Separate Opinion of Judge de Castro (translation)

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054-19720818-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
054-19720818-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE DE CASTRO '

Exercisirig the right conferred upon me by Article 57 of the Statute,

1venture to set out in detail a few of the reasons which determined my
vote.
Dissenting and separate opinions are criticized, especially in countries
which follow the Latin system, because they weaken the authority of
judgments: it is not the Court. it is said, but only a tiny majority which

takes the decision; furthermore, in separate opinions, some of the argu-
ments on which the jiidgment rests are called into question by members
of the majority.
On the other harid, such opinions are evideilce of the life and of the
evolution of legai doctrine. Some dissenting opinions are the law of the

future; others are the expression of the resistance of old ideas. Personally,
1think separate opinions have their uses: they givejudges an opportunity
to explain the reasons for their votes. The drafting of a judgment is a
very deliczite task. for it must, with great prudence. refiect the "consen-
sus" of the majority and it must do so clearly, simply and unambiguously.

In these circiimstances. if the arguments which a judge regards as con-
clusive do not find expression in thejudgment, a separate opinion makes
it possible forthem to be stated. Separate opinions provide a means for
making known the reasons for the votes of members of the majority and
this may be iiseful for the purposes of critical studies by commentators.

In the case submitted to the Court, there are, to my mind, important
questions to which it was not possible to give due consideration in the
Judgment. With the limited objects 1 have mentioned, 1 should like to
give in some detail my opinion on a few of the points raised in this case.

1.PAK~STAYO 'SBJECTION TO THE COURT'S JURISDICTION

1. Pakistan's attitude with regard to the Court's jurisdiction has under-
gone a progressive change.
At the meeting of the ICA0 Council on 18 October 1971, the Chief
Counsel of Pakistan, Mr. Pirzada, maintained that "the Appeal by India

in respect of our Cornplaint filed under Section 1 of Article II of the
Transit Agreement is incompetent" and that his Government reserved
the right "to raise these issues and objections as to competency thereof

' Passages in the oral proceedings indicated by the symbol C.R. 7.may be
located throcigh the Table of Concordancprinted at the end oI.C.J. Pleadings,
Apprvil relotiIOgthr Jlo.ivdir,ofoflrICA0 Council.before the International Court of Justice at the appropriate time"
(Rejoinder of Pakistan, para. 40). Such an objection has not been raised.

In the Counter-Menlorial, Pakistan claims that Article 36 of the Statute
is irrelevant, in view of. the reservation in the Government of India's

declaration accepting the Court's jurisdiction, concerning disputes with
States members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Pakistan also claims
that the appeal brought by Tndia against the Council's decision is inad-
missible because it is Section1and not Section 2 of ArticleIlof the Agree-
ment which should be applied (Counter-Memorial of Pakistan, paras.
24 and 25).

In the Rejoinder of Pakistan, some of India's assertions are disputed,
but on the jurisdiction of the Court it is confined to a simple affirmation
that "the decision of the Council on any matter relating to a Complaint
is not subject to appeal" (Rejoinder, para. 40).
It was at the publicsitting of 27 June 1972that Pakistan's Chief Coun-
sel before the Court, Mr. Bakhtiar, denied that the Court had jurisdic-

tion to determine India's appeal against the decision of the Council on
its own jurisdiction. Up to that point, Pakistan had disputed the pos-
sibility of appeal against the Council's decision with regard to the
Transit Agreement (Art. II,Sec. l), but had not advanced any argument
against the possibility of appeal against the Council'secision concerning
the dispute indicated in Pakistan's Application. to the extent that that
dispute related to the Convention (Art. 84).

Despite this procedural irregularity, the Court must deal explicitly with
its own jurisdiction since this has been called in question.
2. Appeal does not lie against a complaint based on Section 1 of Ar-
ticle II of the Agreement, because it does not lead to a decision of the
Council, but to consultations and recommendations to the parties and-
if the contracting State concerned unreasonably fails to take suitable
corrective action-to possible recommendations to the Assembly. But

appeal does lie against the Council's decision on its own jurisdiction to
deal with a disagreement concerning the Transit Agreement, because
Pakistan based its claims, in reply to India's objection, on Article 84 of
the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Agreement.

