Dissenting Opinion of Judge Read

Document Number
029-19570706-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
029-19570706-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTIXG OPINION OF JUDGE READ

1 regret that1 am unable to concur in the decision of the Court,
in this case, and that it has become necessary for me to indicate
the reasons which have prevented me from concurring with the
majority. As 1am of the opinion that the Court shouldreject al1the
Preliminary Objections, and deal with the merits, 1 must examine
al1aspects of the case, and, in doing this, shall consider the following
questions:

First Question-The nature and scope of the dispute, as it now
presents itself to the Court.
Second Question-The Norwegian contention that "The subject of
the dispute as defined in the Application is within the domain
of municipal law and not of international law, whereas the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court in relation to the Parties
involved is restricted, by their Declarations of November 16th,
1946, and March ~st, 1949, to disputes concerning international
law ;".

Third Qùestion-The Norwegian contention that "As to that part
oj the claim which relates to the bond certificates issued by the
LWortgageBank of Norway and the Small Holding and Workers'
Housing Bank of Norway, these two Banks have a legal person-
ality separate from that of the Norwegian State; the action
cannot therefore be brought against that State as a borrower;
whereas moreover the jurisdiction of the Court is limited to
disputes between States;".
Fourth Question-The Norwegian contention that "The holders of
bond certificates for whose protection the French Government
considers itself entitled to institute internationalproceedings
have not first exhausted the local remedies."

Fifth Question-The Xorwegian request that the Court should
"adjudge and declare that the claim put forward by the Appli-
cation of the French Government of July 6th, 1955, is not
admissible".
* * *

First Question-The nature and scope of the dispute as it now
presents itself to the Court.
This is the fundamental question, because the conclusions
reached with regard to the matters in dispute depend almost
entirely on whether the controversy is looked at as it was in the
earlier stages of the case, or in the form which it has taken in the

course of theTiritten and Oral Proceedings. In the Application, the French Agent asked the Court to adjudge:
(1) that there uTasa real gold clause; -
(2) that the borrower can only discharge the substance of

his debt by payment of the gold value both of the coupons
and of the principal payments.
The Nonvegian Agent considered that these requests related
solely to issues of Nonvegian national law which the Court is
incompetent to adjudge in a case commenced by Application. But,
during the Oral Proceedings, the Final Submissions of the French

Government "On the Merits" put forward three claims which
involved :
In paragraph I
request for judgment by the Court that payment to foreign

holders of the bonds must be made without anv discrimination ;
and
In paragraph 3
request for judgment by the Court that Nonvay cannot by
unilateral extraterritorial legislation modify the rights of the

French bondholders, without negotiation or arbitration; and

In paragraphs 2, 4 and 5
request for judgment based on the gold clause.

(It may be convenient to refer to the first two of these issues
as discrimination and extraterritoriality, respectively.)

It is obviously impossible to suggest that the Final Submissions,

raising these issues, relate to matters which are either exclusively
or essentially within the national jurisdiction of P\onvay. To meet
this position, the Nonvegian Agent has urged the Court to reject the
Final French Conclusions. They have been attacked on the ground
that they give rise to a new claim.

The French Agent replied by citing the Chorzow judgment, and
by contending that "The intentions of the Statute are therefore
perfectly clear: it is possible to amend Submissions any time up
to the end of the proceedings."
It is true that it has been the established practice of this Court,

and of the Permanent Court, to permit the Parties to modify their
Submissions up to the end of the Oral Proceedings. Indeed, the
President asked the Parties to file their Final Submissions before
terminating the Oral Proceedings; and, in so doing, he \\ras follow-
ing a practice of long standing. Thus it was open to France to amend
the Submissions at that stage. But the right is subject to t~vo
limitations.The first limitation is that, when there is an appreciable

75change, the other Party n~ust have a fair opportunity to comment
on the amended Submissions. In this case, the amendment was
made at the close of the French opening statement, and Yorway
has had two opportunities to reply, of which full advantage has
been taken.

The second condition is that the amendment must be an amend-
ment. It must not consist of an attempt by the Applicant Govern-
ment to bring a new and different dispute before the Court. If so,
the amended Submissions are not admissible, unless the new
elements have been incorporated in the dispute either by the Res-
pondent Government or by the two Governments in the course
of the Written and Oral Proceedings.
Accordingly, it is necessary to consider whether the allegedly new
elements-discrimination and extraterritoriality-raise a new
dispute, or whether they define the issues in the dispute which was
brought to the Court by the Application.
The Statute, by Article 40, imposes on the Applicant Government
the requirement that "the subject of the dispute and the Parties
shall be indicated". It does not require that the issues shall be
defined; and, indeed, it makes it abundantly clear, bj- Article 48,

that the definition of the issues by Submissions is to be done in the
course of the Written and Oral Proceedings. (In this regard, the
French text of Article 48 shotvs that this is so, while the English
text is obscure.) Applications have usually contained statenents
of the issues involved; but these have been treated by this Court
and the Permanent Court as indications of the nature of the case.
Itis in this light that the Application must be examined. Did it
sufficiently indicate the dispute as it has developed in the course
of the MTrittenand Oral Proceedings, and as it has been formulated
in the French Final Submissions? In particular, did it sufficiently
indicate a dispute involving the two contested elements: discrimi-
nation and extraterritoriality?
The Application gives particulars with regard to the different
issues of bonds involved. It sets forth, in a general uray, the emer-
gence of the controversy between the French bondholders, repre-

sented by the Kational ,4ssociation of French Security Holders,
and the Borrowers, the Sorwegian State and the two Banks. It
mentions the forma1 intervention bg- the French Government on
behalf of its nationals in Xay, 1953, and subsequent negotiations
between the Governinents, n-hich did not lead to a settlement. It
ends with the indication of the claim, as stated above.

It thus appears that the Application sufficiently indicated that
the case \vas intended to relate to the dispute which had been at
issue between the French Government and bondholders and the Nor-
wegian borrowers and Government for thirty years and taenty days.
That dispute had certainly been based on the three elements:
discrimination, extraterritoriality,and theexistence and obligation of the gold clause in the bonds. Nevertheless, thepart of the Appli-
cation which purported to indicate the subject of the dispute was
obscure.
Norway takes the position that the words used inthe Application
to indicate the subject of the dispute confined it to the existence
of the gold clause and the obligation of the bonds. France contends
that the two contested issues had been in controversy for more than
thirty years as essential elements of the dispute, and that the
actual claim asstated in the Application is broad enough to include
them. The claim reads :

"And that the borrower can only discharge the substance ofhis
debt by the payrnent of the gold value of the coupons on the date
of payment and of the gold value of the redeemed bonds on the
date of repayment."

The obligation of the bonds depended on three things-the
contract, the law and the relevant legislation. The relevant statute
which had been under consideration by the two Governments was
the law of December 15,1923 . he two issues under consideration-
discrimination and extraterritoriality-were inseparably related
to that law. That this was so understood by Norway is plainly
indicated by the the fact that the text of the law was set forth in
the third paragraph of the Preliminary Objections, and subse-
quently treated as the cornerstone of the Norwegian case.
In these circumstances, 1 am compelled to accept the French
contention, and to reach the conclusion that the French Final
Submissions should not be rejected.
But, even if it is assumed that the claim, asstated in the Appli-
cation, is confined to the existence of the gold clause and the obli-
gation of the bonds, and that it did not include the contested
elements (discrimination and extraterritorial legislation), itdoes

not follow that the French Final Submissions must necessarily be
rejected. If the contested elements were incorporated into the dis-
pute by Norway alone, or by the two Governments, in the course
of the Written and Oral Proceedings, it would not be open to Norway
to complain at this late stage. In order to examine this aspect of
the matter, it is necessary to assume that the claim, as stated
above, must be construed as confined to the gold clause and
the obligation of the bonds, and as excluding the contested
elements.
Accordingly, and with that assumption in mind, 1 must examine
the way in which the allegedly new elements were brought into
the case. It will beseen that, from the beginning of the proceedings
in the Court, France based its pleadings and oral arguments on the
view that they had already been included in the Application. But
it will also appear that Norway understood that these contested
elements were an integral part of the merits of the dispute before

the Court. It will emerge that the request for rejection of the French
77Final Submissions is based on the extremely technical point that
the indication of the issues, as set forth in the _\pplication, was so
badly drafted that it failed to disclose the real scope and extent
of the dispute as understood and developed by bot11 France and
Norway. It \vil1appear that Sorway took such a dominant part
in the enlargement of the dispute in the course of the Written and
Oral Proceedings thatit is not open to Sorwaj- to complain now by
raising the extremely technical point referred to above.

The actual dispute, on the governmental level, commenced with
the first French Sote, dated 16 June, 1925, and included, together
with al1the rest of the diplomatic correspondence, in the Memorial.
This Note, which was concerned with the claims of French holders
of bonds of the Mortgage Bank of Sorwag-, raised the t~voissues: dis-
crimination and extraterritorialitl-.The Sorwegian reply took the
form of the Xote, dated 9 December 1925, transmitting a letter

from the Alortgage Bank defending its position. This letter questioned
the gold clause. It admitted the fact of discrimination in favour
of Swedish bondholders and against the French, defending it as
being based on good will. It dealt with extraterritorialit J-as
follows :

"The question has in al1casesbeen determined by referenceto tlie
creditor refuses to accept payment in Bank of Korxvaybanknotese
at their nominal gold value, the debtor may claim postponement
of the payrnent for as long as the Bank is exempt from redeeming
its notes in gold at their nominal value."
"The French Note states that a law of this kind can only apply
to nationals and not to foreign bondholders. This, however, is a
vie\\,which canno; be maintained. In any erent the question mould
naturally fa11to be decided by a Korwegian Court in accordance
with Sorn-egian legislation and in accordance with Norivegian lau-
and it is quite clear that the decision woulcl be binding on al1
concerned."

.lccordingly, for more than thirtj- J-ears, the control-ersj- \vas
based on the three main elements :discrimination, extraterritorialit~
and the problem of interpretation and obligation arising out of the
gold clause.
Then came the Application. which is being considered upon the
assumption that it must be construed as cutting down the contro-
versy to a single issue. 1 am reluctant to adopt a narrow and
restrictive interpretation of the words used in the Application, in
aid of a highly technical argument designed for the sole purpose
of preventing justice from being done. Nevertheless, 1 must proceed
on the assumption that the narrow and restrictive interpretation

is right, and consider what happened in the course of the treatnlent
of the issues by the Parties.
78 As might have been expected, France proceeded to deal with the
case as if the controversy had continued, uncurtailed by the -4ppli-
cation and including the contested elements. The case was dealt
with in the Memorial by raising and discussing the issues which are
now embodied in paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the French Final
Submissions. As regards paragraph 3, the extraterritorial point,
it was summed up in a sentence:

"The question which arises may therefore be simply put in the
followingway: can a debtor State, by means of an interna1 law
providing for the currency of unconvertible banknotes, alter the
substance of its external debt?"

The issue dealt with in paragraph I of the Final Submissions,
discrimination, was mentioned in the Memorial, and fully argued
in the Observations and Submissions. Al1of the issues, as set forth
in the Final Submissions, were fully argued in the Reply and in the
course of the Oral Proceedings.

There was, at first, some difference in the course followed by
Norway. 1have already pointed out that Norway, in paragraph 3
of the Preliminary Objections, set forth the text of the Law of
December 15, 1923, which became the cornerstone of its case.
Later, in paragraph 29, in discussing the legal basis of the course

followed by Norway, it was stated that "it was the Law of Decem-
ber 15, 1923, which was applied". But in taking the "First Objec-
tion", Norway limited that objection to "the dispute,as defined in
the said Application", and put forward arguments which could have
no relevancy except on the assumption that the actual controversy
had been curtailed bythe Application so as to exclude the contested
elements, discrimination and extraterritoriality.
It was the Counter-Memorial, the Rejoinder and the oral argu-
ments by Norway that brought about the fundamental change in
the scope of the dispute. For, assuming the curtailment of the
controversy by the wording of the Application, its enlargement so
as to include the contested elements was indeed a fundamental
change.
The Counter-Memorial devoted nearly three pages to a discussion
of the legal aspects of discrimination; and eleven pages to a much
more important issue. Norway put forward the argument that the

action of the Norwegian legislature in enacting the Law of Decem-
ber 15, 1923,and other rele~~antlaws was justified by the historical
background. That background was one of world-wide economic
catastrophe: a sort of universal bankruptcy. The argument was
that Norway, in the special circumstances, was justified in sus-
pending gold payments, or the payment of gold equivalents. That
justification necessarily involved a correlative obligation to give
equal treatment to al1creditors involved. The Rejoinder carried the arguments bearing directly on the
questions of discrimination and extraterritoriality even further. It
developed the argument based on the practice of States in dealing
with economic catastrophe by fiscal measures. it brought into the

case entirely new considerations: the principles of international
law concerning "national treatment" of aliens, and the system of
the "minimum" or "international standard". As in the case of the
argument based on Çtate practice, these principles necessarily
involve the problem of discrimination and bear directly on the
extent of the 'iorwegian legislative pomer. The extent to which
the Rejoinder goes in enlarging the scope of the issues is indicated
by the fact that one hundred ancl thirty-four pages of the two
volumes are devoted to these aspects of the case.

In the Oral Proceedings, the same trend was observed. The
Norwegian Agent and Counsel devoted a s-ery large proportion
of their time to the discussion of the tmo issues which the Agent
now asks the Courts to strike out of the case. One of the Counsel
went so far asto devote the whole of his time to one of them.

In these circumstances, 1 am of the opinion that the French
Final Conclusions do not go beyond the limits of the dispute in the
form which it took in the course of the Written and Oral Proceed-
ings; and that the responsibility for any enlargement of the dispute
which may have taken place since the Application is mainlp due
to Sorway. At an?-rate, Norway certainly shared that responsibility
with France. It is not open to Sorwaj-, at this stage, to complain
about this enlargement.

Second Question-The Sorwegian contention that "The subject
of the dispute as defined in the Application is within the domain
of municipal law and not of international law, whereas the
compulsor~. jurisdiction of the Court in relation to the Parties

invoh-ecl is restricted, by their Declarations of November 16th.
1946, and March ~st, 1949, to disputes concerning international
law;".
This question \vas dealt with in two parts bj- Sor~f-ay.In the first
part it \vas discussed upon the assumption that it was being put
tothe Court for its decision. The second part deals with a subsidiarj-

aspect of the question in which the Court is being asked to deal
u-ith it not on the basis of its own decision, but by merely registering
a decision of the Kormegian Government automatically ousting
the jnrisdiction of the Court. First Part

This question is confined to "the dispute as defined in the
Application". It does not relate to the controversy as it existed
between the two Governments in the thirty years preceding the
Application or to the issues as discussed and dealt with by France
and Nonvay in the course of the Written and Oral Proceedings.

It has nothing to do with the subject-matter of the dispute as set
forth in the French Final Submissions. It is not in any sense relevant
to the actual case which is now before the Court. It is included in
the Nonvegian Final Submissions and it represents a position
which has been maintained at al1stages by Nonvay, in which the
arguments have been qualified and restricted to the dispute as
defined in the Application.

In dealing with the First Question 1have taken the position that
the French Final Conclusions should not be rejected, and it neces-
sarily follows that 1 am of the opinion that the Second Question,
the point which was raised in the first Preliminary Objection, has
no relevancy at the present stage. The actual question as it existed
when the point was first taken was of a substantial character, but
the objection that the dispute was within the domain of municipal
law and not of international law has been maintained in relstion

to the present position of the case.

The objection involves the very nature of the case and cannot
be considered effectively without touching upon the merits. 1 do
not propose to give my views with regard to the merits, but it is
necessary for me to look at the meritsin order to determine the sort
of issues which they raise-i.e.whether they are issues of national
law or of international law or both. 1 must consider the problem
presented by this objection from three different aspects:

First Aspect: That the issue submitted by the Application is
purely a matter of national law and does not raise any issue of

international law.

This is the heart of the first Prelinîinary Objection. If the bond
contracts operated under international law, or if, either originally or
at a later stage, they gave rise to international obligations due
from Nonvay to France. it would no longer be possible to suggest
that the dispute was based solely on municipal law.

At the early stages of the transaction, the position is reasonably
clear. When the French bondholder bought a ljonvegian bond,
there were only two parties to the executory contract which came
S117 SORIVEGIA'I' LOAXS (DISS. OPIS. OF JVDGE RESD)

into being-the bondholder and the Nortvegian borrower, either
the State or one of the tmo Banks. The Government of France
had no part in the transaction. It was made under national law
and there was possible conflict between the different laws involved,
French, English and Norwegian. The determination of which law
controlled any particular aspect of the matter was a problem to be
resolved by the law of the forum in which the suit was brought.
The court would apply the rules of private international law which

governs the choice of law, and then apply the chosen law to the
issues before it. Those rules and the chosen law would both be
national, and not international, law.

,At this stage the transaction came solely within the plane of
national law. It would therefore be a matter in mhich the Court
\vas incompetent to adjudicate, and in which it would be necessary
if dealing with the Merits to say that there nrere no rules of inter-
national law governing the transaction. It would not be open to
this Court to decide upon the issues of choice of law, of interpretation
of the contract, or of the extent of its obligation.
The next stage was when France undertook diplornatic action
as a result of the suspension by Norway of payment in gold or in

gold equivalents in pursuance of the provisions of the law of 1923.
There is a difference between France and Norway as to the date
of the adoption of the dispute by the French Government, but
that is unimportant.
France claims that the adoption of the position of the French
bondholders by the French Government-the assertion by France
to Nonvay of the French views as to the obligation of the bonds,
and the refusa1 by Nonvay to concur and act accordingly-trans-
formed this dispute from one between private individuals and the
Nonvegian borrowers into one between France and Norway, but
something more is needed than the mere adoption of a dispute
under the national law to give rise to a "question of international
la\?-" within the meaning of the expression as used in Article 36,
paragraph 2, clause (b). There must have been a breach by Norway

of an obligation under international law due to France.

Sorway contends that the dispute as set forth in the Application
remained a dispute under the national law of Nonvay with which
this Court cannot deal. But 1 have already suggested that the
,4pplication, properly construed, \vas broad enough in its terms to
raise those aspects of the problem which consist solely of questions
of international law, and 1 have also indicated that in my opinion
the issues are now settled, not by the wording of the Application
but by the wording of the Final Submissions of the Government of the French Republic.

