Separate Opinion of Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht

Document Number
029-19570706-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
029-19570706-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT

While 1 concur in the operative part of the Judgment inasmuch
as the Court has declared itself incompetent to decide on the
merits of the case submitted to it, much regret that 1 do not find
myself in agreement with the grounds of the Judgment. As the
issues involved are intimately connected with the nature of the
decisions of the Court in the matter of its competence, as me11as
with some basic questions of its obligatory jurisdiction, consider

it my duty to indicate in some detail my own position on the
subject.

The Judgment of the Court is based exclusively on the finding
that the Court is bound to decline jurisdiction for the reason that
Norway has invoked the reservation, operating by virtue of reci-
procity, of the French Declaration of Acceptance in which the
French Government excluded from the jurisdiction of the Court
"matters which are essentially within the national jurisdiction, as
understood by the Government of the French Republic".
There are two reasons for which 1 find myself compelled to
dissent from the grounds of the Judgment thus expressed. In the
first instance, assuming-an assumption which 1 must reject-that
the French Declaration of Acceptance is a text which isvalid inlaw,
the question of jurisdiction must, in my view, be decided by ref-
erence to substantive Preliminarjr Objections advanced by the

defendant Government rather than by reference to the subsidiary
Objection referred to above. Secondly, and principally, 1 consider
that as, in consequence of the latter reservation, the French Decla-
ration of Acceptance is invalid, there is before the Court no text the
reservations of which itcan apply. This fact, and not the Norwegian
reliance upon the French reservation of matters of national juris-
diction, is in my view the true reason mhy the Court has no juris-
diction in the present case.
In this Separate Opinion 1 propose, for the sake of abbreviation,
to use the term "automatic reservation" to indicate the French
reservation of "matters which are essentially within the national
jurisdiction, as understood by the Government of the French
Republic". That description expresses the automatic operation of
that reservation in the sense that, by 1-irtue of it, the function of
the Court is confined to registering the decision made by the
defendant Government and not subject to review by the Court. The Pveliîninnry Objections of A\70~wny

In the present case the Government of Xorway has challenged
the jurisdiction of the Court in reliance upon the following Prelim-
inary Objections:

(1) It has maintained that, as the French application refers to
a dispute which is concerned exclusivel'; with Xorwegian national
law, it is not a dispute falling within the terms of Article 3(2) of the
Statute which, it is alleged, covers only disputesrelating to questions
of international law.
(2) Secondly, the Government of Sorway has maintained that
the holders of the loan certificates on whose behalf the French
Government considered itself entitled to seise the Court did not
previously exhaust the local remedies as requirecl by international
law. That. Objection is closely related to that referred to above, in

the sense that, as repeatedly emphasized bj- the Xorwegian Govern-
ment in the written and oral proceedings, it is the failure to exhaust
local remedies which has prevented the dispute from acquiring the
complexion of a dispute concerning international law.
(3) Thirdly, in case "there is still doubt" as to the contention
that the dispute is concerned solely with a question of Xorwegian
law, the Norwegian Government invoked, in reliance upon the
provision of reciprocity, the "automatic reservation" incorporated
in the French Declaration of Acceptance. As already stated, the
Judgment of the Court is based exclusively on that latter Prelim-

inary Objection.
It seems a sound principle of judicial procedure that, unless the
provisions of its Stat~ite or other cogent legal considerations make
that impossible, the Judgment of the Court should attach to the
submissions of the Parties a purpose, though not necessarily an
effect, which the Parties attached to them. Applied to objections
to the jurisdiction of the Court, that principle means that, when a
Party has advanced objections to the jurisdiction of the Court, the
decision on the question of jurisdiction must be reaclied by reference
to objections which, in the intention of the Party advancing them,
are principal rather than subsidiarj- and which are substantive
rather than formal. This is so in particular in the international

sphere where a Go\;ernment ma!- rightly consider that it should
not be treated as having successfull~ challenged the jurisdiction of
the Court on the basis of objections which are ancillary and auto-
matic-at a time when its main effort was directed to jurisdictional
objections of substance. It is clear from the written and oral
proceedings that Korway, far from putting forward the "automatic
reservation" as the main objection, intended to rely upon it only
in a subsidiar'; manner and in the last resort-only if "there is still 36 XORWEGIAN LOANS (SEP.OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

doubt" as to the principal preliminary objection. This explains
why, after having invoked the "automatic reservation" in a sub-
sidiary manner in the original document entitled "Prelirninary
Objectio~zsofNorway", the Norwegian Government did not sub-
sequently on a single occasion refer to it, except generally and
indirectly. That Objection, though not formally withdrawn, was
kept in the background throughout the proceedings-a reticence

explained by the disinclination of a Government to rely primarily
upon an objection the success of which depends on the bare asser-
' tion of the will of that Government. In my opinion, a Party to
proceedings before the Court is entitled to expect that its Judgment
shall give asaccurate a picture as possible of the basic aspects of
the legal position adopted by that Party. Moreover, 1 believe that
itis in accordance with the true function of the Court to give an
answer to the two principal jurisdictional questions which have
divided the Parties over a long period of years and which are of

considerable interest for international law. There may be force and
attraction in the view that among a number of possible solutions a
court of law ought to select that which is most simple, most concise
and most expeditious. However, in my opinion such considerations
are not, for this Court, the only legitimate factor in the situation.

Accordingly, although 1 am of the opinion that there is before
the Court no valid Declaration of Acceptance by reference to

which it can assume jurisdiction, 1 consider it my duty to state my
opinion as to the principal Preliminary Objections of Norway.
Apart from a partial objection referred to below, these were the
only two jurisdictional objections ~vhich were argued before the
Court.
There are two otheï Preliminary Objections which figure in the
written and oral proceedings and to which only passing reference
need be made. In one, subsequently withdrawn, Norway asserted
that the subject-matter of the dispute did not fa11within the terms

of the French Declaration of Acceptance which limited the Accep-
tance to "disputes which may arise in respect of facts or situations
subsequent to the ratification" of the Declaration of Acceptance.
Another Objection had reference to one portion of the claim only.
In it Norway contended that, as some of the loans in question
were contracted not by the Norwegian State but by certain Banks
not identical with it, Norway could not properly be made a respon-
dent in respect of that part of the claim. It is not necessary to
examine here that particular Objection-which 1 do not consider

to be well founded.
a a x

With regard to the first Preliminary Objection referred to above
1 am unable to accept the view that the subject-matter of the

31present dispute is not related to international law but exclusive1~-
to the national law of Xorway. 'C'ndoubtedly, the question of the
interpretation of the contracts betw-een the Sorwegian State and

the bondholders is primarily a question of Norwegian law. It is not
disputed that the Norwegian law is the proper law of the contract
and that it is for the Norwegian courts to decide what Norway had
actually promised to pay. However, the complaint of the French
Government is that, having regard to the currency legislation
suspending the operation of the gold clause, the Norwegian law
which the Norwegian courts are bound to apply in this case is
contrary to international la~v.The Norwegian courts may hold that
the gold clause in the bonds is a gold coin clause (as distinguished
from a gold value clause), that that gold coin clause has been
rendered inoperative asthe result of the legislation in question, and
that the existing currency is, therefore, a lawful means of payment.
In the view of the Korwegian Government this is the proper inter-
pretation of what it has in law promised to pay. However, it is that
very legislation, in so far as it affects French bondholders, which

inay be the cause of violation of international law of which France
complains.
It mai be admitted, in order to simplify a problem lvhich is not
at al1simple, that an "international" contract must be subject to
soine national law; this was the vie^ of the Permanent Court of
International Justice in the case of the Serbian and Brazilian
Loans. Howes-er, this does not mean that that national law is a
matter which is wholly outside the orbit of international lan-.
National legislation-including currency legislation-may he
contrary, in its intention or effects, to the international obligations
of the Çtate. The question of conformity of national legislation
with international lan, is a matter of international law. The notion
that if a matter is governed by national la'ivit is for that reason
at the same time outside the sphere of international law is both
novel and, if accepted, sub~ersive of international law. It is not
enough for a State to bring a matter under tlie protectire umbrella

of its legislation, possib1~-of a predatory character, in order to
shelter it effectis-ely from any control by international law. There
may be little difference betn-een a Government breaking unlawfully
a contract with an alien and a Government causing legislation to
be enacted which makes it impossible for it to cornpl? \\rith the
contract. Foi-these reasons it is difticult to accept the argument of
Norway to the effect that as this Court can decide only on the basis
of international law and that as the main substantive question
in the dispute is the interpretation of Xorwegian law, this is not a
dispute n-hichis covered by Article 36 (2)of the Çtatute. The dispute
now before the Court, although it is connected with the application
of Kormegian lan-, is also a dispute involving international lan-.
It is possible that if the Court had jurisdiction on the merits it
would find that Norn-a? has not violated any rule of international38 NORWEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERP~~CHT)
law by declining to repay the bonds in gold. Homever, in findiilg
that, the Court would apply international law.
The greater part of the written and oral argument of Xorway-as
well as that of the applicant State-has been devoted to a considera-

tion of the relevant questions of international law. The question
of the treatment by a State of property rights of aliens-including
property rights arising out of international loans-is a question
of international law. So is the question whether, in this respect,
eaualitv of treatment of nationals and aliens relieves a State of its
in'ternahonal responsibility. So is, further, the question whether
there is in this respect a difference between resident aliens and
aliens resident abroad. It may be also difficult to deny that the
allegation of discriminatory treatinent as between French and non-
Nonvegian bondholders raises an issue of international law. The
very question whether local remedies have been exhausted-a
auestion on which Norwav has made de~endent the international
character of the dispute-is a question of international law. Finally,
although there seems to be little substance in the contentions
advanced by the French Government on the subject of The Hague

Convention of 1907 relating to Contract Debts in so far as it is
alleged to impose an obligation to arbitrate, it is relevant to state
that that Convention indirectly recognizes that controversies of
that character are suitable for settlement bv reference to ~ublic
international law. It is of interest, in this connection, to note the
wording of Article 53 of The Hague Convention of 1907 for the
Pacific Settlement of International Disputes which refers expressly,
as suitable for arbitration before the Permanent Court ofArbitration,
to disputes "arising from contract debts claimed from one Power
by another Power as due to its nationals".

The relevance of these questions of international law cannot
properly be denied by reference to the fact that unless and until
Nonvegian courts have spoken it is not certain that there has been a
violation of international law by Nonvay. The crucial point is that,
assuming that Norv~egian law operates in a manner injurious to

French bondholders, there are various questions of international
law involved. Tointroduce in this context the auestion of exhaustion
of local remedies is to inake the issue revGlve in a circle. The
exhaustion of local remedies cannot in itself bring within the
province of international law a dispute which is otherwise outside
its sphere. The failure to exhaust legal remedies may constitute
a bar to the jurisdiction of the Court; it does not affect the intrin-
sically international character of a dispute.

This being so, mg7view is that, in principle, the present dispute
is also one of international law and that it comes within the
orbit' of controversies enumerated in Article 36 (2) of the Statute
of the Court.

3339 XORIVEGIAY L0.4NS (SEP.OP. SIR HERSCH LAVTERPACHT)

In my opinion, the Preliminary Objection of Norway relating to
exhaustion of local remedies is well founded. This does not mean
that the position of the French Government on the subject is
altogether without merit. For the requirement of exhaustion of
local remedies is not a purely technical or rigid rule. It is a rule
which international tribunals have applied with a considerable
degree of elasticity. In particular, they have refused to act upon

it in cases in which there are, in fact, no effective reinedies available
owing to the law of the State concerned or the conditions prevailing
in it. In the present case, while, as will be suggested presently, the
Court cannot regard it as conclusively proven that the Norwegian
courts would refuse a remedy, it is clear that in general their
decision must be based on Norwegian law, including the legislation
of 1923 which is alleged to result in an injury to the legitimate
rights of French bondholders. From that point of view 1 can
appreciate the contention of the French Government that there
are no effective remedies to be exhausted-even if 1 must hold
that, however contingent and theoretical these remedies may be, an
attempt ought to have been made to exhaust them.

Also, inasmuch as the case of the French Government is based on
the allegation of discriminatory treatment as between French
bondholders on the one side and Swedish and Danish bondholders
on the other, it is not easy to see what remedy the Sorwegian courts
could provide against governmental acts which, as such, cause no
injury to French bondholders.
However, these doubts do not seem strong enough to render
inoperative the requirement of previous exhaustion of localremedies.
The legal position on the subject cannot be regarded as so abun-
dantly clear as to rule out, as a matter of reasonable possibility,
any effective remedy before Korwegian courts.
The Sorwegian Government has contended that the burden of
proving the inefficacy of local remedies rests upon France. There is,

in general, a degree of unhelpfulness in the argument concerning the
burden of proof. However, some prinza facie distribution of the
burden of proof there must be. This being so, the following seems
to be the accurate principle on the subject :(1)As a rule, it is for the
plaintiff State to prove that there are no effective remedies to
which recourse can be had; (2)no such proof is required if there
exists legislation which on the face of it deprives the private
claimants of a remedy ;(3) in that case it is for the defendant State
to show that, notwithstanding the apparent absence of a remedy,
its existencecan nevertheless reasonably be assumed; (4)the degree
of burden of proof thus to be adduced ought not to be so stringent
asto render the proof unduly exacting. Both in the written and the

oral proceedings the Government of Xorway has attempted to
adduce such proof. Ll'hatever may be its cogenc3-, it must be
34regarded as sufficient for the purpose.

In the first instance. in matters of currencv and international
loans the decisions of courts of various countries-including those
of Norway-have not been characterized by such a pronounced
degree of uniformity andcertainty as to permit a forecast, with full
assurance, of the result of an action in Korwegian courts. The deci-
sion of the Permanent Court of International Justicein the Brazilian
and Serbian Gold Clause cases has been followed by courts of
some countries but not by those of others. While the courts of most
States have interpreted the gold coin clause as importing necessarily
a gold value clause, this has not been the practice in al1countries.
Moreover, the courts of the same State have often shown consider-
able divergencies and hesitation on the subject. Thus, in England,
in the tu70important cases relating to the gold clause-The King v.
International Trz~steefor th Protection of Bo.izdho1der.rs1937] -4.C.

500, and Feist v. Société Intercommz~naleBelge dlElectricifé LI9311
A.C. 161-it was left to the House of Lords to reverse the decisions
of the Court of First Instance and of the Court of Appeal. While
French courts have, with some uniformity, refused to recognize
the cours forcéininternational contracts, it appears that they have
done so on different and diverging grounds. In some cases thej-
have acted on the principle according to which a foreign public
law can only operate within the territory of the State in question;
in other cases they have applied the principle of the autonomy of
the will, which makes it possible for the parties to exclude the
operation of any national legal system whatsoever; in other cases
still they have acted on the view that while the operation of the
gold clause is subject to the law of the State concerned, itis so onlj-
within the limits of public policy. This being so, there may be no
sufficient reason for drawing final conclusions from the alleged
previous practice of Norwegian courts and for asserting that it has

been conclusively proven that there is in this case no remedy
available under Korwegian law. It is possible-however unlikely,
in the view of the French Government, that possibility may be-
that the Xorwegian courts may hold that the bonds embodied a
true gold clause and that, having regard to international law or the
constitutional law of Norway, the law of 1923 cannot be applied or
that it must be applied so as not to injure the French bondholders.

1 cannot consider it as a certainty that, assuming that the For-
wegian legislation on the subject is contrary to international law
in so far as it affects aliens, no remedy atal1is possible under Nor-
wegian law. There has been a tendency in the practice of courts
of many States to regard international law, in some way, as forming
part of national law or as entering legitimately into the national
conception of ordre pzrblic. Although the Yorwegian Government41 SORIVEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)
has admitted that in no case can a Norwegian court overrule
Norwegian legislation on the ground that it is contrary to inter-

national law, it has asserted that it is possible that a Norwegian
court may consider international law to form part of the law of the
Kingdom to the extent that it ought, if possible, to interpret the
Norwegian legislation in question so as not to impute to it the
intention or the effect of violating international law. Also, it seems
a fact that in certain matters Norwegian courts have the power to
review the acts of the legislature, in particular from the point of
view of their conformity with the constitution. This, it has been
asserted, may mean that Norwegian courts might refuse to give
retro-active effect to the legislation in question.ese possibilities
may be remote. They are not so absolutely remote as to deserve to
be ruled out altogether.

Secondly, it is difficult to admit, having regard to the long
history of the present dispute and the negotiations relating thereto,
that the French Government has given a sufficient explanation of
the failure of the French creditors to seek a remedy before Nor-
wegian courts. No persuasive reason has been adduced why the
French Government, by encouraging an attempt to exhaust local
remedies, has not assisted in eliminating the possibility of that
Preliminary Objection. The delay resulting from any such attempt
would have been relatively small in comparison with the long
period of years consumed by the protracted negotiations on the
subject. There seems to run through the submissions of the French
Government the apprehension that after Nonvegian courts have

finally dismissed the claim of the French creditors the only clairn
internationally available to the French Government would be that
on account of denial of justice. This is probably not so. A final
adverse decision of Nonvegian courts would still leave it possible
to the French Government to contend that Norwegian legislation,
as finally upheld by Nonvegian courts, is contrary to international
law. No decisive importance can be attached to the view that,
seeing that the Nonvegian Government repeatedly reiterated that
it was prevented by the Nonvegian Law to effect payment in gold,
the French bondholders were entitled to assume that they have no
remedy under Norwegian law. The Norwegian Government, being
an interested party, was not for this purpose an authorised inter-

preter of Norwegian law. It was for the bondholders, by bringing
an action before Nonvegian courts, to attempt to show that the
Norwegian Government was mistaken in its interpretation of
Norwegian law. If the courts held that that interpretation was
correct,then the road to international proceedings would no longer
be blocked by the objection based on the failure to exhaust local
remedies. 1must, therefore, although with some hesitation, consider
that objection as well founded. In invoking the "automatic reservation" the Government of
Nonvay apparently was of the opinion that what it did was no

more than to invoke it in aid-in decisive aid, if need be-of the
contention, previously advanced, that the dispute is not concerned
with international law and that it does not therefore fa11within the
orbit of Article 36 (2)of the Statute by reference to which Norway
accepted the obligatory jurisdiction of the Court. Actually these
two questions are not identical. A dispute may be essentially
within the national jurisdiction of a State (i.e. covered by the terms
of the "automatic reservation") while being at the same time a
dispute concerning a question of international law.

If the Court were called upon to determine itself whether the
subject-matter of the present dispute is essentially within the do-
mestic jurisdiction of Norway it urould be confronted with a
difficult task. It is possible to hold that, although-contrary to the
view expressed by the Norwegian Government-the dispute is also
one of international law, it nevertheless arises out of a matter

essentially within the jurisdiction of the State seeing that questions
of currency are essentially within the national jurisdiction. In that
case the Preliminary Objection based on the French reservation
would be valid in its own right-quite apart from the right of
unilateral determination. There is the alternative view that if a
dispute is also concerned with international law then it is no longer
exclusively within the national jurisdiction; that the terms "ex-
clusively" and "essentially" are substantially identical;and that,
therefore, the subject-matter of the present dispute is not essentially
within the national jurisdiction of Norway. However, the Norwegian
Government has attached no importance to elaborating that
distinction. It not only stated, in the minimum of words, that the
matter is essentially within the national jurisdiction of Norway; it
stated that it said so and that it said so with finality.

The determination thus made was advanced in a subsidiary
manner at the initial stage of the proceedings. It was subsequently

kept in the background and invoked only by studious indirection.
It was never formally withdrawn. It provided the exclusive basis
for the Judgment of the Court which, on this question, says in
effect as follows: According to the Xorwegian Government the
issue is one essentially within thedomestic jurisdiction of Norway.
That view may be ill-founded. However, it is the view of the
Norwegian Government. AS such it is decisive for the purpose of
jurisdiction of the Court-just as if the French Government were
the defendant State its view to that effect would be decisive by
virtue of the reservation as formulated by it. The Court must
accept that view not because it agrees with it, but because it isthe view of the Norwegian Government. Its accuracy is irrelevant.
This is the inescapable result of the condition under which France
-and consequently Norway-accepted the jurisdiction of the
Court. That preliminary Objection of Norway is quite peremptory,
fully effective to the point of being automatic, and is not subject

to review by the Court.

1 have given reasons why, in my view, the "automatic reser-
vation", being of a subsidiary character, was not in any case
calculated to provide an exclusive basis of the Judgment of the
Court. However, apart from that aspect of the question and
whatever may be the position with regard to the validity of the
French Acceptance as a whole, it is my view that it was not open to
the Court to act on that particular reservation. This is so for the
reason that 1 consider it legally impossible for the Court to act in
disregard of its Statute which imposes upon it the duty and confers
upon it the right to determine its jurisdiction. That right cannot
be exercised by a party to the dispute. The Court cannot, in an>-
circumstances, treat as admissible the claim that the parties have
accepted its jurisdiction subject to the condition that they, and

not the Court, will decide on its jurisdiction. To do so is in my view
contrary to Article 36 (6) of the Statute which, without any qualifi-
cation, confers upon the Court the right and imposes upon it the
duty to determine its jurisdiction. Moreover, it is also contrarj-
to Article I of the Statute of the Court and Article 92 of the
Charter of the Vnited Nations which lay down that the Court
shall function in accordance with the ~rovisions of its Statute.
It is that question which 1 now propose to consider in connection
with the examination of the validitv of the French Acceptance.

The Validity of theFrench Declaratio7zof Acceptance

I. Is the "az~tomaticreserz~ation"consistentwith the Statute?

1have stated the reasons for which, if 1felt free to do so, 1 would
reject al1 Preliminary Objections of Norway with the exception
of that relating to the exhaustion of local remedies. However, 1 do
not feel free todecide the question of jurisdiction on these grounds.
To do so would be to admit that the Court is confronted with a
valid instrument of acceptance of its jurisdiction on the part of
France. In my view it is impossible to admit that. 1consider that as
the French Declaration ofAcceptance excludes from the jurisdiction
of the Court "matters which are essentially within the national
jurisdiction as understood by the Government of the French
RepublicH-the emphasis being here on the words "as understood
by the Go\-ernment of the French Repub1ic"-it is for the reason

3844 I;ORMTEGIAN LOAXS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERP-~CHT)
of that latter qualification an instrument incapable of producing

legal effects before this Court and of establishing its jurisdiction.
This is so for the double reason that:(a) it is contrary to the Statute
of the Court; (b) the existence of the obligation being dependent
upon the determination by the Government accepting the Optionai
Clause, the Acceptance does not constitute a legal obligation.
That Declaration of hcceptance cannot, accordingly, provide a
basis for the jurisdiction of the Court. Norway has not accepted
the jurisdiction of the Court on any other basis. The Court
therefore has no jurisdiction.
As stated, the first reason for that view is that that particular
part of the acceptance of the Optional Clause on the part of the
French Republic is contrary to the Statute of the Court. In the
reservation in question the Government of France says in effect:

If a Government brings an application before the Court in reliance
on the French acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Court and if
the Government of France maintains that the Court has no juris-
diction on the ground that the subject-matter of the dispute is
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of France, then the
Court has no power to decide upon that particular allegation;
it must accept as binding the French understanding of the legal
position on the subject.
If that type of reservation isvalid, then the Court is not in the
position to exercise the power conferred upon it-in fact, the duty
imposed upon it-under paragraph 6 of Article 36 of its Statute.
That paragraph provides that "in the event of a dispute as to
whether the Court has jurisdiction, the matter shall be settled by a

decision of the Court". The French reservation lays down that if,
with regard to that particular question, there is a dispute between
the Parties as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, thematter shall
be settled by a decision of the French Government. The French
reservation is thus not only contrary to one of the most fundaineiltal
principles of international-and national-jurisprudence according
to which it is within the inherent power of a tribunal to iizterpret
the text establishing its jurisdiction.It is also contrary to a clear
specific provision of the Statute of the Court as well as to the
general Articles I and 92 of the Statute and of the Charter, respect-
ively, which require the Court to function in accordance with its
Statute.

Now what is the result of the fact that a reservation or part of it
are contrary to the provisions of the Statute of the Court? The
result is that that reservation or that part of it is invalid. Some
examples may usefully illustrate that aspect of the question :What
would be the position if in accepting-or purporting to accept-the
obligations of Article 36 of the Statute, a State were to exclude the
operation of paragraph 6 of that Article not only with regard to one
reservation but with regard to al1 reservations or, generally, with
regard to any disputed question of the jurisdiction of the Court?

394j NORLVEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHS)

What would be the ~osition if the Declaration were to make it a
condition that the ira1 proceedings of the Court shall be secret;
or that its Judgment shallnot be binding unless given by unanimity ;
or that it should contain no reasons; or that no Dissenting Opinion
shall be attached; or that Judges of certain nationality or national-
ities shall be exclucled; or that, contrary to what is said in Arti-
cle 38 of its Statute, the Court shallapply only treaties and custom
in the sense that it shall not be authorized to apply general
principles of law as recognized by civilized States and that if
it is unable to base its decison on treaty or custom it shall

pronounce a non liquet? What would be the position in the case
of any such reservation?
It might be said that some of these examples are hypothetical
and farfetched. In fact they are less farfetched than the particular
instance here discussed-the instance of a reservation accordinrr to
which a Government claims, after ithassubmitted to the compulgory
jurisdiction of the Court, the right to determine for itself, after
the dispute has arisen and been brought before the Court, whether
the Court has jurisdiction. Neither is it accurate to Say that these
examples are irrelevant seeing that while the Statute as interpreted
in practice permits reservations to its jurisdiction itoes not permit

reservations asto the functioning and the organization of the Court.
For, assuming that distinction to be valid, the reservation here dis-
. .se-.pe.tains to the functioning of the Court in the matter of its
jurisdiction.
Clearly the Court cannot act otherwise than in accordance w-ith
its Statute. By way of illustration reference may be made here to
the case of the Free Zones in which the Court stated that it "cannot,
on the proposa1 of the Parties, depart from the terms of the Statute"
-a statement made in response to a request of the parties that the
Court should communicate to them unofficially the result of its
deliberations (Series A, No. 22, p. 12). The Court acted in that way

although at that time it was not bound by the express provisions
of the Charter and the Statute requiring it to act in accordance with
its Statute. In a different sphere, in its Advisory Opinion of 7 June
195 j concerning the Voting Procedureof the GeneralAssembly in the
Matter of Petitions from South West Africa, the Court was of the
view that it was legally impossible for the General Assembly to
reach decisions on these questions in accordance with a voting
system "entirely alien to that prescribed by the Charter" (I.C.J.
Reports 1953, p. 76).There \vas in that case room for the argument
that voting being to some extent a matter of procedure the General
Assembly enjoyed some latitude in the matter. This was not the

view of the Court. It based its Opinion on the principle that an
organ cannot act except in accordance with its constituent instru-
ment. In the present case the acceptance of the jurisdiction of the
Court is made dependent on a condition which radicall- departs
from the Statute-which is in clear contradiction with the Statute- with regard to a fundamental aspect of the functioning of the Court.
It would seem that, for that reason, the French Declaration of
Acceptance would be invalid even if the particular issue which is
connected with its invalidity did not arise in the case now before the

Court. But that particular issue does arise. The Norwegian Govern-
ment invoked that particular reservation and, although it has kept
it in the background, it has not withdrawn it.
In a~cepting the jurisdiction of the Court Governments are free
to limit its jurisdiction in a drastic manner. As a result there may
be little left in the Acceptance which is subject to the jurisdiction
of the Court. This the Governments, as trustees of the interests
entrusted to them, are fully entitled to do. Their right to append
reservations which are not inconsistent wlth the Statute is no longer
in question. But the question whether that little that is left is or
is not subject to the jurisdiction of the Court must be determined
by the Court itself. Any conditions or reservations which purport
to deprive the Court of that power are contrary to an express
provision of the Statute and to the very notion, embodied in Article
36 (6), of conferment of obligatory jurisdiction upon the Court. As

such they are invalid. It has beeri said that as Governments are
free to accept or not to accept the Optional Clause, they are free
to accept the very minimum of it. Obviously. But that very mini-
mum must not be in violation of the Statute.

If the Court cannot function except in conformity with its
Statute then, when confronted with an Acceptance containing a
reservation which is contrary to a provision of the Statute, it must
consider that reservation as invalid. This is not a conclusion of
juridical refinement. It is the result of the fact that the Statute of
the Court is the basis and the very source of the Declaration of
Acceptance. The Declaration does not exist except by virtue of the
Statute. It does not legally exist unless it is in accordance with it.
In this connection mention may be made of the legal principle
generally recognized in municipal lawaccording to which acondition,
in a contract or in any other IegaI instrument, that is contrary to

a fundamental principle of judicial organization is invalid. That
yrinciple is recognized with some precision in French law.
How does it corne to pass that, in formulating their acceptance of
the jurisdiction ofthe Court, Govemments - for this form of Accept-
ance has net been confined to the Government of France-deem
themselves free to disregard the Statute of the Court to which they
are parties? It would be inaccurate to explain that attitude by
reference to any absence offamiliarity with theterms ofthe Statute.
The relevant provisions of the Statute were clearly before the
authors of the Declaration and they were considered by them with
reference to the very question here discussed. This is not a question
whether the Court ought to give encouragement, direct or indirect,
to any such attitude of indifference to its Statute. The Court is not 47 NORWEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP.SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

concerned with safeguarding the dignity of its Statute-though it is
concerned with safeguarding its authority. However that may be,
the deliberate character of the disregard of theStatute of the Court
by the authors of the Declaration has a bearing upon the effects, in
the sphere of nullity, of the Declaration thus made. For it rules out
the admissibility of any attempt to bring it somehow, by way of
interpretation, within the four corners of conformity with the
Statute and thus to salvage it as a valid legal declaration.
Moreover, the particular reservation now at issue is not one that
is contrary to some merely procedural aspect of the Statute. It is
contrary to one of its basic features. It is at variance with the
principal safeguard of the system of the compulsory jurisdiction of

the Court. Without it, the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court
being dependent upon the will of the defendant party, expressed
subsequent to the dispute having been brought before the Court,
has no meaning. Article 36 (6) is thus an essential condition of
the system of obligatory judicial settlement as established in the
Statute. That provision was inserted in the Statute with the
deliberate intention of providing an indispensable safeguard of
the operation of the system. Article 36 (2)speaks of the recognition
by the parties to the Statute of the "compulsory" jurisdiction of
the Court. But there is no question of compulsory jurisdiction if,
after the dispute has arisen and after it has been brought before
the Court, the defendant State is entitled to decide whether the
Court has jurisdiction.

