Dissenting Opinion of Judge Moreno Quintana (translation)

Document Number
032-19600412-JUD-01-09-EN
Parent Document Number
032-19600412-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE MORENO QUINTANA

[Translation]
To my great regret 1 am unable to associate myself with the
opinion of the majority of my colleagues of the Court, who, on the
merits of the case, have admitted, though withinlimits and incom-
pletely, that Portugal has a right of passage over Indian territory.
There follows from the majority opinion a legal premise that 1
cannot accept. That premise is the theoretical continuance of a
de facto situation which was inmy opinion discontinued by what
occurred in the enclaves in1954. It implies, by definition, a recog-
nition that territorial sovereignty can be acquired by prescription,

a private law institution which 1 consider finds no place in inter-
national law. Further, the majority decision takes its exclusive stand
upon a date which does not allow a settlement of the whole of the
problem submitted to the Court.

My dissenting opinion is based upon considerations of fact and of
law which 1 append hereto.

By an Application of 22 December 1955, the Government of
Portugal instituted proceedings against the Government of India
and asked the Court to recognize a right of passage for perçons and
goods, including armed forces, "between its territory of Daman
(coastal Daman) and its enclaved territories of Dadra and Nagar-
Aveli and betwee-neach of the latter", in order to ensure, without

restrictions ordifficulties, "the effective exercise of Portuguese
sovereignty in the same territories". It also asked the Court to
declare that India was violating its international obligations by
preventing the exercise of that right and to adjudge that India
should put an end to this defactosituation. The applicant's Memorial
amplifies this claim and supplies the legal grounds which it considers
applicable to the case.
In this Counter-Memorial the respondent argues that the Portu-
guese claim is vague and dubious, that the right of passage claimed
lacks a legal basis, that no proof has been furnished of any local
usage and that, even if it were otherwise, the said basis or proof
would be irrelevant and inapplicable to the circumstances of the
case. The applicant in turn repeated its submissions in its Reply,
declaring that it did not question India's sovereignty within its
territory and was only asking that India should not obstruct
communications with the Portuguese enclaves.

A wealth of documentary evidence going back to the eighteenth
century was furnished by each of the Parties in support of their
86claims. It is mainly on the strength of this evidence that the
applicant must establish the grounds for the right of passage it
claims, since it cannot deny that in principle the passage of perçons

and goods through a State's territory lies within the domestic
jurisdiction of that State.

The Court must first of all, and indeed exclusively, ascertain
whether a right of passage existed in Portugal's favour for com-
munication between Daman and the enclaves and between the
enclaves themselves. For, if it did,India would be failing to observe
its international obligations by preventing Portugal from exercising
that right.The existence of a right in internationarelations is a fact
which, when contested, must be proved by the party which invokes
it. That is an elementary principle of procedure.
However, the Court's task is not so simple as that, owing to the
frequent changes made by the applicant in its submissions and to
the uncertainty it has betrayed at different stages in the case
concerning the foundation ofits right. At one time, as in its Applica-
tion, it asks for full recognition of a right, at another, in the

Memorial, it reduces the claim, and again, in its Reply, limits the
exercise of that right to regulation by the territorial sovereign and
admits that the passage of armed forces could be temporarily
suspended if it were liable to createisorder within the State passed
through. And it is precisely in the event of a disturbance of the
situation in the enclaves that the passage of troops is found neces-
sary in order to restore Portugal's alleged sovereignty.

A right of passage is not an abstract construction. It cannot be
defined in the varying, inexact and mutually contradictory terms
employed by the applicant. The right either exists in law or it does
not. Its existence cannot depend upon fluctuations and fine dis-
tinctions dictated by circumstances. In particular, the passage of
organized military units is a question that cannot be separated
from the immunity they enjoy on or in transit through foreign
territory. They represent the authority of the State itself. It is for

that reason that customary international law assigns to them the
immunity necessary'to the performance of their duties. In my
opinion that immunity is a necessary legal condition and cannot
bewaived. In a word, a right that is on each occasion madecondition-
al upon the judgment of the local authority in the place where it
is exercised is a right in name only. It does not constitute a legal
right; rather it is a faculty tolerated by the territorial sovereign.

In the international sphere the normal method of acquiring rights
or of contracting obligations takes the form of an agreement, which

87in its widest sense is termed a treaty.These rights or obligations
may also be the consequence of a custom that has become established
between the parties from a conviction that they are applying the
law. They may even follow, and Article 38 of the Court's Statute
acknowledges this in its paragraph I (c),from a general principle
of law recognized by civilized nations. In any case, although 1
agree thatthat Article establishes a legal order of precedence in the
application of sources of international law, 1 consider that the

validity of a general principle may take the place of international
custom, and the existence of international custom the place of a
treaty.
But the applicant fails to supply a firm and conclusive basis for
its right when it relies at one time upon a treaty, at another on
custom, on a principle or, altematively, on legal doctrine. Accord-
ing to its argument, each of these sources is of itself a sufficient
basis. It also confuses these sources when it says that the right it
claims rests at the same time on the three main sources mentioned,
and it even invokes an historical title said to be conferred upon it
by the practice of two hundred years. lts attitude could not be
more eclectic.
However, Portugal's principal title is the treaty known as the
Treaty of Punem, concluded in 1779 with the Maratha ruler, who
is said to have granted to the applicant the right of passage it is
claiming. Analysis of this treaty is of the firçt importance to an
international court if itan prove or disprove the soundness of this

basis of the case. Indeed, the application of any other source than
the treaty is logically conditional upon whether the treaty did or
did not transfer to Portugal sovereignty over the enclaves of Dadra
and Nagar-Aveli. If it did not, no right of passage could derive
from an act of territorial usurpation. At the hearing of 2 Octo-
ber, Professor Bourquin expressly acknowledged that the right of
passage that Portugal claims is only a corollary of its sovereignty
over the enclaves.

This method of procedure may be found useful whenever it can
Savethe Court from treading upon uncertain ground. 1consider to be
uncertain ground the reference in this case to the general principles
of law recognized by civilized nations and even the reference to
general custom viewed as granting erga omnes a right of passage
through territory of third States linking enclaved territories under
the system of international law with the metropolitan country.

This method also avoids consideration of a theory so controversial
and vulnerable as the theory of so-called international servitudes.
Although the applicant denies this-the question is one of legal
terminology-it accepts it by implication when it appealsin support
of its claim to the general principles of law. RIGHT OF PASSAGE (DISS. OP. JUDGE MORENO QUINTANA)
91

According to the applicant, Article 17 of the Treaty of Punem
established Portugal's sovereignty over the enclaves of Dadra and
Nagar-Aveli and proved the intention of the Parties to create a
right of passage between Daman and those enclaves. A treaty can,
of course, create a rule of law, such as a right of passage, even by
implication, but in this case the main proposition to be proved is
the transfer of sovereignty. A right of passage through foreign
territory in order to communicate with an enclave can be based
only upon the title of territorial sovereign. In neither text of the
treaty presented to the Court is there any question of that right
having been created. Their terminology is ambiguous and leaves

room for doubt of al1kinds. But neither of them reveals any act of
such positive effect in international relations as the transfer of
territorial sovereignty. Restrictions uponthe independence of States
cannot be presumed, said the Permanent Court in the celebrated
Lotus case (seeJudgments, Series A, No. IO, p. 18).

