pure logicism is combined with strict voluntarism
according to which al1legal consequences attached to a juridical act are
conceived as the effect of the will or intent of the parties. This is the
reason why the Respondent, since the preliminary objections stage, has,
concerning the interpretation of the Mandate, consistently attached
importance to the question of joint or common intent of the parties,
and why the Respondent has repeatedly invoked the "crucial new facts"
to refute the conclusion of the Advisory Opinion of 1950, which recog-
nized the transfer of international supervision from the League of
Nations to the United Nations.
It seems that the Respondent, analysing the Opinion, and assuming
that its conclusion of the transfer of the obligations is based on the
tacit consent of the parties, believes it has found a clue to re-examine
and reverse the 1950 Advisory Opinion by the presentation of the

"crucial new facts". The essential viewpoint of the Opinion, however,
is based on the idea of "international institution with international
object-a sacred trust of civilization", notuch on consensual elements.

In accordance withthe above analysis,wemust attach moreimportance
to the institutional side of the Mandate, which, according to Lord
McNair, is "valid in rem-erga omnes".The 1950 Opinion says "the
object of the Mandate regulated by international rules far exceeded
that of contractual relations regulated by national law" (I.C.J. Reports
1950,p. 132).The Mandate as an institution is the starting point of the
Opinion and the most influential reason to justify the survival of the
Mandate notwithstanding the dissolution of the League. The vital interests of the inhabitants of the mandated territories,
being of primary importance, require that the Mandate shall not be

affected by the vicissitudes of international circumstances. In a mandate,
the matter of who the mandator is is not so important as who is the
mandatory. The position of mandatory, different from that of mandator,
for the reasons of special obligations which are incumbent upon him,
is highly persona1 and unable to be substituted by any other persons.
From the standpoint of the inhabitants, therefore, whether the mandate
is established on behalf of the League or whether it exists on behalf of
the United Nations is quite immaterial.

As a theoretical construction, the concept of the "organized inter-
national community" may be referred to in order to explain the legal
position of the mandatory. The mandatory owes obligations on behalf
of the League, but in the forma1 sense. Substantively, the inandatory
is responsible to an international entity which underlies the League as
a sociological reality, namely the organized international community,
which was represented by the League, and, after its dissolution,has been
represented by the United Nations. In short, we may conceive that,
after the dissolution of the League, the mandatory continues to have
obligations in relation to an impersonal entity, namely the organized
international community as before, which is personified as the United
Nations.

The only important matter is that a "sacred trust of civilization" is
conscientiously carried out by the mandatories. The mandate, inspired
by the spirit of a "sacred trust of civilization", once created by an
international agreement between the two parties, the League on the
one hand and the mandatory on the other, enjoys its perpetual objective
existence. The continua1 existence of the organized international com-
munity guarantees the objectivity and perpetuity of the mandate as an
international institution.
Lord McNair described this very appropriately in his separate opin-
ion-
"... the Mandate created a status for South-West Africa. This fact

is important in assessing the effect of the dissolution of the League.
This status-valid in rem-supplies the element of permanence
which would enable the legal condition of the Territory to survive
the disappearance of the League, even if there were no surviving
persona1 obligations between the Union and other former Members
of the League. 'Real' rights created by an international agreement
have a greater degree of permanence than persona1 rights . .."
(I.C.J. Reports 1950,pp. 156-157.)

The Mandate, being an institution, incorporates the above-mentioned

268several interests and values. It is a social organism and as such must be
maintained and protected.

In general, once condensed and conglomerated, social energies under
juridical techniques, such as a juridical person',partnership, Company,
etc., cannot easily be dismembered and disorganized by some external
or interna1 event. To avoid the loss of social and economic energies
and values of an enterprise which would be caused by liquidation, the
law establishes an institution of amalgamation or fusion which has an
effect analogous to universal succession in the case of a physicalperson.
This principle is the "Erhaltung des Unternehmens" (maintenance of
enterprise) as put forward by Rudolf Müller-Erzbach, which, according
to him isone of the important principles ofcommerciallaw (Die Erlzaltung

des Unternehmens, 2.f. Handelsr., Vol. 61, 1911, pp. 530 ff.;Deutsches
Handelsrecht,2nd ed., 1927,pp. 71ff.).Theapplication of this idea is not
limited to matters of commercial law, but may be extended to other
social entities.

In short, the Mandate as a social entity must be maintained and
protected. From this ~iewpoint,we consider the Mandate does not lapse;
it continues to function. The existence of the League of Nations itself
is immaterial to the existence of the Mandate, on behalf of whom the
Mandate is carried out, apart from the question of supervision which is
dealt with below.
Moreover, under the hypothesis of the lapse of the Mandate caused
by the dissolution of the League, it cannot be asserted that the Mandate
suddenly ceased to exist at the moment of the dissolution of the League.
For the purpose of carrying out the liquidation of an entity the continued
existence of some of the functions is recognized by the law of both
Anglo-American as well as civil law countries (Observations, p. 447).

Both the defunct entities, the League and the Mandate, maintain their
defacto existence. From the viewpoint of the League, it is to be conceived
that its responsibilities concerning the Mandate still survive until its
future status is definitively established (for instance, the conclusion of
a trusteeship agreement); parallel with this, the continued existence of
the Mandate can be recognized for the same space of time.

In short, the doctrine of "carry-over" referred to by the Applicants
is a logical consequence of the aforesaid argument of the Mandate as
an institution. It may assist the Applicants' cases in a supplementary
way.
The above-mentioned conclusions rnay coincide with what the parties
to the mandate agreement or those concerned with it really intended, or
they may not be necessarily so. The tacit intent of parties which is
referred to by the Applicants, if it is proved, may serveas a corroborating
ground to reach the same conclusion. But the Court will establish its

269 conclusion on the theoretical basis independently of the psychological
intents of the parties or those concerned, which do not necessarily
coincide and from which it is not easy to derive any definite conclusion,
be it positive or negative. In this sense, the Court's reference (I.C.J.
Reports 1950,p. 134; ibid., 1962,p. 340)to the resolution of the League
of Nations of 18April 1946, which said, inter alia:

"4. Takes note of the expressed intention of the Members of
the League now adrninistering territories under Mandate to continue
to administer them for the well-being and development of the
peoples concerned in accordance with the obligations contained in
the respectiveMandates, until other arrangements have been agreed

between the United Nations and the respective mandatory",

is to be considered as possessing only subsidiary significance in the
reasoning of the Court.

What is stated above is concerned with the survival of the Mandate
despite the dissolution of the League. We have arrived at the affirmative

conclusion, like the 1950Advisory Opinion, but apart from the question
of international supervision of the Mandatory. We are required to
re-examine the issue in the light of international supervision, because
even if the survival of the Mandate can be recognized in general, it may
be denied in certain respects.

From the viewpoint of the Respondent, the international supervision
to which the Mandatory was subjected fell away with the disappearance
of the League, because the supervisory organ also disappeared with the
League, without being validly replaced by a corresponding organ of the
United Nations. The Respondent's argument isbased upon the viewpoint
that the international supervision under the League cannot be replaced
by the United Nations, because this supervision does not meaninterna-
tional supervision in abstracto but means supervisionby a specificorgan
of the League only.

The 1950 Opinion recognizes that the obligations of the Mandatory

to submit to international supervision survive with the Mandate and
that the supervisory function is exercised by the organ of the United
Nations. The Opinion rules as follows:

"The necessity for supervision continues to exist despite the
disappearance of the supervisory organ under the Mandates System.
It cannot be admitted that the obligation to submit to supervision
has disappeared merely because the supervisory organ has ceased
to exist, when the United Nations has another international organ

270 performing similar, though not identical, supervisory functions."
(I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 136.)

The fundamental viewpoint of the Advisory Opinion isthe recognition
of the non-severability of the obligations of the Mandatory to submit
to international supervisionfrom its authority to administer the mandated
territory. This viewpointcan be maintained for the following reasons :

1. Continuous international supervision is required from the essence
of the mandates system. As the interests involved in the Mandate are
of a humanitarian and important nature, and as the power conferred
upon the mandatories is very extensive and mandatories possess wide
discretionary power (cf. Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Mandate) as
indicated below, the performance of obligations incumbent upon

mandatories cannot be unrestricted and unsupervised and left only to
the bona fide of mandatories. The mandatories possess no sovereignty
over the territories, but they have conferred on them very broad dis-
cretionary powers in the administration of the mandated territories.
Therefore, without some kind of supervision the attainment of the aim
and purpose of the mandates system must be illusory. The mechanism
of effective supervision is the necessity to prevent this system from
becoming simple lex imperfecta or the abuse of power. This mechanism
constitutes an integral part of the mandates systemas a socialinstitution,
a social organism. Therefore, the contention of severability of the
Respondent is illogical.

2. The rights of tutelage of mandated areas are exercised by man-
datories but they are exercised on behalf of the League. They have
no sovereignpowers;they are responsible to the Leagueforthe execution
of the term of the mandate (Quincy Wright, op. cit., p. 22). In this case
the League must have supervisorypower as a guardian of public interest

ofthe organized international community ofwhichthe Leagueconstitutes
the organ.
3. The mandates system is generally recognized as a product of
compromise, at the period of its inception, between two principles:
annexation and internationalization. The principle of international
supervision by the League can be conceivedas a product of compromise
betweenthe two extremes. So long as the mandate survives,international
supervision as a factor of compromise must be continued by some
possible means to prevent the mandate from being transformed into a
kind of annexation.
4. The Respondent, while denying its obligations to submit to
supervision, insists on preserving its rights or authority to administer
the Territory. It seems that the Respondent recognizes the severability
of its rights from its obligations, an attitude which is not in conforrnity
with the spirit of the mandates system. The 19.50Opinion declares:

271 "The authority which the Union Government exercises over the
Territory is based on the Mandate. If the Mandate lapsed, as the
Union Government contends, the latter's authority would equally

have lapsed. To retain the rights derived from the Mandate and
to deny the obligations thereunder could not be justified." (Ibid.,
p. 133.)

The Respondent cannot properly defend itself against the Applicants'
argument criticizing its attitude as the "doctrine of partial lapse".

The survival of the Mandate as an institution, on the one hand,
requires, on the other hand, an international supervision because
supervision is essential to the proper functioning of the mandates system.
The question is whether the mechanism of international supervision
which existed under the League disappeared with its dissolution, not
being replaced by a sirnilar mechanism. In the case of an affirmative

answer, the Mandate being paralysed, its proper administration would
becomeimpossible and it would be highly undesirablefrom the viewpoint
of the well-being and progress of the inhabitants of the Territory.
Fortunately, the problem of supervisory mechanism for the existing
Mandate is solved by the unforeseeable appearance of an international
organization, namely the United Nations which, in so far as the main
purposes are concerned, i.e., the maintenance of international peace and
security and the realization of humanitarian ideas, possesses a high
degree of similarity and homogeneity with the League of Nations.
Furthermore, we can assert that the United Nations constitutes a more
advanced form of international organization from several viewpoints,
namely scope and extension of the organized international community,
its organization and functions. The same can be said about the two
systems-trusteeship under the United Nations and the mandate under
the League of Nations. So far as a "sacred trust of civilisation" regarding
territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-

government is concerned, the international trusteeship system is
established under the United Nations. This system can be said to bethe
more advanced continuation of the mandates system under the League
of Nations.
Therefore, it is not very annatural and unreasonable to recognize
in the United Nations and the trusteeship system the successor of the
League and the mandates system respectively.
Nevertheless, we cannot recognize universal succession in the juridical
sense in these cases. Universal succession between the two entities,
namely the League and the United Nations did not occur. Neither can
the application ofthe provisions ofthe trusteeship systemonthe Mandate
be recognized without the conclusion of a trusteeship agreement. But
nobody would wonder that the Mandatory's power once exercised on behalf of the League, from the necessity of circumstances, becomes
exercised on behalf of the United Nations, and consequently that
international supervisory power, once belonging to the League, now
belongs to the United Nations. The acceptance of this power and with
it the responsibility by the United Nationsoes not appear to constitute
ultr~ vires because the matter concerning the tutelage of backward
peoples without doubt lieswithin the scope and limit of the objectives of
the United Nations.
Neither is the replacement of the supervision by the League by that
of the United Nations detrimental to the Mandatory. The Respondent
invokes the differencebetween the way of supervision under the League
and that under the United Nations, namely the different composition

between the Permanent Mandates Commission and the Trusteeship
Council-composition bypolitical elements or experts-and the differ-
ence in the voting method as between the Council of the League and the
General Assembly, that is, the unanimity or majority rule.

The last-mentioned points cannot be recognized in themselves as an
onerous burden imposed on the Respondent; the difference of the
method of composition as well as the voting method may affect in both
a favourable and unfavourable way. The absence of precise identity
between the two supervisory mechanisms cannot be considered as a
reason for denying the supervision itself.
As the mechanism of implementation of international supervision,
the majority opinion of 1950refers to the United Nations as its organ
(I.C.J. Reports 1950,pp. 136-137)contrary to the views of Lord McNair
(ibid., pp. 159-160)and Judge Read (ibid.,pp. 166-169).This conclusion

cannot be derived from the express or tacit intent of the parties to the
mandate agreement and those concerned, because at the period of the
inception of the Mandate an event such as the dissolution of the League
surely could not be foreseen by them, and because the intention of the
parties and those concerned, and the surrounding circumstances at the
period of the dissolution of the League are susceptible of diverseinter-
pretations. There was a lacuna in the mandate agreement which should
be filled bythe theoretical or logical interpretation by the Court.

The replacement of the League as a supervisory organ by the United
Nations isnot normal; it isan exceptionalphenomenon ofthe transitional
period which was produced by the non-conclusion of a trusteeship
agreement by the Respondent. What the Charter provided for the
future of existingmandates was the conclusion of trusteeship agreements
which, according to the majority opinion of 1950, the Respondent as
Mandatory was not legally obligea, but expected, to make.

The attitude of the Respondent that, on the one hand, it did not
enter into the trusteeship agreement which it would normally have been
expected under the Charter to conclude and that, on the other hand.
273 it refuses to submit to international supervision because of the difference
of the mechanism of its implementation, is contrary to the spirit of the
Mandate and the Charter and cannot be justified.
In short, the maintenance and continuation of international super-
vision by the United Nations is derived from the nature of the Mandate
as an international institution aimed at the promotion of the material
and moral well-beingand social progress of the inhabitants of territories
and independent of and notwithstanding its contractual origin. The
Mandate survives independently of the League and the necessity for the
supervision remains with the Mandate-this necessity being satisfied by
the United Nations as the above-cited 1950Opinion points .out.

We have reached an affirmative conclusion as to the survival of the
Mandate as an international institution despite the dissolution of the
League. This conclusion was reached by the 1950 Advisory Opinion
and approved by the 1962 Judgment. Apart from the doctrinal basis
of this proposition, the continua1 existence of the Mandate as an in-
stitution, notwithstanding the dissolution of the League, is admitted
even by the Respondent. From the Respondent's standpoint the deniai
of the existence of the Mandate would mean denial of its rights to
administer the mandated territory also.
The recognition of the institutional side of the Mandate beside its
contractual side by the 1950Advisory Opinion and the 1962Judgment
can confer on the mandates system a durability beyond the life of the
League and an objective existenceindependent of the original or ulterior
intent of the parties. This recognition is nothing else but a product of
a scientific method of interpretation of the mandates system, in which
the consideration of spirit and objectives as well as socialeality of this

system play important roles. This method of interpretation may be
called sociological orteleological, in contrast with strict juristic forma-
lism. Relying on the concept of the Mandate as an institution of a
sociologicalnature, wetake a stepforward out oftraditional conceptional
jurisprudence, which would easily assert the lapse of the Mandate on
the dissolution of the League.

What has been said about the question of the survival of the Mandate
can be applied to the continuation of international supervision and the
replacement by the United Nations of the Council of the League. The
solution of the latter question is to be found in the same direction as
theformer.Thecontinuation of international supervision of the Mandate
by the United Nations is a logical conclusion of the survival of the
Mandate as an international institution.
It is argued that the Court's Opinion on the existence of inter-
national supervision, namely the Respondent's accountability to the

United Nations, is based on the doctrine of "necessity", and that the
274 Court cannot exceed the limitation incumbent upon it as a court of law.

Undoubtedly a court of law declares what isthe law, but does not legis-
late. Inreality, however, where the borderline can be drawn is a very del-
icate and difficultmatter. Of course,judges declare the law, but they do not
function automatically. We cannot deny the possibility of some degree
of creative element in their judicial activities. What is not permitted to
judges, is to establish law independently of an existing legal system,
institution or norm. What is permitted to them is to declare what can be
logically inferred from theraisond'êtreof a legal system, legalinstitution
or norm. In the latter case the lacuna intheintent of legislation or parties
can be filled.

So far as the continuance of international supervision is concerned,
the above-mentioned conclusion cannot be criticized as exceeding the
function of the Court to interpret law. The Court's Opinion of 1950
on this question is not creating law simply for the reason of necessity
or desirability without being founded in law and fact. The survival of

the Mandate despite the dissolution of the League, the importance of
international supervision in the mandates system, the appearance of the
United Nations which, as the organized international community, it
characterized by political and social homogeneity with the defunct
League of Nations, particularly in respect of the "sacred trust" for
peoples who have not yet attained a full measure of self-government,
and the establishment of the international trusteeship system, the Res-
pondent's membership in the United Nations, and, finally, the refusal
by the Respondent to conclude a trusteeship agreement as expected by
the Charter: these factors, individually and as a whole, are enough to
establish the continuation of international supervision by the United
Nations.

Consideration of the necessity that the paralysis of mandate without
supervision must be avoided, can by no means be denied. But we are not
going to deduce the above-mentioned conclusion from mere necessity
or desirability but from theraisond'êtreand the theoretical construction
of the mandates system as a whole.

We, therefore, must recognize that social and individual necessity
constitutes one of the guiding factors for the development of law by
the way of interpretation as well as legislation. The principle of
effectiveness often referred to, may be applied to explain the viewpoint
of the "necessity" argument of the 1950 Advisory Opinion recognizing
the continued existence of the Mandate as well as international super-
vision (cf. Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, The Development of International
Law by the Internationai Coztrt, 1958, pp. 277-280).
In this case, we cannot deny that the necessity created the law inde-
pendently of the will of the parties and those concerned. The explanation
by the reasonably assumed intention of the parties (Oppenheim-Lauter-
pacht, International Law, Vol. 1, 8th ed., p. 168) seems a compromise

275with voluntarism. "The reasonably assumed intention" is not identical
with the psychological intention which very probably did not exist. The
former shall be assumed by the Court taking into consideration al1
legal and extra-legal factors, from which the "necessity" is not excluded.
These kinds of activities of judges are not very far from those of legis-
lators.

In parentheses, although the Court does not possess the power to
decide a case ex aequo et bon0without the parties' agreement (Article 38,
paragraph 2, of the Statute), the result of the interpretation mentioned
above can satisfythe requirement of justice and good sense. The contrary
solution shall be striking to most of those concerned and the public at
large.
Such attitude of interpretation has been known as a method of "libre
recherche scientifique" or "Freirecht", mainly in civil-law countries
for three-quarters of a century as emancipating judges from the rigid
interpretation of written laws and emphasizingthe creative role in their

judicial activities. Thereis no reason to believe that the same method
should be denied in the field of international law except the opposing
tendency of strong voluntarism derived from the concept of sovereignty
and not being in conformity with the concept of law which attributes
to law an objectiveand independent existencefrom the willand intention
of those to whom law is addressed.
In short the difference of opinions on the questions before us is in
the final instance attributed to the difference between two methods of
interpretation: teleological or sociological and conceptional or forma-
listic.

For the above-mentioned reasons (1) South West Africa is a territory
under theMandate, and (2)Respondentcontinues tohave theinternational
obligations stated in Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations
and in the Mandate for South West Africa, the supervisory functions
to be exercised by the United Nations, to which the annual reports are
to be submitted. (As to the obligation to transmit petitions mentioned
in the Applicants' SubmissionNo. 2, we will deal with it below.) So far
as these matters are concerned, the Applicants' Submissions Nos. 1 and
2 are well-founded.

III

Now we must proceed to examine the Applicants' Final Submissions
Nos. 3 and 4, which constitute the core of the present cases in the sense
that they are concerned with the fundamental obligations stipulated in
Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant
ofthe League ofNations.
The submissions presented to the Court by the Applicants in the The Mandate cannot be conceived as divorced from political, ad-
ministrative, economic, technical and cultural factors and as a result
this consideration makes the question of justiciability more complicated.

The Respondent denies the justiciability of matters pertaining to
Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate. The reason thereof is found
in the nature of the power of the Mandatory which is political and
technical, therefore wide, general and, accordingly, discretionary.

The objectives of the mandates system are declared to be "the well-

being and development" of such peoples, namely "peoples not yet able to
stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions ofthe modern world".
The "well-being and development" mean "the material and moral
well-being and the social progress". (Article 2, paragraph 2, of the
Mandate.) That these objectives form a "sacred trust of civilization"
and "that securities for the performance of this trust should be embodied
in this Covenant", is the principle which should be applied to the colonies
and territories under the mandates system. The securities for the per-
formance of the trust are provided in the Covenant as well as in the
individual mandate instruments, but the objectives of the mandates
system are broad, abstract and comprehensive as is shown by the use
of words such as "well-being", ''development" and "progress".

Strictly speaking, these concepts having the character of a value
judgment are susceptible of taking different contents according to various
philosophical, theological, political systems and ways of thinking, and
consequently it may be extremely difficult for everybody to agree on
what is meant or implied by these terms, and on the degree of importance
which should be attached to a value in the whole hierarchy of values.

What is meant by well-being or progress? Which one has priority in case
of conflict between material and moral well-being? 1sthere any difference
between "progress" and "development"? Concerning the latter two
concepts there may be great divergence of standpoints between evolution-
ists or pragmatists and conservatives. Concerning the appreciation of
the moral well-being and what it consists of idealists and materialists
may differ one from the other.
The creators of Article 22 and the drafters of the Mandate agreement,
however, do not appear to have scrutinized these matters from the above-
mentioned point of view. They wanted to indicate by this simple formula
the goal of good government as it should be applied to the administration
of mandated territories. They wanted to find some idea or principle which
could be considered a common denominator among divergent political
ideas and thoughts on good government just as it is inevitable in the
case of indicating a constitutional aim of a democratic State or, in an
analogous case, of an international organization whose purposes are
as general as those of the League of Nations or the United Nations.

Let us suppose that the legislators of a certain political community
278 succeeded in finding a constitutional formula which the majority of its
members could agree to adopt. Still one cannot be optimistic about
its interpretation. Everyone would interpret it according to his own
philosophical or political viewpoint; each would attach a different
meaning to the same slogan. The necessary conclusion would be sub-
jectivism, relativism and anarchism in the interpretation and multiplicity
of political parties in a democratic society.
The fact that, in most cases, political communities under abstract
principles which would indicate general orientation to the politics and
administration, stand, survive, maintain and even prosper, is not attri-
butable to the legislativetechnique or the manner in which the objectives
of the communities in their constitutions are expressed, but, in final
instance, to the common-sense and political wisdom of the leaders and
constituents of the respective communities.
From what has been mentioned above, we are inclined to conclude
that the concept of the promotion of "material and moral well-being
and social progress of the inhabitants" which constitutes the objectives

of the Mandate for South West Africa (Article 2, paragraph 2), is in
itself of political character and cannot be recognized as susceptible of
judicial determination and execution.
By saying so we do not assert that Article 2, paragraph 2, of the
Mandate does not possess the character of a legal norm. Legislators can
adopt in the system of legal norms other cultural norms, which are
socially relevant, namely moral, political, economic, technical norms,
etc., as distinct from the juridical value judgment. In such cases, a
cultural norm quite heterogeneous in character to legal norm, e.g., in
the control of traffic or architecture, is incorporated in the system of
law. In such cases, we may Saythat a technique is vested with juridical
value, or that a technique is "naturalized" in the system of law.

Such "naturalization" between legal and other cultural norms occurs
most frequently between law on the one hand and morals and politics
on the.other. The article with which we are now confronted is one of the
typical examples of such "naturalization".
The promotion of the material and moral well-being and the social

progress of the inhabitants, are the ultimate objectiveswhich the Manda-
tory is obliged to realize.These objectives are essentially of a political
nature, but moral and humanitarian as well. In this case the political
and moral obligations of the Mandatory, as an effect of the mandate
agreement, are incorporated into the law.
The obligations incumbent upon the Respondent as Mandatory are
differentfrom its specificduties enumerated inthe Covenant and mandate
agreement and, clearly defined from the viewpoint of their content,
present themselves as the supreme goal of the mandates system which
is of political character. These obligations are therefore general, vague
and abstract, and, accordingly, they are not susceptible of judicial
execution, in spite of the fact that we cannot deny the legal character of
the mandate agreement in its entirety.

279 This is a reason why, even in countries where the institution of consti-
tutional judicial review is adopted, some of the higher principles of
the constitution are by doctrine and practice excluded from the function
of courts oflaw. The execution of some constitutional provisions is not
guaranteed as in the case of lex imperfecta.

This is a consequence of the essential difference between law and
politics or administration.
The essential difference between law and politics or administration
lies in the fact that law distinguishes in a categorical way what is right
and just fromwhat iswrong and unjust, whilepolitics and administration,
being the means to attain specificpurposes, and dominated by consider-
ations of expediency, make a distinction between the practical and the
unpractical, the efficient and the inefficient. Consequently, in the judg-

ment of law there is no possibility apart from what is just or unjust
(tertium non datur), in the case of politics and administration there are
many possibilities of choice from the viewpoint of expediency and
efficiency.Politics are susceptible of gradation, in contrast to law which
iscategorical and absolute.
As has been mentioned above, the purposes and content of a good
government are vague and are not precisely defined. Suppose we in-
dicate it by a formula such as the promotion of "the material and
moral well-being and social progress" as in the case of the Mandate
for South West Africa. An infinite number of uolicies can be conceived
that would achieve the purposes of good government, which are general
and abstract. In concrete, individual cases, the objectives which should
be achieved may be spiritual or material, direct or indirect, important
or less important, essential or non-essential, urgent or non-urgent. Good
government is concerned with the choice of means to attain certain
ends. This is a characteristic of politics and administration where the
discretionary power of the competent authorities prevails, and since

the Mandate aims at the well-being and progress of the inhabitants, it
therefore belongs to the category of politics and administration, is
characterized by the discretionary nature of the Mandatory's activities.
Briefly, to promote the well-being and progress of the inhabitants,
many policies and measures are conceivable. The Mandatory has a
discretionary power to choose those it considers to be the most appro-
priate and efficientmeans of realizing the said objectives of the Mandate.

There is a question, posed by Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice on
7 May 1965 (C.R. 65/27, pp. 57-59) to both Parties, in relation to
whether the requirement of the "promotion of well-being and social
progress" can be satisfied by any total increase, namely by considering
the progress ."on balance", or whether the existence of a total increase
on the one side cannot itself be considered as the achievement of "pro-
motion of the well-being and progress", if, on the other side, there exists,
on the part of the government, any failure to promote well-being and

progress. If one takes the view that the Mandatory is in principle given283 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS. OP. TANAKA)
discretionary power to perform the obligations imposed by Article 2,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate, namely the well-being and progress of
the inhabitants, it follows that it can choose quite freely any policies
or measures which it considers appropriate tq realize this objective;

accordingly, any partial failure in respect of specificpolicies or measures
cannot necessarily be considered to constitute a breach of the Mandate.
The reason therefor is that the discretionary power recognized as being
conferred on the Mandatory includes its capacity of value judgment as
between various possible policies and measures to be taken to realize
the objectives of the Mandate.
Furthermore, the concept of the well-being and progress involves a
quantitative factor. One cannot ascertain whether, at a certain point
of time, the well-being and progress have been dchieved or not. That
the Mandatory is required to promote "to the utmost" (English) or
'fpartous lesmoyens en sonpouvoir" (French) means that the obligations
of the Mandatory provided by Article 2, paragraph 2, are elastic and
that there exists a possibility of wide discretion for their performance.

Investigation of the degree of expediency is iiot a matter for courts
of law to deal with. The appropriateness of the exerciseof a discretionary
power by the Mandatory does not belong to matters subject to the
jurisdiction of a court of law. Therefore the contention of the Respondent
that the exercise of the Mandatory's power is discretionary, and that it
is not justiciable unless the power has been exercised in bad faith, can
be recognized as being fundamentally right. The political obligations
are in themselves incompatible with judicial review.
That the Mandatory has discretionary power concerning the ad-
ministration of the Territory is declared by Article 2, paragraph 1,
which provides: "The Mandatory shall have fullpower of administration
and legislation over the territory..."
What has been said above does not mean that the Mandatory has
an unlimited right to exercise the discretionary power conferred upon
it for the performance of the obligations imposed by the Mandate.
The exercise ofthis power isprimarily limited by the individual provisions
of the mandate instrument and Article 22 of the Covenant. Article 2,
paragraph 1, provides that ". .. the full power of administration and
legislation ... subject to the present Mandate .. .".The Applicants
indeed based their Submissions Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 9 on Article 2, para-
graph 1, of the Mandate, Article 22 of the Covenant, Article 6 of the
Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant, and Article 7, paragraph 1,
of the Mandate respectively. Concerning these points, justiciability on
the Applicants' submissions cannot be denied and the Respondent does

not dare to deny it. Controversy on the justiciability of the present cases
would accordingly be limited to the Applicants' SubmissionsNos. 3 and
4 which are related only to Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate and
Article 22 ofthe Covenant to the extent that it is concerned with Article 2,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate. From this viewpoint the question is whether the wide discretionary
power conferred by Article 2, paragraph 1, excludes any possibility of
a breach of the Mandate other than a breach of individual provisions
of the Mandate and the Covenant indicated above. If any legal norm
exists which is applicable to the exercise of the discretionary power of
the Mandatory, then it will present itself as a limitation of this power,
and the possible violation of this norm would result in a breach of the
Mandate and hence the justiciability of this matter.

Now we shall examine Nos. 3 and 4 of the Applicants' final sub-
missions. Submission No. 3 reads as follows:

"Respondent, by laws and regulations, and official methods and
measures, which are set out in the pleadings herein, has practised
apartheid, i.e., has distinguished as to race, colour, national or
tribal origin in establishing the rights and dutizs of the inhabitants
of the Territory; thatsuch practice is in violation of its obligations
as stated in Article of the Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant

of the League of Nations; and that Respondent has the duty forth-
with to ceasethe practice of apartheid in the Territory;" (Applicants'
final submissions, C.R. 65/35, p. 69).

At the same time, Applicants have presented another submission
(Submission No. 4) which states as follows:

"Respondent, by virtue of economic, political, social and edu-
cational policies applied within the Territory, by means of laws
and regulations, and official methods and measures, which are set
out in the pleadings herein, has, in the light of applicable inter-
national standards or international legal norm, or both, failed to
promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and
social progress of the inhabitants of the Territory; that its failure
to do so is in violation of its obligations as stated in Article the

Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant; and that Respondent
has the duty forthwith to ceaseits violations as aforesaid and to take
al1practicable action to fulfilits duties under suchArticles;" (Appli-
cants' final submissions, 19 May 1965, C.R. 65/35, pp. 69-70).

The President, Sir Percy Spender, for the purpose of clarification,

addressed a question to the Applicants in relation to Submissions 3 and
4 in the Memorials at page 197, which are not fundamentally different
from the above-mentioned Final Submissions Nos. 3 and 4. He asked
what was the distinction between one (i.e., Submission No. 3) and the
other (i.e., Subrnission No. 4). (C.R. 65/23,28 April 1965,p. 31.)
282 The response of the Applicants on this point was that the distinction
between the two Submissions 3 and 4 was verbal only (19 May 1965,
C.R. 65/35, p. 71). This response, being made after the amendment of
the Applicants' submissions, may be considered as applicable to the

amended Submissions Nos. 3 and 4.
It should be pointed out that the main difference between the original
and the Final SubrnissionsNos. 3 and 4 is that a phrase, namely :"in the
light of applicable international standards or international legal norm,
or both" is inserted between "has" and "failed to promote to the ut-
most . .." which seems to make clear the substantive identity existing
between these two submissions.

Now we shall analyse each of these submissions, which occupy the
central issue of the whole of the Applicants' submissions and upon
which the greater part of the arguments of the Parties has been focused.
This issue is without doubt the question concerning the policy of apart-
heid which the Respondent as Mandatory is alleged to have practised.
First, we shall deal with the concept of apartheid. The Applicants,
in defining apartheid, said: "Respondent .. . has distinguished as to
race, colour, national or tribal origin in establishing the rights and duties
of the inhabitants of the Territory."
It may be said that, as between the Parties, no divergence of opinion
on the concept of apartheid itself exists, notwithstanding that the Re-
spondent prefers to use other terminology, such as "separate develop-
ment", instead of "apartheid". Anyhow, it seems that there has been no
argument concerning the concept of apartheid itself. Furthermore, we
can also recognize that the Respondent has never denied its practice
of apartheid; but it wants to establish the legality and reasonableness of

this policy under the mandates system and its compatibility with the
obligations of the Respondent as Mandatory, as well as its necessity to
perform these obligations.
Submission No. 3 contends that such practice (i.e., the practice of
apartheid) is in violation of its obligations as stated in Article 2 of the
Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant. However, the Applicants'
contention is not clear as to whether the violation, by the practice of
apartheid, of the Respondent's obligation is conceivedfrom the viewpoint
of politics or law. If we consider Submission No. 3, only on the basis of
its literal interpretation, it may be considered to be from the viewpoint
of politics; thismeans that the policy of apartheid is not in conformity
with the objectives of the Mandate, namely the promotion of well-being
and social progress of the inhabitants without regard to any conceivable
legal norm or standards. If the Applicants maintain this position, the
issue would be a matter of discretion and the case, so far as this point
is concerned, would not be justiciable, asthe Respondent has contended.

Now the Applicants do not allege the violation of obligations by the
Respondent independently of any legal norm or standards. Since the
Applicants amended Submission No. 4 in the Memorials and inserted

283aphrase "in the light of applicable international standards or international

legal norm", the violation of the obligations as stated in Article 2 of the
Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant (Submission No. 3) which is
identical with the failure to promote to the utmost the material and
moral well-being and social progress of the inhabitants of the Territory
(Submission No. 4) has come to possess a special meaning; namely
of ajuridical character. Applicants' cause is no longer based directly on
a violation of the well-being and progress by the practice of apartheid,
but on the alleged violation of certain international standards or inter-
national legal norm and not directly on the obligation to promote the
well-being and social progress of the inhabitants. There is no doubt that,
if such standardsand norm exist, their observance in itself may constitute
a part of Respondent's general obligations to promote the well-being
and socialprogress.

From what is said above, the relationship between the Applicants'
Submissions Nos. 3 and 4 may be understood as follows. The two sub-
missions deal with the same subject-matter, namely the illegal character
of the policy and practice of apartheid. However, the contents of each
submission are not quite the same, consequently the distinction between
the two submissions is not verbal only, as Applicants stated in answer
to the question of the President; each seems to be supplementary to the
other.

Briefly,the Applicants' Submissions Nos. 3 and 4, as newly formulated,
rest upon a norm and/or standard. This norm or standard has been
added by the Applicants to Submission No. 4. The existence of this norm
or standard to be applied to the Mandate relationships, according to
the Applicants' allegation, constitutes a legal limitation of the Respon-
dent's discretionary power and makes the practice of apartheid illegal,
and accordingly a violation of the obligations incumbent on the Manda-
tory.
What the Applicants mean by apartheid is as follows :
"Under apartheid, the status, rights, duties, opportunities and
burdens of the population are determined and allotted arbitrarily

on the basis of race, color and tribe, in a pattern which ignores the
needs and capacities of the groups and individuals affected, and
subordinates the interests and rights of the great majority of the
people to the preferences of a minority .. .It deals with apartheid
in practice, asit actually is and asit actually has been in the life of the
people of the Territory ..." (Memorials, p. 108.)

The Applicants contend the existence of a norm or standards which
prohibit the practice of apartheid. These norm or standards are nothing
other than those of non-discrimination or non-separation.
The Respondent denies the existence of a norm or standard to prohibit

284 the practice of apartheid and tries to justify this practice from the dis-
cretionary nature of the Mandatory's power. The Respondent emphasizes
that the practice of apartheid is only impermissible when it is carried out
in bad faith.
From the viewpoint of the Applicants, the existence, and objective
validity, of a norm of non-discrimination make the question of the in-
tention or motivation irrelevant for thepurposes of determining whether
there has been a violation of this norm. The principle that a legal precept,
as opposed to a moral one, in so far as it is not specifically provided
otherwise, shall be applied objectively, independently of motivation on
the Dart of those concerned and inde~endentlv of other individual

circimstances, may be applicable to thez~espondent's defence of bona
jîdes.

Here we are concerned with the existence of a legal norm or standards
regarding non-discrimination. It is a question which is concerned with
the sources of international law, and, at thesame time, with the mandate
law. Furthermore, the question is intimately related to the essence and
nature of fundamental human rights, the promotion and encouragement
of respect for which constitute one of the purposes of the United Nations
(Article 1, paragraph 3, Charter of the United Nations), in which the
principle of equality before the law occupies the most important part
-a principle, from the Applicants' view, antithetical to the policy of
apartheid.
What ismeant by "international norm or standards" can be understood

as being related to the principle of equality before the law.

The question is whether a legal norm on equality before the law
existsin the international sphere and whether it has a binding power upon
the Respondent's conduct in carrying out its obligations as Mandatory.
The question is whether the principle of equality before the law can find
its place among the sources of international law which are referred to in
Article 38, paragraph 1.
Now we shall examine one bv one the sources of international law
enumerated by the above-mentioned provision.
First we consider the international conventions (or treaties). Here
we are not concerned with "special" or "particular" law-making bilateral
treaties, but onlywith law-making multilateral treaties such astheCharter
of the United Nations, the Constitution of the International Labour
Organisation, the Genocide Convention, which have special significance
as legislative methods. However, even such law-making treaties bind

only signatory States and they do not bind States which are not parties
to them.

The question is whether the Charter of the United Nations contains
a legal norm of equality before the law and the principle of non-dis-
285crimination on account of religion, race, colour, sex, language, political
creed, etc. The achievement of international CO-operation in "promoting
and encouraging respect for human rights andfor fundamental freedoms
for al1without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion" consti-
tutes one of the purposes of the United Nations (Article 1, paragraph 3).
Next, the General Assembly shall initiate studies and make recommen-
dations for the purpose of: "... (b) .. .and assisting in the realization

of human rights and fundamenta! freedoms without distinction as to
race, sex, language, or religion" (Article 13, paragraph 1 (b)). "Uni-
versa1 respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental
freedoms for al1 without distinction as to race, sex, language, or re-
ligion" is one of the itemswhich shall be promoted by the United Nations
in the field of international economic and social CO-operation(Articles 55
(c), 56). In this field, the Economic and Social Council may make
recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect for, and obser-
vance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for al1 (Article 62,
paragraph 2, Charter). Finally, "to encourage respect for human rights
and for fundamental freedoms for al1without distinction as to race, sex,
language or religion7'is indicated as one of the basic objectives of the
trusteeship system (Article 76 (c)).
The repeated references in the Charter to the fundamental rights and
freedoms-at least four times-presents itself as one of its differences
from the Covenant of the League of Nations, in which the existence of
intimate relationships between peace and respect for human rights were
not so keenly felt as in the Charter of the United Nations. However,
the Charter did not go so far as to givethe definition to the fundamental
rights and freedoms, nor to provide any machinery of implementation
for the protection and guarantee of these rights and freedoms. The
"Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms"
of 1948whichwanted to formulate each right and freedom and givethem
concrete content, is no more than a declaration adopted by the General
Assembly and not a treaty binding on the member States. The goal of the
codification on the matter of human rights and freedoms has until now
not been reached Savein very limited degree, namely with the European
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms of 1953,the validity of whichis only regional and not universal
and with a fewspecialconventions, such as"genocide" and political rights
of women, the application of which islimited to their respective matters.

In view of these situations, can the Applicants contend, as an interpre-

tation of the Charter, that the existence of a legal norm on equality
before the law, which prescribes non-discrimination on account of
religion, race, colour, etc., accordingly forbids the practice of apartheid?
1s what the Charter requires limited only "to achieve international
CO-operation ... in promoting and encouraging respect for human
rights and for fundamental freedoms ..." and other matters referred
to above?
Under these circumstances it seems difficult to recognize that the
286 Charter expressly imposes on member States any legal obligation with
respect to the fundamental human rights and freedoms. On the other
hand, we cannot ignore the enormous importance which the Charter
attaches to the realization of fundamental human rights and freedoms.
Article 56 States: "Al1 Members pledge themselves to take joint and
separate action in CO-operationwith the Organization for the achievement
of the purposes set forth in Article 55." (Article 55 enumerates the
purposes of international economic and social CO-operation,in which
"universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental

freedoms" is included.) Well, those who pledge themselves to take
action in CO-operation with the United Nations in respect of the pro-
motion of universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and
fundamental freedoms, cannot violate, without contradiction, these
rights and freedoms. How can one, on the one hand, preach respect for
human rights to others and, on the other hand, disclaim for oneself
the obligation to respect them? From the provisions of the Charter
referring to thehuman rights and fundamental freedomsit can be inferred
that the legal obligation to respect human rights and fundamental
freedoms is imposed on member-States.
Judge Spiropoulos confirmed the binding character of the human
rights provisions of the Charter:

"As the obligation to respect human rights was pIaced upon
Member States by the Charter, it followed that any violation of
human rights was a violation of the provision of the Charter."
(G.A., O.R., 3rd Session,6th Committee, 138th Meeting, 7 December
1948,p. 765.)
Judge Jessup also attributed the same character to the human rights
provisions:

"Since this book is written de legeferenda, the attempt is made
throughout to distinguish between the existing law and the future
goals of the law. It is already the law, at least for Members of the
United Nations, that respect for human dignity and fundamental
human rights is obligatory. The duty is imposed by the Charter."
(Philip C. Jessup,Modern Law of Nations, 1948, p. 91.)

Without doubt, under the present circumstances, the international
protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms is very imperfect.
The work of codification in this field of law has advanced little from the
viewpoint of defining each human right and freedom, as well as the
machinery for their realization. But there is little doubt of the existence
of human rights and freedoms; if not, respect for these is logically
inconceivable; the Charter presupposes the existence of human rights
and freedoms which shall be respected; the existence of such rights and

freedoms is unthinkable withoiit corresponding obligations of persons
concerned and a legal norm underlying them. Furthermore, there is no
doubt that these obligations are not only moral ones, and that they
287also have a legal character by the verv nature of the subject-matter.

Therefore, the legislative imperfections in the definition of human
rights and freedoms and the lack of mechanism for implementation,
do not constitute a reason for denying their existence and the need for
their legal protection.
Furthermore, it must be pointed out that the Charter provisions, as
indicated above, repeatedly emphasize the principle of equality before
the law by saying, "without distinction as to race, sex, language or
religion".
Under the hypothesis that in the United Nations Charter there exists
a legal norm or standards of non-discrimination, are the Applicants,
referring to this norm, entitled to have recourse to the International
Court of Justice according to Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate?
The Respondent contends that such an alleged norm does not constitute
a part of the mandate agreement, and therefore the question on this norm

falls outside the dispute, which, by the compromissory clause, is placed
under the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice. The Appli-
cants' contention would amount to the introduction of a newelement into
the mandate agreement which is alien to this instrument.
It is evident that, as the Respondent contends, the mandate agreement
does not stipulate equality before the law clause, and that this clause does
not formally constitute a part of the mandate instrument. Nevertheless,
the equality principle, as an integral part of the Charter of the United
Nations oras an independent source of general international law, can be
directlyapplied tothe matter ofthe Mandate either as constitutingakind of
law of the Mandate insensu lato or, at least in respect of standards, as
a principle of interpretation of the mandate agreement. Accordingly, the
dispute concerning the legality of apartheid comes within the field of the
interpretation and application of the provisions of the Mandate stipulated
in Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate.

This conclusion isjustified only onthe presupposition that the Respon-
dent is bound by theCharter of the United Nations not only as a member
State but also as a Mandatory. The Charter, being of the nature of
special international law, or the law of the organized international
community, must be applied to al1 matters which come within the
purposes and competence of the United Nations and with which member
States are concerned, including the matter of the Mandate. Logic re-
quires that, so long as we recognize the unity of personality, the same
principle must govern both the conduct of a member State in the United
Nations itself and also its conduct as a mandatory, particularly in the
matter of the protection and guarantee of human rights and freedoms. Concerning the Applicants' contention attributing to the norm of
non-discrimination or non-separation the character of customary

international law, the following points must be noted.
The Applicants enumerate resolutions and declarations of international
organs which condemn racial discrimination, segregation, separation
and apartheid, and contend that the said resolutions and declarations
were adopted by an overwhelmingmajority, and therefore have binding
power in regard to an opposing State, namely the Respondent. Con-
cerning the question whether the consent of al1 States is required for
the creation of a customary international law or not, we consider that
the answer must be in the negative for the reason that Article 38, para-
graph 1 (b), of the Statute does not exclude the possibility of a few
dissidents for the purpose of the creation of a customary international
law and that the contrary view of a particular State or States would
result in the permission of obstruction by veto, which could not have
been expected by the legislator who drafted the said Article.

An important question involved in the Applicants' contention is
whether resolutions and declarations of international organs can be

recognized as a factor in the custom-generating process in the interpre-
tation of Article 38, paragraph 1 (b), that is to Say, as "evidence of a
general practice".
According to traditional international law, a general practice is the
result of the repetition of individual acts of Statesconstituting consensus
in reuard to a certain content of arule of law. Such re~etition of acts is
an historical process extending over a long period of time. The process
of the formation of a customary law in this case may be described as
individualistic. On the contrary,this process is going to change indapt-
ing itself to changes in the way of international life. The appearance of
organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations,
with their agencies and affiliated institutions, replacing an important
part of the traditional individualistic method of international negotiation
by the method of "parliamentary diplomacy" (Judgment on the South
West Africa cases,Z.C.J R eports 1962, p. 346), is bound to influence the
mode of generation of customary international law. A State, instead of
pronouncing its view to a few States directly concerned, has the oppor-

tunity, through the medium of an organization, to declare its position
to al1 members of the organization and to know immediately their
reaction on the same matter. In former days, practice, repetition and
opinio juris sive necessitatis, which are the ingredients of customary
lawmight be combined together in a verylong and slowprocess extending
over centuries. In the contemporary age of highly developed techniques
of communication and information, the formation of a custom through
the medium of international organizations is greatly facilitated and
accelerated; the establishment of such a custom would require no more
than one generation or evenfar lessthan that. This is one of the examples
of the transformation of law inevitably produced by change in the social
substratum. Of course, we cannot admit that individual resolutions, declarations,
judgments, decisions, etc., have binding force upon the members of the
organization. What is required for customary international law is the

repetition of the same practice; accordingly, in this case resolutions,
declarations, etc., on the same matter in the same, or diverse, organi-
zations must take place repeatedly.

Parallel with such repetition, each resolution, declaration, etc., being
considered as the manifestation of the collective will of individual
participant States, the will of the international community can certainly
be formulated more quickly and more accurately as compared with the
traditional method of the normative process. This coIlective, cumulative
and organic process of custom-generation can be characterized as the
middle way between legislation by convention andthe traditional process
of custom making, and can be seen to have an important role from the
viewpoint of the development of international law.
In short, the accumulation of authoritative pronouncements such as
resolutions, declarations, decisions, etc., concerning the interpretation
of the Charter by the competent organs of the international community
can be characterized as evidence of the international custom referred
to in Article 38, paragraph 1 (b).

In the present case the Applicants assert the existence of the internatio-
nal norm and standards of non-discrimination and non-separation and
refer to this source of international law. They enumerate resolutions of
the General Assembly which repeatedly and strongly deny the apartheid
policy of racial discrimination as an interpretation of the Charter

(General Assembly resolution 1178 (XII) of 26 November 1957; reso-
lution 1248 (XIII) of 30 October 1958; resolution 1375 (XIV) of
17November 1959;resolution 1598 (XV)of 13April1961; and resolutions
of the Security Council (with regard to apartheid as practised in the
Republic of South Africa); resolution of 7 August 1953which declares
the inconsistency of the policy of the South African Government with
the principles contained in the Charter of the United Nations and with
its obligations as a member State of the United Nations; resolution of
4 December 1963which declares ". ..the policies of apartheid and racial
discrimination ... are abhorrent to the conscience of mankind ...".
The Applicants cite also the report of the Committee on South West
Africa t'or1956.)

Moreover, the 11trust territories agreements, each of them containing
a provision concerning the norm of officia1non-discrimination or non-
separation on the basis of membership in a group or race, may be con-
sidered as contributions to the development of the universal acceptance
of the norm of non-discrimination, in addition to the meaning which
each provision possesses in each trusteeship agreement, by virtue of
Article 38, paragraph 1 (a), of the Statute. Furthermore, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted
by the General Assembly in 1948,although not binding in itself, consti-
tutes evidence of the interpretation and application of the relevant
Charter provisions. The same may be said of the Draft Declaration on
RightsandDuties ofStatesadopted by the International Law Commission
in 1949, the Draft Covenant on civil and political rights, the Draft
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Declaration
on the Elimination of al1 Forms of Racial Discrimination adopted by
the General Assembly of the United Nations on 20 November 1963and
of regional treaties and declarations, particularly the European Con-
vention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
signed on 3 September 1953,the Charter ofthe Organization of American
States signed on 30 April 1948,the American Declaration of the Rights
and Duties of Man, 1948,the Draft Declaration of International Rights
and Duties, 1945.

From what has been said above, we consider that the norm of non-
discrimination or non-separation on the basis of race has become a rule

of customary international law as is contended by the Applicants, and
as a result, the Respondent's obligations as Mandatory are governed
by this legal norm in its capacity as a member of the United Nations
either directly or at least by way of interpretation of Article 2, para-
graph 2.
One of the contentions concerning the application of the said legal
norm is that, if such a legal norm exists for judging the Respondent's
obligations under Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate, it would be
the one in existenceat the time the Mandate wasentrusted to the Respon-
dent. This is evidently a question of inter-temporal law.

The Respondent's position is that of denyingthe application of a new
law to a matter which arose under an old law, namely the negation of
retroactivity of a new customary law. The Applicants' argument is based
on "the relevanceof the evolvingpractice and views ofStates, growth of
experience and increasing knowledge in political and social science to
the determination of obligations bearing on the nature and purpose of
the Mandate in general, and Article 2, paragraph 2"; briefly, it rests on
the assertion of the concept of the "continuous, dynamic and ascending

growth" of the obligation of the Mandatory.

Our view on this question is substantially not very different from that
of the Applicants. The reason why we recognize the retroactive appli-
cation of a new customary law to a matter which started more than
40 years ago is as follows.
The matter in question is in reality not that of an old law and a new
law, that is to say, it is not a question which arises out of an amendment
of a law and which should be decided on the basis of the principle of the
protection of droit acquis and therefore ofnon-retroactivity. In the present

291 case, the protection of the acquired rights of the Respondent is not the
issue, but its obligations,because the main purposes of the mandate
system are ethical and humanitarian. The Respondent has no right to
behave in an inhuman way today as well as during these 40 years. There-
fore, the recognition of the generation of a new customary international
law on the matter of non-discrimination is not to be regarded as detri-
mental to the Mandatory, but as an authentic interpretation of the
already existing provisions of Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate
and the Covenant. It is nothing other than a simpleclarification of what
was not so clear 40 years ago. What ought to have been clear 40 years
ago has been revealed by the creation of a new customary law which
plays the role of authentic interpretation the effect of which is retro-
active.

Briefly, the method of the generation of customary international law
is in the stage of transformation from being an individualistic process
to being a collectivistic process. This phenomenon can be said to be the

adaptation of the traditional creative process of international law to
the reality of the growth of the organized international community. It
can be characterized, considered from the sociological viewpoint, as
a transition from traditional custom-making to international legislation
by treaty.

Followingthe reference to Article 38, paragraph 1 (b), of the Statu*,
the Applicants base their contention on the legal norm alternatively on
Article 38,paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute, namely "the generalprinciples
of law recognized by civilized nations".
Applicants refer to this soùrce of international law both as an inde-
pendent ground for the justification of the norm of non-discrimination
and as a supplementand reinforcement of the other arguments advanced
by them to demonstrate their theory.
The question is whether the legal norm of non-discrimination or noii-
separation denying the practice of apartheid can be recognized as a
principle enunciated in the said provision.

The wording of this provision is very broad and vague; the meaning
is not clear. Multiple interpretations ranging from the most strict to the
most liberal are possible.
To decide this question we must clarify the meaning of "general
principles of law". To restrict the meaning to private law principles or
principles of procedural law seems from the viewpoint of literal inter-
pretation untenable. So far as the "general principles of law" are not
qualified, the "law" must be understood to embrace al1branches of law,
including municipal law, public law, constitutional and administrative
law, private law, commercial law, substantive and procedural law, etc.
292Nevertheless, analogies drawn from these laws should not be made
mechanically, that is to Say,to borrow the expression of Lord McNair,
"by means of importing private law institutions 'lock, stockand barrel'
ready-made and fully equipped with a set of rules". (I.C.J. Reports 1950,
p. 148.)

What international law can with advantage borrow from these sources
must be from the viewpoint of underlying or guiding "principles".
These principles, therefore, must not be limited to statutory provisions
and institutions of national laws: they must be extended to the funda-
mental concepts of each branch of law as well as to law in general so
far as these can be considered as "recognized by civilized nations."

Accordingly, the general principles of law in the sense of Article 38,
paragraph 1 (c), are not limited to certain basic principles of law such
as the limitation of State sovereignty, third-party judgment, limitation

of the right of self-defence, pacta sunt servanda, respect for acquired
rights, liability for unlawful harm to one's neighbour, the principle of
good faith, etc. The word "general" may be understood to possess the
same meaning as in the case of the "general theory of law", "théorie
générale de droit","die AllgemeineRechtslehre", namely common to al1
branches of Iaw. But the principles themselves are very extensive and
can be interpreted to include not only the general theory of law, but
the general theories of each branch of municipal law, so far as recognized
by civilizednations. They may be conceived, furthermore, as including
not only legal principles but the fundamental legal concepts of which
the legal norms are composed such as person, right, duty, property,
juristic act, contract, tort, succession, etc.

In short, they may include what can be considered as "juridical truth"
(Bin Cheng, GeneralPrinciplesof Law as Appliedby International Courts
and Tribunals, 1953,p. 24).
The question is whether a legal norm of non-discrimination and non-

separation has come into existencein international society, as the Appli-
cants contend. It is beyond al1doubt that the presence of laws against
racial discrimination and segregationin the municipal systemsof virtually
everyState can beestablishedbycomparative lawstudies.The recognition
of this norm by civilizednations can be ascertained. If the condition of
"general principles" is fulfilled, namely if we can Say that the general
principles include the norm concerning the protection of human rights
by adopting the wide interpretation of the provision of Article 38,
paragraph 1 (c), the norm will find its place among the sources of
international law.

In this context we have to consider the relationship between a norm
of a human rights nature and international law. Originally, general
principles are considered to be certain private law pnnciples found by

293296 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS. OP.TANAKA)

the comparative law method and applicable by way of analogy to matters
of an international character. These principles are of a nature common
to al1nations, that is of the character of jus gentium. These principles,
which originally belong to private law and have the character of jus
gentium, can be incorporated in international law so as to be applied to
matters of an international nature by way of analogy, as we see in the

case of the application of some rules of contract law to the interpretation
of treaties. In the case of the international protection of human rights,
on the contrary, what is involved is not the application by analogy of a
principle or a norm of private law to a matter of international character,
but the recognition of the juridical validity of a similar legal fact without
any distinction as between the municipal and the international legal
sphere.

In short, human rights which require protection are the same; they
are not the product of a particular juridical systeminthe hierarchy of the
legal order, but the same human rights must be recognized, respected and
protected everywhereman goes. The uniformity of national laws on the

protection of human rights is not derived, as in the cases of the law of
contracts and commercial aridmaritime transactions, from considerations
of expediency by the legislative organs or from the creative power of
the custom of a commuriity, but it already exists in spite of its more-or-
less vague forrn. This is of nature jus naturalein roman law.

The unified national laws of the character of jus gentium and of the
law of human rights, which is of the character ofjus naturale in roman
law, both constituting a part of the law of the world community which
may be designated as World Law, Common Law of Mankind (Jenks),
Transnational Law (Jessup), etc., at the same time constitute a part of

international law through the medium of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c).
But there is a difference between these two cases. In the former, the
general principles are presented as common elements among diverse
national laws; in the latter, only one and the same law exists and this
is valid through al1kinds of human societiesin relationships of hierarchy
and CO-ordination.
This distinction between the two categories of law of an international
character is important in deciding the scope and extent of Article 38,
paragraph 1 (c).The Respondent contends that the suggestedapplication
by the Applicants of a principle recognized by civilized nations is not a
correct analogy and application as contemplated byArticle 38,paragraph

1 (c). The Respondent contends that the allegednorm of non-differentia-
tion as between individuals within a State on the basis of membership
of a race, class or group could not be transferred by way of analogy to
the international relationship, otherwise it would mean that al1nations
are to be treated equally despite the difference of race, colour, etc.-a
conclusion which is absurd. (C.R. 65/47,p. 7.) If welimit the application
of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c),to a strict analogical extension of certain
294 principles of municipal law, we must recognize that the contention of
the Respondent is well-founded. The said provision, however, does not
limit its application to cases of anology with municipal, or private law
which has certainly been a most important instance of the application
of this provision. We must include the international protection ofuman
rights in the application of this provision. It must not be regarded as a

case of analogy. In reality, there is only one human right which is valid
in the international sphere as wellas inthe domestic sphere.

The question here is not of an "international", that is to say, inter-
State nature, but it is concerned with the question of the international
validity ofhuman rights, that is to Say,the question whether a State is
obliged to protect human rights in the international sphere as it is
obliged in the domestic sphere.
The principle of the protection of human rights is derived from the
concept of man as a person and his relationship with society which
cannot be separated from universal human nature. The existence of
human rights does not depend on the will of a State; neither internally
on its law or any other legislativemeasure, nor internationally on treaty
or custom, in which the express or tacit will of a State constitutes the
essentialelement.

A State or States are not capable of creating human rights by law or
by convention; they can only confirm their existence and give them
protection. The role of the State is no morethan declaratory. It is exactly
the same as the International Court of Justice ruling concerning the
Reservations to the Genocide Convention case (I.C.J. Reports 1951,
p. 23):

"The solution of these problems must be found in the special
characteristics of the Genocide Convention ... The origins of the
Convention show that it was the intention of the United Nations
to condemn and punish genocide as 'a crime under international
law' involving a denial of the right of existence of entire human
groups, a denial which shocks the conscience of mankind and
results in greatlosses to humanity, and which is contrary to moral
law and to the spirit and aims of the United Nations (resolution 96
(1) of the General Assembly, December llth, 1946). The first
consequence arising from this conception is that the principles
underlying the Convention are principles which are recognized

by civilizednations asbinding on States,even withoutany conventional
obligution.A second consequence is the universal character both of
the condemnation of genocide and of the CO-operationrequired 'in
order to liberate mankind from such an odious scourge' (Preamble
to the Convention)." (Italics added.)
Human rights have always existedwith the huinan being.They existed
independently of, and before, the State. Alien and even stateless persons

295must not be deprived of them. Belonging to diversekinds of communities
and societies-ranging from family, club, corporation, to State and
international cornmunity, the human rights of man must be protected
everywherein this socialhierarchy, just as copyright is protected domesti-
cally and internationally. There must be no legalvacuum in theprotection
of human rights. Who can believe, as a reasonable man, that the existence
of human rights depends upon the interna1 or international legislative
measures, etc., of the State and that accordingly they can be validly
abolished or modified by the will of the State?

If a law exists independently of the will of the State and, accordingly,
cannot be abolished or modified even by its constitution, because it is
deeply rooted in the conscience of mankind and of any reasonable
man, it may be called "natural law" in contrast to "positive law".

Prbvisions of the constitutions of some countries characterize funda-
mental human rights and freedorns as "inalienable", "sacred", "eternal",
"inviolate", etc. Therefore, the guarantee of fundarnental human rights
and freedoms possesses a super-constitutional significance.

If we can introduce in the international field a category of law, namely
jus cogevs, recently examined by the International Law Commission,
a kind of imperative law which constitutes the contrast to the jus disposi-
tivum, capable of being changed by way of agreement between States,

surely the law concerning the protection of human rights may be con-
sidered to belong to the jus cogens.
As an interpretation of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), we consider that
the concept of human rights and of their protection is included in the
general principles mentioned in that Article.
Such an interpretation would necessarily be open to the criticism of
falling into the error of natural law dogma. But it is undeniable that in
Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), some natural law elements are inherent.
It extends the concept of the source of international law beyond the limit
of legal positivism according to which, the States being bound only by
their own will, international law is nothing but the law of the consent
and auto-limitation of the State. But this viewpoint, we believe, was
clearly overruled by Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), by the fact that this
provision does not require the consent of States as a condition of the

recognition of the general principles. States which do not recognize this
principle or even denyitsvalidity are nevertheless subject to its rule. From
this kind of source international law could have the foundation of its
validity extended beyond the will of States, that is to say, into the sphere
of natural law and assume an aspect of its supra-national and supra-
positive character.

The above-mentioned character of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of
the Statute is proved by the process of the drafting of this article by

295the Committee of Jurists. The original proposal made by Baron Des-
camps referred to "la consciencejuridique despeuplescivilisés",a concept
which clearly indicated an idea originatingin natural law. This proposal
met with the opposition of the positivist members of the Committee,
represented by Mr. Root. The final draft, namely Article 38,paragraph 1
(c), is the product of a compromise between two schools, naturalist
and positivist, and therefore the fact that the natural law idea became
incorporated therein is not difficult to discover (see particularly Jean
Spiropoulos, Die Allgemeine Rechtsgrundsatze im Volkerrecht, 1928,
pp. 60 ff.;Bin Cheng, op. cit., pp. 24-26).
Furthermore, an important role which can be played by Article 38,
paragraph 1(c), in fillingin gapsin the positive sources inorder to avoid
non liquet decisions,can only be derived from the natural law character
of this provision. Professor Brierly puts it, "its inclusion important as
a rejection of the positivistic doctrine, according to which international
law consists solely of rules to which States have given their consent"
(J.L. Brierly, The LawofNations, 6th ed., p. 63).Mr. Rosenne comments

on the general principles of law as follows:

"Having independent existence, their validity as legal no ms
does not derive from the consent of the parties as such ... The
Statute places this element on a footing of formal equality with
two positivist elements of custom and treaty, and thus is positivist
recognitions of the Grotian concept of the CO-existenceimplying

no subjugation of positive law and so-called natural law of nations
in the Grotian sense." (Shabtai Rosenne, The International Court
of Justice, 1965,Vol. II, p. 610.)