Reference may be made to two arguments adduced with the
object of bnnging the "automatic reservation" within the orbit of
conformity with Article 36 (6)of the Statute: In the first instance,
it has been said that if the Court declines jurisdiction by reference to
the "automatic reservation" it is actually, in full conformity with
Article 36 (6),making a decision on the question of its jurisdiction.
This argument is of a verbal character. For in that case it is not
the Court which makes the actual decision on the question of its
jurisdiction. The decision is made by the defendant Government of
Norway. The Court merely registers it. Moreover, the Court says

so in its Judgment. It states in effect that its task is confined to
registering the decision of the defendant State-a decision which
it is entitled to make by virtue of the operation of reciprocity.
The second argument intended to show that the French reser-
vation is not contrary to Article 36 (6)of the Statute is as follows:
If a Government, in conformity with its reservation, has made the
determination that a matter is essentially within its national
jurisdiction, then there is no dispute as to the question of juris-
diction. For the fact that the Government concerned has made that
determination is not in dispute and, therefore, it would seem that48 NORWEGIAX LOAXS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

the question of Article 36 (6) has no relevance in this connection;
at most, the application of Article 36 (6)is confined to registering
the fact that the determination has been made by the defendant
State. This argument is, once more, of a dialectical character.
For what is actually the position? A Govemment brings a case
before the Court and maintains in its Memorial that the subject
of the dispute is one of international law. The defendent State
asserts in its Preliminary Objections that in its opinion thatmatter

is essentially within its domestic jurisdiction. There is thus a
dispute between the Parties on the question of the jurisdiction of
the Court. However, having regard to the "automatic reservation",
that dispute cannot be determined by the Court. It is determined
by the Govemment concerned. This is exactly the position in the
present case. If we look at the substance of the matter, there is
little doubt that the reservation is based on the intention-and
has the effect of-divesting the Court of the power conferred upon
it by Article 36 (6).

2. Is the "automatic reservation" consistentwith the requirementsoj
a Zegalobligation tosubmit to the jurisdiction of the Cour?
1 have given reasons why 1 consider that the "automatic reser-

vation", inasmuch as it embodies the claim of one party to make
a decision, binding upon the Court, with regard to the contested
question of its jurisdiction is invalid as being contrary to the
Statute of the Court.
1 arrive at the same conclusion on the second-and different-
ground, namely, that having regard to the formulation of the
reservation of national jurisdiction on the part of the French
Government the Acceptance embodying the "automatic reser-
vation" is invalid as lacking in an essential condition of validity
of a legal instrument. This is so for the reason thatit leaves to the
party making the Declaration the right to determine the extent
and the very existence of its obligation. The effect of the French
reservation relating to domestic jurisdiction is that the French

Govemment has, in this respect, undertaken an obligation to the
extent to which it, and it alone, considers that it has done so.This
means that it has undertaken no obligation. An instrument in
which a party is entitled to determine the existence of its obligation
is not a valid and enforceable legal instrument of which a court
of law can take cognizance. It is not a legal instrument. It is a
declaration of a political principle andpurpose.
It is irrelevant for the purpose of the view here outlined whether
the instrument of acceptance of the obligation of the Optional
Clause is a treaty or some other mode of creating obligations. In the
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company case the Court observed that "the
text of the Iranian DecIaration is not a treaty text resulting from
negotiations between two or more States" but that "it is the result
of unilateral drafting by the Government of Iran" (I.C.J. Reports 49 XORIVEGIAX LO.4XS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH L.~CTERF.ICHT)
1952, p. IO5).The statement means no more than that the declara-
tion is the result not of negotiations but of unilateral drafting.

Ilihether it is a treaty or a unilateral declaration, it is-iit is to
be treated as a legal text providing a basis for the jurisdiction of
the Court-a manifestation of intention to create reciprocal rightç
and obligations. It will be noted that article 36 (2)refers to the
acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Court in relation "to any other
State accepting the same obligation". In fact there is no difficulty
in visualizing the Declaration of Acceptance as an accession to a
multilateral treaty in the same way as, in the case of variouç
conventions concluded under the auspices of the United Nations,
Governments accede to a text established by the General Assembly.
However that may be, the acceptance of the Optional Clause is an
instrument purporting to bring about, as between the accepting
State and any other State which has accepted or may accept that
text, reciprocal rights and obligations. If the acceptance does not,
in law, amount to an assumption of an obligation effectively
binding upon the Government concerned, it is not a valid instru-

ment upon which the accepting State can rely and of which the
Court can take cognizance. If a Government declares that it
accepts the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court unless, in cases
which cover potentially the entire field of possible disputes, it
determines, after the dispute has come before the Court, that the
Court has no jurisdiction, then the declaration thus made consti-
tutes no legal undertaking and cannot be treated as a legal instru-
ment constituting an undertaking.

The proposition here advanced-namely, that an undertaking in
which the applicant party reserves for itself the exclusive right to
determine the extent or the very existence of its obligation is not
a legal undertaking-is so self-evident as a matter of juridical
principle that it is not necessary to elaborate this point by showing
it to be a generally recognized principle of law which the Court is
authorized to apply by virtue of Article 38 of its Statutes. It is a

general principle of law as it results from the legislation and practice
of courts in various countries in the matter of contracts and other
legal instruments. These are treated as invalid whenever the object
of the obligation is reserved for the exclusive determination of the
party said to be bound by the obligation in question. (Reference
may be made here to the position in French law as summarized in
the leading treatise by Planiol and Ripert. They state, when
dealing with the general conditions of the validity of the contract,
that the freedom of the party to determine the object of its obliga-
tion negatives the legal nature of the agreement (Traitépratique
de droit civil jrançais, vol. vi, and ed.1952 ,ection 220: "Déter-
mination de l'objet"). In dealing with so-called potestative con-
ditions, they refer to pilrely potestative conditions dependent
upon the wvillof the debtor and covered by -4rticle 1174 of the CivilCode which provides that "an obligation is nul1 if contracted
under a potestative condition on the part of the obligor" (ibid.,
vol. vii, Section 1028). It is not desirable to prolong this

Opinion by an examination of English law and of the law of the
United States of America on the question. With regard to the latter,
reference may be made to the leading treatise on the subject,
namely, Williston's "On Contracts" (revised edition, vol. i(1936),
§43) where, in the light of numerous judicial decisions, the freedom
of a party to determine the object of its obligation is represented
as negativing the legal nature of the agreement. The importance
attached to the necessity of a clear determination of the subject-
matter of the obligation may be seen from the fact that French
courts have held that a contract providing that a party shall be
entitled to purchase goods in accordance with a price to be agreed
separately is ineffective and unenforceable. In some other countries
the courts have held that in such cases reasonable terms are to be
fixed by the courts-a solution which, in a different sphere, is in
the present case excluded by the terms of the automatic French
reservation.)

That general principle of law is, in turn, no more than a principle
of common sense. Applied to the present case, that principle
signifies that if the element of legal obligation is non-existent or
negligible it must followthat the instrument is not a legal instrument
upon which a State can rely as a matter of right for the purpose
of invoking the jurisdiction of the Court. Instruments-whether
by way of treaties, unilateral declarations, and other texts-
cognisable before a court of law and relied upon for obtaining
redress must be instruments creating legal obligations. It is irre-
levant for this purpose that, having regard to public opinion, an
enlightened State is not likely to invoke any such reservation
capriciously, unjustifiably, and in bad faith. These are expec-
tations which may or may not materialize. The decisive factor is
that the State concerned is not willing to leave a decision on the
question to the impartial judgment of the Court but that it insists
on its own determination of the issue. Neither is it feasible to try

to inject a legal element into the Declaration thus formulated by
using phraseology such as that the undertaking in question is
binding subject to a resolutive condition dependent upon the pro-
mising party. Upon analysis that phrase means no more than that
the undertaking is binding so long as the dispute has not been
brought before the Court but that its binding force becomes a
matter of discretion of the defendant State once the Court has been
seised of the dispute.
It may be argued that, after all, the interpretation of disputed
provisions of treatiesis not, in the absence of agreement, subject to
the compulsory jurisdiction of international courts and that never-
theless that fact does not deprive the treaties in question of their
character as binding legal instruments. The answer is that in thesetreaties the object of the obligation is determined and that neither
party is accorded the right of unilateral determination which the

other party is bound to accept. Moreover, in the present case the
absence-the deliberate exclusion-of the jurisdiction of the Court
refers to the very ascertainment of the jurisdiction ostensib!~
conferred upon it in what purports to be a legal text.

1 have git-en reasons why, inasmuch as the French Declaration
of Acceptance leaves it to the declaring Government to determine
both the existence and the extent of the obligation undertaken by
France, it does not constitute a legal obligation essential to the
validity of a legal text.1 will now consider whether there are any
factors which may legitimately mitigate the apparent rigour of
these consequences.
It might be said that niatters ~vhich are essentially within
national jurisdiction constitute only one part of the potential

number of controversies which may come before the Court; that
with regard to others the element of legal obligation fully subsists;
and that therefore the Acceptance as a whole may still be capable
of being regarded as a valid legal instrument. There is little persua-
sive force in any such argument. The reservation of matters essen-
tially within the domestic jurisdiction of a State as understood bg-
that State is so wide as to cover, at the option of the State concerned,
practically al1 disputes in which it may be involved.

For. in the first instance. it\vil1be noted that the French reser-
vation in issue refers not to matters which are according tointer-
national law exclusive~ywithin the domestic jurisdiction of the State,
but to matters which are essentiallywithin the domestic jurisdiction.
There are matters which have often been considered as being
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of States but which,
having become regulated by treaty or custom, have ceased to be

so-an aspect of the question for which the Advisory Opinion of
the Permanent Court of International Justice in the case of Tunis
and Morocco Nationality Decrees provides an instructive and
authoritative illustration.Tariffs, immigration, treatment of aliens
and citizens in national territory, interna1 legislation generally-al1
those matters have been claimed to be essentially within the domes-
tic jurisdiction of States. It is not necessary for me to express an
opinion on the subject. However, even if that claim is admitted,
those are not necessarily matters which according to international
law are exclusis~elywithin the domestic jurisdiction of the State-
though, as siated, the- have often been described as being matters
of domestic jurisdiction or essentially of domestic jurisdiction.
Practically every aspect of the conduct of the State may be, pyimn52 NORWEGIAN LOASS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)
facie,within that category for the reason that normally the State
exercises its activity within its national territory, or, on the high

seas, in relation to its ships which for some purposes are considered
by States to form part of its territory. In thLotus case the Court
was prepared to base its decision, to some extent, on the view that
the ship affected was Turkish territory and that the offence was
therefore committed in Turkey. For these reasons it is possible for
a State to maintain, without necessarily laying itself open to an
irresistible charge of bad faith, that practically every dispute con-
cems a matter essentially within its domestic jurisdiction. Most
Judgments given by this Court and its predecessor-with the
exception of those concemed with territorial disputes-have been
given in relation to matters bearing on the activity of the State
within its jurisdiction and related to its national legislation and
administration. These are the typical occasions giving rise to State
responsibility. This aspect of the question is elaborated in more
detail in the examination, which follows, of the power of the Court
to review the determination made by a Gox~emment in pursuance

of the "automatic reservation".

If thus practically every matter can be plausibly, though not
necessarily accurately, described as a matter essentially within the
domestic jurisdiction of the State concerned and if that State is the
sole judge of the question, it is clear that, as the result, the element
of legal obligation is reduced to a vanishing point.

1 will now examine the view that, although a State reserves for
itself the right toettrmine whether a matter is essentially within
its domestic jurisdiction, such determination must be effected in
accordance with the legal obligation to act in good faith and that
to that extent there is in existence a valid legal obligation and a

valid legal instrument. 1 myself expressed a view to that effect
in my Report on the Law of Treaties which 1 submitted in 1953
as member of the International Law Commission. In the light
of further study of this question in connection with the present
case, 1 do not feel it possible to adhere to that view. The legal
obligation of a Government to avail itself of its freedom of action
in a manner consistent with good faith has a meaning, in terms of
legal obligation, only when room is left for an impartial finding
whether the duty to act in accordance with good faith has been
complied with. But in the case now before the Court any such
possibility has been expressly excluded. The Court has no power
to give adecision on the question whether a State has acted in good
faith in claiming that a dispute covers a matter which is essentially
within its domestic jurisdiction. If the Court were to do so, it would

47 3OKU EGI-LA LO-AXb (SEI'. OP. SIR HERSCH LAIJTERP-~CHT)
jl,
be arrogating to itself a power whicli has been expressly denied
to it. Unquestionablg-, the obligation to act in accordance with
good faith, being a general principle of lam-,is also part of inter-
national law. The Governments which have appended the "auto-

matic reservation" have not questioned their legal obligation to
invoke it in good faith, that is toy,not capriciously andarbitrarily.
But it is abundantly clear from the evidence which is generally
available that the authors of the "automatic reservation" have
reserved for the Governments concerned the right to judge whether
in invoking it in a particular case they have complied with the
obligation to act in good faith. They have repeatedly declared that
their own sense of international duty and propriety, public opinion
within and outside their countries, and their reputation and prestige
inthe world ~vouldconstitute a restraining factor of great pctency in
shapingtheir decision. But they have denied to the Court the power

to determine the legality of that decision from the point of view of
the obligation to actin good faith or otherwise. They have reserved
that power to themselves.
For this reason 1 cannot accept as accurate the view expressed
in the following terms in paragraph 26 of the Norwegian "Prelimi-
nary Objections": "Of course, such a reservation must be inter-
preted in good faith and should a government seek to rely upon it
with a view to denying the jurisdiction of the Court in a case which
manifestly did not involve a 'matter which is essentially ~vithinthe
the national jurisdiction' it would be committing an abzis dedroit
which would not prevent the Court froin acting." The Court has no
such power. It cannot arrogate to itself the competence-which
has been expressly denied to it-to find that the assertion of the

defendant State that a matter is essentially within its domestic
jurisdiction is so extravagant and so arbitrary as to amount to an
action in bad faith and to an abuse of right, ~viththe result that
the Court is entitled to ignore or to override the determination
thus made. As already stated, in l~iewof the comprehensiveness of
the term "matters essentially within domestic jurisdiction", it is
not easy to conceive situations of an)- such obviousness. It is not
certain that a State would be acting flagrantly and irrefutably
in disregard of the canons of good faith if it were to determine
most disputes as coming within its domestic jurisdiction.
The question of the obligation to act in good faith arises onlg-in
relation to legitimate expectations of the other party. But there is

only a nominal degree of legitimate expectation in relation to an
obligation, in regard to apotentially most comprehensive categorg-of
disputes, asto which the party undertaking it expressly declares in
advance that it is free to determine boththe existence andthe degree
of its obligation. As already stated, the attitude of a Government in
most disputes is as a rule adopted in pursuance of its interna1
legislation or other form of authorization determined by its national
law. To that extent it is arguable-perhaps inaccurately but not

4s NORWEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)
j4
necessarily extravagantly so-that any dispute arising in this
connection is essentially a matter of domestic jurisdiction. Also,
practically all disputes involving an allegation of a breach of an
international duty, whether under a treaty or under customary
international law, arise out of events occurring within the territory
of that State. In that sense it may be claimed, with or without
good reason, that they are matters essentially within the national

jurisdiction of the State. A dispute relating to the jurisdictional
immunities of foreign States or their diplomatic agents may be
asserted to fa11 within that category-especially if its subject-
matter is covered by national legislation or the jurisprudence of
national courts. A defendant State may allege that, for the latter
reason, a dispute concerning its domestic legislation affecting the
continental shelf or parts of the highseas relates to a matter within
its national jurisdiction. The only disputes which, it might appear.
are outside that category are territorial disputes. But even that is
not certain. In fact it has been suggested that territorial disputes
pertain to matters of domestic jurisdiction. In the communication
addressed on May 4th, 1955, by the Government of Argentina to
the United Kingdom in the matter of disputed sovereignty over
certain Antarctic territories one of the reasonsadduced in support
of the refusal of the former Government to submit the issue to this

Court was that the Government of the United Kingdom had, in
its acceptance of the Optional Clause, itself excluded from the
competence of the Court questions within its exclusive jurisdiction.
The contention that a territorial dispute involves a matter within
the domestic iurisdiction of a State mav be farfetched. but has
the Court been given the power to Say that any such aisertion is
obviously in bad faith, that it constitutes an abuse of a right, that
it must be ignored or overridden, and that the Court has jurisdiction
notwithstanding the determination to the contraryby theState in
question ?

,4ny attempt to embark upon the examination of the question
whether a Government has acted in bad faith in determining that a
matter is essentially within its domestic jurisdiction may involve
an exacting enquiry into the merits of the dispute-an enquiry so
exacting that it could claim to determine, with full assurance, that

the juridical view advanced by a Government is so demonstrably
and palpably wrong and so arbitrary as to amount to an assertion
made in bad faith. Only an enquiry into the merits can determine
that although an assertion made by the defendant Government is
not legally well-founded it is nevertheless reasonable; or that
although it is not reasonable, it is not wholly arbitrary. The Court
has no power to make such determination.

The "automatic reservation" is couched in terms so comprehen-
sive as to preclude the Court from reviewing it or interpreting itj5 SORWEGIAX LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

away not only by reference to any assertion of abuse of a right by
the defendant State but also in any other way. Thus, for instance,
it is not open to the Court to disregard that reservation by reference
to some such argument as that the right of exclusive determination
pertains only to matters which are "essentially within domestic
jurisdiction"; that a matter which is clearly governed by inter-
national law, because of international custom or treaty, is not essen-
tially within the domestic jurisdiction of a State; and that, therefore,
such matters are neither within the scope of the reservation nor
within the power of the accepting State to determine unilaterally
whether the dispute is within the domestic jurisdiction. It is not
easy to find a legal limit to the right of the accepting State which
has appended a reservation of this kind to decline the jurisdiction
of the Court. That right seems to be unqualified. So is the inability
of the Court to review the attitude of the Government in question.
That very absence of qualification is expressive of the absence of
any element of legal obligation implicit in a reservation thus

formulated.

Having regard to the preceding observations 1 am of the view
that the right of the accepting State to determine whether a matter
is essentially within its domestic jurisdiction makes the extent and
the very existence of its obligation dependent upon its will; that
the subject-matter of such determination may cover practically al1
disputes; that the Court has no power to disregard a determination
thus made on the ground that it has not been made in good faith
or an any other ground; and that the reservation of domestic juris-
diction thus formulated is therefore invalid inasmuch as it deprives
the Acceptance of the essential element of legal obligation.

3. Can the "automatic reservation" be separatedfrom theAcceptance
as sztch?
1have come to the conclusion that the "automatic reservation"

relating to matters deemed by the Government of France to be
essentially within her national jurisdictionis invalid for the double
reason that it is contrary to the Statute of the Court and that it
deprives the Acceptance of the indispensable element of legal
obligation.
If the clause of the Acceptance reserving to the declaring Govern-
ment the right of unilateral determination is invalid, then there are
only two alternatives open to the Court: it may either treat as
invalid that particular part of the reservation or it may consider
the entire Acceptance to be tainted with invalidity. (There is a
third possibility-which has only to be mentioned in order to be
dismissed-namely, that the clause in question invalidates not the
Acceptance as a whole but the particular reservation. This would
mean that the entire reservation of matters of national jurisdiction

50would be treated as invalid while the Declaration of Acceptance as
such would be treated as fully in force.)

As stated, the first possibility is that the particular condition
attached to the reservation-namely, the words "as understood
by the French GovernmentH-should be treated as non-existent
and ignored while the remainder of the reservation and of the
Acceptance as a whole be treated as fully valid and subsistent.
Legal practice and doctrine within the State are familiar with
situations in which a contract or any other legal instrument contains
a clause which the law treats as invalid or unenforceable without
necessarily bringing about the nullity of the contract or instrument
as a whole. In those cases the provision in question is severed-
is treated separately-from the rest of the text. This is not always
possible. Much depends on whether that provision is an essential
part of the instrument in question. In the international sphere the
problem of severance of provisions of treaties and other inter-
national instruments has been frequently discussed by writers
and occasionally in judicial decisions-in particular in connection

with the question of termination of treaties on the ground of non-
performance by one of the parties or as the result of war or some
other change of circumstances. Early writers considered that every
single provision of a treaty is indissolubly linked with the fate of
the entire instrument which, in their view, lapses as the result of
the frustration or non-fulfilment of any particular provision,
however unimportant and non-essential. This is not the modern
view. Neither is it the view which has secured the adherence of
modern governmental and judicial practice, including that of the
Permanent Court of International Justice. The latter on a number
of occasions declined to treat individual provisions of a treaty as
being indissolubly connected and interdependent. (See,for instance,
Free Zones case, Series A/B, No. 46, p. 140, in which the Court
treated Article 435 of the Treaty of Versailles as a "complete whole"
independent of the rest of the Treaty; and the Advisory Opinions
relating to the competence ofthe International Labour Organisation,

Series B, No. 2,pp. 23,24, and Series B, No. 13,p. 18,with regard to
the independent position of Part XII1 of the Treaty.) In a different
sphere, the Opinion of this Court in the case of the Reservationsto
the GenocideConventionshows that there may be reasonable limits
to the notion of the indivisibility of a treaty and that some of its
provisions may not be of a nature essential tothe treaty as a whole.

International practice on the subject is not sufficientlyabundant
to permit a confident attempt at generalization and some help
may justifiably be sought in applicable general principles of law
as developed in municipal law. That general principle of law is that
it is legitimate-and perhaps obligatory-to sever an invalid
condition from the rest of the instrument and to treat the latter as
valid provided that having regard to the intention of the parties

51andthe nature of the instrument the condition in question does not
constitute an essential part of the instrument. Utile nom debetper
inutile üitiari. The same applies also to provisions and reservations

relating to the jurisdiction of the Court. It would be consistent
with the previous practice of the Court that it should, if only
possible, uphold its jurisdiction when such a course is compatible
with the intention of the parties and that it should not allow its
jurisdiction to be defeated as the result of remediable defects of
expression which are not of an essential character. If that principle
were applied to the case now before the Court this would mean that,
while the French acceptance as a whole would remain valid, the
limitation expressed in the words "as understood by the Govern-
ment of the French Republic" would be treated as invalid and non-
existent with the further result that Norway could not rely on it.
The outcome of the interpretation thus adopted would be somewhat
startling inasmuch as it would, in the present case, favour the very
State vi-hichoriginally made that reservation and defeat the objec-
tion of the defendant State-an aspect of the question commented
upon in another part of this Opinion. That fact need not necessarily
be a decisivereason against the adoption of any such interpretation.

However, 1consider that it is not open tothe Court in the present
case to sever the invalid condition from the Acceptance as a whole.

For the principle of severance applies only to provisions and
conditions which are not of the essence of the undertaking. Now
an examination of the history of this particular form of the reser-
vation of national jurisdiction shows that the unilateral right of
determining whether the dispute is essentially within domestic
jurisdiction has been regarded by the declaring State as one of the
cruciallimitations-perhaps the crucial limitation-of the obligation
undertaken by the acceptance of the Optional Clause of Article 36
of the Statute. As is well known, that particular limitation is,
substantially, a repetition of the formula adopted, after consider-
able discussion, by the Senate of the United States of America
in giving its consent and advice to the acceptance, in 1946, of the
O~tional Clause bv that countrv. That instrument is not before
tee Court and it Gould not be &oper for me to comment upon it
except to the extent of noting that the reservation in question was
included therein having regard to the decisive importance attached
to it and notwithstanding the doubts, expressed in various quarters,
as to its consistency with the Statute. It will also be noted that some
governments, such as those of India and the Lnion of South Africa,
have attributed so much importance to that particular formulation
of the reservation that they cancelled their previous acceptance of

the Optional Clause in order to insert, in a substituted Declaration
of -4cceptance, a clause reserring for themselves the right of uni-
iateral determination. To ignore that clause and to maintain thebinding force of the Declaration as a whole would be to ignore an
essential and deliberate condition of the Acceptance.
From the point of view of the Government concerned there were

weighty reasons why, anxious to frame its acceptance of the Optional
Clause and its reservations thereto in such a manner as to preserve
full freedom of national decision in the matter of submission of
future disputes to the Court, it attached importance to formulating
this particular reservation. In a significant passage, cited in para-
graph 25 of the Preliminary Objections of Korway, the Rapporteur
of the Committee for Foreign Affairs of the French Chamber said
in relation to the reservation in question :"The French sovereingty
is not put in issue and its rights are safeguarded in al1spheres and
in al1 circumstances." In fact, as is suggested in another part of
this Opinion, there are only few disputes which cannot, without
giving rise to an irrefutable imputation of bad faith, be brought
within the orbit of the assertion that they pertain to a matter
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of the State concerned.
Similarlÿ, as already stated, there is but little substance in the
view that the freedom of determination by the State interested is

effectively limited for the reason that it must be exercised in
good faith and that the Court is the judge whether it has been so
exercised. The Court is therefore confronted with the decisive fact
that the Government in question was not prepared to subscribe
or to renew its cornmitment of compulsory judicial settlement unless
it safeguarded in that particular way its freedom of action. That
particular formulation of the reservation is an essential condition
of the Acceptance as a whole. It is not severable from it. The
~hrase "as understood bv the Government of the French Re~ublic"
hust be regarded as bekg of the very essence of the undLrtaking
in question. It is not a collateral condition which can be separated,
ignored and left on one side while al1 others are given effect. The
Acceptance stands and falls with that particular reservation and
that particular formulation of the reservation. Without these
words the Government which made that reservation would not have
been willing to accept the commitments of the compulsory juris-

diction of this Court.
The Court cannot properly uphold the validity of the Acceptance
as a whole and at the same time treat as non-existent any such
far-reaching, articulate and deliberate limitation of its jurisdiction.
To do so would run counter to the establishedpractice of the Court-
which, in turn, is in accordance with a fundamental principle of
international judicial settlement-that the Court will not uphold its
jurisdiction unless the intention to confer it has been proved
bevond reasonable doubt. The Court certainlv cannot assume
juhsdiction if there is a clearly expressed inteniion to deny it in
specified circumstances. This means that it would not be possible
for the Court to disregard that part of the reservation in question
which claims for the State concerned the right to determine itsapplication. It is not possible for the Court to do otherwise than
to regard this particular part of the reservation, so specifically
forrnulated, as constituting an essential and not severable part
of the instrument of acceptance. It might perhaps be possible-

1 express no view on the subject-to disregard and to treat as
invalid some other reservation which is contrary to the Statute
and thus to maintain the Acceptance as a whole. This is not possible
with regard to a reservation directly referring to and excluding the
jurisdiction of the Court. On the other hand, as 1 pointed out, it is
not possible for the Court to act affirmatively upon that part of the
reservation seeing that it is contrary to the Statute. It is thus not
possible for the Court, while upholding the validity of the Accept-
ance, either to act upon that part of the reservation or to ignore it.
The inescapable solution of the dilemma is to treat the entire
Acceptance as invalid.

This being so, my conclusion on this aspect of the question is
that the reservation of national jurisdiction as qualified by the
French Government is an essential part of its acceptance of the
obligations of the Optional Clause; that it cannot be severed from
the Acceptance as a whole ; that as it is contrary to the Statute

of the Court and as it deprives the Acceptance of the requisite
element of legal obligation it must be held to be invalid and to
invalidate the Acceptance as a whole; and that, there being no
valid Acceptance, there is no instrument upon which France can
rely and which, in the absence of agreement of Nortvay to submit
to the jurisdiction of the Court apart from the Optional Clause,
can provide a basis for the jurisdiction of the Court.

It is necessary in this connection to refer to the Judgment of
the Court in the case concerning Rights of Nationals of the United

States of America in fWorocco.In that case, brought before it by an
application based on Article 36 (2)ofthe Statute, the Court exercised
jurisdiction although the Acceptances both of the applicant and the
defendant State contained the "automatic reservation". To what
extent is the Court now bound by the fact that it assumed juris-
diction in that case? Lpon investigation that case proves irrelevant
for the present issue.
In the first instance, in the case of the Rights of Nationals of
the United States in Moroccothe jurisdiction of the Court was not
challenged by the defendant State; the latter did not invoke the
"automatic reservation". There was, therefore, no direct occasion
for the Court to embark upon an examination of the validity of that
reservation and of the Acceptance as a ~t-hole.

54 Secondly, although in that case France relied in her Application
upon the Optional Clause of Article 36 (2)of the Statute, the juris-
diction of the Court was in fact exercised not on the basis of the
Optional Clause but on the principle of forz~mprorogatz~m,i.e. on
what was actually a voluntary submission independent of the source
of jurisdiction originally invoked by the applicant party. The

Government of the Cnited States agreed to the jurisdiction of the
Court without admitting that the Court was competent on the
basis of the Optional Clause. The relevant passage of the Counter-
Memorial of the Cnited States was as follows: "The United States
Government does not raise any jurisdictional issue in the proceeding,
even though it does not concur in the allegations with respect to the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court which have been presented
by the French Government, it being its understanding that its
abstaining from raising the issue does not affect its legal right to
rely in anyfuture case on its reservations contained in its acceptance
of the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court." (CaseconcerningRigizts
of Nationals O/the United States oj =Imerica inMorocco: Pleadings,
Oral Arguments, Documents, vol. i, p. 262.) This statement is of
significance seeing that in the course of the written proceedings
the Government of the 'Cnited States of America withdren- its
Preliminary Objection n-hich it had raised on account of the insuf-

ficient clarification of the identityof the Parties. That Objection
was withdrawn as soon as it became clear that both France and
Morocco would be bound by the Judgment of the Court (ibid.,
vol. ii, pp. 424-434) It is thus clear that in that case the Court
exercised jurisdiction not only because-unlike in the present case-
the defendant Party agreed to it but also because it agreed to it
on the basis other than the Declaration of Acceptance. The dispute
now before the Court is the first case-an entirely novel case-in
which a Party has claimed the right, denied to it by Article 36 (6)
of the Statute, to substitute itself for the Court in the matter of a
decision as to its jurisdiction. This being so, 1 need not discuss the
question asto the extent to which the Court would be bound by the
precedent of the case of the United States Nationals ilz Morocco,
if that case were relevant to the issue now before the Court.