India's preliminary objection, by its very nature, prevented the Com-
plaint being dealt with on the basis of Section 1 of Article II of the Agree-

ment. What was argued was not the action taken by India, but the Coun-
cil'sjurisdiction to exaniine such action. It thus follows that in the Coun-
cil the discussion was centred on the interpretation of treaties in general,
and that of the Convention and the Agreement in particular (see the
remarks of Mr. Pirzada, Annex E to the Memorial of India, (b), Dis-
cussion, paras. 25 fT. (.), Discussion, paras. 28 ff.)In Pakistan's reply
to India's preliminary objections, the following passages may be found: [CAO COUNCIL (SEP.OP. DE CASTRO) 118

"There exists a disagreement between lndia and Pakistan relating

to the interpretation or application of the Convention and the Tran-
sit Agreement" (Annex D to the Memorial of India, para. Il (a)).

"Pakistan's Application is within the scope of Article 84 of the
Convention, Article II (2) of the Transit Agreement and Article 1
(1) of the Rules" (ihid., paras. 25 and 26; see also para. 18).

"The Council has jurisdiction to entertain and decide any dis-
pute regarding the interpretation and/or application of the Con-
vention and theTransit Agreement and to make appropriate findings

and recommendation under the Transit Agreement" (ibid., para. 39
(d)).

The question which was argued in the Council, and decided by it, is
the question of its jurisdiction to interpret the Agreement, taking into
account the objection raised by Tndia '. Once India had raised an objec-
tion, Pakistan's Coinplaint could not be dealt with under the special
procedure laid down for complaints (Arts. 23 ct seq, of the Rules for

the Settlement of Differences). Tndia's objection changes the nature of
the question laid before the Council. It no longer concerns action taken
by India under the Agreement (Art. II.Sec. 1): from that moment there
is a disagreement as to the possibility of applying the Agreement, as to

its termination or its suspension, and that disagreement implied a further
disagreement as to its interpretation (Art. II,Sec. 2).
Article II, Section 2. of the Agreement refers back to Chapter XVIII of
the Convention. Article 84 of which reserves a right of appeal from the
Council's decision ?.

Tt may also be noted that it appears that Pakistan's Complaint and
Application. and the Memorials attached thereto, are almost identical,
although they were filed separately in con~pliancewith the Rules (Annex
B to the Indian Memorial, Complaint, note).
3. lndia had founded the Court's jurisdiction on Article 37 of its

Statute. Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the
Agreement. At the public sitting of 27 June 1972, Pakistan contended

'The question put t« the vote in the Council was as follows:
"The Council fias no jurisdiction to consider the disagreement in Pakistan's
Application in sofar as concerns the International AServices Transit Agree-
inent." (Annex to Meniorial of India, (e), Subjects discussed and action
taken, para. 2.)
The question put to the Council is not whether Pakistan'sCornplaint is or is not
justified but, as the President of the Council explained, whet"the Council has
no jurisdictionto consider the Application under the Transit Agreement" (ihid.,
para. 91). This question is raised because India maintains ththe Agreement has
come to an end or is suspended and that, consequently, the Council hasno juris-
diction under the Agreement.
See in thisense the Note presented by the Secretary General of ICA0 on Ar-
ticle 86 (Annex C to the Indian Reply, para. 5). ICA0 COUNClL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 119

that Article 37 is a transitory provision of the Statute, which speaks of
"as between the parties to the present Statute"; but the Statute was pro-
mulgated before Pakistan came into existence (C.R. 7216, p. 39). In
support of this argument counsel for Pakistan quoted various Judgments
of the Court (I.C.J. Reports1959 ,p. 139, 140, 142; I.C.J. Reports1961,

pp. 27-32, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , .602).
But tlie expression "as between the parties to the present Statute" also
occurs in Article 36,paragraph 5. This provision relates to declarations
made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Permanent Court, deemed to
be acceptances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the present Court. Ar-
ticle37 however concerns treaties or conventions in force providing for
reference of a rnatter to the Permanent Court (the case of Article 84 of

the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Agreement).
The Judgments of the Court which Pakistan has quoted relate to the
application of Article36, paragraph 5,of the Statute, and not Articl37.
The Court's doctrine on Article 37 is contrary to the argument of Pakis-
tan. The Court, as it has itself stated, cannot "accept the dissolution of
the Permanent Court as a cause of lapse or abrogation of any of the juris-
dictional clauses concerned, [and] it must hold that the date at which the