It might even be asked whether the said agreement really
constitutes a treaty,since thereis no document in existence ratified
simultaneously by the two contracting parties and which may be
regarded as its authentic text. However, even a cursory study of
the situation shows that the exchange of documents-the Marathi
text of 4 May 1779 and the Portuguese text of 17 December of the
same year-was no doubt the expression of a common agreement
creating mutual rights and obligations between two legal persons
recognized as such in their international relationships. Article 6
makes it clear that a bilateral treaty was concluded and the docu-
mentary evidence produced also shows by many instances that it
was the intention of the parties to conclude a treaty and that they
were aware of having done so. It took the legal form of an exchange
of notes and the jurisprudence of the Permanent Court accepted
this form as valid in its Advisory Opinion on the Austro-German
CustomsRégime (seeJudgments, Series A/B, No. 41,p. 47).

What does this agreement Say? 1 will take my stand on the

Marathi translation from the original Portuguese, submitted in this
case by the respondent; it bears the signature of the Portuguese
Viceroy, José Pedro da Camara, and is to be found at Annex F.
No. 23. Article 17, which is the decisive one, says: "The Firangee
State (Portuguese State of India) entertains friendly sentiments
towards the Pandit Pradhan (the Maratha ruler) ;the envoy convey-
ed assurances. Therefore, it is agreed that the Pandit Pradhan
should assign towards Daman from the current year a jagir of the
revenue of twelve thousand rupees in Prant Daman. Accordingly,
a sanad listing the villages be given to the Firangee State by making
a separate agreement." This text is clear, so clear as fully to explain
89two important points discussed by the Parties: the nature of the
instrument concluded and that of the concession granted. Firstly,
the expressions 'lit is agreed" and "separate agreement" show
beyond doubt that the instrument is a treaty in the wide sense
given to this word by international jurisprudence and doctrine.
Secondly, the word "jagir" describes its purpose, which is de-
termined by the friendly sentiments of the Portuguese towards the
Marathas. In any event, comparing one text with the other, they
do not differ much as to what was given by the Marathas to the
Portuguese: according to the former, a jagir,according tothelatter,
a contribuçao. In neither text is there any vestige of a transfer of
sovereignty.
It has been established that the Mogul word jagir,corresponding
tothe Marathi term saranjam, means the granting of a fiscal revenue
and not a transfer of territorial sovereignty. The Parties, however,
are not agreed upon the import of that concession. India maintains

that it is a favour granted for an uncertain tenure and revocable
at the will of the donor; Portugal declares that there were also
saranjams that were hereditary, perpetual and irrevocable, such as
those guaranteed by a treaty, and that this is one of them. It is
not for the Court to adopt a position towards a dispute of purely
historical interest. But it may well observe that none of the charac-
teristics invoked by Portugal appears in the text of Article 17 of
the Treaty of Punem. Where there is doubt, tlle Court must stand
by the narrower interpretation. This the Permanent Court laid
down in its Judgment on the Mavrommatis Concessions (seeJudg-
ments, Series A, No.2, p.19) .nd that interpretation in the present
instance is the one given by the beneficiary of the concession.
Accordingly, the Treaty of Punem expresses a promise by India to
give sums of money as a token of friendship and not a transfer of
sovereignty over villages which were not even named.

Nor is there any reference to the assignment to Portugal of a
right of passage in order to collect its jagir.The Parties saw no
need to mention this in view of the friendly sentiments, the aid and
military assistance of the Portuguese, al1 of which formed the
consideration for the concession granted by the Marathas. It could
not be supposed that the collection of jagirwould be obstructed by
the Maratha ruler. Further, the villages which were to furnish the
annual revenue to Portugal were not mentioned in the treaty; they

were to be listed later in a sanad. That administrative act of the
Maratha sovereign was free to decide and regulate the terms of the
grant. The first annual payments were not collected by the Portu-
guese from, any village, being paid directly by the Marathas. It
cannot therefore be imagined that the said right of passage was
contemplated by theTreaty of Punem. Inany case it was a question
to be settled later, should it be necessary. And it was not so settled,since passage continued to exist as a necessary corollary to the
collection of jagirand did not thereby constitute a separate right
in Portugal's favour. By 1954, however, the position had changed.
The friendship promised by the Portuguese to the Marathas in 1779
had given way to a cold war between India and Portugal. The
Indians had closed their Legation in Lisbon because of Portugal's
refusa1 to negotiate the surrender of its sovereignty over parts of
India. As the result of circumstances the mutual rights and obli-
gations under the Treaty of Punem were extinguished. There could
not be a better application than this of the rule recalled by Emerich
de Vattel in his well-known treatise: Omnis conventiointelligitur
rebus sic stantibus.The Treaty of Punem was no more; Portugal
no longer claimed the payment of jagir;passage between Daman,
Dadra and Nagar-Aveli had no further raison d'être:

The system established by the Treaty of Punem was completed

by two later agreements between the Portuguese and the Marathas
concluded on 29 May 1783 and 22 July 1785. Under the former the
promised fiscal revenue was to be collected from the pargana of
Nagar-Aveli, under thelatter, from the village ofDadra. This second
agreement established in No. II of its accompanying capitulations
-their authenticity is questioned by India-an obligation upon
Portugal to suppress any revolt that might break outin the pargana.
From this it may be inferred that neither that obligation nor any
similar one would have been speciallyinserted in those capitulations
if Portugal had received the pargana with full sovereignty. The
suppression of revolt in one's own territory is a function implicit
in territorial jurisdiction.

It was further claimed by the applicant that, even if the Treaty
of Punem did not transfer to the Portuguese sovereignty over the
enclaves, they had acquired it by possessiolongi temporis.1 cannot
consider that argument, the question not having bee.n included in
the subject of the dispute.

The history of this case shows that Daman has been in full
Portuguese possession since the sixteenth century. Various later

treaties and agreements seem to have recognized this sovereignty,
which is not a direct issue in the case. The fact, however, isimportant
in estimating the extent of the international custom which is
supposed to have created the right of passage between Daman and
the enclaves of Dadra and Nagar-Aveli. Thiscustom is claimed to
have existed for two hundred years.
91 For the purpose of examining the characteristics of passage
between Daman and the enclaves, the story of Portugal's relations
with India may be divided into three periods. The first is the
Maratha period, extending from 1779 (the date of the Treaty of
Punem) until 1818, when Great Britain annexed the Maratha
Empire. This period, according to the applicant, is that in which
the rule of custom took shape. The second and longest of the three
periods is from 1818-1947, at which last date India gained its inde-
pendence. This, the British period, is supposed to be the period

during which the rule was confirmed by the successors to the
Marathas. The third period is the period of Indian independence,
from 1947to 1954,thislast year being the year in which occurred the
events that terminated Portuguese passage between Daman and
the enclaves. It is in this last period that the rule is said to have
been applied. Each of these historical stages really reveals the
exercise of passage in a different light, and it must be analysed
separately in order that the necessary conclusions may be drawn.

Study of the Maratha period does not tell us very much about
the recognition of a right of passage in favour of the Portuguese.
No documents and no facts support the theory during this period.
The Marathas did not oppose the passage of Portuguese officials,
private perçons or goods.To have done sowould have been abnormal
since they had surrendered to Portugal the revenues of the villages
of Dadra and Nagar-Aveli and they were bound to provide the
Portuguese with the means of collecting them. On the other hand,

they granted them no authorization for the passage of troops. It
therefore does not appear that the Marathas had abandoned their
de facto and dej~re sovereignty over the enclaves despite the fact
that they issued-the necessary permits for every such passage. On
three occasions the Marathas even confiscated the said revenues,
which seems to show that they had no intention of surrendering
sovereignty. In a word, an examination of this period shows that
passage always took place with the agreement of the Maratha
sovereigns. The applicant furnished no evidence that its alleged
right of passage was exercised independently of the express will of
the territorial sovereign in every case.