It is essential to examine the view that it is not open to the
Court to treat the French Acceptance as invalid seeing that Norway
has not put forward any such assertion and that by relying, in
view of the principle of reciprocity, on the French reservation she
implicitly recognized the validity of the French Acceptance. 1 am
unable to agree with that view. It would be open to Norway, by
consenting to the jurisdiction of the Court irrespective of the
French Acceptance, to confer competence upon the Court by way

5561 NORWEGIAN LOASS (SEP.OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

of forzcmprorogatzcm. However, Xorway has not submitted to the
jurisdiction of the Court in any way. She has challenged it on
various grounds. This being so, the fact that she has not raised
the particular issue of the validity of the French Acceptance as a
whole cannot endow with validity an instrument otherwise invalid.
Even if Norway had agreed to the jurisdiction of the Court, it

would not have followed that the Court could have exercised it on
the basis of the French Declaration of Acceptance. The defendant
State cannot, by refraining from raising objections, grant dispen-
sation from invalidity. No one can do it-including, perhaps, the
Court itself. The Court must have before it as a basis of its juris-
diction a valid text. It must ascertain the existence of that text.
In the past it has, when occasion arose, raised the question of its
jurisdiction propriomotz~ (see e.g. the case of theAdministration of
thePrincevon Pless, SeriesA/B, No. 52,p. I5).It isopen to the Court,
for that purpose, to ascertain the views of the parties on the subject
by availing itself of the useful provision ofits Rules which enable it to
address questions to the parties at any stage of the oral proceedings.
As stated, the invalidity is inherent in the Declaration ofAccept-
ance formulated in that way. It is not the case that the Declaration
isvalid until an occasion arises in which that particular reservation is

relied upon by one party and challenged by the other with the
result that its inconsistency with the Statute is thus brought to
light. The Declaration is invalidabinitio. Bnef reflection shows the
irrelevance of the fact that neither party has challenged the validity
of the Declaration and that the Court must therefore act upon it.
For, clearly, the State which has formulated the "automatic
reservation" is not likely, or entitled, to question it. The respondent
State which relies upon it-by virtue of reciprocity (as Norway
has done in the present case)-is not interested in challenging
its validity. It finds it an effective, though possibly somewhat
embarrassing, weapon of defence-in some cases the only effective
means of defence unless it decides to steer the uricertain course
of invoking simultaneously and by way of alternative submissions
both the invalidity of the reservation and the reservation itself.
For these reasons no importance can reasonably be attached to
the fact that the validity of the "automatic reservation" has not

been challenged by either party. Seeing that one party is respons-
ible for its inclusion in its Declaration of Acceptance and that the
other Party finds it necessary or imperative to rely on it, 1 can
see but little force in the argument pointing to the fact that the
validity of that reservation has not been put in issueby either party.

Reference must be made in this connection to the argument
pointing to the existence of certain treaties of obligatory arbitration

56concluded in the past which, expressly or by implication, conferred
upon the signatories the right to determine the arbitrability of a
particular dispute. The arbitration treaties which were concluded
before the First World War and which contained the then customary
reservations of national honour and independence were generally
regarded as recognizing by implication such right of unilateral
determination. In some cases that right was expressly reserved.

That argument is, in any case, irrelevant seeing that those treaties
were not subject to the limitation of Article 36 (6) of the Statute
of the Court. Were they valid from the point of view of the question
whether they contained effective legal obligations? The question is,
once more, of an academic character seeing that these treaties were
not concluded within the framework of any organic statute of a
tribunal possessing jurisdiction to determine their validity. They
were devoid of an element of effective legal obligation. They pro-
vided a basis for a compromis if the parties so wished. They were
never applied against the will of the defendant State. While it may
thus be pedantic to enquire into the legal validity of the treaties in
question in circumstances wholly different from the problem now
before the Court, their practical insignificance does not seem to be
open to doubt. With isolated exceptions, they were concluded at a
time when a system of obligatory arbitration existed in name only.

Above all, treaties of obligatory judicial settlement providing for
the right of unilateral determination of the jurisdiction of the
tribunal virtually disappeared after the First World War following
upon the establishment of the Permanent Court of International
Justice. In practically ail-and certainly the principal-treaties of
arbitration and judicial settlement concluded after the First \Vorld
War the right to determine the disputed jurisdiction of the tribunal
was conferred upon the tribunal itself (as, e.g., in the Swiss-German
Treaty of 3 December, 1921, ,4rticle 4; or in the various Locarno
Arbitration Treaties of 16 October, 1925-e.g., Article 16 of
the Treaty between Germany and Poland). The important multi-
lateral treaties of obligatory judicial settlement concluded after the
First and Second World Wars include specific provisions to that
effect-as does, for instance, Article 41 of the General Act for the

Pacific Settlement of International Disputes of 26 September 1928
and the Pact of Bogotk of 30April1948. Article Vofthe latter treaty
provides as follows: "The aforesaid procedures may not be applied
to matters v-fiich, by their nature, are within the domestic juris-
diction of the State. If the parties are not in agreement as to whether
the controversy concems a matter of domestic jurisdiction, this
preliminary question shall be submitted to decision by the Inter-
national Court of Justice, at the request of any of the parties."
Article 38 of the most recent multilateral treat- of obligatory
judicial settlement-the European Convention of 29 April 1957 for
the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes-is to the same effect. An
examination of over two hundred treaties in the volume publishedin 1949 by the United Nations and entitled "Systematic Survey of
Treaties for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes,
1928-1948", reveals that only a very small number of treaties-
perhaps not more than six-contain a reservation of the right of
unilateral determination. The express acknowledgment of the
power of the Court to determine its jurisdiction in cases in which
that jurisdiction is disputed has thus become, even apart from the
Statute of the Court, a uniform feature of the practice of States.
The "automatic reservation", should it continue to be applied
by the Court directly or indirectly, will arrest or reverse that trend
which is an essential condition of any true system of obligatory
judicial settlement.

1 must now consider some of the implications of a decision of the
Court holding that a Declaration of Acceptance which includes the
"automatic reservation" is invalid. Any such decision has a bearing
upon Declarations, similarly formulated, of a number of other
States. These now include the Cnited States of America, Mexico,
Pakistan, India, South Africa, Liberia, and, perhaps, to some
limited extent the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland. The latter, in a Declaration made on 18 April, 1957,
excluded from the Acceptance any question "which, in the opinion
of the Government of the United Kingdom, affects the national
security ofthe Vnited Kingdom or of any ofits dependent territories".
1 am conscious of some apprehended consequences of a decision of
the Court holding that the manner in which the Optional Clause has
been accepted bj7 an increasing number of States, traditionally

wedded to the cause of international judicial settlement, has the
effect of rendering their Acceptance invalid. Moreover, that form of
accepting the jurisdiction of the Court has not been confined to the
Optional Clause. It has been followed, under its influence, in some
other texts purporting to provide for the obligatory jurisdiction
of the Court. (See, e.g., the reservation of the Vnited States of
-4merica to the Pact of Bogota: Year Book of theCoznt, 1947-1948,
p. 144, n. 2.In a series of agreements relating to economic aid and
concluded between the Gnited States of America and some other
States-as, for instance, with China on 3 July 1948-the following
provision occurs: "It is understood that the undertaking of each
Government [providing for the jurisdiction of the Court] ...is
limited by the terms and conditions of such effective recognition
as it has heretofore given to the compulsory jurisdiction oftheInter-
national Court of Justice under Article 36 of the Statute of the
Court": ibid., 1948-1949, pp. 152-1j5.)
The circumstance that a decision of the Court maj7affect Govern-

ments which have had no opportunity to express their view on the
5s64 KORWEGIrlN LOAXS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)
subject is a cause of concern. It would have been preferable if, in

accordance with Article 63 of the Statute, the Governments which
have made a Declaration in these terms had been given an oppor-
tunity to intervene. Failing that, it is possible for those Govern-
ments to adopt the attitude that, in accordance with Article 59
of the Statute, the authority of the decision of the Court is limited
to the present case and that they are at liberty to assert their
attitude on the matter on another occasion.
In so far as it is within the province of the Court to consider the
purpose of the system of the Optional Clause as provided in Ar-
ticle36 (2) of its Statute, it is bound to attach importance to the fact
that the "automatic reservation" has tended to impair the legal---and
moral-authority and reality of the Optional Clause. Through the
operation of reciprocity the practice of illusory acceptances must

in the end encompass most declaring Governments including, as in
the present case, those which accepted the Optional Clause without
reservations.
It might be said that to look in that way upon a Declaration of
Acceptance thus formulated is to underestimate its moral value
and to disregard the fact that enlightened Governments are not
likely to invoke the reservation in question lightly and abusively.
Yet, to stress the moral value of the Declaration is to go some way
in admitting that it is devoid of legal force. Moreover, there is
little substance in the assumption that Governments exhibit
reluctance to invoke reservations to their acceptance of the jurisdic-
tion ofinternationaltribunals or that any moral impropriety attaches
to reservations being invoked. It is a good legal right of Govern-

ments to do so. It is seldom that a Government cited before the
Court in pursuance of a unilateral application has admitted the
jurisdiction of the Court as following from the instrument invoked
by the applicant State. In the present case, Sorway, which has
accepted the Optional Clause without any reservations, save that
of reciprocity, has not abandoned the right of unilateral deter-
mination which accrues to her bo virtue of the French form of
acceptance.
It is difficult to attach importance to the suggestion that an
Acceptance containing the "automatic reservation" is not wholly
devoid of legal value seeing that it may at least provide a basis for
the acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Court by way of voluntary
submission through the operation of the principle of forz~mprovo-
gatzlm. No such basis is required for that purpose. A unilateral

application altogether unrelated to any previous acceptance of the
jurisdiction of the Court is sufficient for thaturpose provided that
the defendant State is willing to submit to the jurisdiction of the
Court.
If in la\.\- an Acceptance of that nature does not constitute a
text embodying legal obligations then the decision of the Court
in that sense does no more than register a fact; it provides an opportunity for any Government so minded to put right a faulty
Declaration of Acceptance; and it assists in arresting a tendency
which threatens to disintegrate that minimum of compromise
~vhichis embodied in the Optional Clause. It is not suggested that
the Court should be guided by a desire to achieve these objects-
-however important they maji be for the integrity of international
undertakings and the cause of international justice. Xeither is it
within the province of the Court toassess the propriety of a practice
according to which a State, while in fact retaining freedom of
action on the matter of submission of disputes to the Court, gains
the moral and political advantages associated with professed ad-
herence to the principle of obligatory judicial settlement. What
the Court must do is to apply the legal principles governing the
matter. It has been said that as States are not at al1 bound to

accept the jurisdiction of the Court and as their Acceptance is in
the nature of a voluntary sacrifice, it is not fitting to examine it too
closely. The Court cannot be concerned with considerations of this
nature. It cannot weigh the niceties of political advantage. For it
may be argued that, if as the result of such Acceptance States gain
in prestige and reputation while in fact not surrendering their free-
dom of decision, the nature of the sacrifice is not obvious. Also,
while the Government making the "automatic reservations"
retains freedom of action, ithrows upon the defendant State, which
has not appended an? such reservation, the difficult and often
embarrassing responsibility of invoking what, in the eyes of some,
may be an odious and peremptory reservation. The present case has
sho~vnthe implications of the resulting situation.

If the Court could legitimately be concerned with issues trans-
cending that immediately before it,it might be considered its duty
to discourage, in so far as it lieswith it, the progressive disinte-

gration of the institution of the Optional Clause as evidenced,
inter alia, by the tendency to adopt reservations such as that here
examined. Governments are under no compulsion, legal or moral,
to accept the duties of obligatory judicial settlement.lThenaccept-
ing them, they can Iimit them to the barest minimum. But the
existence of that minimum, if it is to be a legal obligation, must be
subject to determination by the Court itself and not by the Govern-
ment accepting it. A purported obligation, however apparently
comprehensive, which leaves it to the ~villof the State to determine
the very existence of the obligation, cannot be the basis of an
instrument claimed to found the iurisdiction of the Court. That
view seemç to be drastic and starhg only if it is assumed that
principles of law which generally apply in respect of the validity of
texts purporting to create a legal obligation do not apply in the
case of Governments. -4ny such assumption is inconsistent with

the function of a Court of Justice. For the latter reason, the problem involved is of even wider

import than the question of the jurisdiction of the Court. It raises
an issue which is of vital significance for the preservation of its
judicial character. That issue is whether it can be part of the duty
of the Court to administer and to give the status of a legal text to
instruments which in fact do not create legal rights and duties. The
judicial character of the Court may become endangered if it were to
assume the task of interpreting and applying texts which, being
devoid of the element of effective legal obligation, are essentially
no more than a declaration of political purpose. Such danger may be
inherent in any readiness to elevate to the merit of a legal commit-
ment what is no more than a non-committal declaration of intention
to be implemented at the option of the Govemment concerned.

My conclusion is therefore that, having regard to the reservation
relating to matters which are essentially within domestic jurisdiction
as understood by the French Republic, the French Declaration of
Acceptance is invalid for the reason:

(1)That it is contrary to the Statute of the Court;
(2)That it isincapable ofgiving rise to a legal obligation inasmuch
as it claims, and effectively secures, the right of unilateral deter-

mination of the extent and of the existence of the obligation of
judicial settlement witl-iregard to a comprehensive and indefinite
category of disputes covering potentially most disputes which may
come before the Court;
(3) That the particular qualification of the reservation in question
forms an essential part ofthe Acceptance and that it isnot possible to
treat it as invalid and at the same time to maintain the validity ofthe
reservation to which it is attached or of the Acceptance as a whole.
Accordingly, in my view the entire French Declaration of Accept-
ance must be treated as devoid of legal effect and as incapable
of providing a basis for the jurisdiction of the Court. It is for that
reason that, in my view, the Court has no jurisdiction over the

dispute. The majority of the Court has reached the same result
by acting upon the "automatic reservation" and the French
Declaration of Acceptance-both of which 1 consider to be invalid.
Houlever, as the Court has expressly stated that, having regard
to the circumstances before it, its Judgment does not pre-judge
the major issue involved, 1 feel that a Separate Opinion-as
distinguished from a Dissenting Opinion-meets the requirement
of the case.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT

While 1 concur in the operative part of the Judgment inasmuch
as the Court has declared itself incompetent to decide on the
merits of the case submitted to it, much regret that 1 do not find
myself in agreement with the grounds of the Judgment. As the
issues involved are intimately connected with the nature of the
decisions of the Court in the matter of its competence, as me11as
with some basic questions of its obligatory jurisdiction, consider

it my duty to indicate in some detail my own position on the
subject.

The Judgment of the Court is based exclusively on the finding
that the Court is bound to decline jurisdiction for the reason that
Norway has invoked the reservation, operating by virtue of reci-
procity, of the French Declaration of Acceptance in which the
French Government excluded from the jurisdiction of the Court
"matters which are essentially within the national jurisdiction, as
understood by the Government of the French Republic".
There are two reasons for which 1 find myself compelled to
dissent from the grounds of the Judgment thus expressed. In the
first instance, assuming-an assumption which 1 must reject-that
the French Declaration of Acceptance is a text which isvalid inlaw,
the question of jurisdiction must, in my view, be decided by ref-
erence to substantive Preliminarjr Objections advanced by the

defendant Government rather than by reference to the subsidiary
Objection referred to above. Secondly, and principally, 1 consider
that as, in consequence of the latter reservation, the French Decla-
ration of Acceptance is invalid, there is before the Court no text the
reservations of which itcan apply. This fact, and not the Norwegian
reliance upon the French reservation of matters of national juris-
diction, is in my view the true reason mhy the Court has no juris-
diction in the present case.
In this Separate Opinion 1 propose, for the sake of abbreviation,
to use the term "automatic reservation" to indicate the French
reservation of "matters which are essentially within the national
jurisdiction, as understood by the Government of the French
Republic". That description expresses the automatic operation of
that reservation in the sense that, by 1-irtue of it, the function of
the Court is confined to registering the decision made by the
defendant Government and not subject to review by the Court. OPIXION INDIVIDUELLE
DE SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT
[Traduction]

Bien que j'approuve le dispositif de l'Arrêten tant que la Cour
se déclare incompétente pour statuer au fond sur l'affaire qui lui
est soumise, j'ai le grand regret de ne pas êtred'accord avec les
motifs de l'Arrêt.Comme les questions en jeu sont intimement liées
à la nature des décisionsde la Cour en matière de compétence, ainsi
qu'à certaines questions fondamentales concernant sa juridiction

obligatoire, j'estime de mon devoir d'indiquer avec quelque détail
ma position sur le sujet.

L'Arrêtde la Cour est exclusivement fondé sur la conclusion que
la Cour est tenue de décliner compétence pour le motif que la
Norvège a invoqué par voie de réciprocitéla réserve, inséréedans
la déclaration française d'acceptation, par laquelle le Gouvernement

français a soustrait à la juridiction de la Cour les (affaires qui
relèvent essentiellement de la compétence nationale telle qu'elle
est entendue par le Gouvernement de la République française ».
Il y a deux raisons qui m'empêchent de m'associer aux motifs
énoncésdans l'Arrêt.En premier lieu, si l'on suppose - ce que je
ne saurais pour ma part accepter - que la déclaration française
d'acceptation est un texte juridiquement valable, la question de
compétencedoit, à mon avis, êtretranchée sur la base desexceptions

préliminaires substantielles invoquées par le Gouvernement défen-
deur plutôt que sur la base de l'exception subsidiaire que je viens
de mentionner. En second lieu, et c'est là le principal, je considère
que, la déclaration française d'acceptation étant nulle en raison de
ladite réserve, la Cour n'est pas en présence d'un texte dont elle
puisse appliquer les réserves. C'est ce fait, et non le recours de la
Norvège à la réserve française relative aux affaires relevant de la
compétence nationale, qui constitue à mes yeux la vraie raison
pour laquelle la Cour n'a pas compétence en l'espèce.

Dans la présente opinion individuelle, j'emploierai, par abrévia-
tion, l'expression (réserve automatique )pour désigner la réserve
française relative aux ((affaires qui relèvent essentiellement de la
compétence nationale telle qu'elle est entendue par le Gouveme-
ment de la République française ». Cette désignation exprime le
fonctionnement automatique de la réserve en ce sens qu'en vertu
de ladite réserve lerôle de la Cour se borne à enregistrer la décision
qui est prise par le Gouvernement défendeur et qui n'est pas

soumise à l'examen de la Cour.
29 The Pveliîninnry Objections of A\70~wny

In the present case the Government of Xorway has challenged
the jurisdiction of the Court in reliance upon the following Prelim-
inary Objections:

(1) It has maintained that, as the French application refers to
a dispute which is concerned exclusivel'; with Xorwegian national
law, it is not a dispute falling within the terms of Article 3(2) of the
Statute which, it is alleged, covers only disputesrelating to questions
of international law.
(2) Secondly, the Government of Sorway has maintained that
the holders of the loan certificates on whose behalf the French
Government considered itself entitled to seise the Court did not
previously exhaust the local remedies as requirecl by international
law. That. Objection is closely related to that referred to above, in

the sense that, as repeatedly emphasized bj- the Xorwegian Govern-
ment in the written and oral proceedings, it is the failure to exhaust
local remedies which has prevented the dispute from acquiring the
complexion of a dispute concerning international law.
(3) Thirdly, in case "there is still doubt" as to the contention
that the dispute is concerned solely with a question of Xorwegian
law, the Norwegian Government invoked, in reliance upon the
provision of reciprocity, the "automatic reservation" incorporated
in the French Declaration of Acceptance. As already stated, the
Judgment of the Court is based exclusively on that latter Prelim-

inary Objection.
It seems a sound principle of judicial procedure that, unless the
provisions of its Stat~ite or other cogent legal considerations make
that impossible, the Judgment of the Court should attach to the
submissions of the Parties a purpose, though not necessarily an
effect, which the Parties attached to them. Applied to objections
to the jurisdiction of the Court, that principle means that, when a
Party has advanced objections to the jurisdiction of the Court, the
decision on the question of jurisdiction must be reaclied by reference
to objections which, in the intention of the Party advancing them,
are principal rather than subsidiarj- and which are substantive
rather than formal. This is so in particular in the international

sphere where a Go\;ernment ma!- rightly consider that it should
not be treated as having successfull~ challenged the jurisdiction of
the Court on the basis of objections which are ancillary and auto-
matic-at a time when its main effort was directed to jurisdictional
objections of substance. It is clear from the written and oral
proceedings that Korway, far from putting forward the "automatic
reservation" as the main objection, intended to rely upon it only
in a subsidiar'; manner and in the last resort-only if "there is still EhIPRCSTS SORTv. (OP. ISDI17. SIR HERSCH LAUTERP-ICHT) 3j

Les Exceptioîzsprélinzi~zaired se ln Norvège

Le Gouvernement norvégien a contesté la compétence de la Cour
en l'espèce sur la base des exceptions préliminaires suivantes:

1) Il soutient que, comme la requête française concerne un
différend qui relève exclusivement du droit interne norvégien, ce

différend ne tombe pas sous le coup de l'article 36,paragraphe 2,
du Statut, lequel, fait-on valoir, vise uniquement les différends
relatifsà des points de droit international.
2) Deuxièmement, le Gouvernement norvégien soutient que les
porteurs d'obligations au nom desquels le Gouvernement français
s'est considérécomme fondé à saisir la Cour n'avaient pas aupara-
vant épuisé lesrecours internes, comme le prescrit le droit inter-

national. Cette exception est étroitement liée à la précédente,en ce
sens que, ainsi que le Gouvernement norvégien l'a souligné avec
insistance dans ses écritures et plaidoiries, c'est le défaut d'épuise-
ment des recours internes qui a empêchéle différend de prendre le
caractère d'un différend de droit international.
3) Troisièmement, si un (doute ...pouvait ...subsister » sur la

thèse d'après laquelle le différend concerne uniquement une question
de droit norvégien, le Gouvernement norvégien se prévaudrait,
sur la base de la disposition relative à la réciprocité, dela ((réserve
automatique »contenue dans la déclaration française d'acceptation.
Comme je l'ai déjà dit, l'Arrêtde la Cour se fonde exclusivement
sur cette dernière exception préliminaire.
Il semble un bon principe de procédure judiciaire qu'à moins
d'impossibilité découlant des dispositions de son Statut ou d'autres

considérations juridiques déterminantes, l'Arrêt de la Cour doit
attacher aux conclusions des Parties une intention, sinon forcément
un effet, que les Parties elles-mêmesleur attribuent. Appliquée aux
exceptions d'incompétence, ce principe signifie que, lorsqu'une
Partie a opposé des exceptions à la compétence de la Cour, la
décision prise en la matière doit se référeraux exceptions qui, dans
l'intention de la Partie qui les invoque, sont des exceptions prin-
cipales plutôt que subsidiaires et ont un caractère substantiel

plutôt que formel. 11en est particulièrement ainsi dans le domaine
international où un Gouvernement peut légitimement penser qu'il
ne doit pas être considéré comme ayant avec succès contesté la
compétence de la Cour sur la base d'exceptions d'un caractère
auxiliaire et automatique - alors que son principal effort a porté
sur des exceptions d'incompétence substantielles. Il résulte claire-
ment des écritures comme des plaidoiries que la Xorvège, loin
d'invoquer la (créserve automatique 11comme son exception prin-

cipale, n'entendait y recourir qu'à titre subsidiaire et en dernier
30 36 XORWEGIAN LOANS (SEP.OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

doubt" as to the principal preliminary objection. This explains
why, after having invoked the "automatic reservation" in a sub-
sidiary manner in the original document entitled "Prelirninary
Objectio~zsofNorway", the Norwegian Government did not sub-
sequently on a single occasion refer to it, except generally and
indirectly. That Objection, though not formally withdrawn, was
kept in the background throughout the proceedings-a reticence

explained by the disinclination of a Government to rely primarily
upon an objection the success of which depends on the bare asser-
' tion of the will of that Government. In my opinion, a Party to
proceedings before the Court is entitled to expect that its Judgment
shall give asaccurate a picture as possible of the basic aspects of
the legal position adopted by that Party. Moreover, 1 believe that
itis in accordance with the true function of the Court to give an
answer to the two principal jurisdictional questions which have
divided the Parties over a long period of years and which are of

considerable interest for international law. There may be force and
attraction in the view that among a number of possible solutions a
court of law ought to select that which is most simple, most concise
and most expeditious. However, in my opinion such considerations
are not, for this Court, the only legitimate factor in the situation.

Accordingly, although 1 am of the opinion that there is before
the Court no valid Declaration of Acceptance by reference to

which it can assume jurisdiction, 1 consider it my duty to state my
opinion as to the principal Preliminary Objections of Norway.
Apart from a partial objection referred to below, these were the
only two jurisdictional objections ~vhich were argued before the
Court.
There are two otheï Preliminary Objections which figure in the
written and oral proceedings and to which only passing reference
need be made. In one, subsequently withdrawn, Norway asserted
that the subject-matter of the dispute did not fa11within the terms

of the French Declaration of Acceptance which limited the Accep-
tance to "disputes which may arise in respect of facts or situations
subsequent to the ratification" of the Declaration of Acceptance.
Another Objection had reference to one portion of the claim only.
In it Norway contended that, as some of the loans in question
were contracted not by the Norwegian State but by certain Banks
not identical with it, Norway could not properly be made a respon-
dent in respect of that part of the claim. It is not necessary to
examine here that particular Objection-which 1 do not consider

to be well founded.
a a x

With regard to the first Preliminary Objection referred to above
1 am unable to accept the view that the subject-matter of the

31ressort - uniquement si un cdoute ...pouvait ...subsister » sur
les exceptions préliminaires principales. Telle est la raison pour
laquelle, après avoir invoqué la créserve automatique 1)à titre

subsidiaire dans le document original intitulé « Exceptions pré-
liminaires de la Norvège », le Gouvernement norvégien ne l'a pas
mentionnée une seule fois par la suite, sauf d'une manière générale
et indirecte. Cette exception, sans avoir étéformellement retirée,
a étélaissée à l'arrière-plan tout au long de la procédure - réti-
cence qu'explique la répugnance d'un gouvernement à se fonder
principalement sur une exception dont le succès dépend de la
simple affirmation de la volonté de ce gouvernement. A mon avis,
une Partie devant la Cour est fondée à attendre que l'Arrêtreflète

aussi exactement que possible les aspects fondamentaux de la
position juridique prise par cette Partie. Au surplus, j'estime
conforme au rôle véritable de la Cour de répondre aux deux prin-
cipales questions de compétence qui ont diviséles Parties pendant
de longues années et qui présentent un intérêtconsidérable pour
le droitinternational. Il se peut qu'ily ait quelque chose de convain-
cant et de séduisant dans l'opinion d'après laquelle, entre plusieurs
solutions possibles, un tribunal doit choisir la plus simple, la plus
concise et la plus rapide. Toutefois, j'estime que cela ne saurait

constituer, pour cette Cour, les seules considérations légitimes en
cause.
C'est pourquoi, tout en considérant que la Cour n'est pas en
présence d'une déclaration d'acceptation valable sur la base de
laquelle elle peut se déclarer compétente, j'estime de mon devoir
d'exposer mon opinion quant aux exceptions préliminaires prin-
cipales de la Norvège. A part l'exception partielle à laquelle je vais
faire allusion, ce sont les deux seules exceptions d'incompétence
qui aient étédiscutées devant la Cour.

Il existe deux autres exceptions préliminaires qui figurent dans
les écritures et les plaidoiries et qu'il suffira de mentionner en
passant. Dans l'une, qui a étéretirée par la suite, la Norvège soute-
nait que l'objet du différend ne tombait pas sous le coup de la
déclaration française d'acceptation, laquelle est limitée aux (diffé-
rends qui s'élèveraient au sujet de faits ou situations postérieurs à
la ratificationj)de ladite déclaration. L'autre exception ne s'appli-
quait qu'à une partie de la demande. Dans cette exception, la

Sorvège soutenait que quelques-uns des emprunts en question
n'ayant pas été contractés par1'Etat norvégien mais par certaines
banques qui ne lui sont pas identiques, la Norvège ne saurait
légitimement êtreactionnée en ce qui concerne cette partie de la
demande. Il n'est pas nécessaire de traiter ici de cette dernière
exception, que je ne considère pas comme bien fondée.

Quant à la première exception préliminaire, je ne puis accepter

l'opinion que l'objet du différend actuel ne relève pas du droitpresent dispute is not related to international law but exclusive1~-
to the national law of Xorway. 'C'ndoubtedly, the question of the
interpretation of the contracts betw-een the Sorwegian State and

the bondholders is primarily a question of Norwegian law. It is not
disputed that the Norwegian law is the proper law of the contract
and that it is for the Norwegian courts to decide what Norway had
actually promised to pay. However, the complaint of the French
Government is that, having regard to the currency legislation
suspending the operation of the gold clause, the Norwegian law
which the Norwegian courts are bound to apply in this case is
contrary to international la~v.The Norwegian courts may hold that
the gold clause in the bonds is a gold coin clause (as distinguished
from a gold value clause), that that gold coin clause has been
rendered inoperative asthe result of the legislation in question, and
that the existing currency is, therefore, a lawful means of payment.
In the view of the Korwegian Government this is the proper inter-
pretation of what it has in law promised to pay. However, it is that
very legislation, in so far as it affects French bondholders, which

inay be the cause of violation of international law of which France
complains.
It mai be admitted, in order to simplify a problem lvhich is not
at al1simple, that an "international" contract must be subject to
soine national law; this was the vie^ of the Permanent Court of
International Justice in the case of the Serbian and Brazilian
Loans. Howes-er, this does not mean that that national law is a
matter which is wholly outside the orbit of international lan-.
National legislation-including currency legislation-may he
contrary, in its intention or effects, to the international obligations
of the Çtate. The question of conformity of national legislation
with international lan, is a matter of international law. The notion
that if a matter is governed by national la'ivit is for that reason
at the same time outside the sphere of international law is both
novel and, if accepted, sub~ersive of international law. It is not
enough for a State to bring a matter under tlie protectire umbrella

of its legislation, possib1~-of a predatory character, in order to
shelter it effectis-ely from any control by international law. There
may be little difference betn-een a Government breaking unlawfully
a contract with an alien and a Government causing legislation to
be enacted which makes it impossible for it to cornpl? \\rith the
contract. Foi-these reasons it is difticult to accept the argument of
Norway to the effect that as this Court can decide only on the basis
of international law and that as the main substantive question
in the dispute is the interpretation of Xorwegian law, this is not a
dispute n-hichis covered by Article 36 (2)of the Çtatute. The dispute
now before the Court, although it is connected with the application
of Kormegian lan-, is also a dispute involving international lan-.
It is possible that if the Court had jurisdiction on the merits it
would find that Norn-a? has not violated any rule of internationalinternational mais exclusivement du droit interne. Sans doute la
question de l'interprétation des contrats entre le Gouvernement
norvégien et les obligataires est principalement une question de

droit norvégien. Il n'est pas contesté que le droit norvégien soit le
droit applicable au contrat et qu'il appartienne aux tribunaux
norvégiens de décider ce que la Norvège a effectivement promis de
payer. Toutefois, la réclamation du Gouvernement français est que,
eu égard à la loi monétaire suspendant l'application de la clause or,
le droit norvégien que les tribunaux norvégiens sont tenus d'appli-
quer en cette affaire est contraire au droit international. Les tribu-
naux norvégiens pourraient dire que la clause or dans les titres est
une clause espèces or (par opposition à une clause valeur or), que
cette clause espèces or a été rendue inopérante à la suite de la
législation en question et que la monnaie existante est par consé-

quent un moyen de paiement libératoire. Aux yeux du Gouverne-
ment norvégien, telle est l'interprétation correcte de ce qu'il a
promis de payer en droit. Mais c'est cette législation même,dans
la mesure oii elle touche les obligataires français, qui peut être la
cause d'une .i7iolationde droit international dont se plaint la France.