Now the question is whether the alleged norm of non-discrimination
and non-separation as a kind of protection of human rights can be con-
sidered as recognized by civilized nations and included in the general
principles oflaw.
First the recognition of a principle by civilized nations, as indicated

above, does not mean recognition by al1 civilized nations, nor does it
mean recognition by an officialact such as a legislativeact; therefo,e the
recognition is of a veryelastic nature. The principle of equality before the
law, however, is stipulated in the list of human rights recognized by the
municipal system of virtually every State no matter whether the form of
government be republican or monarchicaland in spite of any differences
in the degree of precision of the relevant provisions. This principle has
become an integral part of the constitutions of most of the civilized
countries in the world. Common-law countries must be included. (Ac-
cording to Constitutionsof Nations, 2nd ed., by Amos J. Peaslee, 1956,
Vol. 1, p. 7, about 73 per cent. of the national constitutions contain
clauses respecting equality.) The manifestation of the recognition of this principle does not need
to be limited to the act of legislation as indicatedove; it may include
the attitude of delegations of member States in cases of participation in
resolutions, declarations, etc.,against racial discrimination adopted bythe
organs of the League of Nations, the United Nations and other organi-
zations which, as we have seen above, constitute an important element
in the generation of customary international law.

From what wehave seenabove, the allegednorm of non-discrimination
and non-separation, being based on the United Nations Charter, par-
ticularly Articles 55 (c), 56, and on numerous resolutions and decla-
rations of the General Assemblyand other organs of the United Nations,
and owing to its nature as a general principle, can be regarded as a
source of international law according to the provisions of Article 38,
paragraph 1 (a) -(c). In this casethree kinds of sourcesare cumulatively
functioning to defend the above-mentioned norm: (1) international
convention, (2)international custom and (3)the general principles of law.

Practically the justification of any one ofthese is enough, but theo-
retically there may be a difference in the degree of importance among
the three. From a positivistic,voluntaristic viewpoint,firstthe convention,
and next the custom, is considered important, and general principles
occupy merely a supplementary position. Onthe contrary, if we take the
supra-national objective viewpoint, the general principles would come
first and the two others would follow them. If we accept the fact that
convention and custom are generally the manifestation and concreti-
zation of already existing general principles, we are inclined to attribute
to this third source of international law the primary position vis-à-vis
the other two.

To sum up, the principle of theprotection ofhuman rights has received
recognition as a legal norm under three main sources of international
law, namely (1) international conventions, (2) international custom and
(3) the general principles of law. Now, the principle of equality before

the law or equal protection by the law presents itself as a kind of human
rights norm. Therefore, what has been said on human rights in general
can be applied to the principle of equality. (Cf. Wilfred Jenks, The
Common Law of Mankind, 1958, p. 121. The author recognizes the
principle of respect for human rights including equality before the law
as a general principle of law.)

Here we must consider the principle of equality in relationship to
the Mandate. The contention of the Applicants is based on this principle
as condemning the practice of apartheid. The Applicants contend not
only that this practice is in violation of the obligations of the Respondent
imposed upon it by Article 2 of the Mandate and Article 22 of the Cove-
nant (SubmissionNo. 3),but that the Respondent, by virtue of economic,

298political, social and educational policies has, in the light of applicable

international standards or international legal norms, or both, failed
to promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and social
progress of the inhabitants of the Territory.What the Applicants seek
to establish seems to be that the Respondent's practice of apartheid
constitutesa violation of international standardsand/or an international
legal norm, namely the principle of equality and, as a result, a violation
of the obligations to promote to the utmost, etc. If the violation of this
principle exists, this will be necessarily followed by failure to promote
the well-being, etc. The question is whether the principle of equality is
applicable to the relationships of the Mandate or not. The Respondent
denies that the Mandate includes in its content the principle of equality
as to race, colour, etc.

Regarding this point, we would refer to our above-mentioned view
concerning the Respondent's contention that the alleged norm of non-
discrimination of the Charter does not constitute a part of the mandate
agreement, and therefore the question of this norm falls outside the
dispute under Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate.

We consider that the principle of equality, although it is not expressly
mentioned in the mandateinstrumentconstitutes, byits nature, an integral
part of the mandates system and therefore is embodied in the Mandate.
From the natural-lawcharacter of this principleits inclusion in the Man-
date must be justified.
It appears to be a paradox that the inhabitants of the mandated
territories are internationally more protected than citizens of States
by the application of Article 7, paragraph 2, but this interpretation falls
outside the scope of the present proceedings.

Next, we shall consider the content of the principle of equality which
must be applied to the question of apartheid.

As we have seen above, the objectives of the mandates system, being
the material and moral well-beingand social progress of the inhabitants

of the territory, arein themselves ofa politicalnature. Their achievement
must be measured by the criteria of politics and the method of their
realization belongs to the matter of the discretion conferred upon the
Mandatory by Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Mandate, and Article 22
of the Covenant of the League.
The discretionary power of the Mandatory however, is not unlimited.
Besides the general rules which prohibit the Mandatory from abusing
its power and mala$des in performing its obligations, and besides the
individual provisions of the Mandate and the Covenant, the Mandatory
is subject to the Charter of the United Nations as a member State, the
customaryinternational law, general principles of law, and other sources
299 302 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS .P.TANAKA)

of international law enunciated in Article 38, paragraph 1. According
to the contention of the Applicants, the norm and/or standards which
prohibit the practice of apartheid, are either immediately or by way
of interpretation of the Mandate binding upon the discretionary power
of the Mandatory. The Respondent denies the existence of such norm
and/or standards.

The divergence of views between the Parties is summarized in the
following formula: whether or not the policy of racial discrimination
or separate development is per se incompatible with the well-being and
social progress of the inhabitants, or in other terms, whether the policy
of apartheid isillegaland constitutes a breach of the Mandate,or depends

upon the motive (bonafides or malafides), the result or effect. From the
Respondent's standpoint apartheid is not per se prohibited but only a
special kind of discrimination which leads to oppression is prohibited.

This divergence of fundamental standpoints between the Parties is
reflected in their attitudes as to what extent their contentions depend
on the evidence. Contrary to the Applicants' attitude in denying the
necessity of calling witnesses and experts and of an inspection in loco,
the Respondent abundantly utilized numerous witnesses and experts
and requested the Court to visit South West Africa, South Africa and
other parts of Africa to make an inspection in loco.
First, we shall examinethe content of the norm and standards of which
violation by the Respondent is alleged bythe Applicants.

The Applicants contend, as set forth in the Memorials (p. 108) that
the Respondent's violation of its obligations under the said paragraph 2
of Article 2 of the Mandate consists in a "systematic course of positive
action which inhibits the well-being, prevents the social progress and
thwarts the development ofthe ovenvhelmingmajority" ofthe inhabitants
of the Territory. Inpursuit of such course of action, and as a pervasive
feature thereof, the Respondent has, by governmental action, installed
and maintained the policy of apartheid, or separate development. What
is meant by apartheid isas follows:

"Under apartheid, the status, rights, duties, opportunities and
burdens of the population are determined and allotted arbitrarily
on the basis of race,color and tribe, in a pattern which ignores the
needs and capacities of the groups and individuals affected, and
subordinates the interests and rights of the great majority of the
people to the preferences of a minority." (Memorials, p. 108.)

Such policy, the Applicants contend, "runs counter to modern con-
ceptions of human rights, dignities and freedom, irrespective of race,
colour or creed", whicii conclusion is denied by the Respondent.

The alleged legal norms of non-discrimination or non-separation by303 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS .P. TANAKA)

which, by way ofinterpretation ofArticle 2,paragraph 2, ofthe Mandate,
apartheid becomes illegal, are defined by the Applicants as follows:

"In the following analysis of the relevant legal norms, the terms

'non-discrimination' or 'non-separation' are used in their prevalent
and customary sense: stated negatively, the terms refer to the ab-
sence of governmental policies or actions which allot status, rights,
duties, privileges or burdens on the basis of membership in a group,
class or race ratherthan on the basis of individual merit, capacity
or potential: stated affirmatively, the terms refer to governmental
policies and actions the objective of which is to protect equality
of opportunity and equal protection of the laws to individual
persons as such." (Reply, p. 274.)

What the Applicants want to establish, are the legal norms of "non-
discrimination" or "non-separation" which are of a per se, non-qualified
absolute nature, namely that the decision of observance or otherwise
ofthenorm does not depend upon the motive, result, effect,etc. Therefore
from the standpoint of the Applicants, the violation of the norm of
non-discrimination is established if therexists a simple fact of discrimi-
nation without regard to the intent of oppression on the part of the
Mandatory.
On the other hand, the Respondent does not recognize the existence
of the norm of non-discrimination of an absolute character and seeks

to prove the necessity of group differentiation in the administration of
a multi-racial, multi-national, or multi-lingualcommunity. The pleadings
and verbatim records are extremely rich in examples of different treat-
ment of diversepopulation groupsin multi-cultural societiesin the world.
Many examples of different treatment quoted by the Respondent and
testifiedto by the witnessesand experts appear to belong to the system of
protection of minority groups in multi-cultural communities and cover
not onlythe fieldof public law but also ofprivate law.

The doctrine of different treatment of diverse population groups
constitutes a fundamental political principle by which the Respondent
administersnot only the Republic of SouthAfrica, but the neighbouring
Territory of South West Africa. The geographical, historical, ethnologi-
cal, economic and cultural differences and varieties between several

population groups, according to the contention of the Respondent,
have necessitated the adoption of the policy of apartheid or "separate
development". This policy is said to be required for the purpose of
the promotion of the well-being and social progress of the inhabitants
of the Territory. The Respondent insists that each population group
developing its own characteristics and individuality, to attain self-
determination, separate development should be the best way to realize
the well-being and social progress of the inhabitants. The other alter-
native, namely the mixed integral society in the sense of Western
301democracy would necessarily lead to competition, friction, struggle,
chaos, bloodshed, and dictatorship as examples may be found in some
other African countries. Therefore, the most appropriate method of
administration of the Territory is the principle of indirect rule main-
taining and utilizing the merits of tribalism.

Briefly, it seems that the idea underlying the policy of apartheid
or separate development is the racial philosophy which is not entirely
identical with ideological Nazism but attributes great importance to
the racial or ethnological factors in the fields of politics, law, economy
and culture. Next, the method of apartheid is of sociological and,
therefore, strong deterministic tendency, as we can guess from the
fact that at the oral proceedings the standpoint of the Respondent
was energetically sustained by many witnesses-experts who were
sociologists and ethnologists.

Contrary to the standpoint of the Applicants who condemn the
policy of apartheid or separate development of the Respondent as

illegal, the latter conceives this policy as something neutral. The Re-
spondent says that it can be utilized as a tool to attain a particular
end, good or bad, as a knife can serve a surgeon as well as a murderer.

Before we decide this question, general consideration of the content
of the principle of equality before the law is required. Although the
existence of this principle is universally recognized as we have seen
above, its precise content is not very clear.
This principle has been recognized as one of the fundamental prin-
ciples of modern democracy and government based on the rule of law.
Judge Lauterpacht puts it:

"The claim to equality before the law is in a substantial sense
the most fundamental of the rights of man. It occupies the first
place in most written constitutions. It is the starting point of al1
other liberties." (Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, An International Bill of
the Rightosf Man, 1945, p. 115.)

Historically, this principle was derived from the Christian idea of the
equality ofal1men before God. Al1mankind are children of God, and,
consequently, brothers and sisters, notwithstanding their natural and
social differences, namely man and woman, husband and wife, master
and slave, etc. The idea of equality of man is derived from the fact
that human beings "by the common possession of reason" distinguish
themselves "from other living beings". (Lauterpacht, op. cit., p. 116.)
This idea existed already in the Stoic philosophy, and was developed
by the scholastic philosophers and treated by natural law scholars and
encyclopedists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It received

302legislative formulation however, at the end of the eighteenth century
first by the Bills of Rights of some American States, next by the Decla-
ration of the French Revolution, and then in the course of the nine-
teenth century the equality clause, as we have seen above, became one
of the common elements of the constitutions of modern European and
other countries.

Examining the principle of equality before the law, we consider
that it is philosophically related to the concepts of freedom and justice.
Thefreedom of individual persons, being one of the fundamental ideas
of law,is not unlimited and must be restricted by the principle of equality
allotting to each individual a sphere of freedom which is due to him. In
other words the freedom can exist only under the premise of the equality
principle.
In what way is each individual allotted his sphere of freedom by
the principle of equality? What is the content of this principle? The
principle is that whatis equal is to be treated equally and what isdifferent
is to be treated differently, namely proportionately to the factual dif-
ference. This is what was indicated by Aristotle asjustitia commutativa
and justitia distributiva.
The most fundamentalpoint in the equality principle is that al1human
beings as persons have an equal value in themselves, that they are the
aim itself and notmeans for others, and that, therefore, slaveryis denied.
The idea of equality of men as persons and equal treatment as such is
of a metaphysical nature. It underlies al1 modern, democratic and

humanitarian law systems as a principle of natural law. This idea,
however, does not exclude the different treatment of persons from the
consideration of the differences of factual circurnstances such as sexy
age, language, religion, economic condition, education, etc. To treat
different matters equally in a mechanical way would be as unjust as to
treat equal matters differently.

We know that law serves the concrete requirements of individual
human beings and societies. If individuals differ one from another and
societies also, their needs will be different, and accordingly, the content
of law may not be identical. Hence is derived the relativity of law to
individual circumstances.
The historical development of law tells us that, parallel to the trend
of generalization the tendency of individualization or differentiation is
remarkable as may be exemplified by the appearance of a system of
commercial law separate from the general private law in civil law coun-
tries, creation of labour law. The acquisition of independent status by

commercial and labour law can be conceived as the conferment of a
kind of privilege or special treatment to a merchant or labour class. In
the field of criminal law the recent tendency of criminal legislative polic
is directed towards the individualization of the penalty.

We can say accordingly that the principle of equality before the law
303does not mean the absolute equality, namely equal treatment of men
without regard to individual, concrete circumstances, but it meansthe rel-
ative equality, namely the principle to treat equally what are equal and
unequallywhat are unequal.
The question is, in what case equal treatment or different treatment
should exist. If we attach importance to the fact that no man is strictly
equal to another and he may have some particularities, the principle of
equal treatment could be easily evaded by referring to any factual and
legal differences and the existence of this principle would be virtually
denied. A different treatment comes into question only when and to the
extent that it corresponds to the nature of the difference.To treat unequal
matters differentlyaccording to their inequality is not only permitted but

reqired. The issue is whether the difference exists. Accordingly, not
every different treatment can be justified by the existence of differences,
but only such as corresponds to the differences themselves, namely that
which is called for by the idea of justice-"the principle to treat equal
equally and unequal according to its inequality, constitutes an essential
content of the idea ofjustice" (Goetz Hueck, Der Grundsatzder Gleich-
massigenBehandlungin Privatreclzt, 1958,p. 106)[translation].

Briefly,a differenttreatment ispermitted when it can bejustified by the
criterion of justice. One may replace justice by the concept of reason-
ableness generally referred to by the AngJ.0-Americanschool of law.

Justice or reasonableness as a criterion for the different treatment
logically excludes arbitrariness. The arbitrariness which is prohibited,
means the purely objective fact and not the subjective condition of those
concerned. Accordingly, the arbitrariness can be asserted without

regard to his motive or purpose.
There is no doubt that the principle of equality is binding upon ad-
ministrativeorgans.The discretionary power exercised on considerations
of expediency by the administrative organs is restricted by the norm of
equality and the infringement of this norm makes an administrative
measure illegal. The judicial power also is subjected to this principle.
Then, what about the legislativepower? Under the constitutions which
express this principle in a form such as "al1citizens are equal before the
law", there may be doubt whether or not the legislatorsalso are bound
by the principle of equality. From the nature of this principle the answer
must be in the affirmative.The legislatorscannot be perrnitted to exercise
their power arbitrarily and unreasonably. They are bound not only in
exercisingthe ordinary legislativepower but also the power to establish
the constitution. The reason therefor is that the principle of equality
being in the nature of natural law and therefore of a supra-constitutional
character, is placed at the summit of hierarchy of the system of law, and
that al1positive laws including the constitution shall be in conformity
with this principle.

304 The Respondent for the purpose of justifying its policy of apartheid
or separate development quotes many examples of different treatment
such as minorities treaties, public conveniences (between man and
woman), etc. Nobody would objectto the differenttreatmentin thesecases
as a violation of the norm of non-discrimination or non-separation on
the hypothesis that such a norm exists. The Applicants contend for the
unqualified application of the norm of non-discrimination or non-
separation, but even from their point of view it would be impossible to
assert that the above-mentioned cases of different treatment constitute
a violation of the norm of non-discrimination.
Then, what is the criterion to distinguish a permissible discrimination
from an impermissible one?
In the case of the minorities treaties the norm of non-discrimination
as a reverse side of the notion of equality before the law prohibits a

State to exclude members of a minority group from participating in
rights, interests and opportunities which a majority population group can
enjoy. On the other hand, a minority group shall be guaranteed the
exercise of their own religious and education activities. This guarantee
is conferredon members of a minority group, for the purpose of protec-
tion of their interests and not from the motive of discrimination itself.
Byreason ofprotection ofthe minoritythisprotection cannot be imposed
upon members of minority groups, and consequently they have the
choice to accept it or not.
In any event, in case of a minority, members belonging to this group,
enjoyingthe citizenship on equal terms with members of majoritygroups,
have conferred on them the possibility of cultivatingtheir own religious,
educational or linguistic values as a recognition of their fundamental
human rights and freedoms.
The spirit of the minorities treaties, therefore, is not negative and
prohibitive, but positive and permissive.
Whetherthe spirit ofthe policy of apartheid or separate developmentis

common with that of minorities treaties to which the Respondent re-
peatedly refers, whether the different treatment between man and
woman concerning the public conveniences can be referred to for the
purpose ofjustifying the policy of apartheid or not, that is the question.
In the case of apartheid, we cannot deny the existence of reason-
ableness in some matters that diverse ethnic groups should be treated in
certain aspects differently from one another. As we have seen above,
differentiationin lawandpoliticsisone of the most remarkable tendencies
of the modern political Society.This tendency is in itself derivedfrom the
concept ofjustice, thereforeit cannot bejudged as wrong. It is an adapta-
tion of the idea of justice to social realities which, as its structure, is
going to be more complicated and multiplicate from the viewpoint of
economic, occupational,cultural and other elements.
Therefore, different treatment requires reasonableness to justify it as
is stated above. The reason may be the protection of some fundamental
human rights and freedoms as we have seen in the case of minoritiestreaties, or of some other nature such as incapacity of minors to conclude
contracts, physical differences between man and woman.

In the case of the protection of minorities, what is protected is not the
religious or linguistic group as a whole but the individuals belonging to
this group, the former being nothing but a name and not a group. In the
case of different treatment of minors or between man and woman, it is
clear that minors, disabled persons or men or women in a country do not
constitute respectively a group. But whether a racial or ethnic group can
be treated in the same way as categories such as minors, disabled persons,
men and women, is doubtful. Our conclusion on this point is negative.
The reasons tllerefor are that the scientificand clear-cut definition of race
is not established; that what man considers as a matter of common-sense

as criteria to distinguish one race from the other, are the appearance,
particularly physical characteristics such as colour, hair, etc., which do
not constitute in themselves relevant factors as the basis for different
political or legal treatment; and that, if there exists the necessity to treat
one race differently from another, this necessity is not derived from the
physical characteristics or other racial qualifications but other factors,
namely religious, linguistic, educational, social, etc., which in themselves
are not related to race or colour.

Briefly, inthese cases it is possible that the different treatment in
certain aspects is reasonably required by the differences of religion,
language, education, custom, etc., not by reason of race or colour.
Therefore, the Respondent tries in some casesto justify the different treat-
ment of population groups by the concept of cultural population groups.
The different treatment would be justified if there really existed the need
for it by reason of cultural differences.The different treatment, however,

should be condemned if cultural reasons are referred to for the purpose
of dissimulating the underlying racial intention.
In any case, as we have seen above, al1 human beings are equal
before the law and have equal opportunities without regard to religion,
race, language, sex, social groups, etc. As persons they have the dignity
to be treated as such. This is the principle of equality which constitutes
one of the fundamental human rights and freedoms which are universal
to al1 mankind. On the other hand, human beings, being endowed
with individuality, living in different surroundings and circumstances
are not al1alike, and they need in some aspects politically, legally and
socially different treatment. Hence the above-mentioned examples of
different treatment are derived. Equal treatment is a principle but its
mechanical application ignoring al1concrete factors engenders injustice.
Accordingly, it requires different treatment, taken into consideration,
of concrete circumstances of individual cases. The diKerent treatment is
permissible and required by the considerations of justice; it does not
mean a disregard of justice.

306309 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS. OP. TANAKA)

Equality being a principle and different treatment an exception, those
who refer to the different treatment must prove its raison d'êtreand its
reasonableness.
The Applicants' norm of non-discrimination or non-separation, being
conceivedas of aper senature, would appear not to permit any exception.
The policy of apartheid or separate development which allots status,
rights, duties, privileges or burdens on the basis of membership in a
group, class or race ratherthan on the basis of individual merit, capacity
or potential is illegal whether the motive be bona $de or mala $de,

oppressive or benevolent; whether its effect or result be good or bad
for the inhabitants. From this viewpoint al1protective measures taken
in the case of minorities treaties and other matters would be included
in the illegal discrimination-a conclusion which might not be expected
from the Applicants. These measures, according to the Applicants,
would have nothing to do with the question of discrimination. The
protection the minorities treaties intended to afford to the inhabitants
is concerned with life, liberty and free exercise of religion. On theon-
trary, the Respondent argues the existence of the same reason in the
policy of apartheid-the reason of protective measures in the case of
minorities treaties.

We must recognize,on the one hand,the legality of different treatment

so far as justice or reasonableness exists in it. On the other hand, we
cannot recognize al1 measures of different treatment as legal, which
have been and will be performed in the name of apartheid or separate
development. The Respondent tries to prove by the pleadings and the
testimony ofthe witnessesand expertsthe existenceof a trend of differen-
tiation in accordance with different religious, racial, linguistic groups.
From the viewpoint of the Applicants, the abundant examples quoted
by the Respondent and the testimony of witnesses and experts cannot
serve as the justification of the policy of apartheid,ecause they belong
to an entirely different plane from that of apartheid and because they
are of a nature quite heterogeneous to the policy of apartheid, which is
based on a particular racial philosophy and group sociology.

The important question is whether there exists, from the point of

view of the requirements of justice, any necessity for establishing an
exception to the principle of equality, and the Respondent must prove
this necessity, namely the ieasonableness of different treatment.
On the aspect of "reasonableness" two considerations arise. The
one is the consideration whether or not the individual necessity exists
to establish an exception to the general principle of equality before
the law and equal opportunity. In this sense the necessity may be con-
ceived as of the same nature as in the case of minorities treaties of whichthe objectivesare protective and beneficial.The other is the consideration
whether the different treatment does or does not harm the sense of
dignity of individual persons.
For instance, if we consider education, on which the Parties argued

extensively, we cannot deny the value of vernacular as the medium
of instruction and the result thereof would be separate schooling as
between children of diverse population groups, particularly between
the Whites andthe Natives. In this case separate education and schooling
may be recognized as reasonable. This is justified by the nature of the
matter in question. But even in such a case, by reason of the matter
which is related to a delicate racial and ethnic problem, the manner
of dealing with this matter should be extremely careful. But, so far as
the public use of such Îacilities as hotels, buses, etc., justification of
discriminatory and separate treatment by racial groups cannot be
found in the same way as separation between smokers and non-smokers
in a train.

We cannot condemn al1 measures derived from the Respondent's
policy of apartheid or separate development, particularly as proposed
by the Odendaal Commission, on the ground that they are motivated

by the racial concept, and therefore devoid of the reasonableness.
There may be some measures which are of the same character as we
see in the protection measures in the case of the minorities treaties and
others. We cannot approve, however, al1measures constituting a kind of
different treatment of apartheid policy as reasonable.

One of the characteristics of the policy of apartheid is marked by its
restrictive tendency on the basis of racial distinction. The policy includes
on the one hand protective measures for the benefit of the Natives as we
see in the institutions of reserves and homelands connected with restric-
tions on land rights; however, on the other hand, several kinds of
restrictions of rights and freedoms are alleged to exist regarding those
Natives who live and work in the southern sector, namely the White
area outside the reserves. These restrictions, if they exist, in many cases
presenting themselves as violation of respective human rights and free-
doms at the same time, would constitute violation of the principle of

equality before the law (particularly concerning the discrimination
between the Natives and the Whites).

Here we are not required to give answers exhaustively in respect of
the Applicants' allegations of violation by the Respondent of the
Mandate concerning the legislation (largo sensu) applicable in the
Territory. The items enumerated by the Applicants in the Memorials
(pp. 118-166)are not included in their submissions. We are not obliged
to pronounce Ourviewsthereon. By way of illustration we shall examine

308 a few points. What is required from us is a decision on the question of
whether the Respondent's policy of apartheid constitutes a violation of

Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate or not.

For the purpose of illustration we shall consider freedom of choice
of occupations (cf. Memorials, pp. 121, 122and 136).
In the field of civil service,participation by "Natives" in the general
administration appears, in practice, to be confined to the lowest and
least-skilled categories, such as messengers and cleaners. This practice
of "job-reservation" for Natives is exemplified by allusion to the terri-
torial budget, whichclassifiesjobs as between"European" and "Natives".

In the mining industry the Natives are excluded from certain occupa-
tions,such as those of prospector for precious and base minerals, dealer
in unwrought precious metals, manager, assistant manager, sectional
or undergroundmanager,etc.,in mines ownedbypersons of "European"
descent, officer in the Police Force. Concerning these occupations,

"ceilings" are put on the promotion of the Natives. The role of the
"Native" is confined to that of unskilled labourer.

In the fishing industry, the enterprises are essentially "European"
owned and operated. The role of the "Native" is substantially confined
to unskilled labour (Memorials, p. 119).
As regards railways and harbours, al1 graded posts in the Railway
and Harbours Administration are reserved to "Europeans", subject to
temporary exceptions. The officia1policy appears to be that "non-
Europeans" should not be allowed to occupy graded posts.
The question is whether these restrictions are reasonable or not,
whether there is a necessity to establish exceptions to the general appli-
cation of the principle of equality or non-discrimination or not.
The matter of "ceilings" was dealt with minutely and at Iength in
the oral proceedings by the Parties. The Respondent's defence against
the condemnation of arbitrariness, injustice and unreasonableness on

the part of the Applicants may be summarized in two points: the one
is the reason of social security and the other is the principle of balance
or reciprocity.
The Respondent contends that the Whites in general do not desire
to serve under the authority of the Natives in the hierarchy of industrial
or bureaucratic systems. If this fact be ignored and the Natives occupy
leading positions in which they would be able to supervise Whites
friction between the two groups necessarily would occur and the social
peace would be disturbed. This argument of the Respondent seems to
be based on apessimisticviewofthe possibilityofharmonious coexistence
of diverse racial and ethnic elements in an integrated Society. 312 SOUTH WESTAFRICA (DISS. OP. TANAKA)

It is not deniable that there may exist certain causes of friction, con-
flict and animosity between diverse racial and ethnic groups which
produce obstacles to their coexistence and CO-operationin a friendly
political community. We may recognize this as one aspect of reality
of human nature and social life. It is, however, no less true that man-
kind aspires and strives towards the ideal of the achievement of a
harmonious Societycomposed of racially heterogeneous elements over-
coming difficulties which may result from the primitive instinctive
sentiment of racial prejudice and antagonism. Such sentiment must be
overcome and not approved. In modern, democratic societies we have
to expect this result mainly from the progress of humanitarian educa-
tion. But the mission of politics and law cannot be said to be less im-
portant in minimizing racial prejudice and antagonism and avoiding
collapse and tragedy. The State is obliged to educate the people by
means of legislative and administrative measures for the same purpose.

To take into consideration the psychological effect upon the Whites
who would be subjected to the supervision of the Natives if a ceiling
did not exist, thatis nothing else but the justification or officia1recog-
nition of racial prejudice or sentiment of racial superiority on the part
of the White population which does harm to the dignity of man.

Furthermore, individuals who could have advanced by their persona1
merits if there existed no ceilingare unduly deprived of their opportunity
for promotion.
It is contended by the Respondent that those who are excluded from
the jobs proportionate to their capacity and ability in the White areas,
can find the same jobs in their own homelands where no restriction
exists in regard tothem. But even if they can find jobs in their home-
lands the conditions may not be substantiallythe same and, accordingly,
in most cases, they may not be inclined to go back to the northern
sector, their homelands, and they cannot be forced to do so.

The Respondent probably being aware of the unreasonableness in
such hard cases, tries to explain it as a necessary sacrifice whichshould
be paid by individuals for the maintenance of social security. But it
is unjust to require a sacrifice for the sake of social security when this
sacrifice is of such importance as humiliation of the dignity of the
personality.
The establishment of ceilingsin regard to certain jobsviolates human
rights of the Natives in two respects: one is violation of the principle
of equality before the law and equal opportunity; the other is violation
of the right of free choice of employment.
The Respondent furthermore advocates the establishment of ceilings
by the principle of reciprocity or balance between two legal situations,
namely one existing in the White areas where certain rights and free-
doms of the Natives are restricted and the other situation existing in the
Native areas where the correspondingrights and freedoms of the Whites

310are restricted. The Respondent seeks to prove by this logic that in such
circumstances the principle of equality of the Whites and the Natives
is observed. Unequal treatment unfavourable to one population group
in area A, however, cannot be justified bysimilar'treatment of the other
population group in area B. Each unequal treatment constitutes an
independent illegal conduct; the one cannot be counter-balanced by the
other, as set-offis not permitted between two obligations resulting from
illegal acts.

Besides, from the viewpoint of group interest, those of the Natives
living in the White area outside the reserves are, owing to the number
of the Native population, far bigger than those of the Whites living
in the Native areas, the idea of counter-balance is quantitatively unjust.

It is also maintained, in respect of the restrictive policy as regards
study to become an engineer by a non-White person, that the under-
lying purpose of this policy is to prevent the frustration on the part
of the individual which he might experience when he could not find

White assistants willing to serve under him. The sentiment of frustra-
tion on the part of non-White individuals, however, should not be
rightly referred to as a reason for establishing a restriction on theca-
tional opportunity of non-Whites, firstly because the question is that
the frustration is caused by the racial prejudice on the part of the
Whites which in itself must be eliminated and secondly because a more
important matter is to open to the non-Whites the future possibility
of social promotion. Therefore, the reason of the frustration of non-
Whites cannot bejustified.

Finally, we wish to make the following conclusiveand supplementary
remarks on the matter of the Applicants' Submissions Nos. 3 and 4.
1. The principle of equality before the law requires that what are
equal are to be treated equally and what are different are to be treated
differently. The question arises: what is equal and what is different.
2. Al1 human beings, notwithstanding the differences in their ap-
pearance and other minor points, are equal in their dignity as persons.

Accordingly, from the point of view of human rights and fundamental
freedoms, they must be treated equally.

3. The principle of equality does not mean absolute equality, but
recognizes relative equality, namely different treatment proportionate
to concrete individual circumstances. Different treatment must not be
given arbitrarily; it requires reasonableness, or must be in conformity
with justice, as in the treatment of minorities, different treatment of the
sexesregarding public conveniences,etc. In thesecases,the differentiation
is aimed at the protection of those concerned, and it is not detrimental
and therefore not against their will. 4. Discrimination according to the criterion of "race, colour, national
or tribal origin" in establishing the rights and duties of the inhabitants
of the territory is not considered reasonable and just. Race, colour,
etc., do not constitute in themselves factors which can influence the
rights and duties of the inhabitants as in the case of sex, age, language,
religion, etc. If differentiation be required, it would be derived from the
difference of language, religion, custom, etc., not from the racial differ-
ence itself. In the policy of apartheid the necessary logical and material
link between differenceitself and different treatment, which can justify
such treatment in the case of sex, minorities, etc., does not exist.

We cannot imagine in what case the distinction between Natives and
Whites, namely racial distinction apart from linguistic, cultural or other
differences, may necessarily have an influence on the establishment of
the rights and duties of theinhabitants of the territory.

5. Consequently, the practice of apartheid is fundamentally unreason-
able and unjust. The unreasonableness and injustice do not depend
upon the intention or motive of the Mandatory, namely its mala5des.
Distinction on a racial basis is in itself contrary to the principle of
equality whichisof the character of natural law, and accordingly illegal.

The above-mentioned contention of the Respondent that the policy
of apartheid has a neutral character, as a tool to attain a particular end,
is not right. If the policy of apartheid is aeans, the axiom that the end
cannot justify the means can be applied to this policy.

6. As to the alleged violation by the Respondent of the obligations
incumbent upon it under Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate, the
policy of apartheid, including in itself elements not consistent with the
principle of equality before the law, constitutes a violation of the said
Article, because the observance of the principle of equality before the

law must be considered as a necessary condition of the promotion of
the material and moral well-beingandthe social progress of the inhabi-
tants of the territory.
7. As indicated above, so far as the interpretation of Article 2,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate is concerned, only questions of a legal
nature belong to the matter upon which the Court is competent. Diverse
activities which the Respondent as Mandatory carries out as a matter
of discretion, to achieve the promotion of the material and moral well-
being and the social progress of the inhabitants, fa11outside the scope
of judicial examination as matters of a political and administrative
nature.
Accordingly, questions of whether the ultimate goal of the mandates
system should be independence or annexation, and in the first alternative
whether a unitary or federal system in regard to the local administration
is preferable, whether or in what degree the principle of indirect rule or

312respect for tribal custom may or must be introduced-such questions,
which have been very extensively argued in the written proceedings as
well as in the oral proceedings, have,espite their substantial connection
with the policy of apartheid, no relevance to adecision on the question
of apartheid, fromthe legalviewpoint.

These questions are of a purely political or administrative character,
the study and examination of which might have belonged or may belong
to competent organs of the League or the United Nations.

8. The Court cannot examine and pronounce the legality or ille-
galityof the policy of apartheid as a whole; it can decide that there exist
some elements in the apartheid policy which are not in confor-

mity with the principle of equality before the law or interna-
tional standard or international nom of non-discrimination and non-
separation. The Court can declare if it is requested to examine the
laws, proclamations, ordinances and other governmental measures
enacted to implement the policy of apartheid in the light of the principle
of equality. For the purpose of the present cases, the foregoing con-
sideration of a few points as illustrations may be sufficientto establish
the Respondent's violation of the principle of equality, and accordingly
its obligations incumbent upon it by Article 2, paragraph 2, of the
Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant.
9. Measures complained of by the Applicants appear in themselves
to be violations of some ofthe human rights and fundamental freedoms
such as rights concerning the security of the person, rights of residence,
freedom of movement, etc., but such measures, being applied to the
"Natives" only and the "Whites" being excluded therefrom, these
violations, if they exist, may constitute, at the same time, violations of
the principle of equality and non-discrimination also.
In short, we interpret the Applicants' SubmissionsNos. 3 and 4 in

such a way that their complaints include the violation by the Respondent
of two kinds of human rights, namely individualhuman rights and rights
to equal protection of the law. Thereis no doubt that the Respondent as
Mandatory is obliged to protect al1 human rights and fundamental
freedoms including rights to equal protection of the law as a necessary
prerequisite ofthe material and moral well-beingand the social progress
of the inhabitants of the Territory. By this reason, what has been ex-
plained above about the principle of equality in connection with Article
38, paragraph 1 (c), is applicable to human rights and fundamental
freedoms in general.
10. From thû procedural viewpoint, two matters must be considered.
The one is concerned with the effect ofthe Applicants' amendment of
the Subrnissions Nos. 3 and 4 (Memorials, 15 April 1961,pp. 197-199)
by the submissions of 19 May 1965(C.R. 65/35). Since the amendment
of the submissions is allowed until the stage of oral proceedings, and
the amendment was made within the scope of the claim set forth in the
Applications, there is no reason to deny its effectiveness.Furthermore,

313we wish to mention that the Respondent raised no objection during the
course of the oral proceedings regarding the amendment.
The other is concerned with the question of choice by the Court of the
reasons underlyingits decisions.
Concerning this question, we consider that, although the Court is
bound by the submissions of the Parties, it is entirely free to choose the
reasons for its decisions. The Parties may present and develop their own
argument as to the interpretation of the provisions of the Mandate, the
Covenant, the Charter, etc., but the Court, so far as legal questions are
concerned, quite unfettered by what has been put forward by the Parties,
can exercise its power of interpretation in approving or rejecting the
submissions of the Parties.

For the foregoing reasons, the Applicants' Submissions Nos. 3 and 4
are well-founded.

We shali now examine the Applicants' other submissions one by one.

Final Submission No. 5 alleges that the-
"Respondent, by word and by action, has treated the Territory
in a manner inconsistent with the international status of the Terri-
tory, and has thereby impeded opportunities for self-determination
by the inhabitants of the Territory; that such treatment is in vio-
lation of Respondent's obligations as stated in the first paragraph

of Article 2 of the Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant; that
Respondent has the duty forthwith to cease such actions, and to
refrain from similar actions in the future; and that Respondent
has the duty to accord full faith and respect to the international
status of the Territory;" (C.R. 65/35,p. 70).

The Respondent's acts allegedto be inconsistent with the international
status of the Territory are as follows (Memorials, Chap. VIII, pp.
189-194):

(a) General conferral of Union citizenship upon inhabitants of the
Territory.
(b) Inclusion of representativesfrom South West Africa in the Union
Parliament.
(c) Administrative separation of the Eastern Caprivi Zipfel from the
Territory.
(d) The vesting of South West Africa Native Reserve Land in the
South Africa Native Trust and the transfer of administration of
"Native" affairs to the Union's Minister of Bantu Administration
and Development.

Concerning (a):that the status ofthe Nativeinhabitants ofa mandated
territory is distinct from that of the nationals of the mandatory power,
and, therefore, that the Native inhabitants are not invested with the
nationality of the mandatory Power by reason of the protection extended
314to them, was made clear by a resolution of 23 April 1923of the Council

of the League of Nations. (League of Nations, Oflcial Journal, 1923,
p. 604; cited in Memorials, p. 190.) This is the natural consequence of
the fact that sovereigntydoes not rest with a mandatory Power and that
it possesses no sovereign power over the mandated territory and the
inhabitants.

Concerning South West Africa, the question of the status of the in-
habitants had been regulated by an Act of 1926 (No. 18 of 1926)and
an Act of 1927(No. 40 of 1927),which were repealed in 1949by the Act
at present in force-the South African Citizenship Act, 1949 (No. 44
of 1949). By the latter Act, under section 2 (2), inhabitants of South
West Africa who were born there and were domiciledthere automatically
became citizens of the Union by virtue of their place of birth.
Of course the individual inhabitants of the Territory can voluntarily
obtain naturalization from the mandatory Power. But the compulsory
mass conferment of the Respondent's citizenship, having regard to the
spirit of the Mandate and the international status of the mandated
territory, cannot be justified. The Respondent may find it difficult to
defend itself against the charge of possessing the avowed intention of
piece-meal incorporation amounting to de facto annexation.

The effect of the general confeiment of Union citizenship upon the
inhabitants of the Territory does not remain a purely theoretical one.
It may have an important significancein the matter of the right of the

inhabitants to address petitions to the United Nations Organization.
If the general conferment be valid and if the inhabitants of the Territory
acquire citizenship of the Union, they would lose the right of petition
to the United Nations which they have had, and their right of petition
-being the subject's right-could only be exercised against the highest
legislativeand administrative authority in the land, namely South Africa.

Weconsider that the act of the general conferment of Union citizenship
upon the inhabitants of the Territory, being inconsistent with the inter-
national status of the Territory, goes beyond the scope and limit of the
discretionary power recognized by Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Man-
dateand that Article 2,paragraph 1,ofthe Mandate, which stipulates that
". .. the Mandatory shall have full power of administration and legis-
lation over the territory subject to the present Mandate as an integral
portion of the Union of South Africa to the territory" (italics added),
cannot be interpreted to justify such general conferment of Union
citizenship. The reason for this is supposed to be that this provision
recognizes such power in respect of administrative and legislativematters
in the 'C'mandate because of the technical consideration of expediency
and economy whilst not allowing highly political acts which may affect
the international status of the Territory.

Concerning (b): the South West Africa Amendment Act (Act No. 23

315of 1949)provides for the inclusion of elected representatives from South
West Africa in both the Senate and the House of Assembly ofthe Union
Parliament. The same Act, in addition to deleting all references to the
Mandate as such from the Union Statutes, makes no distinction between
the representatives of the Territory and those elected from the provinces
of the Union. The representatives of the Territory possess the same right
to speak and to vote on matters regarding the Union also.

Apart from the question of the discriminatory policy of the Union
concerning the election of the territorial representatives, namely election
only by "Europeans", we are unable to overlook the important signi-
ficance of the fact of the inclusion of elected South West African repre-
sentatives. This amendment does not appear to come within the Manda-
tory's "power of administration and legislation over the territory ...
as an integral portion of the Union of South Africa" (Article 2,paragraph
1); it means far more than a simple administrative measure which, as

providing for treatment as an integral portion of the Union, ispermitted
by the said provision; it is an act of a constitutional nature which influ-
ences both South Africa and the Territory of South West Africa, which
particularly affect> the international status of the Territory as "an
important step towards the political integration of the Territory into
the Union" (Report of the Committee on South West Africa, U.N.,
G.A., O.R., 11th Sess. Supp. No. 12 at 8 (A/3151) (1956), cited in the
Memorials, pp. 192and 193),and which implies the incorporation into
South Africa of the Territory of South West Africa as a fifth province.

Therefore, the Respondent cannot justify the inclusion of the repre-
sentatives from South West Africa by referring to the phrase "as an
integral portion of the Union" in Article 2, paragraph 1,of the Mandate.
The act of the Respondent is inconsistent with the international status
of the Territory recognized by the provisions of Article 22 of the Cove-
nant as well as by the Mandate for South West Africa.

Concerning (c): heading (c) is concerned with the question of the

administrative separation of the Eastern Caprivi Zipfel from the Terri-
tory. This part of the Territory of South West Africa, a narrow strip in the
north-eastern corner of the Territory, has been subject to frequent
change in the mode of its administration since the inception of the
Mandate on South West Africa. The main reason thereof lies in
geographical factors, namely the remoteness of this region from the
administrative centre of the Territory, Windhoek, and the difficulties of
accessto it.
In 1939, the Union enacted Proclamation No. 147, transferring
administration of the Eastern Caprivi Zipfel from the Administrator of
South West Africa to the Union directly. In 1955the report of the Com-
mittee on South West Africa condemned this separation as a violation
of the Mandate, the main reason thereof appears to be that- "... such a separation is likely to prejudice consideration (b) of the
'General Conditions' which must be fulfilled before the Mandate
régimecan be brought to an end in respect of the countries placed
under that régime,approved by the Council of the League on
4 September 1931,namely, that 'It [the territory] must be capable
of maintaining its territorial integrity and political independenc".
(Report of the Committee on South West Africa, U.N. G.A., O.R.,
10th Sess., Supp. No. 12 at p. 10 (A/2913), 1955, cited in the Mem-
orials, pp. 193and 194.)
We cannot deny that geographical factors can play an important
role in determining systems and measures of administration. We con-
sider that the phrase "subject to such local modifications as circumstances
may require" (Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Mandate) can be referred
to in considering this kind of issue and that the decision of existence
or otherwise of the necessity for the separate administration of this

area cornes entirely within the discretionary power of the Mandatory
conferred on him by the said provision of the Mandate. Furrhermore,
we consider that the administrative separation, being in itself of a
technical nature, cannot have an effectdetrimental to what the "General
Conditions" would expect to be realized.

Accordingly, the Applicants' contention on this matter is not well-
founded.
Concerning (d): this heading includes two points. As to the first
point, apart from the possibility of consideration from the angle of
Article 2, paragraph 2, particularly as regards the policy of apartheid
or separate development, the vestingof South West Africa Native Reserve
Land in the South African Native Trust is a measure which is of an
administrative nature and in which economic considerations are pre-
dominant; therefore, it has nothing to do with the international status
of the Territory. It belongs to matters within the discretionary power
of the Respondent as Mandatcry, as in the case of (c). Concerning the
second point, namely "the transfer of administration of 'Native' affairs
to the Union's Minister of Bantu Administration and Development",
we have only to refer to what has been said on (c) and the first point
of (d).

For the above-mentioned reasons the Applicants' contention under
(d) is not well-founded.

In the submissions (original as well as final) the Applicants state
that the Respondent continued to have the obligation to transmit petitions
from the inhabitants of the Territory (Submission No. 2) and that the

Respondent has failed to transmit to the General Assembly of the United
Nations petitions from the Territory's inhabitants addressed to the
General Assembly; that such failure is a violation of its obligations as
317 Mandatory and that the Respondent has the duty to transmit such
petitions to the General Assembly (Submission No. 8).
There is no provision on petitions either in Article 22 of the Covenant
or in the Mandate. The only legal basis for the reference made by the
Applicants is the Rules adopted by the Council of the League of Nations
on 31 January 1923,relating to petitions from mandated territories. The
mandates afterthe First World War did not mention the right of petition,
the reason being that this right was "regarded as a natural concomitant
of the system established by the Covenant ... The receipt and exami-
nation of petitions became subsequently one of the main features of the
system of mandates" (Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, International Law and
Human Rights, 1950,pp. 244-245).If there were no guarantee through
the recognition of a right of petition, the fuElment of the protection
of human rightsand fundamental freedomsin general andinthe mandates
might be illusory.This right is inherent in the concept of the body politic
and other political institutions. Even if the right of petition is not based
upon any legal provision, it is "in asense a natural right" (Duncan Hall,
Mandates, Dependenciesand Trusteeslzip, 1948, p. 198). In this sense
the above-mentioned "League of Nations Rules" and the provision of
the Charter concerning the competence of the Trusteeship Council
(Article 87 (b)) have no more than a confirmatory meaning.

The right of petition entails the obligation of the Mandatory to
transmit petitions to the supervisory organ for acceptance and exami-
nation. In this respect, what is said about the survival of international
supervision, despite the dissolution of the League and the replacement
of the Council of the League by the General Assembly as the supervisory
organ, can be applied to the right of petition.

From what is stated above, it can be concluded that the obligation
of the Mandatory to transmit to the General Assembly petitions from
the inhabitants of the Teiritory exists; therefore Submission No. 2
concerning petitions is well-founded.
Next, it is clear from the pleadings and oral hearing that the Respon-
dent has failed to comply with this obligation; accoidingly, Submission
No. 8 is well-founded.

The Applicants' Final SubmissionNo. 6 reads as follows:
"Respondent has established military bases within the Territory
in violation of its obligation as stated in Article 4 of the Mandate
and Article 22 of the Covenant; that Respondent has the duty
forthwith to remove al1such military bases from within the Terri-
tory; and that Respondent has the duty to refrain from the establish-
ment of military bases within the Territory."

Article 4 of the Mandate based on a part of Article 22 (5) provides: "The military training of the natives other than for purposes
of internal police and the local defence of the Territory, shall be
prohibited. Furthermore, no military or naval bases shall be es-
tablished or fortifications erected in the Territory."

The second sentence of Article 4 characterizes the status of the man-
dated territory concerning militarization. It declares the military neutrali-
zation of the Territory by prohibiting the establishment of military or
naval bases or the erection of fortifications. The Mandatory is not
permitted to utilize the Territory, by means of bases or fortifications,
for military puiposes. This is a limitation imposed upon the authority
of the Mandatory concerning the material element of the military
functions which may be exercized bythe Mandatory.

The first sentence of Article 4 of the Mandate prohibits the military
training of the Natives. It may be said that the spirit of this provision
is to be found in a humanitarian consideration, namely the prohibition
of the militaristic exploitation of the indigenous population.
However, the prohibition of the military training of the Natives is
not absolute; the military training of the Natives for the purposes of
internal police and the local defence of the Territory is permissible.
The reason thereof may be that the internal police and the local defence
are not related to the humanitarian idea of this provision.
The first sentence of Article 4 refers only to the training of Natives;
it remains silent on that of White people. Accordingly, it is doubtful
whether military training in general or at least for the purposes of
internal police and local defenceis permissible.
That the training of Whites for the purposes of internal police and
local defence is not to be deemed to be prohibited, can be assumed from
the fact that the provision relates only to Natives and that there is no

reason to prohibit the training of Whites for the purposes of internal
police and local defencefrom the viewpoint of the military neutralization
of the Territory.
Nevertheless, the question is whether military training otherwise than
for the purposes of internal police and local defence is also permissible
for the Whites. We consider that the provision aiming at the protection
of Natives is not concerned with Whites, and that the military training
of Whites in general is not inconsistent with the principle of neutrali-
zation of the Territory. This principle must be considered as not incon-
sistent with the Respondent's right and duty to defend the Territory in
the event of its being attacked.
Such right and duty must be performed and exercisedwithin the limit
prescribed by Alticle 4, namely without establishing military bases and
without erecting fortifications. Within this limit the Respondent is
considered to be permitted to maintain facilities fol the training of
non-Natives in the Territory.

A few points must be clarified relating to the arguments between
the Parties. As to whether the military bases must be related to aggressive
designs or not, the conclusion must be in the negative. The Court mustdecide the question objectively; it is not concerned with the examination
of the Respondent's motive for establishing military bases.

The question whether a common feature of a military base is that
a base is something utilized by a force ,or an army for the purposes of
operations or for a campaign or not, must be answered in the affirmative
in the sense that the prohibition has a practical meaning mostly in time
of peace and that the purposes of operations or of a campaign are
inherent in the potential meaning. The question whether the place in the
Respondent's administrativehierarchyand chain of command determines
that it is a military base or not, must be answered in the negative. The
question of administrative hierarchy and command can have no bearing
on the substantive character of a milita^ base.
As to the Applicants' submission,it is the military bases alleged to be
established in the Territory by the Respondent that are in question, not

the military training of the Natives. The Applicants allege that the Re-
spondent maintains three military bases within the Territory, which are
the Regiment Windhoek, a military landing ground in the Swakopmund
District of South West Africa and "at least one military facility in or
near the Kaokoveld" in part of the Territory.

The Applicants, however, presented no direct evidence to establish
their charge. Their charge was based simply on "information and
belief" (Memorials, p. 181) on which the Applicants refrained from
calling evidence on the pait of their informants. On the contrary, the
Respondent produced direct evidence in contradiction of the evidence
of the Applicants based on information and belief. Testimony given
by a witness-expert,who made inspection of the three placesin September
1965and who was presented by the Respondent at the oral proceedings,
made upon us a strong impression of the absence of any military base
at the three places mentioned above. On the other hand, the Applicants
neither produced any evidence in contradiction thereof nor disputed it
in cross-examination.

On the evidence before the Court the Respondent did not establish
any military or naval bases in the Territory. Therefore, Applicants'
Submission No. 6 is not well-founded.

The Applicants' SubmissionNo. 9 reads as follows:
"Respondent has attempted to modify substantially the terms
of the Mandate, without the consent of the United Nations; that
such attempt is in violation of its duties as stated in Article 7 of
the Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant; and that the consent
of the United Nations is a necessary prerequisite and condition
precedent to attempts on the part of Respondent directly or indi-
rectly to modify the terms of the Mandate."

320 323 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS. OP.TANAKA)

The answer to this question depends upon the nature of Article 7 (1)
of the Mandate. Does this provision declare the prohibition of unilateral
modification ofthe Mandate by the Respondent in viewofthe contractual
nature of the Mandate or doesit imposesomeduty upon the Respondent
to abstain from conduct contrary to the provisions of the Mandate?
In Our view Article 7 (1) must be interpreted in the sense of the first
alternative.Thisprovision simply definesa condition for the modification
or amendment of the terms of the Mandate, namely the consent of the

Council ofthe League ofNations. Thisprovision is ofa purely procedural
nature. Its non-observance merely produces the effect that the modifi-
cation cannot take place.

The Applicants' charge in the Applications rested on the fact that the
Respondent had substantially modified the terms of the Mandate and
also had attempted to do so and, in the Memorials, that the Respondent
attempted to modify the terms of the Mandate.

Whether the alleged conduct of the Respondent is the modification
or the attempts to modify,the result isthe same.
Modification isimpossible solongasthe consent ofthe United Nations
islacking. Since the attempts presuppose the possibility of modification,
they are also impossible without the consent of the United Nations.

The facts relied upon by the Applicants to establish the attempts
by the Respondent to modify the Mandate are not specified in Final
Submission No. 9, but they are referred to in Chapters V, VI, VI1 and
VI11 of the Memorials (Submission No. 9). Chapters V, VI and VI11
deal with allegedviolations of Article 2 of the Mandate and Chapter VI1
deals with alleged violations of Article 4 of the Mandate.

If the alleged violation ofhese Articles exists, the violation is simply
concerned with the individual provisions and not with Article 7, para-
graph 1.
A few additional remarks may be made on this Article of the Man-
date.
The prohibition of unilateral modification exists not only in regard
to theMandatorybut in regard to the League ofNations also.

Article 7, paragraph 1, possesses essential meaning for the surviving
Mandate after the dissolution of the League just as does Article 6 in
regard to administrative supervision. The General Assembly of the
United Nations was therefore substituted for the Council of the League.

So long as the Mandate survives on an institutional basis after the
dissolution of the League, the necessityfor the future amendment of the
Mandate by consent of both parties does subsist. In this sense the
contractual element is recognized as remaining together with the insti-
tutional elements.
Moreover, this claim of the Applicants, namely that an attempt to

321modiiy the terms of the Mandate is a breach of Article 7, paragraph 1,
can be recognized as part of the dispute between the Parties which
existed prior to the Application in the sense that the claim constitutes a
development of thesame dispute.
For the reason indicatedbove, the Applicants' Submission No. 9 is
not weU-founded.

(Signed Kotaro TANAKA.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE TANAKA

On 4 November 1960, the Governments of Liberia and Ethiopia
(hereinafter referred to as the "Applicants") submitted an Application
to this Court to institute proceedings against the Union of South Africa,
now the Republic of South Africa (hereinafter referred to as the "Res-
pondent"). The Respondent filed four preliminary objections relating
to the jurisdiction of the Court.These objections having been dismissed
by a Judgrnent dated 21 December 1962 and the written and oral
pleadings on the merits being completed, the Court has now to decide
on the submissions of the Applicants presented to the Court in the
Memorials and amended by the Applicants during the course of the oral
proceedings (on 19 May 1965).
One of these preliminary objections rejected by the 1962 Judgment
was the third preliminary objection which related to the nature of the
dispute brought before the Court by the Applicants, namely to the
question of the existence of their legal right or interest. This matter
again, at this stage of the proceedings, has been taken up by the Court
and examined, but from the viewpoint of the merits.
Here, attention must be drawn to the Court's characterization of
the question of the Applicants' legal interest, namely its statement
that "there was one matter that appertained to the merits of the case
but which had an antecedent character, namely the question of the
Applicants' standing in the present phase of the proceedings ... the
question ... of their legal right or interest regarding the subject-matter

of their claim, as set out in their final submissions".
The result is that the Applicants' claims are declared to be rejected
on the ground of the lack of any legal right or interest appertaining to
them in the subject-matter of the present claims and that the 1962
Judgment is substantively overruled concerning its decision on the third
preliminary objection.
Although we do not deny the power of the Court to re-examine
jurisdictional and oiher preliminary matters at any stage of proceedings
proprio motu, we consider that there arenot sufficientreasons to overrule
on this point the 1962Judgment and that the Court should proceed to
decide the questions of the "ultimate" merits which have arisen from
the Applicants' final submissions.
We are again confronted with the question whether the Applicants
possess a legal right ornterest in theproper discharge by the Respondent,
as the Mandatory, of the obligations incumbent upon it by virtue of
the "conduct clauses" in the mandate agreement. OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. TANAKA
[Traduction]
1

Le 4 novembre 1960, le Gouvernement du Libéria et le Gouverne-
ment de 17Ethiopie (ci-après dénommésles demandeurs) ont déposé
devant la Cour une requête introductive d'instance contre l'Union
sud-africaine, aujourd'hui la République sud-africaine (ci-après dénom-
mée le défendeur).Le défendeur asoulevéquatre exceptionspréliminaires
relativesà la juridiction de la Cour. Ces exceptions ayant étérejetées
par un arrêt endate du 21 décembre1962et la procédure écriteet orale
sur le fond étant achevée,la Cour doit désormais se prononcer sur les
conclusions que les demandeurs lui ont présentéesdans leurs mémoires
et qu'ils ont modifiéesau cours de la procédure orale, le 19 mai 1965.

L'une des exceptions préliminaires rejetées par l'arrêtde 1962, la
troisième, concernait la nature du différendporté devant la Cour par
les demandeurs, c'est-à-dire la question de l'existence de leur droit ou
intérêt juridique.La Cour, au stade actuel de la procédure, a repris et
réexaminé cette question, mais du point de vue du fond.

Il y a lieu ici de s'arrêtersur la définitionque la Cour donne de la
question de l'intérêtjuridique des demandeurs, lorsqu'elle déclare:
<il sepose une question relevant du fond mais ayant un caractère priori-
taire: elle concerne la qualité des demandeurs en la phase actuelle de
la procédure ...la question...de leur droit ou intérêjturidique au regard

de l'objet dela demande telle qu'elle a éénoncéedans leurs conclusions
finales)).
En somme, on déclare rejeter les demandes pour le motif que les
demandeurs n'ont aucun droit ou intérêtjuridique au regard de l'objet
de leurs demandes et l'on infirme en grande partie la décision prisedans
l'arrêt de1962 sur la troisième exception préliminaire.

Nous ne contestons pas à la Cour le pouvoir de réexaminer de son
propre chef, à n'importe quel stade de la procédure, des questions
de compétence et autres questions préliminaires mais nous estimons

que les raisons manquent pour infirmer sur ce point l'arrêt de 1962
et que la Cour devrait trancher les questions touchant irréductiblement
au fond que soulèvent les conclusions finales des demandeurs.
Nous nous trouvons à nouveau devant la question de savoir si les
demandeurs possèdent un droit ou intérêtjuridique à ce que le dé-
fendeur, en sa qualité de Mandataire, s'acquitte comme il convient
des obligations qui lui incombent en vertu des ((dispositions relatives
à la gestion)) figurant dans l'accord de Mandat.

248 A negative conclusion is derived either from the nature of the interest,
or from the capacity of the Applicants.
It is argued that the dispute brought before the Court by the Applicants
does not affect any material interest of the Applicant States or their
nationals and is not envisagedin Article7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate.

The Mandate, as is stated in more detail below, presents itself, eco-
nomically and sociologically,as an aggregate of several kinds of interest.

The personal structure of the mandates system is very complicated
and sui generis b;sides the mandatory, the League and the inhabitants
of the territories, there are persons who are connected with the mandate
in some way, particularly those who collaborate in the establishment or
in the proper functioning of this system, such as the Principal Allied

and Associated Powers and the Members of the League.

The interests corresponding to the categories of persons mentioned
are multiple. Here, only the interest of Members of the League is in
question, since the question of the existence of a legal interest of the
Applicants as former Members of the League has now to be determined.
The interests which may be possessed by the member States of the
League in connection with the mandates system, are usually classifiedin
two categories. The first one is the so-called national interest which
includes both the interest of the member States as States andthe interest
of their nationals (Article 5 of the Mandate). The second one is the
common or general interest, which the member States possess in the
proper performance by the mandatory of the mandate obligations.
Whether the adjudication clause, namely Article 7, paragraph 2, of
the Mandate can cover both kinds of interests, or only the first one,
namely national interest, is the question that has to be answered in
the present cases.

Here, we must recognize the fact that the above-mentioned two
kinds of interests are different from each other. The first category of
interest although related to the Mandate, is of an individual nature
and each member State of the League may possess such an interest
regarding the mandated territory, incidentally, that is to say, for some
reason other than the Mandate itself. The second category of interest
emanates from the sphere of social or corporate law concerning the
function of the League in regard to the Mandate. The member States
of the League are in the position of constituting a persona1 element of
the League and its organs and, consequently, are interested in the
realization of the objectives of the mandates system and in the proper
administration of mandated territories. The interest which the member
States possess concerning the Mandate is, in its content, the same for
al1Members of the League, and is therefore general and uniform in the
case of each member State, thereby differing from the first category
of interest, which emanates from the individual sphere. However, the
fact that it is of this naturedoes not prevent it from possessing the

249 II est répondunégativement à cette question, soià raison de la nature
de l'intérêt,soità raison de la qualité des demandeurs.
La thèse soutenue est que le différendsoumis à la Cour par les de-
mandeurs ne porte nullement altein:e aux intérêts concretsdes Etats
demandeurs ni de leurs ressortissants et n'est pas prévupar les disposi-
tions du deuxième alinéade l'article 7 du Mandat.