Dunng the British periodpassage between Daman and the enclaves
becarne a more or less regular usage, either out of consideration for
a country bound to Britain by an ancient allianceor fromignorance
of what was Portugal's real position in law. At the same time there
is no indication that Great Britain recognized the passage it

granted to Portugal as though it were a right. The British do not
seem to have renounced exercise of the powers of the territorial
sovereign any more than the Marathas did. Daman and the coastal
possessions were surrounded by a frontier cordon. The British
Government required that Portuguese officials of European origin
92passing through Indian territory from one Portuguese possession to
another should czirry passports and visas. It must be remembered
that, under the treaty concluded on 13 June 1817 between the
British East India Company and the Maratha Empire, sovereignty
over this part of Indian territory passed to the British Crown, and
that situation continued until 15 August 1947 when Great Britain
recognized the independence of India. The obligations of the terri-

torial sovereign passed to the conqueror in application of the des
goveming succession by States. No legal act by the British Govern-
ment altered the status jwis established by the Maratha rulers
with regard to the so-called enclaves. Portugal could not claim
any more rights than it had previously possessed, nor could Great
Britain arrogate such to itself. In those circumstances no usage in
the matter of passage during this period could be trànsformed into
such a practice as to create an international custom invocable
against any territorial successor.

When it became independent, India made no fundamental change
in the established system. We must not forget that India, as the
territorial successor, was not acquiring the territory for the first
time, but was recovering an independence lost long since. Its legal
position at once reverted to what it had been more than a hundred
years before, as though the British occupation had made no differ-
ence. Dadra and Nagar-Aveli figure as open enclaveswithin Indian
territory. Goods were imported from Daman to the enclaves as

though they belonged to that territory. No insuperable difficulty
arose until 27 Febmary 1950, when the Indian Minister in Lisbon
handed to the Portuguese Government an aide-memoireproposing
that negotiations should be started to fix the conditions for the
handing over of the Portuguese territories in India. After Portugal
refused, the Indian Government on 26 May 1953 notified the
Portuguese Government of the termination of its diplomatic mission
to Portugal. From that moment the Government of India began to
impose a number of restrictions which seriously hampered com-
munications between Daman and the enclaves. Those communi-
cations were finally cut on 21 July 1954 in consequence of what
happened in the enclaves.

To support the Portuguese claim in this case, which implies

sumival of the colonial system, without categorical and conclusive
proof is to fly in the face of the United Nations Charter.

As judge of its own law-the United Nations Charter-and judge
of its own age-the age of national independence-the International
Court of Justice cannot turn its back upon the world as it is.
93"Internationallaw must adapt itself to political necessities", said
the Permanent Court of Arbitration in its award on indemnities to
Russian individuals(IIXI 1912) .hat is the reasonwhy the Charter
made legal provision to cover the independence of non-self-govern-
ing territones.
My conclusion is that, as the Government of India submits, there
has never existed a Portuguese right of passage between its costal
possession of Daman and the enclaves of Dadra and Nagar-Aveli
nor between those enclaves. In my opinion the claim of the Portu-
guese Government should have been dismissed.

(Signed) LucioM. MORENQ OUINTANA.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. MORENO QUINTANA

J'exprime mon grand regret de ne pouvoir joindre dans cette
affaire mon opinion à celle de la majorité de mes collègues de la
Cour qui, sur son fond, ont admis, voire mêmed'une manière
limitée et imparfaite, l'existence d'un droit de passage au profit
du Portugal sur le territoire indien. 11découle de l'opinion de la
majorité une prémisse juridique que je ne puis accepter. Telle, la
continuité théorique d'une situation de fait, laquelle a étédisconti-
nuée - à mon sens - par les événementsde 1954 dans les enclaves.
Car celle-ci implique, par définition,la reconnaissancede la prescnp-

tion comme mode d'acquisition de la souveraineté territoriale, ins-
titution de droit privé que j'estime étrangère à la technique du
droit international. En plus, la décision de la majorité se place
uniquement à une date qui ne lui permet pas de résoudre le pro-
blème qui lui est posédans son entier.
Mon opinion dissidente s'appuie sur les considérations de fait et
de droit que je signaleà continuation.

Par requêtedu 22 décembre 1955 e Gouvernement du Portugal
introduit une instance contre celui del'Inde par laquelle il demande

à la Cour la reconnaissance d'un droit de passage pour le transit
des personnes et des biens, y compris des forces armées «entre son
territoire de Damao (Damao du Littoral), ses territoires enclavés
de Dadra et de Nagar-Aveli et entre ceux-ci »,en vue d'assurer sans
restrictions ou difficultésl'exercice effectif de la souveraineté por-
tugaise sur lesdits territoir1)11lui demande aussi de déclarerque
l'Inde viole ses engagements internationaux quand elle empêche
l'exercice de ce droit et qu'elle doit mettre fin cette situation de
fait. Le mémoiredu demandeur amplifie cette requêteet donne les
fondements de droit qu'il considère applicables en l'espèce.

Dans son contre-mémoire, le défendeur soutient que la réclama-

tion portugaise est vague et douteuse, que le droit de passage
revendiqué manque de base juridique, qu'aucune preuve d'un usage
local n'a étérapportée, et que, mêmedans une situation affirmative,
lesdites base ou preuve seraient sans rapport et inapplicables aux
circonstances du cas. Le demandeur, à son tour, résume ses conclu-
sions dans sa réplique en manifestant qu'il ne discute pas la souve-
raineté de l'Inde sur son territoire, et qu'il demande simplement
que cet Etat n'entrave pas les communications avec ses enclaves.
Une preuve documentaire abondante qui remonte au XVIIIme
siècle a étéfournie par chacune des Parties à l'appui de leurs

86DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE MORENO QUINTANA

[Translation]
To my great regret 1 am unable to associate myself with the
opinion of the majority of my colleagues of the Court, who, on the
merits of the case, have admitted, though withinlimits and incom-
pletely, that Portugal has a right of passage over Indian territory.
There follows from the majority opinion a legal premise that 1
cannot accept. That premise is the theoretical continuance of a
de facto situation which was inmy opinion discontinued by what
occurred in the enclaves in1954. It implies, by definition, a recog-
nition that territorial sovereignty can be acquired by prescription,

a private law institution which 1 consider finds no place in inter-
national law. Further, the majority decision takes its exclusive stand
upon a date which does not allow a settlement of the whole of the
problem submitted to the Court.

My dissenting opinion is based upon considerations of fact and of
law which 1 append hereto.

By an Application of 22 December 1955, the Government of
Portugal instituted proceedings against the Government of India
and asked the Court to recognize a right of passage for perçons and
goods, including armed forces, "between its territory of Daman
(coastal Daman) and its enclaved territories of Dadra and Nagar-
Aveli and betwee-neach of the latter", in order to ensure, without

restrictions ordifficulties, "the effective exercise of Portuguese
sovereignty in the same territories". It also asked the Court to
declare that India was violating its international obligations by
preventing the exercise of that right and to adjudge that India
should put an end to this defactosituation. The applicant's Memorial
amplifies this claim and supplies the legal grounds which it considers
applicable to the case.
In this Counter-Memorial the respondent argues that the Portu-
guese claim is vague and dubious, that the right of passage claimed
lacks a legal basis, that no proof has been furnished of any local
usage and that, even if it were otherwise, the said basis or proof
would be irrelevant and inapplicable to the circumstances of the
case. The applicant in turn repeated its submissions in its Reply,
declaring that it did not question India's sovereignty within its
territory and was only asking that India should not obstruct
communications with the Portuguese enclaves.