On peut admettre, pour simplifier un problème qui n'est nulle-
ment simple, qu'un contrat (international ))doit êtresoumis à un
droit interne quelconque; telle fut l'opinion de la Cour permanente
dans les affaires des emprunts serbes et brésiliens. Cela ne signifie

pas toutefois que ce droit interne soit complètement en dehors du
domaine du droit international. La loi interne- y compris la loi
monétaire - peut être contraire, dans son, intention ou dans ses
effets, aux obligations internationales de 1'Etat. La question de la
conformit4 de la loi interne avec le droit international est une
question de droit international. L'idée que, si une question est
régiepar le droit interne, elle est pour ce motif également en dehors
du domaine du droit international est à la fois nouvelle et, si elle
est acceptée, subversive en droit international. Il ne suffit pas
qu'un Etat fasse rentrer une question sous la protection de sa
législation, ayant peut-être un caractère purement confiscatoire.

pour la soustraire efficacement à tout contrôle du droit interna-
tional. 11peut n'y avoir pas grande différence entre un Gouverne-
ment qui rompt illégalement un contrat avec un étranger et un
Goul.ernement qui passe une législation lui rendant impossible
d'exécuter le contrat. Pour ces motifs, on peut difficilement accepter
l'argument de la Korvège tendant à dire que, la Cour ne pouvant
statuer que sur la base du droit international et la principale ques-
tion de fond en litige étant l'interprétation du droit norvégien, il ne
s'agit pas d'un différend visé par l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du
Statut. Le litige actuellement soumis à la Cour, bien qu'il touche à

l'application du droit norvégien, est amsi un différend qui affecte
le droit international.Il se peut que, si la Cour était compétente au
fond, elle jugerait que la Korvège n'a violé aucune règle de droit
3238 NORWEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERP~~CHT)
law by declining to repay the bonds in gold. Homever, in findiilg
that, the Court would apply international law.
The greater part of the written and oral argument of Xorway-as
well as that of the applicant State-has been devoted to a considera-

tion of the relevant questions of international law. The question
of the treatment by a State of property rights of aliens-including
property rights arising out of international loans-is a question
of international law. So is the question whether, in this respect,
eaualitv of treatment of nationals and aliens relieves a State of its
in'ternahonal responsibility. So is, further, the question whether
there is in this respect a difference between resident aliens and
aliens resident abroad. It may be also difficult to deny that the
allegation of discriminatory treatinent as between French and non-
Nonvegian bondholders raises an issue of international law. The
very question whether local remedies have been exhausted-a
auestion on which Norwav has made de~endent the international
character of the dispute-is a question of international law. Finally,
although there seems to be little substance in the contentions
advanced by the French Government on the subject of The Hague

Convention of 1907 relating to Contract Debts in so far as it is
alleged to impose an obligation to arbitrate, it is relevant to state
that that Convention indirectly recognizes that controversies of
that character are suitable for settlement bv reference to ~ublic
international law. It is of interest, in this connection, to note the
wording of Article 53 of The Hague Convention of 1907 for the
Pacific Settlement of International Disputes which refers expressly,
as suitable for arbitration before the Permanent Court ofArbitration,
to disputes "arising from contract debts claimed from one Power
by another Power as due to its nationals".

The relevance of these questions of international law cannot
properly be denied by reference to the fact that unless and until
Nonvegian courts have spoken it is not certain that there has been a
violation of international law by Nonvay. The crucial point is that,
assuming that Norv~egian law operates in a manner injurious to

French bondholders, there are various questions of international
law involved. Tointroduce in this context the auestion of exhaustion
of local remedies is to inake the issue revGlve in a circle. The
exhaustion of local remedies cannot in itself bring within the
province of international law a dispute which is otherwise outside
its sphere. The failure to exhaust legal remedies may constitute
a bar to the jurisdiction of the Court; it does not affect the intrin-
sically international character of a dispute.

This being so, mg7view is that, in principle, the present dispute
is also one of international law and that it comes within the
orbit' of controversies enumerated in Article 36 (2) of the Statute
of the Court.

33international en refusant de rembourser les titres en or. Mais, en
statuant en ce sens, la Cour appliquerait le droit international.
La plus grande partie des écritures et des plaidoiries de la Nor-
vège - comme de 1'Etat demandeur - a étéconsacrée à l'examen
des questions pertinentes d,e droit international. La question du
traitement accordé par un Etat aux droits de propriété des étran-
gers - y compris aux droits de propriété procédant d'emprunts

internationaux - est un point de droit international. Il en est de
mêmede la question de savoir si, à cet égard, l'égalitédertraite-
ment accordée aux nationaux et aux étrangers dégage un Etat de
sa responsabilité internationale. Il en est encore de même de la
question de savoir s'il y a sous ce rapport une différence entre les
étrangers résidents et les étrangers non-résidents. Aussi bien peut-il
êtredifficile de contester que l'allégation d'un tr~itement discrimi-

natoire entre les porteurs d'obligations français et des porteurs non
norvégiens soulève un point de droit international. La question
mêmede savoir si les recours internes ont été épuisés - question
dont la Norvège a fait dépendre le caractère international du diffé-
rend - est un point de droit international. Enfin, si les allégations
du Gouvernement françaisrelatives à l'obligation d'arbitrage qu'im-
poserait la convention de La Haye de 1907 sur les dettes contrac-
tuelles semblent avoir peu de substance, il est pertinent de dire que
la convention reconnaît indirectement aue des différends de cette

nature sont aptes à êtrerégléspar référenceau droit international
public. 11est pertinent à cet égard de noter le texte de l'article 53
de la convention de La Haye de 1907 pour le règlement pacifique
des conflits internationaux, article qui mentionne expressément
comme aptes à êtrearbitrés par la Cour permanente d'Arbitrage
les différends ((provenant de dettes contractuelles réclamées à une
Puissance Dar une autre Puissance comme dues à ses nationaux )).

On ne saurait valablement contester le caractère pertinent de
ces questions de droit international en faisant valoir que, avant et
à moins que les tribunaux norvégiens ne se soient prononcés, il n'est
pas certain que la Norvège ait commis une violation du droit inter-
national. Le point essentiel est que, si l'on suppose que la loi
norvégienne a des effets préjudiciables aux porteurs français, cela
met en ieu diverses auestions de droit international. Introduire
dans ce contexte la question de l'épuisement des recours internes
revient à entraîner l'affaire dans un cercle vicieux. L'épuisement

des recours internes ne suffit pas à faire entrer dans le domaine du
droit international un différend qui en est par ailleurs exclu. Le
non-épuisement des recours internes constitue une exception à la
compétence de la Cour; il ne saurait affecter le caractère intrinsè-
quement international d'un différend.
Dans ces conditions, j'estime qu'en principe l'espèce relève égale-
ment du droit international public et tombe sous le coup des diffé-
rends visés à l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour.39 XORIVEGIAY L0.4NS (SEP.OP. SIR HERSCH LAVTERPACHT)

In my opinion, the Preliminary Objection of Norway relating to
exhaustion of local remedies is well founded. This does not mean
that the position of the French Government on the subject is
altogether without merit. For the requirement of exhaustion of
local remedies is not a purely technical or rigid rule. It is a rule
which international tribunals have applied with a considerable
degree of elasticity. In particular, they have refused to act upon

it in cases in which there are, in fact, no effective reinedies available
owing to the law of the State concerned or the conditions prevailing
in it. In the present case, while, as will be suggested presently, the
Court cannot regard it as conclusively proven that the Norwegian
courts would refuse a remedy, it is clear that in general their
decision must be based on Norwegian law, including the legislation
of 1923 which is alleged to result in an injury to the legitimate
rights of French bondholders. From that point of view 1 can
appreciate the contention of the French Government that there
are no effective remedies to be exhausted-even if 1 must hold
that, however contingent and theoretical these remedies may be, an
attempt ought to have been made to exhaust them.

Also, inasmuch as the case of the French Government is based on
the allegation of discriminatory treatment as between French
bondholders on the one side and Swedish and Danish bondholders
on the other, it is not easy to see what remedy the Sorwegian courts
could provide against governmental acts which, as such, cause no
injury to French bondholders.
However, these doubts do not seem strong enough to render
inoperative the requirement of previous exhaustion of localremedies.
The legal position on the subject cannot be regarded as so abun-
dantly clear as to rule out, as a matter of reasonable possibility,
any effective remedy before Korwegian courts.
The Sorwegian Government has contended that the burden of
proving the inefficacy of local remedies rests upon France. There is,

in general, a degree of unhelpfulness in the argument concerning the
burden of proof. However, some prinza facie distribution of the
burden of proof there must be. This being so, the following seems
to be the accurate principle on the subject :(1)As a rule, it is for the
plaintiff State to prove that there are no effective remedies to
which recourse can be had; (2)no such proof is required if there
exists legislation which on the face of it deprives the private
claimants of a remedy ;(3) in that case it is for the defendant State
to show that, notwithstanding the apparent absence of a remedy,
its existencecan nevertheless reasonably be assumed; (4)the degree
of burden of proof thus to be adduced ought not to be so stringent
asto render the proof unduly exacting. Both in the written and the

oral proceedings the Government of Xorway has attempted to
adduce such proof. Ll'hatever may be its cogenc3-, it must be
34 E31PRVSTS XORV. (OP.I'YDIV. SIR HERSCH. L.~UTERPACHT) 39

-1inon avis, l'exception préliminaire de la Norvège visant l'épui-
sement des recours internes est bien fondée. Cela ne signifie pas
que la position du Gouvernement français surla question soit totale-
ment sans valeur. La nécessité del'épuisement des recours internes
n'est pas une règle purement technique ou rigide. C'est une règle
que les tribunaux internationaux ont appliquée arec une grande
souplesse. En particulier, ils se sont refusésà l'appliquer dans des
cas où il n'existe pas, en fait, de recours efficaces, en raison de la loi
de 1'Etat intéresséou des conditions existant dans cet Etat. Dans

le cas actuel, bien que, comme je vais le dire, la Cour ne puisse
considérer comme prouvé de façon concluante que les tribunaux
norvégiens auraient refuséun recours, il est clair que leur décision
doit êtrefondée, d'une manière générale,sur le droit norvégien,
y compris la loi de 1923 dont on prétend qu'elle cause un dommage
aux droits légitimes desporteurs français. Je puis,à ce point de vue,
apprécier la thèse du Gouvernement français qu'il n'existe pas de
recours effectifs à épuiser - mêmesi je dois considérer qu'une
tentatk-e aurait dû êtrefaite pour épuiser ces recours, si éventuels
et théoriques qu'ils pussent être.
De même,attendu que la thèse française se fonde sur l'allégation

d'un traitement discriminatoire entre les obligataires français d'une
part et les porteurs suédois et danos de l'autre, il n'est pas facile
de voir quels recours les tribunaus norvégiens auraient pu fournir
contre des actes gouvernementaux qui, en eus-mêmes, ne causent
aucun préjudice aux porteurs français.
Toutefois, ces doutes ne me paraissent pas assez sérieux pour
rendre inopérante l'exigence de 1'4puiseineilt antérieur des recours
internes. La position juridique en la matière ne peut êtreconsidérée
comme assez nette pour faire écarter la possibilité raisonnable de
tout recours efficace devant les tribunaux norvégiens.
Le Gouvernement norvégien a soutenu que le fardeau de la preuve

de l'inefficacité des recours internes incombe à la France. D'une
manière générale, iln'y a pas grande assistance à attendre de
l'argument visant le fardeau de la preuve. 11faut toutefois qu'il 5-
ait une certaine répartition prima facie du fardeau de la preuve.
Ceci étant, les considérations qui suivent paraissent êtrele principe
exact en la matière: 1) En règle générale, ilappartient à 1'Etat
demandeur de prouver qu'il n'existe pas de recours efficace auquel
on puisse s'adresser; 2) cette preuve n'est pas nécessaire s'il existe
une loi qui, à première vue, prive les demandeurs particuliers d'un
recours; 3) dans ce cas, il appartient à 1'Etat défendeur de démon-
trer que,nonobstant l'absence apparente d'un recours, son existence

peut néanmoins être raisonnablement présumée; 4) le degré du
fardeau de la preuve à produire ainsi ne doit pas êtresi strict qu'il
rende la preuve déraisonnablement difficile. Dans les procédures
écrite et orale, leGoul-ernement de Xorvège a tenté de présenter
34regarded as sufficient for the purpose.

In the first instance. in matters of currencv and international
loans the decisions of courts of various countries-including those
of Norway-have not been characterized by such a pronounced
degree of uniformity andcertainty as to permit a forecast, with full
assurance, of the result of an action in Korwegian courts. The deci-
sion of the Permanent Court of International Justicein the Brazilian
and Serbian Gold Clause cases has been followed by courts of
some countries but not by those of others. While the courts of most
States have interpreted the gold coin clause as importing necessarily
a gold value clause, this has not been the practice in al1countries.
Moreover, the courts of the same State have often shown consider-
able divergencies and hesitation on the subject. Thus, in England,
in the tu70important cases relating to the gold clause-The King v.
International Trz~steefor th Protection of Bo.izdho1der.rs1937] -4.C.

500, and Feist v. Société Intercommz~naleBelge dlElectricifé LI9311
A.C. 161-it was left to the House of Lords to reverse the decisions
of the Court of First Instance and of the Court of Appeal. While
French courts have, with some uniformity, refused to recognize
the cours forcéininternational contracts, it appears that they have
done so on different and diverging grounds. In some cases thej-
have acted on the principle according to which a foreign public
law can only operate within the territory of the State in question;
in other cases they have applied the principle of the autonomy of
the will, which makes it possible for the parties to exclude the
operation of any national legal system whatsoever; in other cases
still they have acted on the view that while the operation of the
gold clause is subject to the law of the State concerned, itis so onlj-
within the limits of public policy. This being so, there may be no
sufficient reason for drawing final conclusions from the alleged
previous practice of Norwegian courts and for asserting that it has

been conclusively proven that there is in this case no remedy
available under Korwegian law. It is possible-however unlikely,
in the view of the French Government, that possibility may be-
that the Xorwegian courts may hold that the bonds embodied a
true gold clause and that, having regard to international law or the
constitutional law of Norway, the law of 1923 cannot be applied or
that it must be applied so as not to injure the French bondholders.

1 cannot consider it as a certainty that, assuming that the For-
wegian legislation on the subject is contrary to international law
in so far as it affects aliens, no remedy atal1is possible under Nor-
wegian law. There has been a tendency in the practice of courts
of many States to regard international law, in some way, as forming
part of national law or as entering legitimately into the national
conception of ordre pzrblic. Although the Yorwegian Government cette preuve. Quelle que puisse êtresa valeur démonstrative, elle
peut êtreconsidérée comme suffisantepour les besoins de la cause.
En premier lieu, en matière monétaire et d'emprunts internatio-
naux, les décisions des tribunaux des divers pays - y compris ceux
de la Norvège - ne montrent pas un degrési prononcéd'uniformité
et de certitude qu'on puisse prévoir en toute assurance le résultat
d'une action devant les tribunaux norvégiens. La décision de la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale dans les affaires des
clauses or brésilienne et serbe a étésuivie par les tribunaux de
certains payç, mais non par tous. Tandis que les tribunaux de la
plupart des Etats ont interprété la clause espèces or comme impli-

aLant nécessairement une clause valeur or. telle n'a Das étéla
pratique dans tous les pays. Au surplus, les tribunaux d'un même
pays ont souvent manifesté des divergences et des hésitations
considérables sur la question. Ainsi, en Angleterre, dans deux
affaires importantes visant la clause or - The King v. Internatiofial
Trustees for theProtectionof Bondhplders [1937] A.C. 500, et Feist v.
SociétéIntercommunale Belge d'Electricité [1934] A.C. 161 - la
Chambre des Lords a eu à infirmer les décisions du tribunal de
première instance et de la cour d'appel. Bien que les tribunaux
français aient, avec une certaine uniformité, refusé de reconnaître
le cours forcédans les contrats internationaux, ils semblent l'avoir

fait pour des motifs différents et divergents. En certains cas, ils se
sont fondéssur le principe d'après lequel une loi étrangère dedroit
public ne peut s'appliquer qu'à l'intérieur de 1'Etat en question;
dans d'autres cas, ils ont appliqué le principe de l'autonomie de la
volonté qui permet aux parties d'écarter l'application de n'importe
quel système juridique interne; dans d'autres cas encore ils se sont
fondéssur l'opinion que, bien que le jeu de la clause or soit soumis
à la loi de 1'Etat intéressé,il ne l'est que dans les limites de l'ordre
public. Ceci étant, il peut n'y avoir pas de raison suffisante pour
tirer des conclusions définitives de la prétendue pratique antérieure
des tribunaux norvégiens et pour affirmer qu'il a étéprouvé de

façon concluante qu'il n'existe pas, en cette affaire, de recours
utilisable en droit norvégien. Il est possible - si improbable que
soit cette possibilit6 aux yeux du Gouvernement français - que
les tribunaux norvégiens décident que les obligations comportaient
une clause or réelleet qu'eu égardau droit international ou au droit
constitutionnel de la Norvège, la loi de 1923 ne peut s'appliquer, ou
doit s'appliquer de façon à ne pas causer préjudice aux porteurs
français.
Je ne puis considérer comme certain qu'en admettant que la
législation norvégienne en la matière soit contraire au droit inter-
national.dans la mesure où elle touche aux étrangers.aucun recours
V ,
n'est en droit norvégien. 11 existe une tendance dans la
pratique des tribunaux de nombreux Etats à regarder en quelque
sorte le droit international comme partie du droit interne, ou comme
rentrant légitimement dans la notion nationale d'ordre public.41 SORIVEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)
has admitted that in no case can a Norwegian court overrule
Norwegian legislation on the ground that it is contrary to inter-

national law, it has asserted that it is possible that a Norwegian
court may consider international law to form part of the law of the
Kingdom to the extent that it ought, if possible, to interpret the
Norwegian legislation in question so as not to impute to it the
intention or the effect of violating international law. Also, it seems
a fact that in certain matters Norwegian courts have the power to
review the acts of the legislature, in particular from the point of
view of their conformity with the constitution. This, it has been
asserted, may mean that Norwegian courts might refuse to give
retro-active effect to the legislation in question.ese possibilities
may be remote. They are not so absolutely remote as to deserve to
be ruled out altogether.

Secondly, it is difficult to admit, having regard to the long
history of the present dispute and the negotiations relating thereto,
that the French Government has given a sufficient explanation of
the failure of the French creditors to seek a remedy before Nor-
wegian courts. No persuasive reason has been adduced why the
French Government, by encouraging an attempt to exhaust local
remedies, has not assisted in eliminating the possibility of that
Preliminary Objection. The delay resulting from any such attempt
would have been relatively small in comparison with the long
period of years consumed by the protracted negotiations on the
subject. There seems to run through the submissions of the French
Government the apprehension that after Nonvegian courts have

finally dismissed the claim of the French creditors the only clairn
internationally available to the French Government would be that
on account of denial of justice. This is probably not so. A final
adverse decision of Nonvegian courts would still leave it possible
to the French Government to contend that Norwegian legislation,
as finally upheld by Nonvegian courts, is contrary to international
law. No decisive importance can be attached to the view that,
seeing that the Nonvegian Government repeatedly reiterated that
it was prevented by the Nonvegian Law to effect payment in gold,
the French bondholders were entitled to assume that they have no
remedy under Norwegian law. The Norwegian Government, being
an interested party, was not for this purpose an authorised inter-

preter of Norwegian law. It was for the bondholders, by bringing
an action before Nonvegian courts, to attempt to show that the
Norwegian Government was mistaken in its interpretation of
Norwegian law. If the courts held that that interpretation was
correct,then the road to international proceedings would no longer
be blocked by the objection based on the failure to exhaust local
remedies. 1must, therefore, although with some hesitation, consider
that objection as well founded. EMPRUNTS NORV. (OP.IXDIV. SIR HERSCH L-~UTERP-~CHT)
41
Bien que le Gouvernement norvégien ait reconnu qu'en aucun cas
un tribunal norvégien ne peut écarter une loi norvégienne pour le
motif qu'elle est contraire au droit international, il a affirméla

possibilité qu'un tribunal norvégien estime que le droit inter-
national fait partie du droit du Royaume, au point qu'il faille, si
possible, interpréter la loi norvégienne en question de manière à ne
pas lui imputer l'intention ou l'effet de violer le droit international.
De même, ilparaît en fait que, dans certaines affaires, les tribunaux
norvégiens ont le pouvoir de contrôler les actes du législateur, en
particulier au point de vue de leur conformitéavec laconstitution. On
a affirméque cela pouvait signifier que les tribunaux norvégiens
pourraient refuser de donner effet rétroactif à la loi en question.
Ces possibilités sont lointaines. Elles ne sont pas si absolument

lointaines qu'elles méritent d'êtreécartéespurementet simplement.
En second lieu, il est difficile d'admettre, eu égard à la longue
histoire du différend actuel et des négociations qui s'y rapportent,
que la France ait fourni des explications suffisantes du fait que les
créanciersfrançais n'ont pas tenté un recours devant les tribunaux
norvégiens. On n'a pas indiqué de raisons convaincantes pour
justifier que le Gouvernement français n'ait pas encouragé une
tentative d'épuiserles recours internes, ce qui aurait aidé éliminer
cette exception préliminaire. Le retard résultant de cette tentative
aurait étérelativement faible par comparaison avec la longue
période d'années consacrées à des négociations prolongéessur la

question. Il semble qu'on voit, au travers des conclusions du
Gouvernement français, la trace d'une crainte qu'après que les
tribunaux norvégiens auront finalement rejeté la réclamation des
créanciers français, la seule réclamation internationale possible
pour le Gouvernement français soit celle d'un déni dejustice. Cette
crainte n'est probablement pas fondée. Une décision contraire
définitivedes tribunaux norvégienspermettrait encore au Gouverne-
ment français de soutenir que la loi norvégienne, telle que finale-
ment appliquée par les tribunaux norvégiens, est contraire au droit
international. Il est impossible d'attacher une importance décisive
à l'opinion que, le Gouvernement norvégien ayant à plusieurs

reprises répété quela loinorvégiennene lui permettait pas d'effectuer
paiement en or, les porteurs français étaient fondés à présumer
qu'ils étaient sans recours en droit norvégien. Le Gouvernement
norvégien, étant une partie intéressée,n'était pas à cette fin un
interprète autorisé du droit norvégien. Il appartenait aux porteurs,
en introduisant une instance devant les tribunaux norvégiens,
d'essayer de montrer que le Gouvernement norvégien interprétait
à tort la loi norvégienne. Si les tribunaux avaient jugé que cette
interprétation était correcte, alors la voie de la procédure inter-
nationale ne serait plus bloquée par l'exception fondéesur le non-
épuisement des recours internes. Je dois donc, quoique non sans

hésitation, considérercette exception comme bien fondée. In invoking the "automatic reservation" the Government of
Nonvay apparently was of the opinion that what it did was no

more than to invoke it in aid-in decisive aid, if need be-of the
contention, previously advanced, that the dispute is not concerned
with international law and that it does not therefore fa11within the
orbit of Article 36 (2)of the Statute by reference to which Norway
accepted the obligatory jurisdiction of the Court. Actually these
two questions are not identical. A dispute may be essentially
within the national jurisdiction of a State (i.e. covered by the terms
of the "automatic reservation") while being at the same time a
dispute concerning a question of international law.

If the Court were called upon to determine itself whether the
subject-matter of the present dispute is essentially within the do-
mestic jurisdiction of Norway it urould be confronted with a
difficult task. It is possible to hold that, although-contrary to the
view expressed by the Norwegian Government-the dispute is also
one of international law, it nevertheless arises out of a matter

essentially within the jurisdiction of the State seeing that questions
of currency are essentially within the national jurisdiction. In that
case the Preliminary Objection based on the French reservation
would be valid in its own right-quite apart from the right of
unilateral determination. There is the alternative view that if a
dispute is also concerned with international law then it is no longer
exclusively within the national jurisdiction; that the terms "ex-
clusively" and "essentially" are substantially identical;and that,
therefore, the subject-matter of the present dispute is not essentially
within the national jurisdiction of Norway. However, the Norwegian
Government has attached no importance to elaborating that
distinction. It not only stated, in the minimum of words, that the
matter is essentially within the national jurisdiction of Norway; it
stated that it said so and that it said so with finality.

The determination thus made was advanced in a subsidiary
manner at the initial stage of the proceedings. It was subsequently

kept in the background and invoked only by studious indirection.
It was never formally withdrawn. It provided the exclusive basis
for the Judgment of the Court which, on this question, says in
effect as follows: According to the Xorwegian Government the
issue is one essentially within thedomestic jurisdiction of Norway.
That view may be ill-founded. However, it is the view of the
Norwegian Government. AS such it is decisive for the purpose of
jurisdiction of the Court-just as if the French Government were
the defendant State its view to that effect would be decisive by
virtue of the reservation as formulated by it. The Court must
accept that view not because it agrees with it, but because it is EMPRPSTS SORS'. (OP. ISDIV. SIR HERSCH LACTERP~~CHT) 42

En invoquant la n réserve automatique », le Gouverneinent
norvégien estimait apparemment qu'il ne faisait rien de plus que
cle l'invoquer à l'appui - un appui décisif en cas de nécessité -
de la thèse qu'il venait de faire valoir et d'après laquelle le différend
ne relève pas du droit international et ne tombe par conséquent
pas sous le coup de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut, sur la base
duquel la Norvège a accepté la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour.
En réalité,il s'agit là de deux questions differentes. Un différend

peut relever essentiellement de la compétence nationale d'un Etat
(c'est-à-dire tomber sous le coup de la ((réserveautomatique ))tout
en étant en même temps un différend relatif à une question de
droit international.
Si la Cour était appelée à rechercher elle-même si l'objet du
différend actuel relève essentiellement de la compétence nationale
de la Norvège, elle se trouverait en présence d'une tâche délicate.

On pourrait considérer que, bien que -- contrairement à l'opinion
soutenue par le Goul-ernement norvégien - le différend relève
également du droit international, il procède tout,efois d'iine affaire
qui relève essentiellement de la juridiction de l'Etat, les questions
monétaires relevant essentiellement de la compétence nationale.
Dans ce cas, l'exception préliminaire fondéesur la réserve française
serait valable par elle-même - en dehors de tout droit de décision
unilatérale. Gne autre conception serait que, si un différend relève
également du droit international, il ne relève plus exclusivement de

la compétence nationale; que les termes c(exclusi~~ement )) et
((essentiellement )) sont substantiellement identiques; et que par
conséquent l'objet du litige sounlis à la Coiir ne relève pas esseii-
tiellement de la compétence natiorialc dc la ru'orvège.Toutefois,
lé Gouvernement norvégien n'a pas cri1 important de développer
cette distinction. Non seulement il a fait entendre,dans lc ininiinuin
cte mots, qiie l'affaire relève essentitllleinent dt. la compétenct:
nationale de la Norvège: il a déclaréqu'il le disait txtqu'il le disait

d'une manière dkfinitivc.
La décisionainsi prise a étéiiivoqukc à titri. subsidiairt, ail dkbiit
de la procédure. Elle a étéeilsuitc laisscLe à l'arrière-plan, pour
n'être invoquk que par des voies soigneu~;cn~entindirectes. Elle
n'a jamais étéformellement retirée. Elle constitue ln base exclusive
de l'Arr6t de la C,oiir,laqiielle sur cc point s'cxpriinc, cil substance
comme suit: Selon le Gouvernement nor\.t'.gieil l'affaire rclii\:e
t.ssentiellenlent de la compétence nationale tlc la Norvi-agc.Cette

opinion est peut-être mal fondée. Toiitefois, c'est l'opinion du
Gouvernement norvégien. A ce titre, elle est déterminante aux
fins de la compétence-dela Coiir -- de mêineque, si le Goiiveriie-
ment français était 1'Etat défendeur, son opinion en ce sens serait
déterminante en vertu de la réserve qu'il a foriniilée. Ida Cour doit
accepter cette opinion, non pas parc? clii'cll(,la partage, inais parcethe view of the Norwegian Government. Its accuracy is irrelevant.
This is the inescapable result of the condition under which France
-and consequently Norway-accepted the jurisdiction of the
Court. That preliminary Objection of Norway is quite peremptory,
fully effective to the point of being automatic, and is not subject

to review by the Court.

1 have given reasons why, in my view, the "automatic reser-
vation", being of a subsidiary character, was not in any case
calculated to provide an exclusive basis of the Judgment of the
Court. However, apart from that aspect of the question and
whatever may be the position with regard to the validity of the
French Acceptance as a whole, it is my view that it was not open to
the Court to act on that particular reservation. This is so for the
reason that 1 consider it legally impossible for the Court to act in
disregard of its Statute which imposes upon it the duty and confers
upon it the right to determine its jurisdiction. That right cannot
be exercised by a party to the dispute. The Court cannot, in an>-
circumstances, treat as admissible the claim that the parties have
accepted its jurisdiction subject to the condition that they, and

not the Court, will decide on its jurisdiction. To do so is in my view
contrary to Article 36 (6) of the Statute which, without any qualifi-
cation, confers upon the Court the right and imposes upon it the
duty to determine its jurisdiction. Moreover, it is also contrarj-
to Article I of the Statute of the Court and Article 92 of the
Charter of the Vnited Nations which lay down that the Court
shall function in accordance with the ~rovisions of its Statute.
It is that question which 1 now propose to consider in connection
with the examination of the validitv of the French Acceptance.

The Validity of theFrench Declaratio7zof Acceptance

I. Is the "az~tomaticreserz~ation"consistentwith the Statute?

1have stated the reasons for which, if 1felt free to do so, 1 would
reject al1 Preliminary Objections of Norway with the exception
of that relating to the exhaustion of local remedies. However, 1 do
not feel free todecide the question of jurisdiction on these grounds.
To do so would be to admit that the Court is confronted with a
valid instrument of acceptance of its jurisdiction on the part of
France. In my view it is impossible to admit that. 1consider that as
the French Declaration ofAcceptance excludes from the jurisdiction
of the Court "matters which are essentially within the national
jurisdiction as understood by the Government of the French
RepublicH-the emphasis being here on the words "as understood
by the Go\-ernment of the French Repub1ic"-it is for the reason

38que c'est l'opinion du Gouvernement norvégien. Sa justesse est

sans pertinence. Telle est l'inévitable conséquence de la condition
sous laquelle la France - et par conséquent la Norvège - a accepté
la juridiction de la Cour. Cette exception préliminaire norvégienne
présente un caractère tout à fait péremptoire, elle a pleine efficacité,
au point d'en êtreautomatique, et elle n'est pas susceptible d'être
examinée par la Cour.
J'ai indiqué les raisons pour lesquelles j'estime que la réserve
automatique », étant d'une nature subsidiaire, n'a en aucune
manière étéconçue comme devant constituer la base exclusive de

l'Arrêtde la Cour. Toutefois, en dehors de cet aspect de la question
et quoi qu'il en soit de la validité de l'acceptation française dans
son ensemble, j'estime que la Cour ne pouvait agir sur la base de
ladite réserve. La raison en est qu'il est,à mon avis, juridiquement
impossible pour la Cour d'agir à l'encontre du Statut qui lui impose
le devoir et lui confère le droit de décider de sa compétence. Ce
droit ne saurait êtreexercé par une partie au litige. La Cour ne
saurait en aucun cas considérer comme recevable la thèse d'après
laquelle les parties auraient accepté sa juridiction SOLISréserve que
ce soit elles, et non la Cour, qui en décident. Une telle manière

d'agir est, selon moi, en contradiction avecl'article 36 (6) duStatut,
lequel, sans aucune limitation, confère le droit et impose le devoir
à la Cour de décider de sa compétence. Au surplus, ce procédéest
également en contradiction avec l'article premier du Statut et
l'article92 de la Charte des Nations Unies, lesquels stipulent que
la Cour fonctionne conformément aux dispositions de son Statut.
C'est la question que je me propose maintenant d'examiner en
mêmetemps que celle de la validité de l'acceptation française.