Le Mandat, comme nous le verrons plus en détailci-après,se présente
du point de vue économique et sociologique, comme un faisceau d'in-
térêts deplusieurs catégories.
L'dément personnel dans la structure du système des Mandats est
extrêmement complexeet suigeneris; outre le Mandataire, la Société
des Nations et les habitants des territoires, certaines personnes sont
d'une manière ou d'une autre liéesau Mandat, notamment celles qui
collaborent àla mise en Œuvre ou àla bonne marche du système, comme
les Principales Puissances alliées et associéeset les Etats Membres de
la Sociétédes Nations.
Les intérêts concernant ces diverses catégories de personnes sont

multiples. Ici, seul l'intérêt stats Membres de la Société desNations
est en cause, puisqu'il s'agit désormaisde savoir si les demandeurs ont
un intérêt juridiqueen leur qualité d'anciens Membres de la Société.
Les intérêts queles Etats Membres de la Société desNations peuvent
avoir au regard du système des Mandats sont généralement classée sn
deux catégories.Il s'agit, d'unepart, de ce qu'on appellel'intérêt national,
qui recouvre à la fois l'intérêt deEtats Membres en tant qu'Etats et
l'intérêdte leurs ressortissants (articleu Mandat). Il y a, d'autre part,
l'intérêctommun ou général desEtats Membres à ce que le Mandataire
s'acquitte comme il convient des obligations découlant du Mandat.
La question de savoir si laclausejuridictionnelle énoncéeau deuxième

alinéade l'article7 du Mandat est applicable aux deux catégories d'in-
térêts ouseulement àla première - l'intérêntational- est précisément
la question à laquelle il faut répondre en Baprésente instance.
Nous devons ici reconnaître que les deux catégories susmentionnées
d'intérêts diffèrenlt'une de l'autre.L'iiitéretde la première catégorie,
tout en étant liéau Mandat, est par nature individuel et chaque Etat
Membre de la Société desNations peut posséderun intérêd t e cet ordre,
concernant le territoire sous Mandat, defaçon, pour ainsi dire, incidente,
c'est-à-dire pour une raison sans rapport avec le Mandat lui-même.
L'intérêtde la seconde categorie est social et procède des fonctions
exercéespar la Sociétédes Nations relativement au Mandat. Les Etats

Membres de la Société desNations, représentant un élément personnel
au sein de la Sociétéet de ses organes, ont un intérêt à la réalisation
des objectifs du système des Mandats et àla bonne administration des
territoires placés sousMandat. L'intérêt que les Etats Membres possè-
dent relativement au Mandat est, quant à sa teneur, le mêmepour tous
ces Etats; il est donc général,uniforme pour chacun d'eux, différanten
cela de l'intérêtde la première catégorie,lequel ressortit au domaine
de l'individuel. Toutefois, ce n'en est pas moins, par nature, un intérêt.
11n'y a aucune raison pour qu'un intérêt nonconcret, non tangible,

249nature of interest. There is no reason why an immaterial, intangible
interest, particularly one inspired by the lofty hiimanitarian idea of a
"sacred trust of civilization" cannot be called "interest".

In short, the interest possessed by the member States of the League
as its Members is corporate and, rit the same time, idealistic. However,
this does not prevent it from being "interest".

The interest which the member States of the League possess regarding
the proper administration of the mandated territory by the Mandatory
is possessed by Members of the League individually, but it is vested
with a corporate character. Each Member of the League has this kind
of interest as a Member of the League, that is to say, in the capacity
of an organ of the League which is destined to carry out a function of
the League.
The question is, whether this kind of interest can be called "legal
interest", and whether law recognizes it as such.
The historical development of law demonstrates the continua1 process
of the cultural enrichment of the legal order by taking into consideration
values or interests which had previously been excluded from the sphere
of law. In particular, the extension of the object of rights to cultural,

and therefore intangible, matters and the legalization of social justice
and of humanitarian ideas which cannot be separated from the gradua1
realization of world peace, are worthy of our attention.

The fact that international law has long recognized that States may
have legal interests in matters which do not affect their financial, eco-
nomic, or other "material" or so-called "physical" or "tangible" interests
was exhaustively pointed out by Judge Jessup in his separate opinion
in the South West Africa cases, 1962 Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 1962,
pp. 425-428). As outstanding examples of the recognition of the legal
interests of Statesingeneral humanitarian causes,theinternational efforts
to suppress the slave trade, the minorities treaties, the Genocide Con-
vention and the Constitution of the International Labour Organisation
are cited.

We consider that in these treaties and organizations common and

humanitarian interests are incorporated. By being given organizational
form, these interests take the nature of "legal interest" and require
to be protected by specificprocedural means.
The mandates system which was created under the League, presents
itself as nothing other than an historical manifestation of the trend
of thought which contributed to establish the above-mentioned treaties
and organizations. The mandates system as a whole, by incorporating
humanitarian and other interests, can be said to be a "legal interest".

However, what is in question is not whether the Mandate is a legal
interest or not. What we are considering is not legal interest in itself,

250surtout s'il se rattacheà un grand principe humanitaire comme celui
d'une ((missionsacréedecivilisation »,ne puisse pas êtrequalifié d'intérêt.

En résumé,l'intérêt que les Etats Membres de la Société desNations
possèdent en qualité de Membres de l'organisation est social tout en
correspondant à un idéal. Maiscela ne l'empêchepas d'êtreun véritable
intérêt.

L'intérêt queles Etats Membres de la Société desNations possèdent
relativement à la bonne administration du territoire sous Mandat par le
Mandataire est un intérêtindividuel, mais il revêtun caractère social.
Chaque Membre possède cetintérêe tn qualitéde membre de l'organisa-
tion, c'est-à-dire entant qu'organe de la Société dNations devant rem-
plir une fonction de l'organisation.

La question se pose de savoir si ce type d'intérêtpeut êtrequalifié
d'intérêt juridiqueet s'il est reconnu comme tel en droit.
L'évolution historique du droit montre comment l'ordre juridique
s'enrichit constamment du point de vue culturel du fait qu'il tient de
plus en plus compte de valeurs ou d'intérêtsqui auparavant lui restaient
étrangers. En particulier, nous devons retenir que les droits peuvent
désormais s'étendre à des domaines culturels, donc non tangibles, et

que la justice sociale et les principes humanitaires prennent une forme
juridique indispensable à la réalisation progressive de la paix dans le
monde.
Le droit international reconnaît depuis longtemps que les Etats peu-
vent avoir un intérêtjuridique dans des questions qui ne touchent pas
à leurs intérêtsfinanciers, économiques ou autres intérêtsconcrets ou,
pourrait-on dire, physiques ou tangibles, comme M. Jessup l'a ainple-
ment montré dans l'opinion individuelle qu'il a jointe à l'arrêt de1962
sur les affaires du Sud-Ouest africain (C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 425-428).
Les efforts déployéssur le plan international pour éliminer la traite
des esclaves, les traités de minorités,la convention pour la prévention
et la répressiondu crime de génocideet la Constitution de l'Organisation
internationale du Travail sont parmi les exemples marquants que cite
M. Jessup pour montrer que l'on reconnaît l'intérêt juridiquedes Etats

dans les grandes causes humanitaires.
Nous estimons que des intérêts généraux d'ordre humanitaire se
concrétisentdans ces traitéset ces organisations. Une fois qu'ils revêtent
une forme institutionnelle, ces intérêtsprennent un caractère juridique
et doivent êtreprotégésau moyen de procédures bien définies.
Le svstème desMandats. créédans le cadre de la Société desNations.
n'est qu'une expression historique du courant de penséequi a favorisé
l'élaboration des traités susmentionnéset la mise en place des organisa-
tions précitées.Parce que le système des Mandats dans son ensemble
traduit notamment des intérêts humanitaires,on peut dire qu'il repré-
sente un intérêt juridique.
Quoi qu'il en soit, nous n'avons pas à résoudre le point de savoir si
le Mandat représente ou non un intérêt juridique.Nous examinons,but its relationship with persons who possess it, that is to say, the
question of the existence of a legal interest as a condition on which the
Applicants, as Members of the League, possess the right to have recourse
to the International Court.

Each member of a human society-whether domestic or international
-is interested in the realization of socialjustice and humanitarian ideas.
The State which belongs as a member to an international organization
incorporating such ideas must necessarily be interested. So far as the
interest in this case affects the rights and obligations of a State, it may
be called a legal interest. The State may become the subject or holder
of a legal interest regarding social justice and humanitarian matters,
but this interest includes its profound concern with the attitude of
other States, particularly member States belonging to the same treaty or
organization. In short, each State may possess a legal interest in the

observance of the obligations by other States.

In the mechanism of the above-mentioned treaties and organizations,
the procedural means to guaranteethe obsewance are provided, although
not in a uniform way, taking into consideration the difference in the
objective and structure of each treaty and organization.

The question is whether under Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate,
the Applicants possess a right to have recourse to the Court by reason
of a violation by the Respondent of certain conduct clauses provided by
the Mandate, namely whether the Applicants have a legal interest in
invoking the Court's jurisdiction concerning the obligations imposed
on the Respondent by the conduct clauses.
One of the arguments in denial of the Applicants' legal interest in
the Respondent's observanceof the conduct clausesisthat the Applicants
do not suffer any injuries from non-observance of the conduct clauses.

The Applicants, however, may not suffer any injuries in the sense that
their own State interests or the interests of their nationals are injured.
The injuries need not be physical and material, but may be psychological
and immaterial, and this latter kind of injuries may exist for the Appli-
cants in the case of non-observance by the Respondent of the conduct
clauses.
The supreme objectivesof the mandates system,namely the promotion
of the well-being and social progress of the inhabitants of the Territory
mentioned in Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate, in spite of their
highly abstract nature, cannot be denied the nature of a legal interest
in which al1Members of the League participate.

As we have seen above, there exist two categories of legalrelationships
in the mandates system from the viewpoint of the Members of the
League: the one is its individual side and the other is its corporate side.non pas l'intérêt juridiqueen soi, mais le lien qui l'unit aux personnes
qui le possèdent, autrement dit la question de savoir si l'existence d'un
intérêt juridique donne aux demandeurs, en tant qu'Etats Membres
de la Société desNations, le droit de saisir la Cour internationale de

Justice.
Tout membre d'une société humaine - sur le plan national comme
sur le plan international a intérê t la réalisationde la justice sociale
et de certains principes humanitaires.L'Etat membre d'une organisa-
tion internationale qui concrétise ces principes a nécessairement un
intérêtD. ans la mesure où l'intérêt touche auxdroits et aux obligations
d'un Etat, on peut le qualifier d'intérêt juridique.Etat peut devenir
le sujet ou le titulaire d'un intérêt juridiquerelatifla justice sociale
et à des questions humanitaires, mais cet intérêlt'oblige aussà se pré-
occuper beaucoup de l'attitude adoptéepar d'autres Etats, notamment
les Etats qui sont parties au mêmetraité que lui oumembres de la même
organisation. Bref, nous dirons que tout Etat peut avoir un intérêt
juridique à ce que les autres Etats s'acquittent des obligations qui leur
incombent.

Lesmécanismesmis en placepour l'application destraitéset la marche
des organisations susmentionnés prévoient des procédures garantissant
l'exécutionde ces obligations, bien que ces procéduresne soientpas uni-
formes et tiennent compte des différencesdans l'objectif et la structure
de chaque traité et de chaque organisation.
La question est de savoir si, en vertu du deuxièmealinéade l'article
du Mandat, les demandeurs possèdent le droit de saisir la Cour lorsque
le défendeurviole certaines dispositions du Mandat relatives à la ges-
tion; il s'agit donc de savoir si les demandeurs ont un intérêt juridique
à invoquer la juridiction de la Cour en ce qui concerne les obligations
que les dispositions relativesà la gestion imposent au défendeur.
Pour contester aux demandeurs tout intérêt juridique à l'exécution
par le défendeur des dispositions relatives à la gestion, on fait valoir
notamment que l'inobservation de ces dispositions n'infligeaux deman-

deurs aucun préjudice. Il se peut en effet que les demandeurs ne soient
atteints ni dans leurs intérêts nationaux propresni dans les intérêts de
leurs ressortissants. Mais le préjudicen'est pas nécessairementconcret
et physique,il peut êtrepsychologique et non tangible, et les demandeurs
peuvent subir des préjudicesde cet ordre si le défendeurne respecte pas
les dispositions relatives la gestion.
On ne saurait dire que les objectifs suprêmes dusystèmedes Mandats,
à savoir l'accroissement du bien-êtreet du progrès social des habitants
du territoire, dont il est question au deuxièmealinéa de l'article2 du
Mandat et qui ont un caractère extrêmementabstrait, ne correspondent
pas à un intérêt denature juridique dont bénéficienttous les Etats
Membres de la Société desNations.
Comme nous l'avons vu plus haut, il existe, dans le cadre du système
des Mandats, deux catégories de liens juridiques pour les Etats Mem-

bres de la Société desNations: un lien de caractère individuel et un lien
de caractère social.
251 Now, the existence of the corporate side in regard to the Mandate
is in question.
One ground for denying to a Member of the League the right to
have recourse to the International Court of Justice under Article 7,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate, seems to be that this right, being of a
public nature, cannot be exercised by a Member of the League. Only
the League could possess such right and exercise it notwithstanding
the fact that States only may become parties in cases before the Court.
If a Member of the League exercises a right which should belong to the
League as a whole, this would be nothing but an act ultra vires.

Here we must consider whether it is not legally impossible that in
the case of an organization an individual member of it can act as an
organ of the whole.
In the field of corporation law, such phenomena are highly developed.
In some countries we find the institution of a representative suit by
a shareholder against the administration. Each shareholder not only
possessesindividual rights in respect of dividends and rights to participate
in the assembly and to vote, but can behave independently of the ad-
ministration and of the assembly in bringing a law suit on behalf of
the corporation. In this case, in the position of a shareholder, the

corporate and individual elements are intermingled. As a result, even
if a Member of the League has a right to have recourse to the Inter-
national Court by virtue of Article 7, paragraph 2, on the ground of
non-compliance by the Mandatory with the obligations of Article 2,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate, it cannot be considered as unjuristic.
In the present cases, the Applicants appear formally in an individual
capacity as Members of the League, but they are acting substantially
in a representative capacity. That notonly the Council, but the Member
States of the League are equally interested in the proper administration
of the mandated territory, isquite natural and significant. In this respect,
the individual Member States of the League penetrate the corporate veil
of the League and function independently of the League.

There are two main reasonings upon which the Court's denial of
the Applicants' legal right now appears to be based. The one is the
juridical character and structureof the institution, the League of Nations,
within the framework of which the mandates system is both created
and enshrined. The League functions "through the instrumentality of
an Assembly and a Council" and "no role was reserved either by the
Covenant or the mandate instruments to individual members ...".

We cannot deny that the League and the mandates system possess

such structure that the member States as individuals are fundamentally
excluded from participation in the functioning of the League and the
mandates system and that rights cannot be derived from the mere fact
of membership of the organization in itself. The question remains as
252 Or, c'estl'existence d'un liendecaractère social parrapport au Mandat
qui est ici en cause.

L'un des motifs pour lesquels on conteste à un Etat Membre de la
Société desNations le droit de saisir la Cour internationale de Justice
en vertu du deuxième alinéade l'article 7 du Mandat paraît êtreque ce
droit, collectif par nature, ne peut pas êtreexercépar un Etat Membre
de la Société desNations. Seule la Sociétéelle-mêmepourrait avoir ce
droit et l'exercer, indépendamment du fait que seulsles Etats ont qualité
pour se présenter devant la Cour. Si un Etat Membre devait exercer
un droit n'appartenant qu'à la Sociétédans son ensemble, ce serait
purement et simplement un excèsde pouvoir.
Nous devons ici examiner le point de savoir s'il est juridiquement
possible qu'un membre d'une organisation soit fondé à agir pour le
compte de l'ensemble.

Dans le droit des sociétésde tels phénomènes sont très fréquents.
Certains pays connaissent l'institution du procès par représentation
qu'un actionnaire peut intenter àl'encontre de la direction de la société.
Non seulement un actionnaire possède des droits propres relativement
aux dividendes, le droit de participer aux travaux de l'assembléegéné-
rale de la sociétéet le droit de vote, mais il peut aussi agir indépen-
damment de la direction et de l'assembléeet engager une action au nom
de la société.En pareil cas, chez l'actionnaire, l'élément socialet l'élé-
ment individuel sont étroitement mêlésP . ar suite, on ne saurait consi-
dérer comme contraire au droit que les Etats Membres de la Société
des Nations soient habilités, enapplication du deuxième alinéade l'ar-
ticle 7,à intenter devant la Cour internationale une action contre le

Mandataire motif pris de ce qu'il ne s'acquitte pas des obligations que
lui impose le deuxième alinéade l'article 2 du Mandat. En la présente
instance, les demandeurs se présentent officiellement devant la Cour
à titre individuel, en qualitéd'Etats Membres de la Société desNations,
mais en réalité ils agissent titre de représentants. Que non seulement
le Conseil, mais les Etats Membres aient égalementintérêt à la bonne
administration du territoire sous Mandat est tout à fait normal et signi-
ficatif. A cet égard, les Etats Membres écartent le voile social de l'or-
ganisation et agissent indépendamment d'elle.
La Cour conteste le droit d'agir aux demandeurs en se fondant, sem-
ble-t-il, sur deux motifs principaux. Elle fait état, en premier lieu, de

la nature et de la structure juridiques de la Société desNations, insti-
tution dans le cadre de laquelle le système des Mandats a étécrééet
maintenu. cL'action de la Société ... s'exerce par une Assemblée et
un Conseil » et «ni le Pacte ni les actes de Mandat ne faisaient jouer
aux Membres de la Société desNations à titre individuel un rôle quel-
conque ...))
Il est indéniableque la Société desNations et le système des Mandats
ont une structure telle que les Etats Membres, à titre individuel, sont
fondamentalement exclus de leur fonctionnement et que le simple
fait d'appartenirà l'organisation ne créepas de droits en soi. Il reste
cependant à savoir si la structure sociale de la Société desNations s'op- to whether the corporate structure of the League excludesthe possibility
that the mandate instrument may confer upon the individual member
States the right to have recourse to the International Court on matters
concerning the "conduct" clause. The answer depends upon the inter-
pretation of Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate.
The other reasoning is, that, in the Court's opinion, the Applicants
do not possessa legal rjght directly or by a clearlynecessaryimplication,
through a substantive andnot merelyadjectivalprovision of theMandate
in the same way as they possess it by virtue of Article 5 of the Mandate
which is concerned with the so-called "national rights" of the Member
States. But in this case, whether a substantive right is conferred on

member States by that provision or not, is highly doubtful.

It seems that by the effect of this provision the member States and
their nationals are simply accorded an interest as beneficiaries in con-
nection with the proper administration of the Mandate. This fact is
clear from the first half of thesaid Article which is concerned with the
guarantee of freedom of conscience and the free exercise of al1 forms
of worship-matters which concern the inhabitants in general, and not
only the member States.
Although Article 5 of the Mandate is partly concerned with the
national interest of the member States of the League, the nature of this
provision is not fundamentally different from that of the rest of the
provisions of the Mandate. It possessesthe same nature asthe "conduct"
clause. It does not confer upon the member States any substantive right.
They receive only a certain benefit as a "reflective" effect ofthe mandate
instrument, but not any right as an effect of an independent juridical
act which does not exist.

Incidentally, Article5 of the Mandate mentions "al1 missionaries,
nationals of any State Member of the League of Nations". But this
phrase does not mean that any member State possessesa right concerning
its missionaries and nationals, because it is used simply to identify the
missionaries and nationals. Whether the member States of the League
possess the right of diplomatic protection is another matter.

Accordingly, the distinction between the "conduct" clause and the
"national" clause is not an essential one. The latter must be considered
as an integral part of the Mandatory's obligations which are derived
from the objectives of the mandates system, namely the promotion of
material and moral well-being and social progress. Whether some of
the obligations are related to theinterest of some of the member States
of the League or not, is quite immaterial to the nature of Article 5 of
the Mandate.

Therefore the classification of the mandate provisions into two

categories, namely the conduct clause and the national clause is of
secondary importance.
As to the argument that the substantive right of the Applicants must
253 SUD-OUEST AFRICAIN (OP. DISS.TANAKA) 255

pose à ce que l'instrument de Mandat confère aux Etats Membres, à
titre individuel, le droit de porter devant la Cour internationale de
Justice des différends concernant les dispositions relatives la gestion.
La réponse à cette question dépend de l'interprétation du deuxième
alinéa de l'article7 du Mandat.
L'autre motif retenu par la Cour est que les demandeurs ne pos-
sèdentpas de droit conféré, soit directement, soit implicitement mais
de manière claire et inéluctable, dans une disposition de fond et non une
simple disposition de procédure du Mandat, alors qu'ils possèdent un

tel droit en vertu de l'article5 du Mandat qui concerne ce que l'on
appelle les droits nationaux des Etats Membres. Mais, dans ce dernier
cas, il est extrêmement douteux qu'un droit touchant au fond soit
attribué aux Etats Membres.
Il semble en effet que cette disposition accorde simplement aux Etats
Membres et à leurs ressortissants un intérêt,à titre de bénéficiaires,
quant à la bonne administration du Mandat. Cela ressort clairement
du débutde cet article, qui vise à garantir la liberté de conscience et le
libre exercice de tous les cultes questions qui concernent les habitants
en général, etnon pas seulement les Etats Membres.

Bien que l'article 5 du Mandat vise en partie l'intérêt national des
Etats Membres de la Société desNations, il n'est pas par nature fonda-
mentalement différent de toutes les autres dispositions du Mandat. Il
est de la mêmenature que les dispositions relatives à la gestion. Il ne
confère aux Etats Membres aucun droit touchant au fond. Les Etats
Membres tirent en un certain sens quelque profit, comme par ricochet,
de l'instrument de Mandat mais ils n'en tirent aucun droit, comme ils
le pourraient par l'effet d'un acte juridique distinct qui n'existe pas.
Il y a lieu de noter par parenthèse que l'article 5 du Mandat fait men-

tion de ((tous les missionnaires, sujets ou citoyens de tout Membre de
la Société desNations ».Mais cela ne veut pas dire que tout Etat Mem-
bre, quel qu'il soit, ait des droits concernant ses missionnaires et ressor-
tissants, car le texte vise simplement préciser l'identité deces mission-
naires et ressortissants. Quantàsavoir si les Etats Membres ont le droit
de protection diplomatique, c'est une autre question.
Il n'y a donc pas de distinction fondamentale entre les dispositions
relativesà la gestion et les dispositions relatives aux droits nationaux.
Il faut considérer ces dernières dispositions comme faisant partie

intégrante des obligations du Mandataire, lesquelles procèdent direc-
tement des objectifs du système des Mandats, c'est-à-dire de la néces-
sité d'accroître le bien-être matériel etmoral et le progrès social des
habitants. Que certaines obligations concernent ou non l'intérêt d'Etats
Membres de la Société desNations ne change rien à la nature de I'ar-
ticle 5 du Mandat.
Par suite, distinguer dans le Mandat deux catégories de dispositions,
celles qui ont traitla gestion et celles qui ont trait aux droits nationaux,
ne revêtqu'une importance secondaire.
A propos de l'argument d'après lequelle droit des demandeurs doit

253be found, not in the jurisdictional, adjectival provision but in the sub-
stantive provision, we feel we should point out that in the Mandate the
substantive and procedural elements are inseparably intermingled and
that Article 7, paragraph 2, can confer substantive rights on the indi-
vidual member States of the League. This conclusion must be justified,
if we approve the above-mentioned viewpoint that ArticIe 5 of the
Mandate does not confer upon the member States of the League any
substantive right. The source of their right cannot be sought elsewhere
than in Article 7, paragraph 2, in connection with other provisions of
the Mandate.

In this connection, we cannot overlook the dissenting opinions of
Judges de Bustamante and Oda appended to the Judgment of the
Mavrommatis Concessions case. Both emphasize what they consider as
essential in the compromissory clause. Judge de Bustamante says:

"As the latter [the League of Nations] could not appear as a
party to a dispute concerning the application or interpretation of

the Mandate, having regard to the restrictive terms of Article 34
of the Court's Statute, it is the Members of the League who have
been authorized, in their capacity as Members, to bring before the
Court questions regarding the interpretation or application of the
Mandate." (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 81.)
"Whenever Great Britain as Mandatory performs in Palestine
under the Mandate acts of a general nature affecting the public
interest, the Members of the League-from which she holds the

Mandate-are entitled, provided that al1 other conditions are
fulfilled, to have recourse to the Permanent Court. On the other
hand, when Great Britain takes action affecting private interests
and in respect of individuals andprivate companies in her capacity
as the Administration of Palestine, there is no question of juridical
relations between the Mandatory and the Members of the League
from which she holds the Mandate, but of legal relations between
third parties who have nothing to do with the Mandate itself from
the standpoint of public law." (Ibid., pp. 81-82.)

Next, Judge Oda, pursuing the same idea more clearly, says:
"Since the Mandate establishes a special legal relationship, it is
natural that the League of Nations, which issued the Mandate,
should have rights of supervision as regards the Mandatory. Under
the Mandate, in addition to the direct supervision of the Council
of the League of Nations (Articles 24 and 25) provision is made
for indirect supervision by the Court; but the latter may only be

exercised at the request of a Member of the League of Nations
(Article 26). It is therefore to be supposed that an application by
such a Member must be made exclusively with a view to the pro-
tection of general interests and that its not admissible for a statenécessairementprocéder,non pas de la clausejuridictionnelle, c'est-à-dire
d'une disposition de procédure, mais de dispositions touchant au fond,
ily a lieu de souligner qu'à notre avis les éléments defond et les éléments
de procéduresont inextricablement liéslesuns aux autresdans le Mandat
et que le deuxième alinéade l'article 7 peut conférer desdroits de fond
aux Etats Membres de la Société desNations a titre individuel. C'est la
conclusion qui s'impose si l'on reconnaît, comme nous venons de
l'exposer, que l'article5 du Mandat ne confère aux Etats Membres
aucun droit touchant au fond. Les Etats Membres ne peuvent tenir
leur droit que du deuxième alinéa de l'article7, en liaison avec d'autres

dispositions du Mandat.
Sur ce point, nous ne pouvons pas ne pas tenir compte des opinions
dissidentes de MM. de Bustamante et Oda jointes à l'arrêtde la Cour
permanente dans l'affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis. L'un et l'autre
soulignent ce qui est pour eux essentiel dans la clause compromissoire.
M. de Bustamante s'exprime ainsi:

((Comme celle-ci [la Société desNations] ne pouvait pas compa-
raître en qualité de partie dans un litige relatif l'application ou
à l'interprétation du Mandat, étant donné les termes restrictifs
de l'article34 du Statut de la Cour, ce sont les Membres de la
Sociétéqui ont étéautorisése,nleur condition de Membres, à porter
devant la Cour les questions relatives l'interprétation ouà I'appli-
cation du Mandat. ))(C.P.I.J. sérieA no2, p. 81.)

((Chaque fois que le Grande-Bretagne, comme Mandataire, agit
dans la Palestine en vertu du Mandat d'une façon généraleet au
point de vue de l'intérêt publicl,es Membres dela Société mandante
ont le droit, toutes les autres conditions remplies, de demander
l'intervention de la Cour permanente. Au contraire, quand la
Grande-Bretagne agit au point de vue des intérêts particulierset
en face des individus ou des associations privéescomme autorité
publique en Palestine, nous ne sommes pas en présence derelations

juridiques entre le Mandataire et les Membres de la Sociétéman-
dante, mais en présence de relations juridiques entre des tiers qui
n'ont rien à faire avec le Mandat même,au point de vue du droit
public. »(Ibid., p. 81-82.)
M. Oda déclare plus clairement exore sur la mêmequestion:

«Etant donné que le Mandat institue des rapports juridiques
spéciaux,ilest naturel quela Sociétdes Nations, qui est le Mandant,
ait des droits de surveillance envers le Mandataire. Suivant le
Mandat, outre le droit de surveillance directe du Conseil de la
Société desNations (articles 24 et 25), un droit de surveillance

indirecte est donné àla Cour, à la condition qu'il puisse êtreexercé
seulement à la demande d'un Membre de la Société desNations
(article 26).l faut donc considérer que la requêtede celui-ci doit
être présentée exclusivement en vue de sauvegarder un intérêt
généralet que la simple subrogation de 1'Etat à un individu
254 simply to substitute itself for a private person in order to assert
his private claims." (Ibid., p. 86).
Although these views of the two dissenting Judges have remained
minority opinions on this matter and were recently criticized by Judge
Winiarski (dissenting opinion in South West Africacases, I.C.J. Reports

1962, pp. 450, 451), we cannot fail to attach importance to the fact
that, shortly after the inception of the mandates system, such opinions.
even if they were minority, existed.

Another strong argument raised by Judges Sir Percy Spender and
Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice in the joint dissenting opinion to the 1962
Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 1962, pp. 552, 553), against the admissibility
of the Applicants' claim is related to the character of interest which,
it is contended, does not allow a settlement to be achieved. The argu-
ments are related to the question of competencewith regard to settlement.
The dispute within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 2, must be
one which cannot be settled by negotiation.
Well, in the present cases, the dispute in which the interest is incorpo-
rated is of a humanitarian character which does not appear to be com-
patible with the possibility of settlement by negotiation. It will furnish
a strong reason to support the argument denying the admissibility of
the claim in the present cases, because the law suit is in some sense an
act ofdisposal ofinterest and, in this case,the dispute ismainly concerned

with fundamental human rights which are called inalienable.
The joint dissenting opinion (ibid., p. 551), denies the possibility of
settlement of the dispute by negotiation inter se-namely between the
Applicant and Respondent States. The reason seemsto be based, on the
one hand on the nature of the dispute which does not relate to their
own State interests or those of their nationals, but belongs to the
"conduct of the Mandate" type-the "sacred trust"; on the other hand,
on the incapability of any settlement negotiated between single States,
such as the Applicant States and the Mandatory.

The inherent incapability of settlement of subject-matter such as
the sacred trust, to be settled by negotiation, however,does not exclude
the possibility of compromise concerning detailed policies and measures
in order to implement the fundamental principles of the Mandate.
Implementation is essentially a matter of degree and is therefore sus-
ceptible of compromise. Accordingly, we cannot consider that the
nature of a dispute which is concerned with the sacred trust is incom-

patible with settlement by negotiation.

The question of competence to settle by negotiation must be decided
from the point of view that the Applicants as Members of the League
individually and at the same time as its organ possess a legal interest
in the realization of the sacred trust and therefore competence to settle
the dispute by negotiation. pour faire valoir un intérêtprivéest inadmissible. »(Ibid., p. 86.)

Bien que les vues de ces deux juges dissidents soient restéesminori-
taires sur ce point et aient récemmentfait l'objet de critiques de la part
de M. Winiarski (opinion dissidente jointe à l'arrêt rendudans les
affaires du Sud-Ouest africain, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 450-451), nous
croyons devoir attacher de l'importance au fait que, si peu de temps
après la mise en Œuvre du système des Mandats, ces opinions, minori-
taires sans doute, aient néanmoins été formulées.
SirPercy Spender et sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, dans leur opinion dissi-
dente communejointe à l'arrêt de1962(C.I.J. Recueil 1962,p. 552-553),

présententun autre argument de poids à l'encontre de la recevabilitéde
la demande en se référantau caractère de l'intérêt ecnause,lequel,sou-
tiennent-ils, ne permet pas que l'on aboutisse un règlement. La thèse
présentée portesurla question de la compétence en matière de règlement.
Le différend,au sens du deuxièmealinéade l'article 7, doit nécessaire-
ment êtretelqu'il nesoitpas susceptible d'être réglar des négociations.
Or, en l'espèce,le différend et l'intérêt qu'il implique revêtu ennt
caractère humanitaire qui semble peu compatible avec un règlement
négocié. Celaest nettement favorable à l'idée que la demande est
irrecevable, car tout procès amène enun certain sens à statuer sur un
intérêtet, en la présenteinstance, le différendporte avant tout sur des

droits de l'homme fondamentaux que l'on dit inaliénables.

Les auteurs de l'opinion dissidente commune (ibid., p. 551), nient
qu'il soit possible aux Etats demandeurs età 1'Etat défendeurde régler
le différend en négociantentre eux. Cela tient en partie, semble-t-il,
à la nature du différend,qui ne concerne pas leurs intérêts nationauxni
ceux de leurs ressortissants mais touche aux dispositions relatives la
gestion du Mandat, c'est-à-dire à la ((mission sacréede civilisatio)>;
cela tient aussi en partià l'impossibilitéde procéder à un règlement
quelconque qui ne serait négociéque par des Etats à titre individuel,
tels que les demandeurs et le Mandataire.

Toutefois l'impossibilitéfondamentale de régler par voie de négo-
ciation des questions relevant par exemple de la mission sacrée de
civilisation n'empêchepas que l'on puisse arriver à un compromis
concernant telle ou telle politique ou telles ou telles mesures en vue de
mettre en Œuvre les principes fondamentaux du Mandat. La mise en
Œuvre,qui est par nature une question de degré,se prête au compromis.
Il ne nous est donc pas permis de conclure qu'un différend relatif à la
mission sacrée de civilisation nesaurait, par nature, êtreréglépar voie
de négociation.
La question de la compétence requisepour procéder à un règlement

par voie de négociation doit être tranchéedu point de vue suivant:
les demandeurs, en qualitéde Membres de la Société desNations, à la
fois àtitre individuel et en tant qu'organes de la Sociét, nt un intérêt
juridique à I'accomplissement de la mission sacrée de civilisation et
sont donc habilitésà réglerle différendpar voie de négociation.
255 It may reasonably be feared that, if each individual Member of the
League possesses a right to institute proceedings against the Mandatory
by reason of non-compliance with the conduct clauses, repetitious
suits against the Mandatory would arise, procedural chaos would
prevail and the legal situation of the Mandatory would be highly pre-
carious.
In circumstances in which the binding power, erga omnes effect,
of a decision of this category is lacking, one is obliged to rely solely

upon the possibility of intervention (Articles 62, 63 of the Statute),
the wisdom of the Court and the common-sense of those concerned
until legislative arrangement and adjustment will be made to attain
uniformity of decision. These possible abnorrnalities, arising from the
defect of the machinery, however, should not be a reason for denying
a right to have recourse to the International Court by reason of non-
compliance by the Mandatory of the conduct clauses of the Mandate.

As we have seen above, the interests involved in the mandates system
are multiple. The Applicants in their capacity as Members of the
League possess a legal interest in compliance by the Respondent with
the obligations imposed by the conduct clauses of the Mandate. The
Applicants, on the other side, can have individual interests which
are classifiedin two categories: on the one hand, State interests and on
the other, the interests of their own nationals. Although these interests
may exist in connection with the administration of the Mandate, they
are only incidental to the mandates system. Far more important are

the general interests which are inherent in the Mandate itself and which
cannot be ignored in the interpretation of the compromissory clause
in the Mandate.

As wehave seenabove, it is argued that the supervision of the Mandate
belongs to the Council of the League and to this body only, not to
individual Members of the League; therefore they possess no right to
invoke the Court's jurisdiction in matters concerning the general ad-
ministration of the Mandate, nor does the Court possess power to
adjiidicate on such matters.

However, the existence of the Council as a supervisory organ of
the Mandate cannot be considered as contradictory to the existence of
the Court as an organ of judicial protection of the Mandate. The
former, being in charge of the policies and administration of the Man-
datory and thelatter, being in charge of the legal aspects of the Mandate,
they cannot be substituted the one for the other and their activities

need not necessarily overlap or contradict one another. They belong
to different planes. The one cannot be regarded as exercising appellate
jurisdiction over the other.
As long as the compromissory clause is adopted in a mandate agree-
ment and the scope and limit of its application are by reason of the
vagueness of the terms of the provision not clear, it is quite natural
256 Si chaque Membre de la Sociétédes Nations possède à titre individuel
le droit d'intenter une action contre le Mandataire motif pris de ce que
celui-ci ne respecte pas les dispositions relatives gestion du Mandat,

on peut raisonnablement craindre que le Mandataire se voie l'objet de
poursuites incessantes, que le chaos règne sur le plan de la procédure
et q'uela situation juridique du Mandataire soit extrêmement précaire.
Quand les circmstances sont telles qu'une décision ne peut avoir
force obligatoire et êtrevalable erga omnes, on est contraint de s'en
remettre exclusivement à la possibilité d'interventions (articles 62 et
63 du Statut de la Cour), à la sagesse de la Cour et au bon sens des
intéressés,jusqu'au moment où l'on procédera aux adaptations et
arrangements législatifs indispensables pour assurer l'uniformité des
décisions. Toutefois ces anomalies éventuelles, imputables à un défaut
du mécanisme, ne justifient pas que l'on nie tout droit d'action devant
la Cour internationale en cas d'inexécution par le Mandataire des
dispositions relatives la gestion du Mandat.

Comme nous l'avons vu ci-dessus, les intérêts quele système des
Mandats met en jeu sont multiples. Les demandeurs, en leur qualité
d'Etats Membres de la Société desNations, ont un intérêtjuridique
à ce que le défendeur s'acquitte des obligations que lui imposent les
dispositions relativesà la gestion du Mandat. Les demandeurs peuvent
d'autre part avoiràtitre individuel des intérêtsqui sont de deux ordres:
leursintérêtspropresentant qu'Etats et lesintérêtseleurs ressortissants.
Bien que l'administration du Mandat puisse mettre en jeu les intérêts
de la seconde catégorie, ceux-ci ne sont qu'accessoires par rapport au
système des Mandats. Les intérêtsd'ordre général revêtenb t eaucoup
plus d'importance car ils sont inhérentsau Mandat lui-mêmeet doivent
nécessairement êtrepris en considération aux fins de l'interprétation
de la clause compromissoire du Mandat.
Comme nous l'avons vu ci-dessus, on soutient que la fonction de

surveillanceà exercer sur le Mandat revient au Conseil de la Société
des Nations et à cet organe seul, non pas aux Etats Membres de la
Société à titre individuel; par suite, ceux-ci n'auraient nullement le
droit d'invoquer la juridiction de la Cour pour des questionsconcernant
l'administration généraledu Mandat et la Cour ne serait pas non plus
habilitéeà se prononcer sur pareilles questions.
Toutefois, nous ne saurions considérer comme contradictoire d'avoir
à ia fois le Conseil en tant qu'organe de surveillance du Mandat et la
Cour en tant qu'organe de protection judiciaire du Mandat. Le Conseil
ayant la responsabilité de la politique et de l'administration du Man-
dataire et la Cour ayant la responsabilité du Mandat sous ses aspects
juridiques, ils ne peuvent se substituer l'unà l'autre et leurs activités
ne se recoupent et ne se contredisent pas nécessairement. Ces deux

organes existent sur des plans différents.On ne saurait dire du second
qu'il constitue une juridiction d'appel par rapport au premier.
Du moment que l'on a adopté dans un accord de Mandat une clause
compromissoire dont la portée et l'application demeurent mal déter-
minéesparce que le texte mêmeen est vague, il est parfaitement naturel
256 that we should seek the just criterion of interpretation inthe principle
of the Mandate, that the well-being and development of peoples not
yet able to stand by themselves form a sacred trust of civilization. This
principle presents itself as a criterion of interpretation of the provisions
of the Mandate including Article 7, paragraph 2. Such is the conclusion
of a teleological interpretation of Article 7,paragraph 2, of the Mandate.
Article 7,paragraph 2, does not specifythe dispute; it says, "any dispute
whatever". The dispute may relate to the interpretation or the application
of the "provisions" of the Mandate. There is no reason for concluding
that this dispute should be limited to the kinds of dispute involving
the individual interests of the member States of the League and that
the provisions should mean only those which protect such kinds of

interest.

The above-mentioned conclusion is precisely in conforrnity with a
literal interpretation of Article 7, paragraph 2, namely the "natural
and ordinary meaning" of the terms of its text.
In sum, Article 7, paragraph 2, as the means of judicial protection
of the Mandate cannot be interpreted in such a way that it ignores the
most fundamental and essential obligations of the Mandatory to carry
out the "sacred trust" and excludes the "conduct clauses" from the
"provisions" to which Article 7, paragraph 2, shall be applied. We must
not lose sight of what is essential in the face of what is incidental.

For the above-mentioned reasons, we consider that the Applicants
are entitled to have recourse to the International Court of Justice,
because Our view is that the present dispute, involving a legal interest

of the Applicants, falls within the scope and limit of the application
of Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate. Accordingly, we are unable
to concur in the Court's opinion that the Applicants' claims are, on
the ground of the lack of any legal right or interest, to be rejected.

Before going into the examination on the merits of the present cases,
we are confronted with a preliminary question concerning the res
judicata which shall be recognized or denied to the Court's foregoing
decisions on identical matters.
The first question which we must decide at the stage of the merits,
is the question of the existence or otherwise of the Mandate after the
dissolution of the League. This question is, without doubt, the core
of the present cases in the sense that whole obligations and rights of
the Respondent as Mandatory depend on the solution of this question.

This question has been envisaged by the Court twice. The Advisory
Opinion of 11July 1950denied the annihilative effect of the dissolution
of the League and recognized the continuance of the obligations of the
257de vouloir trouver le juste critère d'interprétation dans le principe
mêmedu Mandat, qui est que le bien-être et le développement de

peuples non encore capables de se diriger eux-mêmesforment une
mission sacréede civilisation. Ce principe constitue un critère d'inter-
prétation des dispositions du Mandat, y compris des dispositions du
deuxièmealinéa del'article 7. Voilà la conclusion à laquelle permet d'a-
boutir une interprétation téléologiquedu deuxièmealinéa de l'article 7
du Mandat. Ce deuxième alinéa de l'article 7 ne précisepas de quel
différend ildoit s'agir; il est fait mention de ((tout différend,quel qu'il
soit)). Le différend peut porter sur l'interprétation ou l'application
des ((dispositions))du Mandat. Rien ne permet de conclure qu'il doive
porter exclusiveme~t sur les intérêts propresdes Etats Membres de la

Société desNations et que les dispositions ))viséesconcernent exclu-
sivement celles qui tendent à protéger lesdits intérêts.
La conclusion ci-dessus est précisémentconforme à une interprétation
littérale du deuxième alinéade l'article 7, c'est-à-dire au ((sens naturel
et ordinaire ))des termes du texte.
En somme, le deuxième alinéade l'article 7, constituant le moyen
de protection judiciaire du Mandat, ne peut recevoir une interprétation
qui ne tienne aucun compte des obligations absolument fondamentales
imposéesau Mandataire s'agissant de l'accomplissement de la mission

sacréede civilisation et qui exclue les dispositions relativesà la gestion
des cdispositions » auxquelles ce deuxième alinéa de l'article 7 doit
précisément s'appliquer.Il ne faut pas perdre de vue l'essentiel au profit
du contingent.
Pour les raisons ci-dessus, nous estimons que les demandeurs sont
fondés à intenter un recours devant la Cour internationale de Justice,
car à notre avis le présent différend,mettant en jeu un intérêt juridique
des demandeurs, s'inscrit bien dans le cadre et dans leslimites d'applica-
tion du deuxièmealinéadel'article 7 du Mandat.Par suite, nous sommes
dans l'impossibilité desouscrire à l'opinion de la Cour lorsqu'elle

déclareque les demandes doivent êtrerejetées,faute d'un droit ou inté-
rêt juridique.

Avant d'étudierles présentes affairesau fond, nous devons répondre
à une question préliminaire concernant la force de chose jugée qu'il
faut ou non reconnaître aux décisions antérieurement rendues par la
Cour sur des points identiques.
La première question à trancher au stade du fond est celle de savoir
si le Mandat est ou non resté en vigueuraprès dissolution de la Société

des Nations. Cette question se situe indubitablement au cŒur même
des présentes affaires en ce sens que l'ensemble des obligations et des
droits du défendeur en qualité de Mandataire dépend de la réponse
qu'on lui donne.
La Cour a étudié cettequestion à deux reprises. Dans son avis consul-
tatif du 11 juillet 1950, elle a estimé que la dissolution de la Société
des Nations n'avait pas d'effet destructeur et reconnu que le défendeur Respondent under the Mandate. Next, in the preliminary objections
stage of the present cases the Respondent's first preliminary objection
was the denial to the Mandate of the character of "a treaty or convention
in force" within the meaning of Article 37 of the Statute, an argument
based on the doctrine of the lapse of the Mandate automatically caused
by the dissolution of the League. This objection, however, was dismissed
by the Judgment of 1962.
The effect of the dissolution of the League upon the survival of the
Mandate is questioned for the third time in the proceedings on the
merits of the present cases.
Before we go into the examination of the issue of the survival or
otherwise of the Mandate, we must solve a question concerning the
effect of the Court's Advisory Opinion in 1950and the decision of the
Court in 1962. If the Court's finding of 1950 or the decision of 1962

establish any resjudicata the examination de novo of this issue would
become as a whole or partially impermissible or at least superfluous.
Firstly, concerning the Advisory Opinion of 1950, it has no binding
force upon those concerned, namely no res judicata results from an
advisory opinion for the purposes of subsequent litigation, even if the
issue is identical. This point constitutes a difference between advisory
and contentious proceedings. The structure of the proceedings is not
the same, and the concept of parties in the same sense as in the latter
does not exist in the former. This legal nature of an advisory opinion
does not prevent that, as an authoritative pronouncement of what the
law is, its content will have an influence upon the Court's decision 011
the same legal issue, irrespective of whether or not this issue constitutes
a part of a subsequent stage of the same affairs.
Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht expressed in a separate opinion his
view that:

"The Opinion of 11 July 1950 has been accepted and approved
by the General Assembly. Whatever may be its binding force as
part of international law-a question upon which the Court need
not express a view-it is the law recognized by the United Nations.
It continues to be so although the Government of South Africa
has declined to accept it as binding upon it and although it has
acted in disregard of the international obligations as declared by
the Court in that Opinion." (I.C.J. Reports 1956, pp. 46-47.)

The opinion of Judge Lauterpacht does not appear to attribute res
judicata to the 1950Opinion, but to recognize its authoritative meaning
as to the interpretation of an issue of the same kind.
There is no doubt that-
". ..the International Court does not adhere to the doctrine of
stare decisis; nevertheless it will not readily depart from a prior

ruling, especially if the subsequent proceeding involves issues of
fact and law identical in every respect to those in the prior proceed-
ing". (Memorials, p. 97.)
258 demeurait soumis aux obligations lui incombant au titre du Mandat.
Puis en la présente instance, au stade des exceptions préliminaires, le
défendeura, dans sa première exception, déniéau Mandat le caractère
d'«un traité ou [d'lune convention en vigueur » au sens de l'article 37
du Statut, sa thèse étant que la dissolution de la Société desNations
avait automatiquement entraîné la caducité du Mandat. La Cour a
rejeté cette exception par son arrêt de 1962.

Pour la troisième fois, au stade de l'examen au fond des présentes
affaires, on s'interroge sur l'effet que la dissolution de la Société des
Nations peut avoir eu sur la survivance du Mandat.
Avant d'examiner si le Mandat a survécuou non, nous devons ré-
soudre une question relative à l'effet de l'avis consultatif émispar la
Cour en 1950et de l'arrêtqu'elle a rendu en 1962. Si la conclusion de
la Cour en 1950 ou sa décision de 1962 ont autorité de chose jugée,
une nouvelle étudedu problème de la caducitédu Mandat devient inté-
gralement ou partiellement inadmissible, ou du moins superflue.
Tout d'abord, l'avis consultatif de 1950ne peut pas avoir force obli-
gatoire pour les intéressés,autrement dit un avis consultatif n'a pas

autorité de chose jugéeaux fins d'un litige ultérieur,même sila question
à trancher est exactement la même.Il y a là une différenceentre la procé-
dure consultative et la procédurecontentieuse. La structure de la procé-
dure n'est pas la mêmedans lesdeux cas etla notion de partie telle qu'elle
apparaît au contentieux n'existe pas dans la procédure consultative.
Indépendamment de ce caractère juridique propre, l'avis consultatif
n'en définitpas moins avec autoritéce qu'est le droit et sa teneur influe
sur toute décisionque la Cour prendra sur le mêmeproblème juridique,
qu'il s'agisse ou non d'une phase ultérieurede la même instance.
Dans une opinion individuelle, sir Hersch Lauterpacht a déclaré:

((L'Assembléegénéralea acceptéet approuvé l'avis du 11juillet
1950. Quelle que puisse êtresa force obligatoire comme élément
du droit international - question sur laquelle la Cour n'a pas à
se prononcer -, il est la loi reconnue par les Nations Unies. Il
continue d'en êtreainsi, bien que le Gouvernement sud-africain
ait refuséde l'accepter comme obligatoire pour lui-même,et bien
que ce gouvernement ait agi sans tenir compte des obligations in-

ternationales telles que les a définiesla Cour dans cet avi»(C.I.J.
Recueil 1956, p. 46-47.)
Sir Hersch Lauterpacht ne semble pas attribuer force de chose jugée
à l'avis de 1950mais reconnaît qu'il fait néanmoins autorité pour l'in-
terprétation d'une question de mêmenature.
Il est indubitable que

«la Cour internationale n'adhère pas à la doctrine du stare decisis;
néanmoins, elle ne s'écarterapas volontiers d'une décision précé-
dente, surtout si la procédure ultérieure implique des questions de
fait et de droit identiquesà tous égards à celles de la précédente
procédure » (mémoires, p. 97). The advisory opinion has de facto authority upon which the Court
may rely in decidingsubsequent caseswhich are identical with it or which
involve the same kind of issue.
Judge Winiarski stated :
"Opinions are not formally binding on States nor on the organ
which requests them, they do not have the authority of resjudicata;
but the Court must, in view of its high mission, attribute to them

great legal value and a moral authority." (Interpretation of Peace
Treaties witlt Bulgaria, Hungary andRomania, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1950,p. 91.)
Next, the decision of 1962needs to be considered.
It may be thought that the Court's finding in the 1962 Judgment
in favour of the survival of the Mandate would have the force of res
judicata (Article 59 of the Statute), but that the effect of res judicata
of this Judgmentshould be limited to the operative part of the Judgment

and not extend to the reasons underlying it.
The effect of res judicata concerning a judgment on jurisdictional
matters must be confined to the point of the existence or otherwise
of the Court's jurisdiction. In case of an affirmative decision, the only
effect is that the Court shall proceed to examine the question of the
merits. To the preliminary stage must not be attached more meaning
than this.
At the preliminary objection stage of the present cases the question
of the survival of the Mandate was examined. But this examination
was made from the viewpoint of Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate
and Article 37of the Statute, Le.,mainly fromthe angle of thejurisdiction
of the Court and more thorough and exhaustive investigations and
arguments might be expected at the merits stage. Therefore, the Court's
reasoning underlying its finding in the 1962Judgment does not prohibit
or make superfluous de novo arguments on the question of the survival
or otherwise of the Mandate after the dissolution of the League. We
could consider that the first preliminary objection which was linked
with the question of the survival or otherwise of the Mandate could
have been more appropriately joined to the merits.

This conclusion is justified by the distinction between preliminary
objection proceedings and proceedings on the merits from the viewpoint
of their objectives. What was decided in a finding in the preliminary
objection proceedings as a basis of jurisdiction, must not be prejudicial
to the decision on the merits, therefore may not have binding force
vis-à-vis the parties; accordingly, in the present cases, it is permissible
that the Respondent should deny and continue to deny the survival of
the Mandate after the dissolution of the League, despite the fact that
this issue was dealt with by the Court at the stage on jurisdiction, and
despite the fact that the arguments might become repetitive.
Incidentally it should be indicated that the Applicants conceded that
the 1950 Advisory Opinion was not binding upon the Respondent in
the strictsense of res judicata, and that the Court's 1962 Judgment L'avis consultatif fait donc autoritédefacto, de telle sorte quela Cour
peut s'en inspirer pour trancher ultérieurement des affaires identiques
ou visant des problèmes du mêmeordre.
Selon M. Winiarski :

cLes avis ne visent formellement ni les Etats ni l'organe qui
les a demandés, ils n'ont pas l'autorité de la chose jugée; mais
la Cour doit àsa haute mission de leur attribuer une grande valeur
juridique et une autorité morale. » (Interprétation des traités de
paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie, avis con-
sultatif,C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 91.)

Voyons ensuite ce qu'il en est de la décision de 1962.
On peut penser que, la Cour s'étantdans son arrêt de1962prononcée
en faveur de la survivance du Mandat, cette conclusion a force de chose
jugée (article59 du Statut) mais que la force de chose jugée que l'on
peut attribuer à l'arrêtse limite nécessairement à son dispositif et ne
s'étendpas à ses motifs.
L'autorité de chosejugéequi s'attache à un arrêt rendu surdes ques-

tions de compétencedoit se limiter à la décisionconcernant effective-
ment la compétencede la Cour. Au cas où cette décision est positive,
son seul effet est que la Cour doit poursuivre l'examen de l'affaire au
fond. Au stade préliminaire, la décision n'a pas d'autre valeur que
celle-là.
La question du maintien en vigueur du Mandat a étéétudiéedans la
présente instance au stade des exceptions préliminaires, mais elle l'a
étédu point de vue du deuxième alinéade l'article 7 du Mandat et de
l'article7 du Statut, c'est-à-dire essentiellement sous l'anglede la com-
pétencede la Cour, et I'on pouvait s'attendre au stade du fond à un
approfondissement des recherches et de l'argumentation. Par conséquent

les motifs sur lesquels la Cour s'est fondéedans son arrêtde 1962n'inter-
disentpas, et ne rendent pas vaine, une discussion nouvelle sur la question
de la survivance ou de la caducitédu Mandat à la suite de la dissolution
de la Sociétédes Nations. Sans doute peut-on considérer que I'on
aurait dû joindre au fond la première exception préliminairequi se
rapportait à cette question.
Notre conclusion se justifie par la distinction qui existe, du point
de vue des objectifs visés,entre la procédure relative aux exceptions
préliminaireset la procédure relative au fond. La décision prise à l'oc-
casion d'une exception préliminaireet établissant la compétencede la

Cour ne doit pas préjugerla décisionau fond et n'a donc pas nécessaire-
ment force obligatoire pour les parties; par suite, en l'espèce,il est loi-
sible au défendeurde nier et de persister nier que le Mandat ait survécu
à la dissolution de la Société desNations, bien que la Cour ait traité
de la question au stade juridictionnel et que les mêmesarguments
risquent d'êtrerépétés.
Il y a lieu de noter par parenthèse que les demandeurs ont reconnu
que l'avis consultatif de 1950ne liait pas le défendeurau sens strict de la
resjudicata et que l'arrêt renduparla Cour en 1962portait sur la question

259related to theissue of competence and did not constitute an adjudication
upon the merits of the dispute (Reply, p. 303).
Before going into an examination of the individual items of the
Applicants' submissions,wemust solveanother question of a prelirninary
nature which is concerned with the matter of the scope and limit, freedom
of expression for a dissenting judge. In the present cases, a question
arises as to whether a dissentingjudge is permitted to deal in his opinion
with matters which are not included in the majority opinion, particularly
questions regarding the alleged violations by the Respondent of the
obligations under Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate and Article 22
of the Covenant, the policy of apartheid, Respondent's accountability
to the United Nations, etc.
This question is concerned with the interpretation of Article 57 of
the Statute. As regards this question, we must first consider it from a
general point of view.
In countries where the institution of separate (concurring and dis-
senting) opinions is adopted, an individual judge is not absorbed in an
anonymous majority even in the system where an incognito majority

opinion is elaborated, but he can maintain his own individual viewpoint
by appending a concurring opinion. The opinion of the majority is
nothing but the common denominator among the opinions ofjudges who
constitute the majority, but do not necessarily agree on the reasoning.

From what is indicated above, we may Saythat the majority opinion
presupposes the existence of diverse individual opinions which are
common at least in the operative part of the decision, and that the free
individual opinions of judges are logically foregoing to the majority
opinion, notwithstanding the fact that the former may be gradually
formulated during the process of the deliberations. Accordingly, we
consider that the majority opinion cannot be conceived to establish any
limits to the separate opinions of individual judges. The latter are
perfectly independent of the former. This point must particularly be
emphasized in the case of a dissenting opinion, because standing on a
quite difièrent footing from the majority opinion, its freedom must be
greater.

Next, we shall consider this matter in the light of the present pro-
ceedings. The proceedings have gone through the preliminary objection
stage and are at the stage of the merits. Now the Court has decided on
the merits, but on a preliminary question of the legal interest leaving
the rest of the questions on the merits undecided. The reason that the
Court rejected the Applicants' claims, is the lack of their legal right or
interest.
Disagreement between the d&senting view and the majority view
is not limited to the matter of legal right or interest but it is concerned
with the whole attitude vis-à-vis al1questions on the merits. The dissen-
ting judges are able to argue on the hypothesis that their contention
regarding the existence of the Applicants' legalright or interest is well-
founded.

260de compétence et ne réglaitpas le différendquant au fond (réplique,
p. 303).
Avant d'examiner l'un après l'autreles divers élémentsdes conclusions
des demandeurs, un problème d'ordre préliminaire reste encore à ré-
soudre, celui de savoir quelle liberté d'expression est laisséeau juge
qui formule une opinion dissidente. En l'occurrence, onpeut sedemander
si un juge est habilità traiter dans son opinion dissidente de questions
qui ne sont pas abordées dans l'opinion de la majorité, notamment de

questions concernant la violation par le défendeur de ses obligations
aux termes du deuxième alinéade l'article 2 du Mandatet de l'article 22
du Pacte, la politique d'apartheid, la responsabilitédu défendàl'égard
des Nations Unies, etc.
La question relève de l'interprétation qu'il convient de donner à
l'article 57 du Statut. Elle doit êtreétudiéed'abord d'un point de vue
général.
Dans les pays où les juges peuvent formuler des opinions séparées
(individuelles ou dissidentes), un juge ne fait pas simplement partie
d'une majorité anonyme, mêmelorsque le système veut que l'opinion
majoritaire soit formuléede manière impersonnelle; il peut indiquer ses
vues personnelles en joignant à l'arrêt une opinionindividuelle. L'opi-
nion de la majorité ne représente que le dénominateur commun des

juges de la majorité, maisceux-ci ne sont pas nécessairementd'accord
entre eux sur les motifs énoncés.
De ce.qui précède,nous pouvons conclure que l'opinion dela majorité
présuppose l'existence d'opinions individuelles variqui ont au moins
pour élémentcommun le dispositif de la décision finaleet que logique-
ment les libres opinions individuelles des juges vont dans le sens de l'opi-
nion de la majorité, mêmesi elles n'ont étéélaboréesque progressive-
ment au cours du délibéréP .ar suite, il est inconcevable selon nous que
l'opinion de la majorité impose des limites aux opinions individuelles
des juges. Ces dernièressont parfaitement indépendantesde la première.
A plus forte raison en est-il ainsi dans le cas d'une opinion dissidente,
laquelle, se situant sur un plan très différentde l'opinion majoritaire,
doit bénéficierd'une liberté plus grande.

Envisageons maintenant la question dans le cadre de la présente
instance. La phase des exceptions préliminaires étant achevée,nous en
sommes à la phase de l'examen au fond. La Cour vient de se prononcer
sur le fond mais relativement à une question préliminaire concernant
l'intérêt juridique, santsrancher le reste des questions de fond. En effet
le motif pour lequel la Cour a rejetéles demandes est que les demandeurs
n'ont aucun droit ou intérêjturidique.
Entre le point de vue de la majorité et les opinions dissidentes, le
désaccord ne porte pas seulement sur la question du droit ou intérêt
juridique des demandeurs, mais sur l'attitude d'ensemble adoptée par la
Cour à l'égard detous les problèmes intéressantle fond. Lesjuges dissi-
dents peuvent partir de l'hypothèse que leurs vues sur l'existence du

droit ou intérêt juridiquedes demandeurs sont fondées.
260 This position is not the same as the position of a dissenting judge
in a decision rejecting an application by reason of the lack of the Court's
jurisdiction, In that casethe dissentingjudge cannot deal with the matters
on the merits on the hypothesis that his view is right, because the pro-
ceedings are limited to the preliminary objection and the proceedings on
the meritshave been suspended. The stage of the question of legal right
or interest. however, does not constitute independent proceedings like
preliminary objection proceedings, but is an integral part of the pro-
ceedings on the merits. Therefore, this question has not been dealt with
distinctly from other questions on the merits in the pleadings and oral
arguments.
In short, for the foregoing reasons the majority opinion cannot place
a limitation upon the separate and dissentingopinions; therefore judges

are entitled to deal with al1matters on the merits entirely irrespective of
the content of the majority opinion.

The controversy between the Applicants and the Respondent on the
sumival of the Mandate was the starting point of the preliminary ob-

jection proceedings of the present cases; the same applies to the pro-
ceedings on the merits. Al1 claims and complaints of the Applicants,
being concerned with the interpretation and application of the Mandate,
are based on the continua1 existence of the Mandate; consequently, if
its existence could not be proved, they would necessarily fa11away.

The Applicants' Final Submissions Nos. 1 and 2 deal with the matter
of the survival of the Mandate. Submission No. 1reads as follows:

"South West Africa is a territory under the Mandate conferred
upon His Britannic Majesty by the Principal Allied and Associated
Powers, to be exercised on his behalf by the Government of the
Union of South Africa, accepted by His Britannic Majesty for and
on behalf of the Government of the Union of South Africa, and
confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations on December 17,
1920."

By Submission No. 1, the Applicants define the international status
of the Territory of South West Africa and contend that this status is
not merely an historical fact, but continues to the present time.

By Submission No. 2 the Applicants further contend the continuation
of the international obligations of the Respondent as Mandatory. It
reads as follows:

"Respondent continues to have the international obligations
stated in Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations and
261 Cette situation diffère donc de celle où se trouve un juge dissident
lorsque la Cour rejette une requête en sedéclarantincompétente. Dans
ce cas-là, en effet, le juge dissident ne peut pas traiter de questions de
fond en prenant pour hypothèse qu'ila raison, parce que la procédure
est limitéeàl'examen de l'exception préliminaireet la procédureau fond
a étésuspendue. En revanche, la phase pendant laquelle est traitée la

question du droit ou intérêt juridiquedes demandeurs n'est pas une
phase indépendante comme celle qui est consacréeaux exceptions pré-
liminaires; elle fait partie intégrante de la procédure au fond. C'est
pourquoi cette question n'a étédissociée desautres questions de fond
ni dans les écrituresni dans les plaidoiries.
En somme, pour les motifs exposés ci-dessus,l'opinion de la majorité
ne saurait limiter la portée des opinions individuelles et des opinions
dissidentes; lesjuges sont donc fondés àévoquertoute question defond,
sans avoirà prendre aucunement en considération la teneur de l'opinion
majoritaire.