A wealth of documentary evidence going back to the eighteenth
century was furnished by each of the Parties in support of their
86prétentions respectives. C'est principalement par elle que le deman-
deur doit démontrerle bien-fondédu droit de passage qu'il réclame,
car il ne peut pas discuter qu'en principe le transit des personnes et
des biens à travers le territoire d'un État relève de la compétence
nationale de celui-ci.

Il s'agit tout principalement, et tout uniquement aussi, de savoir
si un droit de passage a existé en faveur du Portugal pour commu-
niquer de Damao avec ses enclaves et entre les enclaves elles-
mêmes. Car,dans l'affirmative, l'Inde manquerait à ses obligations
internationales en empêchant le Portugal à exercer ce droit. Or
l'existence dans les rapports internationaux d'un droit est un fait
qui, lorsqu'il est contesté, doit êtreprouvé par la partie qui l'in-
voque. Ceci est un principe élémentaire de la procédure.
La tâche que l'on doit remplir dans l'espèce n'est cependant pas
si simple étant donné les fréquents changements apportés par le
demandeur dans ses conclusions et l'insécuritémêmequ'il démon-
tre au sujet du fondement de son droit à travers les différentes
phases de la procédure. Tantôt il demande, comme il le fait dans

sa requête, la reconnaissance ample d'un droit, tantôt il réduit
cette ampleur dans son mémoire, tantôt il limite - comme dans sa
réplique - l'exercice de ce droit à la réglementation du souverain
territorial et il admet que le passage des forces armées pourrait
êtresuspendu momentanément s'il pouvait constituer un élément
de trouble pour l'ordre interne de l'État de passage. Or, c'est juste-
ment dans la circonstance d'un renversement de la situation dans
les enclaves que les besoins du passage de troupes s'avéraient indis-
pensables pour rétablir la prétendue souveraineté portugaise.
Un droit de passage n'est pas une construction abstraite. II ne
peut êtredéfinid'une manière aussi instable et imprécise, et selon
des modalités juridiques qui s'opposent les unes aux autres, tel
que le fait le demandeur. Ce droit existe ou n'existe pas dans l'ordre

juridique. Son existence ne peut êtresoumise à des fluctuations, à
des nuances qu'imposeraient les circonstances. En particulier, la
question qui découle du transit de troupes encadrées dans leur
formation militaire est inséparable de l'immunité qui les accom-
pagne sur ou à travers un territoire étranger. Elles représentent
l'autorité mêmede 1'Etat. Voilà pourquoi le droit international
coutumier leur attribue l'immunité nécessaire à l'exercice de leurs
fonctions. Cette immunité est, à mon avis, comme condition juri-
dique nécessaire, irrenonçable. En synthèse, un droit subordonné
chaque fois à l'appréciation de l'autorité du lieu de son exercice
n'a de tel que le nom. Il ne constituepas une facultéjuridique sinon
une tolérance du souverain territorial.
Dans l'ordre international, le moyen normal d'acquérir des droits

ou de contracter des obligations est. l'accord que l'on dénomme,
87claims. It is mainly on the strength of this evidence that the
applicant must establish the grounds for the right of passage it
claims, since it cannot deny that in principle the passage of perçons

and goods through a State's territory lies within the domestic
jurisdiction of that State.

The Court must first of all, and indeed exclusively, ascertain
whether a right of passage existed in Portugal's favour for com-
munication between Daman and the enclaves and between the
enclaves themselves. For, if it did,India would be failing to observe
its international obligations by preventing Portugal from exercising
that right.The existence of a right in internationarelations is a fact
which, when contested, must be proved by the party which invokes
it. That is an elementary principle of procedure.
However, the Court's task is not so simple as that, owing to the
frequent changes made by the applicant in its submissions and to
the uncertainty it has betrayed at different stages in the case
concerning the foundation ofits right. At one time, as in its Applica-
tion, it asks for full recognition of a right, at another, in the

Memorial, it reduces the claim, and again, in its Reply, limits the
exercise of that right to regulation by the territorial sovereign and
admits that the passage of armed forces could be temporarily
suspended if it were liable to createisorder within the State passed
through. And it is precisely in the event of a disturbance of the
situation in the enclaves that the passage of troops is found neces-
sary in order to restore Portugal's alleged sovereignty.

A right of passage is not an abstract construction. It cannot be
defined in the varying, inexact and mutually contradictory terms
employed by the applicant. The right either exists in law or it does
not. Its existence cannot depend upon fluctuations and fine dis-
tinctions dictated by circumstances. In particular, the passage of
organized military units is a question that cannot be separated
from the immunity they enjoy on or in transit through foreign
territory. They represent the authority of the State itself. It is for

that reason that customary international law assigns to them the
immunity necessary'to the performance of their duties. In my
opinion that immunity is a necessary legal condition and cannot
bewaived. In a word, a right that is on each occasion madecondition-
al upon the judgment of the local authority in the place where it
is exercised is a right in name only. It does not constitute a legal
right; rather it is a faculty tolerated by the territorial sovereign.

In the international sphere the normal method of acquiring rights
or of contracting obligations takes the form of an agreement, which

87dans le sens le plus large, traité.Il se peut aussi que lesdits droits
ou obligations soient la conséquence d'une coutume établie entre
les parties avec la conviction qu'elles appliquent le droit. Et même

- l'article 38 du Statut de la Cour l'admet aussi à son alinéa 1,
lettre c) -, ces droits ou obligationspeuvent découler d'un principe
généralde droit reconnu comme tel par les nations civilisées. De
toute manière, quoique j'admette que ladite disposition établit
un ordre légalde prélation dans l'application des sources du droit
international, j'estime que la validité d'un principe général peut
suppléer à l'existence d'une coutume internationale, et l'existence
d'une telle coutume à celle d'un traité.
Le demandeur ne donnecependant pas une base fixe et concluante
à son droit quand il l'appuie tantôt sur un traité, sur une coutume,
sur un principe ou subsidiairement sur la doctrine. Chacune de ces
sources est - dans sa thèse - par elle-mêmeun fondement suffi-

sant. Il fait aussi un mélange deces sourcesquand il dit que le droit
qu'il réclame repose à la fois sur les trois principales sources indi-
quées et. il invoque mêmeun titre historique que lui conférerait
une p.atique deux fois séculaire. La position ne saurait être plus
éclectique.
De toute manière, le titre principal du Portugal est le traité dit
de Punem conclu en 1779 avec le souverain mahratte, lequel
aurait fourni au demandeur le droit de passage qu'il réclame. Son
analyse en premier lieu est d'une importance capitale pour le juge
international toutefois qu'elle démontrera ou non l'exactitude de la
base de cette affaire. En effet, l'application de toute autre source

que le traité lui-même est logiquement soumise à la question de
savoir si le traité a opéréou non un transfert de souveraineté en
faveur du Portugal sur les enclaves de Dadra et de Nagar-Aveli.
S'il n'en était pas ainsi, aucun droit de passage ne pourrait découler
du fait d'une usurpation territoriale. A l'audience du 2 octobre
dernier, le professeur Bourquin a reconnu expressément que le droit
de passage réclamépar le Portugal n'est qu'un corollaire de sa
souveraineté sur les enclaves.
Cette manière de procéder peut s'avérer utile, toutefois qu'elle
évite de marcher sur un terrain glissant. Je considère comme tel
celui qui a trait, en l'espèce, aux principes généraux de droit re-