La validitéde ln déclarationfralzcaised'acceptation

I. La ((réserveazttomatiqz~e » est-elle compatible avec LeStatzrt?
J'ai énoncé les raisonspour lesquelles, si je me sentais libre de
le faire, je rejetterais toutes les exceptions préliminaires norvé-

giennes, à l'exception de celle qui vise l'épuisement des recours
internes. Toutefois, je ne me sens pas libre de trancher la question
de compétence sur ces bases. Le faire serait admettre que la Cour est
en face d'un instrument valable d'acceptation de sa compétence
par la France. A mon sens, il est impossible de l'admettre. Puisque
la déclaration française d'acceptation écarte de la compétence de la
Cour cles affaires qui relèvent essentiellement de la compétence
nationale telle qu'elle est entendue par le Gouvernement de la
République française » - l'accent portant sur les mots ((telle

qu'elle est entendue par le Gouvernement de la République fran-
3s44 I;ORMTEGIAN LOAXS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERP-~CHT)
of that latter qualification an instrument incapable of producing

legal effects before this Court and of establishing its jurisdiction.
This is so for the double reason that:(a) it is contrary to the Statute
of the Court; (b) the existence of the obligation being dependent
upon the determination by the Government accepting the Optionai
Clause, the Acceptance does not constitute a legal obligation.
That Declaration of hcceptance cannot, accordingly, provide a
basis for the jurisdiction of the Court. Norway has not accepted
the jurisdiction of the Court on any other basis. The Court
therefore has no jurisdiction.
As stated, the first reason for that view is that that particular
part of the acceptance of the Optional Clause on the part of the
French Republic is contrary to the Statute of the Court. In the
reservation in question the Government of France says in effect:

If a Government brings an application before the Court in reliance
on the French acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Court and if
the Government of France maintains that the Court has no juris-
diction on the ground that the subject-matter of the dispute is
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of France, then the
Court has no power to decide upon that particular allegation;
it must accept as binding the French understanding of the legal
position on the subject.
If that type of reservation isvalid, then the Court is not in the
position to exercise the power conferred upon it-in fact, the duty
imposed upon it-under paragraph 6 of Article 36 of its Statute.
That paragraph provides that "in the event of a dispute as to
whether the Court has jurisdiction, the matter shall be settled by a

decision of the Court". The French reservation lays down that if,
with regard to that particular question, there is a dispute between
the Parties as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, thematter shall
be settled by a decision of the French Government. The French
reservation is thus not only contrary to one of the most fundaineiltal
principles of international-and national-jurisprudence according
to which it is within the inherent power of a tribunal to iizterpret
the text establishing its jurisdiction.It is also contrary to a clear
specific provision of the Statute of the Court as well as to the
general Articles I and 92 of the Statute and of the Charter, respect-
ively, which require the Court to function in accordance with its
Statute.

Now what is the result of the fact that a reservation or part of it
are contrary to the provisions of the Statute of the Court? The
result is that that reservation or that part of it is invalid. Some
examples may usefully illustrate that aspect of the question :What
would be the position if in accepting-or purporting to accept-the
obligations of Article 36 of the Statute, a State were to exclude the
operation of paragraph 6 of that Article not only with regard to one
reservation but with regard to al1 reservations or, generally, with
regard to any disputed question of the jurisdiction of the Court?

39 çaise )-, je considère que c'est, en raison de cette dernière qualifi-
cation, un instrument qui ne peut produire des effets juridiques
devant la Cour ni établir sa com~étence. Il en est ainsi Dour la
double raison suivante: a) elle estlcontraire au Statut de & Cour;
b) l'existence de l'obligation étant dépendante de la décision du

Gouvernement qui accepte la disposition facultative, l'acceptation
ne constituepas une obligation juridique. Cette déclaration d'accep-
tation ne peut donc servir de base à la compétence de la Cour. La
Norvège n'a pas acceptéla compétence de la Cour sur aucune autre
base. En conséauence. la Cour est incom~étente.
La première ;aison de ce point de vue kt, je viens de le dire, que
ce passage particulier de l'acceptation de la disposition facultative
par le Gouvernement de la République française est contraire au
Statut de la Cour. Dans cette réserve, le Gouvernement français
déclare en substance: Si un Gouvernement présente une requête à
la Cour en invoquant l'acceptation française de compétence, et si

le Gouvernement français soutient que la Cour est incompétente
parce que l'objet du différend relève essentiellement de la compé-
tence interne de la France, alors, la Cour n'a pas le pouvoir de
statuer sur cette allégation pzrticulière; elle doit accepter d'être
liéepar la conception française de la position juridique en lamatière.

Si ce type de réserveest valable, alors la Cour n'est pas en mesure
d'exercer le pouvoir qui lui a étéconféré - en fait, le devoir qui lui
a étéimposé - aux termes du paragraphe 6 del'article 36du Statut.
Ce paragraphe dispose que: Ken cas de contestation sür le point de

savoir si la Cour est compétente, la Cour décide 1).La réserve
française dispose que si, sur cette question particulière, une contes-
tation s'élèveentre les parties sur le point de savoir si la Cour est
compétente, la question sera tranchée par la décisiondu Gouverne-
ment français. La réserve française est donc non seulement contraire
à l'un des principes les plus fondamentaux du droit international -
et national - d'après lequel il rentre dans le pouvoir inhérent d'un
tribunal d'interpréter le texte qui établit sa compétence. Elle est
également contraire à une disposition expresse du Statut de la Cour
aussi bien qu'aux articles premier du Statut et 92 de la Charte qui

prescrivent à la Cour d'exercer ses fonctions conformément aux
clispositions de son Statut.

Or qüel est le résultat du fait qu'une réserve ou une partie de
réserve est contraire aux dispositions du Statut de la Cour? Il en
résulte à mon avis que cette réserve ou partie de réserve est nulle.
Quelques exemples pourront êtreutiles,pour illustrer ces aspects de
la question: Que se passerait-il si un Etat, en acceptant - ou en
prétendant accepter - les obligations de l'article 36 du Statut,
excluait l'application du paragraphe 6 de cet article en ce qui

concerne non seulement une réserve, mais toute réserve ou, plus
généralement, toute contestation relative à la conlpétence de la4j NORLVEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHS)

What would be the ~osition if the Declaration were to make it a
condition that the ira1 proceedings of the Court shall be secret;
or that its Judgment shallnot be binding unless given by unanimity ;
or that it should contain no reasons; or that no Dissenting Opinion
shall be attached; or that Judges of certain nationality or national-
ities shall be exclucled; or that, contrary to what is said in Arti-
cle 38 of its Statute, the Court shallapply only treaties and custom
in the sense that it shall not be authorized to apply general
principles of law as recognized by civilized States and that if
it is unable to base its decison on treaty or custom it shall

pronounce a non liquet? What would be the position in the case
of any such reservation?
It might be said that some of these examples are hypothetical
and farfetched. In fact they are less farfetched than the particular
instance here discussed-the instance of a reservation accordinrr to
which a Government claims, after ithassubmitted to the compulgory
jurisdiction of the Court, the right to determine for itself, after
the dispute has arisen and been brought before the Court, whether
the Court has jurisdiction. Neither is it accurate to Say that these
examples are irrelevant seeing that while the Statute as interpreted
in practice permits reservations to its jurisdiction itoes not permit

reservations asto the functioning and the organization of the Court.
For, assuming that distinction to be valid, the reservation here dis-
. .se-.pe.tains to the functioning of the Court in the matter of its
jurisdiction.
Clearly the Court cannot act otherwise than in accordance w-ith
its Statute. By way of illustration reference may be made here to
the case of the Free Zones in which the Court stated that it "cannot,
on the proposa1 of the Parties, depart from the terms of the Statute"
-a statement made in response to a request of the parties that the
Court should communicate to them unofficially the result of its
deliberations (Series A, No. 22, p. 12). The Court acted in that way

although at that time it was not bound by the express provisions
of the Charter and the Statute requiring it to act in accordance with
its Statute. In a different sphere, in its Advisory Opinion of 7 June
195 j concerning the Voting Procedureof the GeneralAssembly in the
Matter of Petitions from South West Africa, the Court was of the
view that it was legally impossible for the General Assembly to
reach decisions on these questions in accordance with a voting
system "entirely alien to that prescribed by the Charter" (I.C.J.
Reports 1953, p. 76).There \vas in that case room for the argument
that voting being to some extent a matter of procedure the General
Assembly enjoyed some latitude in the matter. This was not the

view of the Court. It based its Opinion on the principle that an
organ cannot act except in accordance with its constituent instru-
ment. In the present case the acceptance of the jurisdiction of the
Court is made dependent on a condition which radicall- departs
from the Statute-which is in clear contradiction with the Statute-Cour? Que se passerait-il si la déclaration contenait la condition
que la procédure orale fût secrète; ou que, pour êtreobligatoire,
l'arrêtde la Cour dût êtrerendu à llunanimité;ou qu'il ne contînt
pas d'exposé des motifs; ou qu'aucune opinion dissidente n'y
fût annexée; ou que les juges d'une ou de plusieurs nationalités
fussent exclus du siège; ou que, contrairement au texte de
l'article 38 du Statut, la Cour appliquât uniquement les traités et
la coutume, de sorte qu'elle ne serait pas autorisée à appliquer
les principes généraux de droit reconnus par les nations civilisées

et que, si elle ne pouvait fonder son arrêt surun traité ou une cou-
tume, elle devrait prononcer un non liqaet? Que se passerait-il en
cas de réserves de ce genre?
On peut considérer certains de ces exemples comme hypothéti-
ques et forcés.En réalité,ils sont moins forcésque le cas particulier
dont il s'agit ici - c'est-à-dire celui d'une réserve aux termes de
laquelle un Gouvernement réclame, après avoir accepté la juridic-
tion obligatoire de la Cour, le droit de décider par lui-même,après
qu'un différends'est élevéet a étésoumis à la Cour, si la Cour est

compétente. Il n'est pas non plus exact de dire que ces exemples
sont dénués de pertinence parce que, si le Statut, tel qu'il est inter-
prétédans la pratique, permet de faire des réserves quant à la
compétence de la Cour, il ne le permet pas quant à son fonctionne-
ment et à son organisation. En effet, mêmesil'on tient cette distinc-
tion pour valable, la réserve enquestion concerne le fonctionnement
de la Cour en matière de compétence.
Il est clair que la Cour ne peut agir que conformément à son
Statut. On peut nîentionner ici, à titre d'exemple, l'affaire des

Zones franches dans laquelle la Cour a déclaréqu'il ((ne lui appar-
tient pas, sur la proposition des Parties, de dérogeraux dispositions
du Statut ))- déclaration faite en réponse à une demande des
parties tendant à ce que la Cour leur communique à titre officieux
le résultat du délibéré (SérieA, no 22, p. 12). La Cour a agi de cette
manière bien qu'elle ne fût pas à l'époquetenue par les dispositions
expresses de la Charte et du Statut lui prescrivant d'agir conformé-
ment à son Statut. Dans un autre domaine, la Cour a estimé dans
son avis consultatif du 7 juin 1955 sur la Procédzrre de vote de l'As-
semblée générale enmatièredepétitioqzs relativesau Sud-Ouest africain,

qu'il était juridiquement impossible pour l'Assembléegénéralede
prendre des décisions en cette matière suivant un système de vote
(cabsolument étranger à celui qui est prescrit dans la Charte 1)
(C. I. J. Reczteil 1955, p. 76). On pouvait dans ce cas considérer
que, le vote étant dans une certaine mesure une question de procé-
dure, l'Assemblée générale jouissaitd'une certaine latitude à cet
égard. Telle ne fut pas la manière de penser de la Cour. Elle fonda
son avis sur le principe qu'un organisme ne saurait fonctionner que

conformément à son acte constitutif. Dans la présente espèce.
l'acceptation de la juridiction de la Cour dépend d'une condition
qui dérogeclairement au Statut - qui est en nette contradiction with regard to a fundamental aspect of the functioning of the Court.
It would seem that, for that reason, the French Declaration of
Acceptance would be invalid even if the particular issue which is
connected with its invalidity did not arise in the case now before the

Court. But that particular issue does arise. The Norwegian Govern-
ment invoked that particular reservation and, although it has kept
it in the background, it has not withdrawn it.
In a~cepting the jurisdiction of the Court Governments are free
to limit its jurisdiction in a drastic manner. As a result there may
be little left in the Acceptance which is subject to the jurisdiction
of the Court. This the Governments, as trustees of the interests
entrusted to them, are fully entitled to do. Their right to append
reservations which are not inconsistent wlth the Statute is no longer
in question. But the question whether that little that is left is or
is not subject to the jurisdiction of the Court must be determined
by the Court itself. Any conditions or reservations which purport
to deprive the Court of that power are contrary to an express
provision of the Statute and to the very notion, embodied in Article
36 (6), of conferment of obligatory jurisdiction upon the Court. As

such they are invalid. It has beeri said that as Governments are
free to accept or not to accept the Optional Clause, they are free
to accept the very minimum of it. Obviously. But that very mini-
mum must not be in violation of the Statute.

If the Court cannot function except in conformity with its
Statute then, when confronted with an Acceptance containing a
reservation which is contrary to a provision of the Statute, it must
consider that reservation as invalid. This is not a conclusion of
juridical refinement. It is the result of the fact that the Statute of
the Court is the basis and the very source of the Declaration of
Acceptance. The Declaration does not exist except by virtue of the
Statute. It does not legally exist unless it is in accordance with it.
In this connection mention may be made of the legal principle
generally recognized in municipal lawaccording to which acondition,
in a contract or in any other IegaI instrument, that is contrary to

a fundamental principle of judicial organization is invalid. That
yrinciple is recognized with some precision in French law.
How does it corne to pass that, in formulating their acceptance of
the jurisdiction ofthe Court, Govemments - for this form of Accept-
ance has net been confined to the Government of France-deem
themselves free to disregard the Statute of the Court to which they
are parties? It would be inaccurate to explain that attitude by
reference to any absence offamiliarity with theterms ofthe Statute.
The relevant provisions of the Statute were clearly before the
authors of the Declaration and they were considered by them with
reference to the very question here discussed. This is not a question
whether the Court ought to give encouragement, direct or indirect,
to any such attitude of indifference to its Statute. The Court is notavec le Statut - en ce qui concerne un aspect fondamental du
fonctionnement de la Cour. Il semble que, pour cette raison, la
déclaration française d'acceptation serait nulle, mêmesi la ques-

tion qui est liéeà celle de sa nullité ne se posait pas dans le présent
litige. Mais cette question se pose. Le Gouvernement norvégien
s'est prévalu de la réserve et, tout en la laissant à l'arrière-plan, il
ne l'i pas retirée.
En acceptant la juridiction de la Cour, les Gouvernements sont
libres de la limiter de façon radicale. Il peut en résulter que le
champ d'application de l'acceptation de la juridiction de la Cour
soit réduit à peu de choses. Les Gouvernements ont, en tant que
dépositaires des intérêts quileur sont confiés,pleinement le droit
d'agir de cette manière. Leur droit de formuler des réserves non
incompatibles avec le Statut n'est plus en doute.,Mais le point de
savoir si le peu qui reste est ou n'est pas soumis à la juridiction de

la Cour doit être tranché par la Cour elle-même.Toutes conditions
ou réserves tendant à priver la Cour de ce pouvoir sont contraires
à une disposition expresse du Statut et à la notion mêmed'octroi
de juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, telle qu'elle est contenue dans
l'article36, paragraphe 6. Comme telles, elles sont nulles. On a dit
que, si les Gouvernements sont libres d'accepter ou de ne pas
accepter la disposition facultative, ils ont la faculté d'en accepter
le strict minimum. Cela est évident. Mais ce strict minimum ne doit
pas êtreen opposition avec le Statut.
Si la Cour ne peut fonctionner que conformément à son Statut,
elle doit, lorsqu'elle se trouve en présence d'une acceptation conte-
nant une réserve contraire à une disposition du Statut, considérer

que cette réserveest nulle. Il ne s'agit pas là d'une subtilité juridi-
que. Cette conclusion résulte du fait que le Statut de la Cour
constitue la base et la source même dela déclaration d'acceptation.
La déclaration n'existe qu'en vertu du Statut. Elle n'a d'existence
juridique que si elle lui est conforme. On peut mentionner à cet
égard le principe juridique, généralement admis en droit interne,
d'après lequel, dans un contrat ou tout autre acte juridique, une
condition contraire au principe fondamental de l'organisation judi-
ciaire est nulle. Ce principe est reconnu avec quelque précisionpar
le droit français.
Comment se fait-il qu'en formulant leur acceptation de la juri-
diction de la Cour, les Gouvernements - car le Gouvernement

français n'est pas le seul à avoir déposéune acceptation de cette
sorte - s'estinient libres de ne pas tenir compte du Statut de la
Cour auquel ils sont parties? Il serait inexact d'expliquer une telle
attitude par un défaut de familiarité avec les termes du Statut.
Les auteurs de la déclaration avaient sous les yeux les dispositions
pertinentes du Statut et les ont examinées en ce qui concerne le
point en question. La question n'est pas de savoir si la Cour doit,
directement ou indirectement, encourager pareille attitude d'in-
différence à l'égard de son Statut. La Cour n'est pas chargée de 47 NORWEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP.SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

concerned with safeguarding the dignity of its Statute-though it is
concerned with safeguarding its authority. However that may be,
the deliberate character of the disregard of theStatute of the Court
by the authors of the Declaration has a bearing upon the effects, in
the sphere of nullity, of the Declaration thus made. For it rules out
the admissibility of any attempt to bring it somehow, by way of
interpretation, within the four corners of conformity with the
Statute and thus to salvage it as a valid legal declaration.
Moreover, the particular reservation now at issue is not one that
is contrary to some merely procedural aspect of the Statute. It is
contrary to one of its basic features. It is at variance with the
principal safeguard of the system of the compulsory jurisdiction of

the Court. Without it, the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court
being dependent upon the will of the defendant party, expressed
subsequent to the dispute having been brought before the Court,
has no meaning. Article 36 (6) is thus an essential condition of
the system of obligatory judicial settlement as established in the
Statute. That provision was inserted in the Statute with the
deliberate intention of providing an indispensable safeguard of
the operation of the system. Article 36 (2)speaks of the recognition
by the parties to the Statute of the "compulsory" jurisdiction of
the Court. But there is no question of compulsory jurisdiction if,
after the dispute has arisen and after it has been brought before
the Court, the defendant State is entitled to decide whether the
Court has jurisdiction.

Reference may be made to two arguments adduced with the
object of bnnging the "automatic reservation" within the orbit of
conformity with Article 36 (6)of the Statute: In the first instance,
it has been said that if the Court declines jurisdiction by reference to
the "automatic reservation" it is actually, in full conformity with
Article 36 (6),making a decision on the question of its jurisdiction.
This argument is of a verbal character. For in that case it is not
the Court which makes the actual decision on the question of its
jurisdiction. The decision is made by the defendant Government of
Norway. The Court merely registers it. Moreover, the Court says

so in its Judgment. It states in effect that its task is confined to
registering the decision of the defendant State-a decision which
it is entitled to make by virtue of the operation of reciprocity.
The second argument intended to show that the French reser-
vation is not contrary to Article 36 (6)of the Statute is as follows:
If a Government, in conformity with its reservation, has made the
determination that a matter is essentially within its national
jurisdiction, then there is no dispute as to the question of juris-
diction. For the fact that the Government concerned has made that
determination is not in dispute and, therefore, it would seem thatsauvegarder la dignité de son Statut - bien qu'elle soit chargéede
sauvegarder son autorité. Quoi qu'il en soit, la manière délibérée
dont le Statut de la Cour a éténégligé par les auteurs de la déclara-
tion a une incidence sur la question de la nullitéde leur déclaration.
Car elle rend vaine toute tentative de ramener la déclaration d'une
manière ou d'une autre, par voie d'interprétation, dans les limites
de la conformité au Statut et de préserver par conséquent son
caractère de déclaration juridique valable.

Au surplus,la réserveen question n'est pas contraire à un aspect
purement procédural du Statut. Elle est contraire à l'une de ses
caractéristiques essentielles. Elle s'oppose à la principale sauve-
garde du système de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, sauve-
garde sans laquelle cette juridiction obligatoire, dépendant de la
volontéde la partie défenderesse manifestéeaprès l'introduction de
l'instance devant la Cour, n'a pas de sens. Le paragraphe 6 de
l'article 36 est ainsi une condition essentielle du système de règle-
ment judiciaire obligatoire tel qu'il a été établipar le Statut. Cette

disposition a étéincorporée au Statut dans l'intention délibérée de
fournir une sauvegarde indispensable au fonctionnement du sy-
stème. L'article 36, paragraphe 2,parle de la reconnaissance par les
parties au Statut de la juridiction cobligatoire )de la Cour. Mais il
n'est pas question de juridiction obligatoire si, après qp'un diffé-
rend s'est élevéet après qu'il a étésoumis à la Cour, 1'Etat défen-
deur a le droit de décider sila Cour est compétente.

On peut ici faire état de deux arguments tendant à montrer que
la ccréserve automatique » est compatible avec l'article 36, para-
graphe 6, du Statut. En premier lieu, on a dit que, si la Cour décline
compétence sur la base de la créserve automatique »,en réalité
elle rend, en pleine conformité avec l'article 36, paragraphe 6,

une décision concernant sa compétence. Cet argument est d'un
caractère verbal. Car, dans ce cas, ce n'est pas la Cour qui décide
réellementde sa compétence.La décisiona été prise par le Gouverne-
ment norvégien.La Cour ne fait que l'enregistrer. En outre, la Cour
le dit dans son Arrêt. Elle déclare ,en substance que sa tâche se
limite à enregistrer la décisionde 1'Etat défendeur - décisionque
celui-ci a le droit de prendre en vertu du jeu de la réciprocité.

Le second argument destiné à montrer que la réserve française

n'est pas contraire à l'article 36, paragraphe 6, du Statut est le
suivant: Si un Gouvernement, conformément à sa réserve,a décidé
qu'une affaire relève essentiellement de sa compétence nationale,
il n'y a pas contestation quant à la compétence. Car le fait que le
Gouvernement intéressé en a ainsi décidén'est pas en litige; il
semble donc que la question de l'article 36, paragraphe 6, soit

4248 NORWEGIAX LOAXS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

the question of Article 36 (6) has no relevance in this connection;
at most, the application of Article 36 (6)is confined to registering
the fact that the determination has been made by the defendant
State. This argument is, once more, of a dialectical character.
For what is actually the position? A Govemment brings a case
before the Court and maintains in its Memorial that the subject
of the dispute is one of international law. The defendent State
asserts in its Preliminary Objections that in its opinion thatmatter

is essentially within its domestic jurisdiction. There is thus a
dispute between the Parties on the question of the jurisdiction of
the Court. However, having regard to the "automatic reservation",
that dispute cannot be determined by the Court. It is determined
by the Govemment concerned. This is exactly the position in the
present case. If we look at the substance of the matter, there is
little doubt that the reservation is based on the intention-and
has the effect of-divesting the Court of the power conferred upon
it by Article 36 (6).

2. Is the "automatic reservation" consistentwith the requirementsoj
a Zegalobligation tosubmit to the jurisdiction of the Cour?
1 have given reasons why 1 consider that the "automatic reser-

vation", inasmuch as it embodies the claim of one party to make
a decision, binding upon the Court, with regard to the contested
question of its jurisdiction is invalid as being contrary to the
Statute of the Court.
1 arrive at the same conclusion on the second-and different-
ground, namely, that having regard to the formulation of the
reservation of national jurisdiction on the part of the French
Government the Acceptance embodying the "automatic reser-
vation" is invalid as lacking in an essential condition of validity
of a legal instrument. This is so for the reason thatit leaves to the
party making the Declaration the right to determine the extent
and the very existence of its obligation. The effect of the French
reservation relating to domestic jurisdiction is that the French

Govemment has, in this respect, undertaken an obligation to the
extent to which it, and it alone, considers that it has done so.This
means that it has undertaken no obligation. An instrument in
which a party is entitled to determine the existence of its obligation
is not a valid and enforceable legal instrument of which a court
of law can take cognizance. It is not a legal instrument. It is a
declaration of a political principle andpurpose.
It is irrelevant for the purpose of the view here outlined whether
the instrument of acceptance of the obligation of the Optional
Clause is a treaty or some other mode of creating obligations. In the
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company case the Court observed that "the
text of the Iranian DecIaration is not a treaty text resulting from
negotiations between two or more States" but that "it is the result
of unilateral drafting by the Government of Iran" (I.C.J. Reportssans pertinence àcet égard ;l'application del'article36,paragraphe 6,
consiste topt au plus à enregistrer le fait que la décisiona été
prise par 1'Etat défendeur.Cet argument est lui aussi d'un caractère
dialectique. Quelle est en effet la situation? Un Gouvernement
introduit une instance devant la Cour et soutient dans son
mémoire que l'objet du différend relève du droit international.
in état défendeur déclare dans son exception préliminaire qu'à
son avis l'affaire relève essentiellement de sa compétence interne.

Il existe donc un différendentre les Parties relativement à la compé-
tence de la Cour. Toutefois, en raison de la ((réserveautomatique »,
ce différend ne saurait être tranchépar la Cour. Il est tranché par
le Gouvernement intéressé. Telle est exactement la situation en
l'espèce.Si nous examinons le fond des choses, il fait peu de doute
que la réserveest fondéesur l'intention - et qu'elle a pour effet-
de retirer à la Cour le pouvoir que lui confère l'article 36, para-
graphe 6.

2. La ((réserveautomatique ))est-ellecompatibleavecl'exigenced'une
obligation juridique dese soumettre à la compétencede la Cour ?

J'ai indiqué mes raisons de considérer que la (réserve automa-
tique », en tant qu'elle implique la prétention d'une partie de
prendre une décisionobligatoire pour la Cour en ce qui concerne la
question litigieuse de sa compétence, est nulle comme contraire au

Statut de la Cour.
J'arrive à la même conclusionpour une seconde - et différente-
raison, à savoir que, en raison de la réservede compétencenationale
formulée par le Gouvernement français, la déclaration contenant
la ((réserve automatique )) est nulle comme manquant à une
condition essentielle à la validité d'un acte juridique. La raison en
est qu'elle donne à la partie déclarante le droit de déterminer la
portée et l'existence mêmede son obligation. L'effet de la réserve

française relative à la compétence nationale est que le Gouveme-
ment français a, à cet égard, contracté une obligation dans la
mesure où lui, et lui seul, considère qu'il l'a fait. Cela revient à
dire qu'il n'a contracté aucune obligation. Un acte dans lequel une
partie a le droit de déterminer l'existence de son obligation n'est
pas un acte juridique valable et exécutoire dont un tribunal puisse
connaître. Ce n'est pas un acte juridique. C'est une déclaration de
principe et d'intention de caractère politique.

Le point de savoir si l'instrument d'acceptation de l'obligation
contractée aux termes de la disposition facultative constitue un
traité ou quelque autre source d'obligation est sans pertinence aux
fins de l'opinion que j'avance ici. Dans l'affaire de l'dnglo-Iranian
Oil Company, la Cour a fait observer que ((le texte de la déclara-
tion de l'Iran n'est pas un texte contractuel résultant de négocia-
tions entre deux ou plusieurs Etats »,mais qu'il ((résulte d'une

43 49 XORIVEGIAX LO.4XS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH L.~CTERF.ICHT)
1952, p. IO5).The statement means no more than that the declara-
tion is the result not of negotiations but of unilateral drafting.

Ilihether it is a treaty or a unilateral declaration, it is-iit is to
be treated as a legal text providing a basis for the jurisdiction of
the Court-a manifestation of intention to create reciprocal rightç
and obligations. It will be noted that article 36 (2)refers to the
acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Court in relation "to any other
State accepting the same obligation". In fact there is no difficulty
in visualizing the Declaration of Acceptance as an accession to a
multilateral treaty in the same way as, in the case of variouç
conventions concluded under the auspices of the United Nations,
Governments accede to a text established by the General Assembly.
However that may be, the acceptance of the Optional Clause is an
instrument purporting to bring about, as between the accepting
State and any other State which has accepted or may accept that
text, reciprocal rights and obligations. If the acceptance does not,
in law, amount to an assumption of an obligation effectively
binding upon the Government concerned, it is not a valid instru-

ment upon which the accepting State can rely and of which the
Court can take cognizance. If a Government declares that it
accepts the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court unless, in cases
which cover potentially the entire field of possible disputes, it
determines, after the dispute has come before the Court, that the
Court has no jurisdiction, then the declaration thus made consti-
tutes no legal undertaking and cannot be treated as a legal instru-
ment constituting an undertaking.