Respondent became a party to the Statute is irrelevant" (I.C.J. Reports
1964, p. 34). "It was not the primary purpose to specify one tribunal
rather than another, but to create an obligation of compulsory adjudi-
cation. (Such an obligation naturally entailed that a forum would be
indicated.)" (Ibid ..,38.) On the dissolution of the Permanent Court,
"another tribunal the[International Court of Justice].. is supplied by the
automatic operation of some ... instrument [the Statute of the Court] by

which both parties are bound". (Ibid p..39.)
Nothing in the argument of Pakistan could justify tlie Court's reversing
its previous rulingson this point.
4. The kernel of the whole new argument of Pakistan is its interpreta-
tioi-iof Article 84 of the Convention. On this interpretation,the Article
should be applied to final decisions or decisions on the merits-thedeci-
sions contemplated by Article 15of the Rules for the Settlement of Dif-

ferences-, but it does not apply to decisions on preliminary objections,
against which therefore appeal does not lie.
(a) This interpretation is based first of al1 on the letter of Article 84.
Attention is drawn to the fact that the Article mentions "the decison"
of the Council and not "any decision" of the Council; and that "the
word 'settlement' ought to rnean that when the matter could not be settled

by negotiation then it ought to be decided by the Council" (C.R. 7216,p.
25). If appeal were allowed-so the argument continues-from any Order
of the Council "that will defeat the very purpose of the Convention"
(ibid p..26). However, a reading of Article 84 without any preconceived
view leads us to give it a different meaning. It refers to "any disagreement"
which cannot be settled by negotiation. It does not of courserefer toevery
kind of disagreement which could be resolved by an Order. It refers to
disagreements which could be settled by negotiation and which relate to ICA0 C'OUNCIL(SEP. OP. Ot: CAS1 RU) 120

the interpretation or application of the Conventioii. The nuinber of
possible disagreements is limited, and decisions on these do not include

any kind of Order whatsoever. They must be important decisions, and
decisions of a certain general interest. Decisions on questions of jurisdic-
tion caniiot therefore be excluded from this category without specific
reason. Against the over-restrictive interpretation of Article 84 advanced

by Pakistan, it may be observed that Article 86, under the heading "Ap-
peals", tells us that, apart from decisions on theoperation of international
airlines, "on any other niatter, decisions of the Council shall, if appealed
from, be suspended". How can it be conceived that questions relating to

the jui-isdiction of tlie Council were to be excluded from these "other
matters"'? A decision by the Council on its jurisdiction is not just any
sort of Order (comparable, for exaniple, to an Order on the admission
of evidence). It is a final decision and one of general importance if it deals

with a question of interpretation of the Convention. In the Pakistan v.
India case, if the Council upholds India's preliniinary objection, the
procedure is terminated, with the result that Pakistan is finally non-
suited with regard to its Application and Complaint '.

The disagreeinent as to the jurisdiction of the Council can be settlecl
by decision of the Council or by negotiation. The Secretary General of
ICAO, when informing the parties of the Council's decision of 29 July

1971, said that he desired "once more to draw your attention [i.e., the
Parties' attention] to the Couticil's resolution of 8 April 1971in which the
Parties were invited to negotiate" (Annex II to the Counter-Memorial of
Pakistan 3.4).

(h) Pakistan's argument is also based on certain articles of the Coun-
cil's Rules for the Settlement of Differences. The reasoning may be
summarized as follows: Article 5, on preliminary objections, makes
no mention of appeal. Thus a decision on a preliminary objection is not

a decision against which an appeal lies under Article 18. The decisions

' See also tlie Nol<: by the Secretary General of ICAO alrcady quoted above
(Annex C to the Reply, footnote).
1 see no reason why preliminary objections relating to jurisdictionsliould be
treated differently according to the decisions taken upon them or wliy the appeal
should bc upheld only when jurisdiction is denied. Such a distinction hasno foun-
dation in law. Moreover. a party inay have an interest. wortliy of protection, in
appealing froiii theecision disinissing the objection. It may be addcd that decisions
on objections to jurisdictionare also of generalinterest sincc, as judicial decisions.
they may become a source of law.
j Although the jurisdiction of a court is not subjcct to the will of the parties to
a caFe, there are possibilities for negotiatioconcerning jurisdiction.A State may
waive a preliniinary objection to jurisdiction. eithcrexplicitly or tacitly (/oruni
proro~at~rnzI,and this niay happen as a result of negotiations.
The phrase in Article 84 "Any contracting State may .. appeal" must be in-
terpreted as giving to "any contracting State involved in thiq dispute" the right to
appeal. An appeal is open tothe parties to a dispute. Interveiition, which is governed
by Article 19 of the Kulcî, is anotlier matter. ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. vc CASTRO) 121