La controverse entre les demandeurs et le défendeur sur la question
du maintien en vigueur du Mandat a constituéle point de départ de la

phase relative aux exceptions préliminaires en l'espèce; il en a étéde
mêmepour la procédureau fond. Toutes les demandes et tous les griefs
dont les demandeurs font état visent l'interprétation et l'application
des dispositions du Mandat et présupposent que le Mandat continue
d'exister; par suite, s'il est impossible de prouver que le Mandat existe.
ces demandes et ces griefs tombent nécessairement.
Les conclusions finales nos 1 et 2 des demandeurs concernent cette
question du maintien en vigueur du Mandat. La conclusion no 1 est
ainsi conçue :

«Le Sud-Ouest africain est un territoire sous Mandat conféré
par les Principales Puissances alliéeset associées à Sa Majesté
britannique pour êtreexercéen son nom par le Gouvernement de
l'Afrique du Sud, accepté par Sa Majesté britannique agissant
pour le Gouvernement de l'Union de l'Afrique du Sudet en sonnom,
et confirmépar le Conseil de la Société desNations le 17 décem-
bre 1920.»

Dans la conclusion no 1, les demandeurs définissentdonc le statut
international du territoire du Sud-Ouest africain et soutiennent que ce
statut n'est pas simplement unfait historique mais existe encore l'heure
actuelle.
Dans leur conclusion no 2, les demandeurs affirment en outre que le

défendeurdemeure soumis à ses obligations internationales de Manda-
taire. Cette conclusion no 2 est la suivante:
<(Le défendeur demeure soumis aux obligations internationales
énoncées à l'article 22 du Pacte de la Sociétédes Nations et dans

261 in the Mandate for South West Africa as well as the obligation
to transmit petitions from the inhabitants of that Territory, the
supervisory functions to be exercised by the United Nations, to
which the annual reports and petitions are to be submitted."

The Respondent's final submissions (C.R. 65/95, pp. 53-54) which
are thesame as set forth in the Counter-Memorial, Book 1,page 6, and
the Rejoinder, Volume II, page 483, particularly contend in regard to
the question of the lapse orotherwise of the Mandate on the dissolution
of the League as follows :

"1. That the whole Mandate for South West Africa lapsed on
the dissolution of the League of Nations, and that Respondent is,
in consequence thereof, no longer subject to any legal obligations
thereunder.
2. In the alternative to (1) above, and in the event of it being
held that the Mandate as such continued in existence despite the
dissolution of the League of Nations;

(a) Relative to Applicants' Submissions Nos. 2, 7 and 8,

that Respondent's former obligations under the Mandate to
report and account to, and to submit to the supervision of,
the Council of the League of Nations, lapsed upon the disso-
lution of the League ...

(b) Relative to Applicants' Submissions Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6 and 9,

that Respondent has not, in any of the respects alleged, violated
its obligations..."

To resolve the question of the lapse or otherwise of the Mandate
on the dissolution of the League, some preliminary observations are
required concerning the legal and social nature and characteristics of
the mandates system.
The mandates system, established by the Covenant of the League

of Nations, can be considered as an original method of administering
certain underdeveloped overseas possessions which formerly belonged
to States in the First World War. "The essential principles of the man-
dates system" says the 1962Judgrnent in the South West Africa cases-
"consist chiefly in the recognition of certain rights of the peoples
of the underdeveloped territories; the establishment of a regime
of tutelage for each ofsuch peoples to be exercised by an advanced
nation as a 'Mandatory' 'on behalf of the League of Nations';
and the recognition of 'a sacred trust of civilization' laid upon the
League as an organized international community and upon its

262 le Mandat pour le Sud-Ouest africain, ainsi qu'à l'obligation de
transmettre aux Nations Unies les pétitionsdes habitants du terri-
toire, les fonctions de surveillance étant exercéespar les Nations
Unies auxquelles les rapports annuels et les pétitions doivent être
envoyés. ))

Le défendeur, de son côté,dans ses conclusions finales (C.R. 65/95,
p. 53-54)qui sont celles mêmesqu'il a énoncéesdans le contre-mémoire
(livre 1, p. 6) et dans la duplique (vol. II, p. 483), soutient notamment,
en ce qui concerne la question de la caducitéou du maintien en vigueur
du Mandat à la dissolution de la Société desNations:

(1. Que le Mandat pour le Sud-Ouest africain dans son ensem-
ble est devenu caduc lors dela dissolution de la Société desNations
et que le défendeur n'est plus en conséquence soumis à aucune des
obligations juridiques découlant du Mandat;
2. Subsidiairement, au cas où l'on estimerait que le Mandat en

tant que tel est demeuré en vigueur malgré la dissolution de la
Sociétédes Nations :
a) en ce qui concerne les conclusions nos 2, 7 et 8 des deman-
deurs,
que les obligations incombant antérieurement au défendeur
en vertu du Mandat et consistant à faire rapport et à rendre
compte au Conseil de la Société desNations et à se soumettre

à la surveillance de ce Conseil ont pris fin lors de la dissolution
de la Société ...
b) en ce qui concerne les conclusions nos3,4, 5, 6 et 9 des deman-
deurs,
que le défendeur n'a, sur aucun des points allégués, violé
les obligations lui incombant.. .))

Pour répondre àla question de savoir si le Mandat est devenu ou non
caduc à la dissolution de la Société desNations, il y a lieu de formuler
quelques observations préliminaires sur la nature juridique et sociale
et sur les caractéristiques du système des Mandats.

Le système des Mandats créépar le Pacte de la Société desNations
peut se concevoir comme un système d'administration original visant
certaines possessions d'outre-mer sous-développées ayant initialement
appartenu à des Etats qui ont pris part à la première guerre mondiale.
Selon l'arrêt rendu en 1962 dans les affaires du Sud-Ouest africain,

((les principes essentiels du système des Mandats consistent avant
tout dans la reconnaissance de certains droits des peuples des
territoires sous-développés;dans l'établissement d'un régime de
tutelle exercésur chacun de ces peuples par une nation développée,
en qualitéde (Mandataire )et (au nom de la Sociétédes Nations »;
et dans la reconnaissance d'une ((mission sacrée de civilisation)) Member States. This system is dedicated to the avowed object of
promoting the well-beingand development of the peoples concerned
and is fortified by setting up safeguards for the protection of their
rights." (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 329.)

The idea that it belongs to the noble obligation ofconquering powers
to treat indigenous peoples of conquered territories and to promote
their well-being has existed for many hundred years, at least since the
era of Vitoria. But wehad to wait for the Treaty of Peace with Germany,
signed at Versailles in 1919,and the creation of the League of Nations
for this idea to take the concrete form of an international institution,

narnely the mandates system, and to be realized by a large and compli-
cated machinery of implementation. After the dissolution of the League
the same idea and principles have been continued in the "International
Trusteeship System" in the Charter of the United Nations.

The above-mentioned essential principles of the mandates system
are important to decide the nature and characteristics of the Mandate
as a legal institution.
Here, we are not going to construct a more-or-less perfect definition
or concept of the Mandate. We must be satisfiedto limit ourselves to the
points of which clarification would be necessary or useful to decide the
issue now in question.
The mandates system is from the viewpoint of its objectives, as well
of its structure, highly complicated. Sinceits objectivesare the promotion
of the well-being and social progress of the inhabitants of certain terri-
tories as a sacred trust of civilization, its content and function are inti-
mately related to almost al1branches of the social and cultural aspects
of human life. Politics, law, morality, religion, education, strategy,

economy and history are intermingled with one another in inseparable
complexity. From the point of view of the Court the question is how to
draw the line of demarcation between what is law and what is extra-legal
matter, particularly politics which must be kept outside of justiciability
(weintend to deal with this question below).

The mandates systemisfrom the structural viewpoint very complicated
The parties to the Mandate, as a treaty or convention, are on the one
side the League of Nations and on the other the Mandatory-in the
present cases the Respondent. The latter accepted the Mandate in
respect of the Territory of South West Africa "on behalf of the League
of Nations". Besides these parties, there are persons who are connected
with the Mandate in some way, particularly who collaborate in the
establishment or the proper functioning of this system, such as the
Principal Allied and Associated Powers, to which these territories had
been ceded by the Peace Treaty, Members of the League, and those who
are interested as beneficiaries, namely the inhabitants of the mandated
territories. Whether or not, and to what degree the United Nations and

263 incombant à la Société entant que communauté internationale
organiséeet à ses Etats Membres. Ce systèmea pour objet reconnu
le bien-êtreet le développement deces peuples et il s'assortit de
garanties visant la protection de leurs droits. x (C.I.J. Recueil

1962, p. 329.)

L'idéeque les Puissances conquérantes ont la noble obligation de
prendre en charge les peuples autochtones des territoires conquis et
d'accroître leur bien-être existe depuisde nombreux siècles,au moins
depuis l'époque de Vitoria. Mais ila fallu attendre le traité depaix signé
avec l'Allemagne à Versailles en 1919 et la création de la Société des
Nations pour que cette idéese concrétise sousla forme d'une institution
internationale, le système des Mandats, et se traduise par un méca-

nisme de mise en Œuvre important et complexe. Une fois la Société
des Nations dissoute, la mêmeidée etles mêmesprincipes ont été repris
sous la forme du ((régimeinternational de tutelle)prévudans la Charte
des Nations Unies.
Les principes essentiels du système des Mandats dont nous venons
de parler ont de l'importance si l'on veut définirla nature et les carac-
téristiques du Mandat en tant qu'institution juridique.
Ce n'est pas ici le lieu d'élaborerde façon plus ou moins parfaite une
définitionou conception du Mandat. 11suffira que nous nous limitions
aux divers points qu'il est indispensable de préciserpour trancher la

question qui nous intéresse.
Le système des Mandats est, tant du point de vue de ses objectifs
que du point de vue de sa structure, extrêmement complexe. Comme
ses objectifs consistentà accroître le bien-êtreet le progrès social des
habitants de certains territoires, ce qui forme une mission sacréede civi-
lisation, le Mandat se rattache étroitement par sa teneur et par son rôle
à presque tous les domaines de la vie sociale et culturelle de l'homme.
La politique, le droit, la morale, la religion, l'instruction, la stratégie,
l'économie et l'histoirese mêlentles uns aux autres pour former un

tout complexe et indissociable. Pour la Cour, il s'agitde savoir comment
faire le partage entre ce qui relèvedu droit et ce qui est extra-juridique,
notamment la politique, qui doit rester hors du domaine judiciaire -
nous reviendrons du reste plus loin sur cette question.
Du point de vue de sa structure, le système des Mandats est extrê-
mement complexe. Les parties au Mandat en tant que traité ou con-
vention sont d'une part la Société desNations et d'autre part le Man-
dataire, en l'espècele défendeur. Celui-cia reçu le Mandat pour le terri-
toire du Sud-Ouest africain «au nom de la Société desNations ))En

dehors de ces parties, il existe des personnes qui sont d'une manière
ou d'une autre liéesau Mandat, notamment celles qui collaborent à
la miseen Œuvreou à la bonne marche du système,commelesPrincipales
Puissances alliéeset associées auxquelles ces territoires ont été cédés
aux termes du traité de paix, les Etats Membres de la Société desNa-
tions et les personnes intéressées entant que bénéficiaires, c'est-à-dire
les habitants des territoires sous Mandat. Quantà savoir si et dans quelle

263its Members can be considered as concerned, belongs to the matters
which fall to be decided by the Court.

The Mandate, constituting an aggregate of the said diverse personal
elements, as we have seen above, presents itself as a complex of many
kinds of interests. The League and Mandatory,as parties to theMandate,
have a common interest in the proper performance of the provisions of
the Mandate. The inhabitants of the mandated territories possess, as
beneficiaries, a most vitalinterest in the performance of the Mandate.
The Mandatory does not exercise the rights of tutelage of peoples
entrusted to it on behalf of itself, but on behalf of the League. The
realization of the "sacred trust of civilization" is annterest of a public
nature. The League is to serve as the existing political organ of the
international community by guarding this kind of public interest.

The Mandate, being of the said personal and reai structure, possesses
in many points characteristics which distinguish it from other kinds
of treaties.
Firstly, the Mandate is intended to establish between parties a certain
legalrelationship of which the aims and purposes are difFerentfrom those
we find in the case of commercial treaties in which two different kinds
of operations stand reciprocally against each other and which are
extinguished with simultaneous performance by the parties. They are
a realization of identical aims, which is a "sacred trust of civilization".
In this sense, the Mandate has characteristics similar to law-making
treaties, defined by Oppenheim as those "concluded for the purpose of
establishing new rules for the law of nations". (Quincy Wright, Mandates
under the League of Nations, 1930, p. 357.)
What is intended by the parties of the mandate agreement as a "sacred
trust of civilization" is the promotion of the material and moral well-
being and social progress of the inhabitants of the territory who are
"not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of

the modern world".
The Mandate is a legal method or machinery for achieving the above-
mentioned humanitarian purposes. Therefore, between the two parties
to the mandate agreement there does not exist a fundamental conflict
of interests or"exchange of balancing services" such as we recognize in
synallagmatic contracts (cf. Judge Bustamante's separate opinion on
South West Africa cases, I.C.J. Reports 1962, pp. 357 and 359) or con-
tracts of the type do-ut-des.The mandate agreement can be characterized
rather as a union of two unilateral declarations, the one by the League,
the other by the Mandatory, a phenomenon which we find in cases of
creation of partnerships or corporations. Incidentally, this conclusion,
in Ourview, does not prevent the construction of the mandate agreement
as a kind of treaty or convention.

This characteristic isclearly manifest in the fact that the League can
be considered as a collaborator of the Mandatory by its power of super-

264mesure l'organisation des Nations Unies et ses Etats Membres peuvent
êtreconsidérés comme intéressésc,'est l'une des questions que la Cour
doit trancher.
Le Mandat, constitué de ce faisceau d'élémentsde caractère personnel
que nous venons de définir,se présente comme un ensemble complexe
d'intérêtsde diverses catégories. La Société desNations et le Manda-
taire, en qualitéde parties au Mandat, ont le mêmeintérêt à la bonne
exécution de ses dispositions. Les habitants des territoires sous Man-
dat, en tant que bénéficiaires,ont un intérêt capital à son exécution.

Ce n'est pas non plus pour son propre compte mais au nom de la
Société desNations que le Mandataire exerce les droits de tutelle qui
lui ont étéattribués sur les populations à lui confiées. Mener à bien
la ((mission sacrée de civilisationcorrespond à un intérêtpublic. La
Société desNations joue le rôle d'organe politique de la communauté
internationale, gardienne de ce genre d'intérêt public.
Doté de cette structure de caractère personnel et réel, le Mandat
présente à de nombreux égards des caractéristiquesqui le rendent diffé-
rent des autres types de traités.
En premier lieu, le Mandat est censécréerentre les parties une cer-
taine relation d'ordre juridique dont les fins sont différentesde celles

qui caractérisent les traitéscommerciaux prévoyant deux sortes de pres-
tations réciproques et destinéesà s'éteindre du fait de leur exécution
simultanée par les cocontractants. Ces fins consistent à atteindre un
but commun qui correspond à une ((mission sacrée de civilisation».
En ce sens, le Mandat revêt des caractéristiques analogues à celles des
traités constitutifs de droit, définispar Oppenheim comme des traités
«conclus en vue de créerde nouvelles règlesde droit des gens » (Quincy
Wright, Mandates under the League of Nations, 1930, p. 357).
Ce qui représentepour les parties à l'accord de Mandat une ((mission
sacrée de civilisation)), c'est l'accroissement du bien-être matériel et
moral ainsi que du progrès social des habitants du territoire «non

encore capables de se diriger eux-mêmesdans les conditions particu-
lièrement difficiles du monde moderne )).
Le Mandat constitue une méthode ou un mécanisme juridique per-
mettant de réaliser les fins humanitaires définiesci-dessus. Par suite,
entre les deux parties à l'accord de Mandat, il n'existe pas de conflit
d'intérêt fondamental, ni d'((échange de prestations équivalentes »
comme dans les contrats synallagmatiques (voir l'opinion individuelle
de M. Bustamante dans les affaires du Sud-Ouest africain,C.I.J. Recueil
1962, p. 357 et 359) ou encore dans les contrats de type commutatif.
L'accord de Mandat se caractérise plutôt par l'union de deux déclara-
tions unilatérales, l'une émanant de la Société desNations, l'autre du

Mandataire, processus analogue à celui que l'on rencontre dans le cas
de la création d'une sociétéde personnes ou d'une société de capitaux.
Ajoutons en passant que cela ne nous semble nullement empêcher de
voir dans l'accord de Mandat une sorte de traité ou convention.
De toute façon, la caractéristique dont il s'agit ressort nettement du
fait qu'on peut considérerla SociétédesNations comme un collaborateur
264 vision and an adviser in the performance of the obligations of the

latter.
If we seek some type of legal concept analogous to the mandate
agreement in the field ofprivate law, we can mention the terms "man-
datum", "tutelage" and "trust". Theseinstitutions possesssomecommon
elements with the mandates system, although the principles governing
the latter cannot be exhaustively explained by those govemingthe for-
mer. The point which we indicated above, namely the identity of aims
between the parties, existsin the case of guardianship,tutelageand trust.
Secondly, the long-term nature of the mandate agreement is what
characterizes it from the other contracts. This characterrivesfrom the
nature of the purposes of the mandates system, namely the promotion
of material and moral well-being and social progress of the mandated
territories, which cannot be realized instantaneously or within a fore-
seeable space of time.
Thirdly, the mandate agreement requires from the Mandatory a
strong sense of moral conscience in fulfilling its responsibility as is
required in the case of guardianship,tutelage and trust. "The Mandatory
shall promote to the ut~ost the material and moral well-beingand the
social progress of the inhabitants of the territory.." The obligations
incumbent upon the Mandatory are of an ethical nature, therefore
unlimited. The mandate agreement is of the nature of a bona fide con-
tract. For its performance the utmost wisdom and delicacyare required.
From what is indicated above, it followsthat, although the Mandatory
is conferred "full power of administration and legislation over the
territory", the weight of the mandates system shall be put on the obliga-
tions of the Mandatory rather than on its rights.

The 1962 Judgment, clarifying this characteristic of the mandates
system,declares as follows:
"The rights of the Mandatory in relation to the mandated terri-
tory and the inhabitants have their foundation in the obligations
of the Mandatory and they are, so to speak, mere tools given to
enable it to fulfil its obligations." (I.C.J. Reports 1962,p. 329.)

Judge Bustamante emphasized very appropriately (ibid p. 357) the
more important aspect of responsibility rather than of rights regarding
the function of the Mandatory. The Mandatory must exerciseits power
only for the purpose of realizing the well-being and progress of the
inhabitants of the territory and not for the purpose of serving its ego-
istic ends. As Professor Quincy Wright puts it, "it has been recognized
that the conception of mandates in the Covenant requires that the
Mandatory receive no direct profit from its administration of the terri-
tory". This is called the "principle of gratuitous administration" (Quincy
Wright, op. cit.p,p. 452-453).
From the nature and characteristics of the mandates system and the
mandate agreement, indicated above, we can conclude that, although
the existence of contractual elements in the Mandate cannot be denied,
the institutional elements predominate over the former. We cannot

265du Mandataire, vu le pouvoir qui lui est donnéde surveiller et de con-
seiller le Mandataire dans l'exécutionde ses obligations.
Si l'on veut trouver en droit privédes notions juridiques comparables
à l'accord de Mandat, on peut citer le mandat, la tutelle et le trust.
Ces institutions ont quelques éléments encommun avec le système des
Mandats, même sileurs principes directeurs ne suffisent pas à expliquer
tous les principes qui le régissent.La tutelle et lerust connaissent égale-
ment cette identité des fins poursuivies par les parties dont nous venons

de faire état.
En deuxième lieu, le caractèrà long terme de l'accord de Mandat le
rend différent desautres types de contrats. Cettecaractéristiques'explique
par la nature même des objectifsdu système des Mandats, l'accroisse-
ment du bien-être matérielet moral et du progrès social des territoires
sous Mandat ne pouvant guère se réaliserdans l'instant, ni mêmeen un
laps de temps déterminé.
En troisième lieu, l'accord de Mandat exige du Mandataire un solide
sens moral dans l'exécutionde sa tâche, comme dans le cas de la tutelle
et du trust. «Le Mandataire accroîtra, par tous les moyens en son pou-

voir, le bien-être matérielet moral ainsi que le progrès social des habi-
tants du territoire ..»: les obligations qui incombent au Mandataire
sont d'ordre éthique, par suite illimitées.L'accord de Mandat est un
contrat qui, par nature, est régipar la bonne foi. L'exécutiond'un tel
contrat requiert le maximum de sagesse et de doigté.
11découlede ce qui précèdeque, même si leMandataire se voit con-
fier les«pleins pouvoirs d'administration et de législation sur le terri-
toire», l'accent est mis dans ce système sur les obligations du Manda-
taire plutôt que sur ses droits.
Précisant cette particularité du système des Mandats, l'arrêtde 1962
a énoncé:

((Les droits du Mandataire concernant le territoire sous Mandat
et ses habitants se fondent sur les obligations du Mandataire et
ils ne sont, pour ainsi dire, que de simples instruments lui permet-
tant de remplir ses obligations. )(C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 329.)

M. Bustamante a trèsjustement souligné(ihid., p. 357) l'importance
de l'élément responsabilitépar rapport à l'élémentdroit dans la fonction
de Mandataire. Le Mandataire ne doit exercer ses pouvoirs qu'à seule
fin d'assurer le bien-êtreet le progrès des habitants du territoire et non
paspour réaliser des objectifs égoïstesC. omme l'a dit M. Quincy Wright,
Il est reconnu que les Mandats, tels qu'ils sont conçus dans le Pacte,

exigent du Mandataire qu'il ne tire aucun bénéficedirect de sa gestion
du territoire.» C'est ce que l'on appelle le ((principe de l'administration
désintéressée)()Quincy Wright, op. ci?.,p. 452-453).

Etant donné la nature et les caractéristiques du système des Mandats
et de l'accord de Mandat telles que nous les avons vues ci-dessus, nous
pouvons conclure que, s'il existe incontestablement des élémentscon-
tractuels dans le Mandat, ce sont néanmoinsles élémentsinstitutionnels

265explain al1the contents and functions of the mandates system from the

contractual, namely the individualistic, and subjective viewpoint, but
we are required to consider them from the institutional, namely col-
lectivistic, and objective viewpoint also. This latter viewpoint is, ac-
cording to Lord McNair, that of-
". .. certain rights of possession and government (administrative
and legislative) which are valid in rem-erga omnes,that is against
the wholeworld, or at any rate against everyState whichwasa Mem-
ber of the League or in any other way recognized the Mandate".
(I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 156.)

From the purely contractual and individualisticviewpointthe Mandate
would be a persona1 relationship between the two parties, the existence
of which depends upon the continuance of the sameparties. For instance,
a mandate contract in private law lapses by reason of the death of the
mandator. But the international mandate does not remain, as we have
seen above, purely a relationship, but an objective institution, in which
severalkinds ofinterests and valuesare incorporated and whichmaintains
independent existence against third parties. The Mandate, as an insti-
tution, being deprived of persona1character, must be placed outside of
the free disposa1 of the original parties, because its content includes a
humanitarian value, namely the promotion of the material and moral
well-being of the inhabitants of the territories. Therefore, there shall
exist a certain limitation, derived from the characteristics of the Mandate,
upon the possibility of modification for which the consent of theCouncil
of the League of Nations is required (Article 7, paragraph 1, of the
Mandate).

We shall now envisagethe question whether, despite the dissolution of
the League of Nations the Mandate for South West Africa still exists,
and if so, whether the supervisory function of the League has passed to
the United Nations.

Let us consider, firstly, the question whether the Mandate still exists
despite the dissolution of the League.
The solution of this question may depend upon the question of the
essentiality or otherwise of the supervision of the Mandate, but it can
be answered independently of the latter, because if the Mandate as a
whole lapsed for some other reasons; there would be no question of its
supervision. The question of supervision presupposes the prima facie
continued existence of the Mandate. That is why this matter was dealt
with in detail in the 1950 Advisory Opinion and discussed at length
in the preliminary objection stage of the present casesin connection with
the survival of Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate, which is con-
cerned withjudicial supervision. Becausewecan, in the main, agree with
what was decided bytheCourt in 1950and 1962,weneed not go into the

266 qui prédominent. On ne peut expliquer complètement la teneur et le
rôle du systèmedes Mandats du seul point de vue contractuel, c'est-à-
dire individuel et subjectif; on doit faire égalementappelà son aspect
institutionnel, c'est-à-dire collectif et objectif. Sous cet angle, on se
trouve, d'après lord McNair, en présence de

(certains droits de possession et de gouvernement (administratifs et
législatifs) quisont validesn rem- erga omnes,c'est-à-dire contre
le monde entier, ou du moins contre tout Etat qui était Membre
de la Sociétéou qui, d'une manière quelconque, reconnaissait le
Mandat » (C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 156).

Du point de vue purement contractuel et individualiste, le Mandat
serait un lien d'ordre personnel entre les deux parties, qui ne pourrait
exister que si ces parties continuaient elles-mêmesexister. Par exemple,
le contrat de mandat, en droit privé, devientcaduc au décèsdu mandant.
En revanche, le Mandat international constitue, comme nous l'avons
vu plus haut, non seulement un lien, mais aussi une institution objective

incorporant plusieurs types d'intérêts et de valeurs et il conserve une
existence indépendante à l'égard des tiers. LeMandat, en tant qu'ins-
titution, est dépourvu d'élément personnelet ne saurait dépendre de
la volontédes parties, qui ne peuvent en disposer comme elles l'enten-
dent, parce qu'il contient une valeur humanitaire, à savoir la nécessité
d'accroître le bien-être matérielet moral des habitants du territoire.
Ce sont ces particularités du Mandat qui expliquent pourquoi il fallait
limiter, dans unecertaine mesure, la possibilitédemodifierlesdispositions
du Mandat et exiger à cette fin l'autorisation du Conseil dela Sociétédes
Nations (Mandat, article 7, premier alinéa).

Nous allons rechercher maintenant si le Mandat pour le Sud-Ouest
africain existe toujours malgréla dissolution de la Société desNations
et, dans l'affirmative, si les fonctions de surveillance autrefois imparties
à la Société desNations sont dévolues désormais à l'Organisation des
Nations Unies.
Voyons tout d'abord si le Mandat existe encore malgré ladissolution
de la Société desNations.
Il se peut que cette question soit liéà une autre, celle du caractère

essentiel de la surveillance du Mandat, mais on peut répondre à la pre-
mièreindépendamment de la deuxièmecar, au cas où le Mandat dans
son ensemble serait devenu caduc pour quelque autre raison, il ne serait
plus question de surveillance. Laqiiestion de la surveillance présuppose
le maintien en vigueurprima facie du Mandat. C'est pourquoi ce dernier
point a été longuement étudié dans l'avisconsultatif de 1950et au stade
des exceptions préliminaires enla présenteinstance, à propos de la sur-
vivance du deuxième alinéade l'article 7 du Mandat qui concerne la
surveillance judiciaire. Comme nous pouvons dans l'ensemble souscrire
àcequelaCour a décidéen1950et en 1962nous n'aurons pas à examiner

266details ofthe question. Weare satisfiedto state simply the reasons why
we agree with the decisionsof the Court.
The controversy concerning the sumival or lapse of the Mandate on
the dissolution of the League, and accordingly of rights and obligations
created by it, may be, in its final instance, attributed to the fundamental
difference of methods existing in regard to the interpretation of law,.
namely the antagonism between voluntarism and objectivism. Contro-
versies present themselves as to whether law cannot attribute certain
effectsto a treaty or a convention-which the parties did not or could
not foresee at the moment of its inception-or whether law, on the
contrary through its interpretation may be expected to play the function
of filling the lacuna of juridical acts by creating certain legal effects
uncovered by the original intent of the parties.

From the point of view of purely juridical formalism, there is the
conclusion that, sofar as the Mandate is conceivedas a contract between
the two parties, namely the League of Nations on the one hand and the
Mandatory on the other, the dissolution of the League would produce,

as a necessary consequence, the absolute extinction of the Mandate
with al1its legal vincula and that nothing remains thereafter. This is the
fundamental standpoint upon which the arguments of the Respondent
are based. This pure logicism is combined with strict voluntarism
according to which al1legal consequences attached to a juridical act are
conceived as the effect of the will or intent of the parties. This is the
reason why the Respondent, since the preliminary objections stage, has,
concerning the interpretation of the Mandate, consistently attached
importance to the question of joint or common intent of the parties,
and why the Respondent has repeatedly invoked the "crucial new facts"
to refute the conclusion of the Advisory Opinion of 1950, which recog-
nized the transfer of international supervision from the League of
Nations to the United Nations.
It seems that the Respondent, analysing the Opinion, and assuming
that its conclusion of the transfer of the obligations is based on the
tacit consent of the parties, believes it has found a clue to re-examine
and reverse the 1950 Advisory Opinion by the presentation of the

"crucial new facts". The essential viewpoint of the Opinion, however,
is based on the idea of "international institution with international
object-a sacred trust of civilization", notuch on consensual elements.

In accordance withthe above analysis,wemust attach moreimportance
to the institutional side of the Mandate, which, according to Lord
McNair, is "valid in rem-erga omnes".The 1950 Opinion says "the
object of the Mandate regulated by international rules far exceeded
that of contractual relations regulated by national law" (I.C.J. Reports
1950,p. 132).The Mandate as an institution is the starting point of the
Opinion and the most influential reason to justify the survival of the
Mandate notwithstanding the dissolution of the League. le problème en détail. Il nous suffira de dire simplement pourquoi
nous approuvons les décisionsde la Cour.
La controverse à laquelle prêtela question de savoir si le Mandat
et par conséquent les droits et obligations qu'il créait sont devenus

caducs ou sont restésen vigueur à la dissolution de la Sociétdes Nations
peut en dernière analyse s'expliquer par la méthode d'interprétationdu
droit que l'on adopte, méthode fondamentalement différente selon
que l'on opte pour le volontarisme ou pour l'objectivisme. La contro-
verse porte sur ceci: le droit est-il incapable d'attribuer un traité ou
convention certains effets que les parties n'ont pas prévusou n'ont pas
pu prévoirau moment de son élaboration, ou bien au contraire le droit
est-il censépar voie d'interprétation comblerles lacunes des actes juri-
diques en créantcertains effetsjuridiques qui n'existaient pas dans l'in-

tention initiale des parties?
Un strict formalismejuridique porte à conclure que, si l'on voit dans
le Mandat un contrat entre deux parties, qui sont d'une part la Société
des Nations et d'autre part le Mandataire, la dissolution de la Société
entraîne par voie de conséquence nécessaire l'extinctionradicale du
Mandat avec tous ses liens juridiques, de sorte que rien n'en subsiste
plus. C'estlà le point de vue fondamental dont procèdetoute l'argumen-
tation du défendeur. Ce logicisme intégrals'associe à un volontarisme
rigide d'après lequeltoutes les conséquences juridiques dont un acte
juridique est assorti sont conçues comme étant l'effet de la volonté ou

de l'intention des parties. C'est pourquoi, depuis la phase des exceptions
préliminaires,le défendeurn'a cessé,au sujet de l'interprétationdu Man-
dat, d'attacher de l'importance à la question de l'intention commune
des parties et c'est pourquoi aussi il n'a cesséd'invoquer des ((faits
nouveaux d'importance capitale ))pour réfuter la conclusion à laquelle
la Cour avait abouti dans son avis consultatif de 1950 et par laquelle
elle reconnaissait que le droit d'exercer une surveillance internationale
étaitpasséde la Société des Nations àl'organisation des Nations Unies.
Il semble que, lorsqu'il analyse l'avis consultatif de 1950et tient pour

acquis que la conclusion de la Cour relative au transfert des obligatiocs
étaitfondéesur le consentement tacite des parties, le défendeur estime
avoir trouvé le moyen de faire réexamineret infirmer l'avis consultatif
en présentantcequ'ilappelle des ((faitsnouveaux d'importance capitale ».
Mais l'avis prenait comme point de départ fondamental l'idéed'une
((institutioninternationale à laquelle étaitassignéun but international :
une mission sacréede civilisation ))et ne se fondait guère sur des é!é-
ments consensuels.
Conformément à l'analyse quenous avons faite plus haut, nous devons

attacher beaucoup plus d'importance à l'aspect institutionnel du Mandat,
lequel, comme l'a dit lord McNair, est ((valide in rem - erga omnes Y.
Il étaitdit dans l'avis de 1950que ((lebut du Mandat régipar des règles
internationales dépassait de beaucoup celui de rapports contractuels
régispar un droit national 1)(C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 132). C'est donc
sur le caractère institutionnel du Mandat que se fondait l'avisconsultatif
et c'est ce caractère qui constitue l'argument le plus convaincant en The vital interests of the inhabitants of the mandated territories,
being of primary importance, require that the Mandate shall not be

affected by the vicissitudes of international circumstances. In a mandate,
the matter of who the mandator is is not so important as who is the
mandatory. The position of mandatory, different from that of mandator,
for the reasons of special obligations which are incumbent upon him,
is highly persona1 and unable to be substituted by any other persons.
From the standpoint of the inhabitants, therefore, whether the mandate
is established on behalf of the League or whether it exists on behalf of
the United Nations is quite immaterial.

As a theoretical construction, the concept of the "organized inter-
national community" may be referred to in order to explain the legal
position of the mandatory. The mandatory owes obligations on behalf
of the League, but in the forma1 sense. Substantively, the inandatory
is responsible to an international entity which underlies the League as
a sociological reality, namely the organized international community,
which was represented by the League, and, after its dissolution,has been
represented by the United Nations. In short, we may conceive that,
after the dissolution of the League, the mandatory continues to have
obligations in relation to an impersonal entity, namely the organized
international community as before, which is personified as the United
Nations.

The only important matter is that a "sacred trust of civilization" is
conscientiously carried out by the mandatories. The mandate, inspired
by the spirit of a "sacred trust of civilization", once created by an
international agreement between the two parties, the League on the
one hand and the mandatory on the other, enjoys its perpetual objective
existence. The continua1 existence of the organized international com-
munity guarantees the objectivity and perpetuity of the mandate as an
international institution.
Lord McNair described this very appropriately in his separate opin-
ion-
"... the Mandate created a status for South-West Africa. This fact

is important in assessing the effect of the dissolution of the League.
This status-valid in rem-supplies the element of permanence
which would enable the legal condition of the Territory to survive
the disappearance of the League, even if there were no surviving
persona1 obligations between the Union and other former Members
of the League. 'Real' rights created by an international agreement
have a greater degree of permanence than persona1 rights . .."
(I.C.J. Reports 1950,pp. 156-157.)

The Mandate, being an institution, incorporates the above-mentioned

268faveur de la survivance du Mandat malgré la dissolution de la Société

des Nations.
Vu l'importance primordiale qu'il faut attacher au& intérêts vitaux
des populations des territoires sous Mandat, le Mandat ne doit pas
subir le contrecoup des vicissitudes de la situation internationale. En
matière de Mandat, l'identité du Mandant importe moins que celle
du Mandataire. La situation du Mandataire, qui diffère de celle du
Mandant, à cause des obligations particulières lui incombant, revêt
un caractère extrêmementpersonnel et le Mandataire ne peut êtrerem-
placépar personne d'autre. Du point de vue des populations des terri-
toires, par conséquent,il importe peu que le Mandat soit établi au nom
de la Société desNations ou bien au nom de l'organisation des Nations

Unies.
Du point de vue théorique, on peut faire appel à la notion de «com-
munauté internationale organisée »pour expliquer la situation juridique
du Mandataire. Si celui-ci doit s'acquitter d'obligations au nom de la
Société desNations, c'est d'un point de vue formel. Au fond, il est
responsable devant une entité internationale - réalité sociologique
constituant le soubassement de la Société desNations - qui est la
communauté internationale organisée; celle-ci a étéreprésentéepar la
Société desNations et, depuis sa dissolution, par l'organisation des
Nations Unies. En résumé,on peut estimer que, depuis la dissolution
de la Société desNations, le Mandataire continue d'avoir certaines
obligations par rapport à une entité impersonnelle, qui est toujours,

comme auparavant, la communauté internationale organisée et est
désormais personnifiéepar l'organisation des Nations Unies.
Tout ce qui compte c'est qu'une ((mission sacrée de civilisation »
soit consciencieusement assumée par les Mandataires. Le Mandat,
qui procède justement de l'idéed'une ((mission sacréede civilisation ))
existe objectivement pour toujours dèslors qu'il a été créé par accord
international entre les deux parties, la Société desNations d'une part et
le Mandataire de l'autre. La permanence de la communauté interna-
tionale organisée garantit l'objectivité etla perpétuation du Mandat
en tant qu'institution internationale.
Lord McNair a fort justement décritcet aspect des choses dans son

opinion individuelle, lorsqu'il a dit:
«le Mandat a crééun statut pour le Sud-Ouest africain. Ce fait
est important lorsque 1'011cherche à estimer quel a étél'effet de la
dissolution de la Société desNations. Ce statut - valide in rem -
fournit l'élémentde permanence qui permet à la situation juridique

du territoire de survivreà la disparition de la Sociétédes Nations,
mêmes'il ne subsiste pas d'obligations personnelles entre l'Union
et les autres anciens Membres de la Société desNations. Des
droits «réels», crééspar un accord international, ont un degré
de permanence plus grand que les droits personnels...)) (C.I.J.
Recueil 1950, p. 156-157.)

Le Mandat étant une institution, les diverses catégories d'intérêts
268several interests and values. It is a social organism and as such must be
maintained and protected.

In general, once condensed and conglomerated, social energies under
juridical techniques, such as a juridical person',partnership, Company,
etc., cannot easily be dismembered and disorganized by some external
or interna1 event. To avoid the loss of social and economic energies
and values of an enterprise which would be caused by liquidation, the
law establishes an institution of amalgamation or fusion which has an
effect analogous to universal succession in the case of a physicalperson.
This principle is the "Erhaltung des Unternehmens" (maintenance of
enterprise) as put forward by Rudolf Müller-Erzbach, which, according
to him isone of the important principles ofcommerciallaw (Die Erlzaltung

des Unternehmens, 2.f. Handelsr., Vol. 61, 1911, pp. 530 ff.;Deutsches
Handelsrecht,2nd ed., 1927,pp. 71ff.).Theapplication of this idea is not
limited to matters of commercial law, but may be extended to other
social entities.

In short, the Mandate as a social entity must be maintained and
protected. From this ~iewpoint,we consider the Mandate does not lapse;
it continues to function. The existence of the League of Nations itself
is immaterial to the existence of the Mandate, on behalf of whom the
Mandate is carried out, apart from the question of supervision which is
dealt with below.
Moreover, under the hypothesis of the lapse of the Mandate caused
by the dissolution of the League, it cannot be asserted that the Mandate
suddenly ceased to exist at the moment of the dissolution of the League.
For the purpose of carrying out the liquidation of an entity the continued
existence of some of the functions is recognized by the law of both
Anglo-American as well as civil law countries (Observations, p. 447).

Both the defunct entities, the League and the Mandate, maintain their
defacto existence. From the viewpoint of the League, it is to be conceived
that its responsibilities concerning the Mandate still survive until its
future status is definitively established (for instance, the conclusion of
a trusteeship agreement); parallel with this, the continued existence of
the Mandate can be recognized for the same space of time.

In short, the doctrine of "carry-over" referred to by the Applicants
is a logical consequence of the aforesaid argument of the Mandate as
an institution. It may assist the Applicants' cases in a supplementary
way.
The above-mentioned conclusions rnay coincide with what the parties
to the mandate agreement or those concerned with it really intended, or
they may not be necessarily so. The tacit intent of parties which is
referred to by the Applicants, if it is proved, may serveas a corroborating
ground to reach the same conclusion. But the Court will establish its

269et de valeurs dont nous avons parlé plus haut s'y trouvent incorporées.
Il s'agit d'un organisme social qui, à ce titre, doit être maintenu et
protégé.

D'une manière générale,une fois réunies et groupées selon une tech-
nique juridique quelconque dans une personne morale, une sociétéde
personnes, une sociétéde capitaux, etc., les énergies socialesne se dis-
socient pas ou ne se désorganisent pas facilement sous l'effet de quelque
événement extérieurou intérieur. Dans une entreprise, pour parer à la
déperdition d'énergieset de valeurs qu'une liquidation entraînerait sur
le plan économique et social, la loi permet de créer un systèmeinstitu-
tionnel d'union ou de fusion, dont le résultat est analogueà celui de la
masse successorale dans le cas d'une personne physique. Il s'agit là
du principe d7Erhaltung des Unternehmens (maintien de l'entreprise)
dont M. Rudolf Müller-Erzbach a fait état et qui, d'après lui, est l'un

des principes importants du droit commercial (Die ErhaItung des Unter-
nehmens,2.f. Handelsv..vol. 61, 1911, p. 530et suiv.;DeutschesHandels-
recht, 2e éd.,1927,p. 71 et suiv.). Ce principe ne s'applique pas exclusi-
vement à des questions relevant du droit commercial, il vaut aussi pour
d'autres entités sociales.
Le Mandat, à titre d'entitésociale, doit donc être maintenuet protégé.
C'est pourquoi le Mandat, à notre avis, ne prend pas fin; il continue
à fonctionner. Que la Sociétédes Nations elle-même existeou non,
cela n'a guère d'importance pour l'existence du Mandat, bien que ce
soit en son nom que le Mandat soit exécuté,indépendamment de la
question de la surveillance dont nous traiterons plus loin.
De plus, mêmesi l'on part de l'hypothèse que la dissolution de la

Sociétédes Nations entraîne la caducité du Mandat, on ne peut pas
affirmer que le Mandat a cessé d'exister brusquement au moment
mêmede la dissolution de la Société desNations. Il est reconnu, ta~t
dans les pays de droit anglo-américain que dans les pays de droit civil,
qu'aux fins de sa liquidation certaines des fonctions d'une entité de-
meurent (observations, p. 447). Les deux entités caduques, la Société
des Nations et le Mandat, continuent l'une et l'autre à exister dejacto.
Du point de vue de la Société desNations, il faut considérer que ses
responsabilités en ce qui concerne un Mandat survivent jusqu'au mo-
ment où le statut futur du Mandat est régléde façon définitive, par

exemple par la conclusion d'un accord de tutelle; parallèlement, cn
peut reconnaître que le Mandat continue à exister pendant le même
laps de temps.
En bref. la doctrine de la ((continuation ))dont les demandeurs font
étatest une conséquence logiquede ce que nous venons de dire du carac-
tère institutionnel du Mandat. Elle peut contribuer à renforcer I'argu-
mentation des demandeurs.
II se peut que les conclusions ci-dessus coïncident avec l'intention
réelledes parties à l'accord de Mandat ou des intéressés,mais ce n'est
pas indispensable. L'intention tacite des parties dont les demandeurs
font état permettrait peut-être, si on pouvait l'établir de façondéfini-

tive, de corroborer ces conclusions. Mais la Cour doit se fonder sur conclusion on the theoretical basis independently of the psychological
intents of the parties or those concerned, which do not necessarily
coincide and from which it is not easy to derive any definite conclusion,
be it positive or negative. In this sense, the Court's reference (I.C.J.
Reports 1950,p. 134; ibid., 1962,p. 340)to the resolution of the League
of Nations of 18April 1946, which said, inter alia:

"4. Takes note of the expressed intention of the Members of
the League now adrninistering territories under Mandate to continue
to administer them for the well-being and development of the
peoples concerned in accordance with the obligations contained in
the respectiveMandates, until other arrangements have been agreed

between the United Nations and the respective mandatory",

is to be considered as possessing only subsidiary significance in the
reasoning of the Court.

What is stated above is concerned with the survival of the Mandate
despite the dissolution of the League. We have arrived at the affirmative

conclusion, like the 1950Advisory Opinion, but apart from the question
of international supervision of the Mandatory. We are required to
re-examine the issue in the light of international supervision, because
even if the survival of the Mandate can be recognized in general, it may
be denied in certain respects.

From the viewpoint of the Respondent, the international supervision
to which the Mandatory was subjected fell away with the disappearance
of the League, because the supervisory organ also disappeared with the
League, without being validly replaced by a corresponding organ of the
United Nations. The Respondent's argument isbased upon the viewpoint
that the international supervision under the League cannot be replaced
by the United Nations, because this supervision does not meaninterna-
tional supervision in abstracto but means supervisionby a specificorgan
of the League only.

The 1950 Opinion recognizes that the obligations of the Mandatory

to submit to international supervision survive with the Mandate and
that the supervisory function is exercised by the organ of the United
Nations. The Opinion rules as follows:

"The necessity for supervision continues to exist despite the
disappearance of the supervisory organ under the Mandates System.
It cannot be admitted that the obligation to submit to supervision
has disappeared merely because the supervisory organ has ceased
to exist, when the United Nations has another international organ

270 les seuls principes, indépendamment des intentions psychologiques des
parties ou des intéressés, intentions qui ne coïncident pas nécessaire-
ment et dont il n'est d'ailleurs pas facile de tirer une conclusion sûre,

que ce soit dans un sens positif ou négatif.A ce propos, la Cour a cité
la résolution adoptée le 18 avril 1946par la Société desNations (C.I.J.
Recueil 1950, p. 134; ibid., 1962, p. 340) dans laquelle il est dit notam-
ment:
(4. Note que les Membres de la Société administrant actuelle-
ment des territoires sous mandat ont expriméleur intention de
continuer à les administrer, en vue du bien-êtreet du développe-
ment des peuples intéressés, conformément aux obligations conte-

nues dans les divers mandats, jusqu'à ce que de nouveaux arrange-
ments soient pris entre les Nations Unies et les diverses Puissances
mandataires )),
mais il ne faut y voir qu'un élémentsubsidiairetdans le raisonnement
qu'elle a suivi.

Nous nous sommes occupés ci-dessus de la question de savoir si le
Mandat survit à la dissolution de la Sociétdes Nations. Nous sommes
arrivés, commela Cour dans son avis consultatif de 1950, à une réponse
affirmative, mais indépendamment de la question de la surveillance
internationale à exercer sur le Mandataire. Nous devons réexaminer
la question sous l'angle de la surveillance internationale car, même
si l'on peut reconnaître que le Mandat survit d'une manière générale;
on pourrait le contester à certains égards.
Pour le défendeur,la surveillanceinternationale à laquelle le Manda-
taire était soumis a disparu en même tempsque la Société desNations,

parce que l'organe chargé de cette surveillance a également disparu
avec la Société desNations, sans être valablement remplacépar un
organe correspondant de l'organisation des Nations Unies. Le défen-
deur soutient à cet égardque la surveillanceinternationale exercéepar
la Société desNations ne saurait être remplacéepar une surveillance
des Nations Unies, parce qu'il s'agissait non pas d'une surveillance
internationale de caractère abstrait, mais exclusivement d'une surveil-
lance exercéepar un organe déterniinéde la Société des Nations.
Dans son avis consultatif de 1950,la Cour a reconnu que l'obligation
qui incombe au Mandataire de sesoumettre àune surveillanceinternatio-
nale survit avecleMandat etque la fonction de surveillance est désormais

exercéepar l'organe compétent de l'Organisation des Nations Unies.
Dans son avis, la Cour a dit:
«La nécessitéd'une telle surveillance subsiste en dépit de la dis-
parition de l'organe de contrôle prévu pour les Mandats. On ne
saurait admettre que l'obligation de se soumettre à surveillance
aurait disparu pour la simple raison que cet organe de contrôle

a cesséd'exister,alors que lesNations Unies offrent un autre organe
270 performing similar, though not identical, supervisory functions."
(I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 136.)

The fundamental viewpoint of the Advisory Opinion isthe recognition
of the non-severability of the obligations of the Mandatory to submit
to international supervisionfrom its authority to administer the mandated
territory. This viewpointcan be maintained for the following reasons :

1. Continuous international supervision is required from the essence
of the mandates system. As the interests involved in the Mandate are
of a humanitarian and important nature, and as the power conferred
upon the mandatories is very extensive and mandatories possess wide
discretionary power (cf. Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Mandate) as
indicated below, the performance of obligations incumbent upon

mandatories cannot be unrestricted and unsupervised and left only to
the bona fide of mandatories. The mandatories possess no sovereignty
over the territories, but they have conferred on them very broad dis-
cretionary powers in the administration of the mandated territories.
Therefore, without some kind of supervision the attainment of the aim
and purpose of the mandates system must be illusory. The mechanism
of effective supervision is the necessity to prevent this system from
becoming simple lex imperfecta or the abuse of power. This mechanism
constitutes an integral part of the mandates systemas a socialinstitution,
a social organism. Therefore, the contention of severability of the
Respondent is illogical.

2. The rights of tutelage of mandated areas are exercised by man-
datories but they are exercised on behalf of the League. They have
no sovereignpowers;they are responsible to the Leagueforthe execution
of the term of the mandate (Quincy Wright, op. cit., p. 22). In this case
the League must have supervisorypower as a guardian of public interest

ofthe organized international community ofwhichthe Leagueconstitutes
the organ.
3. The mandates system is generally recognized as a product of
compromise, at the period of its inception, between two principles:
annexation and internationalization. The principle of international
supervision by the League can be conceivedas a product of compromise
betweenthe two extremes. So long as the mandate survives,international
supervision as a factor of compromise must be continued by some
possible means to prevent the mandate from being transformed into a
kind of annexation.
4. The Respondent, while denying its obligations to submit to
supervision, insists on preserving its rights or authority to administer
the Territory. It seems that the Respondent recognizes the severability
of its rights from its obligations, an attitude which is not in conforrnity
with the spirit of the mandates system. The 19.50Opinion declares:

271 SUD-OUEST AFRICAIN (OP. DISSTANAKA) 273

international chargé de fonctions analogues encore que non iden-
tiques. (C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 136.)

L'idéefondamentale de l'avis consultatif était que l'on doit reconnaî-

tre comme indissociables l'obligation qui incombe au Mandataire de
se prêter à une surveillance internationale et le pouvoir qui lui est
donnéd'administrer le territoire sous Mandat. A l'appui de cette idée,
on peut alléguer lesraisons ci-après:

1. Le maintien d'une surveillance internationale permanente est de
l'essence du système des Mandats. Comme les intérêts quele Mandat
met en jeu ontun caractèrehumanitaire et fondamental, que les pouvoirs
conférésaux Mandataires sont extrêmementétenduset que les Manda-
taires ont des pouvoirs discrétionnairesimportants (Mandat, article 2,
premier alinéa), ainsi que nous le verrons ci-après, il est im-

possible de ne pas assujettir à certaines restrictions eà une certaine
surveillance l'exécutionpar les Mandataires de ses obligations et de
s'en remettre exclusivementà leur bonne foi. Si les Mandataires n'exer-
cent Das d'autorité souveraine sur les territoires sous Mandat. ils se
voient en revanche conférer des pouvoirs discrétionnaires extrême-
ment larges en vue de leur administration. Par conséquent, à défaut
d'une surveillance, quelle qu'elle soit,la réalisation des finset des ob-
jectifs du système des Mandats demeure illusoire. Un mécanisme de
surveillance efficace est indispensable si l'on veut empêcherque le sys-
tème ait caractère de loi imparfaite, ou évitertout abus de pouvoir.
Ce mécanismefait donc partie intégrante du systèmedes Mandats en

tant qu'institution sociale, en tant qu'organisme social. C'estpourquoi
la thèse de la divisibilitésoutenue par le défendeur est illogique.
2. Les droits de tutelle sur les régionssous Mandat sont exercéspar
des Mandataires, mais au nom de la Société desNations. Les Manda-
taires n'ont pas de pouvoirs souverains, ils sont responsables devant la
Société desNations de l'exécution desMandats (Quincy Wright. op.
cit., p. 22). Cela étant, la Société desNations doit détenirun pouvoir
de surveillance en tant que gardienne de l'intérêt publidce la commu-
nautéinternationale organisée,dont elle est l'organe.
3. On admet généralementque le système des Mandats, au moment
où il a étéélaboré, résultaitd'un compromis entre deux principes:

l'annexion et l'internationalisation. Le principe de la surveillance inter-
nationale exercéepar la Société desNations peut êtreconçu comme un
compromis entre ces deux extrêmes.Tant que le Mandat survit, il faut
par un moyen quelconque continuer à exercer une surveillance inter-
nationale - c'est l'élémentde compromis - pour empêcherque le
Mandat ne soit transformé en une sorte d'annexion.
4. Tout en contestant qu'illui incombe de seprêter àune surveillance,
le défendeursoutient qu'il conservele droit ou le pouvoir d'administrer
le territoire.l semble ainsi admettre que ses droits et ses obligations
sont divisibles, attitude qui n'est pas conforme à l'esprit du système
des Mandats. Aux termes de l'avis de 1950, "The authority which the Union Government exercises over the
Territory is based on the Mandate. If the Mandate lapsed, as the
Union Government contends, the latter's authority would equally

have lapsed. To retain the rights derived from the Mandate and
to deny the obligations thereunder could not be justified." (Ibid.,
p. 133.)

The Respondent cannot properly defend itself against the Applicants'
argument criticizing its attitude as the "doctrine of partial lapse".

The survival of the Mandate as an institution, on the one hand,
requires, on the other hand, an international supervision because
supervision is essential to the proper functioning of the mandates system.
The question is whether the mechanism of international supervision
which existed under the League disappeared with its dissolution, not
being replaced by a sirnilar mechanism. In the case of an affirmative

answer, the Mandate being paralysed, its proper administration would
becomeimpossible and it would be highly undesirablefrom the viewpoint
of the well-being and progress of the inhabitants of the Territory.
Fortunately, the problem of supervisory mechanism for the existing
Mandate is solved by the unforeseeable appearance of an international
organization, namely the United Nations which, in so far as the main
purposes are concerned, i.e., the maintenance of international peace and
security and the realization of humanitarian ideas, possesses a high
degree of similarity and homogeneity with the League of Nations.
Furthermore, we can assert that the United Nations constitutes a more
advanced form of international organization from several viewpoints,
namely scope and extension of the organized international community,
its organization and functions. The same can be said about the two
systems-trusteeship under the United Nations and the mandate under
the League of Nations. So far as a "sacred trust of civilisation" regarding
territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-

government is concerned, the international trusteeship system is
established under the United Nations. This system can be said to bethe
more advanced continuation of the mandates system under the League
of Nations.
Therefore, it is not very annatural and unreasonable to recognize
in the United Nations and the trusteeship system the successor of the
League and the mandates system respectively.
Nevertheless, we cannot recognize universal succession in the juridical
sense in these cases. Universal succession between the two entities,
namely the League and the United Nations did not occur. Neither can
the application ofthe provisions ofthe trusteeship systemonthe Mandate
be recognized without the conclusion of a trusteeship agreement. But
nobody would wonder that the Mandatory's power once exercised on (L'autoritéque le Gouvernement de l'Union exerce sur le Terri-
toire est fondée sur le Mandat. Si le Mandat avait cesséd'exister,

comme le prétend le Gouvernement de l'Union, l'autoritéde celle-
ci aurait égalementcesséd'exister. Rien ne permet de conserver
les droits dérivésdu Mandat, tout en répudiant les obligations qui
en découlent. ))(Ibid., p. 133.)

Le défeiideurn'a véritablementrien à opposer aux critiques que les
demandeurs formulent contre ce qu'ils appellent sa ((théoriede la cadu-
citépartielle».

Si le Mandat survit en tant qu'institution, il faut qu'il y ait une sur-
veillance internationale car celle-ci est indispensable pour que le sys-
tème des Mandats puisse bien fonctionner. La question qui se pose est
de savoir si le mécanismede surveillance internationale qui existait du
teinps de la Société desNations a disparu à la dissolution de celle-ci
sans êtreremplacé par un mécanisme similaire. Sitel était le cas, le
Mandat serait paralyséet l'on ne pourrait plus l'administrer comme il
convient, ce qui serait extrêmement fâcheuxdu point de vue du bien-
êtreet du progrès des populations du territoire.

Fort heureusement, le problème du mécanismede surveillance dont
le Mandat en vigueur doit être assortia étérésolupar l'apparition, non
prévue à l'origine, d'une organisation internationale, l'organisation
des Nations Unies, qui est très proche de la Société desNations par
ses objectifs principaux, à savoir le maintien de la paix et de la sécurité
internationales et la réalisation de fins humanitaires. En outre, on peut
affirmer que l'organisation des Nations Unies représente à plusieurs
égards une forme d'organisation internationale plus perfectionnée,
notamment du point de vue de sa portéeet de son audience dans la com-

munauté internationale organisée, de sa structure et de ses fonctions.
On peut en dire autant des deux systèmes,le régimede tutelle des Nations
Unies et le système desMandats de la Société des Nations. C'est désor-
mais le régimeinternational de tutelle des Nations Unies qui remplit
la ((mission sacrée de civilisation 1)concernant les territoires dont les
populations ne s'administrent pas encore complètement elles-mêmes.
De ce système,on peut dire qu'il prolonge, enle développant, lesystème
des Mandats de la Sociétédes Nations.
11n'est donc ni très anormal, ni déraisonnable de voir dans I'Organi-
sation des Nations Unies et dans le régimede tutelle respectivement

le successeur de la Société desNations et celui du système desMandats.
Nous ne pouvons cependant pas dire qu'il y ait eu en l'occurrence
succession universelle au sens juridique. L'Organisation des Nations
Unies n'est pas le légataire universelde la Société desNations. On ne
peut pas non plus dire que les dispositions afférentesau régimede tutelle
s'appliquent au Mandat s'iln'ya pas eu au préalabled'accord de tutelle.
Mais nul ne peut s'étonnerque le pouvoir du Mandataire, exercé autre- behalf of the League, from the necessity of circumstances, becomes
exercised on behalf of the United Nations, and consequently that
international supervisory power, once belonging to the League, now
belongs to the United Nations. The acceptance of this power and with
it the responsibility by the United Nationsoes not appear to constitute
ultr~ vires because the matter concerning the tutelage of backward
peoples without doubt lieswithin the scope and limit of the objectives of
the United Nations.
Neither is the replacement of the supervision by the League by that
of the United Nations detrimental to the Mandatory. The Respondent
invokes the differencebetween the way of supervision under the League
and that under the United Nations, namely the different composition

between the Permanent Mandates Commission and the Trusteeship
Council-composition bypolitical elements or experts-and the differ-
ence in the voting method as between the Council of the League and the
General Assembly, that is, the unanimity or majority rule.

The last-mentioned points cannot be recognized in themselves as an
onerous burden imposed on the Respondent; the difference of the
method of composition as well as the voting method may affect in both
a favourable and unfavourable way. The absence of precise identity
between the two supervisory mechanisms cannot be considered as a
reason for denying the supervision itself.
As the mechanism of implementation of international supervision,
the majority opinion of 1950refers to the United Nations as its organ
(I.C.J. Reports 1950,pp. 136-137)contrary to the views of Lord McNair
(ibid., pp. 159-160)and Judge Read (ibid.,pp. 166-169).This conclusion

cannot be derived from the express or tacit intent of the parties to the
mandate agreement and those concerned, because at the period of the
inception of the Mandate an event such as the dissolution of the League
surely could not be foreseen by them, and because the intention of the
parties and those concerned, and the surrounding circumstances at the
period of the dissolution of the League are susceptible of diverseinter-
pretations. There was a lacuna in the mandate agreement which should
be filled bythe theoretical or logical interpretation by the Court.

The replacement of the League as a supervisory organ by the United
Nations isnot normal; it isan exceptionalphenomenon ofthe transitional
period which was produced by the non-conclusion of a trusteeship
agreement by the Respondent. What the Charter provided for the
future of existingmandates was the conclusion of trusteeship agreements
which, according to the majority opinion of 1950, the Respondent as
Mandatory was not legally obligea, but expected, to make.

The attitude of the Respondent that, on the one hand, it did not
enter into the trusteeship agreement which it would normally have been
expected under the Charter to conclude and that, on the other hand.
273fois au nom de la Société desNations, soit exercédésormaisdu fait des
circonstances au nom des Nations Unies et que par suite le pouvoir
de surveillance internationale qui appartenait autrefoisla Sociétédes
Nations appartienne désormaisaux Nations Unies. L'acceptation de ce
pouvoir et de la responsabilitéqui l'accompagne ne semblepas constituer
un excèsde pouvoir de la part des Nations Unies, car tout ce qui touche
a la tutelle des populations arriéréesentre sans aucun doute dans leurs
attributions.
Que la surveillance exercéepar la Société desNations soit désormais
remplacéepar la surveillance de l'Organisation des Nations Unies ne
défavorisepas non plus le Mandataire. Le défendeurfait valoir les dif-

férencesqui existent entre le mode de surveillance exercépar la Société
des Nations et le mode de surveillance des Nations Unies: différence
dans la composition de la Commission permanente des Mandats et du
Conseil de tutelle (experts ou représentants politiques), différencedans
la procédurede vote entre le Conseil de la Société desNations et l'As-
semblée générale deNsations Unies (règlede l'unanimitéou règle dela
majorité).
On ne saurait pourtant considérer que ces deux derniers éléments
imposent une lourde charge au défendeur;les différencesdans la com-
pxition ou dans la procédure de vote peuvent avoir des conséquences
favorables ou défavorables. Qu'iln'y ait pas identité parfaite entre les
deux mécanismesde surveillance ne doit pas constituer un motif valable
pour cantester la surveillance elle-même.
Pour ce qui est du mécanismede mise en Œuvre de la surveillance
internationale, la majorité aestiméen 1950(C.I.J. Recueil1950, p. 136-
137) que l'organisation des Nations Unies étaitl'organe chargéde la
surveillance, contrairement aux vues de lordcNair (ibid p.,159-160)
et deM. Read (ibid p. ,66-169).Cette conclusio~~ne pouvait découler

de l'intention expresse ou tacite des partiesaccord de Mandat et des
autres intéressés,qui, au moment de l'élaborationdu Mandat, ne pou-
vaient certainement pas prévoir un événementtel que la dissolution
de la SociétédesNations; de plus, l'intention desparties et des intéressés
et les circonstances dans lesquelles a eu lieu la dissolution de la Société
des Nations peuvent recevoir des interprétations variées.Il avait une
lacune dans l'accord de Mandat que la Cour devait combler par voie
d'interprétation théoriqueou logique.
Que la Société desNations soit remplacéeen tant qu'organe de sur-
veillance par les Nations Unies n'est pas normal; c'est un phénomène
exceptionnel de la périodede transition, dû au fait que le défendeur n'a
pas conclu d'accord de tutelle. La Charte prévoyaitque les accords de
tutelle feraient suite aux Mandats existants; si, conformémenta l'opi-
nion de la majorité en 1950, le défendeur en qualité de Mandataire
n'étaitpas juridiquement tenu de conclure un accord de tutelle, on ne
s'en attendait pas moins à ce qu'il le fît.
L'attitude du défendeur, qui d'une part ne conclut pas d'accord de
tutelle contrairementà ce que l'on escompte normalement de lui en

raison des dispositions de la Charte et qui d'autre part refuse de se it refuses to submit to international supervision because of the difference
of the mechanism of its implementation, is contrary to the spirit of the
Mandate and the Charter and cannot be justified.
In short, the maintenance and continuation of international super-
vision by the United Nations is derived from the nature of the Mandate
as an international institution aimed at the promotion of the material
and moral well-beingand social progress of the inhabitants of territories
and independent of and notwithstanding its contractual origin. The
Mandate survives independently of the League and the necessity for the
supervision remains with the Mandate-this necessity being satisfied by
the United Nations as the above-cited 1950Opinion points .out.