In the French Final Submissions, "On the Merits", the first

paragraph clearly raises the question of discrimination, and the
third paragraph raises the question of whether Nonvay could, in
conformity with the principles of international law, by legislative
action unilaterally modify the substance of the contracts between
Nonvegian borrowers and French bondholders.
In these circumstances, there can be no doubt that questions of
international law are involved and that the Court is competent to
deal with the claim submitted to it. At any rate, there can be no
serious question as to its competence as regards the claim based
on discrimination and as regards the claim based on the law of
December qth, 1923.

Second Aspect: That Nonvay discriminated against the French
bondholders and in favour of the Danish and Swedish bond-
holders.
1 have already referred to this question in dealing with the First

Question, and have mentioned it in discussing the First Aspect
above. It is, howevkr, necessary to develop it further and to
examine the grounds on which Norway has sought to justify the
discrimination.
The fact of discrimination is beyond question, but Norway
agues that there were times when the French bondholders were
more favourably treated than the Danes and Swedes. But two
wrongs do not make a right, and in my opinion the question of
balance of advantage is irrelevant.
Further, 1 cannot help thinking that the payment in Swedish
crowns involved very substantial discrimination. One thing is
certain, and that is that on the 23rd December, 1946, a proposa1
was submitted by France for a settlement of the case, which had
then been a sore spot in Franco-Norwegian relations for twenty-one
years. This proposa1 was in the nature of a compromise, asking that
the French bondholders should be paid in Swedish crowns on their
capital payments, and that the coupons should be paid in Norwegian
crowns. The Nonvegian Government did not even answer this

proposal.
Norway also questions the existence of a rule of international law
requiring equality of treatment, but that is a matter of merits.
What must be borne in mind now is that the question asto whether
such a rule of international law existed was certainly a "question of
international law" within the meaning of Article 36.
Norway relies strongly on the argument that discrimination was
justifiedbecause it was based on good-will. It is not clear whether
it was good-will towards the Danish or Swedish investors or towards
Denmark and Sweden. This question of good-will has been repeat-

83 edly raised and discussed by Norway, commencingon the 9th Decem-
ber, 1925, but its meaning and significance are still obscure. There
is no suggestion that the refusa1to accord the same sort of treatment
to France or to the French investors was based on ill-will, and 1
cannot believe that the argument intends to suggest that inter-
national law considers that discrimination, if based on either
good-will or ill-will,eases in some mysterious manner to be dis-
criminatory. At any rate, the question whether good-will can
justify discrimination is a matter of international law and not
of the national law of the respondent State.

Norway also argues that the payments to the. Swedish bond-
holders were ex gratia,and therefore not a proper subject for
cornplaint by France. This argument is based upon the assumption

that the French bondholders had no legal right to get anything
better than Norwegian crowns (orsterling or francs), and that they
had no right to receive gold or gold equivalents. But that is begging
the question, and the objections to the jurisdiction must be dealt
with upon the assumption that the Applicant's contentions with
regard to the meritsare justified and that the Respondent's conten-
tionswith regard to the merits are wrong. The casemust beconsidered
on the assumption that the bonds contained a real gold clause
binding on Nonvay.
It is, of course, true that this question of discrimination has
been an important element in the controversy for thirty-two years,
but it has been imported into dispute before this Court largely by
reason of the justification on which Nonvay relies for its action in
enacting the law of December 15th, 1923, and in establishing the
cours forcé and impairing the obligation of the bonds. That is a
point which 1 shall deal with more fully in discussing the Third

Aspect. But the Nonvegian action has been justified on the basis
of world-wide economic catastrophe in which Nonvay and other
States were compelled to take legislative measures impairing the
obligations of debtors within the country as regards both resident
and non-resident creditors. Such a justification obviously raises
the question as to whether international law, if it sanctions such a
course, permits it where the State in question is discriminating
between different classes of creditors.

1 do not need now to express any opinion on this question of
justification, but 1 have no doubt that it involves questions of
international rather than of national law.

ThirdAsfiect :The French contention that the enactment by Nomray
of extraterritoriallegislation purporting to impair the obligationsdue to foreign bondholders resident in France was contrary to
international law.
This contention was raised in the French Final Submissions "On
the Merits", paragraph 3. In the course of the controversy, and
throughout the written and oral proceedings, France has developed
two main arguments along these lines. The first argument is based
upon the view that international law treats the obligations arising
from the marketing of bonds abroad as being something more than

obligations arising under national law. Where, as in this case, the
bonds have been :

(1)marketed abroad;
(2)expressed in several currencies;

(3)payable abroad;
(4)expressed in several languages ;

it is argued that they cannot be repudiated without giving rise to
a breach of international law.
France contends that this position is supported by the practice
of States as indicated by the arbitrations in such matters, especially
in the closing years of the last century and the early years of this
century, and reliance is also placed on Article I of the Hague
Convention of 1907. The terms of this Convention were at first
put fonvard as establishinga legal obligation to subrnit to arbitration
in the matter of the recovery of contract debts. But this position
has been abandoned, and in the later stages France was relying
on the Convention as establishing the nature and character cf the
obligation arising out ofcontract debts claimed from the Govern-
ment of one country by the Govemment of another country as
being due to its nationals.

The French position was contested in al1its phases by Nonvay.

The second French contention arises out of what has been
referred to as the special French doctrine with regard to govern-
mental action within a State impairing the obligation of debts due
to non-resident aliens.Itis contended by France that this doctrine
expresses a broad principle of international law which would
prevent a State from enacting extraterritorial legislation impairing
the contractual rights of non-resident aliens. The French argument
is based largely on this being a general principle of law recognized
by civilized nations, and it is countered by the argument put
fonvard on behalf of Nonvay, which is of a two-fold character-
Nonvay relies largely on the practice of States, and also on theule
of the minimum standard.9I NORWEGIAN L0.4NS (DISS. OPIN. OF JUDGE READ)

It will thus be seen that the French claixn and the Norwegian
justification in this aspect of the question are both based upon
considerations of international law and have nothing whatever to
do with national law.
It is, of course, impossible for me at the present stage to indicate
my views as to whether France or Norway is right, whether the
matter is considered from the point of view of discrimination or of
extraterritoriality.On the other hand, 1 find insuperable difficulty
in reaching the conclusion that a case involving these issues can be
treated as being solely one of national law; and 1 am forced to

the conclusion that the first Preliminary Objection should be
rejected.

Second Part

In the Preliininary Objections, after arguing that the subject of
the dispute as defined in the Application was within the domain of
municipal law and not of internationallaw, Norway considered that
there could be no possible doubt on this point. If, however, there
should still be some doubt, the Nonvegian Government intimated
that it would rely upon the reservation made by the French
Government in its Declaration of March ~st, 1949. After discussing
this Declaration, it was stated that "convinced that the dispute

which has been brought before the Court by the Application of
July 6th, 1955, is within the domestic jurisdiction, the Norwegian
Government considers itself fully entitled to rely on this right".
In invoking the provision contained in the reservation to the
French Declaration, which provided for the automatic ouster of the
jurisdiction by the unilateral action of the respondent Government,
Norway was exercising a right of a highly technical character, and
the question naturally arises whether there was complete compliance
with al1 of the provisions of the Declaration. The reservation
reads as follows:

"This Declaratioii does not apply to disputes relating to matters
which are essentially within the national jurisdiction as understood
by the Government of the French Republic." (The translation of
the French original has been changed by substituting the word
"disputes" for "differences" inrder to bring the English text into
harmony with the French text .)

Norway, in putting forward this highly technical objection, did
not make any statement or give any evidence indicating that this
dispute related to matters which are essentiallywithin the national
jurisdiction as understood by the Nonvegian Government. It made
a bald statement that it was convinced that the dispute was "within
the domestic jurisdiction", which is quite a different matter. There
86never at any time has been any question about the dispute being
within the domestic jurisdiction of Norway. The real question has
been whether the dispute was not also and primarily a matter to be
determined not by the Nonvegian law but by international law.

However, Norway made it plain enough that it desired to invoke
the French Declaration.

1 have refused to apply any rigid and purely literal interpretation
to the Application and have insisted that it should be interpreted
so as to give effect to what obviously was the intention of France
and the understanding of Norway. It would be completely incon-
sistent for me to seek to apply a rigid and purely literal interpre-
tation to the words used by Norway when it sought to invoke the
French Declaration. Accordingly, 1 am compelled to reach the
conclusion that Norway did effectively invoke the French Decla-
ration when the point was taken in the Preliminary Objections.

On the other hand, 1do not think that Norway has maintained
its position in this regard.
Having purported to invoke in the Preliminary Objections the
reservation contained in the French Declaration, Nonvay did not
incorporate this subsidiary point in its actual Submission. Indeed,
the actual Submission relating to the first Preliminary Objection
was inconsistent with the notion embodied in the Declaration. It
asked the Court to find that the subject of the dispute was within
the sphere of municipal law and not of international law, while the

reservation envisaged a position in which that was not to be
decided by the Court, but by the understanding of the Nonvegian
Government .
The point was not xentioned by Xorway in the Counter-Memorial,
in the Rejoinder or in the Oral Proceedings. Further, in the Nor-
wegian Final Submissions of May ~3rd-"On the Preliminary
Objectionsu-the Court is asked to make a finding that "1. The
subject of the dispute, as defined in the Application, is within the
domain of municipal law and not of international law." This
actual Submission by Nonvay is inconsistent with the maintenance
of the position taken in the Preliminary Objections when the French
Declaration was invoked. Here again, the forma1 request that the

Court should make this finding is utterly inconsistent with the
idea the decision should be made by Norway and not by the Court.

It might be thought that, notwithstanding the omission of
this point from the Nonvegian Final Submissions, it was maintaineel
in the closing statements made on behalf of Norway during the
Oral Proceedings.93 NORWEGIAN LOANS (DISS. OPIN. OF JUDGE READ)
At the beginning it was said, on behalf of Norway:

"In these circumstances, 1 should not'like to take advantage of
the Court's patience by repeating what we have already had the
honour to set forth in ouroralarguments. We maintain our positions
in their entirety both as regards the merits and as regards the
Preliminary Objections."

It is clear that Norway here was maintaining the positioil which
had been taken in the course of the oral arguments and that no
reference was intended to any matter touched upon in the Written
Pleadings but not dealt with in the course of the Oral Proceedings.
Later, in dealing with the fourth Objection, which concerned
exhaustion of local remedies, it was stated:

"Al1that we have written and al1that we have submitted orally
to the Court in regard to our fourth Objection therefore stillstands."

In this instance it was clearly intended, as regards the fourth
Objection, to maintain al1 positions which had been taken during
the Written Proceedings whether or not they had been maintained
in the course of the Oral Proceedings.
The final position was taken towards the end when it was said:

"Siie Norwegian Government maintains its Submissions in tlieir
entirety as 1 presented them at the sitting on May 23rd..."

1have no doubt in my own mind that the Norwegian Agent and
Counselrealized thatit wasno longer proper to rely upon the French
Declaration. In view of the form which the dispute had taken in
the course of the Written and Oral Proceedings and cspecially
having in mind that Norway had used 134 pages in the Rejoinder
in arguing the international questions involved in the merits of the
dispute, it was no longer possible seriously to suggest that Norway
understood that the actual dispute before the Court related "to
matters which are essentially within the national jurisdiction as
understood by the" Norwegian Government.

It is true that Norway has not formally abandoned the course

Xvhich it adopted when it purported to invoke the reservation
contained in the French Declaration. Nevertheless, 1 am compelled
to reach the conclusion that Norway has not maintained that
position and that it is necessary to comply with Norway's request
to deal with the case on the basis of the Norwegian Final Sub-
missions of May ~3rd.
But even if 1thought that Norway had maintained its Objection
based on the reservation to the French Declaration, 1 should still
have difficulty in accepting an objection to the jurisdiction of the
Court based upon the Second Part of the first Preliminary Objection. My first difficulty relates to the text of the Declaration. It is
necessary, for Norway to succeed, to establish that the Nonvegian
Government understands that the dispute relates to matters which
are essentially within the Nonvegian national jurisdiction. It is not
sufficient to establish that the Nonvegian Government $retends tu
understand, or declaresth.atit understands that the dispute comes
essentially within the scope of Norwegian national law. The text
does not use the word "pretends" or "declares" and it does use
language that suggests that it had in mind a genuine understanding.

When the provisions of the reservation were invoked by Norway,
it was not contended that they conferred an arbitrary power to
oust the jurisdiction of the Court. Nonvay took the position that
"should a Government seek to rely upon it with a view to denying
the jurisdiction of the Court in a case which manifestly did not
involve a 'matter which is essentially within the national juris-
diction' it would be committing an abus de droit which would not
prevent the Court from acting".
1 am in agreement with the position taken by Norway in this
regard, but 1 do not think that it goes quite far enough. A case
might involve a matter essentially within the national jurisdiction
and yet not come within the scope of "disputes relating to matters
which are essentially within the national jurisdiction". Further, 1
should be disinclined to bring notions of "good faith" and abus de
droitinto the question. Practically speaking, it1ithink, impossible
for. an international tribunal to examine a dispute between two
sovereign States on the basis of either good or bad faith or of
abuse of law.
Nevertheless, 1 think that the basic principle underlying the
position taken by Nonvay in this regard should be accepted.

1 think that the wording of the reservation to the Declaration
properly construed means that the respondent State, in invok-
ing the reservation, must establish that there is a genuine
understanding, i.e. that the circumstances are such that it would be
reasonably possible to reach the understanding that the dispute
was essentially national. Whether the circumstances are such is
not a matter for decision by a respondent Government, but by the
Court. But, assuming that such circumstances existed, the conclusioil
reached by a respondent Government could not be reviewed by
the Court.
1 am unable to accept the view that the reservation should be
interpreted as giving the respondent Government an arbitrary
power to settle any question of jurisdiction which arises by the
assertion that the Government understands that the matter is
essentially within the national jurisdiction regardless of whether
that assertion is true or false.
Such a construction of the clause would lead to something
unreasonable and absurd. It would, of course, if that interpretation

89is accepted, be necessary to conclude that the Declaration ran
contrary to Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute, and was nul1
and void.
But this interpretation runs directly contrary to the rul~ which
was laid down by the Permanent Court in the PolishPostal Service
in Danzig (P.C.I.J.,Series B, No. II, p. 39).

"It is a cardinal principle of interpretation that words must be
interpreted in the sense which they would normally have in their
context, unless such interpretation would lead to something
unreasonable or absurd."

This rule was approved in the Advisory Opinion of this Court :
Competenceof Assembly~egardingadmission to the United Natio~zs,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, at page 8.

If we apply the principles of this rule to the present case we
find that the relevant words in their natural and ordinary meaning
make sense in their context and that, in my opinion, is an end of
the matter. It is inadmissible, by a process of interpretation, to
rewrite the clause in question as if it had read: "disputes relating
to matters as regards which the Government of the French Repub-
lic has declared that it understands that they are essentially
within the national jurisdiction". The words actually used, "as
understood", if given their natural and ordinary meaning, connote
a real understanding, and not a fictitious understanding unrelated
to the facts.
Having these considerations in mind, it is necessary for me to
examine the question whether the circumstances are such that it
would be reasonably possible to reach an understanding that the
dispute was essentially national.

At the time when Norway invoked the reservation there can be
no doubt as to the propriety of the action. At that time, it was
certainly reasonably possible, considering the Application alone
together with any light that had been thrown upon it by the
Memorial, to reach such an understanding. But, as a result of the
course taken in the Written and Oral Proceedings, it is now possible
to look at the dispute with full knowledge of its essential character.
The dispute, in the form which it has now taken, and in which it is
expressed in the French Final Submissions, involves a threefold
claim based on: discrimination, extraterritoriality and the gold
clause. The first two are based solely on international law while
the third is based primarily on national law. 1have already pointed
out that throughout the Written and Oral Proceedings, the first
and the second claims have been discussed at great length by France
and at much greater length by Norway. In these circumstances,
1 find it impossible to reach the conclusion that Norway could have
reasonably understood that the case was essentially within the
Norwegian national jurisdiction.

90 Accordingly, having considered both the First Part and the
Second Part, 1 have reached the conclusion that the first Nor-
wegian Preliminary Objection, as embodied in the first recital
to the Submissions of the Agent of the Norwegian Government on
May 23rd, 1957, should be rejected.

Third Question-The Norwegian contention that "As to thatpart
of the claim which relates to thebond certificates issued by the
Mortgage Bank of Norway and theSmall Holding and Workers'
Housing Bank of Norway, these two Banks have a legal person-
ality separate from that of the Norwegian State; the action
cannot therefore be brought against that State as a borrower ;
whereas moreover the jurisdiction of the Court is limited to
disputes between States ;".

1 cannot accept the Norwegian contention as regards these
Banks. 1 agree that they have separate legal personalities distinct
from that of the Norwegian State, but that does not wholly dispose
of the matter.
The record shows that in 1954 a bondholder brought an action
against theMortgage Bank ofNorway in aFrench court, the Tribunal
de la Seine. The Bank objected to the jurisdiction of that Court
on the ground that it was an instrumentality of the Norwegian
Government, and for that purpose furnished the court with a
certificate, signed by the Minister of Finance of Norway and dated
28th December, 1931, to that effect. It is established that the Bank,
both in the matter of the litigation and in the course followed as
regards gold payments, payments in Swedish crowns, and other
matters in dispute, was not acting as a separate personality with
a separate power of decision, but was acting on the basis of the
advice, instruction and approval of the Minister of Justice of
Norway and the Minister of Finance of Norway. This has been the
case since the 9th December, 1925, as is proved by Annex V to the
Memorial. The proceedings in the French court were concluded in
March, 1956, by a default judgment owing to the unwillingness of
the Bank to appear and contest the proceedings on the merits.

It thus appears that the Norwegian State completely identified
itself with the Bank for the purpose of preventing the bondholder
from obtaining a judicial determination of his rights. Itis a sound
doctrine that a party cannot blow both hot and cold at the same
time, and Norway cannot retreat from the position of complete
identificationtaken in 1931, and persisted in in the proceedings
before the French court, for the purpose of preventing this Court
from adjudicating upon the matter.Fourth Question-The Norwegian contention that "The holders
of bond certificates for whose protection the French Government
considers itself entitled to institute international proceedings
have not first exhausted the local remedies."