connus par les nations civilisées et mêmeà celui de la coutume
générale envisagéecomme octroyant erga omnes un droit de passage
sur le territoire de tiers Etats reliant, dans l'ordre juridique inter-
national, les territoires enclavés à leur métropole. On écarte ainsi,
en mêmetemps, la considération d'une théorie aussi discutée et
vulnérable que celle des soi-disant servitudes internationales.
Quoiquele demandeur la renie - c'est une question determinologie
juridique - il l'accepte implicitement quand il a recours aux
principes généraux du droit pour appuyer ses prétentions.in its widest sense is termed a treaty.These rights or obligations
may also be the consequence of a custom that has become established
between the parties from a conviction that they are applying the
law. They may even follow, and Article 38 of the Court's Statute
acknowledges this in its paragraph I (c),from a general principle
of law recognized by civilized nations. In any case, although 1
agree thatthat Article establishes a legal order of precedence in the
application of sources of international law, 1 consider that the

validity of a general principle may take the place of international
custom, and the existence of international custom the place of a
treaty.
But the applicant fails to supply a firm and conclusive basis for
its right when it relies at one time upon a treaty, at another on
custom, on a principle or, altematively, on legal doctrine. Accord-
ing to its argument, each of these sources is of itself a sufficient
basis. It also confuses these sources when it says that the right it
claims rests at the same time on the three main sources mentioned,
and it even invokes an historical title said to be conferred upon it
by the practice of two hundred years. lts attitude could not be
more eclectic.
However, Portugal's principal title is the treaty known as the
Treaty of Punem, concluded in 1779 with the Maratha ruler, who
is said to have granted to the applicant the right of passage it is
claiming. Analysis of this treaty is of the firçt importance to an
international court if itan prove or disprove the soundness of this

basis of the case. Indeed, the application of any other source than
the treaty is logically conditional upon whether the treaty did or
did not transfer to Portugal sovereignty over the enclaves of Dadra
and Nagar-Aveli. If it did not, no right of passage could derive
from an act of territorial usurpation. At the hearing of 2 Octo-
ber, Professor Bourquin expressly acknowledged that the right of
passage that Portugal claims is only a corollary of its sovereignty
over the enclaves.

This method of procedure may be found useful whenever it can
Savethe Court from treading upon uncertain ground. 1consider to be
uncertain ground the reference in this case to the general principles
of law recognized by civilized nations and even the reference to
general custom viewed as granting erga omnes a right of passage
through territory of third States linking enclaved territories under
the system of international law with the metropolitan country.

This method also avoids consideration of a theory so controversial
and vulnerable as the theory of so-called international servitudes.
Although the applicant denies this-the question is one of legal
terminology-it accepts it by implication when it appealsin support
of its claim to the general principles of law. Selon le demandeur, l'article 17 du traité de Punem aurait établi
la souveraineté portugaise sur les enclaves de Dadra et de Nagar-

Aveli et prouvél'intention des Parties de créerun droit de passage
entre Damao et lesdites enclaves. Un traité peut évidemment créer
une norme juridique comme celle d'un droit de passage, même
d'une manière implicite, mais c'est la proposition principale du
transfert de souveraineté qui doit êtredémontréeen l'espèce. Car
un droit de passage sur un territoire étranger pour communiquer
avec une enclave ne peut se baser que sur la qualité de souverain
territorial. Dans aucun des textes dece traité qui ont étéprésentés
à la Cour il n'est question de la création de ce droit. Leur termino-
logie est ambiguë et ouvre la porte à tous les doutes. Elle ne traduit
nullement un acte si catégorique dans les rapports internationaux
comme celui du transfert de la souveraineté territoriale. Les res-
trictions àla souveraineté des États ne se présument pas, a déclaré
la Cour permanente dans l'affaire si connue du Lotus (voir Arrêts,

etc., Série A, no IO, p. 18).
On serait à mêmede se demander si ledit accord constitue réelle-
ment un traité puisqu'il n'existe aucun document homologué
simultanément par les deux parties contractantes qui puisse être
considérécomme son texte authentique. Mais une analyse toute
superficielle qu'elle soit de la situation, démontre que l'échange de
documents - mahratte du 4 mai 1779 et portugais du 17 décembre
de la mêmeannée - constitue sans doute l'expression d'un accord
consensuel créateur de droits et d'obligations réciproques entre
deux sujets de droit reconnus comme tels dans les relations inter-
nationales. Son article 6 dit clairement qu'un traité bilatéral a été
conclu et la preuve documentaire fournie démontre aussi, à maintes
occasions, que l'intention des parties a été celle de conclure un
traité et qu'elles ont eu conscience de l'avoir fait ainsi. La forme
juridique a étécelle de l'échange de notes. De son côté, la juris-

prudence de la Cour permanente l'a compris de cette manière dans
son avis consultatif sur le régime douanier austro-allemand (v.
Arrêtse,tc., SérieA/B, no41, p. 47).
Que dit cet accord? Je prendrai comme base le texte de la tra-
duction mahratte de la version originale portugaise présenté dans
l'espècepar le défendeur, lequel porte la signature du vice-roi por-
tugais JoséPedro da Camara et figure à l'annexe F, no 23. Dans son
article 17, qui est déterminant dans l'espèce, «l'État Firangee
(Etat portugais de l'Inde) entretient des sentimentsd'amitié envers
le Pandit Pradhan (souverain mahratte); l'envoyé a transmis ces
assurances. En conséquence,il est convenu que le Pandit Pradhan
affectera à Damao, à partir de l'année courante, un jagir d'un
revenu de 12 000 roupies à Prant Damao. En conséquence, un

sanad énumérant les villages sera octroyé à l'État Firangee par
accord séparé. » Ce texte est clair; si clair qu'il fait pleine lumière RIGHT OF PASSAGE (DISS. OP. JUDGE MORENO QUINTANA)
91

According to the applicant, Article 17 of the Treaty of Punem
established Portugal's sovereignty over the enclaves of Dadra and
Nagar-Aveli and proved the intention of the Parties to create a
right of passage between Daman and those enclaves. A treaty can,
of course, create a rule of law, such as a right of passage, even by
implication, but in this case the main proposition to be proved is
the transfer of sovereignty. A right of passage through foreign
territory in order to communicate with an enclave can be based
only upon the title of territorial sovereign. In neither text of the
treaty presented to the Court is there any question of that right
having been created. Their terminology is ambiguous and leaves

room for doubt of al1kinds. But neither of them reveals any act of
such positive effect in international relations as the transfer of
territorial sovereignty. Restrictions uponthe independence of States
cannot be presumed, said the Permanent Court in the celebrated
Lotus case (seeJudgments, Series A, No. IO, p. 18).

It might even be asked whether the said agreement really
constitutes a treaty,since thereis no document in existence ratified
simultaneously by the two contracting parties and which may be
regarded as its authentic text. However, even a cursory study of
the situation shows that the exchange of documents-the Marathi
text of 4 May 1779 and the Portuguese text of 17 December of the
same year-was no doubt the expression of a common agreement
creating mutual rights and obligations between two legal persons
recognized as such in their international relationships. Article 6
makes it clear that a bilateral treaty was concluded and the docu-
mentary evidence produced also shows by many instances that it
was the intention of the parties to conclude a treaty and that they
were aware of having done so. It took the legal form of an exchange
of notes and the jurisprudence of the Permanent Court accepted
this form as valid in its Advisory Opinion on the Austro-German
CustomsRégime (seeJudgments, Series A/B, No. 41,p. 47).