We have reached an affirmative conclusion as to the survival of the
Mandate as an international institution despite the dissolution of the
League. This conclusion was reached by the 1950 Advisory Opinion
and approved by the 1962 Judgment. Apart from the doctrinal basis
of this proposition, the continua1 existence of the Mandate as an in-
stitution, notwithstanding the dissolution of the League, is admitted
even by the Respondent. From the Respondent's standpoint the deniai
of the existence of the Mandate would mean denial of its rights to
administer the mandated territory also.
The recognition of the institutional side of the Mandate beside its
contractual side by the 1950Advisory Opinion and the 1962Judgment
can confer on the mandates system a durability beyond the life of the
League and an objective existenceindependent of the original or ulterior
intent of the parties. This recognition is nothing else but a product of
a scientific method of interpretation of the mandates system, in which
the consideration of spirit and objectives as well as socialeality of this

system play important roles. This method of interpretation may be
called sociological orteleological, in contrast with strict juristic forma-
lism. Relying on the concept of the Mandate as an institution of a
sociologicalnature, wetake a stepforward out oftraditional conceptional
jurisprudence, which would easily assert the lapse of the Mandate on
the dissolution of the League.

What has been said about the question of the survival of the Mandate
can be applied to the continuation of international supervision and the
replacement by the United Nations of the Council of the League. The
solution of the latter question is to be found in the same direction as
theformer.Thecontinuation of international supervision of the Mandate
by the United Nations is a logical conclusion of the survival of the
Mandate as an international institution.
It is argued that the Court's Opinion on the existence of inter-
national supervision, namely the Respondent's accountability to the

United Nations, is based on the doctrine of "necessity", and that the
274prêterà la surveillance internationale parce que le mécanismepar lequel
elle s'exerce est différent, est contrairel'esprit du Mandat et de la
Charte et ne saurait se justifier.
Bref, le maintien de la surveillance internationale et saoncinuation
par les Nations Unies s'expliquent, indépendamment de l'origine con-
tractuelle du Mandat et en dépit de celle-ci, par la nature du Mandat
en tant qu'institution internationale tendantà favoriser l'accroissement
du bien-êtrematériel et moral et du progrès social des habitants du
territoire. Le Mandat survit indépendamment de la Sociétédes Nations
rt la nécessitédemeure attachée au Mandat d'une surveillance que les

Nations Unies doivent désormais assurer, comme l'a fait observer l'avis
-,onsultatif de 1950 mentionné plus haut.

Nous avons donc répondu par l'affirmative à la question de savoir
;i le Mandat survit en tant qu'institution internationaàela dissolution
le la Société desNations. Cela est conforme à la conclusion que la
Vour a formulée dans son avis consultatif de 1950 et confirmée dans
;on arrêt de1962.Mis àpart le fondement doctrinal de cette conclusion
e défendeurreconnaît lui-mêmeque le Mandat continue à exister malgré
a dissolution de la Sociétédes Nations. Du point du vue du défendeur,
:n effet, nier l'existence du Mandat reviendrait à nier son droit d'ad-
ninistrer le territoire sous Mandat.

Le fait que, dans I'avisconsultatif de 1950comme dans l'arrêt de1962,
1a étéreconnu que le Mandat présentait un aspect institutionnel en
)lus de son aspect contractuel peut rendre le systèmedes Mandats plus
lurable que la Société desNations elle-mêmeetlui conférer uneexistence
~bjectiveindépendante de l'intention initiale ou ultérieure des parties.
:ette reconnaissance a été purement et simplement le fruit d'une inter-
Irétationscientifique du systèmedes Mandats tenant largement compte
le l'esprit et des objectifs du système ainsi que de sa réalité sociale.
'areil mode d'interprétation peut êtrequalifié de sociologique ou de
Cléologique,par opposition à un strict formalisme juridique. En nous
ondant sur une conception du Mandat qui en fait une institution de
aractère sociologique, nous nous écartons de la doctrine conceptuelle
raditionnelle, quiconduirait facilementjuger que le Mandat estdevenu

aduc à la dissolution de la Sociétédes Nations.
Ce que nous disons de la survivance du Mandat peut s'appliquer au
laintien en vigueur de la surveillance internationale et au remplacement
u Conseil de la Sociétédes Nations par l'Organisation des Nations
Jnies. Il faut répandreà cette deuxième question dans le mêmesens
u'à la première. La continuation par les Nations Unies de la surveil-
ince internationale du Mandat se déduitlogiquement de la survivance
u Mandat en tant qu'institution internationale.
On soutient que, pour affirmer l'existence de la surveillance inter-
ationale, c'est-à-dire de l'obligation incombant au défendeur de rendre
ompte aux Nations Unies, l'avis consultatif s'est fondé sur la théorie Court cannot exceed the limitation incumbent upon it as a court of law.

Undoubtedly a court of law declares what isthe law, but does not legis-
late. Inreality, however, where the borderline can be drawn is a very del-
icate and difficultmatter. Of course,judges declare the law, but they do not
function automatically. We cannot deny the possibility of some degree
of creative element in their judicial activities. What is not permitted to
judges, is to establish law independently of an existing legal system,
institution or norm. What is permitted to them is to declare what can be
logically inferred from theraisond'êtreof a legal system, legalinstitution
or norm. In the latter case the lacuna intheintent of legislation or parties
can be filled.

So far as the continuance of international supervision is concerned,
the above-mentioned conclusion cannot be criticized as exceeding the
function of the Court to interpret law. The Court's Opinion of 1950
on this question is not creating law simply for the reason of necessity
or desirability without being founded in law and fact. The survival of

the Mandate despite the dissolution of the League, the importance of
international supervision in the mandates system, the appearance of the
United Nations which, as the organized international community, it
characterized by political and social homogeneity with the defunct
League of Nations, particularly in respect of the "sacred trust" for
peoples who have not yet attained a full measure of self-government,
and the establishment of the international trusteeship system, the Res-
pondent's membership in the United Nations, and, finally, the refusal
by the Respondent to conclude a trusteeship agreement as expected by
the Charter: these factors, individually and as a whole, are enough to
establish the continuation of international supervision by the United
Nations.

Consideration of the necessity that the paralysis of mandate without
supervision must be avoided, can by no means be denied. But we are not
going to deduce the above-mentioned conclusion from mere necessity
or desirability but from theraisond'êtreand the theoretical construction
of the mandates system as a whole.

We, therefore, must recognize that social and individual necessity
constitutes one of the guiding factors for the development of law by
the way of interpretation as well as legislation. The principle of
effectiveness often referred to, may be applied to explain the viewpoint
of the "necessity" argument of the 1950 Advisory Opinion recognizing
the continued existence of the Mandate as well as international super-
vision (cf. Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, The Development of International
Law by the Internationai Coztrt, 1958, pp. 277-280).
In this case, we cannot deny that the necessity created the law inde-
pendently of the will of the parties and those concerned. The explanation
by the reasonably assumed intention of the parties (Oppenheim-Lauter-
pacht, International Law, Vol. 1, 8th ed., p. 168) seems a compromise

275de la ((nécessit», mais que la Cour ne saurait outrepasser ses fonctions
de tribunal.
Il est indéniable qu'un tribunal dit le droit mais ne légifèrepas. Dans
la pratique toutefois, il est extrêmentdifficile de faire le départ. Sans
doute lesjuges disent le droit, maisilsi'obéissentas à des automatismes.
On ne peut leur nier dans leurs activités judiciaires un certain pouvoir
créateur. Ce qui ne leur est pas permis, c'est de créerle droit indépen-
damment d'un système, d'une institution ou d'une norme juridique
existants. Cequi leur estpermis, c'estd'énoncerce que l'on peut logique-
ment déduire de la raison d'êtred'un système juridique, d'une insti-
tution ou d'une norme juridique. Dans ce dernier cas, il est possible

de combler les lacunes apparaissant dans l'intention du législateur ou
des parties.
En ce qui concerne la conclusion relative au maintien de la surveillance
internationale, on ne saurait dire que la Cour ait outrepassé sesfonctions
d'interprétation du droit.A cet égardelle n'a pas, dans son avis de 1950,
créédu droit simplement parce que cela étaitnécessaireou souhaitable,
sans qu'il y eût aucune justification en droit ni en fait. Le maintien en
vigueur du Mandat après la dissolution de la Société desNations, l'im-
portance que revêtla surveillance internationale dans le système des
Mandats, la création de l'Organisation des Nations Unies qui, en tant
quecommunauté internationale organisée, présented'exactes correspon-
dances politiques et sociales avec la défunte Société desNations, no-
tamment en ce qui concerne la «mission sacréede civilisation » à ac-
complir au profit des populations ne s'administrant pas encore complète-

ment elles-mêmes,la création du régimeinternational de tutelle, le fait
que le défendeur est Membre des Nations Unies et le fait, enfin, qu'il
se refuse à conclure un accord de tutelle contrairement à ce qu'on pou-
vait espéreren vertu de la Charte: tous ces facteurs, isolément et dans
leur ensemble, suffisent à établir que la surveillance internationale
doit continuer par l'intermédiaire de l'Organisation des Nations Unies.
On ne saurait nier qu'il y ait nécessité,en ce sens qu'il faut éviterque
l'absence de surveillance paralyse le système des Mandats. Néanmoins
nous ne voulons pas fonder exclusivement la conclusion qui précède
sur son caractère nécessaireou souhaitable; nous la fondonssur la raison
d'êtreetla structurethéorique du système desMandatsdans son ensemble.
Nous devons doncadmettre quela nécessité d'ordre social et individuel
constitue l'un des principes directeurs de l'évolution du droit par le

moyen de l'interprétation comme de la législation. On peut recourir
au principe de l'effet utile, souvent invoqué, pour expliquer comment
l'avis consultatif de 1950 s'est référéà l'argument de la nécessité afin
de reconnaître le maintien du Mandat et dela surveillance internationale
(cf. sir Hersch Lauterpacht, The Development of International Law by
the International Court, 1958, p. 277-280).
En l'espèce,nous ne pouvons nier quela nécessitéait créé le droit indé-
pendamment de l'intention des parties et des intéressés. L'explication
qui fait appel à l'intention raisonnablement présuméedes parties (Op-
penheim-Lauterpacht, International Law, vol. 1, 8e éd., p. 168) paraîtwith voluntarism. "The reasonably assumed intention" is not identical
with the psychological intention which very probably did not exist. The
former shall be assumed by the Court taking into consideration al1
legal and extra-legal factors, from which the "necessity" is not excluded.
These kinds of activities of judges are not very far from those of legis-
lators.

In parentheses, although the Court does not possess the power to
decide a case ex aequo et bon0without the parties' agreement (Article 38,
paragraph 2, of the Statute), the result of the interpretation mentioned
above can satisfythe requirement of justice and good sense. The contrary
solution shall be striking to most of those concerned and the public at
large.
Such attitude of interpretation has been known as a method of "libre
recherche scientifique" or "Freirecht", mainly in civil-law countries
for three-quarters of a century as emancipating judges from the rigid
interpretation of written laws and emphasizingthe creative role in their

judicial activities. Thereis no reason to believe that the same method
should be denied in the field of international law except the opposing
tendency of strong voluntarism derived from the concept of sovereignty
and not being in conformity with the concept of law which attributes
to law an objectiveand independent existencefrom the willand intention
of those to whom law is addressed.
In short the difference of opinions on the questions before us is in
the final instance attributed to the difference between two methods of
interpretation: teleological or sociological and conceptional or forma-
listic.

For the above-mentioned reasons (1) South West Africa is a territory
under theMandate, and (2)Respondentcontinues tohave theinternational
obligations stated in Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations
and in the Mandate for South West Africa, the supervisory functions
to be exercised by the United Nations, to which the annual reports are
to be submitted. (As to the obligation to transmit petitions mentioned
in the Applicants' SubmissionNo. 2, we will deal with it below.) So far
as these matters are concerned, the Applicants' Submissions Nos. 1 and
2 are well-founded.

III

Now we must proceed to examine the Applicants' Final Submissions
Nos. 3 and 4, which constitute the core of the present cases in the sense
that they are concerned with the fundamental obligations stipulated in
Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant
ofthe League ofNations.
The submissions presented to the Court by the Applicants in theconstituer un compromis avec !e volontarisme. L'«intention raison-
nablement présumée » ne correspond pas exactement à l'intention psy-
chologique, qui n'a très probablement pas existé.La Cour doit déter-
miner cette intention raisonnablement présuméeen tenant compte de
tous les facteurs juridiques et extra-juridiques, parmi lesquels la néces-
sité.En procédant ainsi, les juges ne sont pas loin d'agir comme le font
les législateurs.
Ajoutons par parenthèse, bien que la Cour n'ait pas la faculté de
statuer ex aequo et bono sans l'accord des parties (Statut, article 38,

paragraphe 2), que le processus d'interprétation définiplus haut peut
parfaitement répondre aux exigences de la justice et du bon sens. Le
contraire surprendrait la plupart des intéresséset l'opinion publique
dans son ensemble.
Ce processus d'interprétation, connu depuis trois quarts de siècle,
surtout dans les pays de droit civil, sous le nom de méthode de libre
recherche scientifique ou Freirecht, libère les juges de l'obligation de
s'entenirà une interprétation rigide du droit écritet souligne le pouvoir
créateur quileur est donné dans leur activitéjudiciaire. Rien ne permet
de penser que la mêmeméthode soit inapplicable au domaine du droit
international, sauf si l'on adhèrà la tendance opposée, c'est-à-direà
un volontarisme strict issu du concept de souveraineté mais contraireà
la conception du droit qui attribàecelui-ci une existence objective etin-
dépendantede la volonté et de l'intention de ceux auxquels il s'adresse.

En résumél,a divergenced'opinion qui semanifeste sur lesquestions qui
nous occupent s'explique en dernière analyse par une opposition entre
deux modes d'interprétation: l'interprétation téléologiqueou sociolo-
gique d'une part, l'interprétation conceptuelleou formaliste de l'autre.

Pour ces motifs, 1)le Sud-Ouest africain est un territoire sous Mandat;
2) le défendeur demeure soumis aux obligations internationales énon-
cées à l'article 22 du Pacte de la Société desNations et dans le Mandat
pour le Sud-Ouest africain, les fonctions de surveillance étant exercées
par les Nations Unies auxquelles les rapports annuels doivent être
envoyés. (Nous examinerons plus loin ce qu'il en est de l'obligation
de transmettre des pétitions, dont les demandeurs font mention dans
leur conclusion no 2.) Sur ces points, les conclusions nos 1 et 2 des de-
mandeurs sont bien fondées.

III

Nous devons à présent examinerlesconclusions finalesnos 3 et 4 des
demandeurs, qui constituent l'essentiel des présentes affairesen ce sens
qu'elles visent les obligations fondamentales énoncéesau deuxième
alinéa de l'article 2 du Mandat et à l'article 22 du Pacte de la Société
des Nations.
Les conclusions que les demandeurs ont présentées à la Cour dans

276leurs mémoires, conclusions qu'ils ont complétéesdans leur réplique
et modifiéesau cours de la procédure orale le 19 mai 1965, touchent
aux griefs formulés contre le défendeur en sa qualité de Mandataire

pour le territoire du Sud-Ouest africain; il s'agit essentiellement d'allé-
gations par lesquelles les demandeurs soutiennent que le défendeur a
violé lesobligations lui incombant au titre de l'article 22 du Pacte de la
Société desNations et du Mandat pour le Sud-Ouest africain.
Les conclusions des demandeurs portent sur de nombreuses obli-
gations prévues dans diverses dispositions du Pacte et du Mandat
(deuxième alinéa de l'article 2, article 4, article 6 et premier alinéa de
l'article1, mais les principales questions juridiques en cause sont indu-
bitablement celles qui visent l'obligation incombant au défendeur à titre
de Mandataire, en vertu du deuxième alinéade l'article 2 du Mandat,
d'accroître, ((par tous les moyens en son pouvoir, le bien-êtrematériel
et moral ainsi que le progrès social des habitants du Territoires.
Nous croyons plus commode, pour l'examen des conclusions des

demandeurs, de faire une distinction entre, d'une part, les questions
d'ensemble qui concernent les obligations généralesincombant au dé-
fendeur àtitre de Mandataire en vertu du deuxième alinéade l'article 2
du Mandat et de l'article 22 du Pacte, et, d'autre part, les obligations
découlant de certaines dispositions précises du Mandat et du Pacte;
nous traiterons d'abord des ~remières.
En bref, les problèmesjuridiques qui se posent en l'espècese ramènent
en dernière analyse à la question de savoir si le défendeur, en qualité
de Mandataire, s'acquitte ou non des obligations formulées au deuxième
alinéade l'article 2 du Mandat pour le territoire du Sud-Ouest africain,
ce qui représente simplement l'application concrète à ce territoire du
principe énoncéau paragraphe 1 de l'article 22 du Pacte concernant
le système des Mandats en général.
Avant d'étudieren détailles conclusions nos 3 et 4 des demandeurs,

nous devons chercher à répondre à la question - soulevéepar le défen-
deur - de savoir si un règlement judiciaire du présent différend est
possible. Si le présent différend revêtun caractère politique, adminis-
tratif, technique ou autre et non pas un caractère juridique, la Cour
n'est pas habilitée à en connaître.
Il y a lieu de se rappelerà ce propos que le défendeurn'a pas argué
devant la Cour du caractère politique du litige au stade des exceptions
préliminaireset qu'il ne l'a fait qu'ultérieurement, au début de la procé-
dure orale, par l'entremise de son conseil (C.R. 65/18, p. 6 et suiv.).
Il convient de noter aue le défendeur ne soutient cette thèse au'en ce
qui concerne les obligations d'ordre générallui incombant comme
Mandataire en vertu du deuxième alinéa de l'article 2 du Mandat et
de l'article 22 du Pacte, et non pas en ce qui concerne les obligations
précises énoncéed sans les articles, 4, 5, 6 et 7 du Mandat. Par suite,

la controverse entre les Parties sur la possibilitéd'un règlement judiciaire
en la présente instance n'a d'importance réelleque pour les conclusions
nos 3 et 4 des demandeurs, qui visent les principes et les objectifs géné-
raux du système des Mandats. The Mandate cannot be conceived as divorced from political, ad-
ministrative, economic, technical and cultural factors and as a result
this consideration makes the question of justiciability more complicated.

The Respondent denies the justiciability of matters pertaining to
Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate. The reason thereof is found
in the nature of the power of the Mandatory which is political and
technical, therefore wide, general and, accordingly, discretionary.

The objectives of the mandates system are declared to be "the well-

being and development" of such peoples, namely "peoples not yet able to
stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions ofthe modern world".
The "well-being and development" mean "the material and moral
well-being and the social progress". (Article 2, paragraph 2, of the
Mandate.) That these objectives form a "sacred trust of civilization"
and "that securities for the performance of this trust should be embodied
in this Covenant", is the principle which should be applied to the colonies
and territories under the mandates system. The securities for the per-
formance of the trust are provided in the Covenant as well as in the
individual mandate instruments, but the objectives of the mandates
system are broad, abstract and comprehensive as is shown by the use
of words such as "well-being", ''development" and "progress".

Strictly speaking, these concepts having the character of a value
judgment are susceptible of taking different contents according to various
philosophical, theological, political systems and ways of thinking, and
consequently it may be extremely difficult for everybody to agree on
what is meant or implied by these terms, and on the degree of importance
which should be attached to a value in the whole hierarchy of values.

What is meant by well-being or progress? Which one has priority in case
of conflict between material and moral well-being? 1sthere any difference
between "progress" and "development"? Concerning the latter two
concepts there may be great divergence of standpoints between evolution-
ists or pragmatists and conservatives. Concerning the appreciation of
the moral well-being and what it consists of idealists and materialists
may differ one from the other.
The creators of Article 22 and the drafters of the Mandate agreement,
however, do not appear to have scrutinized these matters from the above-
mentioned point of view. They wanted to indicate by this simple formula
the goal of good government as it should be applied to the administration
of mandated territories. They wanted to find some idea or principle which
could be considered a common denominator among divergent political
ideas and thoughts on good government just as it is inevitable in the
case of indicating a constitutional aim of a democratic State or, in an
analogous case, of an international organization whose purposes are
as general as those of the League of Nations or the United Nations.

Let us suppose that the legislators of a certain political community
278 Comme on ne peut pas considérer le Mandat indépendamment de
certains éléments d'ordrepolitique, administratif, économique, tech-
nique et culturel, la question de la possibilitéd'un règlement judiciaire
n'en est que plus complexe.
Le défendeur nie que des questions relevant du deuxième alinéa
de l'article 2 du Mandat soient susceptibles de règlement judiciaire.

Il argue de la nature mêmedu pouvoir donné au Mandataire, qui est
d'ordre politique et technique et en conséquencede caractère étendu et
généralet par suite discrétionnaire.
Le système des Mandats a pour objectifs déclarés «le bien-êtreet
le développement ))de peuples ((non encore capables de se diriger eux-
mêmesdans lesconditionsparticulièrement difficilesdu monde moderne ».

Le ((bien-êtreet le développement ))correspondent au ((bien-êtrema-
térielet moral ))et au (progrès social ))dont il est question au deuxième
alinéa de l'article 2 du Mandat. Ces objectifs ((forment une mission
sacréede civilisation, et il convient d'incorporer dans le présent Pacte
des garanties pour l'accomplissement de cette mission)) - tel est le

principe qu'on doit appliquer aux colonies et territoires viséspar le
systèmedes Mandats. Des garanties pour l'accomplissement de la mis-
sion sacrée de civilisation sont prévues dans le Pacte comme dans
les divers actes de Mandat, mais les objectifs du système des Mandats
sont larges, abstraits et généraux, commeen témoignent les termes
((bien-être», ((développement 1) et progrès ».

A strictementparler, cesnotions, qui procèdent dejugements devaleur,
peuvent avoir un contenu différent selon les systèmeset modes de pen-
sée philosophiques, théologiques et politiques; par suite, il peut être
extrêmementdifficilede faire l'unanimité sur le sens exprès ou implicite
de ces termes et sur l'importance qu'il convient d'attribuer, dans la
hiérarchie des valeurs, à une valeur donnée. Qu'entend-on par bien-

êtreou progrès? A quoi faut-il attribuer la priorité en cas de conflit
entre le bien-être matérielet le bien-êtremoral? Y a-t-il une différence
entre le (progrès ))et le ((développement »? S'agissant de ces deux der-
nières notions, il peut y avoir de profondes divergences de vues entre
les évolutionnistes ou pragmatistes et les conservateurs. Sur la manière
d'apprécier le bien-êtremoral et sur le contenu de cette notion, les

idéalisteset les matérialistes peuvent ne pas s'entendre non plus.
Toutefois, les auteurs de l'article 22 et ceux de l'accord de Mandat
ne semblent pas avoir approfondi les choses de ce point de vue. Par la
formule simplequ'ils ont mise au point, ils voulaient simplement indiquer
que l'on devait appliquer à l'administration des territoires sous Mandat
le principe du bon gouvernement. Il leur fallait trouver une idée ou

un principe pouvant servir de dénominateur commun à des vues et à
des conceptions politiques divergentes sur la notion de bon gouverne-
ment, ce qui s'impose chaque fois que l'on veut définir l'objectifconstitu-
tionnel d'un Etat démocratique ou encore, cas analogue, d'une organisa-
tion internationale dont les buts sont d'ordre aussi généralque ceux de
la Sociétédes Nations ou de l'organisation des Nations Unies.

Lorsque les législateurs d'une communauté politique parviennent à succeeded in finding a constitutional formula which the majority of its
members could agree to adopt. Still one cannot be optimistic about
its interpretation. Everyone would interpret it according to his own
philosophical or political viewpoint; each would attach a different
meaning to the same slogan. The necessary conclusion would be sub-
jectivism, relativism and anarchism in the interpretation and multiplicity
of political parties in a democratic society.
The fact that, in most cases, political communities under abstract
principles which would indicate general orientation to the politics and
administration, stand, survive, maintain and even prosper, is not attri-
butable to the legislativetechnique or the manner in which the objectives
of the communities in their constitutions are expressed, but, in final
instance, to the common-sense and political wisdom of the leaders and
constituents of the respective communities.
From what has been mentioned above, we are inclined to conclude
that the concept of the promotion of "material and moral well-being
and social progress of the inhabitants" which constitutes the objectives

of the Mandate for South West Africa (Article 2, paragraph 2), is in
itself of political character and cannot be recognized as susceptible of
judicial determination and execution.
By saying so we do not assert that Article 2, paragraph 2, of the
Mandate does not possess the character of a legal norm. Legislators can
adopt in the system of legal norms other cultural norms, which are
socially relevant, namely moral, political, economic, technical norms,
etc., as distinct from the juridical value judgment. In such cases, a
cultural norm quite heterogeneous in character to legal norm, e.g., in
the control of traffic or architecture, is incorporated in the system of
law. In such cases, we may Saythat a technique is vested with juridical
value, or that a technique is "naturalized" in the system of law.

Such "naturalization" between legal and other cultural norms occurs
most frequently between law on the one hand and morals and politics
on the.other. The article with which we are now confronted is one of the
typical examples of such "naturalization".
The promotion of the material and moral well-being and the social

progress of the inhabitants, are the ultimate objectiveswhich the Manda-
tory is obliged to realize.These objectives are essentially of a political
nature, but moral and humanitarian as well. In this case the political
and moral obligations of the Mandatory, as an effect of the mandate
agreement, are incorporated into the law.
The obligations incumbent upon the Respondent as Mandatory are
differentfrom its specificduties enumerated inthe Covenant and mandate
agreement and, clearly defined from the viewpoint of their content,
present themselves as the supreme goal of the mandates system which
is of political character. These obligations are therefore general, vague
and abstract, and, accordingly, they are not susceptible of judicial
execution, in spite of the fact that we cannot deny the legal character of
the mandate agreement in its entirety.

279 trouver une formule constitutionnelle acceptable pour la majorité de
ses membres, il n'y a pas lieu d'êtretrop optimiste sur l'interprétation
qui en sera donnée. Chacun l'interprétera,le cas échéant, conformément
à ses vues philosophiques ou politiques; chacun attribuera un sens
différentà la mêmeformule. On aboutira inévitablement, dans l'inter-

prétation, au subjectivisme, au relativisme età l'anarchisme et, pour ce
qui est de la sociétédémocratique, à la multiplicité despartis politiques.
Le fait que les communautés dont l'orientation généraleen matière
politique et administrative est régiepar des principes abstraits parvien-
nent dans la plupart des cas à exister,à survivre et même àprospérer ne
s'explique pas par leur technique législative ou par la manière selon
laquelle leurs objectifs sont expriméssur le plan constitutionnel; seuls
comptent en définitivelebon sens etla sagessepolitique dont témoignent
leurs dirigeants et leurs divers éléments.
Vu ce qui précède,nous inclinons à conclure que la notion de l'ac-
croissement du ((bien-êtrematérielet moral )et du ((progrèssocial des

habitants », c'est-à-dire l'objectif visépar le Mandat pour le Sud-Ouest
africain (article2, deuxième alinéa), a en soi un caractère politique et
n'est donc pas susceptible de détermination ou de règlementjudiciaire.

Nous ne voulons pas dire par là que le deuxième alinéade l'article 2
du Mandat ne possèdepas le caractère d'une norme juridique. Les légis-
lateurs peuvent adopter dans leur système de normes juridiques des
normes culturelles pertinentes sur le plan social mais ne procédant pas
de jugements de valeur juridiques: normes morales, politiques, écono-
miques, techniques, etc. En pareil cas, une norme culturelle tout à fait
étrangère par nature aux normes juridiques, applicable par exemple

à la circulation ou à l'architecture, est incorporée au systèmejuridique.
On peut dire que la technique dont il s'agit se voit attribuer une valeur
juridique ou qu'elle est intégréedans le système juridique.
Ce phénomèned'intégration desnormes culturelles au sein des normes
juridiques intervienttrès fréquemmententre le droit d'une part,la morale
et la politique de l'autre. Les dispositions dont nous nous occupons
en fournissent un exemple typique.
L'accroissement du bien-être matérielet moral et du progrès social
des habitants est l'objectif ultime imposé au Mandataire. Cet objectif
est essentiellement de nature politique, mais égalementde nature morale

et humanitaire. En l'occurrence, les obligations politiques et morales
du Mandataire découlant de l'accord de Mandat sont incorporées au
droit.
Les obligations qui incombent au défendeuren qualité de Mandataire
sont différentes des devoirs précisqui sont énoncésdans le Pacte et
dans l'accord de Mandat; leur contenu étantclairement défini,ces obliga-
tions se présentent comme l'objectif suprêmedu système des Mandats,
qui est de caractère politique. Elles sont donc générales, vagueset abs-
traites et par suite elles ne sont pas susceptibles de règlement judiciaire,
bien que nous ne puissions contester le caractère juridique de l'accord
de Mandat dans son ensemble.

279 This is a reason why, even in countries where the institution of consti-
tutional judicial review is adopted, some of the higher principles of
the constitution are by doctrine and practice excluded from the function
of courts oflaw. The execution of some constitutional provisions is not
guaranteed as in the case of lex imperfecta.

This is a consequence of the essential difference between law and
politics or administration.
The essential difference between law and politics or administration
lies in the fact that law distinguishes in a categorical way what is right
and just fromwhat iswrong and unjust, whilepolitics and administration,
being the means to attain specificpurposes, and dominated by consider-
ations of expediency, make a distinction between the practical and the
unpractical, the efficient and the inefficient. Consequently, in the judg-

ment of law there is no possibility apart from what is just or unjust
(tertium non datur), in the case of politics and administration there are
many possibilities of choice from the viewpoint of expediency and
efficiency.Politics are susceptible of gradation, in contrast to law which
iscategorical and absolute.
As has been mentioned above, the purposes and content of a good
government are vague and are not precisely defined. Suppose we in-
dicate it by a formula such as the promotion of "the material and
moral well-being and social progress" as in the case of the Mandate
for South West Africa. An infinite number of uolicies can be conceived
that would achieve the purposes of good government, which are general
and abstract. In concrete, individual cases, the objectives which should
be achieved may be spiritual or material, direct or indirect, important
or less important, essential or non-essential, urgent or non-urgent. Good
government is concerned with the choice of means to attain certain
ends. This is a characteristic of politics and administration where the
discretionary power of the competent authorities prevails, and since

the Mandate aims at the well-being and progress of the inhabitants, it
therefore belongs to the category of politics and administration, is
characterized by the discretionary nature of the Mandatory's activities.
Briefly, to promote the well-being and progress of the inhabitants,
many policies and measures are conceivable. The Mandatory has a
discretionary power to choose those it considers to be the most appro-
priate and efficientmeans of realizing the said objectives of the Mandate.

There is a question, posed by Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice on
7 May 1965 (C.R. 65/27, pp. 57-59) to both Parties, in relation to
whether the requirement of the "promotion of well-being and social
progress" can be satisfied by any total increase, namely by considering
the progress ."on balance", or whether the existence of a total increase
on the one side cannot itself be considered as the achievement of "pro-
motion of the well-being and progress", if, on the other side, there exists,
on the part of the government, any failure to promote well-being and

progress. If one takes the view that the Mandatory is in principle given C'est l'une des raisons pour lesquelles, mêmedans les pays où l'on
prévoit un contrôle judiciaire de la constitution, certains des plus hauts
principes constitutionnels échappent en théorie et en pratique à l'action
des tribunaux. Pour certaines dispositions constitutionnelles, il n'existe
donc aucune garantie d'application, tout comme dans le cas d'une
lex impeufecta.
C'est là une conséquence de la différencefondamentale qui existe
entre le droit et la politique ou l'administration.
La différencefondamentale entre le droit et la politique ou l'administra-
tion est que le droit distingue d'une façon catégorique ce qui est bien et
juste de ce qui est mauvais et injuste, tandis que la politique etminis-
tration, qui sont les moyens d'atteindre certains objectifs précis et qui

obéissentsurtout à des considérations d'opportunité, font la distinction
entre ce qui est réalisableet ce qui ne l'est pas, entre ce qui est efficace
et ce qui ne l'est pas. Par suite, lorsqu'il faut se prononcer en droit, il
n'y a que l'alternative du juste ou de l'injuste sans moyen terme, tandis
qu'en matière politique ou administrative il existe des choix nombreux
du point de vue de l'opportunité et de l'efficacité.En politique, on peut
opérerune gradation; le droit est catégorique et absolu.
Comme nous l'avons signaléplus haut, le bon gouvernement a des
objectifs et un contenu vagues et sans définition précise.Supposons
que nous en traduisions l'idée,comme dans le Mandat pour le Sud-
Ouest africain, par la formule de l'accroissement du bien-être matériel
et moral ainsi que du progrès social. On peut concevoir alors un nombre
infini de politiques pour réaliser les objectifs d'un bon gouvernement,
qui sont d'ordre généralet abstrait. Dans chaque cas concret, les ob-
jectifsà réaliserseront d'ordre spirituel ou matériel, directsou indirects,
importants ou moins importants, essentiels ou non, urgents ou non.

Le bon gouvernement consiste à choisir les moyens de réalisercertaines
fins. C'est une caractéristique de la politique et de l'administration que
le pouvoir discrétionnaire des autorités compétentes l'emporte sur le
reste; comme le Mandat vise au bien-êtreet au progrès des habitants
et par suite relèvede la politique et de l'administration, il se caractérise
par le caractère discrétionnaire de l'action du Mandataire.
Donc, pour accroître le bien-êtreet le progrès des populations, on
peut concevoir un très grand nombre de politiques et de mesures. Le
Mandataire a le pouvoir discrétionnaire de choisir celles qu'il juge les
plus appropriées et les plus efficaces pour atteindre les objectifs du
Mandat.
Le 7 mai 1965, sir Gerald Fitzmaurice a demandé aux Parties (C.R.
65/27, p. 57-59) si l'on pouvait considérer que la disposition relative
à l'accroissement du bien-êtreet du progrès social serait respectée du
moment qu'il y aurait accroissement total ((tout bien pesé», ou bien
si l'on pouvait considérerqu'un accroissement total ne suffirait pas dès
lors qu'il n'y aurait pas accroissement du bien-être et du progrès

dans tel ou tel secteur de l'action gouvernementale. Si l'on admet que
le Mandataire s'est vu conférer en principe un pouvoir discrétionnaire
pour s'acquitter des obligations qui lui incombent au titre du deuxième
280283 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS. OP. TANAKA)
discretionary power to perform the obligations imposed by Article 2,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate, namely the well-being and progress of
the inhabitants, it follows that it can choose quite freely any policies
or measures which it considers appropriate tq realize this objective;

accordingly, any partial failure in respect of specificpolicies or measures
cannot necessarily be considered to constitute a breach of the Mandate.
The reason therefor is that the discretionary power recognized as being
conferred on the Mandatory includes its capacity of value judgment as
between various possible policies and measures to be taken to realize
the objectives of the Mandate.
Furthermore, the concept of the well-being and progress involves a
quantitative factor. One cannot ascertain whether, at a certain point
of time, the well-being and progress have been dchieved or not. That
the Mandatory is required to promote "to the utmost" (English) or
'fpartous lesmoyens en sonpouvoir" (French) means that the obligations
of the Mandatory provided by Article 2, paragraph 2, are elastic and
that there exists a possibility of wide discretion for their performance.

Investigation of the degree of expediency is iiot a matter for courts
of law to deal with. The appropriateness of the exerciseof a discretionary
power by the Mandatory does not belong to matters subject to the
jurisdiction of a court of law. Therefore the contention of the Respondent
that the exercise of the Mandatory's power is discretionary, and that it
is not justiciable unless the power has been exercised in bad faith, can
be recognized as being fundamentally right. The political obligations
are in themselves incompatible with judicial review.
That the Mandatory has discretionary power concerning the ad-
ministration of the Territory is declared by Article 2, paragraph 1,
which provides: "The Mandatory shall have fullpower of administration
and legislation over the territory..."
What has been said above does not mean that the Mandatory has
an unlimited right to exercise the discretionary power conferred upon
it for the performance of the obligations imposed by the Mandate.
The exercise ofthis power isprimarily limited by the individual provisions
of the mandate instrument and Article 22 of the Covenant. Article 2,
paragraph 1, provides that ". .. the full power of administration and
legislation ... subject to the present Mandate .. .".The Applicants
indeed based their Submissions Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 9 on Article 2, para-
graph 1, of the Mandate, Article 22 of the Covenant, Article 6 of the
Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant, and Article 7, paragraph 1,
of the Mandate respectively. Concerning these points, justiciability on
the Applicants' submissions cannot be denied and the Respondent does

not dare to deny it. Controversy on the justiciability of the present cases
would accordingly be limited to the Applicants' SubmissionsNos. 3 and
4 which are related only to Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate and
Article 22 ofthe Covenant to the extent that it is concerned with Article 2,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate. alinéa de l'article 2 du Mandat et qui consistent à accroître le bien-
êtreet le progrès des habitants, le Mandataire peut choisir librement
toute politique ou toute mesure qu'il juge propices à l'accomplissement
de cette mission; par suite, le fait qu'une politique ou une mesure se
solde par un échecpartiel peut ne pas êtrenécessairement considéré
comme une violation du Mandat. La raison en est que le pouvoir discré-
tionnaire reconnu au Mandataire s'étend à la faculté deporter un juge-
ment de valeur sur les diversespolitiques et mesures que l'on peut adopter

pour atteindre les objectifs du Mandat.

En outre, la notion de bien-êtreet de progrès met en jeu un élément
quantitatif. On ne peut pas savoir, à un moment donné, si l'accroisse-
ment du bien-êtreet du progrès a étéréaliséou non. Que le Mandataire
soit tenu d'accroître le bien-êtreet le progrès «par tous les moyens
en son pouvoir » (version française), ou to the utmost (version anglaise),
signifie que les obligations lui incombant au titre du deuxième alinéa
de l'article2 sont souples et qu'une très grande latitude lui est laissée
pour l'accomplissement de sa mission.
Les tribunaux n'ont pas à enquêter sur l'opportunité.Il ne leur ap-

partient pas de dire si le Mandataire a opportunément exercéson pou-
voir discrétionnaire. Par suite, lorsqu'il soutient que le Mandataire
exerce un pouvoir discrétionnaire ne pouvant faire l'objet d'aucun re-
cours judiciaire à moins d'avoir étéutiliséde mauvaise foi, le défendeur
a fondamentalement raison. Les obligations politiques sont par nature
incompatibles avec le contrôle judiciaire.

Le fait que le Mandataire soit doté d'un pouvoir discrétionnaire
concernant l'administration du territoire est énoncéau premier alinéa
de l'article 2, qui dispose: aLe Mandataire aura pleins pouvoirs d'ad-
ministration et de législation sur le territoire ..))

Ce que nous venons de dire ne signifie pas que le Mandataire jouisse
d'une latitude illimitée dans l'exercice du pouvoir discrétionnaire qui
lui est conférépour s'acquitter des obligations découlant du Mandat.
L'exercice de ce pouvoir est avant tout limitépar les dispositions pré-
cises de l'acte de Mandatetpar celles de l'article22 du Pacte. Le premier
alinéade l'article 2 parle de ((pleinspouvoirs d'administration et deIégis-
lation sur le territoire faisant l'objet du mandat». Du reste, les deman-
deurs ont fondéleurs conclusions nos 5, 6, 7, 9 respectivement sur le
premier alinéa de l'article 2 du Mandat, l'article 22 du Pacte, l'ar-
ticle 6duMandat et l'article 22 du Pacte, le premier alinéade l'article 7
du Mandat. Sur ces points, on ne saurait contester la possibilité d'un

règlement judiciaire relativement aux conclusions des demandeurs et le
défendeur n'ose pas la contester. La controverse sur la possibilitéd'un
règlement judiciaire en la présente instance doit donc se limiter aux
conclusions nos 3 et 4 des demandeurs, conclusions qui portent exclu-
sivement sur le deuxième alinéade l'article 2 du Mandatet sur l'article 22
du Pacte dans la mesure où celui-ci intéressele deuxième alinéade l'ar-
ticle 2 du Mandat. From this viewpoint the question is whether the wide discretionary
power conferred by Article 2, paragraph 1, excludes any possibility of
a breach of the Mandate other than a breach of individual provisions
of the Mandate and the Covenant indicated above. If any legal norm
exists which is applicable to the exercise of the discretionary power of
the Mandatory, then it will present itself as a limitation of this power,
and the possible violation of this norm would result in a breach of the
Mandate and hence the justiciability of this matter.

Now we shall examine Nos. 3 and 4 of the Applicants' final sub-
missions. Submission No. 3 reads as follows:

"Respondent, by laws and regulations, and official methods and
measures, which are set out in the pleadings herein, has practised
apartheid, i.e., has distinguished as to race, colour, national or
tribal origin in establishing the rights and dutizs of the inhabitants
of the Territory; thatsuch practice is in violation of its obligations
as stated in Article of the Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant

of the League of Nations; and that Respondent has the duty forth-
with to ceasethe practice of apartheid in the Territory;" (Applicants'
final submissions, C.R. 65/35, p. 69).

At the same time, Applicants have presented another submission
(Submission No. 4) which states as follows:

"Respondent, by virtue of economic, political, social and edu-
cational policies applied within the Territory, by means of laws
and regulations, and official methods and measures, which are set
out in the pleadings herein, has, in the light of applicable inter-
national standards or international legal norm, or both, failed to
promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and
social progress of the inhabitants of the Territory; that its failure
to do so is in violation of its obligations as stated in Article the

Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant; and that Respondent
has the duty forthwith to ceaseits violations as aforesaid and to take
al1practicable action to fulfilits duties under suchArticles;" (Appli-
cants' final submissions, 19 May 1965, C.R. 65/35, pp. 69-70).

The President, Sir Percy Spender, for the purpose of clarification,

addressed a question to the Applicants in relation to Submissions 3 and
4 in the Memorials at page 197, which are not fundamentally different
from the above-mentioned Final Submissions Nos. 3 and 4. He asked
what was the distinction between one (i.e., Submission No. 3) and the
other (i.e., Subrnission No. 4). (C.R. 65/23,28 April 1965,p. 31.)
282 A cet égard, la question est de savoir si le pouvoir discrétionnaire
étenduconférépar le premier alinéade l'article 2 exclut toute possibilité
de violation du Mandat en dehors des cas où certaines dispositions
précisesdu Mandat et du Pacte dont nous avons parlé plus haut seraient
violées.Si une norme juridique quelconque est applicable à l'exercice

du pouvoir discrétionnaire du Mandataire, elle constitue une limite
à ce pouvoir et l'éventuelle transgression de ladite norme entraîne une
violation du Mandat et par suite la possibilité d'un recours judiciaire
en la matière.

Nous en arrivons à l'examen des conclusions finales nos 3 et 4 des
demandeurs. La conclusion no 3 est la suivante:

«Par les lois et règlements et par les méthodes et actes officiels
décritsdans les écritures, le défendeura pratiqué l'apartheid, c'est-
à-dire qu'il a établi une distinction fondée sur la race, la couleur,
l'origine nationale ou tribale, lorsqu'il a fixéles droits et devoirs
des habitants du Territoire; ...cette pratique constitue une viola-
tion de ses obligations telles qu'elles figurent l'article 2 du Man-
dat et à l'article 22 du Pacte de la Société desNations; et ... le dé-
fendeur a le devoir de cesser sur-le-champ de pratiquer l'apartheid

dans le Territoire)) (conclusions finales des demandeurs, C.R.
65/35, p. 69).
En mêmetemps, les demandeurs ont présenté une,autre conclusion
portant le no 4, qui est la suivante:

'((Par l'effetdes principes économiques, politiques, sociaux et édu-
catifs appliqués dans le Territoire, par les lois et règlements et
par les méthodes et actes officiels décritsdans les écritures,le dé-
fendeur, au regard des «standards »internationaux applicables ou
de la norme juridique internationale applicable ou de ces deux
critèresà la fois, n'a pas accru, par tous les moyens en son pouvoir,

le bien-être matérielet moral ainsi que le progrès social des habi-
tants du Territoire; ...cette carence constitue une violation de ses
obligations, tellesqu'elles figurent l'article 2 du Mandat et à l'ar-
ticle 22 du Pacte; et ...le défendeur a le devoir de mettre sur-le-
champ un terme aux violations indiquées ci-avant et de prendre
toutes les mesures possibles pour remplir ses obligations aux
termes desdits article» (conclusions finales des demandeurs, 19mai
1965, C.R. 65/35, p. 69-70).

Le Président de la Cour, sir Percy Spender, a prié les demandeurs
d'apporter une précision relativement aux conclusions nos 3 et 4 qui
figurent à la page 197des mémoires, lesquellesne diffèrentpas essentiel-
lement des conclusions finales nos 3 et 4 telles que nous venons de les
rappeler. 11a demandé quelie était la distinction entre la conclusion
no 3 et la conclusion no 4 (C.R. 65/23, 28 avril 1965, p. 31). The response of the Applicants on this point was that the distinction
between the two Submissions 3 and 4 was verbal only (19 May 1965,
C.R. 65/35, p. 71). This response, being made after the amendment of
the Applicants' submissions, may be considered as applicable to the

amended Submissions Nos. 3 and 4.
It should be pointed out that the main difference between the original
and the Final SubrnissionsNos. 3 and 4 is that a phrase, namely :"in the
light of applicable international standards or international legal norm,
or both" is inserted between "has" and "failed to promote to the ut-
most . .." which seems to make clear the substantive identity existing
between these two submissions.

Now we shall analyse each of these submissions, which occupy the
central issue of the whole of the Applicants' submissions and upon
which the greater part of the arguments of the Parties has been focused.
This issue is without doubt the question concerning the policy of apart-
heid which the Respondent as Mandatory is alleged to have practised.
First, we shall deal with the concept of apartheid. The Applicants,
in defining apartheid, said: "Respondent .. . has distinguished as to
race, colour, national or tribal origin in establishing the rights and duties
of the inhabitants of the Territory."
It may be said that, as between the Parties, no divergence of opinion
on the concept of apartheid itself exists, notwithstanding that the Re-
spondent prefers to use other terminology, such as "separate develop-
ment", instead of "apartheid". Anyhow, it seems that there has been no
argument concerning the concept of apartheid itself. Furthermore, we
can also recognize that the Respondent has never denied its practice
of apartheid; but it wants to establish the legality and reasonableness of

this policy under the mandates system and its compatibility with the
obligations of the Respondent as Mandatory, as well as its necessity to
perform these obligations.
Submission No. 3 contends that such practice (i.e., the practice of
apartheid) is in violation of its obligations as stated in Article 2 of the
Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant. However, the Applicants'
contention is not clear as to whether the violation, by the practice of
apartheid, of the Respondent's obligation is conceivedfrom the viewpoint
of politics or law. If we consider Submission No. 3, only on the basis of
its literal interpretation, it may be considered to be from the viewpoint
of politics; thismeans that the policy of apartheid is not in conformity
with the objectives of the Mandate, namely the promotion of well-being
and social progress of the inhabitants without regard to any conceivable
legal norm or standards. If the Applicants maintain this position, the
issue would be a matter of discretion and the case, so far as this point
is concerned, would not be justiciable, asthe Respondent has contended.

Now the Applicants do not allege the violation of obligations by the
Respondent independently of any legal norm or standards. Since the
Applicants amended Submission No. 4 in the Memorials and inserted

283 Les demandeurs ont répondu que la distinction entre la conclusion

no 3 et la conclusion no 4 était purement verbale (C.R. 65/35, 19 mai
1965, p. 71). Cette réponse, formulée après que les conclusions des
demandeurs eurent étémodifiées,peut êtreconsidéréecommeapplicable
aux conclusions nos 3 et 4 revisées.
Il y a lieu de signaler que la différence essentielleentre le libelléinitial
et le libellé finaldes conclusionsnos 3 et 4 est qu'un membre de phrase,
savoir: cau regard des (standards ))internationaux applicables ou de la
norme juridique internationale applicable ou de ces deux critères à
la fois »,a étéinséréentre les mots «le défendeur ))et (n'a pas accru, par

tous les moyens »,ce qui semble prouver l'identité de fond des deux
conclusions.
Nous analyserons chacune de ces deux conclusions, qui sont au centre
même desconclusions des demandeurs et sur lesquelles les Parties ont
fait porter l'essentiel de leur argumentation. La question en cause
est indubitablement celle de la politique d'apartheid que le défendeur
est censé avoir pratiquée en tant que Mandataire.

Nous considérerons d'abord la notion d'apartheid. Pour la définir,
les demandeurs disent que le défendeur ((aétabliune distinction fondée
sur la race, la couleur, l'origine nationale ou tribale, lorqu'il a fixéles
droits et les devoirs des habitants du Territoire ».
On peut constater qu'il n'existe pas entre les Parties de divergence
d'opinion sur la notion d'apartheid proprement dite, bien que le défen-
deur préfèrerecourir à des expressions comme développementséparé
au lieu d'apartheid. En tout cas, il n'y a pas eu, semble-t-il, de discussion
sur la notion même d'apartheid.De plus, nous devons également recon-

naître que le défendeur ne nie pas qu'il pratique l'apartheid; mais il
veut démontrer le caractère licite et raisonnable de cette politique dans
le cadre du système des Mandats et prouver qu'elle est compatible
avec les obligations lui incombant en tant que Mandataire, en même
temps qu'indispensable à l'exécution de ces obligations.
D'après la conclusion no 3, la pratique de l'apartheid constituerait
une violation des obligations du défendeur telles qu'elles sont définies
à l'article 2 du Mandat et à l'article 22 du Pacte. Mais on ne sait pas au

juste si, d'aprèsles demandeurs, la violation dont le défendeurse rendrait
coupable par rapport à ces obligations en pratiquant l'apartheid se situe
sur le plan de la politique ou du droit. A considérerla conclusion no 3
et à s'en tenir à son interprétation littérale, on pourrait ne retenir que
le point de vue politique: l'apartheid n'est pas compatible avec les objec-
tifs du Mandat, c'est-à-dire avec l'accroissement du bien-êtreet du pro-
grès social des habitants, sans qu'il y ait à tenir compte de normes ou
de (standards »juridiques quels qu'ils soient. Si les demandeurs en res-

taient là, l'affaire soulèverait une question de pouvoir discrétionnaire
et ne serait pas, sous cet angle, susceptible d'un règlement judiciaire,
comme le soutient du reste le défendeur.
Mais les demandeurs ne disent pas que le défendeur viole ses obli-
gations indépendamment de toute norme juridique ou de tout ((standard ))
juridique. Du fait que les demandeurs ont modifiéla conclusion no 4

283aphrase "in the light of applicable international standards or international

legal norm", the violation of the obligations as stated in Article 2 of the
Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant (Submission No. 3) which is
identical with the failure to promote to the utmost the material and
moral well-being and social progress of the inhabitants of the Territory
(Submission No. 4) has come to possess a special meaning; namely
of ajuridical character. Applicants' cause is no longer based directly on
a violation of the well-being and progress by the practice of apartheid,
but on the alleged violation of certain international standards or inter-
national legal norm and not directly on the obligation to promote the
well-being and social progress of the inhabitants. There is no doubt that,
if such standardsand norm exist, their observance in itself may constitute
a part of Respondent's general obligations to promote the well-being
and socialprogress.

From what is said above, the relationship between the Applicants'
Submissions Nos. 3 and 4 may be understood as follows. The two sub-
missions deal with the same subject-matter, namely the illegal character
of the policy and practice of apartheid. However, the contents of each
submission are not quite the same, consequently the distinction between
the two submissions is not verbal only, as Applicants stated in answer
to the question of the President; each seems to be supplementary to the
other.

Briefly,the Applicants' Submissions Nos. 3 and 4, as newly formulated,
rest upon a norm and/or standard. This norm or standard has been
added by the Applicants to Submission No. 4. The existence of this norm
or standard to be applied to the Mandate relationships, according to
the Applicants' allegation, constitutes a legal limitation of the Respon-
dent's discretionary power and makes the practice of apartheid illegal,
and accordingly a violation of the obligations incumbent on the Manda-
tory.
What the Applicants mean by apartheid is as follows :
"Under apartheid, the status, rights, duties, opportunities and
burdens of the population are determined and allotted arbitrarily

on the basis of race, color and tribe, in a pattern which ignores the
needs and capacities of the groups and individuals affected, and
subordinates the interests and rights of the great majority of the
people to the preferences of a minority .. .It deals with apartheid
in practice, asit actually is and asit actually has been in the life of the
people of the Territory ..." (Memorials, p. 108.)

The Applicants contend the existence of a norm or standards which
prohibit the practice of apartheid. These norm or standards are nothing
other than those of non-discrimination or non-separation.
The Respondent denies the existence of a norm or standard to prohibit

284telle qu'elle était énoncéedans les mémoires, en y insérant le membre

de phrase: «au regard des (standards » internationaux applicables ou
de la norme juridique internationale applicable ))la violation des obli-
gations définies à l'article 2 du Mandat et à l'article 22 du Pacte (con-
clusion no3),quicorrespond exactement au fait de n'avoir pas accru par
tous les moyens possibles le bien-être matériel etmoral et le progrès
social des habitants du territoire (conclusion no 4), revêt désormaisun
sens particulier; elle acquiert un caractère juridique. Les demandeurs
ne fondent plus désormaisleur accusation directement sur une infraction
au bien-être etau progrès imputable à la pratique de l'apartheid; ce

qu'ils estiment violés,ce sont certains ((standards )internationaux, c'est
une certaine norme juridique internationale, ce n'est plus directement
l'obligation d'accroître le bien-être etle progrès social des habitants.
Effectivement, si les ((standards » ou la norme existent, il se peut que
le défendeur doive les respecter dans le cadre de l'obligation générale
qui lui incombe d'accroître le bien-être etle progrès social.
A partir de ce qui précède,on peut comprendre la relation entre la

conclusion no 3 etla conclusion no4 des demandeurs de la façon suivante:
les deux conclusions portent sur le mêmeproblème, savoir le caractère
illicite de la politique et de la pratique de l'apartheid. Toutefois, la teneur
de chacune de ces conclusions n'est pas tout à fait la même, desorte
que la distinction entre les deux n'est pas purement verbale, contraire-
ment à ce que les demandeurs ont répondu au Président; ces deux con-
clusions semblent se compléter.
En résumé, les conclusions nos 3 et 4 des demandeurs sous leur nou-
velle forme reposent sur une norme et/ou des ((standards ». Cette norme

et ces ((standards » ont étéajoutés par les demandeurs à la conclusion
no 4. Pour les demandeurs, l'existence de cette norme ou de ces « stan-
dards 1)applicables aux obligations découlant du Mandat restreint en
droit le pouvoir discrétionnaire conféréau défendeuret rend la pratique
de l'apartheid illicite, si bien que l'apartheid constitue une violation des
obligations incombant au Mandataire.
Les demandeurs entendent l'apartheid comme suit:

((En application de l'apartheid, le statut, les droits, les devoirs,
les chances et les charges de la population sont arbitrairement dé-
terminés et répartis d'après la race, la couleur et la tribu, dans le
cadre d'une structure qui ne tient compte ni des besoins ni des

aptitudes des groupes et des individus qu'elle affecte et qui subor-
donne les intérêtset les droits de la grande majorité des habitants
aux préférences d'uneminorité ...[Ce chapitre] traite de l'apartheid
tel qu'il est pratiqué, tel qu'il est réellement, tel qu'il se manifeste
et s'est manifesté dans la vie de la population du territoire ...1)
(Mémoires, p. 108.)

Les demandeurssoutiennent qu'il existeune norme ou des «standards ))
qui interdisent la pratique de l'apartheid. Cette norme ou ces ((standards ))
ne sont rien d'autre que ceux de non-discrimination ou non-séparation.
Le défendeur nie qu'il existe une norme ou des ((standards » interdi-

284 the practice of apartheid and tries to justify this practice from the dis-
cretionary nature of the Mandatory's power. The Respondent emphasizes
that the practice of apartheid is only impermissible when it is carried out
in bad faith.
From the viewpoint of the Applicants, the existence, and objective
validity, of a norm of non-discrimination make the question of the in-
tention or motivation irrelevant for thepurposes of determining whether
there has been a violation of this norm. The principle that a legal precept,
as opposed to a moral one, in so far as it is not specifically provided
otherwise, shall be applied objectively, independently of motivation on
the Dart of those concerned and inde~endentlv of other individual

circimstances, may be applicable to thez~espondent's defence of bona
jîdes.

Here we are concerned with the existence of a legal norm or standards
regarding non-discrimination. It is a question which is concerned with
the sources of international law, and, at thesame time, with the mandate
law. Furthermore, the question is intimately related to the essence and
nature of fundamental human rights, the promotion and encouragement
of respect for which constitute one of the purposes of the United Nations
(Article 1, paragraph 3, Charter of the United Nations), in which the
principle of equality before the law occupies the most important part
-a principle, from the Applicants' view, antithetical to the policy of
apartheid.
What ismeant by "international norm or standards" can be understood

as being related to the principle of equality before the law.

The question is whether a legal norm on equality before the law
existsin the international sphere and whether it has a binding power upon
the Respondent's conduct in carrying out its obligations as Mandatory.
The question is whether the principle of equality before the law can find
its place among the sources of international law which are referred to in
Article 38, paragraph 1.
Now we shall examine one bv one the sources of international law
enumerated by the above-mentioned provision.
First we consider the international conventions (or treaties). Here
we are not concerned with "special" or "particular" law-making bilateral
treaties, but onlywith law-making multilateral treaties such astheCharter
of the United Nations, the Constitution of the International Labour
Organisation, the Genocide Convention, which have special significance
as legislative methods. However, even such law-making treaties bind

only signatory States and they do not bind States which are not parties
to them.

The question is whether the Charter of the United Nations contains
a legal norm of equality before the law and the principle of non-dis-
285 sant la pratique del'apartheid et il s'efforcede justifier cette pratique par
le caractère discrétionnaire du pouvoir conféréau Mandataire. Il
souligne que l'apartheid n'est illicite que lorsque cette politique est pra-
tiquée de mauvaise foi.

Pour les demandeurs, l'existence et la validité objectived'une norme
de non-discrimination rendent inutile de se référer à l'intention ou aux
mobiles pour établir s'il y a ou non violation de ladite norme. On peut
appliquer à la thèse que le défendeur présenteen arguant de la bonne
foi le principe d'après lequel un préceptejuridique doit, à la différence
d'un précepte moral et sauf indication contraire, être appliqué objecti-
vement et indépendamment des mobiles des intéresséset autres circons-
tances particulières.

Nous devons nous arrêter surla question de l'existence d'une norme
ou de ((standards 1juridiques de non-discrimination. C'est une question
qui touche aux sources du droit international et en mêmetemps au droit
des Mandats. En outre, la question est intimement liée à l'essence même

et àla nature des droits fondamentaux de l'homme, dont l'organisation
des Nations Unies s'est fixépour objectif de développer et d'encourager
le respect (Charte des Nations Unies, article 1, paragraphe 3) et parmi
lesquels le principe de l'égalitédevant la loi - principe qui, pour les
demandeurs, constitue l'antithèse de la politique d'apartheid - occupe
la première place.
La notion de norme internationale ou de cstandards » internationaux
peut êtreconçue comme se rattachant au principe de l'égalitédevant

la loi.
Il s'agit de savoir s'il existe sur le plan international une norme
juridique concernant l'égalitédevant la loi et si elle régitimpérativement
le comportement du défendeur dans l'exécutiondes obligations qui lui
incombent comme Mandataire. Il faut rechercher si le principe de l'éga-
lité devant la loi figure parmi les sources de droit international visées
à l'article 38, paragraphe 1, du Statut de la Cour.
Nous passerons donc en revue les sources de droit international

mentionnées dans la disposition précitée.
Nous considérerons d'abord les conventions internationales ou les
traités internationaux. Il ne s'agit pas ici d'invoquer des traités bilaté-
raux (spéciaux 1ou ((particuliers1)constitutifs de droit, mais seulement
des traités multilatéraux constitutifs de droit, tels que la Charte des
Nations Unies, la Constitution de l'organisation internationale du
Travail, la convention sur le génocide, qui revêtent une importance
particulière sur le plan législatif. Toutefois, ces traités constitutifs de

droit eux-mêmesne lient que les Etats signataires et non les Etats qui
n'y sont pas parties.
La question est de savoir si la Charte des Nations Unies contient
une norme juridique d'égalitédevant la loi et un principe de non-dis-crimination on account of religion, race, colour, sex, language, political
creed, etc. The achievement of international CO-operation in "promoting
and encouraging respect for human rights andfor fundamental freedoms
for al1without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion" consti-
tutes one of the purposes of the United Nations (Article 1, paragraph 3).
Next, the General Assembly shall initiate studies and make recommen-
dations for the purpose of: "... (b) .. .and assisting in the realization

of human rights and fundamenta! freedoms without distinction as to
race, sex, language, or religion" (Article 13, paragraph 1 (b)). "Uni-
versa1 respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental
freedoms for al1 without distinction as to race, sex, language, or re-
ligion" is one of the itemswhich shall be promoted by the United Nations
in the field of international economic and social CO-operation(Articles 55
(c), 56). In this field, the Economic and Social Council may make
recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect for, and obser-
vance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for al1 (Article 62,
paragraph 2, Charter). Finally, "to encourage respect for human rights
and for fundamental freedoms for al1without distinction as to race, sex,
language or religion7'is indicated as one of the basic objectives of the
trusteeship system (Article 76 (c)).
The repeated references in the Charter to the fundamental rights and
freedoms-at least four times-presents itself as one of its differences
from the Covenant of the League of Nations, in which the existence of
intimate relationships between peace and respect for human rights were
not so keenly felt as in the Charter of the United Nations. However,
the Charter did not go so far as to givethe definition to the fundamental
rights and freedoms, nor to provide any machinery of implementation
for the protection and guarantee of these rights and freedoms. The
"Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms"
of 1948whichwanted to formulate each right and freedom and givethem
concrete content, is no more than a declaration adopted by the General
Assembly and not a treaty binding on the member States. The goal of the
codification on the matter of human rights and freedoms has until now
not been reached Savein very limited degree, namely with the European
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms of 1953,the validity of whichis only regional and not universal
and with a fewspecialconventions, such as"genocide" and political rights
of women, the application of which islimited to their respective matters.