against which appeal may be brought ai-ethe decisions refered to in Article

15, and not those nientioned in Article 5.
Now, in the first place, the nature of the norms contained in these
Rules must be taken into account. They are intended to extend and sup-
plement the norms of the Convention. They cannot be interpreted in a
contrary sense to the norms from which they derive their binding force.
Article 84 of the Convention must be taken as the starting point in

order to solve the problem of appeals, and it is starting from that Article
that the provisions of the Rules must be studied. These Rules serve as an
auxiliary means of interpretation, or as data which rnay corroborate a
given interpretation.

It is true that Article 5does not mention any possibility of appeal against
decisions on prelirninary objections. But if this had been done, thedrafting
would have been excessively, and unnecessarily, complicated. It would
have been neczssary to distinguish between the various categories of
preliminary objections. The question was in fact settled by Article 84 of

the Convention, which only allows appeal against decisions of one kind,
namely, those which relate to the interpretation of application of the
Convention.
According to Pakistan, Article 18, paragraph 2,of the Rulcs "indicates
the narrow scope of appeals, and that also shows that appeal does not
lie against every order" (C.R. 7216, p. 26). This is perfectly true, but it is

not an argument which supports the Pakistan contention. Appeal does
not lie against any kind of order. Limits to the right of appeal are laid
down, because, under Article 84, appeal only lies in cases brought by
virtue of clauses (CI)and (h) of paragraph 1 of Article 1, that is to Say

in a disagreement between two or more contracting States relating to the
interpretation or application of the Convention(Art. 1,para. 1 (di),of the
Rules; Art. 84 of the Convention), or disagreement between two or more
contracting States relating to the interpretation or application of the
Transit Agreement (Art. 1, para. I (h), of the Rules; Art. II,Section 2,

of the Agreement).

The limits laid down by Article 18 are the same as those fixed by
Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2,of the Agreement.
It is thus still those two Articles which are decisive on the question of

appeal l.

' The division of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences iiito chapters and
parts may have raised doubts, but without any real foundation.
Article 5, in Chapter III, prescribes the procedure relating to preliminary objec-
tions. Chapter IV governs the ordinary procedure applicable to disagreements.
But the two chapters do not constitute water-tight compartments, any more than
do Parts 1 and II (see. for example, Arts. 5 and 18).
Articles 3, 4 and 6 are to apply to ordinary procedure andare found in Chapter
III. Chapter IV contains rules relating to preliminary objections (e.g., Arts. 16,
17 and 18); notificationsare dealt with in the same Article 18. There are alpro-
visions which are not applicablr to preliminary objections(e.g., Arts. 7 to 15). 5. Pakistaii advances anotlier reason to explain why appeal from a
decision of the Council upholding its oRn jurisdiction was not provided
for in the Convention: "The reason is the universally established rule
of international law that every international tribtinal has the jurisdiction
to determine its own jurisdiction" (C.R. 72(6, p. 28).

But the question of the cotiipc;trncede /a cotnpc;tcwcearises when there
are no rules laying dowii an appeal procedure. When there are rules as
to appeal, the court (or arbitrator) cannot itselfecide whether or not it
is possible to appeal against its own decision. lnterpretation of the extent
of the rule as to appeal falls withiri the jurisdiction of the higher court.
The lower court cannot deprive the appeal court of its jurisdiction,

by arrogating to itself the power to give its own interpretation of the rule
as to appeal; its jurisdiction is limited by the possibility of appeal. Itis
the higher court which has the jurisdiction to dccide on its own jurisdic-
tion, to say on appeal whether. in a given case, it is possible to appeal
against the decision of the lower court.
The Council could not, and did not, give a decision denying India's
right of appeal to this Court. It is this Court which has jurisdiction to

iiiterpret Article 84 of the Convention, and consequently to say whether or
not lndia can validly appeal from the Council's decision.
The Co~incil has, with full awareness, recognized the appeal, and, in
application of Article 86 of the Convention, treated its own decision as
suspended. Through its president, it mentioned the possibility that the
case might be brought before this Court (Memorial of India, Annex E,