What does this agreement Say? 1 will take my stand on the

Marathi translation from the original Portuguese, submitted in this
case by the respondent; it bears the signature of the Portuguese
Viceroy, José Pedro da Camara, and is to be found at Annex F.
No. 23. Article 17, which is the decisive one, says: "The Firangee
State (Portuguese State of India) entertains friendly sentiments
towards the Pandit Pradhan (the Maratha ruler) ;the envoy convey-
ed assurances. Therefore, it is agreed that the Pandit Pradhan
should assign towards Daman from the current year a jagir of the
revenue of twelve thousand rupees in Prant Daman. Accordingly,
a sanad listing the villages be given to the Firangee State by making
a separate agreement." This text is clear, so clear as fully to explain
89sur deux points importants discutés par les Parties: la nature de
l'acte conclu et celle de la concession octroyée. En premier lieu,
les termes «il est convenu » et «accord séparé » démontrent sans
aucun doute qu'il s'agit d'un traité dans le sens large que don-
nent à ce mot la jurisprudence et la doctrine internationales. En
deuxième lieu, le mot « jagir» qualifie son objet qui est déterminé
par les sentiments d'amitié que portent les Portugais à l'égard des
Mahrattes. De toute façon, comparé un texte à un autre, ils ne
divergent pas grandement au sujet de ce qui a étédonné par les
Mahrattes aux Portugais: jagirselon ceux-là, contribuçao d'accord
avec ceux-ci. Nulle trace, dans aucun des deux textes, d'un transfert
de souveraineté.

11a étéprouvé que le mot mongol jagir,qui a son équivalent
mahratte dans celui de saranjam, signifie l'octroi d'un revenu
fiscal et non pas un transfert de souveraineté territoriale. Les Par-
ties ne sont cependant pas d'accord au sujet de la portée de cette
concession. Car, tandis que l'Inde soutient qu'elle est un acte
graciable et précaire, révocable au gré du donateur, le Portugal
affirme qu'il y avait aussi des saranjams héréditaires, perpétuels
et irrévocables, tels que ceux qui étaient garantis par un traité,
cas qui serait celui de l'espèce. Il n'appartient pas au juge interna-
tional de prendre position dans un tel débat qui n'a qu'un intérêt
historique. Mais il lui sied en tout cas de remarquer qu'aucun des
qualificatifs invoqués par le Portugal ne figure dans le texte dudit
article 17 du traité de Punem. Dans le doute, il doit s'en tenir à
l'interprétation la plus restrictive. La Cour permanente l'a établi
ainsi dans son arrêt sur les concessionsMavrommatis (v. Arrêts,
etc., Série A, no 2, p. 19). Et cette interprétation découle, en
l'espèce, decelle que donne le propre bénéficiaire dela concession.

Le traité de Punem exprime par conséquent de la part de l'Inde
une promesse de donner des sommes d'argent en fonction d'une
situation amicale et non pas une transférence de souveraineté sur
des villages qui n'étaient pas mêmeidentifiés.
Aucune référencenon plus n'est faite au sujet de l'attribution
d'un droit de passage en faveur du Portugal pour percevoir son
jagir. Iln'a pas paru utile aux parties d'en parler vu les sentiments
amicaux, l'aide et l'assistance militaire des Portugais qui consti-
tuaient la contre-partie de la concession octroyéepar les Mahrattes.
On ne pouvait supposer que la perception du jagir fût entravée
par le souverain mahratte. En outre, les villages qui devaient servir
l'annualité prévue en faveur du Portugal n'étaient pas mentionnés
dans le traité; ils devaient l'êtrepostérieurement en vertu d'un
sanad. Cet acte administratif du souverain mahratte pouvait en
décideret réglementer les conditions de l'attribution. Les premières
annualités ne furent pas perçues par les Portugais sur aucun village,

sinon qu'elles furent verséesdirectement par les Mahrattes. On ne
peut concevoir, par conséquent, que ledit droit de passage eût été
envisagé par le traité de Punem. C'était une question à résoudre
90two important points discussed by the Parties: the nature of the
instrument concluded and that of the concession granted. Firstly,
the expressions 'lit is agreed" and "separate agreement" show
beyond doubt that the instrument is a treaty in the wide sense
given to this word by international jurisprudence and doctrine.
Secondly, the word "jagir" describes its purpose, which is de-
termined by the friendly sentiments of the Portuguese towards the
Marathas. In any event, comparing one text with the other, they
do not differ much as to what was given by the Marathas to the
Portuguese: according to the former, a jagir,according tothelatter,
a contribuçao. In neither text is there any vestige of a transfer of
sovereignty.
It has been established that the Mogul word jagir,corresponding
tothe Marathi term saranjam, means the granting of a fiscal revenue
and not a transfer of territorial sovereignty. The Parties, however,
are not agreed upon the import of that concession. India maintains

that it is a favour granted for an uncertain tenure and revocable
at the will of the donor; Portugal declares that there were also
saranjams that were hereditary, perpetual and irrevocable, such as
those guaranteed by a treaty, and that this is one of them. It is
not for the Court to adopt a position towards a dispute of purely
historical interest. But it may well observe that none of the charac-
teristics invoked by Portugal appears in the text of Article 17 of
the Treaty of Punem. Where there is doubt, tlle Court must stand
by the narrower interpretation. This the Permanent Court laid
down in its Judgment on the Mavrommatis Concessions (seeJudg-
ments, Series A, No.2, p.19) .nd that interpretation in the present
instance is the one given by the beneficiary of the concession.
Accordingly, the Treaty of Punem expresses a promise by India to
give sums of money as a token of friendship and not a transfer of
sovereignty over villages which were not even named.

Nor is there any reference to the assignment to Portugal of a
right of passage in order to collect its jagir.The Parties saw no
need to mention this in view of the friendly sentiments, the aid and
military assistance of the Portuguese, al1 of which formed the
consideration for the concession granted by the Marathas. It could
not be supposed that the collection of jagirwould be obstructed by
the Maratha ruler. Further, the villages which were to furnish the
annual revenue to Portugal were not mentioned in the treaty; they

were to be listed later in a sanad. That administrative act of the
Maratha sovereign was free to decide and regulate the terms of the
grant. The first annual payments were not collected by the Portu-
guese from, any village, being paid directly by the Marathas. It
cannot therefore be imagined that the said right of passage was
contemplated by theTreaty of Punem. Inany case it was a question
to be settled later, should it be necessary. And it was not so settled,en tout cas postérieurement si elle s'avérait nécessaire. Et elle ne
l'était pas puisque le passage existait comme un complément néces-
saire de la perception du jagir sans qu'il constituât pour cela un
droit indépendant en faveur du Portugal. Mais en 1954, cette
situation avait changé. De l'amitiépromise en 1779 par les Portu-
gais aux Mahrattes, on était passé à un régimed'hostilités froides
entre l'Inde et le Portugal. Les Indiens avaient ferméleur légation
à Lisbonne en vue de la négative portugaise à entamer des négo-
ciations pour le retrait de sa souveraineté sur certains territoires
de l'Inde. Par suite des circonstances, les droits et obligations
réciproques découlant du traité de Punem s'étaient éteints. Jamais,
dans un cas comme celui-ci, la règlerappeléepar Emerich de Vattel
dans son bien connu traité, Omnis conventiointelligitur rebus sic
stantibus, ne pourrait êtremieux appliquée. Le traité de Punem a

cesséd'exister, le versement de jagirn'a plus étéréclamépar le
Portugal, le passage entre Damao, Dadra et Nagar-Aveli a perdu
sa raison d'être.
Deux accords conclus beaucoup plus tard que le traité de Punem
par les Portugais avec les Mahrattes, le 29 mai 1783 et le 22 juillet
1785, complétèrent le régime établi par le traité de Punem. En
vertu du premier, c'est la Pragana de Nagar-Aveli qui est affectée
au, revenu fiscal promis. Par le deuxième, c'est le village de Dadra
qui est affecté au mêmerevenu. Ce dernier accord établit dans
l'articleII des capitulations qui l'accompagnèrent - dont l'authen-
ticité est mise en doute par l'Inde - l'obligation du Portugal
d'étouffer les révoltes qui pourraient éclater dans la Pragana. L'on
peut en déduire que cette obligation, ni aucune autre de son genre,
n'aurait pas étéspécialement inséréedans lesdites capitulaJions si
le Portugal avait reçu la Pragana en pleine souveraineté. Etouffer
des révoltes dans son propre territoire est, en effet, une fonction
implicite de la compétence territoriale.
Il a étéd'autre part prétendu par le demandeur que, mêmesi le
traité de Punem n'avait pas transmis aux Portugais la souveraineté
sur les enclaves, ceux-ci l'auraient obtenue en vertu d'un possessio

longi temporis. Je ne puis retenir cet argument car cette question
n'a pas étéposée comme faisant partie de l'objet du différend.