In view of these situations, can the Applicants contend, as an interpre-

tation of the Charter, that the existence of a legal norm on equality
before the law, which prescribes non-discrimination on account of
religion, race, colour, etc., accordingly forbids the practice of apartheid?
1s what the Charter requires limited only "to achieve international
CO-operation ... in promoting and encouraging respect for human
rights and for fundamental freedoms ..." and other matters referred
to above?
Under these circumstances it seems difficult to recognize that the
286 crimination à raison de la religion, de la race, de la couleur, du sexe,
de la langue, de l'opinion politique, etc. L'un des buts de l'Organisation
des Nations Unies (article 1, paragraphe 3) est de réaliserla coopération
internationale en ((développantet en encourageant le respect des droits
de l'homme et des libertés fondamentales pour tous sans distinction
de race, de sexe, de langue ou de religion».De plus. l'Assembléegénérale
provoque des études et fait des recommandations en vue de faciliter,
((sansdistinction de race, de sexe, de langue ou de religion, la jouissance

des droits de l'homme et des libertésfondamentales )(article 13, para-
graphe 1 b)). En matière de coopération économique et sociale inter-
nationale, les Nations Unies doivent favoriser notamment «le respect
universel et effectif des droits de l'homme et des libertésfondamentales
pour tous, sans distinction de race, de sexe, de langue ou de religion 1)
(articles 55c) et 56). Dans ce domaine, le Conseil économique et social
peut faire des recommandations en vue d'assurer le respect effectif
des droits de l'homme et des libertésfoiidamentales pour tous (article 62,

paragraphe 2). Enfin, l'un des buts essentiels du régimede tutelle con-
sisteà ((encourager le respect des droits de l'homme et des libertés
fondamentales pour tous, sans distinction de race, de sexe, de langue
ou de religion ))(article 76 c)).
Ces référencesrépétées dela Charte aux droits de l'homme et aux
libertés fondamentales, que l'on retrouve quatre fois au moins, sont
l'une des différencesentre la Charte et le Pacte dela Société desNations,
instrument où l'on ne sentait pas aussi nettement que dans la Charte
le rapport étroit qui lie la paix et le respect des droits de l'homme.

Cependant, la Charte ne va pas jusqu'à définir lesdroits de l'homme
et les libertés fondamentales et ne prévoit pas non plus de mécanisme
concret pour protéger et garantir ces droits et ces libertés. La Déclara-
tion universelle des droits de l'homme et des libertés fondamentales
de 1948,qui vise à définirchaque droit et chaque libertéet à leur donner
un contenu concret, n'est qu'une déclaration adoptée par l'Assemblée
généraleet non pas un traité liant les Etats Membres. Jusqu'à présent,
on n'est guère arrivé à codifier cette question des droits de l'homme

et des libertés fondamentales, sauf de façon extrêment restreinte, par
exemple dans la convention européenne de sauvegarde des droits de
l'homme et des libertés fondamentales de 1953, qui n'a qu'une portée
régionale et non pas universelle, et dans quelques rares conventions
particulières comme celles qui visent le génocideou les droits politiques
de la femme, mais dont l'application se limite à leur objet précis.
Etant donné cette situation, est-ce que les demandeurs peuvent,
sur la base de l'interprétation de la Charte, soutenir qu'il existe une
norme juridique relative à l'égalitédevant la loi, norme prescrivant

de n'exercer aucune discrimination fondée sur la religion, la race, la
couleur, etc., et interdisant par suite la pratique de l'apartheid? Ce que
la Charte exige se limite-t-il exclusivement à l'obligation de ((réaliser
la coopération internationale ...en développant et en encourageant le
respect des droits de l'homme et des libertés fondamentales ))etc.?
Vu les circonstances, il paraît difficiled'admettre que la Charte impose Charter expressly imposes on member States any legal obligation with
respect to the fundamental human rights and freedoms. On the other
hand, we cannot ignore the enormous importance which the Charter
attaches to the realization of fundamental human rights and freedoms.
Article 56 States: "Al1 Members pledge themselves to take joint and
separate action in CO-operationwith the Organization for the achievement
of the purposes set forth in Article 55." (Article 55 enumerates the
purposes of international economic and social CO-operation,in which
"universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental

freedoms" is included.) Well, those who pledge themselves to take
action in CO-operation with the United Nations in respect of the pro-
motion of universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and
fundamental freedoms, cannot violate, without contradiction, these
rights and freedoms. How can one, on the one hand, preach respect for
human rights to others and, on the other hand, disclaim for oneself
the obligation to respect them? From the provisions of the Charter
referring to thehuman rights and fundamental freedomsit can be inferred
that the legal obligation to respect human rights and fundamental
freedoms is imposed on member-States.
Judge Spiropoulos confirmed the binding character of the human
rights provisions of the Charter:

"As the obligation to respect human rights was pIaced upon
Member States by the Charter, it followed that any violation of
human rights was a violation of the provision of the Charter."
(G.A., O.R., 3rd Session,6th Committee, 138th Meeting, 7 December
1948,p. 765.)
Judge Jessup also attributed the same character to the human rights
provisions:

"Since this book is written de legeferenda, the attempt is made
throughout to distinguish between the existing law and the future
goals of the law. It is already the law, at least for Members of the
United Nations, that respect for human dignity and fundamental
human rights is obligatory. The duty is imposed by the Charter."
(Philip C. Jessup,Modern Law of Nations, 1948, p. 91.)

Without doubt, under the present circumstances, the international
protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms is very imperfect.
The work of codification in this field of law has advanced little from the
viewpoint of defining each human right and freedom, as well as the
machinery for their realization. But there is little doubt of the existence
of human rights and freedoms; if not, respect for these is logically
inconceivable; the Charter presupposes the existence of human rights
and freedoms which shall be respected; the existence of such rights and

freedoms is unthinkable withoiit corresponding obligations of persons
concerned and a legal norm underlying them. Furthermore, there is no
doubt that these obligations are not only moral ones, and that they
287expressément une obligation juridique en ce qui concerne les droits
de l'homme et les libertés fondamentales. Mais, d'un autre côté, on
ne peut pas ne pas tenir compte de l'importance considérable que la

Charte accorde à l'exercice effectif des droits de l'homme et au respect
deslibertésfondamentales. L'article 56delaCharte stipule :(LesMembres
s'engagent, en vue d'atteindre les buts énoncés à l'article 55,à agir,
tant conjointement que séparément, en coopération avec l'organisation. »
(L'article 55énonceles buts de la coopération économiqueet sociale in-
ternationale, parmi lesquels figure «le respect universel et effectif des
droits de l'homme et des libertés fondamentales ».)Or, ceux qui s'en-
gagent à agir en coopération avec l'organisation pour assurer le respect

universel et effectif des droits de l'homme et des libertés fondamentales
ne peuvent violer ces droits et ces libertéssans se contredire. Comment
pourrait-on, d'unepart, prêcher à autrui le respect des droits de l'homme
et, de l'autre, nier pour soi-mêmel'obligation de les respecter? Des
dispositions de la Charte qui rappellent les droits de l'homme et les
libertés fondamentales, on peut donc déduireque l'obligation juridique
de respecter ces droits et ces libertés s'impose aux Etats Membres.

M. Spiropoulosaconfirmé dans les termes suivants le caractère obliga-

toire des dispositions de la Charte qui ont trait aux droits de l'homme:
«[La Charte] oblige les Etats Membres à respecter les droits de
l'homme; il s'ensuit que toute violation de ces droits est une viola-
tion des dispositions de la Charte.))(Documents ofJicielsde l'Assem-
bléegénérale,troisièmesession, Sixième Commission, 138e séance,

7 décembre1948,p. 765.)
M. Jessup a, lui aussi, attribué le mêmecaractère aux dispositions
relatives aux droits de l'homme:

((Comme nous consacrons le présent ouvrage au droit qui se
crée, nous essayons de distinguer constamment le droit existant
d'une part et les objectifs futurs du droit de l'autre. Le respect de
la dignitéhumaine et des droits fondamentaux de l'homme est une
obligation qui est déjà inscrite dans le droit, tout au moins pour les

Etats Membres des Nations Unies. Ce devoir leur est imposépar
la Charte. )(Philip C. Jessup, Modern Law of Nations, 1948,p. 91.)
Sans aucun doute, dans les conditions actuelles, la protection des

droits de l'homme et des libertés fondamentales est très imparfaitement
assurée sur le plan international. L'Œuvre de codification dans ce do-
maine du droit a très peu progressé, que ce soit du point de vue de la
définition de chaque droit et de chaque liberté ou du point de vue du
mécanismepermettant leur respect effectif. Mais il ne fait guèrede doute
que les droits et les libertésde l'homme existent; sinon, il serait logique-
ment inconcevable qu'on les respecte; la Charte présuppose l'existence
de droits et de libertés de l'homme qui doivent êtrerespectés; on ne

saurait imaginer qu'il existe pareils droits et libertés sans qu'il y ait
des obligations correspondantes pour les personnes viséeset une norme
287also have a legal character by the verv nature of the subject-matter.

Therefore, the legislative imperfections in the definition of human
rights and freedoms and the lack of mechanism for implementation,
do not constitute a reason for denying their existence and the need for
their legal protection.
Furthermore, it must be pointed out that the Charter provisions, as
indicated above, repeatedly emphasize the principle of equality before
the law by saying, "without distinction as to race, sex, language or
religion".
Under the hypothesis that in the United Nations Charter there exists
a legal norm or standards of non-discrimination, are the Applicants,
referring to this norm, entitled to have recourse to the International
Court of Justice according to Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate?
The Respondent contends that such an alleged norm does not constitute
a part of the mandate agreement, and therefore the question on this norm

falls outside the dispute, which, by the compromissory clause, is placed
under the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice. The Appli-
cants' contention would amount to the introduction of a newelement into
the mandate agreement which is alien to this instrument.
It is evident that, as the Respondent contends, the mandate agreement
does not stipulate equality before the law clause, and that this clause does
not formally constitute a part of the mandate instrument. Nevertheless,
the equality principle, as an integral part of the Charter of the United
Nations oras an independent source of general international law, can be
directlyapplied tothe matter ofthe Mandate either as constitutingakind of
law of the Mandate insensu lato or, at least in respect of standards, as
a principle of interpretation of the mandate agreement. Accordingly, the
dispute concerning the legality of apartheid comes within the field of the
interpretation and application of the provisions of the Mandate stipulated
in Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate.

This conclusion isjustified only onthe presupposition that the Respon-
dent is bound by theCharter of the United Nations not only as a member
State but also as a Mandatory. The Charter, being of the nature of
special international law, or the law of the organized international
community, must be applied to al1 matters which come within the
purposes and competence of the United Nations and with which member
States are concerned, including the matter of the Mandate. Logic re-
quires that, so long as we recognize the unity of personality, the same
principle must govern both the conduct of a member State in the United
Nations itself and also its conduct as a mandatory, particularly in the
matter of the protection and guarantee of human rights and freedoms. juridique à la base de ces obligations. Il ne fait pas non plus de doute
que lesdites obligations ne sont pas seulement d'ordre moral et qu'elles
ont aussi un caractère juridique vu la nature mêmede leur objet.
Par voie de conséquence, ni les imperfections d'ordre législatifdont

souffre la définition des droits et des libertés de l'homme. ni l'absence
d'un mécanismepour leur mise en Œuvre ne constituent des motifs de
nier leur existence ou la nécessitéde les protéger en droit.
Au surplus, il y a lieu de souligner que, comme nous l'avons vu plus
haut, les dispositions de la Charte se réfèrentconstamment au principe
de l'égalitédevant la loi par le membre de phrase ((sans distinction de
race, de sexe, de langue ou de religion ».
A supposer qu'une norme juridique ou des cstandards » juridiques
de non-discrimination existent dans la Charte des Nations Unies, les
demandeurs sont-ils habilités, en invoquant cette norme, à saisir la
Cour internationale de Justice au titre du deuxième alinéade l'article 7
du Mandat? Le défendeur soutient que la norme alléguée nefait pas

partieintégrante del'accord de Mandat et quepar conséquent la question
poséepar cette norme sort du cadre des différendsque la clause corn-
promissoire permet de porter devant la Cour internationale de Justice.
- La thèse des demandeurs reviendrait donc à introduire dans l'accord
de Mandat un élément nouveauétranger à cet instrument.
Il est évidentque, comme le soutient le défendeur, l'accordde Mandat
ne contient pas de clause sur l'égalitdevant la loi et qu'une telle clause
ne fait pas formellement partie de l'acte de Mandat. Néanmoins, soit
que le principe de l'égalitédevant la loi fasse partie intégrante de la
Charte des Nations Unies, soit qu'il çonstitue une source indépendante
de droit international général, ilpeut êtreou bien appliqué directement
au Mandat à titre, en quelque sorte, de droit du Mandat au sens large

ou encore, tout au moins dans le cas des ((standards », appliqué à titre
de principe régissant l'interprétation de l'accord de Mandat. Par suite,
le différend relatifà la légalitéde l'apartheid relève de l'interprétation
et de l'application des dispositions envisagées au deuxième alinéa de
l'article7 du Mandat.
La conclusion ci-dessus ne se justifie que si l'on suppose que le dé-
fendeur est liépar la Charte des Nations Unies non seulement comme
Etat Membre, mais aussi comme Mandataire. La Charte, qui relève
par sanature du droitinternational spécialou dudroit dela communauté
internationale organisée, est applicable à toutes questions relevant des
objectifs et de la compétence des Nations Unies et intéressant les Etats

Membres, y compris la question du Mandat. Du moment que nous
reconnaissons l'unité de la personnalité, la logique veut que le com-
portement d'un Etat comme Membre des Nations Unies obéisse au
même principeque son comportement en tant que Mandataire, notam-
ment en ce qui concerne la protection et les garanties assurer aux droits
et aux libertésde l'homme. Concerning the Applicants' contention attributing to the norm of
non-discrimination or non-separation the character of customary

international law, the following points must be noted.
The Applicants enumerate resolutions and declarations of international
organs which condemn racial discrimination, segregation, separation
and apartheid, and contend that the said resolutions and declarations
were adopted by an overwhelmingmajority, and therefore have binding
power in regard to an opposing State, namely the Respondent. Con-
cerning the question whether the consent of al1 States is required for
the creation of a customary international law or not, we consider that
the answer must be in the negative for the reason that Article 38, para-
graph 1 (b), of the Statute does not exclude the possibility of a few
dissidents for the purpose of the creation of a customary international
law and that the contrary view of a particular State or States would
result in the permission of obstruction by veto, which could not have
been expected by the legislator who drafted the said Article.

An important question involved in the Applicants' contention is
whether resolutions and declarations of international organs can be

recognized as a factor in the custom-generating process in the interpre-
tation of Article 38, paragraph 1 (b), that is to Say, as "evidence of a
general practice".
According to traditional international law, a general practice is the
result of the repetition of individual acts of Statesconstituting consensus
in reuard to a certain content of arule of law. Such re~etition of acts is
an historical process extending over a long period of time. The process
of the formation of a customary law in this case may be described as
individualistic. On the contrary,this process is going to change indapt-
ing itself to changes in the way of international life. The appearance of
organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations,
with their agencies and affiliated institutions, replacing an important
part of the traditional individualistic method of international negotiation
by the method of "parliamentary diplomacy" (Judgment on the South
West Africa cases,Z.C.J R eports 1962, p. 346), is bound to influence the
mode of generation of customary international law. A State, instead of
pronouncing its view to a few States directly concerned, has the oppor-

tunity, through the medium of an organization, to declare its position
to al1 members of the organization and to know immediately their
reaction on the same matter. In former days, practice, repetition and
opinio juris sive necessitatis, which are the ingredients of customary
lawmight be combined together in a verylong and slowprocess extending
over centuries. In the contemporary age of highly developed techniques
of communication and information, the formation of a custom through
the medium of international organizations is greatly facilitated and
accelerated; the establishment of such a custom would require no more
than one generation or evenfar lessthan that. This is one of the examples
of the transformation of law inevitably produced by change in the social
substratum. A propos de la thèse des demandeurs selon laquelle la norme de
non-discrimination ou de non-séparation est une règle de droit inter-
national coutumier, il y a lieu de formuler les observations ci-après.
Les demandeurs énumèrent des résolutions et déclarations émanant
d'organismes internationaux et condamnant la discrimination raciale,
la ségrégation,la séparation et l'apartheid et ils soutiennent que ces

résolutions et déclarations, parce qu'elles ont été approuvées à une
majorité écrasante, ont force obligatoire à l'encontre d'un Etat qui
s'y oppose, le défendeur. A la question de savoir si le consentement de
tous les Etats est indispensableà la création d'une règlede droit inter-
national coutumier, il faut, à notre avis, répondre par la négative. En
effet, les dispositions de l'article 38, paragraphe1 b), du Statut n'ex-
cluent pas la possibilité de dissidences en matière de création du droit
internationalcoutumier; lefait qu'un ou plusieurs Etats aient une opinion
contraire ne saurait les autoriser à faire obstruction au moyen d'un
veto, ce que le législateurqui a rédigé l'article38 n'a probablement pas
prévu.

La thèse des demandeurs soulève une question importante qui est
de savoir si les résolutions et déclarations émanant d'organisations
internationales peuvent êtreadmises comme éléments générateurs d'une
coutume au sens de l'article 38, paragraphe 1 b), c'est-à-dire comme
ccpreuve d'une pratique générale ».
D'après le droit international traditionnel, une pratique générale
résultait de la répétitionpar les Etats d'actes isolésmanifestant tous
l'acceptation d'une certaine règle de droit de mêmecontenu. Cette
répétition d'actesconstituait un processus historique s'étendant sur
une longue période. On peut dire que le processus de formation d'un
droit coutumier était individualiste. Mais ce processus s'est modifié
en s'adaptant à l'évolution de la vie internationale. L'apparition d'or-

ganisations telles que la Sociétédes Nations ou l'organisation des
Nations Unies, accompagnées de leurs diverses institutions spécialisées
et affiliées,a eu l'effet de substituer pour une bonne part la méthode
de la ((diplomatie parlementaire »au système individualiste des négocia-
tions internationales traditionnelles (affaires du Sud-Ouest africain,
arrêt, C.I.J.Recueil 1962, p. 346), ce qui a nécessairement influésur le
mode de création du droit international coutumier. Au lieu de faire
connaître ses vues à un petit nombre d'Etats directement intéressés,
un Etat peut, par le truchement d'une organisation de ce genre, faire
connaître sa position àtous les Etats membres de l'organisation et savoir
immédiatement comment ils réagissent. Autrefois, la pratique, la répé-

tition et l'opiniojuris sive necessitatis pouvaient s'associer en un pro-
cessus séculaire, extrêmemenltong et lent, pour créer dudroit coutumier.
De nos jours, vu les progrès des moyens de communication et d'in-
formation, le processus de formation d'une coutume par le truchement
d'organisations internationales est infiniment plusfacile et plus rapide;
la création d'une coutume ne demande guère plus que l'espace d'une
génération,voire beaucoup moins. C'est là un exemple des inévitables
transformations du droit par suite de l'évolution du substrat social.

289 Of course, we cannot admit that individual resolutions, declarations,
judgments, decisions, etc., have binding force upon the members of the
organization. What is required for customary international law is the

repetition of the same practice; accordingly, in this case resolutions,
declarations, etc., on the same matter in the same, or diverse, organi-
zations must take place repeatedly.

Parallel with such repetition, each resolution, declaration, etc., being
considered as the manifestation of the collective will of individual
participant States, the will of the international community can certainly
be formulated more quickly and more accurately as compared with the
traditional method of the normative process. This coIlective, cumulative
and organic process of custom-generation can be characterized as the
middle way between legislation by convention andthe traditional process
of custom making, and can be seen to have an important role from the
viewpoint of the development of international law.
In short, the accumulation of authoritative pronouncements such as
resolutions, declarations, decisions, etc., concerning the interpretation
of the Charter by the competent organs of the international community
can be characterized as evidence of the international custom referred
to in Article 38, paragraph 1 (b).

In the present case the Applicants assert the existence of the internatio-
nal norm and standards of non-discrimination and non-separation and
refer to this source of international law. They enumerate resolutions of
the General Assembly which repeatedly and strongly deny the apartheid
policy of racial discrimination as an interpretation of the Charter

(General Assembly resolution 1178 (XII) of 26 November 1957; reso-
lution 1248 (XIII) of 30 October 1958; resolution 1375 (XIV) of
17November 1959;resolution 1598 (XV)of 13April1961; and resolutions
of the Security Council (with regard to apartheid as practised in the
Republic of South Africa); resolution of 7 August 1953which declares
the inconsistency of the policy of the South African Government with
the principles contained in the Charter of the United Nations and with
its obligations as a member State of the United Nations; resolution of
4 December 1963which declares ". ..the policies of apartheid and racial
discrimination ... are abhorrent to the conscience of mankind ...".
The Applicants cite also the report of the Committee on South West
Africa t'or1956.)

Moreover, the 11trust territories agreements, each of them containing
a provision concerning the norm of officia1non-discrimination or non-
separation on the basis of membership in a group or race, may be con-
sidered as contributions to the development of the universal acceptance
of the norm of non-discrimination, in addition to the meaning which
each provision possesses in each trusteeship agreement, by virtue of
Article 38, paragraph 1 (a), of the Statute. Nous ne pouvons évidemment pas admettre que des résolutions,
déclarations, arrêts, décisions, etc., aient isolément force obligat~ire
pour les Etats membres de l'organisation. Ce que le droit international
coutumier exige, c'est la répétition d'une mêmepratique; par suite,
il faut en l'espèce que des résolutions, déclarations, etc., sur la même
question aient étéadoptées àplusieurs reprises par la même organisation
ou par plusieurs organisations.
On doit noter en mêmetemps que, chaque résolution, déclaration,
etc., étant l'émanation de la volonté collective des Etats participants,
la volonté collective de la communauté internationale peut certaine-

ment se manifester plus rapidemect et plus fidèlement que ne le permet-
tait le processus normatif traditionnel. Ce système collectif cumulatif
et organique de création de la coutume représente, pour ainsi dire, un
moyen terme entre la législation par convention et le processus tradi-
tionnel de création de la coutume et l'on peut constater qu'il joue un
rôle important dans l'évolution du droit international.
Eii résumé,on peut dire que, lorsque les organes compétents de la
communauté internationale font connaître leur position par une ac-
cumulation de résolutioiis, déclarations, décisions, etc., qui constituent
des interprétations autoriséesde la Charte, il faut y voir la preuve d'une
coutume internationale au sens de l'article 38, paragraphe 1 b), du
Statut.
En l'espèce, lesdemandeurs soutiennent qu'il existeune norme inter-

nationale et des «standards » internationaux de non-discrimination et
de non-séparation et ils se réfèrent à la source de droit international
dont nous venons de parler. Ils énumèrent des résolutions de 1'Assem-
blée généralequi ont nié vigoureusement et à maintes reprises que
l'application d'une politique d'apartheid et de discrimination raciale
corresponde à une interprétation correcte de la Charte: résolutions 1178
(XII) du 26 novembre 1957, 1248(XIII) du 30 octobre 1958, 1375(XIV)
du 17 novembre 1959 et 1598 (XV) du 13 avril 1961; ils citent aussi
des résolutions du Conseil de sécurité visant la politique d'apartheid
telle qu'elle est pratiquée dans la République sud-africaine: résolution
du 7 août 1953, déclarant la politique du Gouvernement sud-africain
incompatible avec les principes énoncés dans la Charte des Nations
Unies et contraire aux obligations de ce pays en tant qu7Etat Membre
de l'organisation des Nations Unies, et résolution du 4 décembre 1963,

aux termes de laquelle ((les politiques d'apartheid et de discrimination
raciale...répugnent à la conscience de l'humanité ...1)Les demandeurs
citent égalementle rapport du Comitédu Sud-Ouest africain pour 1956.
D'autre part les onze accords de tutelle, qui contiennent chacun
une disposition relative à la norme d'après laquelle il est interdit de
pratiquer officiellement une discrimination ou une séparation fondées
sur l'appartenance à un groupe ou à une race, peuvent êtreconsidérés
eux aussi comme contribuant à faire universellement accepter la norme
de non-discrimination, et cela en sus de l'importance que la disposition
en question revêtdans chacun des accords de tutelle par l'effet de I'ar-
ticle 38, paragraphe 1 a), du Statut. Furthermore, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted
by the General Assembly in 1948,although not binding in itself, consti-
tutes evidence of the interpretation and application of the relevant
Charter provisions. The same may be said of the Draft Declaration on
RightsandDuties ofStatesadopted by the International Law Commission
in 1949, the Draft Covenant on civil and political rights, the Draft
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Declaration
on the Elimination of al1 Forms of Racial Discrimination adopted by
the General Assembly of the United Nations on 20 November 1963and
of regional treaties and declarations, particularly the European Con-
vention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
signed on 3 September 1953,the Charter ofthe Organization of American
States signed on 30 April 1948,the American Declaration of the Rights
and Duties of Man, 1948,the Draft Declaration of International Rights
and Duties, 1945.

From what has been said above, we consider that the norm of non-
discrimination or non-separation on the basis of race has become a rule

of customary international law as is contended by the Applicants, and
as a result, the Respondent's obligations as Mandatory are governed
by this legal norm in its capacity as a member of the United Nations
either directly or at least by way of interpretation of Article 2, para-
graph 2.
One of the contentions concerning the application of the said legal
norm is that, if such a legal norm exists for judging the Respondent's
obligations under Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate, it would be
the one in existenceat the time the Mandate wasentrusted to the Respon-
dent. This is evidently a question of inter-temporal law.

The Respondent's position is that of denyingthe application of a new
law to a matter which arose under an old law, namely the negation of
retroactivity of a new customary law. The Applicants' argument is based
on "the relevanceof the evolvingpractice and views ofStates, growth of
experience and increasing knowledge in political and social science to
the determination of obligations bearing on the nature and purpose of
the Mandate in general, and Article 2, paragraph 2"; briefly, it rests on
the assertion of the concept of the "continuous, dynamic and ascending

growth" of the obligation of the Mandatory.

Our view on this question is substantially not very different from that
of the Applicants. The reason why we recognize the retroactive appli-
cation of a new customary law to a matter which started more than
40 years ago is as follows.
The matter in question is in reality not that of an old law and a new
law, that is to say, it is not a question which arises out of an amendment
of a law and which should be decided on the basis of the principle of the
protection of droit acquis and therefore ofnon-retroactivity. In the present

291 Au surplus, la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme adop-
téepar l'Assemblée générale e1 n948constitue, sans avoir force obliga-
toire par elle-même,la preuve de l'interprétation et de l'application
qu'il convient de donner aux dispositions pertinentes de la Charte. On
peut en dire autant du projet de déclaration des droits et des devoirs
des Etats adopté par la Commission du droit international en 1949,
du projet de pacte relatif aux droits civils et politiques, du projet de
pacte relatif aux droits économiques, sociauxet culturels, de la déclara-
tion des Nations Unies sur l'élimination de toutes les formes de dis-
crimination raciale adoptée par l'Assembléegénéralele 20 novembre

1963 et de certains traités et déclarations de portée régionale telsque
la convention européenne de sauvegarde des droits de l'homme et des
libertés fondamentales du 3 septembre 1953, la Charte de lyOrganisa-
tion des Etats américains signéele 30 avril 1948,la déclaration améri-
caine des droits et devoirs de l'homme de 1948et le projet de déclara-
tion relatif aux droits et devoirs internationaux de 1945.
De ce qui précède,nous conclurons que la norme interdisant la dis-
crimination ou la séparation fondéesur la race est désormaisune règle
de droit international coutumier, comme le soutiennent les demandeurs,
et que par suite les obligations incombant au défendeur à titre de Man-
dataire sont régiespar cette norme juridique, du fait qu'il est Membre
de l'Organisation des Nations Unies, soit directement, soit au moins
par voie d'interprétation du deuxièmealinéa de l'article 2.

L'un des arguments présentésau sujet de l'application de ladite norme
juridique est que, mêmes'il est vrai qu'on puisse faire appel à elle pour
évaluerles obligations incombant au défendeur au titre du deuxième
alinéade l'article2 du Mandat, encore faut-il qu'elle ait exisàél'époque
où le Mandat a étéconcédé. C'est là évidemmentun problème de droit
intertemporel.
Le défendeur nieque l'on puisseappliquer une règlede droit nouvelle
à une question néesous le régime d'une règleancienne ou, en d'autres
termes, qu'une règle nouvelle de droit coutumier puisse avoir un effet
rétroactif. De leur côté, les demandeurs fondent leur argumentation
sur ((la pertinence de l'évolutionde la pratique et des vues des Etats,
l'élargissement desdonnées d'expérienceet des connaissances en ma-
tière de science politique et sociale que'on applique à la définitiondes

obligations intéressant la nature et l'objectif du Mandat en généralet
les dispositions du deuxièmealinéade l'article 2 »; bref, l'argumentation
des demandeurs repose sur la notion de ((l'évolution continue, dyna-
mique et croissante ))de l'obligation du Mandataire.
Sur ce point, nous sommes, pour l'essentiel, de l'avis des demandeurs.
Nous admettons qu'une règle nouvellede droit coutumier est rétroacti-
vement applicable à une question néeil y a plus de quarante ans, et
cela pour les raisons suivantes.
Il ne s'agit pas en fait d'une opposition entre deux règles de droit,
l'une ancienne, l'autre nouvelle; autrement dit nous ne nous trouvons
pas devant une règlede droit modifiée,problème qu'il faudrait résoudre
en appliquant le principe de la protection des droits acquis, en adhé-

291 case, the protection of the acquired rights of the Respondent is not the
issue, but its obligations,because the main purposes of the mandate
system are ethical and humanitarian. The Respondent has no right to
behave in an inhuman way today as well as during these 40 years. There-
fore, the recognition of the generation of a new customary international
law on the matter of non-discrimination is not to be regarded as detri-
mental to the Mandatory, but as an authentic interpretation of the
already existing provisions of Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate
and the Covenant. It is nothing other than a simpleclarification of what
was not so clear 40 years ago. What ought to have been clear 40 years
ago has been revealed by the creation of a new customary law which
plays the role of authentic interpretation the effect of which is retro-
active.

Briefly, the method of the generation of customary international law
is in the stage of transformation from being an individualistic process
to being a collectivistic process. This phenomenon can be said to be the

adaptation of the traditional creative process of international law to
the reality of the growth of the organized international community. It
can be characterized, considered from the sociological viewpoint, as
a transition from traditional custom-making to international legislation
by treaty.

Followingthe reference to Article 38, paragraph 1 (b), of the Statu*,
the Applicants base their contention on the legal norm alternatively on
Article 38,paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute, namely "the generalprinciples
of law recognized by civilized nations".
Applicants refer to this soùrce of international law both as an inde-
pendent ground for the justification of the norm of non-discrimination
and as a supplementand reinforcement of the other arguments advanced
by them to demonstrate their theory.
The question is whether the legal norm of non-discrimination or noii-
separation denying the practice of apartheid can be recognized as a
principle enunciated in the said provision.

The wording of this provision is very broad and vague; the meaning
is not clear. Multiple interpretations ranging from the most strict to the
most liberal are possible.
To decide this question we must clarify the meaning of "general
principles of law". To restrict the meaning to private law principles or
principles of procedural law seems from the viewpoint of literal inter-
pretation untenable. So far as the "general principles of law" are not
qualified, the "law" must be understood to embrace al1branches of law,
including municipal law, public law, constitutional and administrative
law, private law, commercial law, substantive and procedural law, etc.
292 rant par conséquent au principe de la non-rétroactivité. En l'espèce,
ce n'est pas la protection des droits acquis du défendeur qui est en jeu,
mais ses obligations, car les principaux objectifs du système desMandats
sontd'ordre éthiqueet humain. Ledéfendeur n'apas plusle droit d'adop-

ter aujourd'hui un comportement inhumain qu'il ne l'a eu pendant
quarante ans. Par suite, reconnaître qu'il s'est crééune règle nouvelle
de droit international coutumier en matière de non-discrimination ne
doit pas être considéré comme préjudiciable au Mandataire; cela
correspond seulement à une interprétation authentique de dispositions
qui existaient déjà,celles du deuxième alinéade l'article 2 du Mandat
et celles du Pacte. On a simplement préciséce qui manquait de préci-
sion ily a quarante ans. Ce qui aurait dû être clairdepuis quarante ans
se trouve dégagé grâce à la création d'une règle nouvelle de droit cou-
tumier, équivalant à une interprétation authentique dont l'effetest rétro-

actif.
En résumé,le processus de création du droit international coutu-
mier, qui était individualiste, est en voie de transformation et devient
callectiviste. On peut voir dans ce phénomènel'adaptaticn du processus
normatif traditionnel du droit international à la réalité concrètemar-
quéepar le développement de la communauté internationale organisée.
Du point de vue sociologique, on peut dire qu'il y a là une transition
entre la création traditionnelle de la coutume et la législationinternatio-
nale par voie conventionnelle.

Après avoir invoqué l'article 38, paragraphe 1 b), du Statut, les de-
mandeurs fondent subsidiairement leur thèse relative à la norme juri-
dique sur l'article 38, paragraphe 1 c), c'est-à-dire sur les ((principes
générauxde droit reconnus par les nations civilisées ».
Les demandeurs invoquent cette source de droit international d'une
part pour justifier de façon indépendante l'existence de la norme de

non-discrimination et d'autre part pour renforcer à titre subsidiaire
les arguments qu'ils énoncent à l'appui de leur théorie.
La question est de savoir si la norme juridique de non-discrimination
ou de non-séparation qui interdit la pratique de l'apartlzeid peut être
reconnue comme un principe effectivement visépar la disposition du
Statut dont il s'agit.
Cette disposition est libelléede façon très large et très vague; le sens
n'en est pas clair. Elle se prête à de multiples interprétations, qui vont
de la plus étroite à la plus libérale.

Il faut donc, pour répondre à la question, préciserla notion de ((prin-
cipes générauxde droit ». La limiter à des principes de droit privé ou
à des principes de procédure paraîtrait, du point de vue de l'interpréta-
tion littérale, insoutenable. Dans la mesure où ces (principes généraux
de droit »ne sont pas précisés, ily a lieu de croire que le terme ((droit 1)
recouvre toutes les branches du droit, à savoir le droit interne, le droit
public, le droit constitutionnel et administratif, le droit privé,le droitNevertheless, analogies drawn from these laws should not be made
mechanically, that is to Say,to borrow the expression of Lord McNair,
"by means of importing private law institutions 'lock, stockand barrel'
ready-made and fully equipped with a set of rules". (I.C.J. Reports 1950,
p. 148.)

What international law can with advantage borrow from these sources
must be from the viewpoint of underlying or guiding "principles".
These principles, therefore, must not be limited to statutory provisions
and institutions of national laws: they must be extended to the funda-
mental concepts of each branch of law as well as to law in general so
far as these can be considered as "recognized by civilized nations."

Accordingly, the general principles of law in the sense of Article 38,
paragraph 1 (c), are not limited to certain basic principles of law such
as the limitation of State sovereignty, third-party judgment, limitation

of the right of self-defence, pacta sunt servanda, respect for acquired
rights, liability for unlawful harm to one's neighbour, the principle of
good faith, etc. The word "general" may be understood to possess the
same meaning as in the case of the "general theory of law", "théorie
générale de droit","die AllgemeineRechtslehre", namely common to al1
branches of Iaw. But the principles themselves are very extensive and
can be interpreted to include not only the general theory of law, but
the general theories of each branch of municipal law, so far as recognized
by civilizednations. They may be conceived, furthermore, as including
not only legal principles but the fundamental legal concepts of which
the legal norms are composed such as person, right, duty, property,
juristic act, contract, tort, succession, etc.

In short, they may include what can be considered as "juridical truth"
(Bin Cheng, GeneralPrinciplesof Law as Appliedby International Courts
and Tribunals, 1953,p. 24).
The question is whether a legal norm of non-discrimination and non-

separation has come into existencein international society, as the Appli-
cants contend. It is beyond al1doubt that the presence of laws against
racial discrimination and segregationin the municipal systemsof virtually
everyState can beestablishedbycomparative lawstudies.The recognition
of this norm by civilizednations can be ascertained. If the condition of
"general principles" is fulfilled, namely if we can Say that the general
principles include the norm concerning the protection of human rights
by adopting the wide interpretation of the provision of Article 38,
paragraph 1 (c), the norm will find its place among the sources of
international law.

In this context we have to consider the relationship between a norm
of a human rights nature and international law. Originally, general
principles are considered to be certain private law pnnciples found by

293commercial, le droit touchant au fond et le droit de la procédure,etc.
Cela ne veut pas dire que le droit international fasse des emprunts à
ces diverses branches de droit mécaniquementou, pour reprendre l'ex-
pression de lord McNair, (en important des institutions d'ordre privé,
«en bloc, toutes faites et complètement équipées)) d'unensemble de
règles »(C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 148).
Ce que le droit international peut puiser avec profit à ces sources, ce

sont des «principes ))de base, des cprincipes »directeurs. Ces principes
ne doivent donc pas procéder seulement desdispositions législativeset
des institutions de droit interne: ils doivent procéder aussi desconcepts
fondamentaux qui sont à la base de chaque branche du droit et du droit
engénérald ,ans la mesure où l'on peut les considérer comme ((reconnus
Dar les nations civilisées ».
Par suite, les principes générauxde droit au sens de l'article 38,

paragraphe 1c), du Statut ne selimitent pas à certains principes de droit
fondamentaux tels que la limitation de la souverainetédes Etats, l'arbi-
trage, la limitation du droit de légitime défense, pacta sunt servanda,
le respect des droits acquis, la responsabilité civilepour préjudicecausé
à des tiers, le principe de la bonne foi, etc. Il y a lieu d'attribuàrl'épi-
thète (généraux » le sens qu'elle revêtdans les expressions théoriegéné-
rale de droit, the general theory of Law, die Allgemeine Rechtslehre, ce
sens étant:communs à toutes les branches du droit. Mais les ((principes))

eux-mêmesont une très grande portéeet on peut estimer qu'ils visent
non seulement la théoriegénéraledu droit mais encore la théoriegéné-
rale de chaque branche de droit interne dans la mesure où elle
est reconnue par les nations civilisées.On peut en outre concevoir
qu'ils comprennent non seulement les principes juridiques mais aussi
les concepts juridiques fondamentaux dont les normes juridiques sont
constituées: personne, droit, devoir, propriété,acte, contrat, succes-

sion, etc.
Bref, ces principes recouvrent ce que l'on peut appeler la ([vérité
juridique » (Bin Cheng, General Principlesof Law as Applied by Interna-
tional Courts and Tribunals, 1953, p. 24).
11s'agit de savoir si une norme juridique de non-discrimination et
de non-séparation existe désormaisdans le cadre de la sociétéinterna-
tionale, comme le soutiennent les demandeurs. Des études de droit com-
paré prouveraient sans aucun doute qu'il existe dans le droit interne

de presque tous les Etats des lois à l'encontre de la discrimination et de
la ségrégation raciales.On peut donc faire la preuve que cette norme
est reconnue par les nations civilisées.Si la condition relative aux (prin-
cipes généraux » est bien remplie, si l'on peut dire, en interprétant lar-
gement la disposition qui figure à l'article 38, paragraphe 1 c), du Sta-
tut, que les principes générauxincluent la norme relative à la protection
des droits de l'homme, cette norme doit figurer parmi les sources de
droit international.

Dans ce contexte, nous devons considérerle rapport qui peut exister
entre une norme relative aux droits de l'homme et le droit international.
Au départ,les principes générauxsont censésêtredes principes de droit296 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS. OP.TANAKA)

the comparative law method and applicable by way of analogy to matters
of an international character. These principles are of a nature common
to al1nations, that is of the character of jus gentium. These principles,
which originally belong to private law and have the character of jus
gentium, can be incorporated in international law so as to be applied to
matters of an international nature by way of analogy, as we see in the

case of the application of some rules of contract law to the interpretation
of treaties. In the case of the international protection of human rights,
on the contrary, what is involved is not the application by analogy of a
principle or a norm of private law to a matter of international character,
but the recognition of the juridical validity of a similar legal fact without
any distinction as between the municipal and the international legal
sphere.

In short, human rights which require protection are the same; they
are not the product of a particular juridical systeminthe hierarchy of the
legal order, but the same human rights must be recognized, respected and
protected everywhereman goes. The uniformity of national laws on the

protection of human rights is not derived, as in the cases of the law of
contracts and commercial aridmaritime transactions, from considerations
of expediency by the legislative organs or from the creative power of
the custom of a commuriity, but it already exists in spite of its more-or-
less vague forrn. This is of nature jus naturalein roman law.

The unified national laws of the character of jus gentium and of the
law of human rights, which is of the character ofjus naturale in roman
law, both constituting a part of the law of the world community which
may be designated as World Law, Common Law of Mankind (Jenks),
Transnational Law (Jessup), etc., at the same time constitute a part of

international law through the medium of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c).
But there is a difference between these two cases. In the former, the
general principles are presented as common elements among diverse
national laws; in the latter, only one and the same law exists and this
is valid through al1kinds of human societiesin relationships of hierarchy
and CO-ordination.
This distinction between the two categories of law of an international
character is important in deciding the scope and extent of Article 38,
paragraph 1 (c).The Respondent contends that the suggestedapplication
by the Applicants of a principle recognized by civilized nations is not a
correct analogy and application as contemplated byArticle 38,paragraph

1 (c). The Respondent contends that the allegednorm of non-differentia-
tion as between individuals within a State on the basis of membership
of a race, class or group could not be transferred by way of analogy to
the international relationship, otherwise it would mean that al1nations
are to be treated equally despite the difference of race, colour, etc.-a
conclusion which is absurd. (C.R. 65/47,p. 7.) If welimit the application
of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c),to a strict analogical extension of certain
294privé dégagés grâce à la méthode du droit comparé et applicables par
analogie à des questions de caractère international. Ces principes, qui
sont par nature communs à toutes les nations, revêtentle caractère de
jus gentium. Relevant initialement du droit privéet ayant le caractère
de jus gentium, ils peuvent être incorporésau droit international pour
être appliquéspar analogie à des questions de caractère international,
comme nous savons que peuvent s'appliquer à l'interprétation des traités
certaines règlesdu droit des contrats. Dans le cas de la protection des
droits de l'homme sur le plan international, au contraire, il ne s'agit pas
de savoir si l'on peut appliquer par analogie un principe ou une norme
de droit privé à une question de caractère international, mais de savoir

si l'on peut reconnaître la valeur juridique d'un fait juridique identique
dans le domaine juridique interne et dans le domaine juridique inter-
national.
Bref, les droits de l'homme qu'il s'agit de protéger sont partout les
mêmes;ils ne sont pas le produit d'un systèmejuridique particulier
dans la hiérarchie de l'ordre juridique; ce sont les mêmesdroits de
l'homme qu'il faut partout reconnaître, respecter et protéger. L'unifor-
mité des lois internes quant à la protection des droits de l'homme ne
s'explique pas, comme dans le cas du droit des contrat et des trans-
actions d'ordre commercial ou maritime, par des considérations d'op-
portunité de la part des organes législatifsou par le pouvoir qu'a toute
collectivitéde créer une coutume: cette uniformité ré existaitmalgréla
forme plus ou moins vague des principes en cause. Cela est de la nature

du ius naturale du droit romain.
Les droits internes unifiés,qui ont le caractère dejus gentium, et le
droit relatif aux droits de l'homme, qui a le caractère dejus naturale au
sens du droit romain, font partie du droit de la communauté mondiale,
que l'on peut appeler droit mondial, common law de l'humanité (Jenks),
droit transnational (Jessup), etc., et ils relèvent en mêmetemps du droit
international par le moyen de l'article 38, paragraphe 1 c), du Statut.
Mais il y a toutefois une différenceentre les deux cas. Dans le premier,
les principes généraux seprésentent comme des élémentscommuns aux
divers droits internes: dans le second. il n'existe au'un seul et même
droit valable pour tous les types de sociéthumaines, que leurs rapports
résultent d'une hiérarchie ou d'une coordination.
Cette distinction entre les deux catégoriesde droit de caractère inter-
national revêt de l'importance lorsqu'on veut savoir quelle portée

attribuer àl'article 38, paragraphe 1 c), du Statut. Le défendeursoutient
que, quand les demandeurs invoquent un principe reconnu par les
nations civilisées,ils ne procèdent pas au raisonnement par analogie
qu'envisage le paragraphe 1 c) de l'article 38. Aux yeux du défendeur,
en effet, la norme de non-différenciation invoquéepour interdire la
répartition des individus à l'intérieur d'un même Etat d'après leur
appartenance à une race, une classe ou un groupe ne saurait être
appliquée par analogie à l'ordre international, car cela signifierait que
toutes les nations doivent être traitées surun pied d'égalité malgré les
différences de race, de couleur, etc., conclusion qui serait absurde principles of municipal law, we must recognize that the contention of
the Respondent is well-founded. The said provision, however, does not
limit its application to cases of anology with municipal, or private law
which has certainly been a most important instance of the application
of this provision. We must include the international protection ofuman
rights in the application of this provision. It must not be regarded as a

case of analogy. In reality, there is only one human right which is valid
in the international sphere as wellas inthe domestic sphere.

The question here is not of an "international", that is to say, inter-
State nature, but it is concerned with the question of the international
validity ofhuman rights, that is to Say,the question whether a State is
obliged to protect human rights in the international sphere as it is
obliged in the domestic sphere.
The principle of the protection of human rights is derived from the
concept of man as a person and his relationship with society which
cannot be separated from universal human nature. The existence of
human rights does not depend on the will of a State; neither internally
on its law or any other legislativemeasure, nor internationally on treaty
or custom, in which the express or tacit will of a State constitutes the
essentialelement.

A State or States are not capable of creating human rights by law or
by convention; they can only confirm their existence and give them
protection. The role of the State is no morethan declaratory. It is exactly
the same as the International Court of Justice ruling concerning the
Reservations to the Genocide Convention case (I.C.J. Reports 1951,
p. 23):

"The solution of these problems must be found in the special
characteristics of the Genocide Convention ... The origins of the
Convention show that it was the intention of the United Nations
to condemn and punish genocide as 'a crime under international
law' involving a denial of the right of existence of entire human
groups, a denial which shocks the conscience of mankind and
results in greatlosses to humanity, and which is contrary to moral
law and to the spirit and aims of the United Nations (resolution 96
(1) of the General Assembly, December llth, 1946). The first
consequence arising from this conception is that the principles
underlying the Convention are principles which are recognized

by civilizednations asbinding on States,even withoutany conventional
obligution.A second consequence is the universal character both of
the condemnation of genocide and of the CO-operationrequired 'in
order to liberate mankind from such an odious scourge' (Preamble
to the Convention)." (Italics added.)
Human rights have always existedwith the huinan being.They existed
independently of, and before, the State. Alien and even stateless persons

295(C.R. 65/47, p. 7). Si nous limitons l'application de l'article 38, para-
graphe 1 c), à une stricte transposition analogique de certains principes
de droit interne. nous devons effectivementreconnaître le bien-fondé de
l'argumentdudéfendeur. Maiscettedispositionnes'appliquepasexclusive-
ment àdes cas d'analogie avecle droit interne ou le droit privé, bienque
de tels cas soient les plus fréquents.Son application doit nécessairement
s'étendreà la protection des droits de l'homme sur le plan international.
Il ne faut pas y voir un exemple de raisonnement par analogie. En
réalité,tout droit de l'homme estun et valable sur le plan international

comme surle plan national.
Le problème n'est pas ici d'ordre international,au sens où il intéres-
serait les Etats entre eux; il porte sur la validité desdroits de l'homme
dans le domaine international, c'est-à-dire sur la question de savoir si
un Etat est tenu de protégerles droits de l'homme sur le plan interna-
tional comme il est tenu de le faire sur le plan national.
Le principe de la protection des droits de I'homme découlede la
notion mêmede l'homme entant que personneet de ses relations airecla
sociétéq, ue l'on ne peut dissocier du caractère universel de la nature
humaine. L'existence des droits de l'homme n'estpas fonction du bon
vouloir des Etats sur le plan interne, elle ne dépendni de leurs lois, ni
d'autres mesures législatives;sur le plan international, elle ne dépend ni
des traités, ni des coutumes, dans la création desquels leur volonté

expresse ou tacite constitue l'élément essentiel.
Les Etats ne sauraient créerles droits de l'homme par législationou
par convention; ils ne peuvent qu'en confirmerl'existenceet en assurer
la protection. Ils n'ont guère, en la matière, qu'un rôle déclaratoire.
C'estbien ence sensaue s'est ~rononcéela Cour internationale de Justice
dans son avis consultatif sur leséserves àla conventionsur laprévention
et la répression dcrime degénocide (C.I.J. Recueil 1951,p. 23):

((La réponse à ces questions doit êtrecherchéedans les traits
particuliers que présente la Convention sur le génocide ... Les
origines de la Convention révèlentl'intention des Nations Unies de
condamner et de réprimerle génocide comme((un crime de droit
des gens» impliquant le refus du droit à l'existence de groupes
humains entiers, refus qui bouleverse la conscience humaine,
inflige de grandes pertes l'humanité,et qui est contraire à la fois
àla loi morale età l'esprit et aux finsdes Nations Unies (résolution
96(1)de l'Assembléegénérale,11décembre1946).Cette conception
entraîne une première conséquence:les principes qui sont à la base
de la Convention sont des principes reconnus par les nations civi-
liséescomme obligeant les Etats mêmeen dehors de tout lien con-

ventionnel.Une deuxième conséquence estle caractère universel à
la fois de la condamnation du génocideet de la coopération néces-
saire «pour libérerl'humanité d'unfléauaussi odieux ))(préambule
de la Convention) »(Les italiques sont de nous.)
Les droits de l'homme sont nésavec I'homme.Ils ont existé indépen-
damment des Etats et avant leur création. Lesétrangers,les apatridesmust not be deprived of them. Belonging to diversekinds of communities
and societies-ranging from family, club, corporation, to State and
international cornmunity, the human rights of man must be protected
everywherein this socialhierarchy, just as copyright is protected domesti-
cally and internationally. There must be no legalvacuum in theprotection
of human rights. Who can believe, as a reasonable man, that the existence
of human rights depends upon the interna1 or international legislative
measures, etc., of the State and that accordingly they can be validly
abolished or modified by the will of the State?

If a law exists independently of the will of the State and, accordingly,
cannot be abolished or modified even by its constitution, because it is
deeply rooted in the conscience of mankind and of any reasonable
man, it may be called "natural law" in contrast to "positive law".

Prbvisions of the constitutions of some countries characterize funda-
mental human rights and freedorns as "inalienable", "sacred", "eternal",
"inviolate", etc. Therefore, the guarantee of fundarnental human rights
and freedoms possesses a super-constitutional significance.

If we can introduce in the international field a category of law, namely
jus cogevs, recently examined by the International Law Commission,
a kind of imperative law which constitutes the contrast to the jus disposi-
tivum, capable of being changed by way of agreement between States,

surely the law concerning the protection of human rights may be con-
sidered to belong to the jus cogens.
As an interpretation of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), we consider that
the concept of human rights and of their protection is included in the
general principles mentioned in that Article.
Such an interpretation would necessarily be open to the criticism of
falling into the error of natural law dogma. But it is undeniable that in
Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), some natural law elements are inherent.
It extends the concept of the source of international law beyond the limit
of legal positivism according to which, the States being bound only by
their own will, international law is nothing but the law of the consent
and auto-limitation of the State. But this viewpoint, we believe, was
clearly overruled by Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), by the fact that this
provision does not require the consent of States as a condition of the

recognition of the general principles. States which do not recognize this
principle or even denyitsvalidity are nevertheless subject to its rule. From
this kind of source international law could have the foundation of its
validity extended beyond the will of States, that is to say, into the sphere
of natural law and assume an aspect of its supra-national and supra-
positive character.

The above-mentioned character of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of
the Statute is proved by the process of the drafting of this article by

295mêmene peuvent en êtreprivés. Quelsque soientle groupe oula société
considérés,depuisla famille, leclub, la sociétécommercialeou industrielle
jusqu'à I'Etat ou la communauté internationale, les droits de l'homme
doivent êtreprotégés à tous les échelons de cette hiérarchie sociale,
exactement comme le droit d'auteur est protégésur leplan national et sur
le plan international. Il ne doit pas y avoir du point de vue juridique
solution de continuité en matière de protection des droits de l'homme.
Comment pourrait-on croire raisonnablement que les droits de lYl?omme
soient fonction des mesures législativesadoptéespar les Etats sur le plan
national ou sur le plan international et qu'ils puissent en conséquence

êtrevalablement abolis ou modifiésau gré des Etats?
Lorsqu'un droit existe indépendamment de la volontédes Etats et que
par suite il ne peut être niaboli ni modifié,pas mêmepar la voie consti-
tutionnelle, parce qu'il est profondément ancré dans la conscience de
l'humanitéet dans celle de tout homme raisonnable, on peut l'appeler un
droit naturel par opposition au droit positif.
Les constitutions de certains pays qualifient les droitsde l'homme et les
libertés fondamentales d'épithètestelles que inaliénables,sacrés, éternels,
inviolables,etc. On peut en déduireque la garantie des droits de l'homme
et des libertés fondamentales présente une importance supraconstitu-
tionnelle.
Si l'on est fondé à introduire en droit international un ius correns
(question récemment étudiéepar la Commission du droit international),"

sorte de droit impératifpar opposition aujus dispositivumsusceptible de
modification par voie d'accord entre les Etats, il n'y a pas de doute que
l'on peut considérerle droit relatifàla protection des droitsde l'homme
comme relevant dujus cogens.
Par interprétation de l'article38, paragraphe 1 c), du Statut, nous
considérons que la notion des droits de l'homme et de leur protection
figure parmi les principes générauxviséspar ledit article.
On pourrait évidemment critiquer cette interprétation en disant qu'elle
nous fait tomber dans le piègede la doctrine du droit naturel. Mais il est
indéniableque certains éléments relevantdu droit naturel sont inhérents
à l'article 38, paragraphe 1 c), du Statut. Cette disposition élargit le
concept de source du droit international et va au-delà des limites du
positivisme juridique d'après lequel, les Etats n'étant liésque de leur

propre gré,le droit international ne peut être que le produit du consente-
ment des Etats et des restrictions qu'ils s'imposent à eux-mêmes.Il est
très net que l'article 38, paragraphe1 c), s'inspire d'une manière de voir
différente,car il ne précisepas que le consentement des Etats soit indis-
pensable à la reconnaissance des principes généraux. Les Etats qui ne
reconnaissent pas un principe ou vont mêmejusqu'à contester sa validité
sont néanmoins soumis à son emprise. Grâce à cette source, le droit
international peut voir sa validité fondée, endehors de la volonté des
Etats, dans le droit naturel et il revêt enpartie l'aspect supranational et
suprapositif du droit naturel.
On trouve confirmation du caractère de l'article 38, paragraphe 1 c),
du Statut dont nous venons de faire étatdans les délibérationsdu comitéthe Committee of Jurists. The original proposal made by Baron Des-
camps referred to "la consciencejuridique despeuplescivilisés",a concept
which clearly indicated an idea originatingin natural law. This proposal
met with the opposition of the positivist members of the Committee,
represented by Mr. Root. The final draft, namely Article 38,paragraph 1
(c), is the product of a compromise between two schools, naturalist
and positivist, and therefore the fact that the natural law idea became
incorporated therein is not difficult to discover (see particularly Jean
Spiropoulos, Die Allgemeine Rechtsgrundsatze im Volkerrecht, 1928,
pp. 60 ff.;Bin Cheng, op. cit., pp. 24-26).
Furthermore, an important role which can be played by Article 38,
paragraph 1(c), in fillingin gapsin the positive sources inorder to avoid
non liquet decisions,can only be derived from the natural law character
of this provision. Professor Brierly puts it, "its inclusion important as
a rejection of the positivistic doctrine, according to which international
law consists solely of rules to which States have given their consent"
(J.L. Brierly, The LawofNations, 6th ed., p. 63).Mr. Rosenne comments

on the general principles of law as follows:

"Having independent existence, their validity as legal no ms
does not derive from the consent of the parties as such ... The
Statute places this element on a footing of formal equality with
two positivist elements of custom and treaty, and thus is positivist
recognitions of the Grotian concept of the CO-existenceimplying

no subjugation of positive law and so-called natural law of nations
in the Grotian sense." (Shabtai Rosenne, The International Court
of Justice, 1965,Vol. II, p. 610.)

Now the question is whether the alleged norm of non-discrimination
and non-separation as a kind of protection of human rights can be con-
sidered as recognized by civilized nations and included in the general
principles oflaw.
First the recognition of a principle by civilized nations, as indicated

above, does not mean recognition by al1 civilized nations, nor does it
mean recognition by an officialact such as a legislativeact; therefo,e the
recognition is of a veryelastic nature. The principle of equality before the
law, however, is stipulated in the list of human rights recognized by the
municipal system of virtually every State no matter whether the form of
government be republican or monarchicaland in spite of any differences
in the degree of precision of the relevant provisions. This principle has
become an integral part of the constitutions of most of the civilized
countries in the world. Common-law countries must be included. (Ac-
cording to Constitutionsof Nations, 2nd ed., by Amos J. Peaslee, 1956,
Vol. 1, p. 7, about 73 per cent. of the national constitutions contain
clauses respecting equality.)de juristes qui l'a élaboré.Si l'on avait acceptéla proposition initiale
du baron Descamps, on aurait parlé de «la conscience juridique des
peuples civilisés», notion qui faisait clairement appel à l'idéede droit
naturel. Les membres positivistes du comité se sont opposés à cette
proposition par la voix de M. Root. Le projet définitif,que reproduit
l'actuel alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l'article 38, a été lefruit d'un
compromis entre les deux écoles,naturaliste et positiviste; il n'est donc
pas difficiled'y retrouver l'idéede droit naturel (voir notamment Jean
Spiropoulos, Die Allgemeine Rechtsgrundsatze im Volkerrecht, 1928,
p. 60et suiv.;Bin Cheng, op. cit., p. 24-26).

En outre, sil'article 38, paragraphe 1c), peut jouer un rôle important
en comblant les lacunes des sources positives du droit afin d'éviterdes
décisionsdu type non liquet, c'est uniquement dans la mesure où cette
disposition a trait au droit naturel. Comme l'a dit M. J. L. Brierly:
((L'insertion [de cette disposition] est importante parce qu'elle met en
échecla doctrine positiviste d'aprèslaquelle le droit international n'est
constituéexclusivement que de règlesauxquellesles Etats ont donné leur
consentement. »(J. L. Brierly, The Lawof Nations, 6eéd.,p. 63.) Sur les
principes générauxde droit, M. Rosenne a formuléles observations ci-
après :

(([Ces principes] jouissant d'une existence indépendante, leur
validitéen tant que normes juridiques ne tient pas au consentement
proprement dit des parties ...Le Statut donne officiellement à cet
élémenlta mêmeimportance qu'aux deux éléments positivistesque
sont la coutume et le trait6, ce qui revienà reconnaître, d'un point
de vue positiviste, la notion grotienne de la coexistence du droit
positif et de ce que l'on appelle le droit naturel des gens (au sens
grotien) sans subordination de l'un à l'autre.» (Shabtai Rosenne,
TheInternational Court of Justice, 1965,vol. II, p. 610.)

Il s'agit donc de savoir si l'on peut dire de la norme de non-discrimi-
nation et de non-séparation invoquéecomme représentant une sorte de
protection des droits de l'homme qu'elle est reconnue par les nations
civiliséeset fait partie des principes générauxde droit.
Il convient de précisertout d'abord que la reconnaissance d'un prin-
cipe par les nations civiliséesne signifie pas, comme nous l'avons vu

plus haut, qu'il doive être reconnupar toutes les nations civilisées, ni
que des actes officiels, législatifspar exemple, soient nécessaires;cette
reconnaissance a donc un caractère très souple. Toutefois, le principe de
l'égalitédevant la loi figure dans le droit interne de presque tous les
Etats, quelle que soit la nature de leur régimepolitique, république ou
monarchie, et malgré les différencesqui peuvent apparaître dans le
degréde précision desdispositions pertinentes. Ce principe fait désor-
mais partie intégrante de la constitution de la plupart des pays civilisés
du monde, y compris les pays de commonlaw. (D'aprèsAmos J. Peaslee,
Constitutions of Nations, 2e éd.,1956,vol. 1, p. 7, environ 73 pour cent
des constitutions nationales contiennent des clauses relatives à l'égalité
devant la loi.) The manifestation of the recognition of this principle does not need
to be limited to the act of legislation as indicatedove; it may include
the attitude of delegations of member States in cases of participation in
resolutions, declarations, etc.,against racial discrimination adopted bythe
organs of the League of Nations, the United Nations and other organi-
zations which, as we have seen above, constitute an important element
in the generation of customary international law.

From what wehave seenabove, the allegednorm of non-discrimination
and non-separation, being based on the United Nations Charter, par-
ticularly Articles 55 (c), 56, and on numerous resolutions and decla-
rations of the General Assemblyand other organs of the United Nations,
and owing to its nature as a general principle, can be regarded as a
source of international law according to the provisions of Article 38,
paragraph 1 (a) -(c). In this casethree kinds of sourcesare cumulatively
functioning to defend the above-mentioned norm: (1) international
convention, (2)international custom and (3)the general principles of law.

Practically the justification of any one ofthese is enough, but theo-
retically there may be a difference in the degree of importance among
the three. From a positivistic,voluntaristic viewpoint,firstthe convention,
and next the custom, is considered important, and general principles
occupy merely a supplementary position. Onthe contrary, if we take the
supra-national objective viewpoint, the general principles would come
first and the two others would follow them. If we accept the fact that
convention and custom are generally the manifestation and concreti-
zation of already existing general principles, we are inclined to attribute
to this third source of international law the primary position vis-à-vis
the other two.