From the very commencement of the diplomatic negotiations
up to the present time, Norway has consistently and persistently
insisted that the bondholders should resort to the Norwegian courts
for the purpose of having these courts interpret the clauses in the
bonds and determine the nature and extent of the obligations to
the borrowers thereunder. But, at the same time and just as
consistently and persistently, Norway has asserted that the question
has been governed by the law of 15th December, 1923, and that

that law is applicable to and binding upon foreigners. 1 have
quoted above the actual statement by Norway, made at the
commencement of the controversy.
The rule of international law requiring the exhaustion of the
local remedies is of great importance. When a State adopts the
cause of its nationals as against a respondent State in a dispute
which originally was one of national law, itis important to obtain
the ruling of the local courts with regard to the issues of fact and
law involved, before the international aspects are dealt with by an
international tribunal. It is also important that the respondent
State which is being charged with breach of international law
should have a fair opportunity to rectify the position through its
own tribunals. It is necessary to begin the consideration of the
fourth Preliminary Objection with the assumption that France
must establish resort to an exhaustion of local remedies before the

claims of the French bondholders can be submitted to this Court.
France has put forward three reasons for not resorting to the
domestic tribunals in this case.
In the first place, Francesuggests that the rule with regard to
the necessity for exhaustion of local remedies is limited to cases in
which the aggrieved individuals have taken up residence within
the jurisdiction of the respondent Government and thus consented
to the exercise by the tribunals of that country of jurisdiction over
them.
France has not been able toput forward any persuasive authority
for accepting this limitation on the application of the rule and,
indeed, the weight of authority is the other way.
In the second place, France also contends that the proper law
of the contract is French and that the proceedings could be under-
taken in the French courts. But this is a matter of private inter-
national law on which 1 do not propose to express any opinion.

Itis not directly relevant to the application of the rule of exhaustion
of local remedies which, as a rule of public international law, is
92concerned with the exhaustion of remedies available in the respon-
dent State.
In the third place, France contends that the bondholders should
be excused from having undertaken proceedings in the Norwegian
courts because such proceedings would offer no reasonable prospect
of establishing their rights.
Here we must again draw a clear-cut line between the original
dispute based on national law and the dispute before this Court
which is based upon international law. In this Court, the main
complaints against Norway on the international plane are:

1st-discrimination ;

2nd-extraterritoriality ;
3rd-the gold clause issue.

The bondholder could not possibly bring proceedings in the
Norwegian courts with regard to the first or the second issues. His
only course of action was a suit for breach of contract.
The question, therefore, is whether the bringing of an action in
the Norwegian courts by a French bondholder is a course which
could be reasonably expected of him, or whether it would have been
a procedure of obvious futility.
1have difficulty in reaching the conclusion that the bondholder
could reasonably have been expected to bring proceedings in the
Norwegian courts. Since 9th December, 1925,he hashadthe notion
hammered into his head by the Norwegian Government that such
a course would be futile because the matter was governed by the
law of 15th December, 1923. If he had brought an action and had
persuaded the Norwegian court that there was a real gold clause
in his bond, he would have met an insuperable barrier in the law of
1923. It would have been in vain for him to have argued that the

enactment of that law was contrary to the rules ofinternational law.
It has been suggested inthe Oral Proceedings that he might have
asked the court to do one of two things-namely, to interpret the
law as being inapplicable to foreigners, or to hold that the law-was
unconstitutional by reason of its retroactive character. But the
French bondholder had never heard of these possibilities, neither
of which was suggested at any time in the course of the diplomatic
negotiations or in the course of the negotiations which took place
between the French National Association and the Mortgage Bank.
In the fourth place, it has been argued that the rule with regard
to exhaustion of local remedies has no application where the rights
of the applicant national have been impaired by the direct inter-
vention of the respondent Government or Parliament. If there ever
was a case in which the respondent Government and Parliament
had intervened to impair the rights of non-resident aliens, it is in
the present instance. It is obvious from the terms of the Note of

9th December, 1925, that the Mortgage Bank was not acting underits own motion but under pressure from the Minister of Justice
and the Minister of Finance. Further, the Storthing, the supreme
legislative authority, inenacting this law was directly intervening
so as to impair the rights of the French bondholders. Here 1am
not suggesting that either the Minister of Justice, the Minister of
Finance, the Norwegian Government or the Storthing adopted and
followed any course that was improper, but when 1 am dealing
with an objection to the jurisdiction1 am compelled to assume as
against Norway matters which might wellbe changed on considera-
tion of the merits.
In view ofthese circumstances 1 find difficulty in upholding the
fourth Norwegian objection, and am led to the view that it should
be rejected.
*
* *
Fifth Question-The Norwegian request that the Court should
"adjudge and declare that the claim put forward by the Appli-
cation of the French Government of July 6th, 1955, is not
admissible".

1have already given my reasons for thinking that the claim of
the French Government, with which the Court is now dealing, is
the claim as set forth in the French Final Submissions. In a sense
therefore, the Fifth Question is hardly relevant. But, construing the
question as relating to the claim before the Court, 1 am of the
opinion that itis not inadmissible. To appreciate the position, it is
necessary to bear in mind that there are three complaints before
the Court.
The first is the charge by France that Norway discriminated
against the French bondholders, contrary to theules ofinternational
law. This charge, which 1 have been calling "discrimination", is for-
mulated in the first paragraph of the French Submissions on the
merits.

The second is the charge by France that Norway, by unilateral
action in violation of the rules of international law, enacted legis-
lation impairing the obligation of the bonds, to the detriment of the
French investors. This charge, which 1have been calling "extra-
territoriality"is formulated in the third paragraph of those
Submissions.
These elements of the dispute are causes of action which, in my
opinion, are admissible. This Court alone is competent to dispose
of them. They cannot be referred to the Norwegian courts, because
those courts are not competent to dispose of a dispute, under
international law, between France and Norway. The complaints, as

regards discrimination and extraterritoriality,do not touch the
breach of any legal obligation owed by Norway to the French
bondholders. They relate solely to the obligations imposed on
Norway by international law vis-à-vis France.
94 The third complaint is that which concerns the existence and
obligation of the gold clause. It is based on the law of contract, and
the contract, in this instance, is governed by Norwegian national
law and not by international law. This complaint is formulated in
the second, fourth and fifth paragraphs of the French Submissions

on the merits. This element of the dispute is a cause of action which,
in my opinion, is inadmissible. It is aatter that is and was within
the scope of the jurisdiction of the Norwegian courts, in suits by
the French bondholders against the Norwegian borrowers. France
could not, by adopting the claims of French nationals, change the
legal nature of the claims, and transfer them from the national
to the international plane.

1 do not think that the jurisdiction of the Norwegian courts to
deal with the contractual cause of action, the third complaint under
consideration, is in any way impaired by the existence of the first
and second complaints which they are not competent to adjudicate.
That is so notwithstanding that the three elements are so closely
related. But, at thesame time, 1am of the opinion that the compe-
tence of this Court to adjudge the two purely international elements
is not ousted, by reason of the coexistence of a closely related, but
severable,element which is within the exclusive national competence
of Norway.
Accordingly, 1 have reached the conclusion that the Court

should reject the Norwegian objections .in so far as they relate
to the first and third paragraphs of the French Submissions on the
merits; and allow the Norwegian objections in so far as they relate
to the second, fourth and fifth paragraphs thereof.
Norway has asked the Court, in the Submissions of May 23rd,
1957, to deal with the merits. This is a conditional request, which
would corne into operation only if the Court decided that the claim
was admissible. As the Court is taking the position that it is not
competent to deal with any part of the dispute, it is not desirable
that 1 should proceed to discuss the merits, although my own view
is that they should be dealt with in so far as they relate to the first
and third paragraphs of the French Submissions. In dealing with
the points of jurisdiction and admissibility, it has been necessary
for me to look at the merits from time to time, and to make certain
observations with regard to them. It was not intended in making
these observations to indicate in any way what my opinion would
be in the event that it became necessary to consider and dispose
of the merits.

(Signed) J. E. READ.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTIXG OPINION OF JUDGE READ

1 regret that1 am unable to concur in the decision of the Court,
in this case, and that it has become necessary for me to indicate
the reasons which have prevented me from concurring with the
majority. As 1am of the opinion that the Court shouldreject al1the
Preliminary Objections, and deal with the merits, 1 must examine
al1aspects of the case, and, in doing this, shall consider the following
questions:

First Question-The nature and scope of the dispute, as it now
presents itself to the Court.
Second Question-The Norwegian contention that "The subject of
the dispute as defined in the Application is within the domain
of municipal law and not of international law, whereas the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court in relation to the Parties
involved is restricted, by their Declarations of November 16th,
1946, and March ~st, 1949, to disputes concerning international
law ;".

Third Qùestion-The Norwegian contention that "As to that part
oj the claim which relates to the bond certificates issued by the
LWortgageBank of Norway and the Small Holding and Workers'
Housing Bank of Norway, these two Banks have a legal person-
ality separate from that of the Norwegian State; the action
cannot therefore be brought against that State as a borrower;
whereas moreover the jurisdiction of the Court is limited to
disputes between States;".
Fourth Question-The Norwegian contention that "The holders of
bond certificates for whose protection the French Government
considers itself entitled to institute internationalproceedings
have not first exhausted the local remedies."

Fifth Question-The Xorwegian request that the Court should
"adjudge and declare that the claim put forward by the Appli-
cation of the French Government of July 6th, 1955, is not
admissible".
* * *

First Question-The nature and scope of the dispute as it now
presents itself to the Court.
This is the fundamental question, because the conclusions
reached with regard to the matters in dispute depend almost
entirely on whether the controversy is looked at as it was in the
earlier stages of the case, or in the form which it has taken in the

course of theTiritten and Oral Proceedings. OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. READ
[Tradz~ction]

Je regrette de ne pouvoir m'associer à la décisionde la Cour en
cette affaire, ce qui m'oblige à indiquer les raisons qui m'ont
empêchéde donner mon accord à la majorité. Etant d'avis que la
Cour devrait rejeter toutes les exceptions préliminaires et traiter
du fond, je dois étudier tous les aspects de l'affaire et, ce faisant,
j'examinerai les questions suivantes :

Première question - Nature et portée du différend, tel qu'il se
présente actuellementdevant la Cour. l
Deuxième question - La conclusion norvégienne d'après laquelle

(L'objet du différend,tel qu'il est définidans la-requête,relève
du droit interne et non du droit international, alors que la
juridiction obligatoire de la Cour vis-à-vis des Parties en cause
est limitée, par leurs déclarations du 16 novembre 1946 et du
mars 1949, aux différends de droit international; 1).

Troisième question - La conclusion norvégienne d'après laquelle
(pozir la partie dela devzafzdequi concerneles titres émispar la
BaîzqueIzypothécaire de Norvègeet par LaBanqzte norvégiennedes
propriétés agricoleset habitations ozivrièves,ces deux banques ont
une personnalité juridique distincte de celle de 1'Etat norvégien;
l'action ne peut donc êtredirigée contre ce dernier en qualité
d'emprunteur; et, par ailleurs, la compétence de la Cour est
limitée aux différends entre Etats; ».

Quatrième question - La conclusion norvégienne, d'après laquelle
<Les porteurs de titres, pour la protection desquels le Gouverne-
ment français se croit fondé à saisir la juridiction internationale,
n'ont pas, préalablement, épuisé lesrecours internes. »

Cinquième question - La demande norvégiennetendant à ce qu'il
plaise à la Cour (dire et juger que la demande introduite par la
requête du Gouvernement français du 6 juillet1955 n'est pas
recevable ».
* * *

Première question - Nature et portée du différend, tel qu'il se

présente actuellement devant la Cour.
Cette question est fondamentale parce que les conclusions aux-
quelles on aboutit sur les points litigieux dépendent presque
entièrement de la faqon dont on envisage la controverse, soit sous
son aspect au début de l'affaire, soit sous l'aspect qu'elle a pris
au cours de la procédure orale et de la procédure écrite. In the Application, the French Agent asked the Court to adjudge:
(1) that there uTasa real gold clause; -
(2) that the borrower can only discharge the substance of

his debt by payment of the gold value both of the coupons
and of the principal payments.
The Nonvegian Agent considered that these requests related
solely to issues of Nonvegian national law which the Court is
incompetent to adjudge in a case commenced by Application. But,
during the Oral Proceedings, the Final Submissions of the French

Government "On the Merits" put forward three claims which
involved :
In paragraph I
request for judgment by the Court that payment to foreign

holders of the bonds must be made without anv discrimination ;
and
In paragraph 3
request for judgment by the Court that Nonvay cannot by
unilateral extraterritorial legislation modify the rights of the

French bondholders, without negotiation or arbitration; and

In paragraphs 2, 4 and 5
request for judgment based on the gold clause.

(It may be convenient to refer to the first two of these issues
as discrimination and extraterritoriality, respectively.)

It is obviously impossible to suggest that the Final Submissions,

raising these issues, relate to matters which are either exclusively
or essentially within the national jurisdiction of P\onvay. To meet
this position, the Nonvegian Agent has urged the Court to reject the
Final French Conclusions. They have been attacked on the ground
that they give rise to a new claim.

The French Agent replied by citing the Chorzow judgment, and
by contending that "The intentions of the Statute are therefore
perfectly clear: it is possible to amend Submissions any time up
to the end of the proceedings."
It is true that it has been the established practice of this Court,

and of the Permanent Court, to permit the Parties to modify their
Submissions up to the end of the Oral Proceedings. Indeed, the
President asked the Parties to file their Final Submissions before
terminating the Oral Proceedings; and, in so doing, he \\ras follow-
ing a practice of long standing. Thus it was open to France to amend
the Submissions at that stage. But the right is subject to t~vo
limitations.The first limitation is that, when there is an appreciable

75 Dans la requête, l'agent français a invité la Cour à juger:
1) qu'il existait une clause or réelle;

2) que l'emprunteur ne s'acquitte de la substance de sa dette
que par le paiement de la valeur or des coupons et des amor-
tissements.
L'agent norvégien estime que ces demandes touchent exclusive-
ment des points de droit interne norvégien que la Cour est incom-

pétente pour examiner au cours d'une instance introduite par voie
de requête.Mais pendant la procédure orale, les conclusions finales
du Gouvernement français ((sur le fond ))ont présentétrois récla-
mations qui consistent :
Au paragraphe I

en une demande tendant à ce qu'il plaise à la Cour de juger
que les paiements aux porteurs étrangers doivent se faire sans
aucune discrimination ; et
Au paragraphe 3

en une demande tendant à ce qu'il plaise à la Cour de juger que
la Norvège ne peut, par voie de législation unilatérale extra-
territoriale, modifier les droits des porteurs français sans
négociation ou arbitrage; et

Aux paragraphes 2, 4 et 5
en une demande tendant à ce que le jugement soit fondé sur la
clause or.
(Pour la commodité, on se référeraaux deux premières questions
en les qualifiant respectivement de (question de discrimination »

et de (question d'extra-territorialité ».)
Il est évidemment impossible de prétendre que les conclusions
finales posant ces problèmes touchent à des affaires qui relèvent
exclusivement ou essentiellement de la compétence nationale de la
Norvège. Pour faire face à cette position, l'agent norvégien a

demandé à la Cour de rejeter les conclusions finales de la France.
Il les a attaquées pour le motif qu'elles introduisent une demande
nouvelle.
L'agent français a répondu en citant l'arrêt dans l'affaire de
Chorzow et en soutenant que ((Les intentions du Statut sont donc
claires: la modification des conclusions est possible jusqu'à la fin
du litige. ))
Il est vrai que la pratique établie par la Cour et par la Cour
permanente permet aux Parties de modifier leurs conclusions
jusqu'à la fin de la procédure orale. Le Président a mêmedemandé

aux Parties de déposer leurs conclusions finales avant de clôturer
la procédure orale, et ce faisant, il suivait une pratique établie
depuis longtemps. La France avait donc, à ce stade, la faculté
d'amender ses conclusions. Mais ce droit est soumis à deux limita-
tions. D'abord, lorsque la modification est importante, l'autrechange, the other Party n~ust have a fair opportunity to comment
on the amended Submissions. In this case, the amendment was
made at the close of the French opening statement, and Yorway
has had two opportunities to reply, of which full advantage has
been taken.

The second condition is that the amendment must be an amend-
ment. It must not consist of an attempt by the Applicant Govern-
ment to bring a new and different dispute before the Court. If so,
the amended Submissions are not admissible, unless the new
elements have been incorporated in the dispute either by the Res-
pondent Government or by the two Governments in the course
of the Written and Oral Proceedings.
Accordingly, it is necessary to consider whether the allegedly new
elements-discrimination and extraterritoriality-raise a new
dispute, or whether they define the issues in the dispute which was
brought to the Court by the Application.
The Statute, by Article 40, imposes on the Applicant Government
the requirement that "the subject of the dispute and the Parties
shall be indicated". It does not require that the issues shall be
defined; and, indeed, it makes it abundantly clear, bj- Article 48,

that the definition of the issues by Submissions is to be done in the
course of the Written and Oral Proceedings. (In this regard, the
French text of Article 48 shotvs that this is so, while the English
text is obscure.) Applications have usually contained statenents
of the issues involved; but these have been treated by this Court
and the Permanent Court as indications of the nature of the case.
Itis in this light that the Application must be examined. Did it
sufficiently indicate the dispute as it has developed in the course
of the MTrittenand Oral Proceedings, and as it has been formulated
in the French Final Submissions? In particular, did it sufficiently
indicate a dispute involving the two contested elements: discrimi-
nation and extraterritoriality?
The Application gives particulars with regard to the different
issues of bonds involved. It sets forth, in a general uray, the emer-
gence of the controversy between the French bondholders, repre-

sented by the Kational ,4ssociation of French Security Holders,
and the Borrowers, the Sorwegian State and the two Banks. It
mentions the forma1 intervention bg- the French Government on
behalf of its nationals in Xay, 1953, and subsequent negotiations
between the Governinents, n-hich did not lead to a settlement. It
ends with the indication of the claim, as stated above.

It thus appears that the Application sufficiently indicated that
the case \vas intended to relate to the dispute which had been at
issue between the French Government and bondholders and the Nor-
wegian borrowers and Government for thirty years and taenty days.
That dispute had certainly been based on the three elements:
discrimination, extraterritoriality,and theexistence and obligationPartie doit avoir une occasion équitable de présenter ses commen-
taires sur les conclusions amendées. En l'espèce, l'amendement a
étéprésenté à la fin de la plaidoirie initiale française et la Norvège

a, par deux fois, eu l'occasion de répondre, ce dont elle s'est large-
ment prévalu.
La deuxième condition est que l'amendement doit êtreun amen-
dement. Il ne faut pas que le demandeur essaie, par ce moyen, de
soumettre un nouveau litige différent à la Cour. Dans cette éven-
tualité, les conclusions amendées ne sont pas recevables, à moins
que les nouveaux élémentsn'aient étéincorporés au litige soit par
le Gouvernement défendeur. soit Dar les deux Gouvernements. au
cours des procédures écrite et orale.
En conséquence, il faut examiner si les prétendus nouveaux élé-
ments - la discrimination et l'extra-territorialit- soulèvent un
nouveau litige, ou s'ils définissent leséléments dulitige soumis à la
Cour par la requête.