Les donnéeshistoriques de cette affaire révèlentque la possession
entière de Damao est au pouvoir du Portugal depuis le XVIme
siècle. Divers traités et accords postérieurs paraissent lui avoir
reconnu cette souveraineté qui n'est pas directement en question
dans l'espèce.Mais le fait est important pour apprécier l'étendue de
la coutume internationale qui aurait crééle droit de passage qu'il
réclame entre cette possession et les enclaves de Dadra et Nagar-
Aveli. La pratique de cette coutume s'avérerait deux fois séculaire.since passage continued to exist as a necessary corollary to the
collection of jagirand did not thereby constitute a separate right
in Portugal's favour. By 1954, however, the position had changed.
The friendship promised by the Portuguese to the Marathas in 1779
had given way to a cold war between India and Portugal. The
Indians had closed their Legation in Lisbon because of Portugal's
refusa1 to negotiate the surrender of its sovereignty over parts of
India. As the result of circumstances the mutual rights and obli-
gations under the Treaty of Punem were extinguished. There could
not be a better application than this of the rule recalled by Emerich
de Vattel in his well-known treatise: Omnis conventiointelligitur
rebus sic stantibus.The Treaty of Punem was no more; Portugal
no longer claimed the payment of jagir;passage between Daman,
Dadra and Nagar-Aveli had no further raison d'être:

The system established by the Treaty of Punem was completed

by two later agreements between the Portuguese and the Marathas
concluded on 29 May 1783 and 22 July 1785. Under the former the
promised fiscal revenue was to be collected from the pargana of
Nagar-Aveli, under thelatter, from the village ofDadra. This second
agreement established in No. II of its accompanying capitulations
-their authenticity is questioned by India-an obligation upon
Portugal to suppress any revolt that might break outin the pargana.
From this it may be inferred that neither that obligation nor any
similar one would have been speciallyinserted in those capitulations
if Portugal had received the pargana with full sovereignty. The
suppression of revolt in one's own territory is a function implicit
in territorial jurisdiction.

It was further claimed by the applicant that, even if the Treaty
of Punem did not transfer to the Portuguese sovereignty over the
enclaves, they had acquired it by possessiolongi temporis.1 cannot
consider that argument, the question not having bee.n included in
the subject of the dispute.

The history of this case shows that Daman has been in full
Portuguese possession since the sixteenth century. Various later

treaties and agreements seem to have recognized this sovereignty,
which is not a direct issue in the case. The fact, however, isimportant
in estimating the extent of the international custom which is
supposed to have created the right of passage between Daman and
the enclaves of Dadra and Nagar-Aveli. Thiscustom is claimed to
have existed for two hundred years.
91 Trois périodesse détachent dans le cadre historique des rapports
du Portugal avec l'Inde pour examiner les caractéristiques du tran-
sit entre Damao et les enclaves. La premièreest la périodemahratte,
qui s'étend de 1779 (date de la conclusion du traité de Punem) à
1818, quand la Grande-Bretagne annexa l'empire mahratte. Cette
période - selon le demandeur - est celle de formation de la règle
juridique coutumière. La deuxième période, qui est la plus longue
de toutes, va de 1818 à 1947, moment oh l'Inde acquiert son indé-
pendance. Cette période, qui est la périodebritannique, serait une
période de confirmation par les successeurs des Mahrattes de la
règleforméeantérieurement. La troisième périodeest celle de l'Inde
indépendante, qui comprend de 1947 à 1954, année celle-ci dans
laquelle sont intervenus les événements qui discontinuèrent le
transit des Portugais entre Damao et les enclaves. Cette dernière
période serait celle d'application de ladite règle. Chacune de ces

étapes historiques révèle eneffet un caractère différent quant à
l'exercice dudit transit, lequel doit être analysé d'une manière
séparée pouren tirer les coniéquences nécessaires.
L'étude de la période mahratte n'est pas très significative quant
à la reconnaissance d'un droit de passage en faveur des Portugais,
Il n'y a dans cette période aucun acte, aucun fait qui puisse faire
penser ainsi. Les Mahrattes ne s'opposèrent pas au transit des fonc-
tionnaires, des individus et des marchandises du Portugal. Une
attitude contraire aurait étéanormale puisqu'ils lui avaient cédé
les revenus des villages de Dadra et de Nagar-Aveli et il fallait bien
qu'ils donnassent aux Portugais les moyens de les percevoir. En
échange, ils ne leur donnèrent aucune autorisation pour le passage
de troupes. Il ne semble par conséquent pas que les Mahrattes
eussent abandonné leur souveraineté de jure ni de facto sur les
enclaves malgré qu'ils délivraient chaque fois les autorisations né-
cessaires pour que ce transit puisse s'exercer. Même,à trois reprises,
des saisies faites par les Mahrattes sur lesdits revenus semblent
démontrer qu'ils n'avaient pas entendu procéder de la sorte. En
synthèse, l'examen de cette période révèleque, chaque fois que le
transit se réalisa,ce fut avecla conformité des souverains mahrattes.

Il n'a étéfourni aucune preuve par le demandeur que son prétendu
droit de passage s'exerçât indépendamment de la volonté exprimée
en chaque circonstance par le souverain territorial.
Pendant la période britannique surgit, par tolérance envers un
pays liépar une alliance séculaire ou par ignorance de la véritable
situation juridique du Portugal, un usage assez continu du transit
entre Damao et les enclaves. Cependant, aucun indice ne peut être
rapporté dans le sensque la Grande-Bretagne ait reconnu le passage
qu'elle facilitait au Portugal comme s'il s'agissait d'un droit. Les
Britanniques ne paraissent pas avoir renoncé, pas plus que les
Mahrattes, àl'exercice des compétencesqui incombent au souverain
territorial. Damao et les possessions côtières étaient entourées par
un cordon frontalier. Le Gouvernement britannique exigeait des For the purpose of examining the characteristics of passage
between Daman and the enclaves, the story of Portugal's relations
with India may be divided into three periods. The first is the
Maratha period, extending from 1779 (the date of the Treaty of
Punem) until 1818, when Great Britain annexed the Maratha
Empire. This period, according to the applicant, is that in which
the rule of custom took shape. The second and longest of the three
periods is from 1818-1947, at which last date India gained its inde-
pendence. This, the British period, is supposed to be the period

during which the rule was confirmed by the successors to the
Marathas. The third period is the period of Indian independence,
from 1947to 1954,thislast year being the year in which occurred the
events that terminated Portuguese passage between Daman and
the enclaves. It is in this last period that the rule is said to have
been applied. Each of these historical stages really reveals the
exercise of passage in a different light, and it must be analysed
separately in order that the necessary conclusions may be drawn.