To sum up, the principle of theprotection ofhuman rights has received
recognition as a legal norm under three main sources of international
law, namely (1) international conventions, (2) international custom and
(3) the general principles of law. Now, the principle of equality before

the law or equal protection by the law presents itself as a kind of human
rights norm. Therefore, what has been said on human rights in general
can be applied to the principle of equality. (Cf. Wilfred Jenks, The
Common Law of Mankind, 1958, p. 121. The author recognizes the
principle of respect for human rights including equality before the law
as a general principle of law.)

Here we must consider the principle of equality in relationship to
the Mandate. The contention of the Applicants is based on this principle
as condemning the practice of apartheid. The Applicants contend not
only that this practice is in violation of the obligations of the Respondent
imposed upon it by Article 2 of the Mandate and Article 22 of the Cove-
nant (SubmissionNo. 3),but that the Respondent, by virtue of economic,

298 Comme nous venons de le dire, il n'est pas indispensable que la re-
connaissance de ce principe se manifeste par des actes législatifs; elle
peut résulter de l'attitude des délégations desEtats Membres partici-
pant a l'élaboration de résolutions, déclarations, etc., contre la dis-
crimination raciale au sein des organes de la Société desNations, de
l'organisation des Nations Unies et autres organisations qui, nous
l'avons vu ci-dessus, jouent un rôle important dans la création du droit
international coutumier.
De ce qui précède,on peut déduire que la norme alléguée denon-

discrimination et de non-séparation - parce qu'elle se fonde sur la
Charte des Nations Unies, notamment sur ses articles 55 c) et 56, et
sur de nombreuses résolutions et déclarations de l'Assembléegénérale
et d'autres organes des Nations Unies et parce qu'elle a la nature d'un
principe général - constitue une source de droit international au sens
des dispositions des alinéas a) à c) de l'article 38, paragraphe 1, du
Statut. En l'espècedonc, on peut invoquer cumulativement trois caté-
gories de sources pour établir l'existence de la norme susmentionnée:
1) les conventions internationales,2) la coutume internationale, 3) les
principes générauxde droit.
Dans la pratique, il suffit de pouvoir invoquer l'une quelconque de
ces trois sources, mais il peut théoriquement y avoir une différence

dans leur importance relative. D'un point de vue positiviste et volon-
tariste, c'est la convention qui a le plus d'importance, la coutume vient
ensuite et les principes généraux nejouent qu'un rôle auxiliaire. Au
contraire, si l'on adopte le point de vue objectif supranational, ce
sont les principes générauxqui jouent le premier rôle, les autres ne
venant qu'après. Compte tenu du fait que la convention et la coutume
sont en généralla manifestation et la concrétisation de principes généraux
qui existaient déjà, nous sommes quant à nous portés à attribuerà
cette troisième source de droit international un rôle essentiel par rapport
aux deux autres.
Nous dirons, pour nous résumer, que le principe de la protection des
droits de l'homme est reconnu comme constituant une norme juridique
au titre des trois sûurces principales de droit international, savoir:

1) les conventions internationales, 2) la coutume internationale, 3) les
principes généraux dedroit. Or, le principe de l'égalitédevant la loi ou
de l'égalitéde la protection de la loi correspond lui-même à une sorte
de norme fondée sur les droits de l'homme. Par suite, ce que nous avons
dit des droits de l'homme en général s'appliqueau principe de l'égalité.
(Voir Wilfred Jenks, The Common Law of Mankind, 1958, p. 121.
L'auteur reconnaît comme principe général de droit le principe du
respect des droits de l'homme, y compris celui de l'égalitédevant la loi.)
Nous devons en l'espèceenvisager le principe de l'égzlitépar rapport
au Mandat. Les demandeurs arguent de ce principe, qui leur paraît
condamner la pratique de l'apartheid. Ils soutiennent non seulement que
cette pratique constitue une violation des obligations incombant au
défendeur au titre de l'article 2du.Mandat et de l'article 22 du Pacte
(coiiclusion no 3), mais aussi que le défendeur, ((par l'effet des principes

298political, social and educational policies has, in the light of applicable

international standards or international legal norms, or both, failed
to promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and social
progress of the inhabitants of the Territory.What the Applicants seek
to establish seems to be that the Respondent's practice of apartheid
constitutesa violation of international standardsand/or an international
legal norm, namely the principle of equality and, as a result, a violation
of the obligations to promote to the utmost, etc. If the violation of this
principle exists, this will be necessarily followed by failure to promote
the well-being, etc. The question is whether the principle of equality is
applicable to the relationships of the Mandate or not. The Respondent
denies that the Mandate includes in its content the principle of equality
as to race, colour, etc.

Regarding this point, we would refer to our above-mentioned view
concerning the Respondent's contention that the alleged norm of non-
discrimination of the Charter does not constitute a part of the mandate
agreement, and therefore the question of this norm falls outside the
dispute under Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate.

We consider that the principle of equality, although it is not expressly
mentioned in the mandateinstrumentconstitutes, byits nature, an integral
part of the mandates system and therefore is embodied in the Mandate.
From the natural-lawcharacter of this principleits inclusion in the Man-
date must be justified.
It appears to be a paradox that the inhabitants of the mandated
territories are internationally more protected than citizens of States
by the application of Article 7, paragraph 2, but this interpretation falls
outside the scope of the present proceedings.

Next, we shall consider the content of the principle of equality which
must be applied to the question of apartheid.

As we have seen above, the objectives of the mandates system, being
the material and moral well-beingand social progress of the inhabitants

of the territory, arein themselves ofa politicalnature. Their achievement
must be measured by the criteria of politics and the method of their
realization belongs to the matter of the discretion conferred upon the
Mandatory by Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Mandate, and Article 22
of the Covenant of the League.
The discretionary power of the Mandatory however, is not unlimited.
Besides the general rules which prohibit the Mandatory from abusing
its power and mala$des in performing its obligations, and besides the
individual provisions of the Mandate and the Covenant, the Mandatory
is subject to the Charter of the United Nations as a member State, the
customaryinternational law, general principles of law, and other sources
299économiques, politiques, sociauxet éducatifs ...au regard des « stan-
dards ))internationaux applicables ou dela normejuridique internationale
applicable ou de ces deux critères à la fois, n'a pas accru, par tous les
moyens en son pouvoir, le bien-être matériee ltmoral ainsi que leprogrès

social des habitants du Territoire 1)Les demandeurs semblent vouloir
dire par là que la pratique de l'apartheid par le défendeurcorrespond
à une violation des ((standards ))internationaux et/ou de la norme juri-
dique internationale, c'est-à-dire du principe d'égalité,et constitue par
conséquent une violation de l'obligation qui lui incombe d'accroître
par tous les moyens, etc. S'ily a effectivementviolation de ce principe,
la conséquence inévitabledoit êtreque le Mandataire n'accroît pas le
bien-être, etc.Il s'agit de savoir si le principe de l'égaliest applicable
aux dispositions duMandat ou non. Ledéfendeur nieque le Mandat con-
tienne le principe de l'égalidu point de vue de la race, dela couleur, etc.
Sur ce point, nous rappelerons les vues que nous avons exposées

plus haut touchant la thèse du défendeur,pour qui la norme de non-
discrimination découvertedans la Charte ne fait pas partie intégrante
de l'accord de Mandat, ce qui le conduit à soutenir que la question de
cette norme n'entre pas dans le cadre des différendsviséspar le deuxième
alinéade l'article7 du Mandat.
Nous estimons que le principe de l'égalité,sans êtreexpressément
mentionné dans l'acte de Mandat, fait, par sa nature même,partie
intégrante du système des Mandats et est donc incorporé au Mandat
lui-même.Que ce principe figure dans le Mandat se justifie par son
caractère de droit naturel.
11semble paradoxal que les habitants des territoires sous Mandat

soient, sur le plan international, mieux protégésque les ressortissants
des divers Etats, grâce à l'application des dispositions du deuxième
alinéade l'article 7, mais ce problème d'interprétation excèdele cadre
de la présenteinstance.
Nous allons étudier à présentla teneur du principe de l'égalitéqui
doit êtreappliqué à la question de l'apartheid.

Comme nous l'avons vu, les objectifs du système des Mandats, qui
consistent à accroître le bien-êtrematérielet moral ainsi que le progrès

social des habitants du territoire, sont par nature d'ordre politique. La
réalisation deces objectifs se mesure nécessairementd'aprèsdes critères
politiques et la méthode utiliséepour les atteindre relève du pouvoir
discrétionnaireconféréau Mandataire par le premier alinéade l'article 2
du Mandat et par l'article 22 du Pacte de la Société desNations.
Le pouvoir discrétionnairedu Mandataire n'est cependant pas illimité.
Outre les règles généralesqui interdisent au Mandataire d'abuser de
son pouvoir et de témoigner de mauvaise foi dans l'exécutionde ses
obligations, et en sus des dispositions précisesdu Mandat et du Pacte,
le Mandataire est soumis aux dispositions de la Charte des Nations
Unies en sa qualité d'Etat Membre de l'organisation, au droit interna-

299 302 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS .P.TANAKA)

of international law enunciated in Article 38, paragraph 1. According
to the contention of the Applicants, the norm and/or standards which
prohibit the practice of apartheid, are either immediately or by way
of interpretation of the Mandate binding upon the discretionary power
of the Mandatory. The Respondent denies the existence of such norm
and/or standards.

The divergence of views between the Parties is summarized in the
following formula: whether or not the policy of racial discrimination
or separate development is per se incompatible with the well-being and
social progress of the inhabitants, or in other terms, whether the policy
of apartheid isillegaland constitutes a breach of the Mandate,or depends

upon the motive (bonafides or malafides), the result or effect. From the
Respondent's standpoint apartheid is not per se prohibited but only a
special kind of discrimination which leads to oppression is prohibited.

This divergence of fundamental standpoints between the Parties is
reflected in their attitudes as to what extent their contentions depend
on the evidence. Contrary to the Applicants' attitude in denying the
necessity of calling witnesses and experts and of an inspection in loco,
the Respondent abundantly utilized numerous witnesses and experts
and requested the Court to visit South West Africa, South Africa and
other parts of Africa to make an inspection in loco.
First, we shall examinethe content of the norm and standards of which
violation by the Respondent is alleged bythe Applicants.

The Applicants contend, as set forth in the Memorials (p. 108) that
the Respondent's violation of its obligations under the said paragraph 2
of Article 2 of the Mandate consists in a "systematic course of positive
action which inhibits the well-being, prevents the social progress and
thwarts the development ofthe ovenvhelmingmajority" ofthe inhabitants
of the Territory. Inpursuit of such course of action, and as a pervasive
feature thereof, the Respondent has, by governmental action, installed
and maintained the policy of apartheid, or separate development. What
is meant by apartheid isas follows:

"Under apartheid, the status, rights, duties, opportunities and
burdens of the population are determined and allotted arbitrarily
on the basis of race,color and tribe, in a pattern which ignores the
needs and capacities of the groups and individuals affected, and
subordinates the interests and rights of the great majority of the
people to the preferences of a minority." (Memorials, p. 108.)

Such policy, the Applicants contend, "runs counter to modern con-
ceptions of human rights, dignities and freedom, irrespective of race,
colour or creed", whicii conclusion is denied by the Respondent.

The alleged legal norms of non-discrimination or non-separation bytional coutumier, aux principes générauxde droit et aux autres sources
de droit international mentionnées à l'article 38, paragraphe 1, du

Statut. D'aprèsla thèse des demandeurs, la norme et/ou les (standards ))
qui interdisent la pratique de l'apartheid ont force obligatoire et limitent
le pouvoir discrétionnaire du Mandataire, soit directement, soit par
voie d'interprétation du Mandat.Le défendeur,de son côté,nie l'existence
de pareille norme et/ou de pareils ((standards)).
La divergence de vues entre les Parties peut se résumer comme suit:
il s'agit de savoir sila politique de discrimination raciale ou de développe-
ment séparéesten soi incompatible avec le bien-êtreet le progrès social
des habitants ou non, c'est-à-dire de savoir si la politique d'apartheid
est par nature illicite et constitue une violation du Mandat ou bien si

cela dépend des motifs qui l'inspirent (bonne ou mauvaise foi), de ses
résultats ou de ses effets. Pour le défendeur, l'apartheid n'estpas interdit
en soi; seule l'est une sorte particulière de discrimination qui aboutit
à l'oppression.
Cette divergence entre les vues fondamentales des Parties retentit
sur le rôle qu'elles attribuent aux moyens de preuve à apporter à l'appui
de leurs thèses respectives. Au contraire des demandeurs, qui ont nié
la nécessitéd'appeler à la barre des témoins etdes experts et de se rendre
sur place, le défendeur afait appel àde très nombreux témoins et experts
et invitéla Cour à procéder à une descente sur les lieux au Sud-Ouest

africain, en Afrique du Sud et dans d'autres pays d'Afrique.
Nous chercherons tout d'abord à déterminer le contenu de la norme
et des ((standards »que les demandeurs accusent le défendeur de violer.
Les demandeurs soutiennent, comme ils le disent dans leurs mémoi-
res (p. 108), que le défendeur a violé lesobligations lui incombant en
vertu du deuxième alinéa de l'article 2 du Mandat parce qu'il a agi
«d'une manière systématiqueet positive en vue de s'opposer au bien-
être del'immense majoritédela population du Sud-Ouest africain, d'en-
traver son progrès social et de contrarier son développement ». Dans
cette entreprise systématique, le défendeur a officiellement établi et

maintenu la politique d'apartheid ou de développement séparé,qui en
est un des aspects les plus insidieux. Voici ce qu'il faut entendre par
apartheid:
«En application de l'apartheid, le statut, les droits, les devoirs,

les chances et les charges de la population sont arbitrairement
déterminéset répartis d'aprèsla race, la couleur et la tribu, dans
le cadre d'une structure qui ne tient compte ni des besoins ni des
aptitudes des groupes et des individus qu'elle affecte et qui subor-
donne les intérêtset les droits de la grande majorité des habitants
aux préférencesd'une minorité. » (Mémoires, p. 108.)

Les demandeurs soutiennent que cette politique «est incompatible
avec les conceptions modernes des droits de l'homme, de la dignitéet
de la liberté de l'homme, qui ne tiennent pas compte de la race, de la
couleur ni de la croyance)), conclusion que le défendeur conteste.
Les normes juridiques de non-discrimination ou de non-séparation303 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS .P. TANAKA)

which, by way ofinterpretation ofArticle 2,paragraph 2, ofthe Mandate,
apartheid becomes illegal, are defined by the Applicants as follows:

"In the following analysis of the relevant legal norms, the terms

'non-discrimination' or 'non-separation' are used in their prevalent
and customary sense: stated negatively, the terms refer to the ab-
sence of governmental policies or actions which allot status, rights,
duties, privileges or burdens on the basis of membership in a group,
class or race ratherthan on the basis of individual merit, capacity
or potential: stated affirmatively, the terms refer to governmental
policies and actions the objective of which is to protect equality
of opportunity and equal protection of the laws to individual
persons as such." (Reply, p. 274.)

What the Applicants want to establish, are the legal norms of "non-
discrimination" or "non-separation" which are of a per se, non-qualified
absolute nature, namely that the decision of observance or otherwise
ofthenorm does not depend upon the motive, result, effect,etc. Therefore
from the standpoint of the Applicants, the violation of the norm of
non-discrimination is established if therexists a simple fact of discrimi-
nation without regard to the intent of oppression on the part of the
Mandatory.
On the other hand, the Respondent does not recognize the existence
of the norm of non-discrimination of an absolute character and seeks

to prove the necessity of group differentiation in the administration of
a multi-racial, multi-national, or multi-lingualcommunity. The pleadings
and verbatim records are extremely rich in examples of different treat-
ment of diversepopulation groupsin multi-cultural societiesin the world.
Many examples of different treatment quoted by the Respondent and
testifiedto by the witnessesand experts appear to belong to the system of
protection of minority groups in multi-cultural communities and cover
not onlythe fieldof public law but also ofprivate law.

The doctrine of different treatment of diverse population groups
constitutes a fundamental political principle by which the Respondent
administersnot only the Republic of SouthAfrica, but the neighbouring
Territory of South West Africa. The geographical, historical, ethnologi-
cal, economic and cultural differences and varieties between several

population groups, according to the contention of the Respondent,
have necessitated the adoption of the policy of apartheid or "separate
development". This policy is said to be required for the purpose of
the promotion of the well-being and social progress of the inhabitants
of the Territory. The Respondent insists that each population group
developing its own characteristics and individuality, to attain self-
determination, separate development should be the best way to realize
the well-being and social progress of the inhabitants. The other alter-
native, namely the mixed integral society in the sense of Western
301 invoquées comme s'appliquant à l'interprétation du deuxième alinéa
de l'article 2 du Mandat, et comme rendant l'apartheid illicite sont de-
finies par les demandeurs en ces termes:

«Dans l'analyse ci-après des normes juridiques pertinentes, les
termes non-discrimination ou non-séparationsont utilisésdans leur
sens habituel et généralementadmis: sous une forme négative, ces
termes indiquent l'absence d'une politique ou d'une action gouver-
nementale répartissant le statut, les droits, les devoirs, les privilèges
ou les charges compte tenu de l'appartenance à un groupe, à une
classe ou à une race et non compte tenu du mérite, des capacités
ou des aptitudes des individus; sous une forme affirmative, ces ter-

mes désignent la politique et l'action gouvernementales qui ont
pour objet d'assurer aux individus en tant que tels l'égalitédes
chances et une protection égaledevant la loi.(Réplique, p.274.)
Les demandeurs veulent montrer qu'il existe des normes juridiques
de «non-discrimination » ou de « non-séparation » qui auraient en soi

un caractère absolu et inconditionnel; autrement dit, on doit se pronon-
cer sur le respect ou l'inobservation de ladite norme sans tenir compte
des motifs, des résultats, des effets, etc. Par suite, pour les demandeurs,
il y a violation de la norme de non-discrimination dès lors qu'existe
le moindre fait discriminatoire, abstraction faite detoute intention d'op-
primer de la part du Mandataire.
De son côté,le défendeur nereconnaît pas qu'il existeune norme de
non-discrimination absolue et veut prouver qu'il est indispensable d'é-
tablir une différenciationentre les groupes pour administrer une commu-
nauté multiraciale, multinationale ou multilingue. Les écritures et les
comptes rendus des audiences abondent en exemples qui nous montrent
que, partout dans le monde où il y a des sociétésmulticulturelles, les

divers groupes ethniques sont traités de façon différente. Lesnombreux
exemples de traitement différencié citépsar le défendeur ou par les té-
moins et experts semblent se rattacher au système visant à assurer la
protection des groupes minoritaires au sein de collectivités multicultu-
relles et relèventnon seulement du droit public mais aussi du droit privé.
La doctrine du traitement différenciapplicable aux différentsgroupes
est un principe politique fondamental que le défendeur a adopté pour
administrer non seulement la République sud-africaine mais aussi
le territoire limitrophe qu'est le Sud-Ouest africain. Ce sont les diffé-
rences d'ordre géographique, historique, ethnologique, économique et
culturel entre les divers groupes ethniques qui ont, selon le défendeur,

nécessitél'adoption de la politique d'apartheid ou de développement
séparé.Il dit cette politique indispensablà l'accroissement du bien-être
et du progrès social des habitants du territoire. Il soutient que, si
chaque groupe doit développerla personnalité qui lui est propre jusqu'au
stade de l'autodétermination, c'est ledéveloppement séparéqui consti-
tue la meilleure façon d'assurer le bien-êtreet le progrès social des
habitants. L'autre solution possible, consistant à créer une société
intégrée mixtedans le cadre d'une démocratie de type occidental, pro-

301democracy would necessarily lead to competition, friction, struggle,
chaos, bloodshed, and dictatorship as examples may be found in some
other African countries. Therefore, the most appropriate method of
administration of the Territory is the principle of indirect rule main-
taining and utilizing the merits of tribalism.

Briefly, it seems that the idea underlying the policy of apartheid
or separate development is the racial philosophy which is not entirely
identical with ideological Nazism but attributes great importance to
the racial or ethnological factors in the fields of politics, law, economy
and culture. Next, the method of apartheid is of sociological and,
therefore, strong deterministic tendency, as we can guess from the
fact that at the oral proceedings the standpoint of the Respondent
was energetically sustained by many witnesses-experts who were
sociologists and ethnologists.

Contrary to the standpoint of the Applicants who condemn the
policy of apartheid or separate development of the Respondent as

illegal, the latter conceives this policy as something neutral. The Re-
spondent says that it can be utilized as a tool to attain a particular
end, good or bad, as a knife can serve a surgeon as well as a murderer.

Before we decide this question, general consideration of the content
of the principle of equality before the law is required. Although the
existence of this principle is universally recognized as we have seen
above, its precise content is not very clear.
This principle has been recognized as one of the fundamental prin-
ciples of modern democracy and government based on the rule of law.
Judge Lauterpacht puts it:

"The claim to equality before the law is in a substantial sense
the most fundamental of the rights of man. It occupies the first
place in most written constitutions. It is the starting point of al1
other liberties." (Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, An International Bill of
the Rightosf Man, 1945, p. 115.)

Historically, this principle was derived from the Christian idea of the
equality ofal1men before God. Al1mankind are children of God, and,
consequently, brothers and sisters, notwithstanding their natural and
social differences, namely man and woman, husband and wife, master
and slave, etc. The idea of equality of man is derived from the fact
that human beings "by the common possession of reason" distinguish
themselves "from other living beings". (Lauterpacht, op. cit., p. 116.)
This idea existed already in the Stoic philosophy, and was developed
by the scholastic philosophers and treated by natural law scholars and
encyclopedists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It received

302 duirait nécessairement des rivalités, desfrictions et des luttes et abouti-
rait au chaos,à l'effusion de sang et à l'apparition de systèmesdictato-
riaux, comme d'autres pays d'Afrique enportent témoignage.Par suite,
la méthodela plus appropriée est d'appliquer au territoire le principe
de l'administration indirecte, par lequel on conserve le tribalisme en
tirant parti de ses avantages.
En résumé,il semble que l'idée sous-jacente à la politique d'apartheid
ou de développementséparé corresponde àune philosophie racjale qui,
sans être absolument identique à l'idéologie nazie,attribue une très
grande importance aux élémentsraciaux ou ethnologiques en matière

politique, juridique, économiqueet culturelle. Au surplus, la méthode
de l'apartheid procède de conceptions sociologiques, donc nettement
déterministes, comme le prouve le fait qu'au cours de la procédure
orale, la position du défendeur a étévigoureusement appuyée par de
nombreux témoins et experts qui se trouvaient êtredes sociologues et
des ethnologues.
Contrairement aux demandeurs, qui condamnent la politique d'apart-
heid ou de développement séparédu défendeur enla disant illicite, le
défendeur conçoit cette politique comme quelque chose de neutre. Il
yvoit un outil qui peut êtreemployé à une fin bonne ou mauvaise, exac-
tement comme un couteau peut êtreutilisésoit par un chirurgien soit

par un assassin. *

Avant de résoudrela question, nous devons examiner le contenu du
principe de l'égalitédevant la loi. L'existence de ce principe est univer-
sellement reconnue, comme nous l'avons vu ci-dessus, mais sa teneur
précise n'estpas très claire.
Il a été reconnu commel'un des principesfondamentaux de la démo-
cratie et du gouvernement modernes fondés sur le règne du droit. Sir
Hersch Lauterpacht l'a dit dans les termes suivants:

«Le droit d'invoquer l'égalitédevant la loi correspond en
somme à celui des droits de l'homme qui est absolument fonda-
mental. Il est énoncéen premier dans la plupart des constitutions
écrites. C'estle point de départ de toutes les autres libertés.)(Sir
Hersch Lauterpacht, An International Bill of the Rights of Man,
1945, p. 115.)

Historiquement, ce principe découle de l'idéechrétienne de l'égalité
des hommes devant Dieu. Les hommes sont tous les enfants de Dieu
et sont donc tous frères, malgré les différences imposéepsar la nature
et la société,entre l'homme et la femme, l'épouxet l'épouse,le maître
et l'esclave, etc. L'idéede l'égaldes hommes vient du fait que ceux-ci
([se distinguent des autres êtresvivants par un élémentcommun, la
raison 1)(Lauterpacht, op. cit., p. 116). Cette idée, qui existait déjà

chez les stoïciens, a été développép ear les scolastiques et reprise par
les tenants du droit naturel et les encyclopédistes du XVIIe et du
XVIIIe siècle.Elle a pris corps, du point de vue législatif, à la fin dulegislative formulation however, at the end of the eighteenth century
first by the Bills of Rights of some American States, next by the Decla-
ration of the French Revolution, and then in the course of the nine-
teenth century the equality clause, as we have seen above, became one
of the common elements of the constitutions of modern European and
other countries.

Examining the principle of equality before the law, we consider
that it is philosophically related to the concepts of freedom and justice.
Thefreedom of individual persons, being one of the fundamental ideas
of law,is not unlimited and must be restricted by the principle of equality
allotting to each individual a sphere of freedom which is due to him. In
other words the freedom can exist only under the premise of the equality
principle.
In what way is each individual allotted his sphere of freedom by
the principle of equality? What is the content of this principle? The
principle is that whatis equal is to be treated equally and what isdifferent
is to be treated differently, namely proportionately to the factual dif-
ference. This is what was indicated by Aristotle asjustitia commutativa
and justitia distributiva.
The most fundamentalpoint in the equality principle is that al1human
beings as persons have an equal value in themselves, that they are the
aim itself and notmeans for others, and that, therefore, slaveryis denied.
The idea of equality of men as persons and equal treatment as such is
of a metaphysical nature. It underlies al1 modern, democratic and

humanitarian law systems as a principle of natural law. This idea,
however, does not exclude the different treatment of persons from the
consideration of the differences of factual circurnstances such as sexy
age, language, religion, economic condition, education, etc. To treat
different matters equally in a mechanical way would be as unjust as to
treat equal matters differently.

We know that law serves the concrete requirements of individual
human beings and societies. If individuals differ one from another and
societies also, their needs will be different, and accordingly, the content
of law may not be identical. Hence is derived the relativity of law to
individual circumstances.
The historical development of law tells us that, parallel to the trend
of generalization the tendency of individualization or differentiation is
remarkable as may be exemplified by the appearance of a system of
commercial law separate from the general private law in civil law coun-
tries, creation of labour law. The acquisition of independent status by

commercial and labour law can be conceived as the conferment of a
kind of privilege or special treatment to a merchant or labour class. In
the field of criminal law the recent tendency of criminal legislative polic
is directed towards the individualization of the penalty.

We can say accordingly that the principle of equality before the law
303 XVIIIe siècle, en apparaissant pour la première fois dans les déclara-
tions des droits de certains Etats d'Amérique, puisdans la Déclaration
des droits de l'homme de la Révolution française; enfin, au cours du
XIXe siècle,le principe de l'égaliest devenu, comme nous l'avons vu,

l'un des élémentscommuns aux constitutions des pays modernes
d'Europe et d'autres régions.
D'un point de vue philosophique, le principe de l'égalitédevant la
loi se rattache notre avis aux notions de libertéet de justice. La liberté
de l'individu, qui est l'une des idéesfondamentales du droit, n'est pas
absolue et doit êtrelimitéepar le principe de l'égalit, ui permet d'at-
tribuer à chaque individu la part de libertéqui lui revient. En d'autres
termes, il ne peut y avoir de libertéqu'à condition d'appliquer le prin-
cipe de l'égalité.
De quelle façon l'individu sevoit-il attribuer sa part de libertéeu égard
au principe d'égalité? Quel eslte contenu de ce principe? Le principe est
que ce qui est égaldoit êtretraitéégalement etque ce qui est différent
doit être traitédifféremment, c'est-à-direen fonction de la différence
de fait. C'est ce qu'Aristote appelait la justice commutative et la justice
distributive.

La base du principe de l'égalité estue tous les hommes ontla même
valeur intrinsèque, qu'ilsconstituent une fin en soi et ne peuvent servir
d'instrument à autrui, ce qui interdit par conséquentl'esclavage. L'idée
de l'égalité deshommes en tant que personnes et de l'égalitéde traite-
ment entre les personnes est par nature d'ordre métaphysique. Elle
est à la base de tous les systèmesde droit modernes, démocratiqueset
humanitaires, en tant que principe de droit naturel. Toutefois, cette idée
n'exclut pas la possibilitéde traiter les personnes différemmentcompte
tenu de différences defait, c'est-à-dire compte tenu du sexe, de l'âge,
de la langue, de la religion, de la situation économique,de l'instruction,
etc. Appliquer mécaniquement un mêmetraitement à des situations
différentes serait aussiinjuste qu'appliquer un traitement différentdes
situations semblables.
Nous savons que le droit répond aux besoins concrets d'individus

et de sociétés considérés isolémen Sti.les individus diffèrentles uns des
autres et si les sociétés diffèrentsnes desautres,leurs besoins diffèrent
nécessairementet par suite le contenu du droit peut n'êtrepas le même
partout. D'où la relativité du droit quant aux situations particulières.
L'histoire du droit atteste qu'il existe,à côté d'une tendance à la
généralisation,une tendance remarquable à l'individualisation ouà la
différenciation,que révèlentpar exemple l'élaboration d'un droit com-
mercial distinct du droit privé généradlans les pays de droit civil ou la
créationdu droit du travail. Le.fait que le droit commercial et le droit
du travail soient devenus des branches indépendantes du droit peut se
concevoir comme l'octroi d'un privilège à la classe des commerçants
ou à celie des travailleurs ou comme un traitement spécialau bénéfice
de ces classes.En droit criminel, la législation pénalea témoigné récem-
ment d'une tendance à l'individualisation de la peine.
Nous pouvons donc dire que le principe de l'égalitédevant la loidoes not mean the absolute equality, namely equal treatment of men
without regard to individual, concrete circumstances, but it meansthe rel-
ative equality, namely the principle to treat equally what are equal and
unequallywhat are unequal.
The question is, in what case equal treatment or different treatment
should exist. If we attach importance to the fact that no man is strictly
equal to another and he may have some particularities, the principle of
equal treatment could be easily evaded by referring to any factual and
legal differences and the existence of this principle would be virtually
denied. A different treatment comes into question only when and to the
extent that it corresponds to the nature of the difference.To treat unequal
matters differentlyaccording to their inequality is not only permitted but

reqired. The issue is whether the difference exists. Accordingly, not
every different treatment can be justified by the existence of differences,
but only such as corresponds to the differences themselves, namely that
which is called for by the idea of justice-"the principle to treat equal
equally and unequal according to its inequality, constitutes an essential
content of the idea ofjustice" (Goetz Hueck, Der Grundsatzder Gleich-
massigenBehandlungin Privatreclzt, 1958,p. 106)[translation].

Briefly,a differenttreatment ispermitted when it can bejustified by the
criterion of justice. One may replace justice by the concept of reason-
ableness generally referred to by the AngJ.0-Americanschool of law.

Justice or reasonableness as a criterion for the different treatment
logically excludes arbitrariness. The arbitrariness which is prohibited,
means the purely objective fact and not the subjective condition of those
concerned. Accordingly, the arbitrariness can be asserted without

regard to his motive or purpose.
There is no doubt that the principle of equality is binding upon ad-
ministrativeorgans.The discretionary power exercised on considerations
of expediency by the administrative organs is restricted by the norm of
equality and the infringement of this norm makes an administrative
measure illegal. The judicial power also is subjected to this principle.
Then, what about the legislativepower? Under the constitutions which
express this principle in a form such as "al1citizens are equal before the
law", there may be doubt whether or not the legislatorsalso are bound
by the principle of equality. From the nature of this principle the answer
must be in the affirmative.The legislatorscannot be perrnitted to exercise
their power arbitrarily and unreasonably. They are bound not only in
exercisingthe ordinary legislativepower but also the power to establish
the constitution. The reason therefor is that the principle of equality
being in the nature of natural law and therefore of a supra-constitutional
character, is placed at the summit of hierarchy of the system of law, and
that al1positive laws including the constitution shall be in conformity
with this principle.

304ne correspond pas à une égalité absolue,qui voudrait que les hommes
soient tous traitéségalement compte nontenu des situations individuelles
et concrètes, mais correspond plutôt à une égalité relative,c'est-à-dire
au traitement égalde ce qui est égalet inégalde ce qui est inégal.

11s'agit de savoir dans quels cas le traitement doit êtreidentique ou
différent. Sil'on retenait le fait que personne n'est strictement parler
égal à qui que ce soit d'autre et que chacun peut se prévaloirde cer-
taines particularités, on pourrait facilement faire échec au principe
de l'égalité detraitement en invoquant n'importe quelle différence
d'ordre concret et juridique; cela reviendrait pratiquementà nier l'exis-
tence dudit principe. Il ne peut êtrequestion d'un traitement diffé-
renciéque dans la mesure où il porte sur ce qui fait précisémentla
différence.Traiter différemmentce qui est inégal,en fonction de cette
inégalité, n'estpas seulement licite mais indispensable. Le problème
est de savoir s'ily a ou non différence.Par suite, l'existence de certaines
différencesne justifie pas n'importe quelle forme de traitement diffé-
rencié, mais seulement le traitement différenciéqui correspond bien
aux différences elles-mêmes, celuq iu'impose l'idée de justice. ((Le
principe qui veut que l'on traite égalementce qui est égalet inégalement

ce qui est inégal estun des élémentsessentiels de l'idéede justice. »
(Goetz Hueck, Der Grundsatzder Gleichmassigen Behandlunign Privat-
recht, 1958, p. 106 [traduction de l'anglais].)
Bref, la différencede traitement est licite lorsqu'elle peut se justifier
d'après le critère de la justice. On peut d'ailleurs remplacer la notion
de justice par celle decomportement raisonnable qu'invoque en général
i'écolejuridique anglo-américaine.
Le critère de la iustice ou du comDortement raisonnable en matière
de différencesde iraitement exclut in bonne logique l'arbitraire. La
notion d'arbitraire se réfère en l'occurrencà des faits purement objec-
tifs et nonà la situation subjective des intéressés.On peut donc déter-
miner l'arbitraire sans se préoccuper du mobile ou de l'objet.
Il n'est pas douteux que le principe de l'égalitéa force obligatoire
pour les organes administratifs. Le pouvoir discrétionnaire qu'ilsexer-

cent compte tenu de considérations d'opportunité est limité par la
norme de l'égalité ettoute infraction à cette norme rend une mesure
administrative illégale. Le pouvoir judiciaire doit lui aussi obéir à
ce principe. Mais qu'en est-il du pouvoir législatif? Lorsqu'une consti-
tution formule le principe de l'égalitéen des termes tels que: «Tous
les citoyens sont égauxdevant laloi »,on peut se demander si ce prin-
cipe lie aussi le législateur.Etant donné la nature du principe, il faut
nécessairementrépondre par l'affirmative. On ne saurait autoriser le
législateurà exercer ses pouvoirs arbitrairement et déraisonnablement.
Il est lié non seulement dans l'exercice du pouvoir législatif or-
dinaire, mais aussi dans l'exercice du pouvoir constituant. La raison
en est que le principe de l'égalité, relevatu droit naturel et étant par
conséquent d'ordre supraconstitutionnel, se trouve au sommet de la
hiérarchiedu systèmede droit et que toutes les lois positives, constitu-

tion comprise, doivent s'y conformer. The Respondent for the purpose of justifying its policy of apartheid
or separate development quotes many examples of different treatment
such as minorities treaties, public conveniences (between man and
woman), etc. Nobody would objectto the differenttreatmentin thesecases
as a violation of the norm of non-discrimination or non-separation on
the hypothesis that such a norm exists. The Applicants contend for the
unqualified application of the norm of non-discrimination or non-
separation, but even from their point of view it would be impossible to
assert that the above-mentioned cases of different treatment constitute
a violation of the norm of non-discrimination.
Then, what is the criterion to distinguish a permissible discrimination
from an impermissible one?
In the case of the minorities treaties the norm of non-discrimination
as a reverse side of the notion of equality before the law prohibits a

State to exclude members of a minority group from participating in
rights, interests and opportunities which a majority population group can
enjoy. On the other hand, a minority group shall be guaranteed the
exercise of their own religious and education activities. This guarantee
is conferredon members of a minority group, for the purpose of protec-
tion of their interests and not from the motive of discrimination itself.
Byreason ofprotection ofthe minoritythisprotection cannot be imposed
upon members of minority groups, and consequently they have the
choice to accept it or not.
In any event, in case of a minority, members belonging to this group,
enjoyingthe citizenship on equal terms with members of majoritygroups,
have conferred on them the possibility of cultivatingtheir own religious,
educational or linguistic values as a recognition of their fundamental
human rights and freedoms.
The spirit of the minorities treaties, therefore, is not negative and
prohibitive, but positive and permissive.
Whetherthe spirit ofthe policy of apartheid or separate developmentis

common with that of minorities treaties to which the Respondent re-
peatedly refers, whether the different treatment between man and
woman concerning the public conveniences can be referred to for the
purpose ofjustifying the policy of apartheid or not, that is the question.
In the case of apartheid, we cannot deny the existence of reason-
ableness in some matters that diverse ethnic groups should be treated in
certain aspects differently from one another. As we have seen above,
differentiationin lawandpoliticsisone of the most remarkable tendencies
of the modern political Society.This tendency is in itself derivedfrom the
concept ofjustice, thereforeit cannot bejudged as wrong. It is an adapta-
tion of the idea of justice to social realities which, as its structure, is
going to be more complicated and multiplicate from the viewpoint of
economic, occupational,cultural and other elements.
Therefore, different treatment requires reasonableness to justify it as
is stated above. The reason may be the protection of some fundamental
human rights and freedoms as we have seen in the case of minorities Pour justifier sa politique d'apartheid ou de développement séparé,
le défendeurinvoque de nombreux exemples de traitement différencié:
traités de minorités, toilettes publiques distinctes pour hommes et
femmes, etc. En pareils cas, personne n'irait critiquer la différencede
traitement sous prétexte qu'elle violela norme de non-discrimination

ou de non-séparation, à supposerquecettenorme existe. Les demandeurs
ont beau arguer du caractère absolu de la norme, ils ne pourraient,
mêmede leur point de vue, soutenir que les cas précitésde traitement
différenciéen constituent une violation.

Quel est donc le critère qui permet de faire la distinction entre une
discrimination licite et une discrimination illicite?
Dans le cas des traités deminorités,la norme de non-discrimination,
représentant l'autre face du principe de l'égalitédevant la loi, interdit
à un Etat de priver les membres d'un groupe minoritaire des droits,
intérêts etdébouchés assurés au groupe majoritaire. On leur garantit
au contraire le libre exercice de leur religion et la liberté del'enseigne-
ment. Si on leur confèreces garanties, c'est par souci de protéger leurs
intérêts et nonpas en vue de pratiquer une discrimination. Comme le

but est de les protéger,la protection ne peut pas leur êtreimposéeet ils
sont par conséquentlibres de l'accepter ou de la refuser.

De toute façon, dans le cas d'une minorité, onoffre à ses membres,
qui sont citoyens au mêmetitre que les membres du groupe majoritaire,
la possibilitéde préserverleurs valeurs religieuses, éducativesou lin-
guistiques, ce qui revient à reconnaître les droits de l'homme et les
libertésfondamentalesqui sont les leurs.
Dans ces conditions l'esprit des traités de minoritésn'est pas négatif
ou prohibitif, mais positif et confirmatif.
II s'agit de savoir si la politique d'apartheid ou de développement
séparés'inspire du mêmeesprit que les traités de minoritésauxquels le
défendeurn'a cesséde se référero ,u sil'onpeut s'appuyer sur le traite-
ment différent desdeux sexesquant aux toilettes publiques pour justifier

la politique d'apartheid.
En ce qui concerne l'apartheid, nous ne pouvons contester qu'il soit
raisonnable en certaines matières et à certains égards de traiter diffé-
remment les groupes ethniques. Comme nous l'avons vu, la différen-
ciation en droit et en politique représente l'une destendances les plus
remarquables de la société politique moderne. Cettetendance, procédant
elle-mêmede la notion de justice, ne peut pas être tenuepour néfaste.
Par ce biais, la justice s'adapte la réalitésociale dont la structure va
se compliquant et se diversifiant de plus en plus du point de vue de
l'économie,de l'emploi, de la culture, etc.
C'est pourquoi le traitement différenciédoit nécessairement, nous
l'avons dit, sejustifier par son caractèreraisonnable.l peut être raison-
nable de protéger certains droits et certaines libertés fondamentales de
l'homme, comme nous l'avons vu à propos des traités de minorités,

305treaties, or of some other nature such as incapacity of minors to conclude
contracts, physical differences between man and woman.

In the case of the protection of minorities, what is protected is not the
religious or linguistic group as a whole but the individuals belonging to
this group, the former being nothing but a name and not a group. In the
case of different treatment of minors or between man and woman, it is
clear that minors, disabled persons or men or women in a country do not
constitute respectively a group. But whether a racial or ethnic group can
be treated in the same way as categories such as minors, disabled persons,
men and women, is doubtful. Our conclusion on this point is negative.
The reasons tllerefor are that the scientificand clear-cut definition of race
is not established; that what man considers as a matter of common-sense

as criteria to distinguish one race from the other, are the appearance,
particularly physical characteristics such as colour, hair, etc., which do
not constitute in themselves relevant factors as the basis for different
political or legal treatment; and that, if there exists the necessity to treat
one race differently from another, this necessity is not derived from the
physical characteristics or other racial qualifications but other factors,
namely religious, linguistic, educational, social, etc., which in themselves
are not related to race or colour.

Briefly, inthese cases it is possible that the different treatment in
certain aspects is reasonably required by the differences of religion,
language, education, custom, etc., not by reason of race or colour.
Therefore, the Respondent tries in some casesto justify the different treat-
ment of population groups by the concept of cultural population groups.
The different treatment would be justified if there really existed the need
for it by reason of cultural differences.The different treatment, however,

should be condemned if cultural reasons are referred to for the purpose
of dissimulating the underlying racial intention.
In any case, as we have seen above, al1 human beings are equal
before the law and have equal opportunities without regard to religion,
race, language, sex, social groups, etc. As persons they have the dignity
to be treated as such. This is the principle of equality which constitutes
one of the fundamental human rights and freedoms which are universal
to al1 mankind. On the other hand, human beings, being endowed
with individuality, living in different surroundings and circumstances
are not al1alike, and they need in some aspects politically, legally and
socially different treatment. Hence the above-mentioned examples of
different treatment are derived. Equal treatment is a principle but its
mechanical application ignoring al1concrete factors engenders injustice.
Accordingly, it requires different treatment, taken into consideration,
of concrete circumstances of individual cases. The diKerent treatment is
permissible and required by the considerations of justice; it does not
mean a disregard of justice.

306 SUD-OUEST AFRICAIN (OP.DISS.TANAKA) 308

ou bien de tenir compte d'élémentsde distinction tels que l'incapacité
des mineurs à conclure des contrats, ou les différencesphysiques entre
hommes et femmes.
En ce qui concerne la protection des minorités,ce que l'on protège,
ce n'est pas le groupe religieux ou linguistique dans son ensemble, mais
les individus qui le composent, le groupement religieux ou linguistique
ne correspondant qu'à un nom et ne constituant pas un groupe à pro-
prementparler. S'agissantdu traitement différenciéappliqué auxmineurs
ou aux hommes et aux femmesdu fait de leur sexe,il est évidentque dans

un pays donnéles mineurs, les incapables, les hommes, les femmes ne
représententni les uns ni les autres des groupes.1 est douteux que l'on
puisse assimilerun groupe racial ou ethniqueà des catégories commecel-
les des mineurs, des incapables, des hommes ou des femmes.Sur ce point,
notre conclusion est négative.Nos raisons sont les suivantes: aucune
définition scientifiqueet précise dela race n'a étéétabliec;e quel'homme
prend en général,par simple bon sens, pour des critèrespermettant de
distinguer les races entre elles, c'est l'apparence extérieure,notamment
certaines caractéristiques physiques, commela couleur de la peau, les
cheveux, etc., lesquelles ne constituent pas en soi des éléments perti-
nents justifiant un traitement politique ou juridique différent;s'il peut
êtrenécessairede traiter une race différemment d'uneautre, cette néces-
sité ne s'expliquepas par des caractéristiques physiquesou raciales, mais

par des facteurs d'ordre religieux, linguistique, éducatif, social, etc.,
qui sont en eux-mêmessans rapport avec la race ou la couleur.
En résumé,dans des cas de ce genre, un traitement différencié peut
s'imposer raisonnablement du fait de différencesquant à la religion,
la langue, l'instruction, les coutumes, etc., mais non pas du fait de la
race ou de la couleur. C'est pourquoi le défendeuressaye parfois de
justifier le traitement différenciéqlppliqueaux groupes en s'appuyant
sur la notion de groupes culturels. La différencede traitement se justi-
fierait alors si une différenceculturelle l'imposait véritablement.Mais
il y aurait lieu de la condamner si des raisons d'ordre culturel étaient
invoqukes pour dissimuler une intention sous-jacente d'ordre racial.
De toute façon, comme nous l'avons vu ci-dessus, tous les hommes
sont égaux devantla loi et ont des chances égales,indépendamment de

leur religion, de leur race, de leur langue, de leur sexe, de leur groupe-
ment social, etc. Ce sont des personnes et leur dignité veutqu'ils soient
traités en tant que personnes. Tel est le principe de l'égalit,ui cons-
titue l'un des droits de l'homme et l'une des libertés fondamentales
ayant un caractère universel, valable pour l'humanité entière. D'autre
part, les hommes étantdotésd'une individualité, vivantdans des milieux
divers et dans des situations différentes, nesont pas tous semblables
et ils ont besoin, à certains égards,d'être traitésdifféremmentsur le
plan politique, juridique et social. D'où les exemples de traitement
différenciécités pluhsaut. L'égalitéde traitement est un principe mais,
à l'appliquer mécaniquement, sans avoir égard à tous les facteurs con-
crets, on engendre l'injustice. C'est cequi justifie un traitement diffé-
renciésur la base de circonstances concrètes correspondant à des cas309 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS. OP. TANAKA)

Equality being a principle and different treatment an exception, those
who refer to the different treatment must prove its raison d'êtreand its
reasonableness.
The Applicants' norm of non-discrimination or non-separation, being
conceivedas of aper senature, would appear not to permit any exception.
The policy of apartheid or separate development which allots status,
rights, duties, privileges or burdens on the basis of membership in a
group, class or race ratherthan on the basis of individual merit, capacity
or potential is illegal whether the motive be bona $de or mala $de,

oppressive or benevolent; whether its effect or result be good or bad
for the inhabitants. From this viewpoint al1protective measures taken
in the case of minorities treaties and other matters would be included
in the illegal discrimination-a conclusion which might not be expected
from the Applicants. These measures, according to the Applicants,
would have nothing to do with the question of discrimination. The
protection the minorities treaties intended to afford to the inhabitants
is concerned with life, liberty and free exercise of religion. On theon-
trary, the Respondent argues the existence of the same reason in the
policy of apartheid-the reason of protective measures in the case of
minorities treaties.

We must recognize,on the one hand,the legality of different treatment

so far as justice or reasonableness exists in it. On the other hand, we
cannot recognize al1 measures of different treatment as legal, which
have been and will be performed in the name of apartheid or separate
development. The Respondent tries to prove by the pleadings and the
testimony ofthe witnessesand expertsthe existenceof a trend of differen-
tiation in accordance with different religious, racial, linguistic groups.
From the viewpoint of the Applicants, the abundant examples quoted
by the Respondent and the testimony of witnesses and experts cannot
serve as the justification of the policy of apartheid,ecause they belong
to an entirely different plane from that of apartheid and because they
are of a nature quite heterogeneous to the policy of apartheid, which is
based on a particular racial philosophy and group sociology.

The important question is whether there exists, from the point of

view of the requirements of justice, any necessity for establishing an
exception to the principle of equality, and the Respondent must prove
this necessity, namely the ieasonableness of different treatment.
On the aspect of "reasonableness" two considerations arise. The
one is the consideration whether or not the individual necessity exists
to establish an exception to the general principle of equality before
the law and equal opportunity. In this sense the necessity may be con-
ceived as of the same nature as in the case of minorities treaties of which SUD-OUEST AFRICAIN (OP.DISS.TANAKA) 309

particuliers. Pareil traitement est autorisé, voire requis,pour des consi-
dérations de justice; il ne représente pas un déni de justice.
L'égalitéétant doncla règleet la différencede traitement l'exception,
il incombe à ceux qui appliquent un traitement différen'cd'en prouver
la raison d'êtreet le caractère raisonnable.
La norme de non-discrimination ou de non-séparation, présentée
par les demandeurs comme absolue, semblerait ne pas souffrir d'excep-
tion. La politique d'apartheid ou de développement séparé, envertu
de laquelle le statut, les droits, les devoirs, les privilègesou les charges
sont répartis compte tenu de l'appartenance à un groupe, à une classe

ou à une race et non compte tenu du mérite, des capacitésou des apti-
tudes des individus, est aux yeux des demandeurs illicite, que les motifs
en soient inspiréspar la bonne oula mauvaisefoi, par l'intention d'oppri-
mer ou par celle de protéger,et que les effets ou les résultatsen soient
bons ou mauvais pour les populations en cause. Si l'on s'en tenait ce
point de vue, toutes les mesures de protection adoptées dans le cas des
minorités etdans certains autres cas relèveraient d'une discrimination
illicite,et c'estlàune conclusion qui étonneraitdela part des demandeurs.
Mais ils considèrent que pareilles mesures n'ont rien à voir avec la
question de la discrimination. Dans le cas des traités de minorités, la
protection que l'on entend accorder aux habitants vise leur existence,
leur libertéet le libre exercice de leur religion. Or, le défendeur explique
précisémentla politique d'apartheid par ce genre de raison, c'est-à-dire

par le mêmesouci de protection que celui dont s'inspirent lestraitésde
minorités.
Nous devons reconnaître, d'une part, que le traitement différencié
est licite dès lors qu'il contient un élément de justiceou présenteun
caractère raisonnable. Mais nous ne pouvons pas, d'autre part, tenir
pour licites toutes les mesures de différenciationqui ont étéappliquées
ou qui vont l'êtredans le cadre de l'apartheid ou du développement
séparé. Le défendeua r essayé deprouver dans ses écritureset dans les
témoignages produits par lui qu'il existe une tendance générale à la
différenciationentre les groupes religieux, raciaux et linguistiques. Mais,
pour les demandeurs, les nombreux exemples citéspar le défendeuret
par ses témoinset experts ne sauraient justifier la politique d'apartheid,
parce qu'ils se situent sur un plan toutfait différentde celui de l'apart-

heid et parce qu'ils sont par nature parfaitement étrangers cette poli-
tique, laquelle fait essentiellement appel à une certaine philosophie
raciale età une certaine sociologie des groupes.
Ce qui importe c'est de savoir si, pour les besoins de la justice, il est
nécessairede faire exception au principe de l'égalité;or, il incombe au
défendeur deprouver cette nécessitéc ,'est-à-dire de démontrer lecarac-
tèreraisonnable du traitement différenciéqu'ialpplique.
A propos du comportement raisonnable, deux considérations entrent
en ligne de compte. Il faut, d'une part, savoir s'il est indispensable de
faire exception sur le plan individuel au principe général de l'égalité
devant la loi et de l'égalitédes chances. En ce sens, la nécessitpeut
êtreconçue comme étant demêmenature que celle à laquelle répondent

307the objectivesare protective and beneficial.The other is the consideration
whether the different treatment does or does not harm the sense of
dignity of individual persons.
For instance, if we consider education, on which the Parties argued

extensively, we cannot deny the value of vernacular as the medium
of instruction and the result thereof would be separate schooling as
between children of diverse population groups, particularly between
the Whites andthe Natives. In this case separate education and schooling
may be recognized as reasonable. This is justified by the nature of the
matter in question. But even in such a case, by reason of the matter
which is related to a delicate racial and ethnic problem, the manner
of dealing with this matter should be extremely careful. But, so far as
the public use of such Îacilities as hotels, buses, etc., justification of
discriminatory and separate treatment by racial groups cannot be
found in the same way as separation between smokers and non-smokers
in a train.

We cannot condemn al1 measures derived from the Respondent's
policy of apartheid or separate development, particularly as proposed
by the Odendaal Commission, on the ground that they are motivated

by the racial concept, and therefore devoid of the reasonableness.
There may be some measures which are of the same character as we
see in the protection measures in the case of the minorities treaties and
others. We cannot approve, however, al1measures constituting a kind of
different treatment of apartheid policy as reasonable.

One of the characteristics of the policy of apartheid is marked by its
restrictive tendency on the basis of racial distinction. The policy includes
on the one hand protective measures for the benefit of the Natives as we
see in the institutions of reserves and homelands connected with restric-
tions on land rights; however, on the other hand, several kinds of
restrictions of rights and freedoms are alleged to exist regarding those
Natives who live and work in the southern sector, namely the White
area outside the reserves. These restrictions, if they exist, in many cases
presenting themselves as violation of respective human rights and free-
doms at the same time, would constitute violation of the principle of

equality before the law (particularly concerning the discrimination
between the Natives and the Whites).

Here we are not required to give answers exhaustively in respect of
the Applicants' allegations of violation by the Respondent of the
Mandate concerning the legislation (largo sensu) applicable in the
Territory. The items enumerated by the Applicants in the Memorials
(pp. 118-166)are not included in their submissions. We are not obliged
to pronounce Ourviewsthereon. By way of illustration we shall examine

308les traités de minorités, qui visentà assurer certaines protections età
accorder certains avantages. Il faut, d'autre part, savoir si le traitement
différenciéestou non préjudiciable à la dignitéde l'individu.
Par exemple, en matière d'enseignement, question sur laquelle les
Parties se sont longuement attardées, l'utilisation de la langue vernacu-
laire comme moyen d'enseignement présenteun intérêt incontestable,

ce qui conduit à créerdes écoles séparéep sour les enfants des divers
groupes ethniques, notamment pour les blancs et les ((indigènes». En
ce sens, on peut estimer que l'enseignement séparéet les établissements
scolaires séparésont un caractère raisonnable. Cela se justifie par la
nature du problème en cause. Mêmeen pareil cas pourtant, comme il
s'agit d'un problème racial et ethnique délicat,il faut êtreextrêmement
prudent dans la façon de le traiter. En revanche, pour ce qui concerne
l'utilisation de certains services publics, hôtels, autobus, etc., on ne
saurait justifier un traitement discriminatoire et séparésur la base des
groupes raciaux comme on peut justifier la séparation des fumeurs et
des non-fumeurs dans les trains.

Nous ne pouvons condamner la totalité des mesures adoptées au
titre de la politique d'apartheid ou de développementséparé qu'applique
le défendeur,notamment celles qu'envisage la Commission Odendaal,
sous prétexte qu'ellessont motivéespar la notion de race et, par suite,
n'ont aucun caractère raisonnable. Il se peut que certaines mesures
soieilt de mêmenature que les mesures de protection prévuespar les
traités de minoritéset autres. Nous ne pouvons toutefois approuver
comme présentant un caractère raisonnable toutes les mesures consti-
tuant une sorte de traitement différencié qui sont prises en vertu de la
politique d'apartheid.
La politique d'apartheid secaractérisenotamment par des restrictions
fondéessur la distinction raciale. On cherche par certaines mesures à

protéger les indigènes, comme en témoignela création de réserveset
de foyers (homelands) qui s'assortit de restrictions apportées aux droits
fonciers; mais il est fait état aussi de plusieurs sortes de restrictions
apportées aux droits et aux libertésdes ((indigènes ))qui vivent et tra-
vaillent dans le secteur méridional,c'est-à-diredans la régionblanche en
dehors des réserves. Cesrestrictions, si tant est qu'elles existent bien,
se présentent dans de nombreux cas comme des violations des droits
de l'homme et des libertésfondamentales; elles constituent donc des
infractions au principe de l'égalitédevant la loi, notamment en ce qui
concerne la discrimination faite entre les indigèneset les blancs.

Nous ne sommes pas ici tenus de traiter de façon exhaustive des
allégations formuléespar les demandeurs quant aux violations du
Mandat dont le défendeur se rendrait coupable par la législation(au
sens large) qu'il applique au territoire. En effet, les demandeurs ne
reprennent pas dans leurs conclusions les points énumérés à ce sujet
dans leurs mémoires (p.118-166).Nous ne sommes donc pas tenus de

308 a few points. What is required from us is a decision on the question of
whether the Respondent's policy of apartheid constitutes a violation of

Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate or not.

For the purpose of illustration we shall consider freedom of choice
of occupations (cf. Memorials, pp. 121, 122and 136).
In the field of civil service,participation by "Natives" in the general
administration appears, in practice, to be confined to the lowest and
least-skilled categories, such as messengers and cleaners. This practice
of "job-reservation" for Natives is exemplified by allusion to the terri-
torial budget, whichclassifiesjobs as between"European" and "Natives".

In the mining industry the Natives are excluded from certain occupa-
tions,such as those of prospector for precious and base minerals, dealer
in unwrought precious metals, manager, assistant manager, sectional
or undergroundmanager,etc.,in mines ownedbypersons of "European"
descent, officer in the Police Force. Concerning these occupations,

"ceilings" are put on the promotion of the Natives. The role of the
"Native" is confined to that of unskilled labourer.

In the fishing industry, the enterprises are essentially "European"
owned and operated. The role of the "Native" is substantially confined
to unskilled labour (Memorials, p. 119).
As regards railways and harbours, al1 graded posts in the Railway
and Harbours Administration are reserved to "Europeans", subject to
temporary exceptions. The officia1policy appears to be that "non-
Europeans" should not be allowed to occupy graded posts.
The question is whether these restrictions are reasonable or not,
whether there is a necessity to establish exceptions to the general appli-
cation of the principle of equality or non-discrimination or not.
The matter of "ceilings" was dealt with minutely and at Iength in
the oral proceedings by the Parties. The Respondent's defence against
the condemnation of arbitrariness, injustice and unreasonableness on

the part of the Applicants may be summarized in two points: the one
is the reason of social security and the other is the principle of balance
or reciprocity.
The Respondent contends that the Whites in general do not desire
to serve under the authority of the Natives in the hierarchy of industrial
or bureaucratic systems. If this fact be ignored and the Natives occupy
leading positions in which they would be able to supervise Whites
friction between the two groups necessarily would occur and the social
peace would be disturbed. This argument of the Respondent seems to
be based on apessimisticviewofthe possibilityofharmonious coexistence
of diverse racial and ethnic elements in an integrated Society.donner notre avis sur ces questions. Mais à titre d'exemple nous allons
en évoquer quelques-unes. Ce qu'il s'agitde trancher pour nous, c'est
la question de savoir si la politique d'apartheid appliquéepar le défen-
deur constitue ou non une violation du deuxième alinéa de l'article2
du Mandat.

A titre d'exemple, nous envisagerons la liberté de choix de l'emploi
(cf. mémoires, p. 121, 122et 136).
En ce qui concerne la fonction publique, la participation des (indi-
gènes » à l'administration semble dans la pratique limitéeaux emplois
les plus bas et les moins spécialisés, ceux de commissionnaireet de
balayeur par exemple. Cette pratique des emplois réservéspour les

((indigènes ))est confirméepar le budget territorial, où les emplois sont
répartis en deux rubriques, selon qu'ils concernent les ((européens ))
ou les (indigènes ».
Dans les industries extractives, les ((indigènes ))ne peuvent, par exem-
ple, obtenir de permis de prospection pour les gisements de métaux
précieux ou de minéraux de base; ils ne peuvent non plus faire le

commerce de métaux précieuxnon travaillés,ni occuper des postes de
directeur, directeur adjoint, chef de service ou chef d'exploitation au
fond, etc., dans des mines appartenant à des personnes dY&igine euro-
péenne 1)enfin ils ne peuvent pas non plus entrer dans les cadres de la
police. En ce qui concerne ces emplois, l'avancement des ((indigènes »
se heurte à certains «plafonds ))déterminés.Le rôle de l'«indigène »

est limitéà celui d'ouvrier non qualifié.
Dans l'industrie de la pêche,les entreprises ont en majeure partie
pour propriétaires et dirigeants des ((européens 1).Dans l'ensemble, le
rôle des indigènesest limitéaux travaux non qualifiés(mémoires,p. 119).
En ce qui concerne les chemins de fer et les ports, tous les postes
supérieurs de l'administration sont réservésaux ((européens », sous

réserve de certaines exceptions temporaires. Il semble que la politique
officielle soit de ne pas recruter de ((non-européens ))parmi les cadres.
La question est de savoir si ces restrictions sont raisonnables ou non
et s'il est véritablement indispensable de faire exception à l'application
généraledu principe de l'égalitéou de la non-discrimination.
Au cours de la procédure orale, les Parties ont examinélonguement

et en détail le problème des ((plafonds n. Pour se défendre contre les
accusations d'arbitraire, d'injustice et de comportement déraisonnable
que formulent les demandeurs, le défendeur présente,en résumé, deux
arguments: il allègue d'une part la nécessitéd'assurer la paix sociale et
d'autre part le principe de l'équilibreou de la réciprocité.

Ledéfendeur soutient que, d'une manière générale,lesblancs neveulent
pas servir sous les ordres des ((indigènes ))dans la hiérarchie industrielle
ou bureaucratique. Si l'on ne tenait pas compte de ce fait et si les ((in-
digènes ))pouvaient occuper des situations les mettant à mêmed'exer-
cer une autorité sur les blancs, il y aurait nécessairement des frictions
entre les deux groupes et la paix sociale serait perturbée. En présentant
cet argument, le défendeur semble manifester un certain pessimisme

sur la possibilité de voir coexister harmonieusement divers éléments
raciaux et ethniques au sein d'une société intégrée. 312 SOUTH WESTAFRICA (DISS. OP. TANAKA)

It is not deniable that there may exist certain causes of friction, con-
flict and animosity between diverse racial and ethnic groups which
produce obstacles to their coexistence and CO-operationin a friendly
political community. We may recognize this as one aspect of reality
of human nature and social life. It is, however, no less true that man-
kind aspires and strives towards the ideal of the achievement of a
harmonious Societycomposed of racially heterogeneous elements over-
coming difficulties which may result from the primitive instinctive
sentiment of racial prejudice and antagonism. Such sentiment must be
overcome and not approved. In modern, democratic societies we have
to expect this result mainly from the progress of humanitarian educa-
tion. But the mission of politics and law cannot be said to be less im-
portant in minimizing racial prejudice and antagonism and avoiding
collapse and tragedy. The State is obliged to educate the people by
means of legislative and administrative measures for the same purpose.