L'article 40 du Statut impose au Gouvernement demandeur
d'indiquer cl'objet du différend et les Parties ».Il ne prescrit pas
qu'on précise les points en litige et même,l'article 48 précise très
clairement que l'énonciation des points en litige par les conclusions
doit se faire au cours de la procédure écrite et orale.(,4 ce propos,
le texte français de l'article48 montre qu'il en est ainsi, alors que
le texte anglais est obscur.) Les requêtes contiennent générale-
ment l'énoncédes problèmes soulevés; mais la Cour et la Cour
permanente les ont généralement traitées comme l'indication de
l'objet du différend.
C'est sous cet angle qu'il faut examiner la requête. 9-t-elle
suffisamment indiquél'objet du différend,tel qu'il s'est développéau
cours des procédures écriteet orale et tel qu'il a étéformulédans les

conclusions finales françaises? En particulier, a-t-elle suffisamment
indiqué un différend touchant les deux éléments contestés: la
discrimination et l'extra-territorialité?
La requête donne des indications sur les différentes émissions
d'obligations dont il s'agit. Elle énonce, d'une manière générale,
les origines de la controverse entre les porteurs français, représentés
par l'Association nationale des porteurs français de valeurs mobi-
lières, et les emprunteurs, 1'Etat norvégien et les deux banques.
Elle mentionne l'intervention formelle du Gouvernement français
pour le compte de ses nationaux en mai 1953: et les négociations
ultérieures entre les deus Gou\rernements, qur n'ont pas abouti à
un règlement. Elle se termine par l'énoncéde la réclamation, ainsi
qu'il a étédit plus haut.

Il apparaît donc que la requête a suffisamment indiqué que
l'affaire devait se rapporter au différend débattu entre le Gouver-
nement français et les obligataires, et les emprunteurs et le Gou-
vernement norvégien, pendant trente ans et vingt jours.
Ce différend reposait certainement sur les trois éléments: discri-
mination,extra-territorialité,existence dans les titres de la clause or
76 of the gold clause in the bonds. Nevertheless, thepart of the Appli-
cation which purported to indicate the subject of the dispute was
obscure.
Norway takes the position that the words used inthe Application
to indicate the subject of the dispute confined it to the existence
of the gold clause and the obligation of the bonds. France contends
that the two contested issues had been in controversy for more than
thirty years as essential elements of the dispute, and that the
actual claim asstated in the Application is broad enough to include
them. The claim reads :

"And that the borrower can only discharge the substance ofhis
debt by the payrnent of the gold value of the coupons on the date
of payment and of the gold value of the redeemed bonds on the
date of repayment."

The obligation of the bonds depended on three things-the
contract, the law and the relevant legislation. The relevant statute
which had been under consideration by the two Governments was
the law of December 15,1923 . he two issues under consideration-
discrimination and extraterritoriality-were inseparably related
to that law. That this was so understood by Norway is plainly
indicated by the the fact that the text of the law was set forth in
the third paragraph of the Preliminary Objections, and subse-
quently treated as the cornerstone of the Norwegian case.
In these circumstances, 1 am compelled to accept the French
contention, and to reach the conclusion that the French Final
Submissions should not be rejected.
But, even if it is assumed that the claim, asstated in the Appli-
cation, is confined to the existence of the gold clause and the obli-
gation of the bonds, and that it did not include the contested
elements (discrimination and extraterritorial legislation), itdoes

not follow that the French Final Submissions must necessarily be
rejected. If the contested elements were incorporated into the dis-
pute by Norway alone, or by the two Governments, in the course
of the Written and Oral Proceedings, it would not be open to Norway
to complain at this late stage. In order to examine this aspect of
the matter, it is necessary to assume that the claim, as stated
above, must be construed as confined to the gold clause and
the obligation of the bonds, and as excluding the contested
elements.
Accordingly, and with that assumption in mind, 1 must examine
the way in which the allegedly new elements were brought into
the case. It will beseen that, from the beginning of the proceedings
in the Court, France based its pleadings and oral arguments on the
view that they had already been included in the Application. But
it will also appear that Norway understood that these contested
elements were an integral part of the merits of the dispute before

the Court. It will emerge that the request for rejection of the French
77 EMPRUNTS XORVÉGIENS (OPIN. DISS. DE M. READ) 82

et des obligations qui en résultent. Pourtant, cette partie de la
requête, qui avait pour but d'indiquer l'objet du différend, était
obscure.
La Norvège soutient que les termes de la requête définissant
l'objet du différend l'ont Limitéà l'existence, dans les titres, de la
clause or et des obligations qui en découlent. La France soutient
que les deux points contestés ont étécontroversés pendant plus de
trente ans comme élémentsessentiels du différend et que la récla-

mation, telle qu'elle est énoncéedans la requête, est assez large
pour les recouvrir. La requêteénonce:
iEt que l'emprunteur ne s'acquitte de la substance de sa dette
que par le paiement de la valeur or des couponsau jour du paiement
et de la valeur or des titres amortis au jour du remboursement. ))

L'obligation énoncéedans les titres dépendait de trois choses -
le contrat, le droit et la législation applicable. La loi applicable,

examinée par les deux Gouvernements, est celle du 15 décembre
1923. Les deux points à examiner - la discrimination et l'extra-
territorialité- étaient inséparablement liésà cette loi. Le fait que
le texte de la loi a étéénoncédans le troisième paragraphe de
l'exception préliminaire et, par la suite, a ététraité comme la
pierre angulaire de l'argumentation norvégienne, montre assez que
la Norvège s'en est parfaitement rendu compte.
Dans ces circonstances, je suis forcéd'accepter la thèse française
et d'en déduire qu'on ne peut rejeter les conclusions finales fran-

çaises.
Mais, mêmeen admettant que la réclamation, telle qu'elle a été
énoncéedans la requête, se limite à l'existence dans les titres de la
clause or et des obligations qui en découlent, et qu'elle ne s'éten-
dait pas aux éléments contestés (discrimination et législationextra-
territoriale), il ne s'ensuit pas qu'il faille nécessairement rejeter les
conclusions finales franqaises. Si les éléments contestésavaient été
introduits dans le différend par la Norvège seule ou par les deux
Gouvernements au cours des procédures écrite et orale, il ne serait

plus possible à la Norvège de s'en plaindre maintenant. Pour exa-
miner cet aspect de la question, il faut admettre que la réclamation,
telle qu'elle a étéénoncéeplus haut, doit s'interpréter comme se
limitant à l'existence dans les titres de la clause or et des obliga-
tions qui en découlent, à l'exclusion des éléments contestés.
Par conséquent,et partant de cette idée,je dois examinerdequelle
manière les deux élémentsprétendument nouveaux ont étéintro-
duits dans l'affaire. On verra que, dès le début de la procédure
devant la Cour, la France a conduit ses écritures et son argumenta;
tion orale en partant de l'idée qu'ils étaient déjà inclus dans la

requête.Mais on verra également que la Norvège a compris que ces
deux éléments contestés faisaient partie intégrante du fond du
différend soumis à la Cour. On s'apercevra que la demande de
77Final Submissions is based on the extremely technical point that
the indication of the issues, as set forth in the _\pplication, was so
badly drafted that it failed to disclose the real scope and extent
of the dispute as understood and developed by bot11 France and
Norway. It \vil1appear that Sorway took such a dominant part
in the enlargement of the dispute in the course of the Written and
Oral Proceedings thatit is not open to Sorwaj- to complain now by
raising the extremely technical point referred to above.

The actual dispute, on the governmental level, commenced with
the first French Sote, dated 16 June, 1925, and included, together
with al1the rest of the diplomatic correspondence, in the Memorial.
This Note, which was concerned with the claims of French holders
of bonds of the Mortgage Bank of Sorwag-, raised the t~voissues: dis-
crimination and extraterritorialitl-.The Sorwegian reply took the
form of the Xote, dated 9 December 1925, transmitting a letter

from the Alortgage Bank defending its position. This letter questioned
the gold clause. It admitted the fact of discrimination in favour
of Swedish bondholders and against the French, defending it as
being based on good will. It dealt with extraterritorialit J-as
follows :

"The question has in al1casesbeen determined by referenceto tlie
creditor refuses to accept payment in Bank of Korxvaybanknotese
at their nominal gold value, the debtor may claim postponement
of the payrnent for as long as the Bank is exempt from redeeming
its notes in gold at their nominal value."
"The French Note states that a law of this kind can only apply
to nationals and not to foreign bondholders. This, however, is a
vie\\,which canno; be maintained. In any erent the question mould
naturally fa11to be decided by a Korwegian Court in accordance
with Sorn-egian legislation and in accordance with Norivegian lau-
and it is quite clear that the decision woulcl be binding on al1
concerned."

.lccordingly, for more than thirtj- J-ears, the control-ersj- \vas
based on the three main elements :discrimination, extraterritorialit~
and the problem of interpretation and obligation arising out of the
gold clause.
Then came the Application. which is being considered upon the
assumption that it must be construed as cutting down the contro-
versy to a single issue. 1 am reluctant to adopt a narrow and
restrictive interpretation of the words used in the Application, in
aid of a highly technical argument designed for the sole purpose
of preventing justice from being done. Nevertheless, 1 must proceed
on the assumption that the narrow and restrictive interpretation

is right, and consider what happened in the course of the treatnlent
of the issues by the Parties.
78rejet des conclusions finales françaises repose sur le motif extrême-
ment technique que l'indication des points litigieux, tels qu'ils
ont étéénoncésdans la requête, était si mal rédigée qu'ellen'a
vas révéléla vortée et l'étendue véritable du différend. telle
hue le concevaient et l'ont discuté à la fois la rance et la
Norvège. On s'apercevra que la Xorvège a joué un rôle si prépon-
dérant dans l'élargissement du différend au cours des procédures
écrite et orale qu'il ne lui est plus permis se plaindre maintenant,
en soulevant le point extrêmement technique mentionné plus haut.

A l'échelongouvernemental, le différend, en fait, a pris naissance
avec la première note française du 16 juin 1925, incorporée, avec
tout le reste de la correspondance diplomatique, dans le mémoire.
Cette note, qui visait les réclamations des porteurs français d'obli-
gations de la Banque hypothécaire de Norvège, soulevait les deux
questions : la discrimination et l'extra-territorialité.La réponse
norvégienne s'est présentée sous la forme d'une note, datée du
g décembre 1925, transmettant une lettre de la Banque hypothé-
caire de Korvès"e défendant sa vosition. Cette lettre contestait la
clause or. Elle reconnaissait le fait de la discrimination en faveur
des porteurs suédois et au détriment des porteurs français, et la
justifiait comme un acte de bon vouloir. Elle traitait de l'extra-
territorialité dans les termes suivants:

«La question a dans tous les cas étrégléepar la loi d15 décem-
bre 1923. Conformément à cette loi, le débiteur peut, au cas que
le créancier refusede recevoir le paiement en billets de la Banque
de Norvège pour leur valeur or nominale, exiger que le paiement
soit difféaussi longtemps que la Banque sera dispensée de l'obliga-
tion de rembourser ses billets en or pour leur montant nominal. »
«La note française donne à entendre qu'une loi de cette nature
Mais c'est Ià une thèse qui ne peut nuIlement êtresoutenue. Lars.
question delrra naturellement, le cas échéant,êtredécidéepar un
tribunal norvégien selon les lois norvégienneset selon le droit
norvégienet il est bien évidentque la décisionest obligatoire pour
tous.1)

En conséquence, pendant plus de trente ans, la controverse a
porté sur les trois éléments principaux: discrimination, extra-
territorialité et problème de l'interprétation de la clause or et des
obligations qui en découlent.
Puis se place la requête, qu'on examine en partant de l'idée qu'il
faut l'interpréter comme réduisant la controverse à un seul point.
J'hésite à adopter une interprétation étroite et restrictive des ter-

mes employés dans la requête pour étayer un argument extrême-
ment technique, dont le seul objet est d'empêcher que justice soit
faite. Il faut cependant que je conduise mon raisonnement en
partant de l'idée que l'interprétation étroite et restrictive est la
bonne, et je dois examiner ce qui s'est passé au cours de la discus-
sion des problèmes par les Parties. As might have been expected, France proceeded to deal with the
case as if the controversy had continued, uncurtailed by the -4ppli-
cation and including the contested elements. The case was dealt
with in the Memorial by raising and discussing the issues which are
now embodied in paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the French Final
Submissions. As regards paragraph 3, the extraterritorial point,
it was summed up in a sentence:

"The question which arises may therefore be simply put in the
followingway: can a debtor State, by means of an interna1 law
providing for the currency of unconvertible banknotes, alter the
substance of its external debt?"

The issue dealt with in paragraph I of the Final Submissions,
discrimination, was mentioned in the Memorial, and fully argued
in the Observations and Submissions. Al1of the issues, as set forth
in the Final Submissions, were fully argued in the Reply and in the
course of the Oral Proceedings.

There was, at first, some difference in the course followed by
Norway. 1have already pointed out that Norway, in paragraph 3
of the Preliminary Objections, set forth the text of the Law of
December 15, 1923, which became the cornerstone of its case.
Later, in paragraph 29, in discussing the legal basis of the course

followed by Norway, it was stated that "it was the Law of Decem-
ber 15, 1923, which was applied". But in taking the "First Objec-
tion", Norway limited that objection to "the dispute,as defined in
the said Application", and put forward arguments which could have
no relevancy except on the assumption that the actual controversy
had been curtailed bythe Application so as to exclude the contested
elements, discrimination and extraterritoriality.
It was the Counter-Memorial, the Rejoinder and the oral argu-
ments by Norway that brought about the fundamental change in
the scope of the dispute. For, assuming the curtailment of the
controversy by the wording of the Application, its enlargement so
as to include the contested elements was indeed a fundamental
change.
The Counter-Memorial devoted nearly three pages to a discussion
of the legal aspects of discrimination; and eleven pages to a much
more important issue. Norway put forward the argument that the

action of the Norwegian legislature in enacting the Law of Decem-
ber 15, 1923,and other rele~~antlaws was justified by the historical
background. That background was one of world-wide economic
catastrophe: a sort of universal bankruptcy. The argument was
that Norway, in the special circumstances, was justified in sus-
pending gold payments, or the payment of gold equivalents. That
justification necessarily involved a correlative obligation to give
equal treatment to al1creditors involved. Comme on pouvait s'y attendre,la France a traité l'affaire comme
si la controverse s'était poursuivie sans limitation résultant de la
requêteet comprenant les éléments contestés.Le mémoire a traité

de l'affaire en soulevant et discutant les points qui sont aujourd'hui
incorporés dans les paragraphes 2,3, 4 et 5 des conclusions finales
françaises. Quant au paragraphe 3, la question de l'extra-territo-
rialité, il a étérésuméen une phrase:

(La question poséese résume donc à celle de savoir si, par une
loi intérieurede cours forcé, 1'Etat débiteurpeut modifierla subs-
tance de sa dette publique extérieure. »

Le point traité au paragraphe I des conclusions finales, la discri-
mination, avait étémentionné dans le mémoire et amplement dis-
cuté dans les observations et conclusions. Toutes les questions,
telles qu'elles étaient énoncéesdans les conclusions finales, ont été
amplement discutées dans la réplique et au cours de la procédure
orale.
Au début, la tactique suivie par la Norvège a marqué quelque
variation. J'ai déjà montré qu'au paragraphe 3 des exceptions
préliminaires, la Norvège a citéle texte de la loi du 15 décembre

1923 qui est devenue la pierre angulaire de son argumentation.
Plus tard, au paragraphe 29, discutant les bases juridiques des
mesures prises parla Norvège, il a étédit : (C'estla loi du 15 décem-
bre 1923 qui a étéappliquée. ))Mais en soulevant la ((première
exception », la Norvège l'a limitée au (différendtel qu'il est défini
dans la requête 1)et a avancé des arguments sans pertinence, sauf
en admettant que la controverse avait effectivement étélimitée par
la requêtede façon à écarter les élémentscontestés de discrimina-
tion et d'extra-territorialité.

Ce sont le contre-mémoire, la duplique et les plaidoiries de la
Norvège qui ont amenéle changement fondamental dans la portée
du différend. Car, en admettant que la controverse ait subi une
restriction par l'énoncé dela requête,son élargissement par exten-
sion aux éléments contestésétait certainement une modification
fondamentale.
Le contre-mémoire a consacrépresque trois pages à la discussion
des aspects juridiques de la discrimination et onze pages à un point
beaucoup plus important. La Norvège a prétendu que le législateur

norvégien, en promulguant la loi du 15 décembre 1923 et les autres
lois pertinentes. était justifié par les circonstances historiques. Ces
circonstances étaient la catastrophe économique mondiale : une
espèce de faillite universelle. On a soutenu que, dans ces circons-
tances particulières, la Norvège était justifiée à suspendre les
paiements or ou en valeur or. Cette justification entraînait néces-
sairement l'obligation corrélative d'accorder le mêmetraitement à
tous les créanciers intéressés. The Rejoinder carried the arguments bearing directly on the
questions of discrimination and extraterritoriality even further. It
developed the argument based on the practice of States in dealing
with economic catastrophe by fiscal measures. it brought into the

case entirely new considerations: the principles of international
law concerning "national treatment" of aliens, and the system of
the "minimum" or "international standard". As in the case of the
argument based on Çtate practice, these principles necessarily
involve the problem of discrimination and bear directly on the
extent of the 'iorwegian legislative pomer. The extent to which
the Rejoinder goes in enlarging the scope of the issues is indicated
by the fact that one hundred ancl thirty-four pages of the two
volumes are devoted to these aspects of the case.

In the Oral Proceedings, the same trend was observed. The
Norwegian Agent and Counsel devoted a s-ery large proportion
of their time to the discussion of the tmo issues which the Agent
now asks the Courts to strike out of the case. One of the Counsel
went so far asto devote the whole of his time to one of them.