The proposition here advanced-namely, that an undertaking in
which the applicant party reserves for itself the exclusive right to
determine the extent or the very existence of its obligation is not
a legal undertaking-is so self-evident as a matter of juridical
principle that it is not necessary to elaborate this point by showing
it to be a generally recognized principle of law which the Court is
authorized to apply by virtue of Article 38 of its Statutes. It is a

general principle of law as it results from the legislation and practice
of courts in various countries in the matter of contracts and other
legal instruments. These are treated as invalid whenever the object
of the obligation is reserved for the exclusive determination of the
party said to be bound by the obligation in question. (Reference
may be made here to the position in French law as summarized in
the leading treatise by Planiol and Ripert. They state, when
dealing with the general conditions of the validity of the contract,
that the freedom of the party to determine the object of its obliga-
tion negatives the legal nature of the agreement (Traitépratique
de droit civil jrançais, vol. vi, and ed.1952 ,ection 220: "Déter-
mination de l'objet"). In dealing with so-called potestative con-
ditions, they refer to pilrely potestative conditions dependent
upon the wvillof the debtor and covered by -4rticle 1174 of the Civildéclaration unilatérale par le Gouvenlernent de l'Iran ))(C.I. J.
Reczteil 1952, p. IO^).Cela signifie uniquement que la déclaration
résulte non pas de négociations mais d'une rédaction unilatérale.
Qu'il s'agisse d'un traité ou d'une déclaration unilatérale, elle
constitue - si elle doit êtreconsidérée commeun texte juridique
sur lequel on peut fonder la compétence de la Cour - la manifes-
tation d'une intention de créerdes droits et obligations réciproques.
On notera que l'article 36, paragraphe 2, parle de-l'acceptation de
la juridiction de la Cour à l'égard de (tout autre Etat acceptant la

même obligation ».En fait, il n'y a pas de difficultéà se représenter
la déclaration d'acceptation comme l'adhésion à un traité multi-
latéral fait de la mêmemanière que,dans le cas des diverses conven-
tions concluessouslesauspices desNations C'nies,lesGouvernements
adhèrent à un texte établi par l'Assemblée généraleQ . uoi qu'il en
soit, I'acceptatio? de la disposition facultative est un acte tendant
à créer, entre 1'Etat déclarant et tout autre Etat qui a accepté ou
peut accepter ce texte, des droits et obligations réciproques. Si
l'acceptation n'implique pas en droit la soumission àune obligation
effectivement opposable au Gouvernement intéressé.ce n'est pas

un acte valable sur lequel 1'Etat déclarant puisse se fonder et dont
la Cour puisse connaître. Si un Gouvernement déclarequ'il accepte
la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, à moins que, dans des cas
couvrant virtuellement tout le domaine des différends éventuels, il
décide,après que la Cour ait étésaisie, que celle-ci n'a pas compé-
tence, la déclaration ainsi formuléene constitue pas un engagement
juridique et ne saurait être traitéecomme un acte juridique consti-
tuant un engagement.
Cette proposition - à savoir qu'un engagement dans lequel la

partie qui s'engage se réserve le droit exclusif de déterminer la
portée ou l'existence mêmede son obligation n'est pas un engage-
ment juridique - est en elle-même siévidente en tant que principe
juridique qu'il n'est pas nécessaire de développer ce point en mon-
trant qu'il s'agit d'un principe de droit généralement reconnu que
la Cour est autorisée à appliquer en vertu de l'article 38 du Statut.
C'est un principe généralde droit, ainsi qu'il résulte de la loi et de
la jurisprudence de divers pays en matière de contrats et autres
actes juridiques. Ceux-ci sont considérés comme nuls lorsquel'objet

de l'obligation est réservé à la détermination exclusive de la partie
prétendument liéepar cette obligation. (On peut mentionner ici la
situation en droit français telle qu'elle est résuméedans le traité
faisant autorité de Planiol et Ripert. Traitant des conditions
générales de validité des contrats, ces deux auteurs déclarent
que la faculté laissée à la partie de déterminer l'objet de son
obligation détruit le caractère juridique de l'accord (Traitépratique
de droit civil jral7pais, t. vi, zn1eéd., 1952, par. 220: ((Déter-
mination de l'objet n.)Traitant des conditions dites (potestatives »,

ils se réfèrent aux conditions potestatives pures dépendant de la
volonté du débiteur dont il est question à l'article II74 du CodeCode which provides that "an obligation is nul1 if contracted
under a potestative condition on the part of the obligor" (ibid.,
vol. vii, Section 1028). It is not desirable to prolong this

Opinion by an examination of English law and of the law of the
United States of America on the question. With regard to the latter,
reference may be made to the leading treatise on the subject,
namely, Williston's "On Contracts" (revised edition, vol. i(1936),
§43) where, in the light of numerous judicial decisions, the freedom
of a party to determine the object of its obligation is represented
as negativing the legal nature of the agreement. The importance
attached to the necessity of a clear determination of the subject-
matter of the obligation may be seen from the fact that French
courts have held that a contract providing that a party shall be
entitled to purchase goods in accordance with a price to be agreed
separately is ineffective and unenforceable. In some other countries
the courts have held that in such cases reasonable terms are to be
fixed by the courts-a solution which, in a different sphere, is in
the present case excluded by the terms of the automatic French
reservation.)

That general principle of law is, in turn, no more than a principle
of common sense. Applied to the present case, that principle
signifies that if the element of legal obligation is non-existent or
negligible it must followthat the instrument is not a legal instrument
upon which a State can rely as a matter of right for the purpose
of invoking the jurisdiction of the Court. Instruments-whether
by way of treaties, unilateral declarations, and other texts-
cognisable before a court of law and relied upon for obtaining
redress must be instruments creating legal obligations. It is irre-
levant for this purpose that, having regard to public opinion, an
enlightened State is not likely to invoke any such reservation
capriciously, unjustifiably, and in bad faith. These are expec-
tations which may or may not materialize. The decisive factor is
that the State concerned is not willing to leave a decision on the
question to the impartial judgment of the Court but that it insists
on its own determination of the issue. Neither is it feasible to try

to inject a legal element into the Declaration thus formulated by
using phraseology such as that the undertaking in question is
binding subject to a resolutive condition dependent upon the pro-
mising party. Upon analysis that phrase means no more than that
the undertaking is binding so long as the dispute has not been
brought before the Court but that its binding force becomes a
matter of discretion of the defendant State once the Court has been
seised of the dispute.
It may be argued that, after all, the interpretation of disputed
provisions of treatiesis not, in the absence of agreement, subject to
the compulsory jurisdiction of international courts and that never-
theless that fact does not deprive the treaties in question of their
character as binding legal instruments. The answer is that in thesecivil ainsi conçu: cToute obligation est nulle lorsqu'elle a été
contractée sous une condition potestative de la part de celui qui
s'oblige » (ibid., t. vii, par. 1028). Il est inopportun d'allonger
la pr+sente opinion par une étude du droit anglais et du droit
des Etats-Unis en la matière. En ce qui concerne ce dernier,
on peut citer le traité qui fait autorité en la matière, celui de
\Villiston intitulé((On Contracts )(éditionrevisée,vol. i (1936), § 43),
où, à la lumière d'une jurisprudence abondante, la liberté d'une
partie de déterminer l'objet de son obligation est représentéecomme

détruisant le caractère juridique de l'accord. L'importance attachée
à la nécessitéd'une détermination non équivoque de l'objet de
l'obligation ressort du fait que les tribunaux français ont jugéqu'un
contrat disposant qu'une partie est autorisée à acheter des marchan-
dises suivant un prix à débattre séparément est nul et sans effet.
Dans certains autres pays, il a étéstatué qu'en pareil cas des termes
raisonnables doivent êtrefixéspar les tribunaux - solution qui,
dans un domaine différent, serait en l'espèce exclue par les termes
de la (réserve automatique )française.)

Ce principe généralde droit n'est au surplus rien d'autre qu'un
principe de bon sens. Appliqué à la présente espèce, il signifie que
si l'élément d'obligationjuridique est inexistant ou négJigeable, il
s'ensuit que l'acte n'est pas un acte juridique dont un Etat puisse
se prévaloir en droit dans le but d'invoquer la compétence de la
Cour. Qu'il s'agisse de traités, de déclarations unilatérales ou autres
textes, les actes dont un tribunal puisse connaître et dont on puisse
se prévaloir en vue d'obtenir une réparation doivent être desactes
créant des obligations juridiques. Peu importe à ce propos qp'en
raison de l'opinion publique il soit assez improbable qu'un Etat

éclairéinvoque une telle réserve d'une manière arbitraire, injusti-
fiable et de mauvaise foi. Ce sont là des hypothèses qui peuvent se
réaliser ou non. Le facteur déterminant est que 1'Etat intéressé
n'entend pas remettre la décisionen la matière au jugement impar-
tial de la Cour, mais qu'il insiste pour la prendre lui-même. Il n'est
pas non plus possible d'essayer d'introduire un élémentjuridique
dans la déclaration ainsi formulée au moyen d'une phrase qui dirait
par exemple que l'engagement en question est obligatoire sous une
condition résolutoire dépendant de la partie qui s'engage. A la

mieux considérer, la phrase ne signifierait rien de plus que ceci:
l'engagement est obligatoire tant que le différendn'a pas été porté
devant la Cour, mais sa force obligatoire est soumise au pouvoir
discrétionnaire de 1'Etat défendeur dèsIors que la Cour est saisie
du différend.
On peut prétendre qu'après tout, l'interprétation de dispositions
de traités en litige n'est pas, en l'absence d'un accord, soumise à la
juridiction obligatoire des tribunaux internationaux et que cela
n'ôte pas pour autant auxdits traités leur caractère d'instruments

juridiques obligatoires. La réponseest que, dans ces traités, l'objettreaties the object of the obligation is determined and that neither
party is accorded the right of unilateral determination which the

other party is bound to accept. Moreover, in the present case the
absence-the deliberate exclusion-of the jurisdiction of the Court
refers to the very ascertainment of the jurisdiction ostensib!~
conferred upon it in what purports to be a legal text.

1 have git-en reasons why, inasmuch as the French Declaration
of Acceptance leaves it to the declaring Government to determine
both the existence and the extent of the obligation undertaken by
France, it does not constitute a legal obligation essential to the
validity of a legal text.1 will now consider whether there are any
factors which may legitimately mitigate the apparent rigour of
these consequences.
It might be said that niatters ~vhich are essentially within
national jurisdiction constitute only one part of the potential

number of controversies which may come before the Court; that
with regard to others the element of legal obligation fully subsists;
and that therefore the Acceptance as a whole may still be capable
of being regarded as a valid legal instrument. There is little persua-
sive force in any such argument. The reservation of matters essen-
tially within the domestic jurisdiction of a State as understood bg-
that State is so wide as to cover, at the option of the State concerned,
practically al1 disputes in which it may be involved.

For. in the first instance. it\vil1be noted that the French reser-
vation in issue refers not to matters which are according tointer-
national law exclusive~ywithin the domestic jurisdiction of the State,
but to matters which are essentiallywithin the domestic jurisdiction.
There are matters which have often been considered as being
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of States but which,
having become regulated by treaty or custom, have ceased to be

so-an aspect of the question for which the Advisory Opinion of
the Permanent Court of International Justice in the case of Tunis
and Morocco Nationality Decrees provides an instructive and
authoritative illustration.Tariffs, immigration, treatment of aliens
and citizens in national territory, interna1 legislation generally-al1
those matters have been claimed to be essentially within the domes-
tic jurisdiction of States. It is not necessary for me to express an
opinion on the subject. However, even if that claim is admitted,
those are not necessarily matters which according to international
law are exclusis~elywithin the domestic jurisdiction of the State-
though, as siated, the- have often been described as being matters
of domestic jurisdiction or essentially of domestic jurisdiction.
Practically every aspect of the conduct of the State may be, pyimn EbiPRCSTS XORT-. (OP. ISDIS7.SIR HERSCH L.XLTERP.XCHT) 5I
de l'obligation est déterminé et que ni l'une ni l'autre des parties n'a

un droit dedétermination unilatérale auquel l'autre partie soit tenue
de se soumettre. En outre, dans la présente espèce, l'absence -
l'exclusion délibérée - de la juridiction de la Cour a trait à la
constatation même dela compétence que l~ziconfère ostensiblement
ce qui prétend êtreun texte juridique.

J'ai donné les raisons pour lesquelles, la déclaration française

d'acceptation en tant qu'elle confère au Gouvernement déclarant
le pouvoir de déterminer à la fois l'existence et la portée de l'obli-
gation contractée par la France, elle ne constitue pas une obligation
juridique essentielle à la validité d'un texte juridique. Je vais
examiner maintenant s'il existe des facteurs susceptibles d'atténuer
légitimement la rigueur apparente de ces conséquences.
On pourrait dire que les affaires qui relèvent essentiellen~ent de
la compétence nationale ne constituent qu'une partie des contro-
verses éventuellement susceptibles d'êtresoumises à la Cour; qu'en
ce qui concerne les autres affaires, l'élément d'obligationjuridique

subsiste entièrement ;et que par conséquent la Déclaration d'accep-
tation, dans son ensemble, peut encore être regardée comme
un acte juridique valable. La force persuasive de cet argument est
limitée. La réserve des affaires relevant essentiellement de la
c,ompétencenationale d'un Etat telle qu'elle est entendue par cet
Etat est si large qu'elle peut pratiquement couvrir, au choix de
1'Etat intéressé,tous les différends dans lesquels il est susceptible
d'êtreéventuellement impliqué.
On notera tout d'abord, en effet, que la réserve française en

question ne vise pas les affaires qui d'aprèsle droit international
relèventexcl~sivementde la compétence interne de l'Etat, mais celles
qui en relèvent essentiellement. Il s'agit donc d'affaires qui ont
souvent été considérées,comme relevant essentiellement de la
compétence interne des Etats mais qui ont cesséde l'être,ayant
par la suite étérégiespar un traité ou par la coutume. C'est là un
aspect de la question dont l'avis consultatif rendu par la Cour
permanente de Justice internationale, en l'affaire des Décrets de
nationalitéen Tunisie et au Maroc, fournit un exemple instructif
et faisant autorité. Les tarifs douaniers, l'immigration, le traite-

ment des étrangers et des citoyens sur le territoire national et,
plus généralement, Ia législation interne - toutes ces questions,
a-t-on dit, relèvent essentiellement de la compétence interne des
Etats. Il n'est pas nécessaire que j'exprime une opinion sur ce
point. Toutefois, mêmesi l'on admet cette thèse. ce ne sont pas
nécessairement des matières qui, en droit international, relèvent
exclusivement de la compétence interne de 1'Etat - quoique,
comme je l'ai dit, elles ont étésouvent désignées commeétant des
matières de juridiction nationale ou essentiellement de juridiction

4652 NORWEGIAN LOASS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)
facie,within that category for the reason that normally the State
exercises its activity within its national territory, or, on the high

seas, in relation to its ships which for some purposes are considered
by States to form part of its territory. In thLotus case the Court
was prepared to base its decision, to some extent, on the view that
the ship affected was Turkish territory and that the offence was
therefore committed in Turkey. For these reasons it is possible for
a State to maintain, without necessarily laying itself open to an
irresistible charge of bad faith, that practically every dispute con-
cems a matter essentially within its domestic jurisdiction. Most
Judgments given by this Court and its predecessor-with the
exception of those concemed with territorial disputes-have been
given in relation to matters bearing on the activity of the State
within its jurisdiction and related to its national legislation and
administration. These are the typical occasions giving rise to State
responsibility. This aspect of the question is elaborated in more
detail in the examination, which follows, of the power of the Court
to review the determination made by a Gox~emment in pursuance

of the "automatic reservation".

If thus practically every matter can be plausibly, though not
necessarily accurately, described as a matter essentially within the
domestic jurisdiction of the State concerned and if that State is the
sole judge of the question, it is clear that, as the result, the element
of legal obligation is reduced to a vanishing point.

1 will now examine the view that, although a State reserves for
itself the right toettrmine whether a matter is essentially within
its domestic jurisdiction, such determination must be effected in
accordance with the legal obligation to act in good faith and that
to that extent there is in existence a valid legal obligation and a

valid legal instrument. 1 myself expressed a view to that effect
in my Report on the Law of Treaties which 1 submitted in 1953
as member of the International Law Commission. In the light
of further study of this question in connection with the present
case, 1 do not feel it possible to adhere to that view. The legal
obligation of a Government to avail itself of its freedom of action
in a manner consistent with good faith has a meaning, in terms of
legal obligation, only when room is left for an impartial finding
whether the duty to act in accordance with good faith has been
complied with. But in the case now before the Court any such
possibility has been expressly excluded. The Court has no power
to give adecision on the question whether a State has acted in good
faith in claiming that a dispute covers a matter which is essentially
within its domestic jurisdiction. If the Court were to do so, it would

47nationale. En pratique, tous les aspects de la conduite de l'État
relèvent, à première vue, de sa compétence interne, pour la raison
que l'État exerce normalement son activité sur son territoire
national ou, en haute mer, relativement à ses navires lesquels
sont, à certains égards, considéréspar 1'Etat comme partie inté-
grante de son territoire. Dans l'affaire du Lotus, la Cour s'est
montrée disposée à fonder sa décision, dans une certaine mesure,

sur l'opinion que le navire en cause était territoire turc et que
par conséquent le délitavait étécommis en Turquie. C'est pourquoi
un Etat peut soutenir, sans s'exposer nécessairement à une accu-
sation irrésistible de mauvaise foi, que pratiquement tout différend
est relatifà une affaire qui relève essentiellement de sa compétence
interne. La plupart des arrêtsrendus par la présente Cour et par
sa devancière - à l'exception de ceux relatifs à des différends
tefritoriaux - ont trait à des affaires touchant à l'activité de
1'Etat à l'intérieur de sa juridiction et reliéeà son droit ou à son
administration interne. C'est là 15 type même des situations qui
engagent la responsabilité de 1'Etat. Cet aspect de la question
sera développéplus en détail dans l'examen, qui va suivre, du
pouvoir de la Cour pour reviser la décision prise par un Gouver-

nement en application de la (réserve automatique ».
S'il est donc pratiquement plausible, sinon nécessairement exact,
de considérer toute affaife comme relevant esseptiellement de la
compétence interne de 1'Etat intéressé,et si cet Etat est seul juge
en la matière, il est clair, en conséquence, que l'élément d'obligation
juridique s'évanouit presque complètement.

Je vais maintenant examiner l'opinion d'après laquelle un État,
tout en se réservant le droit de décider si une affaire relève essen-
tiellement de sa compétence interne, doit prendre sa décision

conformément à l'obligation juridique d'agir de bonne foi et, par
conséquent, dans cette mesure, il subsisterait une obligation juri-
dique valable et un acte juridique valable. C'est une opinion à
laquelle je m'étais moi-même ralliédans le Rapport sztr le droit des
traitésque j'avais préparéen 1953, alors que j'étais membre de la
Commission de droit international. Après avoir à nouveau examiné
la question dans le cadre de la présente affaire, je ne crois plus
possible de défendre cette opinion. L'obligation juridique d'un
Gouvernement de se prévaloir de sa liberté d'action d'une manière
compatible avec la bonne foi n'a de signification, en matière d'obli-
gation juridique, que lorsqu'ily a place pour un jugement impartial
sur le point de savoir si le devoir d'agir de bonne foi a étérempli.

Mais toute possibilité de ce genre a étéexpressément bannie de la
présente espèce. La Cour n'a pas le pouvoir de déterminer si un
Etat agit de bonne foi en prétendant qu'un différend s'applique
à une affaire releva.nt essentiellement de sa compétence interne. Si 3OKU EGI-LA LO-AXb (SEI'. OP. SIR HERSCH LAIJTERP-~CHT)
jl,
be arrogating to itself a power whicli has been expressly denied
to it. Unquestionablg-, the obligation to act in accordance with
good faith, being a general principle of lam-,is also part of inter-
national law. The Governments which have appended the "auto-

matic reservation" have not questioned their legal obligation to
invoke it in good faith, that is toy,not capriciously andarbitrarily.
But it is abundantly clear from the evidence which is generally
available that the authors of the "automatic reservation" have
reserved for the Governments concerned the right to judge whether
in invoking it in a particular case they have complied with the
obligation to act in good faith. They have repeatedly declared that
their own sense of international duty and propriety, public opinion
within and outside their countries, and their reputation and prestige
inthe world ~vouldconstitute a restraining factor of great pctency in
shapingtheir decision. But they have denied to the Court the power

to determine the legality of that decision from the point of view of
the obligation to actin good faith or otherwise. They have reserved
that power to themselves.
For this reason 1 cannot accept as accurate the view expressed
in the following terms in paragraph 26 of the Norwegian "Prelimi-
nary Objections": "Of course, such a reservation must be inter-
preted in good faith and should a government seek to rely upon it
with a view to denying the jurisdiction of the Court in a case which
manifestly did not involve a 'matter which is essentially ~vithinthe
the national jurisdiction' it would be committing an abzis dedroit
which would not prevent the Court froin acting." The Court has no
such power. It cannot arrogate to itself the competence-which
has been expressly denied to it-to find that the assertion of the

defendant State that a matter is essentially within its domestic
jurisdiction is so extravagant and so arbitrary as to amount to an
action in bad faith and to an abuse of right, ~viththe result that
the Court is entitled to ignore or to override the determination
thus made. As already stated, in l~iewof the comprehensiveness of
the term "matters essentially within domestic jurisdiction", it is
not easy to conceive situations of an)- such obviousness. It is not
certain that a State would be acting flagrantly and irrefutably
in disregard of the canons of good faith if it were to determine
most disputes as coming within its domestic jurisdiction.
The question of the obligation to act in good faith arises onlg-in
relation to legitimate expectations of the other party. But there is

only a nominal degree of legitimate expectation in relation to an
obligation, in regard to apotentially most comprehensive categorg-of
disputes, asto which the party undertaking it expressly declares in
advance that it is free to determine boththe existence andthe degree
of its obligation. As already stated, the attitude of a Government in
most disputes is as a rule adopted in pursuance of its interna1
legislation or other form of authorization determined by its national
law. To that extent it is arguable-perhaps inaccurately but not

4sla Cour agissait ainsi, elle s'arrogerait un pouvoir qui lui a été

expressément refusé.Incontestablement, l'obligation d'agir confor-
mément à la bonne foi étant un principe général de droit, fait
aussi partie du droit international. Les Gouvernements qui ont
attaché la « réserve automatique 1) à leur déclaration n'ont pas
contesté l'obligation juridique qui leur incombe de l'invoquer de
bonne foi, c'est-à-dire sans caprice ni arbitraire. Mais il ressort
très clairement des preuves dont on dispose généralement que les

auteurs de la c(réserve automatique » ont réservéaux Gouverne-
ments intéressés ledroit de juger si, en l'invoquant dans un cas
particulier, ils se sont conformés à l'obligation d'agir de bonne foi.
Ils ont déclaréà plusieurs reprises que leur propre sens du devoir
et de la rectitude internationale, l'opinion publique à l'intérieur et
à l'extérieur de leurs pays, et leur réputation et leur prestige dans
le monde constitueraient un frein puissant dans leur décision. hfais

ils ont refusé à la Cour le pouvoir de déterminer la légalité decette
décisionau point de vue de l'obligation d'agir de bonne foi ou pour
d'autres raisons. Jls se sont réservéce pouvoir à eux-mêmes.
C'est la raison pour laquelle je ne saurais accepter comme exacte
l'opinion exprimée en ces termes au paragraphe 26 des « Exceptions
préliminaires ))norvégiennes: ccIl est certain que pareille réserve
doit êtreinterprétée de bonne foi et qu'un gouvernement qui se

retrancherait derrière elle pour dénier compétence à la Cour dans
un cas où il ne s'agirait manifestement pas d'une (affaire relevant
essentiellement de la compétence nationale ))commettrait un abus
de droit, devant lequel la Cour ne serait pas désarmée. )La Cour
ne dispose pas d'un tel pouvoir. Elle ne saurait s'arroger la compé-
tence - qvi lui a étéexpressément refusée - de dire que la préten-
tion d'un Etat défendeur d'après laquelle une affaire relève essen-

tiellement de sa compétence interne est si extravagante et si arbi-
traire qu'elle constitue un acte de mauvaise foi et un abus de droit,
et que la Cour est fondée à ignorer ou à infirmer la décision ainsi
prise. Comme je l'ai déjà dit, le caractère étendu de l'expression
((affaires qui relèvent essentiellement de la compétence interne 1)
fait qu'il est difficile deconcevoir des situations aussi claires. Il n'est
pas certain qu'un Etat s'écarterait des règles de la bonne foi d'une

manière flagrante et irréfutable s'ildécrivait la plupart desdifférends
comme relevant de sa compétence interne.
La question de l'obligation d'agir de bonne foi ne se pose qu'au
regard de ce à quoi l'autre partie peut légitimement s'attendre.
Mais cette attente légitime n'existe que nominalement, lorsqu'il
s'agit d'une obligation relative à une catégorie de différends vir-
tuellement très étendueet où la partie qui s'engage déclare expressé-

ment par avance qu'elle est libre de déterminer l'existence et la
portée de son obligation. Ainsi que je l'ai déjà indiqué, l'attitude
d'un Gouvernement dans la plupart des différends est en rè@e
généralefondée sur sa législation interne ou sur une autre forme
d'autorisation établie par son droit national. On pent dans cette

4s NORWEGIAN LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)
j4
necessarily extravagantly so-that any dispute arising in this
connection is essentially a matter of domestic jurisdiction. Also,
practically all disputes involving an allegation of a breach of an
international duty, whether under a treaty or under customary
international law, arise out of events occurring within the territory
of that State. In that sense it may be claimed, with or without
good reason, that they are matters essentially within the national

jurisdiction of the State. A dispute relating to the jurisdictional
immunities of foreign States or their diplomatic agents may be
asserted to fa11 within that category-especially if its subject-
matter is covered by national legislation or the jurisprudence of
national courts. A defendant State may allege that, for the latter
reason, a dispute concerning its domestic legislation affecting the
continental shelf or parts of the highseas relates to a matter within
its national jurisdiction. The only disputes which, it might appear.
are outside that category are territorial disputes. But even that is
not certain. In fact it has been suggested that territorial disputes
pertain to matters of domestic jurisdiction. In the communication
addressed on May 4th, 1955, by the Government of Argentina to
the United Kingdom in the matter of disputed sovereignty over
certain Antarctic territories one of the reasonsadduced in support
of the refusal of the former Government to submit the issue to this

Court was that the Government of the United Kingdom had, in
its acceptance of the Optional Clause, itself excluded from the
competence of the Court questions within its exclusive jurisdiction.
The contention that a territorial dispute involves a matter within
the domestic iurisdiction of a State mav be farfetched. but has
the Court been given the power to Say that any such aisertion is
obviously in bad faith, that it constitutes an abuse of a right, that
it must be ignored or overridden, and that the Court has jurisdiction
notwithstanding the determination to the contraryby theState in
question ?

,4ny attempt to embark upon the examination of the question
whether a Government has acted in bad faith in determining that a
matter is essentially within its domestic jurisdiction may involve
an exacting enquiry into the merits of the dispute-an enquiry so
exacting that it could claim to determine, with full assurance, that

the juridical view advanced by a Government is so demonstrably
and palpably wrong and so arbitrary as to amount to an assertion
made in bad faith. Only an enquiry into the merits can determine
that although an assertion made by the defendant Government is
not legally well-founded it is nevertheless reasonable; or that
although it is not reasonable, it is not wholly arbitrary. The Court
has no power to make such determination.

The "automatic reservation" is couched in terms so comprehen-
sive as to preclude the Court from reviewing it or interpreting it EMPRUNTS NORV. (OP. INDIV. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT) 54
mesure soutenir - peut-être à tort, mais point nécessairement

d'une manière extravagante - que tout différend survenant à
ce sujet relève essentiellement- de la compétenceinterne. De même,
pratiquement tous les différendsimpliquant une prétendue violation
d'un devoir international découlant d'un traité ou du droit inter-
national coutumier procèdent de faits survenus sur le territoire de
1'Etat en cause. On peut dire en ce sens, à tort ou à raison, que ce
sont des affaires relevant essentiellement de la compétencenationale
de 1'Etat. On peut soutenirqu'un différend relatif aux immunités de
juridiction des Etats étrangers ou de leurs agents diplomatiques

ressort de cette catégorie - particulièrement si la législation
nationale ou la jurisprudence des tribunaux nationaux traitent de
l'objet de ce différend. Un Etat défendeur peut soutenir que,
précisément pour cette raison, un différend coycernant sa légis-
lation interne relative au plateau continental ou a une partie de la
haute mer relève de sa compétence nationale. Les seuls différends
qui, semble-t-il, n'appartiennent pas à cette catégorie sont les
différends territoriaux. Mais cela mêmen'est pas certain. En fait,
il a étésuggéréque les différends territoriaux touchent à des

affaires relevant à la compétewe interne. Dans la communication
adressée le 4 mai 1955 par le Gouvernement de l'Argentine au
Royaume-Uni au sujet de la contestation de souveraineté sur
certainsterritoires de l'Antarctique, l'une desraisons invoquées pour
justifier le refus du Gouvernement de soumettre la question à la
Cour était que le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni, dans son accep-
tation de la disposition facultative, avait lui-même écartéde la
juridiction de la Cour les questions relevant de sa compétence
exclusive. La thèse qu'un litige territoria! touche une question qui

relève de la compétence nationale d'un Etat est peut-être forcée:
mais la Cour a-t-elle reçu le pouvoir de dire que toute affirmation
en ce sens est évidemment de mauvaise foi, qu'elle constitue un
abus de droit, qu'il faut l'ignorer ou l'infirmer, et que la Cour est
compétente,nonobstant la décisioncontraire de 1'Etat en question?
Toute tentative d'entreprendre l'examen de la question de savoir
si un Gouvernement a agi de mauvaise foi en décidant qu'une
question relève essentiellement de sa compétence-nationale pour-
rait entraîner un examen rigoureux du fond du litige - examen

si rigoureux qu'il pourrait prétendre à déterminer en toute assu-
rance que l'opinion juridique avancée par un Gouvernement est
si manifestement et évidemment fausse et si arbitraire qu'elle
équivaut à une affirmation faite de mauvaise foi. Seul un examen
du fond peut déterminer si, bien que mal fondée en droit, une
assertion faite par le Gouvernement défendeur est cependant
raisonnable, ou si, bien que non raisonnable, elle n'est pas absolu-
ment arbitraire. La Cour n'a pas le pouvoir de faire une telle
constatation.

La créserve automatique » est formulée en termes si larges
qu'elle empêchela Cour de la contrôler ou de l'écarter par voie
49j5 SORWEGIAX LOANS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

away not only by reference to any assertion of abuse of a right by
the defendant State but also in any other way. Thus, for instance,
it is not open to the Court to disregard that reservation by reference
to some such argument as that the right of exclusive determination
pertains only to matters which are "essentially within domestic
jurisdiction"; that a matter which is clearly governed by inter-
national law, because of international custom or treaty, is not essen-
tially within the domestic jurisdiction of a State; and that, therefore,
such matters are neither within the scope of the reservation nor
within the power of the accepting State to determine unilaterally
whether the dispute is within the domestic jurisdiction. It is not
easy to find a legal limit to the right of the accepting State which
has appended a reservation of this kind to decline the jurisdiction
of the Court. That right seems to be unqualified. So is the inability
of the Court to review the attitude of the Government in question.
That very absence of qualification is expressive of the absence of
any element of legal obligation implicit in a reservation thus

formulated.

Having regard to the preceding observations 1 am of the view
that the right of the accepting State to determine whether a matter
is essentially within its domestic jurisdiction makes the extent and
the very existence of its obligation dependent upon its will; that
the subject-matter of such determination may cover practically al1
disputes; that the Court has no power to disregard a determination
thus made on the ground that it has not been made in good faith
or an any other ground; and that the reservation of domestic juris-
diction thus formulated is therefore invalid inasmuch as it deprives
the Acceptance of the essential element of legal obligation.