(e), Discussion, para. 19; Reply of India, Annex E, 73rd Session).
At the meeting of the Council. the representative of India aniiounced his
Government's interitioii to appeal to the Court (Memorial of India,
Annex E. (c). Disciission, paras. 152, 159, 177).
At the reqiiest of certain inembers of the Council, the Secretary General
of ICA0 prepared a note on Article 86 of the Convention, and in parti-

ciilar on the passage "on any other matter, decisions of the Council
shall, if appealed from, be suspended until the appeal is decided". He
explained ihat the decision suspended by the appeal might. for example,
"be one affirming or negating the jiirisdiction of the Council in a particu-
lar matter" (Reply, Annex C, footnote).
The attitude of the members of the Council is alsornot without signi-

ticance. No nieinber objected when it was stated that there would be an
appeal by India. The representative of Pakistan only challenged the
Governinent of India's right of appeal with reference to the Coniplaint
tiled under Section l of Article II of the Transit Agreement (Pakistan
Rejoinder, para. 40).
6. Pakistan also accuses lndia of self-contradiction. The Court has
jurisdictiori to deal with the appeal if the Convention is in force (Art. 37

of the Statute) but India claims that the Convention has been terminated
or suspended. How can it be said, at the sanie tiine. that the Convention is
in force and that it is not?
The qiicstion is of rio pr:ictical importance if the Court rules againstthe lndian argument, and decides that the Convention is in force between
lndia and Pakistan.
In any event, 1consider that the dilemma on which Pakistan seeks to
impale lndia is unreal. When a preliminary objection as to jurisidiction is
raised before a court, it is because the litigant does not accept the juris-

diction of the court; he denies that the court hasjurisdiction, but he raises
an objection to avoid having judgment go against him by default. An
appeal does not change the litigant's position in law. The same preliminary
objection raised by lndia before the Council is now before the Court.
The Court's jurisdiction does not result from the Convention being in

force between India and Pakistan, but from the right of appeal to the
Court laid down by Article 84 of the Convention; thus what is necessary
is that the Convention and the Article should be in force with regard to the
Court.
It is the Convention which gives the rjght of appeal and, for the Court,
the Convention is in force. India, or Pakistan, or any other party to the

Convention, may appeal to the Court against a decision by the Council
concerning its jurisdiction.
The Court has jurisdiction to take a decision regarding its own juris-
diction, if an objection denying that a treaty is in force is raised. The
Council also can consider the question of its jurisdiction when India
contends that the Convention and the Agreement are not in force as

between India itself and Pakistan. The Court is here a court of appeal.
Appeals have a twofold effect, suspensory and devolutive-devolutive
effect because iL is the case as a whole which is transferred to the higher
court, with al1thequestions it entailed before thecourt of fir-; instance. In
ordertoreject or uphold the objection raised by India the Court niust decide
whether the Convention is in force, just as the Council was able to do.

7. The question of the appeal to this Court is of undeniable impor-
tance, both for the Court and for international organizations. The Court
cannot evade its responsibility. For such organizations, it is necessary
that there should be a supervisory body, to exercise supervision over
complicated legal decisions, and over the interpretation and application
of their constitutional and interna1 rules.

An appeal from a decision concerning jurisdiction is quite normal
in municipal law. It is not contrary to the nature of international organi-
zations. It is indeed a fact that the administrative and technical nature
of the ICA0 Council makes it a practical necessity that there should be
the widest possibility of appeal to a judicial body such as the Court,
with regard to the interpretation of the Convention and of the Agreement.

It must not be forgotten that it is one of the desiderata of the inter-
national community that the possibility of appeal should be extended to
cover al1 the decisions of international organizations. The lnstitute of
Lnternational Law has studied the possibility of establishing a right of
appeal in respect of al1 decisions of these organizations ("Recours
judiciaire à instituer contre les décisions d'organes internationaux",

Annuaire de I'institiit de droit internation1957,pp. 274 K.). It must be borne in mind also that when sovereign States have estab-
lished an appeal as a safeguard in respect of the decisions of international
organizations, it is a right which it is in their interests to preserven-
diminished.