In these circumstances, 1 am of the opinion that the French
Final Conclusions do not go beyond the limits of the dispute in the
form which it took in the course of the Written and Oral Proceed-
ings; and that the responsibility for any enlargement of the dispute
which may have taken place since the Application is mainlp due
to Sorway. At an?-rate, Norway certainly shared that responsibility
with France. It is not open to Sorwaj-, at this stage, to complain
about this enlargement.

Second Question-The Sorwegian contention that "The subject
of the dispute as defined in the Application is within the domain
of municipal law and not of international law, whereas the
compulsor~. jurisdiction of the Court in relation to the Parties

invoh-ecl is restricted, by their Declarations of November 16th.
1946, and March ~st, 1949, to disputes concerning international
law;".
This question \vas dealt with in two parts bj- Sor~f-ay.In the first
part it \vas discussed upon the assumption that it was being put
tothe Court for its decision. The second part deals with a subsidiarj-

aspect of the question in which the Court is being asked to deal
u-ith it not on the basis of its own decision, but by merely registering
a decision of the Kormegian Government automatically ousting
the jnrisdiction of the Court. E3IPRUKTS KORVÉGIESS (OPIS. DISS. DE M. READ)
85
La duplique a pousséplus loin encore les arguments qui portent
directement sur les questions de discrimination et d'extra-terri-
tprialité. On y développe l'argument fondé sur la pratique des

Etats, visant à traiter par des mesures fiscales les catastrophes
économiq~ies.Ce document a introduit dans l'affaire des considéra-
tions absolument nouvelles : les principes de droit international sur
((le traitement national ))des étrangers et le système du (standard
minimum 1)ou du ((standard international D. Comme dans le cas
de l'argument tiré de la pratique des Etats, ces principes touchent
nécessairement au problème de la discrimination et visent directe-

ment l'étendue du pouvoir législatif norvégien. La mesure dans
laquelle la duplique a élargila portée du différend ressort du fait
que cent trente-quatre pages des deux x-olumes sont consacrées à
ces aspects de la question.
On a pu remarquer les mêmes tendances dans les plaidoiries.
L'agent norvégien et ses conseils ont consacré une grande partie

de leur temps à discuter les deux points que cet agent demande,
aujourd'hui, à la Cour de rayer de l'affaire. L'un des conseils a
mêmeété jnsqu'à consacrer la totalité de sa plaidoirie à l'un de ces
points.
Dans ces circonstances, mon opinion est que les conclusions
finales françaises ne dépassent pas les limites du différend, en la
forme qu'il a revêtue au cours des procédures écrite et orale, et
que la responsabilité de toute extension du différend qui a pu se

produire après la requête incombe principalement à la Xorvège.
En tout cas, la Korvège a certainement largement partagé cette
responsabilité as-ec la France. A l'heure actuelle, il n'appartient
plus à la Norvège de se plaindre de cette extension.

Deuxième question -- La conclusion norvégienne d'après laquelle
(L'objet du différend, tel qu'il est définidans la requête,relève
du droit interne et non du droit international, alors que la
juridiction obligatoire de la Cour vis-à-vis des Parties en cause
est limitée, par leurs déclarations du 16 novembre 1946 et du
mars 1949, aux différends de droit international; )).

La Xorviige a traité ce point en deux parties. Dans la première

partie, la discussion procède de l'idéeque le point était soumis à
la Cour pour décision. La deuxième partie traite d'un aspect sub-
sidiaire de la question, où la Cour est invitée à en traiter non pas
sur la base de sa propre décision,mais simplement en enregistrant
une décisiondi1Gouvernement norvégien ayant pour efiet d'écarter
automatiquement la compétence de la Cour. First Part

This question is confined to "the dispute as defined in the
Application". It does not relate to the controversy as it existed
between the two Governments in the thirty years preceding the
Application or to the issues as discussed and dealt with by France
and Nonvay in the course of the Written and Oral Proceedings.

It has nothing to do with the subject-matter of the dispute as set
forth in the French Final Submissions. It is not in any sense relevant
to the actual case which is now before the Court. It is included in
the Nonvegian Final Submissions and it represents a position
which has been maintained at al1stages by Nonvay, in which the
arguments have been qualified and restricted to the dispute as
defined in the Application.

In dealing with the First Question 1have taken the position that
the French Final Conclusions should not be rejected, and it neces-
sarily follows that 1 am of the opinion that the Second Question,
the point which was raised in the first Preliminary Objection, has
no relevancy at the present stage. The actual question as it existed
when the point was first taken was of a substantial character, but
the objection that the dispute was within the domain of municipal
law and not of international law has been maintained in relstion

to the present position of the case.

The objection involves the very nature of the case and cannot
be considered effectively without touching upon the merits. 1 do
not propose to give my views with regard to the merits, but it is
necessary for me to look at the meritsin order to determine the sort
of issues which they raise-i.e.whether they are issues of national
law or of international law or both. 1 must consider the problem
presented by this objection from three different aspects:

First Aspect: That the issue submitted by the Application is
purely a matter of national law and does not raise any issue of

international law.

This is the heart of the first Prelinîinary Objection. If the bond
contracts operated under international law, or if, either originally or
at a later stage, they gave rise to international obligations due
from Nonvay to France. it would no longer be possible to suggest
that the dispute was based solely on municipal law.

At the early stages of the transaction, the position is reasonably
clear. When the French bondholder bought a ljonvegian bond,
there were only two parties to the executory contract which came
S1 Première fartie

Cette question est limitée au ((différend, tel qu'il est définidans
la requête ))Elle n'a pas trait au litige, tel qu'il existait entre les
deux Gouvernements durant les trente années qui ont précédéla
requête,ni aux points discutéset traités par la France et la Norvège
dans le cours de la procédure écrite et orale. Elle n'a rien à voir
avec l'objet du différend, tel qu'il est exposé dans les conclusions
finales du Gouvernement français. Elle ne présente de pertinence
à aucun point de vue vis-à-vis de l'affaire, telle qu'elle est effecti-

vement soumise à la Cour. Elle figure dans les conclusions finales
du Gouvernement norvégien et représente une position que la
Norvège a maintenue, à tous les stades du différend, et où les
arguments ont étéentourés de réserves et limités au différend, tel
qu'il est définidans la requête.
Lorsque j'ai examiné la première question, je suis parti du point
de vue que les conclusions finales du Gouvernement franqais ne
devaient pas êtrerejetées. Il s'ensuit nécessairement que, selon moi,
la seconde question - à savok le point soulevé dans la première
exception préliminaire - est dépourvue de pertinence au stade
actuel. La question véritable, telle qu'elle se présentait lorsque ce

point a étésoulevé pour la première fois, était une question de
fond. Mais l'exception selon laquelle le différend relève du droit
interne, et non pas du droit international, a étémaintenue à l'égard
de la position actuelle de l'affaire.
L'objection touche à la nature mêmede l'affaire et ne peut être
examinée de façon effective sans toucher au fond. Je n'ai pas
l'intention d'exprimer mon avis sur le fond, mais je dois examiner
celui-ci pour établir quelles sortes de questions litigieuses il sou-
lève - à savoir s'il s'agit de points de droit interne ou de droit
international ou de l'un et l'autre droits. Le problème auquel cette
exception donne naissance doit donc être examiné sous trois

aspects différents :

Premier asfiect : La question soumise à la Cour par la requêteserait
purement une question de droit interne et ne soulèverait aucun
point de droit international.

C'est là le centre de la première exception préliminaire. Si les
contrats d'emprunt étaient régis, dans leur application, par le
droit international, ou si, soit à l'origine, soit plus tard, ils ont fait
naître, pour la Norvège, des obligations internationales à l'égard
de la France, il ne sera plus possible de prétendre que le différend

fût exclusivement fondésur le droit interne.
Aux premiers stades de l'opération, la position est suffisamment
claire. Lorsque le porteur français achetait une obligation norvé-
gienne, il n'y avait que deux parties au contrat exécutoire qui
8I17 SORIVEGIA'I' LOAXS (DISS. OPIS. OF JVDGE RESD)

into being-the bondholder and the Nortvegian borrower, either
the State or one of the tmo Banks. The Government of France
had no part in the transaction. It was made under national law
and there was possible conflict between the different laws involved,
French, English and Norwegian. The determination of which law
controlled any particular aspect of the matter was a problem to be
resolved by the law of the forum in which the suit was brought.
The court would apply the rules of private international law which

governs the choice of law, and then apply the chosen law to the
issues before it. Those rules and the chosen law would both be
national, and not international, law.

,At this stage the transaction came solely within the plane of
national law. It would therefore be a matter in mhich the Court
\vas incompetent to adjudicate, and in which it would be necessary
if dealing with the Merits to say that there nrere no rules of inter-
national law governing the transaction. It would not be open to
this Court to decide upon the issues of choice of law, of interpretation
of the contract, or of the extent of its obligation.
The next stage was when France undertook diplornatic action
as a result of the suspension by Norway of payment in gold or in

gold equivalents in pursuance of the provisions of the law of 1923.
There is a difference between France and Norway as to the date
of the adoption of the dispute by the French Government, but
that is unimportant.
France claims that the adoption of the position of the French
bondholders by the French Government-the assertion by France
to Nonvay of the French views as to the obligation of the bonds,
and the refusa1 by Nonvay to concur and act accordingly-trans-
formed this dispute from one between private individuals and the
Nonvegian borrowers into one between France and Norway, but
something more is needed than the mere adoption of a dispute
under the national law to give rise to a "question of international
la\?-" within the meaning of the expression as used in Article 36,
paragraph 2, clause (b). There must have been a breach by Norway

of an obligation under international law due to France.

Sorway contends that the dispute as set forth in the Application
remained a dispute under the national law of Nonvay with which
this Court cannot deal. But 1 have already suggested that the
,4pplication, properly construed, \vas broad enough in its terms to
raise those aspects of the problem which consist solely of questions
of international law, and 1 have also indicated that in my opinion
the issues are now settled, not by the wording of the Application
but by the wording of the Final Submissions of the Government E3IPRCSTS SORT-ÉGIESS (OPIS. DISS. DE JI. REXD) 87
prenait naissance - l'obligataire et l'emprunteur norvégien -
qu'il s'agît de 1'Etat ou de l'une des deux banques. Le Gouverne-

ment français n'avait aucune part à l'opération. Celle-ci s'opérait
sur la base du droit interne et la possibilité d'un conflit existait
entre les différents systèmes juridiques impliqués, le système fran-
qais, le système anglais et le système norvégien. Le fait d'établir
quel était le droit qui régissait un aspect particulier de la question
était un problème destiné à êtrerésolu par la loi qu'appliquait le
for devant lequel l'action était introduite. La Cour appliquait les
règles de droit international privé qui régissent le choix du droit
applicable, et appliquait ensuite le droit choisi aux questions qui

1u1étaient soumises. Ces règleset le droit ainsi choisi appartenaient
les uns et les autres au droit interne, ct non au droit international.
-4 ce stade, l'opération demeurait exclusiveyent sur le plan du
droit interne. Ce serait donc une question où la Cour serait incom-
pétente pour se prononcer, et où il serait nécessaire, si elle traitait
du fond, de dire que l'opération n'est régiepar aucune règlede droit
international. Il n'appartiendrait pas à notre Cour de se prononcer
sur des points tels que le choix du droit applicable, l'interprétation
du contrat ou l'étendue de l',obligation qui en découle.
Le stade suivant s'ouvrit lorsque la France engagea une action

diplomatique à la suite de la suspension par la Norvège du paie-
ment en or ou en valeur or, conformément aux dispositions de la
loi de 1923. La France et la SO~T-ège ne sont pas d'accord sur la
date à laquelle le Gouvernement francais a fait sien le différend,
mais peu importe. s
La France prétend que le fait, pour le Gouvernement français,
d'avoir pris fait et cause pour les porteurs français - l'explication
donnée à la Xorvège du point de vue du Gouvernement français
quant à l'obligation qui découle des emprunts et le refus de la

Sorvège de reconnaître cette manière de voir et d'agir en consé-
quence - a transformé le différend, qui était jusque-là entre des
personnes privées et des en~prunteurs norvégiens, en un différend
entre la France et la Sorvège. Xais il faut quelque chose de plus
que la simple adoption d'un différend, sur la base du droit interne,
pour faire naître un ((point de droit international 11 au sens de
l'expression telle qu'elle figure à l'article 36, paragraphe 2, b. Il
faut qu'il y ait eu violation, par la Sorrège, d'une obligation
contractée envers la France selon le droit international.
La Norvège soutient que le différend, tel qu'il est exposé dans

la requête, demeure un différend relevant du droit interne de la
Sorvège et dont la Cour ne peut connaître. Mais j'ai déjàfait valoir
que la requête, convenablement interprétée est, en ses termes,
suffisamment large pour soulever ces aspects du problème qui
comprennent exclusivement des questions de droit international
et j'ai également indiqué qu'à mon avis, les points en litige sont
actuellement réglés nonpar le texte de la requête, mais par le of the French Republic.

In the French Final Submissions, "On the Merits", the first

paragraph clearly raises the question of discrimination, and the
third paragraph raises the question of whether Nonvay could, in
conformity with the principles of international law, by legislative
action unilaterally modify the substance of the contracts between
Nonvegian borrowers and French bondholders.
In these circumstances, there can be no doubt that questions of
international law are involved and that the Court is competent to
deal with the claim submitted to it. At any rate, there can be no
serious question as to its competence as regards the claim based
on discrimination and as regards the claim based on the law of
December qth, 1923.

Second Aspect: That Nonvay discriminated against the French
bondholders and in favour of the Danish and Swedish bond-
holders.
1 have already referred to this question in dealing with the First

Question, and have mentioned it in discussing the First Aspect
above. It is, howevkr, necessary to develop it further and to
examine the grounds on which Norway has sought to justify the
discrimination.
The fact of discrimination is beyond question, but Norway
agues that there were times when the French bondholders were
more favourably treated than the Danes and Swedes. But two
wrongs do not make a right, and in my opinion the question of
balance of advantage is irrelevant.
Further, 1 cannot help thinking that the payment in Swedish
crowns involved very substantial discrimination. One thing is
certain, and that is that on the 23rd December, 1946, a proposa1
was submitted by France for a settlement of the case, which had
then been a sore spot in Franco-Norwegian relations for twenty-one
years. This proposa1 was in the nature of a compromise, asking that
the French bondholders should be paid in Swedish crowns on their
capital payments, and that the coupons should be paid in Norwegian
crowns. The Nonvegian Government did not even answer this

proposal.
Norway also questions the existence of a rule of international law
requiring equality of treatment, but that is a matter of merits.
What must be borne in mind now is that the question asto whether
such a rule of international law existed was certainly a "question of
international law" within the meaning of Article 36.
Norway relies strongly on the argument that discrimination was
justifiedbecause it was based on good-will. It is not clear whether
it was good-will towards the Danish or Swedish investors or towards
Denmark and Sweden. This question of good-will has been repeat-

83 EMPRUNTS NORVÉGIENS (OPIN. DISS. DE M. READ) 88

texte des conclusions finales du Gouvernement de la République
française.
Dans le cas des conclusions françaises finales (sur le fond », on
soulève nettement, dans le premier paragraphe, la question de la
discrimination et, dans le troisième paragraphe, le point de savoir
si la Norvège pourrait, conformément aux principes du droit inter-
national, modifier unilatéralement par un acte législatifla substance
du contrat entre les emprunteurs norvégienset les porteurs français.
Dans ces conditions, on ne saurait douter que des questions de

droit international ne soient poséeset que la Cour ne soit compé-
tente pour connaître de la demande qui lui a étésoumise. Tout au
moins, on ne peut sérieusement mettre en doute sa compétence,
en ce qui est de la demande fondéesur la discrimination et de la
demande fondéesur la loi du 15 décembre 1923.

Deuxième aspect: La Norvège aurait exercé une discrimination
à l'égarddes porteurs français et en faveur des porteurs danois et
suédois.

J'ai déjà mentionné ce point lorsque j'ai traité de la première
question, et je l'ai mentionné ci-dessus, lors de l'examen du premier
aspect. Il est nécessaire, cependant, de l'étudier plus avant, et
d'examiner les motifs par lesquels la Norvège a cherché à justifier
cette discrimination.
Le fait que celle-ci existe est hors de doute, mais la Norvège
soutient qu'à certains moments les porteurs français ont été traités
plus favorablement que les obligataires danois et suédois. Mais
deux torts ne font pas un droit et, à mon avis, la question relative
à l'équilibre desavantages accordésest sans pertinence.

En outre, je ne puis m'empêcherde penser que le paiement en
couronnes suédoisesimpliquait une très importante discrimination.
Ce qui est certain, c'est que, le3 décembre 1946, la France fitune
proposition en vue du règlement du différendqui avait étéun point
douloureux pendant vingt et un ans dans les relations entre la
France et la Norvège. Selon cette proposition, qui présentait le
caractère d'un compromis, les porteurs français seraient payés en
couronnes suédoises, en ce qui était du capital, et les coupons
seraient versés en couronnes norvégiennes. Le Gouvernement
norvégien n'a mêmepas répondu à cette proposition.
La Norvège conteste également l'existence d'une règle de droit

international exigeant l'égalité de traitement. Mais c'est là une
question de fond. Ce dont il faut se souvenir, c'est que le point de
savoir s'il existait une règlede droit international constituaicertai-
nement (un point de droit international », au sens de l'article 36.
La Norvège se fonde fermement sur l'argument selon lequel la
discrimination était justifiée, parce que fondée sur le bon vouloir.
Il n'est pas clairement indiqué s'il s'agissait de bonne volonté à
l'égard des capitalistes danois ou suédois ou à l'égard duDane-

83 edly raised and discussed by Norway, commencingon the 9th Decem-
ber, 1925, but its meaning and significance are still obscure. There
is no suggestion that the refusa1to accord the same sort of treatment
to France or to the French investors was based on ill-will, and 1
cannot believe that the argument intends to suggest that inter-
national law considers that discrimination, if based on either
good-will or ill-will,eases in some mysterious manner to be dis-
criminatory. At any rate, the question whether good-will can
justify discrimination is a matter of international law and not
of the national law of the respondent State.