3. Can the "automatic reservation" be separatedfrom theAcceptance
as sztch?
1have come to the conclusion that the "automatic reservation"

relating to matters deemed by the Government of France to be
essentially within her national jurisdictionis invalid for the double
reason that it is contrary to the Statute of the Court and that it
deprives the Acceptance of the indispensable element of legal
obligation.
If the clause of the Acceptance reserving to the declaring Govern-
ment the right of unilateral determination is invalid, then there are
only two alternatives open to the Court: it may either treat as
invalid that particular part of the reservation or it may consider
the entire Acceptance to be tainted with invalidity. (There is a
third possibility-which has only to be mentioned in order to be
dismissed-namely, that the clause in question invalidates not the
Acceptance as a whole but the particular reservation. This would
mean that the entire reservation of matters of national jurisdiction

50d'interprétation non seulement par référence à toute allégation

d'un abus de droit de la part de 1'Etat défendeur, mais encore de
toute autre manière. Ainsi, par exemple, la Cour n'a pas le pouvoir
d'ignorer cette réserve en invoquant, par exemple, l'argument que
le droit de décision exclusive vise uniquement des affaires relevant
((essentiellement de la compétence nationale »; qu'une question
qui est clairement régie par le droit international, du fait d'une
coutume internationale ou d'un traité, ne relève pas essentiellement
de la compétence nationale d'un Etat; et que, par conséquent,
ces affaires ne rentrent ni dans le domaine de la réserve ni dans
le pouvoir de 1'Etat déclarant de décider unilatéralement si le
différend relève de la compétence nationale. Il n'est pas facile de

trouver une limite juridique au droit de 1'Etat déclarant qui a
joint une réserve de ce genre de déclinerla coqétence de la Cour.
Ce droit paraît être sans restriction. Il en est de mêmede l'impos-
sibilité pour la Cour de contrôler l'attitude de ce Gouvernement.
Cette absence même de restriction est le signe de l'absence de
tout élémentdu caractère juridiquement obligatoire implicite dans
une réserve ainsi formulée.
Eu égard aux observation~~qui précèdent, j'estime que le droit
de 1'Etat acceptant de décider siune question relève essentiellement
de sa compétence nationale fait dépendre de sa propre volonté la

portée et l'existence même de son obligation; que l'objet d'une
pareille décision peut englober à peu près tous les différends; que
la Cour n'a pas le pouvoir d'écarter une décision ainsi prise pour
le motif qu'elle n'a pas étéprise de bonne foi ou pour toute autre
raison; et que par conséquent la réserve de compétence nationale
ainsi formulée est nulle, en tant qu'elle ôte à l'acceptation l'élément
essentiel du caractère juridiquement obligatoire.

3. La réserveazztomatique ))$eut-elle êtreséparéede l'acce$tation
elle-nzênze?

Je suis parvenu à la conclusion que la ((réserveautomatique ))
visant les affaires considéréespar le Gouvernement français comme
relevant essentiellement de sa compétence nationale est nulle pour
le double motif qu'elle est contraire au Statut de la Cour et qu'elle
prive l'acceptation de l'élément indispensabled'obligation juridique.

Si la clause inséréedans l'acceptation en vue de réserver-le droit
de décision unilatérale du Gouvernement déclarant est nulle, la
Cour n'a qu'une alternative: ou bien elle peut traiter comme nulle

cette partie de la réserve qui est contraire au Statut, ou bien elle
peut considérer que toute l'acceptation est entachée de nullité.
(Il existe une troisième possibilité - qu'il suffira de mentionner
pour l'écarter -, à savoir, que cette partie de la réserve annule
non pas toute l'acceptation, mais seulement la réserve. Cela vou-
drait dire que toute la réserve des affaires de compétence nationale

50would be treated as invalid while the Declaration of Acceptance as
such would be treated as fully in force.)

As stated, the first possibility is that the particular condition
attached to the reservation-namely, the words "as understood
by the French GovernmentH-should be treated as non-existent
and ignored while the remainder of the reservation and of the
Acceptance as a whole be treated as fully valid and subsistent.
Legal practice and doctrine within the State are familiar with
situations in which a contract or any other legal instrument contains
a clause which the law treats as invalid or unenforceable without
necessarily bringing about the nullity of the contract or instrument
as a whole. In those cases the provision in question is severed-
is treated separately-from the rest of the text. This is not always
possible. Much depends on whether that provision is an essential
part of the instrument in question. In the international sphere the
problem of severance of provisions of treaties and other inter-
national instruments has been frequently discussed by writers
and occasionally in judicial decisions-in particular in connection

with the question of termination of treaties on the ground of non-
performance by one of the parties or as the result of war or some
other change of circumstances. Early writers considered that every
single provision of a treaty is indissolubly linked with the fate of
the entire instrument which, in their view, lapses as the result of
the frustration or non-fulfilment of any particular provision,
however unimportant and non-essential. This is not the modern
view. Neither is it the view which has secured the adherence of
modern governmental and judicial practice, including that of the
Permanent Court of International Justice. The latter on a number
of occasions declined to treat individual provisions of a treaty as
being indissolubly connected and interdependent. (See,for instance,
Free Zones case, Series A/B, No. 46, p. 140, in which the Court
treated Article 435 of the Treaty of Versailles as a "complete whole"
independent of the rest of the Treaty; and the Advisory Opinions
relating to the competence ofthe International Labour Organisation,

Series B, No. 2,pp. 23,24, and Series B, No. 13,p. 18,with regard to
the independent position of Part XII1 of the Treaty.) In a different
sphere, the Opinion of this Court in the case of the Reservationsto
the GenocideConventionshows that there may be reasonable limits
to the notion of the indivisibility of a treaty and that some of its
provisions may not be of a nature essential tothe treaty as a whole.

International practice on the subject is not sufficientlyabundant
to permit a confident attempt at generalization and some help
may justifiably be sought in applicable general principles of law
as developed in municipal law. That general principle of law is that
it is legitimate-and perhaps obligatory-to sever an invalid
condition from the rest of the instrument and to treat the latter as
valid provided that having regard to the intention of the parties

51 serait traitée comme nulle, alors que la déclaration d'acceptation,
comme telle, serait traitée comme pleinement valable.)
La première possibilité est, je viens de le dire, que la condition
particulière attachée à la réserve - à savoir les mots ((telle qu'elle
est entendue par le Gouvernement de la République française )-

doit être traitéecomme inexistante et ignorée, tandis que le reste
de la réserve et de l'acceptation dans son ensemble doivent être
traités comme pleinement valables et maintenus. La pratique et la
doctrine juridiques internes sont familières avec des situations dans
lesquelles un contrat ou tout autre acte juridique contient une
clause que le droit tient pour nulle ou non exécutoire, sans néces-
sairement entraîner la nullité du contrat ou de l'acte tout entier.
Dans ces cas,la disposition en question est retranchée - est traitée

séparément - du reste du texte. Ce n'est pas toujours possible.
Tout dépend de savoir si la disposition est un élément essentielde
l'acte en auestion. Dans le domaine international. le , Lroblème de
la séparation des dispositions des traités et autres actes interna-
tionaux a étésouvent discuté par les auteurs et parfois dans les
décisions judiciaires - en particulier à propos de la question de la
dénonciation des traités, à cause de l'inexécution par l'une des
parties ou à cause du fait de guerre ou de changements dans les

circonstances. Les premiers auteurs ont estimé que chaque disposi-
tion d'un traité est indissolublement liée au sort de l'acte tout entier
qui, à leur avis, s'effondreàla suite de l'échecou du non-accomplis-
sement d'une disposition particulière, si peu importante ou non-
essentielle qu'elle soit. Telle n'est pas l'opinion moderne. Ce n'est
pas non plus celle qui a rallié l'adhésion de la pratique gouverne-
mentale et judiciaire modernes, y compris celle de la Cour perma-
nente de Justice internationale. Cette dernière, à plusieurs reprises,

s'est refusée àtraiter les dispositions particulières d'un traité comme
étant indissolublement liées et interdépendantes (voir par exemple
l'affaire desZones !ranches, Série A/B, no 46, p. 140, où la Cour a
traité l'article 435 du Traité de Versailles comme (un tout 1)indé-
pendant du reste du traité, et les avis consultatifs sur la compé-
tence de l'organisation internationale du Travail, Série B, no 2,
pp. 23-24>et Serie B, no 13, p. 18, sur l'indépendance de la partie
XII1 du traité). Dans un autre domaine, l'avis de la Cour en
l'affaire des Réserves i la Convention sur le Génocidemontre qu'il

peut ~7 avoir des limites raisonnables à la notion de l'indivisibilité
d'un traité et que certaines de ces dispositions peuvent n'être pas
d'un caractère essentiel au traité dans son ensemble.
La pratique internationale en la matière n'est pas assez abon-
dante pour permettre d'essayer avec confiance une généralisation,
et on est fondé à rechercher l'aide des principes généraux dudroit
élaborésen droit interne. Ce principe général dedroit est qu'il est
légitime - et peut-être obligatoire - de séparer une condition

nulle du reste de l'acte et de traiter ce dernier comme valable pourvu
que, eu égard à l'intention des Parties et à la nature de l'acte,andthe nature of the instrument the condition in question does not
constitute an essential part of the instrument. Utile nom debetper
inutile üitiari. The same applies also to provisions and reservations

relating to the jurisdiction of the Court. It would be consistent
with the previous practice of the Court that it should, if only
possible, uphold its jurisdiction when such a course is compatible
with the intention of the parties and that it should not allow its
jurisdiction to be defeated as the result of remediable defects of
expression which are not of an essential character. If that principle
were applied to the case now before the Court this would mean that,
while the French acceptance as a whole would remain valid, the
limitation expressed in the words "as understood by the Govern-
ment of the French Republic" would be treated as invalid and non-
existent with the further result that Norway could not rely on it.
The outcome of the interpretation thus adopted would be somewhat
startling inasmuch as it would, in the present case, favour the very
State vi-hichoriginally made that reservation and defeat the objec-
tion of the defendant State-an aspect of the question commented
upon in another part of this Opinion. That fact need not necessarily
be a decisivereason against the adoption of any such interpretation.

However, 1consider that it is not open tothe Court in the present
case to sever the invalid condition from the Acceptance as a whole.

For the principle of severance applies only to provisions and
conditions which are not of the essence of the undertaking. Now
an examination of the history of this particular form of the reser-
vation of national jurisdiction shows that the unilateral right of
determining whether the dispute is essentially within domestic
jurisdiction has been regarded by the declaring State as one of the
cruciallimitations-perhaps the crucial limitation-of the obligation
undertaken by the acceptance of the Optional Clause of Article 36
of the Statute. As is well known, that particular limitation is,
substantially, a repetition of the formula adopted, after consider-
able discussion, by the Senate of the United States of America
in giving its consent and advice to the acceptance, in 1946, of the
O~tional Clause bv that countrv. That instrument is not before
tee Court and it Gould not be &oper for me to comment upon it
except to the extent of noting that the reservation in question was
included therein having regard to the decisive importance attached
to it and notwithstanding the doubts, expressed in various quarters,
as to its consistency with the Statute. It will also be noted that some
governments, such as those of India and the Lnion of South Africa,
have attributed so much importance to that particular formulation
of the reservation that they cancelled their previous acceptance of

the Optional Clause in order to insert, in a substituted Declaration
of -4cceptance, a clause reserring for themselves the right of uni-
iateral determination. To ignore that clause and to maintain thela condition en question n'en constitue pas un élément essentiel.
Utile no~z debet fier inutile vitiari.Le même principe s'applique
également aux dispositions et réserves relatives à la compétence de

la Cour. Il serait compatible avec la pratique antérieure de la Cour
qu'elle maintienne, si cela est seulement possible, sa compétence
lorsque cette manière de procéder est compatible avec l'intention
des parties, et qu'elle ne laisse pas faire échecà sa compétence par
l'effet de défauts d'expression susceptibles d'êtrecorrigés et qui
n'ont pas un caractère essentiel. Si l'on appliquait ce principe en
l'espèce soumise à la Cour, cela signifierait que, tandis que l'accep-
tation française dans son ensemble resterait valable, la limitation
exprimée par la phrase ((telle qu'elle est entendue par le Gouverne-
ment de la République française »serait traitée comme nulle et non
avenue, avec pour conséquence que la Korvège ne pourrait l'invo-
quer.Le résultat de l'interprétation ainsi adoptée serait quelque-peu
surprenant en tant que, dans le cas présent, elle favoriserait 1'Etat

mêmequi a primitivement fait la réserve et ferait échecà l'excep-
tion de l'État défendeur - aspect de la question dont il est com-
menté ailleurs dans la présente opinion. Ce fait n'est pas nécessaire-
ment une raison décisive contre l'adoption d'une telle interpré-
tation.
Je considère cependant qu'il n'est pas permis à la Cour, dans le
cas actuel, de séparer la condition nulle de l'acceptation dans son
ensemble. Car le principe de séparation s'applique uniquement aux
dispositions et conditions qui ne sont pas de l'essence de l'engage-
ment. Or l'examen del'histoire de cette formeparticulière deréserve
de la juridiction nationale montre que le droit de décider unilaté-
ralement si le différend relève essentiellement de la compétence

nationale a étéconsidérépar le pays déclarant comme l'une des
limitations essentielles - peut-être la limitation essentielle - de
l'engagement contracté par l'acceptation de la disposition facul-
tative de l'article 36 du Statut. Comme on le sait, cette limite
particulière est au fond une répétitionde la formule adoptée après
de longues discussions par le Sénat des Etats-Cnis d'Amérique
quand il a donné son consentement et son avis à l'acceptation en
1946 par ce pays de la disposition facultative. La Cour n'étant pas
saisie de cet instrument, je ne puis le commenter, si ce n'est pour
noter que la réserveen question a étéinclue eu égard àl'importance
décisive qu'on y a attaché, et nonobstant les doutes exprimés de
divers côtéssur sa compatibilité avec le Statut. On notera également
que certains gouvernements, comme ceux de l'Inde et de l'Union

sud-africaine, ont attribué tant d'importance à cette forme parti-
culière de la réserve qu'ils ont annulé leur acceptation antérieure
de la disposition facultative pour insérer, dans une nouvelle décla-
ration d'acceptation, une clause leur réservant le droit de décision
unilatérale. Ignorer cette clause et maintenir la force obligatoire
de la déclaration dans son ensemble serait ignorer une conditionbinding force of the Declaration as a whole would be to ignore an
essential and deliberate condition of the Acceptance.
From the point of view of the Government concerned there were

weighty reasons why, anxious to frame its acceptance of the Optional
Clause and its reservations thereto in such a manner as to preserve
full freedom of national decision in the matter of submission of
future disputes to the Court, it attached importance to formulating
this particular reservation. In a significant passage, cited in para-
graph 25 of the Preliminary Objections of Korway, the Rapporteur
of the Committee for Foreign Affairs of the French Chamber said
in relation to the reservation in question :"The French sovereingty
is not put in issue and its rights are safeguarded in al1spheres and
in al1 circumstances." In fact, as is suggested in another part of
this Opinion, there are only few disputes which cannot, without
giving rise to an irrefutable imputation of bad faith, be brought
within the orbit of the assertion that they pertain to a matter
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of the State concerned.
Similarlÿ, as already stated, there is but little substance in the
view that the freedom of determination by the State interested is

effectively limited for the reason that it must be exercised in
good faith and that the Court is the judge whether it has been so
exercised. The Court is therefore confronted with the decisive fact
that the Government in question was not prepared to subscribe
or to renew its cornmitment of compulsory judicial settlement unless
it safeguarded in that particular way its freedom of action. That
particular formulation of the reservation is an essential condition
of the Acceptance as a whole. It is not severable from it. The
~hrase "as understood bv the Government of the French Re~ublic"
hust be regarded as bekg of the very essence of the undLrtaking
in question. It is not a collateral condition which can be separated,
ignored and left on one side while al1 others are given effect. The
Acceptance stands and falls with that particular reservation and
that particular formulation of the reservation. Without these
words the Government which made that reservation would not have
been willing to accept the commitments of the compulsory juris-

diction of this Court.
The Court cannot properly uphold the validity of the Acceptance
as a whole and at the same time treat as non-existent any such
far-reaching, articulate and deliberate limitation of its jurisdiction.
To do so would run counter to the establishedpractice of the Court-
which, in turn, is in accordance with a fundamental principle of
international judicial settlement-that the Court will not uphold its
jurisdiction unless the intention to confer it has been proved
bevond reasonable doubt. The Court certainlv cannot assume
juhsdiction if there is a clearly expressed inteniion to deny it in
specified circumstances. This means that it would not be possible
for the Court to disregard that part of the reservation in question
which claims for the State concerned the right to determine itsessentielle et délibérée de l'acceptation.

Au point de vue du Gouvernement intéressé, il y avait des raisons
graves pour attacher importance à l'énoncéde cette réserve parti-
culière, étant donnéle désir de libeller son acceptation de la dispo-
sition facultative et ses réserves s'y rapportant de manière à pré-
server l'entière liberté de décision nationale en matière de sou-
mission à la Cour des différends à venir. Dans un passage signifi-
catif cité au paragraphe zj des Exceptions Préliminiaires de la
Sorvège, le rapporteur de la Commission des Affaires étrangères de
l'Assemblée nationale a dit, à propos de la réserve en question:
((La souveraineté française n'est pas mise en cause et tous ses droits

sont sauvegardés dans tous les domaines et pour toutes les circons-
tances. IIEn fait, comme je l'ai suggérédans une autre partie de
cette opinion, il est peu de différends qui ne puissent, sans donner
lieu à une imputation irréfutable de mauvaise foi, être ramenés
dans le domaine de l'affirmation qu'ils touchent à une affaire qui
relève essentiellement de la compétencenationale de 1'Etat intéressé.
De même, comme je l'ai déjà signalé, il n'y a pas grande force
persuasive dans l'opinion d'après laquelle la libre décisionde 1'Etat
intéressé est effectivement limitée pour la raison qu'elle doit
s'exercer de bonne foi, et que la Cour en est juge. La Cour est donc
en face du fait décisif que le Gouvernement en question n'était

pas préparé à souscrire ou à renouveler son engagement de règle-
ment judiciaire obligatoire, à moins de sauvegarder sa liberté
d'action par ce moyen particulier. L'énoncéparticulier de la réserve
est une condition essentielle de l'acceptation clans son ensemble.
Il ne peut en êtreséparé.La phrase (1telle qu'elle est entendue par
le Gom-ernement de la République française 1doit êtreconsidérée
comme de l'essence mêmede l'engagement en question. Ce n'est pas
une condition subsidiaire qu'on peut séparer, ignorer et laisser de
côté, alors que toutes les autres reçoivent effet. L'acceptation sub-
siste ou tombe avec cette réserve particulière et avec cet énoncé

particulier de la réserve. Sans ces mots, le Gouvernement qui a fait
cette réserve n'eût pas étédisposé à accepter les engagements de
la compétence obligatoire de la Cour.
La Cour ne peut normalement soutenir la validité de l'accep-
tation dans son ensemble et, en mêmetemps, traiter comme non
avenue une limitation d'une aussi large portée, énoncée entermes
aussi précis et explicites. Ce serait contraire à la pratique établie
de la Cour qui est, de son côté, conforme au principe fondamental
du règlement judiciaire international qui veut que la Cour ne se
déclarepas compétente àmoins quel'intention delui conférercompé-
tence n'ait étéétablie sans aucun doute raisonnable. La Cour ne

peut certainement pas accepter compétence s'il existe une intention
clairement exprimée de la lui refuser dans des circonstances déter-
minées. Cela signifie qu'elle ne pourrait négliger cette partie de la
réserve en question qui réclame pour 1'Etat intéressé le droit
53application. It is not possible for the Court to do otherwise than
to regard this particular part of the reservation, so specifically
forrnulated, as constituting an essential and not severable part
of the instrument of acceptance. It might perhaps be possible-

1 express no view on the subject-to disregard and to treat as
invalid some other reservation which is contrary to the Statute
and thus to maintain the Acceptance as a whole. This is not possible
with regard to a reservation directly referring to and excluding the
jurisdiction of the Court. On the other hand, as 1 pointed out, it is
not possible for the Court to act affirmatively upon that part of the
reservation seeing that it is contrary to the Statute. It is thus not
possible for the Court, while upholding the validity of the Accept-
ance, either to act upon that part of the reservation or to ignore it.
The inescapable solution of the dilemma is to treat the entire
Acceptance as invalid.

This being so, my conclusion on this aspect of the question is
that the reservation of national jurisdiction as qualified by the
French Government is an essential part of its acceptance of the
obligations of the Optional Clause; that it cannot be severed from
the Acceptance as a whole ; that as it is contrary to the Statute

of the Court and as it deprives the Acceptance of the requisite
element of legal obligation it must be held to be invalid and to
invalidate the Acceptance as a whole; and that, there being no
valid Acceptance, there is no instrument upon which France can
rely and which, in the absence of agreement of Nortvay to submit
to the jurisdiction of the Court apart from the Optional Clause,
can provide a basis for the jurisdiction of the Court.

It is necessary in this connection to refer to the Judgment of
the Court in the case concerning Rights of Nationals of the United

States of America in fWorocco.In that case, brought before it by an
application based on Article 36 (2)ofthe Statute, the Court exercised
jurisdiction although the Acceptances both of the applicant and the
defendant State contained the "automatic reservation". To what
extent is the Court now bound by the fact that it assumed juris-
diction in that case? Lpon investigation that case proves irrelevant
for the present issue.
In the first instance, in the case of the Rights of Nationals of
the United States in Moroccothe jurisdiction of the Court was not
challenged by the defendant State; the latter did not invoke the
"automatic reservation". There was, therefore, no direct occasion
for the Court to embark upon an examination of the validity of that
reservation and of the Acceptance as a ~t-hole.

54de fixer son application. Il est impossible que la Cour fasse autre-
ment que de regarder cet élémentparticulier de la réserve formulée

si expressément comme constituant un élément essentiel non
séparable de l'instrument d'acceptation. Il serait peut-être possible
- et je n'exprime aucune opinion sur la question - de négligeret
de traiter comme nulle une autre réserve contraire au Statut et,
par ce moyen, de maintenir l'acceptation dans son ensemble. Cela
n'est pas possible au regard de la réserve qui vise directement la
compétence de la Cour pour l'écarter. En revanche, comme je l'ai
signalé, il n'est pas possible à la Cour d'exercer ses fonctions sur
la base de cette partie de la réserve,attendu qu'elle est contraire au
Statut. Il n'est donc pas possible à la Cour, tout en maintenant la
validité de l'acceptation, soit d'exercer ses fonctions sur la base

de cette partie de la réserve, soit de l'ignorerLa solution inévitable
du dilemme est de traiter toute l'acceptation comme nulle.

Ceci étant, ma conclusion sur cet aspect de la question est que
la réserve de compétence nationale, telle qu'elle a étéqualifiée
par le Gouvernement français, est un élément essentiel de son
acceptation des obligations résultant de la clause facultative;,
qu'elle ne peut êtreséparée de l'acceptation dans son ensemble;
que, étant contraire au Statut de la Cour, et privant l'acceptation
de l'élément nécessaire du caractère juridiquement obligatoire,
elle doit être tenue pour nulle et annulant l'acceptation tout
entière; et que, faute d'acceptation valable, il n'existe pas d'ins-

trument que la France puisse invoquer et qui, en l'absence d'un
accord de la Norvège de se soumettre à la compétence de la Cour
en dehors de la disposition facultative, fournisse une base à la
compétence de la Cour.

Il faut à cet égard se référerà l'arrêtde la Cour dans l'affaire
des Droits des ressortissants des Etats-Unis d'Amériqueau Maroc.
Dans cette affaire, qui lui avait été soumise par voie de requête

fondée sur l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut, la Cour a exercé
sa compétence bien que les acceptations de 1'Etat demandeur et
de 1'Etat défendeur fussent accompagnées de la «réserve auto-
matique )).Dans quelle mesure la Cour est-elle liée par le fait
qu'elle a accepté compétence en cette affaire? A l'examen, cette
affaire se révèlesans pertinence dans le présent litige.
En premier lieu, dans l'affaire des Droits des ressortissants des
États-unis d'Amériqy azhMaroc, la compétence de la Cour n'était
pas contestée par 1'Etat défendeur. Ce dernier n'a pas invoqué
la créserve automatique ». Il n'y avait donc aucune occasion
directe pour la Cour d'entreprendre l'examen de cette réserve et

de l'acceptation tout entière. Secondly, although in that case France relied in her Application
upon the Optional Clause of Article 36 (2)of the Statute, the juris-
diction of the Court was in fact exercised not on the basis of the
Optional Clause but on the principle of forz~mprorogatz~m,i.e. on
what was actually a voluntary submission independent of the source
of jurisdiction originally invoked by the applicant party. The

Government of the Cnited States agreed to the jurisdiction of the
Court without admitting that the Court was competent on the
basis of the Optional Clause. The relevant passage of the Counter-
Memorial of the Cnited States was as follows: "The United States
Government does not raise any jurisdictional issue in the proceeding,
even though it does not concur in the allegations with respect to the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court which have been presented
by the French Government, it being its understanding that its
abstaining from raising the issue does not affect its legal right to
rely in anyfuture case on its reservations contained in its acceptance
of the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court." (CaseconcerningRigizts
of Nationals O/the United States oj =Imerica inMorocco: Pleadings,
Oral Arguments, Documents, vol. i, p. 262.) This statement is of
significance seeing that in the course of the written proceedings
the Government of the 'Cnited States of America withdren- its
Preliminary Objection n-hich it had raised on account of the insuf-

ficient clarification of the identityof the Parties. That Objection
was withdrawn as soon as it became clear that both France and
Morocco would be bound by the Judgment of the Court (ibid.,
vol. ii, pp. 424-434) It is thus clear that in that case the Court
exercised jurisdiction not only because-unlike in the present case-
the defendant Party agreed to it but also because it agreed to it
on the basis other than the Declaration of Acceptance. The dispute
now before the Court is the first case-an entirely novel case-in
which a Party has claimed the right, denied to it by Article 36 (6)
of the Statute, to substitute itself for the Court in the matter of a
decision as to its jurisdiction. This being so, 1 need not discuss the
question asto the extent to which the Court would be bound by the
precedent of the case of the United States Nationals ilz Morocco,
if that case were relevant to the issue now before the Court.

It is essential to examine the view that it is not open to the
Court to treat the French Acceptance as invalid seeing that Norway
has not put forward any such assertion and that by relying, in
view of the principle of reciprocity, on the French reservation she
implicitly recognized the validity of the French Acceptance. 1 am
unable to agree with that view. It would be open to Norway, by
consenting to the jurisdiction of the Court irrespective of the
French Acceptance, to confer competence upon the Court by way

55 En second lieu, bien que la France ait, dans sa demande, invoqué

la disposition facultative de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut,
la compétence de la Cour s'est exercée, en fait, non sur la base
de la disposition facultative mais sur le principe du forum proro-
gatum, c'est-à-dire de ce qui était, en fait, une soumission volontaire
indépendante de la source de compétence primitivement invoquée
par le demandeur. Le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis a reconnu la
compétence de la Cour, sans admettre qu'elle fût compétente sur
la base de la diçposition facultative. Le passage relevant du Contre-

mémoire des, Etats-Unis s'exprime en ces termes: « Le Gouver-
nement des Etats-Unis ne soulève aucune question de compétence
en l'affaire, bien qu'il ne soit pas d'accord avec les allégations
concernant la compétence obligatoire de la Cour qui ont été
rés entées Dar le Gouvernement francais.3é,ant entendu aue son
ibstention ie soulever la question n'affecte pas son droit j;ridique
d'invoquer, en un litige à venir, les réserves contenues dans son
acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour. » (Affaire

concernant les Droits des ressortissants des États-Unis d'Amérique
au Maroc: Mémoires, Plaidoiries et Documents, vol. i, p. 262.)
Cet énoncéest d'une signification particulière, étant donné qu'au
cours de la procédure écrite le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis
d'Amérique a retiré l'exception préliminaire qu'il avait soulevée
en raison de l'imprécision del'identité des Parties. Il a retiré cette
exception dès qu'il a étépréciséque la France et le Maroc seraient
liés l'un et l'autre par l'arrêt de la Cour (ibid., vol. ii, pp. 424-434).

Il est donc clair que, dans cette affaire, la Cour a exercésa compé-
tence non seulement parce que - à la différencedu cas actuel -
le défendeur l'a acce~tII. mais encore Darce au'il l'a acce~tée sur
une autre base que la déclaration $acceptation. Le différend
actuellement soumis à la Cour est la première affaire - une affaire
entièrement nouvelle - dans laquelle une partie ait revendiqué
le droit qui lui est refusépar l'article 36, paragraphe 6, du Statut,
de se substituer à la Cour à propos d'une décisionsur sa compétence.

Ceci étant, je n'ai pas besoin de discuter la question de la mesure
dans laquelle la Cour serait liée par le précédentde l'affaire des
Ressortissants des Etats-Unis az.1Maroc, si ce précédentétait per-
tinent au regard des questions actuellement soumises à la Cour.

Il est essentiel d'examiner l'opinion d'après laquelle la Cour ne

peut traiter la réserve française comme nulle, étant donné que la
Sorvège n'a pas avancé une telle prétention et qu'en se prévalant
de la réservefrançaise, en vertu du principe de la réciprocité,elle a
implicitement reconnu la validité de l'acceptation française. Je ne
puis pas souscrire à cette opinion. La Norvège aurait la faculté, en
reconnaissant la juridiction de la Cour indépendamment de l'accep-
tation française, de conférer compétenceà la Cour par le moyen du61 NORWEGIAN LOASS (SEP.OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)

of forzcmprorogatzcm. However, Xorway has not submitted to the
jurisdiction of the Court in any way. She has challenged it on
various grounds. This being so, the fact that she has not raised
the particular issue of the validity of the French Acceptance as a
whole cannot endow with validity an instrument otherwise invalid.
Even if Norway had agreed to the jurisdiction of the Court, it

would not have followed that the Court could have exercised it on
the basis of the French Declaration of Acceptance. The defendant
State cannot, by refraining from raising objections, grant dispen-
sation from invalidity. No one can do it-including, perhaps, the
Court itself. The Court must have before it as a basis of its juris-
diction a valid text. It must ascertain the existence of that text.
In the past it has, when occasion arose, raised the question of its
jurisdiction propriomotz~ (see e.g. the case of theAdministration of
thePrincevon Pless, SeriesA/B, No. 52,p. I5).It isopen to the Court,
for that purpose, to ascertain the views of the parties on the subject
by availing itself of the useful provision ofits Rules which enable it to
address questions to the parties at any stage of the oral proceedings.
As stated, the invalidity is inherent in the Declaration ofAccept-
ance formulated in that way. It is not the case that the Declaration
isvalid until an occasion arises in which that particular reservation is

relied upon by one party and challenged by the other with the
result that its inconsistency with the Statute is thus brought to
light. The Declaration is invalidabinitio. Bnef reflection shows the
irrelevance of the fact that neither party has challenged the validity
of the Declaration and that the Court must therefore act upon it.
For, clearly, the State which has formulated the "automatic
reservation" is not likely, or entitled, to question it. The respondent
State which relies upon it-by virtue of reciprocity (as Norway
has done in the present case)-is not interested in challenging
its validity. It finds it an effective, though possibly somewhat
embarrassing, weapon of defence-in some cases the only effective
means of defence unless it decides to steer the uricertain course
of invoking simultaneously and by way of alternative submissions
both the invalidity of the reservation and the reservation itself.
For these reasons no importance can reasonably be attached to
the fact that the validity of the "automatic reservation" has not

been challenged by either party. Seeing that one party is respons-
ible for its inclusion in its Declaration of Acceptance and that the
other Party finds it necessary or imperative to rely on it, 1 can
see but little force in the argument pointing to the fact that the
validity of that reservation has not been put in issueby either party.