To take into consideration the psychological effect upon the Whites
who would be subjected to the supervision of the Natives if a ceiling
did not exist, thatis nothing else but the justification or officia1recog-
nition of racial prejudice or sentiment of racial superiority on the part
of the White population which does harm to the dignity of man.

Furthermore, individuals who could have advanced by their persona1
merits if there existed no ceilingare unduly deprived of their opportunity
for promotion.
It is contended by the Respondent that those who are excluded from
the jobs proportionate to their capacity and ability in the White areas,
can find the same jobs in their own homelands where no restriction
exists in regard tothem. But even if they can find jobs in their home-
lands the conditions may not be substantiallythe same and, accordingly,
in most cases, they may not be inclined to go back to the northern
sector, their homelands, and they cannot be forced to do so.

The Respondent probably being aware of the unreasonableness in
such hard cases, tries to explain it as a necessary sacrifice whichshould
be paid by individuals for the maintenance of social security. But it
is unjust to require a sacrifice for the sake of social security when this
sacrifice is of such importance as humiliation of the dignity of the
personality.
The establishment of ceilingsin regard to certain jobsviolates human
rights of the Natives in two respects: one is violation of the principle
of equality before the law and equal opportunity; the other is violation
of the right of free choice of employment.
The Respondent furthermore advocates the establishment of ceilings
by the principle of reciprocity or balance between two legal situations,
namely one existing in the White areas where certain rights and free-
doms of the Natives are restricted and the other situation existing in the
Native areas where the correspondingrights and freedoms of the Whites

310 Il peut indéniablement exister entre les groupes raciaux et ethniques
des causes de friction, de conflit et d'animositéqui font obstacle à leur

coexistence et à leur coopération au sein d'une communaute politique
paisible. Nous admettrons volontiers que c'est là un aspect de la réalité
de la nature humaine et de la vie en société. Il n'en est pas moins vrai
que l'humanité aspire à un idéal,qu'elle lutte pour un idéal,qui est de
réaliserune société harmonieuse à partir d'éléments racialement hétéro-
gènesen surmontant les difficultés néesdepréjugéset d'antagonismesra-
ciauxinstinctifset primitifs.Cessentimentsinstinctifsdoivent êtreétouffés
et non pas encouragé. Dans les sociétés démocratiques modernes,c'est

essentiellement grâce aux progrès de l'enseignement humanitaire que
l'on parviendra à ce résultat. Mais la politique et le droit ont un rôle
tout aussi important àjouer en ce qui est d'atténuer les préjugés ea tnta-
gonismes raciaux afin d'éviter un effondrement et une catastrophe.
L'Etat est tenu d'éduquerla population en ce sens au moyen de mesures
législativeset administratives appropriées.
Quand on prend en considération la réaction psychologique des
blancs qui, s'il n'y avait pas de ((plafonds », devraient se soumettre, le

cas échéant, à l'autoritéd'«indigènes »,on ne fait rien d'autre que justi-
fier ou reconnaître officiellement ce préjugé racialou ce sentiment de
supériorité raciale dela population blanche qui est contraire à la dignité
humaine.
En outre, les individus qui pourraient par leur mérite personnel
progresser dans la hiérarchie s'il n'y avait pas de ((plafonds ))sont indû-
ment privésde cette possibilité de promotion.
Le défendeur soutient que les individus qui se voient interdire dans
les régions blanches d'occuper des emplois répondant à leurs capacités

et à leurs aptitudes peuvent trouver satisfaction dans leur propre foyer
(homeland),où ils ne font l'objet d'aucune restriction. Toutefois, même
s'ils trouvent des emplois dans leur foyer, leur situation risque d'être
sensiblement différenteet par suite, dans la plupart des cas, ils peuvent
n'avoir pas envie de retourner dans les foyers du secteur septentrional
et l'on ne saurait les y forcer.
Le défendeur, probablement conscient du caractère déraisonnable
de ces situations pénibles, essaye d'expliquer qu'il s'agit d'un sacrifice

nécessaire exigéde certains invididus dans l'intérêtdu maintien de la
paix sociale. Or, il est injuste d'exiger un sacrifice au profit de la paix
sociale lorsque ce sacrifice est si grave qu'il revient à humilier la per-
sonne humaine dans sa dignité.
La création de plafonds ))appliqués à certains emplois viole les droits
de l'homme au détriment des ((indigènes )de deux façons: il y a d'abord
violation du principe de l'égalitédevant la loi et du principe de l'égalité
deschances ;ilya ensuiteviolation du droit dechoisirlibrement sonemploi.

D'autre part, le défendeur préconisela création de ((plafonds 1)en
arguant du principe de la réciprocitéou de l'équilibreentre deux situa-
tions juridiques: s'il est vrai que, dans les régions blanches, les ((indi-
gènes ))voient restreindre certains de leurs droits et de leurs libertés,
inversement, dans les régions ((indigènes »,des limites correspondantes

310are restricted. The Respondent seeks to prove by this logic that in such
circumstances the principle of equality of the Whites and the Natives
is observed. Unequal treatment unfavourable to one population group
in area A, however, cannot be justified bysimilar'treatment of the other
population group in area B. Each unequal treatment constitutes an
independent illegal conduct; the one cannot be counter-balanced by the
other, as set-offis not permitted between two obligations resulting from
illegal acts.

Besides, from the viewpoint of group interest, those of the Natives
living in the White area outside the reserves are, owing to the number
of the Native population, far bigger than those of the Whites living
in the Native areas, the idea of counter-balance is quantitatively unjust.

It is also maintained, in respect of the restrictive policy as regards
study to become an engineer by a non-White person, that the under-
lying purpose of this policy is to prevent the frustration on the part
of the individual which he might experience when he could not find

White assistants willing to serve under him. The sentiment of frustra-
tion on the part of non-White individuals, however, should not be
rightly referred to as a reason for establishing a restriction on theca-
tional opportunity of non-Whites, firstly because the question is that
the frustration is caused by the racial prejudice on the part of the
Whites which in itself must be eliminated and secondly because a more
important matter is to open to the non-Whites the future possibility
of social promotion. Therefore, the reason of the frustration of non-
Whites cannot bejustified.

Finally, we wish to make the following conclusiveand supplementary
remarks on the matter of the Applicants' Submissions Nos. 3 and 4.
1. The principle of equality before the law requires that what are
equal are to be treated equally and what are different are to be treated
differently. The question arises: what is equal and what is different.
2. Al1 human beings, notwithstanding the differences in their ap-
pearance and other minor points, are equal in their dignity as persons.

Accordingly, from the point of view of human rights and fundamental
freedoms, they must be treated equally.

3. The principle of equality does not mean absolute equality, but
recognizes relative equality, namely different treatment proportionate
to concrete individual circumstances. Different treatment must not be
given arbitrarily; it requires reasonableness, or must be in conformity
with justice, as in the treatment of minorities, different treatment of the
sexesregarding public conveniences,etc. In thesecases,the differentiation
is aimed at the protection of those concerned, and it is not detrimental
and therefore not against their will.sont mises aux droits et aux libertés des blancs. Le défendeur veupt rou-
ver par là qu'en bonne logique le principe de l'égalité des blancset des
(cindigènesxest bien respecté. Mais il ne suffit pas, pour justifier le
traitement différencié défavorisanu tn certain groupe ethnique dans la
régionA, que le mêmetraitement soit appliqué àun autre groupe dans
la régionB. Dans chaque cas pris isolément,le traitement inégal consti-

tue un comportement illicite; il ne saurait y avoir compensation entre
l'un et l'autre, pas plus qu'il ne peut en avoir entre deux obligations
résultant chacune d'actes illicites.
Au surplus, si l'on envisage les intérêts des différents groupes, ceux
des ((indigène» vivant dans la région blanche en dehors des réserves
sont bien plus considérablesque ceux des blancs vivant dans les zones
indigènes,car le nombre des ((indigènes » est de loin supérieur. Arguer
de la compensation est donc injuste au point de vue quantitatif.
On soutient également,en ce qui concerne les restrictions imposées
aux non-blancs qui voudraient faire des études d'ingénieurq , ue le véri-
table but de cette politique est d'empêcherles intéressésde se sentir
frustréslorsqu'ils se verraient dans l'iinpossibilitéde trouver des assis-
tants blancs pour servir sous leurs ordres. On n'estcependant pas fondé

à prendre prétexte dece sentiment de frustration éventuelpour limiter
les possibilités d'enseignementoffertes aux non-blancs; en effet ce senti-
ment s'explique par un préjugé racial des blancsqui doit êtreéliminé
et d'autre part il est plus important de donner aux non-blancs la possi-
bilité d'une promotio~i sociale dans l'avenir. Il n'est donc pas justifié
d'arguer du sentiment de frustration chez les non-blancs.

Pour terminer, nous formulerons les observations suivantes sur les
conclusions nos 3 et 4 des demandeurs.
1. Le principe de l'égalité devantla loi exige que ce qui est égal

soit traitéégalementet que ce qui est différentsoit traité différemment.
La question se pose donc de savoir ce qui est égal etce qui est différent.
2. Tous les êtres humains, malgré ded sifférencesquant à leur aspect
extérieur et à d'autres caractéristiques mineures,sont égauxdans leur
dignité entant que personnes, de sorte que, du point de vue des droits
de l'homme et de libertés fondamentales, il est indispensable de les
traiter également.
3. Le principe de l'égalité ne s'entendpas d'une égalité absolue mais
d'uneégalitérelativea;utrement dit, la différencede traitement doit cor-
respondre à la différencedes situations concrètes et individuelles. Un
traitement différencié nedoit pas être appliqué arbitrairement;il doit
avoir un caractère raisonnable ou bien se conformer àla justice, comme
dans le cas du traitement appliqué aux minoritésou du traitement diffé-
rent des deux sexes quant aux toilettes publiques, etc. En pareils cas,

la différenciationvise la protection des intéressés, ellene leur porte
pas préjudice etelle ne leur est donc pas imposéecontre leur gré.
3 11 4. Discrimination according to the criterion of "race, colour, national
or tribal origin" in establishing the rights and duties of the inhabitants
of the territory is not considered reasonable and just. Race, colour,
etc., do not constitute in themselves factors which can influence the
rights and duties of the inhabitants as in the case of sex, age, language,
religion, etc. If differentiation be required, it would be derived from the
difference of language, religion, custom, etc., not from the racial differ-
ence itself. In the policy of apartheid the necessary logical and material
link between differenceitself and different treatment, which can justify
such treatment in the case of sex, minorities, etc., does not exist.

We cannot imagine in what case the distinction between Natives and
Whites, namely racial distinction apart from linguistic, cultural or other
differences, may necessarily have an influence on the establishment of
the rights and duties of theinhabitants of the territory.

5. Consequently, the practice of apartheid is fundamentally unreason-
able and unjust. The unreasonableness and injustice do not depend
upon the intention or motive of the Mandatory, namely its mala5des.
Distinction on a racial basis is in itself contrary to the principle of
equality whichisof the character of natural law, and accordingly illegal.

The above-mentioned contention of the Respondent that the policy
of apartheid has a neutral character, as a tool to attain a particular end,
is not right. If the policy of apartheid is aeans, the axiom that the end
cannot justify the means can be applied to this policy.

6. As to the alleged violation by the Respondent of the obligations
incumbent upon it under Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Mandate, the
policy of apartheid, including in itself elements not consistent with the
principle of equality before the law, constitutes a violation of the said
Article, because the observance of the principle of equality before the

law must be considered as a necessary condition of the promotion of
the material and moral well-beingandthe social progress of the inhabi-
tants of the territory.
7. As indicated above, so far as the interpretation of Article 2,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate is concerned, only questions of a legal
nature belong to the matter upon which the Court is competent. Diverse
activities which the Respondent as Mandatory carries out as a matter
of discretion, to achieve the promotion of the material and moral well-
being and the social progress of the inhabitants, fa11outside the scope
of judicial examination as matters of a political and administrative
nature.
Accordingly, questions of whether the ultimate goal of the mandates
system should be independence or annexation, and in the first alternative
whether a unitary or federal system in regard to the local administration
is preferable, whether or in what degree the principle of indirect rule or

312 4. La discrimination fondée sur((larace, la couleur, l'origine nationale
ou tribale 1lorsqu'il s'agit de fixer les droits et les devoirs des habitants
du territoire n'est pas considérée commeraisonnable ou juste. La race,
la couleur, etc., ne sont pas en soi des élémentsqui peuvent influer sur
les droits et les devoirs des habitants, comme c'est le cas pour le sexe,
l'âge, la langue, la religion, etc. Lorsqu'il doit y avoir une différencia-
tion, elle doit s'expliquer par la différencede langue, de religion, de
coutume, etc., et non par la différence racialeen soi. Or, dans le cas de

la politique d'apartheid, la relation logique et concrète indispensable
qui doit exister entre la différenceet letraitement différenciée ,t qui peut
justifier le traitement différent des deux sexes, le traitement spécialdes
minorités, etc., n'existe pas.
Nous ne voyons pas dans quel cas la distinction entre ((indigènes
et blancs - la distinction raciale à proprement parler, en dehors des
différencesd'ordre linguistique ou culturel - pourrait influer nécessai-
rement sur la répartition des droits et des devoirs des habitants du terri-
toire.
5. Par conséquent, la pratique de l'apartheid est fondamentalement
déraisonnable et injuste. Ce caractère déraisonnable et injuste n'est pas
fonction de l'intention ni des mobiles du Mandataire, donc de sa mau-
vaise foi. C'est la distinction fondée sur la race qui est en soi contraire

au principe de l'égalité, lequel relèvdeu droit naturel, et qui est par suite
illicite.
La thèse du défendeur dont nous avons fait état et d'après laquelle
la politique d'apartheid a un caractère neutre, car c'est un outil dont on
peut se servir à une fin ou à une autre, n'est pas fondée.Si la politique
d'apartheid n'est qu'un moyen,on peut lui appliquer cet axiome que la
fin ne justifie pas les moyens.
6. S'agissant des allégations relatives à la violation par le défendeur
des obligations qui lui incombent en vertu du deuxième alinéade l'ar-
ticle 2 du Mandat, nous dirons que la politique d'apartheid, qui englobe
des éléments incompatibles avecle principe de l'égalitédevant la loi,
viole l'article en question, car le respect du principe de l'égalitédevant
la loi doit êtreconsidéré commeune condition indispensable à l'accrois-
sement du bien-être matérielet moral et du progrès social des habitants

du territoire.
7. Comme nous l'avons vu, en ce qui concerne l'interprétation du
deuxième alinéade l'article 2 du Mandat, seules des questions de carac-
tèrejuridique peuvent êtredu ressort de la Cour. Diverses mesures que
le défendeur, en qualité de Mandataire, a adoptées dans l'exercice de
son pouvoir discrétionnaire pour accroître le bien-être matériee lt moral
et le progrès social des habitants ne relèvent pas d'un examenjudiciaire,
car elles appartiennent au domaine politique et administratif.

Par suite, certaines questions qui ont étéexposéesde façon extrême-
ment détailléedans les écritures et au cours de la procédure orale -
comme la question de savoir si l'objectif ultime du système desMandats
doit êtrel'indépendance ou l'annexion et si, dans le premier cas, il fautrespect for tribal custom may or must be introduced-such questions,
which have been very extensively argued in the written proceedings as
well as in the oral proceedings, have,espite their substantial connection
with the policy of apartheid, no relevance to adecision on the question
of apartheid, fromthe legalviewpoint.

These questions are of a purely political or administrative character,
the study and examination of which might have belonged or may belong
to competent organs of the League or the United Nations.

8. The Court cannot examine and pronounce the legality or ille-
galityof the policy of apartheid as a whole; it can decide that there exist
some elements in the apartheid policy which are not in confor-

mity with the principle of equality before the law or interna-
tional standard or international nom of non-discrimination and non-
separation. The Court can declare if it is requested to examine the
laws, proclamations, ordinances and other governmental measures
enacted to implement the policy of apartheid in the light of the principle
of equality. For the purpose of the present cases, the foregoing con-
sideration of a few points as illustrations may be sufficientto establish
the Respondent's violation of the principle of equality, and accordingly
its obligations incumbent upon it by Article 2, paragraph 2, of the
Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant.
9. Measures complained of by the Applicants appear in themselves
to be violations of some ofthe human rights and fundamental freedoms
such as rights concerning the security of the person, rights of residence,
freedom of movement, etc., but such measures, being applied to the
"Natives" only and the "Whites" being excluded therefrom, these
violations, if they exist, may constitute, at the same time, violations of
the principle of equality and non-discrimination also.
In short, we interpret the Applicants' SubmissionsNos. 3 and 4 in

such a way that their complaints include the violation by the Respondent
of two kinds of human rights, namely individualhuman rights and rights
to equal protection of the law. Thereis no doubt that the Respondent as
Mandatory is obliged to protect al1 human rights and fundamental
freedoms including rights to equal protection of the law as a necessary
prerequisite ofthe material and moral well-beingand the social progress
of the inhabitants of the Territory. By this reason, what has been ex-
plained above about the principle of equality in connection with Article
38, paragraph 1 (c), is applicable to human rights and fundamental
freedoms in general.
10. From thû procedural viewpoint, two matters must be considered.
The one is concerned with the effect ofthe Applicants' amendment of
the Subrnissions Nos. 3 and 4 (Memorials, 15 April 1961,pp. 197-199)
by the submissions of 19 May 1965(C.R. 65/35). Since the amendment
of the submissions is allowed until the stage of oral proceedings, and
the amendment was made within the scope of the claim set forth in the
Applications, there is no reason to deny its effectiveness.Furthermore,

313préférerpour l'administration locale un régimeunitaire ou un régime
fédéral,ou bien la question de savoir si et dans quelle mesure on peut
ou doit appliquer le principe de l'administration indirecte ou respecter
la coutume tribale - n'ont, bien qu'elles soient fondamentalement liées
à la politique d'apartheid, aucune pertinence pour une décisionjuridique
sur le problème de l'apartheid.

Ces questions revêtent eneffet un caractère purement politique ou
administratif et c'est aux organes compétents de la Société desNations
ou de l'organisation des Nations Unies qu'il aurait fallu ou qu'il fau-
drait peut-êtreen renvoyer I'étudeet l'examen.
8. La Cour ne peut juger de la légalitéou de l'illégalitéde la politique
d'apartheid dans son ens~mble; mais elle peut dire qu'il existedans cette
politique des élémentsqui ne sont pas conformes au principe de I'égalité
devant la loi, aux (standards » internationaux ou à la norme internatio-
nale de non-discrimination et de non-séparation. Elle peut déterminer
si elle doit l'examiner en fonction du principe de l'égalité des lois,ro-
clamations, ordonnances et autres mesures officielles prises pour mettre

en Œuvre la politique d'apartheid. Aux fins des présentes affaires, il
suffit peut-êtrede procéder,comme nous l'avons fait ci-dessus, à I'étude
de quelques points à titre d'exemple pour établirque le défendeurviole
le principe de l'égalitéet par suite les obligations que lui imposent le
deuxième alinéa de l'article 2 du Mandat et l'article 22 du Pacte.

9. Les mesures incriminéespar les demandeurs semblent correspon-
dre à des violations de certains des droits de l'homme et des libertés
fondamentales: droits concernant la sécuritéde la personne, droit de
résidence,liberté de déplacement, etc. Or, ces mesures étantappliquées
aux seuls ((indigènes» à l'exclusion des ((blancs))les violations incrimi-

nées,si elles existent, constituent peut-êtreen mêmetemps des violations
du principe d'égalitéet de non-discrimination.
Bref, nous interprétons les conclusions nos 3 et 4 des demandeurs
comme visant la violation par le défendeur dedeux catégoriesde droits
de l'homme, les droits individuels et les droits à l'égaleprotection de
la loi.Il est indéniablequ'en qualitéde Mandataire le défendeurest tenu
de protéger tous les droits de l'homme et toutes les libertésfondamen-
tales, notamment les droits à l'égaleprotection de la loi, qui sont une
condition indispensable au bien-être matérielet au progrès social des
habitants du territoire. Ainsi, ce que nous avons exposé ci-dessusau
sujet du principe de l'égalité envisagé sous l'angle des dispositions de

l'article 38, paragraphe 1 c), du Statut, est applicable aux droits de
l'homme et aux libertés fondamentales en général.
10. Du point de vue de la procédure, il y a lieu de considérer deux
problèmes. Le premier intéressel'effet de l'amendement que les deman-
deurs ont apporté à leurs conclusions nos 3 et 4 (mémoires, 15 avril
1961, p. 197-199)dans leurs conclusions du 19 mai 1965 (C.R. 65/35).
Comme il est licite de modifier les conclusions jusqu'au stade de la procé-
dure orale et que la modification a été faitedans le cadre de la demande
énoncéepar les requêtes, rien nepermet de contester sa validité.De

313we wish to mention that the Respondent raised no objection during the
course of the oral proceedings regarding the amendment.
The other is concerned with the question of choice by the Court of the
reasons underlyingits decisions.
Concerning this question, we consider that, although the Court is
bound by the submissions of the Parties, it is entirely free to choose the
reasons for its decisions. The Parties may present and develop their own
argument as to the interpretation of the provisions of the Mandate, the
Covenant, the Charter, etc., but the Court, so far as legal questions are
concerned, quite unfettered by what has been put forward by the Parties,
can exercise its power of interpretation in approving or rejecting the
submissions of the Parties.

For the foregoing reasons, the Applicants' Submissions Nos. 3 and 4
are well-founded.

We shali now examine the Applicants' other submissions one by one.

Final Submission No. 5 alleges that the-
"Respondent, by word and by action, has treated the Territory
in a manner inconsistent with the international status of the Terri-
tory, and has thereby impeded opportunities for self-determination
by the inhabitants of the Territory; that such treatment is in vio-
lation of Respondent's obligations as stated in the first paragraph

of Article 2 of the Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant; that
Respondent has the duty forthwith to cease such actions, and to
refrain from similar actions in the future; and that Respondent
has the duty to accord full faith and respect to the international
status of the Territory;" (C.R. 65/35,p. 70).

The Respondent's acts allegedto be inconsistent with the international
status of the Territory are as follows (Memorials, Chap. VIII, pp.
189-194):

(a) General conferral of Union citizenship upon inhabitants of the
Territory.
(b) Inclusion of representativesfrom South West Africa in the Union
Parliament.
(c) Administrative separation of the Eastern Caprivi Zipfel from the
Territory.
(d) The vesting of South West Africa Native Reserve Land in the
South Africa Native Trust and the transfer of administration of
"Native" affairs to the Union's Minister of Bantu Administration
and Development.

Concerning (a):that the status ofthe Nativeinhabitants ofa mandated
territory is distinct from that of the nationals of the mandatory power,
and, therefore, that the Native inhabitants are not invested with the
nationality of the mandatory Power by reason of the protection extended
314plus, noustenons àsignalerque,pendant la procédure orale,ledéfendeur
n'a formulé aucune objection à l'encontre dudit amendement.
Le second problème concerne le choix par la Cour des motifs de ses
décisions.
A ce sujet, nous estimons que, tout en étantliéepar les conclusions
des Parties, la Cour est parfaitement libre de choisir les motifs de ses
décisions.Les Parties ont la latitude de présenteret de développerles
thèses qu'ellesdésirentquant à l'interprétationdes dispositions du Man-
dat, du Pacte, de la Charte, etc., mais, n'étant nullementliéeen ma-
tièrejuridique par les arguments des Parties, la Cour peut exercercomme
elle l'entend sa faculté d'interprétationpour approuver ou rejeter les
conclusions des Parties.
nos3 et 4 des de-
Pour les motifs exposés ci-dessus,les conclusions
mandeurs sont bien fondées.

Nous allons ci-après examiner une par une les autres conclusionsdes
demandeurs.
La conclusion finale no 5 est ainsi conçue:
«Le défendeur, par ses paroles et par ses actes, a agi à l'égard
du Territoire d'une manière incompatible avec le statut interna-
tional du Territoire et a entravépar là les chances qu'avaient les
habitants du Territoire de s'engager dans la voie de l'autodéter-
mination; ...ces agissements constituent une violation des obli-
gations du défendeurtelles qu'elles figurent au premier alinéa de
l'article 2 du Mandat et à l'article 22 du Pacte; ...le défendeura
le devoir de mettre sur-le-champ un terme à ces agissements et

de s'abstenir dans l'avenir de pareils agissements; et ...le défen-
deur a le devoir de respecter en toute bonne foi le statut interna-
tional du Territoire.»(C.R. 65/35, p. 70).
Les actes du défendeur que les demandeurs déclarent incompatibles
avec le statut international du territoire sont les suivants (mémoires,
chap. VIII, p. 189-194):
a) attribution généralisée de la citoyenneté de l'Union aux habitants

du territoire;
b) représentation du Sud-Ouest africain au Parlement de l'Union;

c) séparation administrative du Caprivi Zipfel oriental;

d) remise des réserves ((indigènes))du Sud-Ouest africain au South
AfricanNative Trust (administration des biens indigènes)et transfert
de l'administration des affaires ((indigènes» au ministre de l'admi-
nistration et du développement bantous de l'Union.
En ce qui concerne la question a), le Conseil de la Société des Nations
a clairement précisédans une résolution adoptée le23 avril 1923que le
statut des habitants indigènes d'un territoire sous Mandat est distinct
de celui des ressortissants de la Puissance mandataire et qu'en consé-to them, was made clear by a resolution of 23 April 1923of the Council

of the League of Nations. (League of Nations, Oflcial Journal, 1923,
p. 604; cited in Memorials, p. 190.) This is the natural consequence of
the fact that sovereigntydoes not rest with a mandatory Power and that
it possesses no sovereign power over the mandated territory and the
inhabitants.

Concerning South West Africa, the question of the status of the in-
habitants had been regulated by an Act of 1926 (No. 18 of 1926)and
an Act of 1927(No. 40 of 1927),which were repealed in 1949by the Act
at present in force-the South African Citizenship Act, 1949 (No. 44
of 1949). By the latter Act, under section 2 (2), inhabitants of South
West Africa who were born there and were domiciledthere automatically
became citizens of the Union by virtue of their place of birth.
Of course the individual inhabitants of the Territory can voluntarily
obtain naturalization from the mandatory Power. But the compulsory
mass conferment of the Respondent's citizenship, having regard to the
spirit of the Mandate and the international status of the mandated
territory, cannot be justified. The Respondent may find it difficult to
defend itself against the charge of possessing the avowed intention of
piece-meal incorporation amounting to de facto annexation.

The effect of the general confeiment of Union citizenship upon the
inhabitants of the Territory does not remain a purely theoretical one.
It may have an important significancein the matter of the right of the

inhabitants to address petitions to the United Nations Organization.
If the general conferment be valid and if the inhabitants of the Territory
acquire citizenship of the Union, they would lose the right of petition
to the United Nations which they have had, and their right of petition
-being the subject's right-could only be exercised against the highest
legislativeand administrative authority in the land, namely South Africa.

Weconsider that the act of the general conferment of Union citizenship
upon the inhabitants of the Territory, being inconsistent with the inter-
national status of the Territory, goes beyond the scope and limit of the
discretionary power recognized by Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Man-
dateand that Article 2,paragraph 1,ofthe Mandate, which stipulates that
". .. the Mandatory shall have full power of administration and legis-
lation over the territory subject to the present Mandate as an integral
portion of the Union of South Africa to the territory" (italics added),
cannot be interpreted to justify such general conferment of Union
citizenship. The reason for this is supposed to be that this provision
recognizes such power in respect of administrative and legislativematters
in the 'C'mandate because of the technical consideration of expediency
and economy whilst not allowing highly political acts which may affect
the international status of the Territory.

Concerning (b): the South West Africa Amendment Act (Act No. 23

315quence les habitants indigènesd'un territoire sous Mandat n'acquièrent
pas la nationalité de la Puissance mandataire à raison de la protec-
tion qui leur est accordée (Société desNations, Journal ojîciel, 1923,
p. 604, citédans les mémoires p. 190). Cela découletout naturellement
du fait que la Puissance mandataire n'est pas investie de la souveraineté
et n'a pas de pouvoir souverain sur le territoire sous Mandat et sur
ses habitants.
La question du statut des habitants du Sud-Ouest africain a étéréglée
par les loisno 18de 1926et no 40 de 1927,qui ont étéabrogées en 1949

par la loi actuellement en vigueur: le South African Citizenship Act,
loi no 44 de 1949.Aux termes de l'article 2, paragraphe 2, de cette der-
nière loi, les habitants du Sud-Ouest africain nés et domiciliésdans le
territoire sont automatiquement devenus citoyens de l'Union à raison
de leur lieu de naissance.
Il va de soi que les habitants du territoire auraient pu être naturali-
sés par la Puissance mandataire à titre individuel et sur demande.
Mais, compte tenu de l'esprit du Mandat et du statut international du
territoire, l'attributiogénéralisée et obligatoire dela citoyenneté du
défendeur ne saurait se justifier. Le défendeur risque d'avoir du mal à
se défendresi on l'accuse d'avoir ouvertement l'intention de procéder à
une incorporation progressive du territoire aboutissant à une annexion
de facto.

L'attribution généraliséede la citoyenneté de l'Union aux habitants
du territoire n'a pas un effet purement théorique. Elle peut revêtir
une grande importance pour ce qui est du droit des habitants à adresser
des pétitions à l'organisation des Nations Unies. Si cette attribution
généralisée est tenue pour valable et si les habitants du territoire ont
acquis la citoyenneté de l'Union, ils perdent le droit qu'ils ont eu
d'adresser des pétitionsaux Nations Unies et ils ne peuvent plus exercer
que le droit de pétition qui leur appartient en tant que sujetsà l'égard
de la plus haute autoritélégislativeet administrative du pays, c'est-à-dire
l'Afrique du Sud.
A notre avis, l'attribution généralisée de la citoyenneté de l'Union
aux habitants du territoire est incompatible avec le statut international
du territoire et dépasseles limites et la portéedu pouvoir discrétionnaire

reconnu au Mandataire par le premier alinéa de l'article 2 du Mandat;
cette disposition, aux termes de laquelle ale Mandataire aura pleins
pouvoirs d'administration et de législationsur le territoire faisant l'objet
du mandat. Ce territoire sera administré selon la législationdu Manda-
taire comme partie intégrante de son territoire)) (les italiques sont de
nous), ne saurait être interprétéede manière à justifier l'attribution
généralisée dela citoyenneté de l'Union. En effet, si elle reconnaît de
tels pouvoirs au Mandataire dans le domaine administratif et législatif
relativement àun Mandat C, c'estpour desraisons techniques d'opportu-
nité et d'économie; cela n'autorise l'adoption d'aucune mesure de
caractère nettement politique risquant de porter atteinte au statut inter-
national du territoire.
En ce qui concerne la question b), le South West Africa Amendment

315of 1949)provides for the inclusion of elected representatives from South
West Africa in both the Senate and the House of Assembly ofthe Union
Parliament. The same Act, in addition to deleting all references to the
Mandate as such from the Union Statutes, makes no distinction between
the representatives of the Territory and those elected from the provinces
of the Union. The representatives of the Territory possess the same right
to speak and to vote on matters regarding the Union also.

Apart from the question of the discriminatory policy of the Union
concerning the election of the territorial representatives, namely election
only by "Europeans", we are unable to overlook the important signi-
ficance of the fact of the inclusion of elected South West African repre-
sentatives. This amendment does not appear to come within the Manda-
tory's "power of administration and legislation over the territory ...
as an integral portion of the Union of South Africa" (Article 2,paragraph
1); it means far more than a simple administrative measure which, as

providing for treatment as an integral portion of the Union, ispermitted
by the said provision; it is an act of a constitutional nature which influ-
ences both South Africa and the Territory of South West Africa, which
particularly affect> the international status of the Territory as "an
important step towards the political integration of the Territory into
the Union" (Report of the Committee on South West Africa, U.N.,
G.A., O.R., 11th Sess. Supp. No. 12 at 8 (A/3151) (1956), cited in the
Memorials, pp. 192and 193),and which implies the incorporation into
South Africa of the Territory of South West Africa as a fifth province.

Therefore, the Respondent cannot justify the inclusion of the repre-
sentatives from South West Africa by referring to the phrase "as an
integral portion of the Union" in Article 2, paragraph 1,of the Mandate.
The act of the Respondent is inconsistent with the international status
of the Territory recognized by the provisions of Article 22 of the Cove-
nant as well as by the Mandate for South West Africa.

Concerning (c): heading (c) is concerned with the question of the

administrative separation of the Eastern Caprivi Zipfel from the Terri-
tory. This part of the Territory of South West Africa, a narrow strip in the
north-eastern corner of the Territory, has been subject to frequent
change in the mode of its administration since the inception of the
Mandate on South West Africa. The main reason thereof lies in
geographical factors, namely the remoteness of this region from the
administrative centre of the Territory, Windhoek, and the difficulties of
accessto it.
In 1939, the Union enacted Proclamation No. 147, transferring
administration of the Eastern Caprivi Zipfel from the Administrator of
South West Africa to the Union directly. In 1955the report of the Com-
mittee on South West Africa condemned this separation as a violation
of the Mandate, the main reason thereof appears to be that-Act, loi no 23 de 1949, prévoit la présence de représentants élusdu
Sud-Ouest africain tant au Sénat qu'àla House of Assembly du Parle-
ment de l'Union. Non seulement cette loi supprime de la législation
de l'Union toute référenceau Mandat en tant que tel, mais encore elle

n'établit aucune distinction entre les représentants du territoire et
ceux des provinces de l'Union. Les représentants du territoire sont
pleinement habilités à intervenir età voter sur les questions intéressant
l'Union.
Outre la question de la discrimination, qui intervient en la matière
puisque les représentants du territoire ne sont élusque par les ieuro-
péens a, nous ne pouvons manquer d'attribuer une grande importance
à la présencede représentants élusdu Sud-Ouest africain au Parlement
de l'Union. Cette nouvelle loi ne semblepas s'inscriredans les ((pouvoirs
d'administration et de législation sur le territoire ...comme partie
intégrante [du] territoire)) de l'Union (article 2, premier alinéa);
c'esten fait beaucoup plus qu'une simple mesure administrative qu'auto-

riserait la disposition précitéedans la mesure où le Sud-Ouest africain
serait traité comme partie intégrante du territoire de l'Union; c'est un
acte constitutionnel qui vise à la fois l'Afrique du Sud et le territoire
du Sud-Ouest africain, qui porte notamment atteinte au statut inter-
national du territoire en constituant ((une étape importante vers le
rattachement politique du territoire à l'Union» (rapport du Comité
du Sud-Ouest africain, Nations Unies, Documents officielsde l'Assemblée
générale,onzièmesession,suppl. no12,p. 8(A/3151),1956,citédans lesmé-
moires p. 192-193)et qui implique l'incorporation du territoire du Sud-
Ouest africain à l'Afrique du Sud, en tant que cinquième province.
Le défendeur nepeut donc justifier la présencede représentants du
Sud-Ouest africain au Parlement de l'Union en arguant du membre

de phrase ((administré ...comme partie intégrante de son territoire 1)
qui figure au premier alinéade l'article 2 du Mandat. L'acte du défen-
deur est incompatible avec le statut international du territoire, tel qu'il
est reconnu par les dispositions de l'article 22 du Pacte et celles du
Mandat pour le Sud-Ouest africain.
La question c) a trait à la séparation dela partie orientale du Caprivi
Zipfel sur le plan administratif. Cette région du Sud-Ouest africain,
qui a la forme d'une bande étroite située à l'extrémité nord-estdu
territoire, a vu fréquemment modifier les modalitésde son administra-
tion depuis l'entrée en vigueur du Mandat. Cela s'explique par des
facteurs géographiques, notamment par le fait que cette région est

très éloignéedeWindhoek, centre administratif du territoire, et qu'il est
difficiled'y accéder.

En 1939,par la proclamation no 147 de l'Union, l'administration du
Caprivi Zipfel oriental a cesséd'êtredu ressort de l'administrateur du
Sud-Ouest africain pour relever directement de l'Union. En 1955, le
Comité du Sud-Ouest africain a, dans son rapport, condamné cette
séparation comme violant le Mandat, essentiellement pour les motifs
ci-après:

316 "... such a separation is likely to prejudice consideration (b) of the
'General Conditions' which must be fulfilled before the Mandate
régimecan be brought to an end in respect of the countries placed
under that régime,approved by the Council of the League on
4 September 1931,namely, that 'It [the territory] must be capable
of maintaining its territorial integrity and political independenc".
(Report of the Committee on South West Africa, U.N. G.A., O.R.,
10th Sess., Supp. No. 12 at p. 10 (A/2913), 1955, cited in the Mem-
orials, pp. 193and 194.)
We cannot deny that geographical factors can play an important
role in determining systems and measures of administration. We con-
sider that the phrase "subject to such local modifications as circumstances
may require" (Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Mandate) can be referred
to in considering this kind of issue and that the decision of existence
or otherwise of the necessity for the separate administration of this

area cornes entirely within the discretionary power of the Mandatory
conferred on him by the said provision of the Mandate. Furrhermore,
we consider that the administrative separation, being in itself of a
technical nature, cannot have an effectdetrimental to what the "General
Conditions" would expect to be realized.

Accordingly, the Applicants' contention on this matter is not well-
founded.
Concerning (d): this heading includes two points. As to the first
point, apart from the possibility of consideration from the angle of
Article 2, paragraph 2, particularly as regards the policy of apartheid
or separate development, the vestingof South West Africa Native Reserve
Land in the South African Native Trust is a measure which is of an
administrative nature and in which economic considerations are pre-
dominant; therefore, it has nothing to do with the international status
of the Territory. It belongs to matters within the discretionary power
of the Respondent as Mandatcry, as in the case of (c). Concerning the
second point, namely "the transfer of administration of 'Native' affairs
to the Union's Minister of Bantu Administration and Development",
we have only to refer to what has been said on (c) and the first point
of (d).

For the above-mentioned reasons the Applicants' contention under
(d) is not well-founded.

In the submissions (original as well as final) the Applicants state
that the Respondent continued to have the obligation to transmit petitions
from the inhabitants of the Territory (Submission No. 2) and that the

Respondent has failed to transmit to the General Assembly of the United
Nations petitions from the Territory's inhabitants addressed to the
General Assembly; that such failure is a violation of its obligations as
317 «une telle mesure risque d'aller à l'encontre de la condition b)
des conditions générales à prévoir avant qu'il puisse êtremis fin

au régime desMandats dans un pays placé sous ce régimeque le
Conseil de la Société desNations a approuvéesle 4 septembre 1931,
à savoir: «êtrecapable de maintenir son intégrité territoriale et
son indépendance politique ».(Rapport du Comité du Sud-Ouest
africain, Nations Unies, Documents ojîciels de l'Assembléegénérale,
dixième session, suppl. no 12, p. 10 (A/2913), 1955, cité dans les
mémoires,p. 193-194.)
On ne peut nier que les facteurs géographiques soient de nature à

jouer un rôle important dans l'élaboration des systèmesd'administration
et l'adoption de mesures pertinentes. Nous estimons que l'on est fondé
dans ce domaine à arguer du membre de phrase ((sous réserve des
modifications nécessitéespar les conditions locales)(Mandat, article 2,
premier alinéa) et que la faculté de décider s'il est ou non nécessaire
de dissocier l'administration de cette région de l'administration du
reste du territoire s'inscrit parfaitement dans le cadre du pouvoir dis-
crétionnaire accordéau Mandataire par ladite disposition du Mandat.
En outre, nous estimons que la séparation administrative, ayant en soi
un caractère technique, ne saurait nuire à la réalisation des ((con-

ditions générales à prévoir » invoquées ci-dessus.
En conséquence, la thèse des demandeurs sur ce point n'est pas
fondée.
En ce qui concerne la question d), deux problèmes se posent. Pour
ce qui est du premier, indépendamment du fait qu'on peut l'envisager
du point de vue du deuxième alinéade l'article 2, c'est-à-dire notam-
ment du point de vue de la politique d'apartheid ou de développement
séparé,il faut signaler que la remise des réserves indigènesau South
African Native Trust est une mesure de caractère administratif obéissant
essentiellement à des considérations d'ordre économique; elle n'a donc

rien àvoir avecle statut international du territoire. Comme la question c),
cela relève de l'exercicedu pouvoir discrétionnaire imparti au défendeur
en qualitéde Mandataire. Pour ce qui est du second problème, celui du
cctransfert de l'administration des affaires«indigènes» au ministre de
l'administration et du développement bantous de l'Union)), il nous
suffira de renvoyer à ce que nous avons dit à propos de la question c)
et du premier point de la question d).
Pour les motifs exposés ci-dessus, la thèse des demandeurs relative-
ment à la question d) n'est pas fondée.

Dans leurs conclusions, initiales aussi bien que finales, les demandeurs
déclarent que le défendeur demeure assujetti à l'obligation de trans-
mettre les pétitions des habitants du territoire (conclusiono 2) et que
le défendeurn'a pas transmis à l'Assemblée générale deN sations Unies
les pétitionsdes habitants du territoire adresséesl'Assemblée générale,
que cette carence est une violation de ses obligations de Mandataire
317 Mandatory and that the Respondent has the duty to transmit such
petitions to the General Assembly (Submission No. 8).
There is no provision on petitions either in Article 22 of the Covenant
or in the Mandate. The only legal basis for the reference made by the
Applicants is the Rules adopted by the Council of the League of Nations
on 31 January 1923,relating to petitions from mandated territories. The
mandates afterthe First World War did not mention the right of petition,
the reason being that this right was "regarded as a natural concomitant
of the system established by the Covenant ... The receipt and exami-
nation of petitions became subsequently one of the main features of the
system of mandates" (Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, International Law and
Human Rights, 1950,pp. 244-245).If there were no guarantee through
the recognition of a right of petition, the fuElment of the protection
of human rightsand fundamental freedomsin general andinthe mandates
might be illusory.This right is inherent in the concept of the body politic
and other political institutions. Even if the right of petition is not based
upon any legal provision, it is "in asense a natural right" (Duncan Hall,
Mandates, Dependenciesand Trusteeslzip, 1948, p. 198). In this sense
the above-mentioned "League of Nations Rules" and the provision of
the Charter concerning the competence of the Trusteeship Council
(Article 87 (b)) have no more than a confirmatory meaning.

The right of petition entails the obligation of the Mandatory to
transmit petitions to the supervisory organ for acceptance and exami-
nation. In this respect, what is said about the survival of international
supervision, despite the dissolution of the League and the replacement
of the Council of the League by the General Assembly as the supervisory
organ, can be applied to the right of petition.

From what is stated above, it can be concluded that the obligation
of the Mandatory to transmit to the General Assembly petitions from
the inhabitants of the Teiritory exists; therefore Submission No. 2
concerning petitions is well-founded.
Next, it is clear from the pleadings and oral hearing that the Respon-
dent has failed to comply with this obligation; accoidingly, Submission
No. 8 is well-founded.

The Applicants' Final SubmissionNo. 6 reads as follows:
"Respondent has established military bases within the Territory
in violation of its obligation as stated in Article 4 of the Mandate
and Article 22 of the Covenant; that Respondent has the duty
forthwith to remove al1such military bases from within the Terri-
tory; and that Respondent has the duty to refrain from the establish-
ment of military bases within the Territory."

Article 4 of the Mandate based on a part of Article 22 (5) provides: et que le défendeura le devoir detransmettre cespétitions à l'Assemblée
générale (conclusionno 8).
Ni l'article 22 du Pacte ni le Mandat ne contiennent de dispositions
sur ce point. La seule base juridique de la thèse des demandeurs est le
règlement de procédure adoptéle 31 janvier 1923par le Conseil de la
Sociétédes Nations quant aux pétitions émanant des territoires nous

Mandat. Les Mandats élaborésaprès la première guerre mondiale ne
mentionnaient pas le droit de pétition parce que ce droit était ((conçu
comme une conséquencenaturelle du systèmecréé par le Pacte...L'ac-
ceptation et l'examen de pétitions sont donc devenus par la suite l'une
des caractéristiques principales du système des Mandats » (sir Hersch
Lauterpacht, International Law and Human Rights, 1950, p. 244-245).
A défaut de la garantie que constitue la reconnaissance d'un droit de
pétition, la protection desdroits del'hommeet deslibertésfondamentales
sur le plan général etdans le cadre des Mandats risquerait de rester
illusoire. Ce droit est inhérent la conception mêmede corps politique
ou d'institution politique. Mêmesi le droit de pétition n'est fondé sur
aucune disposition juridique, il y a là,((en un sens, un droit naturel »
(Duncan Hall, Mandates, Dependencies and Trusteeship, 1948,p. 198).
En ce sens le règlement de procédure de la Sociétédes Nations sus-
mentionné etles dispositionsde la Charte visant la compétencedu Con-
seil de tutelle (article 87) n'ont guère qu'une valeurde confirmation.
Le droit de pétition s'assortit pour le Mandataire de l'obligation de
transmettre des pétitions à l'organe de surveillance, qui les accepte et

les examine.A cet égard,ce qu'on peut dire de la nécessité de la surveil-
lance internationale, qui subsiste malgré la dissolution de la Société des
Nations et le remplacement du Conseil de la Sociétépar l'Assemblée
généralecomme organe chargé de la surveillance, peut s'appliquer au
droit de pétition.
De ce qui précède,on peut conclure que le Mandataire a l'obligation
detransmettre àl'Assembléegénérale despétitions émanantdes habitants
du territoire et, en conséquence, que la conclusion no 2 relative aux
pétitions est bien fondée.
D'autre part, il ressort clairement des écritures et de la procédure
orale que le défendeura faillià cette obligation; par suite, la conclusion
no 8 est bien fondée.

La conclusion finale no 6 des demandeurs s'énoncecomme suit:
«Le défendeura établi des bases militaires sur le Territoire en
violation de ses obligations telles qu'elles figurent l'article 4 du
Mandat et à l'article 22 du Pacte; ...le défendeura le devoir de
supprimer sur-le-champ toutes les bases militaires établies sur le
Territoire; et... le défendeur a le devoir de s'abstenir d'établir
des bases militaires sur le Territoire.»

L'article 4 du Mandat, qui s'inspire en partie du paragraphe 5 de
l'article 22 du Pacte, dispose: "The military training of the natives other than for purposes
of internal police and the local defence of the Territory, shall be
prohibited. Furthermore, no military or naval bases shall be es-
tablished or fortifications erected in the Territory."

The second sentence of Article 4 characterizes the status of the man-
dated territory concerning militarization. It declares the military neutrali-
zation of the Territory by prohibiting the establishment of military or
naval bases or the erection of fortifications. The Mandatory is not
permitted to utilize the Territory, by means of bases or fortifications,
for military puiposes. This is a limitation imposed upon the authority
of the Mandatory concerning the material element of the military
functions which may be exercized bythe Mandatory.

The first sentence of Article 4 of the Mandate prohibits the military
training of the Natives. It may be said that the spirit of this provision
is to be found in a humanitarian consideration, namely the prohibition
of the militaristic exploitation of the indigenous population.
However, the prohibition of the military training of the Natives is
not absolute; the military training of the Natives for the purposes of
internal police and the local defence of the Territory is permissible.
The reason thereof may be that the internal police and the local defence
are not related to the humanitarian idea of this provision.
The first sentence of Article 4 refers only to the training of Natives;
it remains silent on that of White people. Accordingly, it is doubtful
whether military training in general or at least for the purposes of
internal police and local defenceis permissible.
That the training of Whites for the purposes of internal police and
local defence is not to be deemed to be prohibited, can be assumed from
the fact that the provision relates only to Natives and that there is no

reason to prohibit the training of Whites for the purposes of internal
police and local defencefrom the viewpoint of the military neutralization
of the Territory.
Nevertheless, the question is whether military training otherwise than
for the purposes of internal police and local defence is also permissible
for the Whites. We consider that the provision aiming at the protection
of Natives is not concerned with Whites, and that the military training
of Whites in general is not inconsistent with the principle of neutrali-
zation of the Territory. This principle must be considered as not incon-
sistent with the Respondent's right and duty to defend the Territory in
the event of its being attacked.
Such right and duty must be performed and exercisedwithin the limit
prescribed by Alticle 4, namely without establishing military bases and
without erecting fortifications. Within this limit the Respondent is
considered to be permitted to maintain facilities fol the training of
non-Natives in the Territory.

A few points must be clarified relating to the arguments between
the Parties. As to whether the military bases must be related to aggressive
designs or not, the conclusion must be in the negative. The Court must ((L'instruction militaire des indigènes sera interdite, sauf pour
assurer la police locale et la défenselocale du territoire. En outre,
aucune base militaire ou navale ne sera établie dans le territoire,
ni aucune fortification.))

La deuxième phrase de l'article 4 déhit la situation du territoire sous
Mandat du point de vue de la militarisation. Elle prescrit la neutralisa-
tion du territoire en interdisant'y établirdes bases militaires ou navales
ou des fortifications. Le Mandataire n'est donc pas autorisé à se servir
du territoireà des fins militaires en y installant des bases ou des fortifi-
cations. C'estlà une restriction imposéesur le plan concret aux activités
militaires qu'il peut exercer.

La première phrase de l'article 4 du Mandat interdit de donner aux
indigènes une instruction militaire. On peut dire que cette disposition
s'inspire d'une fin humanitaire, qui est d'empêcherd'exploiterlapopula-

tion indigène sur le plan militaire.
Toutefois, l'interdiction relativeà l'instruction militaire des indigènes
n'est pas absolue; leur instruction est permise s'agissant d'assurer la
police locale et la défenselocale du territoire. La raison en est peut-être
que le principe humanitaire dont s'inspire ladisposition visée nes'étend
ni à la police locale, ni à la défenselocale.
Cette première phrase de l'article 4 ne concerne que l'instruction
desindigènes;ellene dit rien de l'instruction des blancs. Par suite, on peut
sedemander sileur instruction militaire est autoriséed'une manièregéné-
rale ou, tout au moins, aux finsdela policelocale et dela défenselocale.
Du fait que la disposition vise seulement les indigènes et qu'il n'y
a pas de raison d'interdire l'instruction des blancs aux fins de la police

locale et de la défenselocale, mêmesi l'on veutneutraliser militairement
le territoire, on peut déduire que l'instruction des blancs n'est pas inter-
dite quand il s'agit d'assurerla police locale et la défenselocale duierri-
toire.
Néanmoins, la question se pose de savoir s'il est permis de donner
aux blancs une instruction militaire à des fins autres que la police locale
et la défenselocale. Nous estimons qu'une disposition visant la protec-
tion des indigènesne concerne pas les blancs et que l'instruction mili-
taire des blancs en généraln'est pas incompatible avec le principe de la
neutralisation du territoire. Ceprincipe ne doit pas êtreconsidéré comme
incompatible avec le droit et le devoir du Mandataire de défendre le

territoire au cas où celui-ci serait attaqué.
Le défendeurdoit assumer ce droit et ce devoir dans les limites pres-
crites par l'article 4, c'est-à-dire sans établir dans le territoire de bases
militaires ni de fortifications.A ces réservesprès, on peut considérer
que le défendeur estautorisé à entretenir dans le territoire des installa-
tions destinées à l'instruction militaire des non-indigènes.
Il convient à cet égard de préciser quelques points concernant les
thèsesdes Parties. A la question de savoir s'ilest pertinent que les bases
militaires en cause correspondent à des desseins d'aggression, il fautdecide the question objectively; it is not concerned with the examination
of the Respondent's motive for establishing military bases.

The question whether a common feature of a military base is that
a base is something utilized by a force ,or an army for the purposes of
operations or for a campaign or not, must be answered in the affirmative
in the sense that the prohibition has a practical meaning mostly in time
of peace and that the purposes of operations or of a campaign are
inherent in the potential meaning. The question whether the place in the
Respondent's administrativehierarchyand chain of command determines
that it is a military base or not, must be answered in the negative. The
question of administrative hierarchy and command can have no bearing
on the substantive character of a milita^ base.
As to the Applicants' submission,it is the military bases alleged to be
established in the Territory by the Respondent that are in question, not

the military training of the Natives. The Applicants allege that the Re-
spondent maintains three military bases within the Territory, which are
the Regiment Windhoek, a military landing ground in the Swakopmund
District of South West Africa and "at least one military facility in or
near the Kaokoveld" in part of the Territory.

The Applicants, however, presented no direct evidence to establish
their charge. Their charge was based simply on "information and
belief" (Memorials, p. 181) on which the Applicants refrained from
calling evidence on the pait of their informants. On the contrary, the
Respondent produced direct evidence in contradiction of the evidence
of the Applicants based on information and belief. Testimony given
by a witness-expert,who made inspection of the three placesin September
1965and who was presented by the Respondent at the oral proceedings,
made upon us a strong impression of the absence of any military base
at the three places mentioned above. On the other hand, the Applicants
neither produced any evidence in contradiction thereof nor disputed it
in cross-examination.

On the evidence before the Court the Respondent did not establish
any military or naval bases in the Territory. Therefore, Applicants'
Submission No. 6 is not well-founded.

The Applicants' SubmissionNo. 9 reads as follows:
"Respondent has attempted to modify substantially the terms
of the Mandate, without the consent of the United Nations; that
such attempt is in violation of its duties as stated in Article 7 of
the Mandate and Article 22 of the Covenant; and that the consent
of the United Nations is a necessary prerequisite and condition
precedent to attempts on the part of Respondent directly or indi-
rectly to modify the terms of the Mandate."

320répondre non. La Cour doit trancher la question objectivement; elle
n'a pas à examiner les mobiles que peut avoir le défendeurpour établir
des bases militaires.
A la question de savoir si la caractéristique d'une base militaire est
d'êtreutiliséepar une arméeou une flotte en vue d'opérations ou d'une
campagne, il y a lieu de répondre par l'affirmative, étant entendu que
l'interdiction a des effets concrets surtout en temps de paix et que les
opérations ou la campagne ne peuvent êtrequ'éventuelles. A la question

de savoir si la place qu'une installation occupe dans la hiérarchie ad-
ministrative et militaire du défendeur permet d'établir son caractère
militaire, il y a lieu de répondre par la négative. Laplace qu'une installa-
tion occupe dans la hiérarchieadministrative et militaire n'a absolument
aucune influence sur son caractère de base militaire.
Dans leur conclusion, les demandeursmettent en cause les bases mili-
taires que le défendeur est censéavoir installéesdans le territoire et
non pas l'instruction militaire des indigènes. Les demandeurs soutien-
nent que le défendeurentretient trois bases militaires dans le territoire:
lesinstallations du régimentWindhoek, un terrain d'atterrissage militaire
situé dansle district de Swakopmund (Sud-Ouest africain) et «au moins
une installation militaire dans le Kaokoveld ou à proximité ))dans un
secteur du territoire.
Les demandeurs n'ont toutefois présentéaucune preuve directe pour

étayer leurs accusations.Ils ont dit simplement (mémoires,p. 181)avoir
étéinformés desfaits invoquéset y ajouter foi, mais ils n'ont pas fait
appel au témoignagede leurs informateurs. En revanche, le défendeura
produit des témoignagesdirects à l'encontre des indications des deman-
deurs fondéessur les renseignements qui leur auraient été fournis et
sur leur conviction. La dépositiond'un expert, qui s'est rendu aux trois
endroits incriminésen septembre 1965et qui a étécité par le défendeur
au cours de la procédure orale, nous a nettement donné l'impression
qu'il n'y a pas de base militaire aux trois endroits visés.De leur côté,
les demandeurs n'ont produit aucun élémentprobatoire pour répondre
aux preuves contraires du défendeur etils n'ont pas contesté la déposi-
tion de l'expert.
Des élémentsde preuve dont la Cour dispose, il résulteque le défen-
deur n'a pas établide base militaire ou navale dans le territoire. Par

suite, la conclusion no 6 des demandeurs n'est pas fondée.

La conclusion no 9 des demandeurs s'énonce commesuit:
«Le défendeura tenté d'apporter aux dispositions du Mandat
des modifications de fond sans l'autorisation des Nations Unies;
...cette tentative constitue une violation de ses obligations telles
qu'elles figurentà l'article 7 du Mandat et à l'article 22 du Pacte;
et ..l'autorisation des Nations Unies est une condition préalable
indispensable à toute tentative de la part du défendeurde modifier
directement ou indirectement les dispositions du Mandat. ))

320 323 SOUTH WEST AFRICA (DISS. OP.TANAKA)

The answer to this question depends upon the nature of Article 7 (1)
of the Mandate. Does this provision declare the prohibition of unilateral
modification ofthe Mandate by the Respondent in viewofthe contractual
nature of the Mandate or doesit imposesomeduty upon the Respondent
to abstain from conduct contrary to the provisions of the Mandate?
In Our view Article 7 (1) must be interpreted in the sense of the first
alternative.Thisprovision simply definesa condition for the modification
or amendment of the terms of the Mandate, namely the consent of the

Council ofthe League ofNations. Thisprovision is ofa purely procedural
nature. Its non-observance merely produces the effect that the modifi-
cation cannot take place.

The Applicants' charge in the Applications rested on the fact that the
Respondent had substantially modified the terms of the Mandate and
also had attempted to do so and, in the Memorials, that the Respondent
attempted to modify the terms of the Mandate.

Whether the alleged conduct of the Respondent is the modification
or the attempts to modify,the result isthe same.
Modification isimpossible solongasthe consent ofthe United Nations
islacking. Since the attempts presuppose the possibility of modification,
they are also impossible without the consent of the United Nations.

The facts relied upon by the Applicants to establish the attempts
by the Respondent to modify the Mandate are not specified in Final
Submission No. 9, but they are referred to in Chapters V, VI, VI1 and
VI11 of the Memorials (Submission No. 9). Chapters V, VI and VI11
deal with allegedviolations of Article 2 of the Mandate and Chapter VI1
deals with alleged violations of Article 4 of the Mandate.

If the alleged violation ofhese Articles exists, the violation is simply
concerned with the individual provisions and not with Article 7, para-
graph 1.
A few additional remarks may be made on this Article of the Man-
date.
The prohibition of unilateral modification exists not only in regard
to theMandatorybut in regard to the League ofNations also.

Article 7, paragraph 1, possesses essential meaning for the surviving
Mandate after the dissolution of the League just as does Article 6 in
regard to administrative supervision. The General Assembly of the
United Nations was therefore substituted for the Council of the League.

So long as the Mandate survives on an institutional basis after the
dissolution of the League, the necessityfor the future amendment of the
Mandate by consent of both parties does subsist. In this sense the
contractual element is recognized as remaining together with the insti-
tutional elements.
Moreover, this claim of the Applicants, namely that an attempt to

321 La réponse à cette question dépend de la nature du premier alinéa
de l'article 7 du Mandat. Cette disposition interdit-elle au défendeurde
modifier unilatéralement le Mandat en raison dela nature contractuelle
de celui-ci ou impose-t-elle au défendeur l'obligation de s'abstenir de
tout comportement incompatible avec les dispositions du Mandat?
A notre avis, il convient de donner au premier alinéa de l'article 7
la première des deux interprétations dont nous venons de faire état.

Cette disposition définit simplement la condition préalable à toute
modification ou à tout amendement du Mandat: l'autorisation du
Conseil de la Société desNations. Il s'agit donc d'une disposition pure-
ment procédurale. L'inobservation de la condition énoncée a pour seul
effet d'empêchertoute modification du Mandat.
Dans leurs requêtes,les demandeurs fondent leur accusation sur le
fait que le défendeur aurait apporté ou tenté d'apporter des modifica-
tions de fond aux dispositions du Mandat; dans leurs mémoires, ils
soutiennent que le défendeur a tenté d'apporter des modifications
au Mandat.
Qu'on accuse le défendeur d'avoireffectivement modifié leMandat
ou d'avoir simplement tentéde le faire, le résultatest le même.
Toute modification est impossible sans l'autorisation des Nations
Unies. Comme toute tentative de modification présuppose qu'il est

possible de modifier, ce genre de tentative est également impossible
sans l'autorisation des Nations Unies.
Les faits invoquéspar les demandeurs pour établirque le défendeur
a tenté de modifier le Mandat ne sont pas précisésdans la conclusion
finale no 9 mais ils sont énoncésdans les chapitres V, VI, VI1 et VI11
des mémoires (conclusion no 9).Les chapitres V, VI et VI11 visent les
allégations concernant des infractions à l'article 2 du Mandat et le
chapitreVI1 les allégations concernant des infractions à l'article 4 du
Mandat.
La violation alléguéede ces articles,à supposer qu'elle soit vérifiée,
concerne simplement leurs dispositions et non pas le premier alinéade
l'article.
Nous pouvons faire quelques observations complémentaires à propos
du premier alinéa de l'article 7.

Toute modification unilatérale est interdite non seulement au Man-
dataire mais aussiàla Société desNations.
Le premier alinéa de l'article 7 revêtpour le Mandat, du moment
qu'il survit la dissolution de la Société, une signification essentielle,
analogue à celle que présente l'article 6 pour la surveillance adminis-
trative. Par suite, l'Assembléegénérale desNations Unies a remplacé
le Conseil de la Société desNations.
Si le Mandat reste en vigueurà titre d'institution en dépit de la disso-
lution de la Société desNations, la nécessitéd'obtenir l'autorisation
des deux parties pour toute modification ultérieure du Mandat sub-
siste. En ce sens, l'élémentcontractuel subsiste en mêmetemps que les
éléments institutionnels.
Enfin, le grief des demandeurs d'après lequel, ententant de modifier

321modiiy the terms of the Mandate is a breach of Article 7, paragraph 1,
can be recognized as part of the dispute between the Parties which
existed prior to the Application in the sense that the claim constitutes a
development of thesame dispute.
For the reason indicatedbove, the Applicants' Submission No. 9 is
not weU-founded.

(Signed Kotaro TANAKA.les dispositions du Mandat, le défendeàrvioléle premier alinéade
l'articlepeut êtreconsidéré comme relevantdu différendqui a existé
entre lesParties avant le dépôtdes requêtes, ence sens que cegrief cons-
titue un élémentdu différend.
Pour les motifs exposés ci-dessus,la conclusiondes demandeurs
n'est pas fondée.

(Signé K)otaroTANAKA.

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Dissenting Opinion of Judge Tanaka

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