Norway also argues that the payments to the. Swedish bond-
holders were ex gratia,and therefore not a proper subject for
cornplaint by France. This argument is based upon the assumption

that the French bondholders had no legal right to get anything
better than Norwegian crowns (orsterling or francs), and that they
had no right to receive gold or gold equivalents. But that is begging
the question, and the objections to the jurisdiction must be dealt
with upon the assumption that the Applicant's contentions with
regard to the meritsare justified and that the Respondent's conten-
tionswith regard to the merits are wrong. The casemust beconsidered
on the assumption that the bonds contained a real gold clause
binding on Nonvay.
It is, of course, true that this question of discrimination has
been an important element in the controversy for thirty-two years,
but it has been imported into dispute before this Court largely by
reason of the justification on which Nonvay relies for its action in
enacting the law of December 15th, 1923, and in establishing the
cours forcé and impairing the obligation of the bonds. That is a
point which 1 shall deal with more fully in discussing the Third

Aspect. But the Nonvegian action has been justified on the basis
of world-wide economic catastrophe in which Nonvay and other
States were compelled to take legislative measures impairing the
obligations of debtors within the country as regards both resident
and non-resident creditors. Such a justification obviously raises
the question as to whether international law, if it sanctions such a
course, permits it where the State in question is discriminating
between different classes of creditors.

1 do not need now to express any opinion on this question of
justification, but 1 have no doubt that it involves questions of
international rather than of national law.

ThirdAsfiect :The French contention that the enactment by Nomray
of extraterritoriallegislation purporting to impair the obligationsmark et de la Suède. Cette question de bonne volonté a étéà
plusieurs reprises soulevée et examinée par la Norvège, depuis le
9 décembre 1925, mais son sens et son importance demeurent
obscurs. Il n'est pas suggéréque le refus d'accorder le mêmetraite-
ment à la France et aux capitalistes français fût fondé sur une
mauvaise volonté, et je ne crois pas que l'argument soit destiné à
suggérerque, selon le droit international, la discrimination, qu'elle
s'appuie sur la bonne ou la mauvaise volonté, cesse de quelque

manière mystérieuse d'avoir un caractère discriminatoire. En tout
cas, le point de savoir si la bonne volonté peut justifier une discri-
mination est une question de drojt international et non une question
relevant du droit interne de 1'Etat défendeur.
La Norvège prétend également que les paiements faits aux obliga-
taires suédoisétaient des paiements ex gratia,et qu'il n'y avait pas
là, pour la France, sujet de se plaindre. Cet argument se fonde sur
l'hypothèse selon laquelle les obligataires français n'auraient eu
juridiquement aucun droit à recevoir mieux que des couronnes
norvégiennes (oudes livres sterling ou des francs) et qu'ils n'auraient
pas eu le droit de recevoir de l'or ou des valeurs or. Mais c'est là
une pétition de principe, et l'on doit examiner les exceptions d'in-

compétence dans l'hypothèse que les thèses du demandeur, quant
au fond, sont justifiées et que celles du défendeur, quant au fond,
sont inexactes. On doit examiner l'affaire dans l'hypothèse que les
obligations comportaient une clause or réelle, qui liait la Norvège.
Bien entendu, il est vrai que cette question de discrimination a
constitué un élémentimportant du litige pendant trente-deux ans.
Mais elle a été introduite dans le différend soumisà la Cour surtout
en raison de l'argument sur lequel la Norvège fonde son adoption
de la loi du 15 décembre 1923, l'institution du cours forcéet l'at-
teinte à l'obligation découlant des titres. C'est là un point que je
traiterai plus complètement lorsque j'examinerai le troisième aspect.
L'action du Gouvernement norvégien a étéjustifiée par la cata-

spophe économique universelle qui a obligéla Norvège et d'autres
Etats à prendre des mesures législatives pour modifier les obliga-
tions des cfébiteursà l'intérieur du pays, à l'égard des créanciers,
aussi bien résidents que non-résidents. Cette justification soulève,
évidemment, la question de savoir si le droit international, au cas
où il autoriserait cette manière de procéder, permettrait de le faire
lorsque 1'Etat dont il s'agit établit une discrimination entre diffé-
rentes catégories de créanciers.
Je n'ai pas besoin d'exprimer maintenant mon opinion sur cette
question de justification, mais je ne doute pas qu'elle ne soulève
des questions de droit international plutôt que de droit interne.

Troisièm aspect :La thèse française d'aprèslaquelle l'adoption, par
la Norvège, d'une législation extra-territorialedestinée à diminuerdue to foreign bondholders resident in France was contrary to
international law.
This contention was raised in the French Final Submissions "On
the Merits", paragraph 3. In the course of the controversy, and
throughout the written and oral proceedings, France has developed
two main arguments along these lines. The first argument is based
upon the view that international law treats the obligations arising
from the marketing of bonds abroad as being something more than

obligations arising under national law. Where, as in this case, the
bonds have been :

(1)marketed abroad;
(2)expressed in several currencies;

(3)payable abroad;
(4)expressed in several languages ;

it is argued that they cannot be repudiated without giving rise to
a breach of international law.
France contends that this position is supported by the practice
of States as indicated by the arbitrations in such matters, especially
in the closing years of the last century and the early years of this
century, and reliance is also placed on Article I of the Hague
Convention of 1907. The terms of this Convention were at first
put fonvard as establishinga legal obligation to subrnit to arbitration
in the matter of the recovery of contract debts. But this position
has been abandoned, and in the later stages France was relying
on the Convention as establishing the nature and character cf the
obligation arising out ofcontract debts claimed from the Govern-
ment of one country by the Govemment of another country as
being due to its nationals.

The French position was contested in al1its phases by Nonvay.

The second French contention arises out of what has been
referred to as the special French doctrine with regard to govern-
mental action within a State impairing the obligation of debts due
to non-resident aliens.Itis contended by France that this doctrine
expresses a broad principle of international law which would
prevent a State from enacting extraterritorial legislation impairing
the contractual rights of non-resident aliens. The French argument
is based largely on this being a general principle of law recognized
by civilized nations, and it is countered by the argument put
fonvard on behalf of Nonvay, which is of a two-fold character-
Nonvay relies largely on the practice of States, and also on theule
of the minimum standard. EMPRUNTS NORVÉGIENS (OPIN. DISS. DE M. READ) 90
les obligations contractées envers les porteurs étrangers résidant
en France, serait contraire au droit international.

Cette thèse a étésoulevéedans les conclusions finales du Gouver-
nement français ((sur le fond »,paragraphe 3. Au cours du litige,
et d'un bout à l'autre de la procédure écriteet orale, la France a
fait valoir, dans cet ordre d'idées,deux arguments principaux. Le

premier se fonde sur la manière de voir suivante: le droit inter-
national considérerait les obligations naissant de la vente des titres
à l'étranger comme quelque chose de plus que les obligations
naissant en vertu du droit interne. Alors que, comme dans le cas
présent, les titres ont été
1) souscrits sur des places étrangères,

2) payables en diverses monnaies,
3) stipuléssur différentes places,

4) rédigés en plusieurslangues,
on soutient que l'on ne peut refuser de reconnaître ces obligations
sans commettre une infraction au droit international.

La France soutient que cette manière de voir est confirméepar la
pratique des Etats, telle que celle-ci ressort des arbitrages auxquels
ont donné lieu ces problèmes, notamment au cours des dernières
années du siècle dernier et au début de ce siècle, et elle s'appuie
égalementsur l'article premier de la convention de LaHaye de 1907.
On a invoqué, en premier lieu, les termes de cette convention en
soutenant qu'ils créaient une obligation juridique de se soumettre
à l'arbitrage, lorsqu'il s'agissait de recouvrer des dettes contrac-
tuelles. Mais on a abandonné cette manière de voir et, aux stades

ultérieurs, la France s'est fondéesur la convention en soutenant que
cette convention établissait la nature et le caractère de l'obligation
que faisaient naître les dettes contractuelles réclaméesau Goiiver-
nement d'un pays par le Gouvernement d'un autre pays, comme
étant dues à des ressortissants de ce dernier.
Le point de vue français a étécontesté à tous ses stades par
la Norvège.
La seconde thèse française se fonde sur ce que l'on a mentionné
comme étant la doctrine française particulière à l'égard de toute

action du Gouvernement d'un Etat tendant à porter atteinte à
l'obligation crééepar des dettes contractées envers des étrangers
non-résidents. La France soutient que cette doctrine exprime un
principe général dedroit international qui empêcherait un Etat
d'adopter des mesures législativesextra-territoriales portant atteinte
aux droits contractuels des étrangers non-résidents. La thèse
française se fonde principalement sur le fait qu'il y aurait là un
principe général dedroit, reconnu par les nations civilisées. La
Norvège lui oppose un double argument: elle se fonde principale-

ment sur la pratique des Etats ainsi que sur la règledite du (stan-
dard minimum )).
859I NORWEGIAN L0.4NS (DISS. OPIN. OF JUDGE READ)

It will thus be seen that the French claixn and the Norwegian
justification in this aspect of the question are both based upon
considerations of international law and have nothing whatever to
do with national law.
It is, of course, impossible for me at the present stage to indicate
my views as to whether France or Norway is right, whether the
matter is considered from the point of view of discrimination or of
extraterritoriality.On the other hand, 1 find insuperable difficulty
in reaching the conclusion that a case involving these issues can be
treated as being solely one of national law; and 1 am forced to

the conclusion that the first Preliminary Objection should be
rejected.

Second Part

In the Preliininary Objections, after arguing that the subject of
the dispute as defined in the Application was within the domain of
municipal law and not of internationallaw, Norway considered that
there could be no possible doubt on this point. If, however, there
should still be some doubt, the Nonvegian Government intimated
that it would rely upon the reservation made by the French
Government in its Declaration of March ~st, 1949. After discussing
this Declaration, it was stated that "convinced that the dispute

which has been brought before the Court by the Application of
July 6th, 1955, is within the domestic jurisdiction, the Norwegian
Government considers itself fully entitled to rely on this right".
In invoking the provision contained in the reservation to the
French Declaration, which provided for the automatic ouster of the
jurisdiction by the unilateral action of the respondent Government,
Norway was exercising a right of a highly technical character, and
the question naturally arises whether there was complete compliance
with al1 of the provisions of the Declaration. The reservation
reads as follows:

"This Declaratioii does not apply to disputes relating to matters
which are essentially within the national jurisdiction as understood
by the Government of the French Republic." (The translation of
the French original has been changed by substituting the word
"disputes" for "differences" inrder to bring the English text into
harmony with the French text .)

Norway, in putting forward this highly technical objection, did
not make any statement or give any evidence indicating that this
dispute related to matters which are essentiallywithin the national
jurisdiction as understood by the Nonvegian Government. It made
a bald statement that it was convinced that the dispute was "within
the domestic jurisdiction", which is quite a different matter. There
86 On constatera donc que la demande française et la justification
norvégienne, en ce qui est de cet aspect de la question, sont l'une
et l'autre fondées sur des considérations de droit international et
n'ont rien à voir avec le droit interne.
Il m'est, bien entendu, impossible, au stade actuel, d'indiquer
mon opinion sur le point de savoir, de la France ou de la Norvège,
laquelle a raison, que la question soit examinée du point de vue de
la discrimination ou de celui de l'extra-territorialité. En revanche,
j'éprouve une difficulté insurmontable à aboutir à la conclusion

qu'une affaire posant de telles questions puisse être considérée
comme relevant seulement du droit interne; et je suis forcé de
conclure au rejet de la première exception préliminaire.

Dezrxiè~nePartie

Dans les exceptions préliminaires, après avoir soutenu que l'objet
du différend, tel qu'il est défini dans la requête, relève du droit
interne et non du droit international, la Norvège a estimé qu'aucun
doute n'était possible sur ce point. S'il en pouvait cependant
subsister, le Gouvernement norvégien a fait savoir qu'il se prévau-
drait de la réserve formuléepar le Gouvernement français dans sa

déclaration du I~~ mars 1949 A.près avoir examiné cette déclara-
tion, le Gouvernement norvégien a dit que cconvaincu que le
différend porté devant la Cour par la requête du 6 juillet 1955
relève de la compétence nationale, il se sent pleinement justifié à
faire usage de ce droit ».
En invoquant la disposition contenue dans la réserve introduite
par la déclaration française et selon laquelle le Gouvernement
défendeur peut, unilatéralement, soustraire d'une manière auto-
matique certaines questions à la juridiction, la Norvège exerce un

droit de caractère hautement technique et la question se pose
naturellement de savoir si l'on s'est entièrement conformé à toutes
les dispositions de la déclaration. La réserve s'exprime en ces
termes :
(Cette déclarationne s'appliquepas aux différendsrelatifs à des
affaires quirelè~rentessentiellement de la compétencenationale
telle qu'elle est entendue par le Gouvernement de la République
française. (On a modifiéla traduction en anglais de l'original
français en substituant le mot anglais «dis$utes))au mot anglais
«diflerence» afin de mettre le texte anglais en harmonie avec le
texte français.)

La Norvège, en soulevant cette exception hautement technique,
n'a pas déclaréni démontréque ce différendeût trait à des questions
relevant essen.tiellementde la compétence nationale, telle qu'elle est

entendue par le Gouvernement norvégien. La Norvège s'est bornée
à dire qu'elle était convaincue que le différend crelevait de la
compétence nationale », ce qui est tout différent. A aucun moment
SGnever at any time has been any question about the dispute being
within the domestic jurisdiction of Norway. The real question has
been whether the dispute was not also and primarily a matter to be
determined not by the Nonvegian law but by international law.

However, Norway made it plain enough that it desired to invoke
the French Declaration.

1 have refused to apply any rigid and purely literal interpretation
to the Application and have insisted that it should be interpreted
so as to give effect to what obviously was the intention of France
and the understanding of Norway. It would be completely incon-
sistent for me to seek to apply a rigid and purely literal interpre-
tation to the words used by Norway when it sought to invoke the
French Declaration. Accordingly, 1 am compelled to reach the
conclusion that Norway did effectively invoke the French Decla-
ration when the point was taken in the Preliminary Objections.

On the other hand, 1do not think that Norway has maintained
its position in this regard.
Having purported to invoke in the Preliminary Objections the
reservation contained in the French Declaration, Nonvay did not
incorporate this subsidiary point in its actual Submission. Indeed,
the actual Submission relating to the first Preliminary Objection
was inconsistent with the notion embodied in the Declaration. It
asked the Court to find that the subject of the dispute was within
the sphere of municipal law and not of international law, while the

reservation envisaged a position in which that was not to be
decided by the Court, but by the understanding of the Nonvegian
Government .
The point was not xentioned by Xorway in the Counter-Memorial,
in the Rejoinder or in the Oral Proceedings. Further, in the Nor-
wegian Final Submissions of May ~3rd-"On the Preliminary
Objectionsu-the Court is asked to make a finding that "1. The
subject of the dispute, as defined in the Application, is within the
domain of municipal law and not of international law." This
actual Submission by Nonvay is inconsistent with the maintenance
of the position taken in the Preliminary Objections when the French
Declaration was invoked. Here again, the forma1 request that the

Court should make this finding is utterly inconsistent with the
idea the decision should be made by Norway and not by the Court.

It might be thought that, notwithstanding the omission of
this point from the Nonvegian Final Submissions, it was maintaineel
in the closing statements made on behalf of Norway during the
Oral Proceedings.il n'y a eu de doute quant au point de savoir si le différendrelevait
de la compétence nationale de la Norvège. La véritable question
consistaità savoir si le différendne portait pas également et prin-
cipalement sur une question qui devait êtretranchée non sur la
base du droit norvégien, mais sur celle du droit international. Quoi

qu'il en soit, la Norvège a montré, de façon suffisamment claire,
qu'elle désirait invoquer la déclaration française.
J'ai refusé d'appliquer à la requêteune interprétation rigide et
purement littérale et j'ai insisté pour qu'elle soit interprétée de
manière à donner effet à ce qui était évidemment l'intention de la
France et à ce qu'entendait la Norvège. Il serait, de ma part,
entièrement illogique de chercher à donner une interprétation
rigide et purement littérale aux termes dont s'est servi la Norvège

lorsqu'elle a cherché à invoquer la déclaration française. Je me vois
donc obligéde conclure que la Norvège a invoqué effectivement la
déclaration française, lorsque la question a étésoulevée dans les
exceptions préliminaires.
D'autre part, il ne me paraît pas que la Norvège ait maintenu sa
position à cet égard.

Ayant exprimé l'intention d'invoquer, dans les exceptions préli-
minaires, la réserve contenue dans la déclaration française, la
Norvège n'a pas fait figurer ce point subsidiaire dans sa conclusion
effective. En fait, la conclusion effective, qui avait trait à la pre-
mière exception préliminaire, était incompatible avec la notion
inséréedans la déclaration. La Cour était priéede dire que l'objet
du différend relevait di1droit interne et non du droit international.
alors que, dans la réserve,on envisageait une situation qui ne devait
pas êtrerégléepar la Cour, mais selon ce qu'entendait le Gouver-
nement norvégien.

La question n'a pas étémentionnée par la Norvège dans le
contre-mémoire, dans la duplique, ni au cours des débats oraux.
En outre, dans les conclusions finales du Gouvernement norvégien
du 23 mai - ((quant aux exceptions préliminaires ))-, la Cour est
invitée à dire que « I.L'objet du différend,tel qu'il est définidans
la requête, relève du droit interne et non du droit international. ))
Cette conclusion même de la Norvège est incompatible avec le
maintien de la position prise par elle, dans les exceptions prélimi-

naires, lorsque fut invoquéela déclaration française. Ici encore, la
demande formelle selon laquelle la Cour devrait se prononcer dans
ce sens est absolument incompatible avec l'idée que la décision
devrait êtreprise par la Norvège et non par la Cour.
On pourrait néanmoins penser que, nonobstant l'omission de ce
point dans les conclusions finales du Gouvernement norvégien, le
noint a été maintenu dans les déclarations Dar lesauelles se sont

ierminés les exposés oraux de la Norvègeau couis de la procé-
dure orale.93 NORWEGIAN LOANS (DISS. OPIN. OF JUDGE READ)
At the beginning it was said, on behalf of Norway:

"In these circumstances, 1 should not'like to take advantage of
the Court's patience by repeating what we have already had the
honour to set forth in ouroralarguments. We maintain our positions
in their entirety both as regards the merits and as regards the
Preliminary Objections."

It is clear that Norway here was maintaining the positioil which
had been taken in the course of the oral arguments and that no
reference was intended to any matter touched upon in the Written
Pleadings but not dealt with in the course of the Oral Proceedings.
Later, in dealing with the fourth Objection, which concerned
exhaustion of local remedies, it was stated:

"Al1that we have written and al1that we have submitted orally
to the Court in regard to our fourth Objection therefore stillstands."