Study of the Maratha period does not tell us very much about
the recognition of a right of passage in favour of the Portuguese.
No documents and no facts support the theory during this period.
The Marathas did not oppose the passage of Portuguese officials,
private perçons or goods.To have done sowould have been abnormal
since they had surrendered to Portugal the revenues of the villages
of Dadra and Nagar-Aveli and they were bound to provide the
Portuguese with the means of collecting them. On the other hand,

they granted them no authorization for the passage of troops. It
therefore does not appear that the Marathas had abandoned their
de facto and dej~re sovereignty over the enclaves despite the fact
that they issued-the necessary permits for every such passage. On
three occasions the Marathas even confiscated the said revenues,
which seems to show that they had no intention of surrendering
sovereignty. In a word, an examination of this period shows that
passage always took place with the agreement of the Maratha
sovereigns. The applicant furnished no evidence that its alleged
right of passage was exercised independently of the express will of
the territorial sovereign in every case.

Dunng the British periodpassage between Daman and the enclaves
becarne a more or less regular usage, either out of consideration for
a country bound to Britain by an ancient allianceor fromignorance
of what was Portugal's real position in law. At the same time there
is no indication that Great Britain recognized the passage it

granted to Portugal as though it were a right. The British do not
seem to have renounced exercise of the powers of the territorial
sovereign any more than the Marathas did. Daman and the coastal
possessions were surrounded by a frontier cordon. The British
Government required that Portuguese officials of European origin
92 passeports et des visas pour les fonctionnaires portugais d'origine
européenne qui traversaient le territoire indien d'une possession

portugaise à une autre. Rappelons qu'en vertu du traité conclu le
13 juin 1817 entre la Compagnie anglaise des Indes orientales et
l'empire mahratte, la souveraineté sur cette partie du territoire
indien passa à la Couronne britannique. Cette situation se maintint
jusqu'au 15 août 1947 quand fut reconnue par la Grande-Bretagne
l'indépendance de l'Inde. Les obligations du souverain territorial
passèrent au conquérant en application des règles qui visent la
succession des Etats. Aucun acte juridique du Gouvernement bri-
tannique n'a modifié le statusjuris établipar les souverains mahrat-
tes au sujet des soi-disant enclaves. Ni le Portugal ne pouvait
réclamer plus de droits qu'il n'avait auparavant, ni la Grande-
Bretagne se les attribua. Dans de telles conditions, aucun usage en
matière de transit durant cette période ne put se transformer en
une pratique susceptible d'engendrer une coutume internationale

opposable à n'importe quel successeur territorial.
Une fois devenue indépendante, l'Inde ne changea pas fondamen-
talement le système établi. N'oublions pas que l'Inde, comme suc-
cesseur territorial, ne l'était nullement d'une manière originaire
puisqu'il s'agissait d'un Etat qui recouvrait une indépendance qu'il
avait jadis eue. Sa situation juridique remontait d'un coup plus
d'un siècle dans l'histoire comme si rien, pendant l'occupation
britannique, ne s'était passé. Dadra et Nagar-Aveli apparaissent
comme des enclavesouvertes en temtoire indien. L'importation de
marchandises de Damao aux enclaves se réalisait comme si elle le
fut dans ce territoire. Aucune difficulté insurmontable ne s'éleva
jusqu'au 27 février 1950, date à laquelle le ministre indien à Lis-
bonne remit au Gouvernementportugais un aide-mémoireproposant
l'ouverture de négociations pour fixer les conditions de la remise

des territoires portugais à l'Inde. Face à la négative du Portugal,
le Gouvernement indien communiqua le 26 mai 1953, à celui de
ce pays, la fin de sa mission diplomatique au Portugal. Dès lors
commença de la part du Gouvernement indien une série de restric-
tions qui entrava considérablement lescommunications entre Damao
et les enclaves. Celles-ci furent interrompues définitivement le
21 juillet 1954 comme conséquence desévénementsqui eurent lieu
dans les enclaves.

Appuyer sans une preuve catégorique et concluante la demande
du Portugal en l'espèce, qui implique la survivance du système
colonial, c'est marcher à rebours dans le cadre de la Charte des

Nations Unies.
Juge de sa loi - la Charte des Nations Unies - et juge de son
temps, celui de l'indépendance de tous les peuples de la terre, la
Cour internationale de Justice ne peut pas tourner le dos à la réalité
93passing through Indian territory from one Portuguese possession to
another should czirry passports and visas. It must be remembered
that, under the treaty concluded on 13 June 1817 between the
British East India Company and the Maratha Empire, sovereignty
over this part of Indian territory passed to the British Crown, and
that situation continued until 15 August 1947 when Great Britain
recognized the independence of India. The obligations of the terri-

torial sovereign passed to the conqueror in application of the des
goveming succession by States. No legal act by the British Govern-
ment altered the status jwis established by the Maratha rulers
with regard to the so-called enclaves. Portugal could not claim
any more rights than it had previously possessed, nor could Great
Britain arrogate such to itself. In those circumstances no usage in
the matter of passage during this period could be trànsformed into
such a practice as to create an international custom invocable
against any territorial successor.

When it became independent, India made no fundamental change
in the established system. We must not forget that India, as the
territorial successor, was not acquiring the territory for the first
time, but was recovering an independence lost long since. Its legal
position at once reverted to what it had been more than a hundred
years before, as though the British occupation had made no differ-
ence. Dadra and Nagar-Aveli figure as open enclaveswithin Indian
territory. Goods were imported from Daman to the enclaves as

though they belonged to that territory. No insuperable difficulty
arose until 27 Febmary 1950, when the Indian Minister in Lisbon
handed to the Portuguese Government an aide-memoireproposing
that negotiations should be started to fix the conditions for the
handing over of the Portuguese territories in India. After Portugal
refused, the Indian Government on 26 May 1953 notified the
Portuguese Government of the termination of its diplomatic mission
to Portugal. From that moment the Government of India began to
impose a number of restrictions which seriously hampered com-
munications between Daman and the enclaves. Those communi-
cations were finally cut on 21 July 1954 in consequence of what
happened in the enclaves.

To support the Portuguese claim in this case, which implies

sumival of the colonial system, without categorical and conclusive
proof is to fly in the face of the United Nations Charter.

As judge of its own law-the United Nations Charter-and judge
of its own age-the age of national independence-the International
Court of Justice cannot turn its back upon the world as it is.
93du monde. «Le droit international doit s'adapteraux nécessités
politiques»a dit la Cour permanente d'arbitrage dans sa sentence
sur les indemnisations à des particuliers russ(IIXI 1912) V.oilà
pourquoi cette Charte a mis en Œuvre un dispositif juridique qui
vise l'indépendance des territoires non autonomes.
Ma conclusion est que- tel que le demande le Gouvernement de
l'Inde- iln'a jamais existéun droit de passage en faveur du Por-
tugal entre sa possession côtière de Damao et les enclavesde Dadra
et Nagar-Aveli, ni entre celles-cLe Gouvernement du Portugal
aurait dû être, en mon opinion, débouté deson action.

(Signé)Lucio M. MORENO QUINTANA."Internationallaw must adapt itself to political necessities", said
the Permanent Court of Arbitration in its award on indemnities to
Russian individuals(IIXI 1912) .hat is the reasonwhy the Charter
made legal provision to cover the independence of non-self-govern-
ing territones.
My conclusion is that, as the Government of India submits, there
has never existed a Portuguese right of passage between its costal
possession of Daman and the enclaves of Dadra and Nagar-Aveli
nor between those enclaves. In my opinion the claim of the Portu-
guese Government should have been dismissed.

(Signed) LucioM. MORENQ OUINTANA.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Moreno Quintana (translation)

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