Reference must be made in this connection to the argument
pointing to the existence of certain treaties of obligatory arbitration

56 forum prorogaturn. Or la Norvègen'a enaucunefaçonreconnu la com-
pétence de la Cour. Elle l'a contestée pour plusieursmotifs. Dans ces
conditions, le fait qu'elle n'a pas soulevé la question mêmede la
validité de l'acceptation française dans son ensemble ne saurait

rendre valable un acte qui par ailleurs ne l'est pas. Mêmesi la
Norvège avait reconnu la compétence de la Cour, il ne s'en serait
pas suivi que la Cour aurait exercé sa compétence sur la base de la
déclaration française d'acceptation. L'Etat défendeur ne saurait, en
s'abstenant de formuler des exceptions, accorder une dispense
d'invalidité. Personne - pas mêmepeut-être la Cour - ne saurait
le faire. La Cour doit disposer d'un texte valable pour fonder sa
compétence. Elle doit vérifier l'existence de ce texte. Dans le passé,
lorsque l'occasion s'est présentée,elle a soulevéde son propre chef
la question de compétence(voir, par exemple,l'affaire de l'ddminis-

tration. du prince dePdess, SérieA/B, no 52, p. 15) L.a Cour a,à cette
fin, la faculté de s'assurer de l'opinion des parties sur le sujet, en
faisant appel àl'utile disposition de son Règlement qui lui permet de
poser desquestions aux parties à tout moment de la procédure orale.
Ainsi que je l'ai dit, la nullité est inhérente à la déclaration
d'acceptation formulée de cette manière. Il n'est pas en fait que la
déclaration est valable jusqu'à ce qu'une occasion se présente où la
réserve en question est invoquée par l'une des parties et contestée
par l'autre, ce qui révèleson incompatibilité avec le Statut. La
déclaration est nulle ab initio. Un instant de réflexionmontre que

le fait que ni l'une ni l'autre des parties n'a contesté la validité de
la déclaration et que la Cour doit par conséquent ,se fonder sur elle,
est dénué de pertinence. Il est clair en effet que 1'Etat qui a formulé
la (réserveautomatique 1n:est pas susceptible, ou n'a pas le droit,
de la mettre en question. L'Etat qui s'en prévaut - en faisant jouer
la réciprocité (ainsi que l'a fait la Norvège en l'espèce) - n'a pas
intérêt àcontester sa validité. Elle y voit une arme défensiveefficace,
quoique peut-êtreassez embarrassante - voiremême,dans certains
cas, son seul moyen de défense efficace, à moins qu'elle ne décide
de suivre le chemin incertain consistant à invoquer simultanément
et par voie de conclusion alternative à la fois l'invalidité de la

réserve et la réserve elle-même. C'est pourquoi on ne saurait
raisonnablement attribuer d'importance au fait que la validité de
1- réserve automatique ))n'a pas été contestée par les Parties.
Etant donnéque l'une des Parties est responsable de son introduc-
tion dans sa déclaration d'acceptation et que l'autre Partie estime
nécessaireou impératif de se fonder sur elle, je trouve peu convain-
cant l'argument fondé sur le fait que la validité de cette réserve
n'a pas étémise en question par les deux Parties.

Il faut se référer à ce propos à l'argument qui signale l'exis-
tence de certains traités d'arbitrage obligatoire conclus dans le

,Gconcluded in the past which, expressly or by implication, conferred
upon the signatories the right to determine the arbitrability of a
particular dispute. The arbitration treaties which were concluded
before the First World War and which contained the then customary
reservations of national honour and independence were generally
regarded as recognizing by implication such right of unilateral
determination. In some cases that right was expressly reserved.

That argument is, in any case, irrelevant seeing that those treaties
were not subject to the limitation of Article 36 (6) of the Statute
of the Court. Were they valid from the point of view of the question
whether they contained effective legal obligations? The question is,
once more, of an academic character seeing that these treaties were
not concluded within the framework of any organic statute of a
tribunal possessing jurisdiction to determine their validity. They
were devoid of an element of effective legal obligation. They pro-
vided a basis for a compromis if the parties so wished. They were
never applied against the will of the defendant State. While it may
thus be pedantic to enquire into the legal validity of the treaties in
question in circumstances wholly different from the problem now
before the Court, their practical insignificance does not seem to be
open to doubt. With isolated exceptions, they were concluded at a
time when a system of obligatory arbitration existed in name only.

Above all, treaties of obligatory judicial settlement providing for
the right of unilateral determination of the jurisdiction of the
tribunal virtually disappeared after the First World War following
upon the establishment of the Permanent Court of International
Justice. In practically ail-and certainly the principal-treaties of
arbitration and judicial settlement concluded after the First \Vorld
War the right to determine the disputed jurisdiction of the tribunal
was conferred upon the tribunal itself (as, e.g., in the Swiss-German
Treaty of 3 December, 1921, ,4rticle 4; or in the various Locarno
Arbitration Treaties of 16 October, 1925-e.g., Article 16 of
the Treaty between Germany and Poland). The important multi-
lateral treaties of obligatory judicial settlement concluded after the
First and Second World Wars include specific provisions to that
effect-as does, for instance, Article 41 of the General Act for the

Pacific Settlement of International Disputes of 26 September 1928
and the Pact of Bogotk of 30April1948. Article Vofthe latter treaty
provides as follows: "The aforesaid procedures may not be applied
to matters v-fiich, by their nature, are within the domestic juris-
diction of the State. If the parties are not in agreement as to whether
the controversy concems a matter of domestic jurisdiction, this
preliminary question shall be submitted to decision by the Inter-
national Court of Justice, at the request of any of the parties."
Article 38 of the most recent multilateral treat- of obligatory
judicial settlement-the European Convention of 29 April 1957 for
the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes-is to the same effect. An
examination of over two hundred treaties in the volume publishedpassé et conférant aux signataires le droit explicite ou implicite de
déterminer l'arbitrabilité d'un différend donné. Les traités d'arbi-
trage conclus avant la première guerre mondiale et contenant des
réserves alors habituelles relatives à l'indépendance et à l'honneur
nationaux ont étéen généralconsidérés commereconnaissant impli-
citement pareil droit de décision unilatérale. Dans certains cas,
ce droit était expressément réservé. Cet argument est en tout cas
dénuéde pertinence vu que ces traités n'étaient pas soumis à la
ljmitation de l'article 36, paragraphe 6, du Statut de la Cour.
Etaient-ils valables du point de vue de savoir s'ils contenaient des

obligations juridiques effectives7Là encore la question est théorique,
~uisaue ces traités n'étaient Das conclus dans le cadre du
kat& organique d'un tribunal Compétent pour décider de leur
validité. Ils étaient dépourvus d'élément d'obtigation juridique
effective. Ils établissaient une base de compromis pour le cas où
les parties le désireraient.Ils n'avaient jamais étéappliqués contre
la volonté de 1'Etat défendeur. Si ce peut êtredu pédantisme que
d'examiner la validité juridique de ces traitésdans des circonstances
entièrement différentes de celles de la présente espèce, leur insigni-
fiance pratique semble hors de,doute. Sauf exceptions isolées, ils
ont étéconclus à une époque où l'existence d'un système d'arbitrage

obligatoire n'existait que de nom.
Par-dessus tout, les traités de règlement judiciaire obligatoire
prévoyant un droit de décision unilatérale quant à la compétence
du tribunal ont virtuellement disparu après la première guerre
mondiale à la suite de l'institution de la Cour permanente de
Justice internationale. Dans pratiquement tous les traités d'arbi-
trage et de règlement judiciaire conclus après la première guerre
mondiale - et en tout cas dans les principaux d'entre eux - le
droit de décider de la compétence du tribunal lorsqu'elle était
contestée était conféréau tribunal même (voir par exemple le

traité germano-suisse du 3 décembre 1921, article 4, ou les diffé-
rents traités d'arbitrage de Locarno du 16 octobre 1925 - par
exemple l'article 16 du traité germano-polonais). Les importants
traités multilatéraux de juridiction obligatoire conclus après la
première et la seconde guerres mondiales contiennent des dispo-
sitions expresses à cet effet- telles, par exemple, l'article 41 de
l'Acte généralpour le règlement pacifique des différends interna-
tionaux du 26 septembre 1928 et le pacte de Bogotk du 30 avril
1948. L'article V de ce dernier traité énoncece qui suit: ((Lesdites
procédures ne pourront s'appliquer aux questions qui, par leur

nature, relèvent de la compétence nationale des Etats. Si les
parties ne tombent pas d'accord sur le fait que le différend est une
question relevant de la compétence nationale, sur la demande de
l'une quelconque d'entre elles, cette question préjudicielle sera
soumise au jugement de la Cour internationale de Justice. »
L'article 38 du traité multilatéral le plus récent de règlement
judiciaire obligatoire- la Convention européenne du 29 avril 1957in 1949 by the United Nations and entitled "Systematic Survey of
Treaties for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes,
1928-1948", reveals that only a very small number of treaties-
perhaps not more than six-contain a reservation of the right of
unilateral determination. The express acknowledgment of the
power of the Court to determine its jurisdiction in cases in which
that jurisdiction is disputed has thus become, even apart from the
Statute of the Court, a uniform feature of the practice of States.
The "automatic reservation", should it continue to be applied
by the Court directly or indirectly, will arrest or reverse that trend
which is an essential condition of any true system of obligatory
judicial settlement.

1 must now consider some of the implications of a decision of the
Court holding that a Declaration of Acceptance which includes the
"automatic reservation" is invalid. Any such decision has a bearing
upon Declarations, similarly formulated, of a number of other
States. These now include the Cnited States of America, Mexico,
Pakistan, India, South Africa, Liberia, and, perhaps, to some
limited extent the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland. The latter, in a Declaration made on 18 April, 1957,
excluded from the Acceptance any question "which, in the opinion
of the Government of the United Kingdom, affects the national
security ofthe Vnited Kingdom or of any ofits dependent territories".
1 am conscious of some apprehended consequences of a decision of
the Court holding that the manner in which the Optional Clause has
been accepted bj7 an increasing number of States, traditionally

wedded to the cause of international judicial settlement, has the
effect of rendering their Acceptance invalid. Moreover, that form of
accepting the jurisdiction of the Court has not been confined to the
Optional Clause. It has been followed, under its influence, in some
other texts purporting to provide for the obligatory jurisdiction
of the Court. (See, e.g., the reservation of the Vnited States of
-4merica to the Pact of Bogota: Year Book of theCoznt, 1947-1948,
p. 144, n. 2.In a series of agreements relating to economic aid and
concluded between the Gnited States of America and some other
States-as, for instance, with China on 3 July 1948-the following
provision occurs: "It is understood that the undertaking of each
Government [providing for the jurisdiction of the Court] ...is
limited by the terms and conditions of such effective recognition
as it has heretofore given to the compulsory jurisdiction oftheInter-
national Court of Justice under Article 36 of the Statute of the
Court": ibid., 1948-1949, pp. 152-1j5.)
The circumstance that a decision of the Court maj7affect Govern-

ments which have had no opportunity to express their view on the
5s E3IPRCSTS SORV. (OP. ISDIV. SIR HERSCH L.ACTERP~~CHT) 63

pour le règlement pacifique des différends - contient une dispo-
sition analogue. En fait, l'étudede plus de deux cents traités repris
dans le volume publié par les Nations Cnies en 1949, sous le titre
((Systematic Survey of Treaties for the Pacific Settlement of Inter-
national Disputes, 1928-1948 )),révèle qu'il n'y a qu'un petit

nombre de traités bilatéraux - peut-être pas plus de six - qui
contiennent la réserve du droit de décision unilatérale. La recon-
naissance expresse du pouvoir de la Cour de décider de sa compé-
tence dans les cas où elle est contestée est donc devenue, mêmeen
dehors du Statut de la Cour, une caractéristique uniforme de la
pratique des Etats. La (réserve automatique »,si elle continue à
êtredirectement ou indirectement confirméepar la Cour, arrêtera

ou renrersera cette tendance qui est une condition essentielle de
tout véritable système de règlement judiciaire ,obligatoire.

Il me faut examiner maintenant certaines implications résultant
d'une décision de la Cour prononçant la nullité d'une déclaration
d'acceptation qui contientune (réserveautomatique ».Cne décision

de ce genre peut affecter les déclarations, conçues dans les mêmes
termes, d'un certain nombre d'autres Etats, parmi lesquels figurent
aujourd'hui les Etats-Cnis d'Amérique, le l\fexique, le Pakistan,
l'Inde, l'Afrique du Sud, le Libéria et, peut-être dans une certaine
mesure, le Royaume-Cni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du
Xord. Ce dernier, par déclaration datée du 18 avril 1957, a exclu
de son acceptation toute question qui, (de l'avis du Royaume-Uni,

touche à la sécuriténationale du Royaume-Uni ou de l'un quel-
conque de ses territoires dépendants )).Je n'ignore pas qu'on
redoute certaines conséquences d'une décisionde la Cour énonçant
que la manière dont la disposition facultative a étéacceptée par
un nombre croissant d'Etats traditionnellement acquis à la cause
du règlement judiciaire international, a pour effet d'annuler leur
acceptation. En outre, ce mode d'acceptation de la juridiction de

la Cour ne s'est pas limité à la disposition facultative. Son influence
se retrouve dans certains autres textes tendant à établir la jun-
diction obligatoire de la Cour. (Voir, par exemple, la réserve des
Etats-Vnis d'Amérique dans le pacte de Bogota, Annuaire de la
Cozlr,1947-1948, p. 137, note j. Dans une séried'accords sur l'aide
+onornique, conclus entre les Etats-LTnis d'Amérique et d'autres
Etats - tel celui du 3 juillet 1948 avec la Chine -, se trouve la

disposition suivante: ((Il est entendu que l'engagement de chaque
Gouvernement [relatif à la juridiction de la Cour] ...est pris ...
dans la limite des termes et conditions de l'acceptation effective
par ce Gouvernement de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour
internationale de Justice en vertu de l'article 36 du Statut de la
Cour »: ibid., 1948-1949, pp. 149-152.)
Le fait qu'une décision de la Cour est susceptible d'affecter les

Gouvernements qui n'ont pas eu la possibilité d'exprimer leur
5s64 KORWEGIrlN LOAXS (SEP. OP. SIR HERSCH LAUTERPACHT)
subject is a cause of concern. It would have been preferable if, in

accordance with Article 63 of the Statute, the Governments which
have made a Declaration in these terms had been given an oppor-
tunity to intervene. Failing that, it is possible for those Govern-
ments to adopt the attitude that, in accordance with Article 59
of the Statute, the authority of the decision of the Court is limited
to the present case and that they are at liberty to assert their
attitude on the matter on another occasion.
In so far as it is within the province of the Court to consider the
purpose of the system of the Optional Clause as provided in Ar-
ticle36 (2) of its Statute, it is bound to attach importance to the fact
that the "automatic reservation" has tended to impair the legal---and
moral-authority and reality of the Optional Clause. Through the
operation of reciprocity the practice of illusory acceptances must

in the end encompass most declaring Governments including, as in
the present case, those which accepted the Optional Clause without
reservations.
It might be said that to look in that way upon a Declaration of
Acceptance thus formulated is to underestimate its moral value
and to disregard the fact that enlightened Governments are not
likely to invoke the reservation in question lightly and abusively.
Yet, to stress the moral value of the Declaration is to go some way
in admitting that it is devoid of legal force. Moreover, there is
little substance in the assumption that Governments exhibit
reluctance to invoke reservations to their acceptance of the jurisdic-
tion ofinternationaltribunals or that any moral impropriety attaches
to reservations being invoked. It is a good legal right of Govern-

ments to do so. It is seldom that a Government cited before the
Court in pursuance of a unilateral application has admitted the
jurisdiction of the Court as following from the instrument invoked
by the applicant State. In the present case, Sorway, which has
accepted the Optional Clause without any reservations, save that
of reciprocity, has not abandoned the right of unilateral deter-
mination which accrues to her bo virtue of the French form of
acceptance.
It is difficult to attach importance to the suggestion that an
Acceptance containing the "automatic reservation" is not wholly
devoid of legal value seeing that it may at least provide a basis for
the acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Court by way of voluntary
submission through the operation of the principle of forz~mprovo-
gatzlm. No such basis is required for that purpose. A unilateral

application altogether unrelated to any previous acceptance of the
jurisdiction of the Court is sufficient for thaturpose provided that
the defendant State is willing to submit to the jurisdiction of the
Court.
If in la\.\- an Acceptance of that nature does not constitute a
text embodying legal obligations then the decision of the Court
in that sense does no more than register a fact; it provides anopinion en la matière est une cause de préoccupations. Il eût été

préférable que, conformémentàl'article 63 du Statut, les Gouverne-
ments qui ont fait une déclaration en ces termes aient eu la possi-
bilité d'intervenir. A défaut, ces Gouvernements pourront adopter
la position que, conformément à l'articl59 du Statut, l'autorité de
la décisionde la Cour se limite à la présente espèce et qu'ils ont la
faculté de faire valoir leur position en la matière lors d'une autre
occasion.
Dans la mesure où la compétence de la Cour lui permet de consi-
dérerle but du système de la disposition facultative prévuepar l'ar-
ticle36, paragraphe 2, de son Statut, elleest tenue d'attacher del'im-

portance au fait que la (réserveautomatique ))a tendance à porter
atteinte à l'autorité juridique - et morale - et àla réalité dela
disposition facultative. Par le jeu de la réciprocité,la pratique d'ac-
ceptations illusoires doit, en fin de compte, s'étendre à la plupart
des Gouvernements déclarants y compris, comme dans la présente
affaire, ceux qui ont acceptéla disposition facultativesans réserve.
On pourrait dire qu'envisager de la sorte une déclaration d'accep-
tation ainsi formulée c'est sous-estimer sa valeur morale et ne pas
tenir compte du fait que des Gouvernements éclairéssont peu
susceptibles d'invoquer la réserve en question à la légèreet de
manière abusive. Cependant, insister sur la valeur morale de la

déclaration, c'est admettre, dans une certaine mesure, qu'elle est
dénuée deforce juridique. Au surplus, on peut difficilement soutenir
que les Gouvernements montrent de la répugnance à invoquer
leurs réserves à l'acceptation de la compétence de tribunaux inter-
nationaux ou qu'il s'attache une impropriété morale quelconque
au fait d'invoquer les réserves. Les Gouvernements ont un droit
juridique valable à le faire. Il est rare qu'un Gouvernement cité
devant la Cour par voie de requête unilatérale ait reconnu la
cornplence de la Cour comme résultant de l'instrument invoqué
par 1'Etat requérant. Dans le cas présent, la Norvège, qui a accepté

la disposition facultative sans aucune réserve, à l'exception de celle
de réciprocité,n'a pas abandonné le droit de décision unilatérale
dont elle bénéficieen vertu de la formule française d'acceptation.
Il est difficile d'attacher de l'importance à la suggestion qu'une
acceptation contenant la ((réserve automatique ))n'est pas entière-
ment dépourvue de valeur juridique, vu qu'elle est en état de
fournir une base à l'acceptation de la compétence de la Cour par
voie de soumission volontaire en vertu du principe du forum flroro-
gatz~m. Cne telle base n'est pas nécessaire à cette fin. Une requête
unilatérale qui n'est aucunement liée à une acceptation antérieure
de la juridiction de la Cour y suffirait, pourvu que l'État défendeur

consente à se soumettre à la compétence de la Cour.

Si, en droit, une acceptation de cette nature ne constitue pas un
texte incorporant des obligations juridiques, alors la décisionde la
Cour en ce sens ne fait rien de plus que de constater un fait; elle
59 opportunity for any Government so minded to put right a faulty
Declaration of Acceptance; and it assists in arresting a tendency
which threatens to disintegrate that minimum of compromise
~vhichis embodied in the Optional Clause. It is not suggested that
the Court should be guided by a desire to achieve these objects-
-however important they maji be for the integrity of international
undertakings and the cause of international justice. Xeither is it
within the province of the Court toassess the propriety of a practice
according to which a State, while in fact retaining freedom of
action on the matter of submission of disputes to the Court, gains
the moral and political advantages associated with professed ad-
herence to the principle of obligatory judicial settlement. What
the Court must do is to apply the legal principles governing the
matter. It has been said that as States are not at al1 bound to

accept the jurisdiction of the Court and as their Acceptance is in
the nature of a voluntary sacrifice, it is not fitting to examine it too
closely. The Court cannot be concerned with considerations of this
nature. It cannot weigh the niceties of political advantage. For it
may be argued that, if as the result of such Acceptance States gain
in prestige and reputation while in fact not surrendering their free-
dom of decision, the nature of the sacrifice is not obvious. Also,
while the Government making the "automatic reservations"
retains freedom of action, ithrows upon the defendant State, which
has not appended an? such reservation, the difficult and often
embarrassing responsibility of invoking what, in the eyes of some,
may be an odious and peremptory reservation. The present case has
sho~vnthe implications of the resulting situation.

If the Court could legitimately be concerned with issues trans-
cending that immediately before it,it might be considered its duty
to discourage, in so far as it lieswith it, the progressive disinte-

gration of the institution of the Optional Clause as evidenced,
inter alia, by the tendency to adopt reservations such as that here
examined. Governments are under no compulsion, legal or moral,
to accept the duties of obligatory judicial settlement.lThenaccept-
ing them, they can Iimit them to the barest minimum. But the
existence of that minimum, if it is to be a legal obligation, must be
subject to determination by the Court itself and not by the Govern-
ment accepting it. A purported obligation, however apparently
comprehensive, which leaves it to the ~villof the State to determine
the very existence of the obligation, cannot be the basis of an
instrument claimed to found the iurisdiction of the Court. That
view seemç to be drastic and starhg only if it is assumed that
principles of law which generally apply in respect of the validity of
texts purporting to create a legal obligation do not apply in the
case of Governments. -4ny such assumption is inconsistent with

the function of a Court of Justice. EBIPRYSTS XORY. (OP. ISDI~. SIR HERICH LACTERPACHT) 65

fournit l'occasion, à un Gouvernement qui le veut, de corriger une
déclaration d'acceptation défectueuse; et elle contribue à arrêter
une tendance qui menace de désintégrer le minimum d'accord
incorporé dans la disposition facultative. Je ne suggère pas que la
Cour devrait êtreguidéepar le désir deréaliser ces fins - si impor-
tantes qu'elles soient pour l'intégrité des engagements intematio-
naux et la cause de la justice internationale. Il ne relève pas non
plus du domaine de la Cour d'apprécier la rectitude d'une pratique
selon laquelle un État, tout en conservant en fait sa liberté d'action

en matière de soumissio~~des différends à la Cour, gagne les avan-
tages moraux et politiques qui s'attachent à une profession d'adhé-
sion au principe du règlement judiciaire obligatoire. Ce que la Cour
doit faire, c'est appliquer les principes, juridiques qui régissent la
question. Il a étédit que puisque les Etats ne sont en rien tenus
d'accepter la compétence de la Cour, et puisque leur acceptation
présente la nature d'un sacrifice volontaire, il ne convient pas de
l'examiner de trop près. La Cour n'a pas à entrer dans des considé-
rations de cette nature. Elle ne peut peser les subtilités des avan-

tages politiques. Car on peut soutenir que si, à la suite d'une telle
acceptation, les Etats gagnent en prestige et en réputation alors
qu'en fait ils n'abandonnent pas leur liberté de décision,la nature
du sacrifice n'est pas évidente. En outre, alors que le Gouvernement
qui formule la <réserve automatique )conserve sa liberté d'action,
il rejette sur l'État défendeur, qui n'a pas annexé pareille réserve,
la responsabilité qui peut être difficile et parfois embarrassante
d'invoquer une disposition qui, aux yeux de certains, peut être
regardée comme une réserve<odieuse et péremptoire. La présente
affaire a démontrélesimplications dela situation qui peut enrésulter.

Si la Cour pouvait légitimement s'occuper des points qui dépas-
sent le problème immédiatement devant elle, on pourrait considérer
qu'il est de son devoir de décourager, dans la mesure où cela lui
est possible, la désintégratior, progressive de l'institution de la
disposition facultative dont, entre autres, la tendance à adopter
des réserves comme celle qui est examinée ici fournit la preuve.
Les Gouvernements n'onr aucune obligation juridique ou morale
d'accepter les devoirs du règlement judiciaire obligatoire. En
l'acceptant, ils peuvent les limiter au strict minimum. Mais l'exis-

tence même de ce minimum, pour constituer une obligation
juridique, doit êtresujet à la décision de la Cour elle-mêmeet non
du Gouvernement qui l'accepte. Kne prétendue obligation, si large
qu'elle soit en apparence, qui laisse au gré de 1'Etat la possibilité
de décider de l'existence mêmede l'obligation, ne peut servir de
base à un acte sur lequel on prétend fonder la juridiction de la
Cour. Cette opinion parait radicale et surprenante seulement si
l'on accepte que les principes de droit qui s'appliquent généralement
à la validité des textes prétendant créer une obligation juridique

ne s'appliquent pas dans le cas des Gouvernements. Pareille notion
est incompatible aI7ecles fonctions d'une Cour de Justice.
60 For the latter reason, the problem involved is of even wider

import than the question of the jurisdiction of the Court. It raises
an issue which is of vital significance for the preservation of its
judicial character. That issue is whether it can be part of the duty
of the Court to administer and to give the status of a legal text to
instruments which in fact do not create legal rights and duties. The
judicial character of the Court may become endangered if it were to
assume the task of interpreting and applying texts which, being
devoid of the element of effective legal obligation, are essentially
no more than a declaration of political purpose. Such danger may be
inherent in any readiness to elevate to the merit of a legal commit-
ment what is no more than a non-committal declaration of intention
to be implemented at the option of the Govemment concerned.

My conclusion is therefore that, having regard to the reservation
relating to matters which are essentially within domestic jurisdiction
as understood by the French Republic, the French Declaration of
Acceptance is invalid for the reason:

(1)That it is contrary to the Statute of the Court;
(2)That it isincapable ofgiving rise to a legal obligation inasmuch
as it claims, and effectively secures, the right of unilateral deter-

mination of the extent and of the existence of the obligation of
judicial settlement witl-iregard to a comprehensive and indefinite
category of disputes covering potentially most disputes which may
come before the Court;
(3) That the particular qualification of the reservation in question
forms an essential part ofthe Acceptance and that it isnot possible to
treat it as invalid and at the same time to maintain the validity ofthe
reservation to which it is attached or of the Acceptance as a whole.
Accordingly, in my view the entire French Declaration of Accept-
ance must be treated as devoid of legal effect and as incapable
of providing a basis for the jurisdiction of the Court. It is for that
reason that, in my view, the Court has no jurisdiction over the

dispute. The majority of the Court has reached the same result
by acting upon the "automatic reservation" and the French
Declaration of Acceptance-both of which 1 consider to be invalid.
Houlever, as the Court has expressly stated that, having regard
to the circumstances before it, its Judgment does not pre-judge
the major issue involved, 1 feel that a Separate Opinion-as
distinguished from a Dissenting Opinion-meets the requirement
of the case. C'est pour cette dernière raison que le problème en cause présente
un aspect plus important encore que celui de la compétence de la
Cour. Ilsoulève une question qui est d'une importance vitale pour
la sauvegarde du caractère judiciaire de la Cour. Cette question est
de savoir s'il peut incomber à la Cour d'appliquer des déclarations
qui ne créent pas en fait de droits et de devoirs juridiques et de
leur donner le statut d'un texte juridique. Le caractère judiciaire
de la Cour peut êtremis en périlsi elle assume la charge d'interpréter

et d'appliquer des textes qui, étant dépourvus de l'élémentd'obli-
gation juridique effective, ne sont essentiellement rien de plus que
des déclarations de portée politique. Ce danger peut êtreinhérent
à toute tendance à élever à la dignité d'engagement juridique ce
qui n'est rien de plus qu'une déclaration d'intention sans engage-
ment, applicable au gréde 1'Etat intéressé.

Ma conclusion est donc que, eu égard à la réserve visant les
affaires qui relèvent essentiellement de la compétence nationale
telle qu'elle est entendue par le Gouvernement de la République
française, la déclaration française d'acceptation est nulle pour les
raisons suivantes :
1) Elle est contraire au Statut de la Cour;
2) Elle est incapable de donner lieu à une obligation juridique,
attendu qu'elle revendique et garantit effectivement le droit de
décision unilatérale visant la portée et l'existence de l'obligation
de règlement judiciaire au sujet d'une catégorie large et imprécise
de différends, susceptible d'englober la plupart des différends qui
peuvent être soumis à la Cour;

3) Cette qualification particulière de la réserve forme une partie
essentielle de l'acceptation et il n'est pas possible de la traiter
comme nulle et, en mêmetemps, de retenir la validité de la réserve
à laquelle elle se rattache ou de l'acceptation dans son ensemble.
En conséquence, à mon avis, la Déclaration française d'accep-
tation dans son ensemble doit être tenue pour dénuée d'effet
juridique et incapable de fournir une base à la compétence de la
Cour. C'est pour cette raison qu'à mon avis la Cour est incompétente
pour connaître du différend. La majorité de la Cour est arrivée au
mêmerésultat en partant de la ((réserve automatique » et de la
Déclaration française d'acceptation. Je les considère nulles toutes

les deux. Cependant, attendu que la Cour a déclaré expressément
que, eu égardaux circonstances qui lui étaient soumises, son arrêt
ne préjuge pas de la principale question ici posée,j'estime qu'une
opinion individuelle - par opposition à une opinion dissidente -
répond aux exigences de la situation.

(Signé) HERSCHLAUTERPACHT.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht

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