In this instance it was clearly intended, as regards the fourth
Objection, to maintain al1 positions which had been taken during
the Written Proceedings whether or not they had been maintained
in the course of the Oral Proceedings.
The final position was taken towards the end when it was said:

"Siie Norwegian Government maintains its Submissions in tlieir
entirety as 1 presented them at the sitting on May 23rd..."

1have no doubt in my own mind that the Norwegian Agent and
Counselrealized thatit wasno longer proper to rely upon the French
Declaration. In view of the form which the dispute had taken in
the course of the Written and Oral Proceedings and cspecially
having in mind that Norway had used 134 pages in the Rejoinder
in arguing the international questions involved in the merits of the
dispute, it was no longer possible seriously to suggest that Norway
understood that the actual dispute before the Court related "to
matters which are essentially within the national jurisdiction as
understood by the" Norwegian Government.

It is true that Norway has not formally abandoned the course

Xvhich it adopted when it purported to invoke the reservation
contained in the French Declaration. Nevertheless, 1 am compelled
to reach the conclusion that Norway has not maintained that
position and that it is necessary to comply with Norway's request
to deal with the case on the basis of the Norwegian Final Sub-
missions of May ~3rd.
But even if 1thought that Norway had maintained its Objection
based on the reservation to the French Declaration, 1 should still
have difficulty in accepting an objection to the jurisdiction of the
Court based upon the Second Part of the first Preliminary Objection. Au début, on a dit, au nom de la Norvège

((Dans ces conditions, je ne voudrais pas abuser de la patience
dela Couren répétantce que nous avonsdéjàeu l'honneur d'exposer
dans nos plaidoiries orales. Nous maintenons intégralement nos
positions tant sur le fond que sur les exceptions préliminaires))

Il est clair qu'ici la Norvège maintenait la position prise par elle
au cours des débats oraux, et que l'on n'entendait aucunement se
référer à une question examinée au cours de la procédure écrite,
mais non traitée au cours des plaidoiries.
Plus tard, à propos de la quatrième exception qui avait trait à
l'épuisement des recours internes, on a dit:

((Tout ce que nous avons écritet exposé à la barre au sujet de
notre quatrième exception demeure donc acquis. ))

L'intention était donc clairement, en ce qui est de la quatrième
exception, de maintenir toutes les positions prises au cours de la
procédure écrite, qu'elles aient ou non été maintenues au cours de
la procédure orale.
La position finale a étéprise vers la fin des débats, lorsqu'il a
étédit :

«Le Gouvernement norvégienmaintient intégralement ses conclu-
sions, telles que je les ai formuléesdans la séancedu 23 mai ..))
Jc ne saurais douter que l'agent et les conseils du Gouvernement

norvégien se sont rendu compte qu'il ne convenait plus de se
fonder sur la déclaration française. Etant donné la forme prise par
le différend, au cours de la procédure écrite et de la procédure
orale, et notamment si l'on se souvenait que la Norvège avait
consacré 134 pages de sa duplique à traiter des questions interna-
tionales que soulevait le fond du différend, il devenait impossible
de prétendre sérieusement que la Norvège envisageât le différend
effectivement soumis à la Cour comme relatif à ((des affaires qui
relèvent essentiellement de la compétence nationale telles qu'elle
est entendue par le »Gouvernement norvégien.

Il est vrai que la Korvège n'a pas formellement renoncé à la
méthodc adoptée par elle, lorsqu'elle a eu l'intention d'invoquer la
réserve contenue dans la déclaration française. Néanmoins, je me
vois forcé de conclure que la Norvège n'a pas maintenu cette
position et qu'il est nécessaire d'accéder à la demande norvégienne
de traiter l'affaire sur la base des conclusions finales déposées le
23 mai au nom du Gouvernement norvégien.
Mêmesi je pensais que la Norvège a maintenu son exception
fondée sur la réserve inséréedans la déclaration française, j'éprou-
verais encore des difficultés à accepter une objection d'incompé-
tence fondée sur la seconde partie de la première exception pré-

liminaire.
SS My first difficulty relates to the text of the Declaration. It is
necessary, for Norway to succeed, to establish that the Nonvegian
Government understands that the dispute relates to matters which
are essentially within the Nonvegian national jurisdiction. It is not
sufficient to establish that the Nonvegian Government $retends tu
understand, or declaresth.atit understands that the dispute comes
essentially within the scope of Norwegian national law. The text
does not use the word "pretends" or "declares" and it does use
language that suggests that it had in mind a genuine understanding.

When the provisions of the reservation were invoked by Norway,
it was not contended that they conferred an arbitrary power to
oust the jurisdiction of the Court. Nonvay took the position that
"should a Government seek to rely upon it with a view to denying
the jurisdiction of the Court in a case which manifestly did not
involve a 'matter which is essentially within the national juris-
diction' it would be committing an abus de droit which would not
prevent the Court from acting".
1 am in agreement with the position taken by Norway in this
regard, but 1 do not think that it goes quite far enough. A case
might involve a matter essentially within the national jurisdiction
and yet not come within the scope of "disputes relating to matters
which are essentially within the national jurisdiction". Further, 1
should be disinclined to bring notions of "good faith" and abus de
droitinto the question. Practically speaking, it1ithink, impossible
for. an international tribunal to examine a dispute between two
sovereign States on the basis of either good or bad faith or of
abuse of law.
Nevertheless, 1 think that the basic principle underlying the
position taken by Nonvay in this regard should be accepted.

1 think that the wording of the reservation to the Declaration
properly construed means that the respondent State, in invok-
ing the reservation, must establish that there is a genuine
understanding, i.e. that the circumstances are such that it would be
reasonably possible to reach the understanding that the dispute
was essentially national. Whether the circumstances are such is
not a matter for decision by a respondent Government, but by the
Court. But, assuming that such circumstances existed, the conclusioil
reached by a respondent Government could not be reviewed by
the Court.
1 am unable to accept the view that the reservation should be
interpreted as giving the respondent Government an arbitrary
power to settle any question of jurisdiction which arises by the
assertion that the Government understands that the matter is
essentially within the national jurisdiction regardless of whether
that assertion is true or false.
Such a construction of the clause would lead to something
unreasonable and absurd. It would, of course, if that interpretation

89 La première difficulté que j'éprouve concerne le texte de la
déclaration. Pour que la Norvègeparvienne à ses fins, ilfaut établir

que le Gouvernement norvégien entend que le différend est relatif
à des affaires qui relèvent essentiellement de la compétence natio-
nale de la Norvège. Il ne suffit pas d'établir que le Gouvernement
norvégien prétendentendre ou déclarequ'il entend que le différend
relève essentiellement de son droit national. Le mot « prétend ))
ou le mot ((déclare » ne figurent pas dans le texte, dont les termes
suggèrent qu'il s'agissait vraiment de ce qu'entendait le Gouverne-
ment norvégien.
Lorsque la Norvège a invoqué les dispositions de la réserve, il

n'a pas étésoutenu que celles-ci conférassent un pouvoir arbitraire
d'écarter la compétence de la Cour. La Norvège a déclaré :ccqu'un
gouvernement qui se retrancherait derrière elle pour déniercompé-
tence à la Cour dans un cas où il ne s'agirait hanifestement pas
d'une affaire relevant essentiellement de la compétence nationale
commettrait un abus de droit, devant lequel la Cour ne serait pas
désarmée D.
Je suis à cet égard d'accord avec la Norvège, bien que je ne
pense pas qu'elle aille assez loin. Une affaire peut impliquer une
question relevant essentiellement de la compétence nationale sans

entrer pour cela dans-le cadre des ((différendsrelatifs à des affaires
qui relèvent essentiellement de la compétencenationale ».En outre,
je ne serais pas enclin pour ma part à introduire en la matière les
notions de bonne foi et d'abus de droit. Je crois qu'il est pratique-
ment impossible à un tribunal international d'examiner un litige
entre deux Etats souverains sur la base soit de la bonne ou de la
mauvaise foi, soit d'un abus de droit.
J'estime néanmoins qu'il faut accepter le principe qui est à la
base de la position prise par la Norvège à cet égard. Je pense que

le texte de la réserve inséréedans la déclaration, correctement
interprété, signifie que 1'Etat défendeur, en invoquant la réserve,
doit établir sa sincérité, c'est-à-dire que les circonstances de
l'espècepermettaient raisonnablement de conclure que le différend
était d'ordre essentiellement national. Le point de savoir si les
circonstances de l'espèceont bien ce caractère ne relève pas de la
décision du Gouvernement défendeur, mais de celle de la Cour,
Mais en admettant que de telles circonstances aient étéréunies,
la conclusion du Gouvernement défendeur ne pourrait êtreexa-

minée par la Cour.
Je ne puis accepter l'opinion que la réserve doit être inter-
prétéecomme conférant au Gouvernement défendeur un pouvoir
arbitraire de régler tout point de compétence en affirmant qu'il
entend que l'affaire relève essentiellement de sa compétencenatio-
nale, et cela, indépendamment du point de savoir si cette affirma-
tion est justifiée ounon.
Pareille interprétation de la clause conduirait à des résultats
déraisonnables et absurdes. Si elle était acceptée, la conclusionis accepted, be necessary to conclude that the Declaration ran
contrary to Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute, and was nul1
and void.
But this interpretation runs directly contrary to the rul~ which
was laid down by the Permanent Court in the PolishPostal Service
in Danzig (P.C.I.J.,Series B, No. II, p. 39).

"It is a cardinal principle of interpretation that words must be
interpreted in the sense which they would normally have in their
context, unless such interpretation would lead to something
unreasonable or absurd."

This rule was approved in the Advisory Opinion of this Court :
Competenceof Assembly~egardingadmission to the United Natio~zs,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, at page 8.

If we apply the principles of this rule to the present case we
find that the relevant words in their natural and ordinary meaning
make sense in their context and that, in my opinion, is an end of
the matter. It is inadmissible, by a process of interpretation, to
rewrite the clause in question as if it had read: "disputes relating
to matters as regards which the Government of the French Repub-
lic has declared that it understands that they are essentially
within the national jurisdiction". The words actually used, "as
understood", if given their natural and ordinary meaning, connote
a real understanding, and not a fictitious understanding unrelated
to the facts.
Having these considerations in mind, it is necessary for me to
examine the question whether the circumstances are such that it
would be reasonably possible to reach an understanding that the
dispute was essentially national.

At the time when Norway invoked the reservation there can be
no doubt as to the propriety of the action. At that time, it was
certainly reasonably possible, considering the Application alone
together with any light that had been thrown upon it by the
Memorial, to reach such an understanding. But, as a result of the
course taken in the Written and Oral Proceedings, it is now possible
to look at the dispute with full knowledge of its essential character.
The dispute, in the form which it has now taken, and in which it is
expressed in the French Final Submissions, involves a threefold
claim based on: discrimination, extraterritoriality and the gold
clause. The first two are based solely on international law while
the third is based primarily on national law. 1have already pointed
out that throughout the Written and Oral Proceedings, the first
and the second claims have been discussed at great length by France
and at much greater length by Norway. In these circumstances,
1 find it impossible to reach the conclusion that Norway could have
reasonably understood that the case was essentially within the
Norwegian national jurisdiction.

90évidente et nécessaire en serait que la déclaration, contraire à
l'article36, paragraphe 6,du Statut est nulle et non avenue.

Mais cette interprétation est directement opposée à la règle

établie par la Cour permanente dans l'affaire du Servicepostalpolo-
nais à Dantzig (C. P. J. I.,Série B, no II, p. 39):
((C'est un principe fondamental d'interprétation que les mots
doivent être interprétés selon le sens qu'ils auraient normalement
dans leur contexte, à moins que l'interprétation ainsi donnéene
conduise à des résultatsdéraisonnablesou absurdes. ))

La règle ainsi poséea étéapprouvée dans l'avis consultatif rendu
par la Cour en l'affaire de la Compétencede l'Assembléegénérale
pour l'admission d'un Etat aux Nations Unies, C.I. J. Recueil

19-Si nous en appliquons le principe à la présente espèce, nous

voyons que les termes pertinents, pris dans leur sens naturel et
ordinaire, sont clairs dans leur contexte, ce qui, à mes yeux, règle
la question. Il est inadmissible que par voie d'interprétation on
rédige à nouveau la clause en,guestion, comme si elle disait « diffé-
rends relatifs à des affaires au sujet desquelles le Gouvernement de
la République française déclare qu'il entend qu'elles relèvent essen-
tiellement de la compétence nationale 1).Les termes effectivement
employés: ((telle qu'elle est entendue », si on leur donne leur sens
naturel et ordinaire, désignent une notion véritable et non une
conception fictive, sans rapport avec les faits.
Sur la base de ces considérations, je dois examiner si les circons-
tances de l'espècepermettraient raisonnablement de conclure que
le litige est d'ordre essentiellement national.

Lorsque la Norvège a invoqué la réserve, il ne pouvait y avoir
de doute quant à la légitimité decette manière d'agir. C'est cer-
tainement avec raison qu'on pouvait alors, sur la seule base de la
requête ainsi que des éclaircissements apportés à son sujet dans le
mémoire, concevoir cette solution. Mais, en conséquence de la posi-
tion prise dans les écritures et les plaidoiries, il est maintenant
possible de considérer le litige en pleine connaissance des ses carac-
tères essentiels. Sous la forme qu'il a prise aujourd'hui et souslaquelle
il est définidans les conclusionsfinales du Gouvernement français, le
litige implique une triple demande fondée surla discrimination,
l'extra-territorialité et la clause or. Les deux premières demandes

reposent uniquement sur le droit international, tandis que la troi-
sième repose principalement sur le droit interne. J'ai déjà souligné
que, tout au long des écritures et des plaidoiries, la première et la
seconde ont été abondamment discutéespar la France et plus abon-
damment encore par la Norvège. Dans ces conditions,il m'est impos-
sible de conclure quela Norvège aurait pu raisonnablement entendre
que l'affaire relevait essentiellement de sa compétence nationale.

90 Accordingly, having considered both the First Part and the
Second Part, 1 have reached the conclusion that the first Nor-
wegian Preliminary Objection, as embodied in the first recital
to the Submissions of the Agent of the Norwegian Government on
May 23rd, 1957, should be rejected.

Third Question-The Norwegian contention that "As to thatpart
of the claim which relates to thebond certificates issued by the
Mortgage Bank of Norway and theSmall Holding and Workers'
Housing Bank of Norway, these two Banks have a legal person-
ality separate from that of the Norwegian State; the action
cannot therefore be brought against that State as a borrower ;
whereas moreover the jurisdiction of the Court is limited to
disputes between States ;".

1 cannot accept the Norwegian contention as regards these
Banks. 1 agree that they have separate legal personalities distinct
from that of the Norwegian State, but that does not wholly dispose
of the matter.
The record shows that in 1954 a bondholder brought an action
against theMortgage Bank ofNorway in aFrench court, the Tribunal
de la Seine. The Bank objected to the jurisdiction of that Court
on the ground that it was an instrumentality of the Norwegian
Government, and for that purpose furnished the court with a
certificate, signed by the Minister of Finance of Norway and dated
28th December, 1931, to that effect. It is established that the Bank,
both in the matter of the litigation and in the course followed as
regards gold payments, payments in Swedish crowns, and other
matters in dispute, was not acting as a separate personality with
a separate power of decision, but was acting on the basis of the
advice, instruction and approval of the Minister of Justice of
Norway and the Minister of Finance of Norway. This has been the
case since the 9th December, 1925, as is proved by Annex V to the
Memorial. The proceedings in the French court were concluded in
March, 1956, by a default judgment owing to the unwillingness of
the Bank to appear and contest the proceedings on the merits.

It thus appears that the Norwegian State completely identified
itself with the Bank for the purpose of preventing the bondholder
from obtaining a judicial determination of his rights. Itis a sound
doctrine that a party cannot blow both hot and cold at the same
time, and Norway cannot retreat from the position of complete
identificationtaken in 1931, and persisted in in the proceedings
before the French court, for the purpose of preventing this Court
from adjudicating upon the matter. C'est pourquoi, après avoir examiné la première et la deuxième
parties de la première exception préliminaire norvégienne, j'en
arriveà la conclusion que cette exception, telle qu'elle est inscrite
dans la première des conclusions déposéespar le Gouvernement
norvégien le 23 mai 1957, doit êtrerejetée.

Troisième question - La conclusion norvégienne d'après laquelle
((pour la partie dela demande qui concerneles titres émispar la
Banque hypothécairede Norvègeet par la Banque norvégiennedes
propriétésagricoleset habitations ouvrières,ces deux banques ont
une personnalité juridique distincte de celle de1'Etat norvégien;
l'action ne peut donc êtredirigée contre ce dernier en qualité
d'emprunteur; et, par ail leu;^la compétence de la Cour est
limitée aux différends entre Etats; ».

Je ne saurais me rallier à la thèse norvégienne relative à ces
banques. Je reconnais qu'elles ont une personnalité juridique
distincte de celle de 1'Etat norvégien, mais cela ne suffit pas à
réglerla question.
Le dossier montre qu'en 1954 un porteur d'obligations a intenté
une action contre la Banque hypothécaire de Norvège devant un
tribunal français, celui de la Seine. La banque a opposéune excep-
tion d'incompétence fondéesur le motif qu'elle est une émanation
du Gouvernement norvégien.Elle a, dans ce but, remis au tribunal
une déclaration en ce sens, signéepar le ministre des Finances de
Norvège et datéedu 28 décembre 1931. Il est établi que la banque,
aussi bien en ce qui concerne le procès que la méthode suivie en
matière de paiements en or ou de paiements en couronnes sué-
doises, et pour les autres questions en litige, n'agissait pas en tant
que personnalité distincte disposant d'un pouvoir de décision

séparé, maissur la base des avis, des instructions et de l'approba-
tion du ministre de la Justice et du ministre des Finances de
Norvège. Et il en a étéainsi depuis le 9 décembre 1925, ainsi que le
prouve l'annexe V au mémoire.L'action intentée devant le tribunal
français prit fin en mars1956sur un jugement par défaut, en raison
du refus de la banque de comparaître et de discuter le fond.
Il en ressort que 1'Etat norvégien s'est complètement identifié
avec la banque dans le but d'empêcher l'obligataired'obtenir une
appréciation judiciaire de ses droits. En bonne doctrine, une partie
ne saurait souffler en mêmetemps le chaud et le froid, et la Norvège
ne saurait se départir de la position de complète identification
qu'elle a prise en 1931 et dans laquelle elle a persisté au cours du
procès intenté devant le tribunal français, en vue de l'empêcherde
statuer sur le différend.Fourth Question-The Norwegian contention that "The holders
of bond certificates for whose protection the French Government
considers itself entitled to institute international proceedings
have not first exhausted the local remedies."

From the very commencement of the diplomatic negotiations
up to the present time, Norway has consistently and persistently
insisted that the bondholders should resort to the Norwegian courts
for the purpose of having these courts interpret the clauses in the
bonds and determine the nature and extent of the obligations to
the borrowers thereunder. But, at the same time and just as
consistently and persistently, Norway has asserted that the question
has been governed by the law of 15th December, 1923, and that

that law is applicable to and binding upon foreigners. 1 have
quoted above the actual statement by Norway, made at the
commencement of the controversy.
The rule of international law requiring the exhaustion of the
local remedies is of great importance. When a State adopts the
cause of its nationals as against a respondent State in a dispute
which originally was one of national law, itis important to obtain
the ruling of the local courts with regard to the issues of fact and
law involved, before the international aspects are dealt with by an
international tribunal. It is also important that the respondent
State which is being charged with breach of international law
should have a fair opportunity to rectify the position through its
own tribunals. It is necessary to begin the consideration of the
fourth Preliminary Objection with the assumption that France
must establish resort to an exhaustion of local remedies before the

claims of the French bondholders can be submitted to this Court.
France has put forward three reasons for not resorting to the
domestic tribunals in this case.
In the first place, Francesuggests that the rule with regard to
the necessity for exhaustion of local remedies is limited to cases in
which the aggrieved individuals have taken up residence within
the jurisdiction of the respondent Government and thus consented
to the exercise by the tribunals of that country of jurisdiction over
them.
France has not been able toput forward any persuasive authority
for accepting this limitation on the application of the rule and,
indeed, the weight of authority is the other way.
In the second place, France also contends that the proper law
of the contract is French and that the proceedings could be under-
taken in the French courts. But this is a matter of private inter-
national law on which 1 do not propose to express any opinion.

Itis not directly relevant to the application of the rule of exhaustion
of local remedies which, as a rule of public international law, is
92Quatrième question - La conclusion norvégienne d'après laquelle
((Les porteurs de titres pour la protection desquels le Gouver-
nement français se croit fondé à saisir la juridiction internatio-
nale n'ont pas préalablement épuisé les recoursinternes. »

Depuis le tout début des négociations diplomatiques jusqu'à ce
jour, la Norvège a fait valoir avec constance et avec persistance
que les obligataires devaient s'adresser aux tribunaux norvégiens
afin que ceux-ci interprètent les clauses des emprunts et déter-
minent la nature et la portée des obligations qui en découlent pour
les emprunteurs. Mais en même temps, et avec la mêmeconstance
et la mêmepersistance, la Norvège a déclaréque la matière était
régiepar la la loi du 15 décembre 1923, et que cette loi était appli-
cable et opposable aux étrangers. J'ai cité plus haut les déclara-
tions faites par la Norvège au début de la controverse.

La règlede droit international relative à l'épuisement desrecours
internes est d'une haute importance. Lorsqu'un Etat prend fait
et cause pour l'un de ses ressortissants contre un Etat défendeur,
dans un différend qui relevait primitivement du droit interne, il
importe d'obtenir une décisiondes tribunaux internes sur les points

de fait et de droit en cause, avant qu'un tribunal international ne
connaisse des aspects internationaux de l'affaire. Il importe égale-
ment que 1'Etat défendeuraccuséde violation du droit international
ait une occasion équitablede rectifier son attitude par l'intermédiaire
de ses propres tribunaux. Il faut examiner la quatrième exception
préliminaire en partant de cette hypothèse que la France devait
faire état de l'épuisement des recours internes avant de pouvoir
soumettre à la Cour les réclamations de ses porteurs d'obligations.
La France a fait valoir trois raisons de ne pas recourir aux
tribunaux internes en l'espèce.
En premier lieu, elle a soutenu que la règle de l'épuisement
nécessaire des recours internes se limite aux cas dans lesquels les
plaignants individuels ont fixéleur résidence dans le ressort de
1'Etat défendeur, consentant ainsi à se soumettre à la juridiction
de ses tribunaux.

La France n'a pas invoqué de précédentpersuasif sur cette
limitation du champ d'application de la règle; l'ensemble des
précédents esten réalitédans l'autre sens.
En second lieu, la France soutient également que le droit du
contrat est le droit français et que les procès peuvent êtrejugéspar
les tribunaux français. Mais il s'agit là d'un point de droit inter-
national privé, sur lequel je n'ai pas l'intention de me prononcer.
Cela ne concerne pas directement la règle de l'épuisement des
recours internes, laquelle, en tant que règle de droit international

92concerned with the exhaustion of remedies available in the respon-
dent State.
In the third place, France contends that the bondholders should
be excused from having undertaken proceedings in the Norwegian
courts because such proceedings would offer no reasonable prospect
of establishing their rights.
Here we must again draw a clear-cut line between the original
dispute based on national law and the dispute before this Court
which is based upon international law. In this Court, the main
complaints against Norway on the international plane are:

1st-discrimination ;

2nd-extraterritoriality ;
3rd-the gold clause issue.

The bondholder could not possibly bring proceedings in the
Norwegian courts with regard to the first or the second issues. His
only course of action was a suit for breach of contract.
The question, therefore, is whether the bringing of an action in
the Norwegian courts by a French bondholder is a course which
could be reasonably expected of him, or whether it would have been
a procedure of obvious futility.
1have difficulty in reaching the conclusion that the bondholder
could reasonably have been expected to bring proceedings in the
Norwegian courts. Since 9th December, 1925,he hashadthe notion
hammered into his head by the Norwegian Government that such
a course would be futile because the matter was governed by the
law of 15th December, 1923. If he had brought an action and had
persuaded the Norwegian court that there was a real gold clause
in his bond, he would have met an insuperable barrier in the law of
1923. It would have been in vain for him to have argued that the

enactment of that law was contrary to the rules ofinternational law.
It has been suggested inthe Oral Proceedings that he might have
asked the court to do one of two things-namely, to interpret the
law as being inapplicable to foreigners, or to hold that the law-was
unconstitutional by reason of its retroactive character. But the
French bondholder had never heard of these possibilities, neither
of which was suggested at any time in the course of the diplomatic
negotiations or in the course of the negotiations which took place
between the French National Association and the Mortgage Bank.
In the fourth place, it has been argued that the rule with regard
to exhaustion of local remedies has no application where the rights
of the applicant national have been impaired by the direct inter-
vention of the respondent Government or Parliament. If there ever
was a case in which the respondent Government and Parliament
had intervened to impair the rights of non-resident aliens, it is in
the present instance. It is obvious from the terms of the Note of

9th December, 1925, that the Mortgage Bank was not acting underpublic, vise l'épuisement des recours dans le pays défendeur.

En troisième lieu, la France soutient que les obligataires auraient
dû êtredispensésd'intenter des actions devant les tribunaux nor-
végiens, de telles actions ne leur offrant pas d'espoir raisonnable de
faire valoir leurs droits.

Là encore, nous devons établir une distinction nette entre le
différend original, fondésur le droit interne, et le litige soumis à
la Cour, qui repose sur le droit international. Devant la Cour, les
principaux chefs de réclamation contrela Norvègesur le plan inter-
national sont :
1) la discrimination,
2) l'extra-territorialité,

3) la question de la clause or.
L'obligataire ne pouvait intenter d'action devant les tribunaux
norvégiens sur la base du premier ou du second chef. Son seul
moyen d'agir était d'intenter une action en rupture de contrat.

La question est donc de savoir si l'on pouvait raisonnablement
attendre du porteur français d'obligations qu'il introduisit une
instance devant les tribunaux norvégiens,ou si cette procédure eût
étéd'une inutilité évidente.
J'éprouve quelque difficultéà conclure que l'on pouvait raison-
nablement attendre du porteur d'obligations qu'il estât devant les
tribunaux norvégiens. Depuis le g décembre1925,le Gouvernement
norvégienlui a enfoncédans la têtecette idéequ'un tel recours eût
été vain, car l'affaire était régiepar la loi du 15 décembre 1923.
S'il avait intenté une action et convaincu le tribunal norvégienque
son obligation comportait une clause or réelle, il se serait heurté
à la barrière insurmontable de la loi de 1923. C'est en vain qu'il

eût fait valoir que la mise en vigueur de cette loi était contraire
aux règles du droit international.
On a dit au cours des plaidoiries qu'il aurait pu demander au
tribunal de prendre l'une des deux mesures suivantes: interpréter
la loi comme inapplicable aux étrangers ou dire qu'elle étaitincons-
titutionnelle, en raison de son caractère rétroactif. Mais le porteur
français d'obligations n'avait jamais entendu parler de pareilles
éventualités,ni l'une ni l'autre ne lui avait été suggérée à aucun
moment des négociations diplomatiques ou des négociations entre
l'Association nationale française et la Banque hypothécaire.
En quatrième lieu, il a été soutenuque la règle de l'épuisement
des recours internes ne s'applique pas lorsque les droits du ressor-
tissant demandeur ont étéatteints par une intervention directe du

Gouvernement défendeur ou de son Parlement. S'ily a jamais eu un
cas dans lequel le Gouvernement défendeur et son Parlement sont
intervenus pour modifier les droits d'étrangers non résidents, c'est
bien le cas présent. Il ressort avec évidence des termes de la note
du g décembre 1925 que la Banque hypothécaire n'agissait pas deits own motion but under pressure from the Minister of Justice
and the Minister of Finance. Further, the Storthing, the supreme
legislative authority, inenacting this law was directly intervening
so as to impair the rights of the French bondholders. Here 1am
not suggesting that either the Minister of Justice, the Minister of
Finance, the Norwegian Government or the Storthing adopted and
followed any course that was improper, but when 1 am dealing
with an objection to the jurisdiction1 am compelled to assume as
against Norway matters which might wellbe changed on considera-
tion of the merits.
In view ofthese circumstances 1 find difficulty in upholding the
fourth Norwegian objection, and am led to the view that it should
be rejected.
*
* *
Fifth Question-The Norwegian request that the Court should
"adjudge and declare that the claim put forward by the Appli-
cation of the French Government of July 6th, 1955, is not
admissible".

1have already given my reasons for thinking that the claim of
the French Government, with which the Court is now dealing, is
the claim as set forth in the French Final Submissions. In a sense
therefore, the Fifth Question is hardly relevant. But, construing the
question as relating to the claim before the Court, 1 am of the
opinion that itis not inadmissible. To appreciate the position, it is
necessary to bear in mind that there are three complaints before
the Court.
The first is the charge by France that Norway discriminated
against the French bondholders, contrary to theules ofinternational
law. This charge, which 1 have been calling "discrimination", is for-
mulated in the first paragraph of the French Submissions on the
merits.

The second is the charge by France that Norway, by unilateral
action in violation of the rules of international law, enacted legis-
lation impairing the obligation of the bonds, to the detriment of the
French investors. This charge, which 1have been calling "extra-
territoriality"is formulated in the third paragraph of those
Submissions.
These elements of the dispute are causes of action which, in my
opinion, are admissible. This Court alone is competent to dispose
of them. They cannot be referred to the Norwegian courts, because
those courts are not competent to dispose of a dispute, under
international law, between France and Norway. The complaints, as

regards discrimination and extraterritoriality,do not touch the
breach of any legal obligation owed by Norway to the French
bondholders. They relate solely to the obligations imposed on
Norway by international law vis-à-vis France.
94son propre mouvement, mais sous la pression du ministre de la
Justice et du ministre des Finances. Au surplus, en promulguant
la loi, le Storthing, autorité législative suprême,intervenait direc-
tement pour modifier les droits des porteurs français d'obligations.
Je ne suggèrenullement ici que le ministre de la Justice, le ministre
des Finances, le Gouvernement norvégien ou le Storthing aient
adopté et suivi une manière d'agir non légitime,mais, en présence
d'une exception d'incompétence, je suis obligé d'admettre contre
la Norvège des hypothèses qui pourraient fort bien êtremodifiées

au cours de l'examen au fond.
Dans ces conditions, j'estime difficile de retenir la quatrième
exception norvégienne et j'en arrive à l'opinion qu'elle doit être
rejetée.
* * *

Cinquième question - La demande norvégienne tendant à ce qu'il
plaise à la Cour (dire et juger que la demande introduite par la
requête du Gouvernement français du 6 juillet1955 n'est pas
recevable ».
J'ai déjà indiqué mes raisons de penser que la demande du
Gouvernement français dont la Cour a présentement à connaître
est celle qui figure dans les conclusions finales françaises. La cin-
quième question est donc, dans ce sens, à peine pertinente. Mais,
interprétant la question comme touchant à la demande soumise à
la Cour, j'estime qu'elle n'est pas recevable. Il convient, pour
apprécierla situation, de se souvenir que la Cour est en présencede

trois demandes.
La première est la prétention française d'aprèslaquelle la Norvège
aurait commis une discrimination au détriment des porteurs
français d'obligations et contrairement aux règles du droit inter-
national. Ce chef de réclamation, que j'ai appelé ((discrimination »,
est défini dans le premier paragraphe des conclusions françaises
quant au fond.
La seconde demande est la prétention française d'aprèslaquelle la
Norvège,par une action unilatérale contraire au droit international,
a promulgué une législation modifiant les obligations des emprunts
au détriment des souscripteurs français. Ce chef de réclamation,
que j'ai appelé (extra-territorialité», est défini dans le troisième
paragraphe des conclusions.
A mon avis, ces élémentsdu différendsont recevables pour intro-
duire l'instance. Seule la Cour est compétente pour en connaître.

Ils ne sauraient être soumisaux tribunaux norvégiens, car ceux-ci
n'ont pas compétence pour connaître d'un différendde droit inter-
national entre la France et la Norvège. Les demandes relatives à la
discrimination et à l'extra-territorialité ne visent pas la violation
d'obligations juridiques par la Norvège à l'encontre des obligataires
français. Elles ne concernent que les obligations de la Norvège en
droit international vis-à-vis de la France.

94 The third complaint is that which concerns the existence and
obligation of the gold clause. It is based on the law of contract, and
the contract, in this instance, is governed by Norwegian national
law and not by international law. This complaint is formulated in
the second, fourth and fifth paragraphs of the French Submissions

on the merits. This element of the dispute is a cause of action which,
in my opinion, is inadmissible. It is aatter that is and was within
the scope of the jurisdiction of the Norwegian courts, in suits by
the French bondholders against the Norwegian borrowers. France
could not, by adopting the claims of French nationals, change the
legal nature of the claims, and transfer them from the national
to the international plane.

1 do not think that the jurisdiction of the Norwegian courts to
deal with the contractual cause of action, the third complaint under
consideration, is in any way impaired by the existence of the first
and second complaints which they are not competent to adjudicate.
That is so notwithstanding that the three elements are so closely
related. But, at thesame time, 1am of the opinion that the compe-
tence of this Court to adjudge the two purely international elements
is not ousted, by reason of the coexistence of a closely related, but
severable,element which is within the exclusive national competence
of Norway.
Accordingly, 1 have reached the conclusion that the Court

should reject the Norwegian objections .in so far as they relate
to the first and third paragraphs of the French Submissions on the
merits; and allow the Norwegian objections in so far as they relate
to the second, fourth and fifth paragraphs thereof.
Norway has asked the Court, in the Submissions of May 23rd,
1957, to deal with the merits. This is a conditional request, which
would corne into operation only if the Court decided that the claim
was admissible. As the Court is taking the position that it is not
competent to deal with any part of the dispute, it is not desirable
that 1 should proceed to discuss the merits, although my own view
is that they should be dealt with in so far as they relate to the first
and third paragraphs of the French Submissions. In dealing with
the points of jurisdiction and admissibility, it has been necessary
for me to look at the merits from time to time, and to make certain
observations with regard to them. It was not intended in making
these observations to indicate in any way what my opinion would
be in the event that it became necessary to consider and dispose
of the merits.

(Signed) J. E. READ. La troisième demande est celle qui concerne l'existence de la
clause or et les obligations qui en découlent. Elle repose sur le droit
du contrat lequel est, dans la présente instance, régi par le droit
interne norvégien et non par le droit international. Ce chef de
réclamation est définidans les deuxième, quatrième et cinquième
paragraphes des conclusions françaises quant au fond. A mon avis,
cet élément du différend n'est pas recevable pour introduire
l'instance.Il s'agit d'une matière qui relève et relevait de la juri-
diction des tribunaux norvégiensdans des actions à intenter par les
obligataires français contre les emprunteurs norvégiens. La France
ne saurait, en prenant fait et cause pour ses ressortissants, changer

la nature juridique de leurs réclamations et les porter du plan
national sur le plan international.
Je ne pense pas que la compétence des tribunaux norvégiens
pour connaître de cette source contractuelle d'action, c'est-à-dire
la troisième demande. soit affectée enaucune manièreDarl'existence
de la première et de la seconde demande, sur lesqueiles ils ne sont
pas compétents. Le fait que ces trois demandes sont étroitement
liéesn'y change rien. Mais j'estime en mêmetemps que la compé-
tence de la Cour pour statuer sur les deux points d'ordre purement
international n'est pas annihilée par l'existence d'un point étroite-
ment lié,mais distinct, qui relève exclusivement de la compétence
nationale de la Norvège.
C'est pourquoi m< conclusion est que la Cour doit rejeter
les exceptions norvégiennes, pour autant qu'elles concernent les
premier et troisième paragraphes des conclusions françaises quant

au fond, et admettre ces exceptions, pour autant qu'elles concernent
les deuxième, quatrième et cinquième paragraphes.
Dans ses conclusions du 23 mai 1957 ,a Norvège a priéla Cour
de connaître du fond. C'est là une requête conditionnelle, qui ne
jouerait que si la Cour déclarait la demande recevable. La Cour se
déclarant incompétente sur tous les aspects du litige, je n'ai paà
en examiner le fond, bien que j'estime qu'il faudrait le faire en ce
qui concerne le premier et le troisième paragraphe des conclusions
françaises. Dans mon examen de la compétenceet de la recevabilité,
j'ai dû par endroits aborder le fond et faire certaines observations
à cet égard. Ce faisant, je n'avais nullement l'intention d'indiquer
quelle serait mon opinion s'il fallait examiner et trancher le fond.

(Signé)J. E. READ.

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Dissenting Opinion of Judge Read

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