II. THEJURISDICTION OF THE ICA0 COUNCIL UNDER THE CONVENTION

India's appeal to the Court is based on questions relating to jurisdic-
tion which have already been raised before the Council. These are of
great importance and of general interest.
In brief, the main questions raised by India relate to the following
points:
(1) The words "interpretation" and "application" in Article 84 of the
Convention, and Article IL, Section 2, of the Transit Agreement,

cannot be interpreted as applying to questions relating to the sus-
pension or termination of the Convention or the Agreement.
(2) No question of iriterpretation or application can arise with regard to
a treaty which has ceased to exist or which has been suspended.
(3) A State may terminate any treaty whatever in case of breach by the
other Party.
(4) A State may terminate a treaty simply by declaring the existence of
such a breach.

1will take these Indian arguments one by one.
1. It is observed in the Memorial of the Indian Government that
disagreements between Statespertaining to the Convention or theTransit
Agreement may arise in one of four ways: (1) disagreements as to inter-
pretation, (2) disagreements as to application, (3) disagreements arising
from action taken -under the Convention or the Agreement, and (4)
disagreements pertaining to termination or suspension of the Conven-
tion or the Transit Agreement by one State as against another (Me-
morial of India, para. 72).India then contends that only the first two types
of disagreement can be considered by the Council under the terms of the
Convention, and only the first three types of disagreement can be con-
sidered by the Council as far as the Agreement is concerned. According
to India, the Council is not competent to consider the fourth type of
disagreement, which is concerned with termination or suspension of the

Convention or the Transit Agreement (ibid.,para. 73).
As the chief counsel of lndia said in his addresi to the Council, this
distinction "is the crux of the case" (Memorial of India, Annex E, (a),
Discussion, para. 7). His argument is that since the text of the treaties
does not use the expressions "suspension" and "termination", which
have very c2ear meanings, it must follow that the Council has no juris-
diction in this connection.
India's argument is based on an incorrect premise, namely, that the
four causes of disagreement are of the same kind, whereas in fact they
are of different kinds. Interpretation is a general function and one to be carried out as a
preliminary step. It signifiesthe search for and ascertainment of the true
meaning of the Convention and the Agreement, with reference to any
action, any situation or any fact. For example, it involves ascertaining
whether the application effected is or is not a correct one, classifying
the actions of States, determining whether they have carried out their
duties or committed any breach of their obligations, and whether the
established reservations in favour of State sovereignty have been re-

spected.
The basic postulate underlying the lndian objections is that the Con-
vention and the Agreement have been terminated or suspended with
regard to Pakistan; Pakistan's conduct, according to India, implies a
breach of the obligations undertaken by Pakistan, and it is this which is
the cause of thetermination or suspension. But to reach such a conclusion
one has to interpret the Convention and the Agreement. To ascertain
whether Pakistan has committed a breach of its obligations towards
India, one needs to know what those obligations are;to ascertain whether
a breach of this category or that gives rise to termination or suspension,
it is necessary to know what are the appropriate sanctions for such a
violation, and what the relevant procedure is for those sanctions to be
imposed. The answer to these questions depends on the meaning (inter-
pretation) ofthe rules to be applied (the Convention and the Agreement).
In the preliminary objections made by India before the Council (28

March 1971), it is explained that the "policy of political confrontation
bordering on hostility" on the part of Pakistan, and "the hijacking of
an Indian aircraft" were the cause of the termination or suspension of
the Convention and the Agreement, the conduct of Pakistan amounting
"to the very negation of al1 the aims and objectives, the scheme and
provisions, of the Convention .. .and of the. ..Agreement" (Memorial
of India, Annex C, paras. 5 and 6) '.
It is apparent that India is offering jts own interpretation of the
Convention and the Agreement, that it is putting Pakistan's conduct in
a particular category, by regarding it as contrary to the aims and objec-
tives, the scheme and provisions, of each of these instruments. As soon
as this interpretation differs from that advanced by Pakistan, there is a
disagreement as to the interpretation of the Convention and the Agree-
ment (Art. 84ofthe Convention,Art. II, Sec.2,ofthe Transit Agreement).
The form of words by which jurisdiction is conferred on a body to

settle disputes the subject of which is the interpretation, or the inter-

It is also stated that "Pakistan by its conduct has repudiated the Convention
vis-à-vis India, since its conduct has militated against the very objectives under-
lying, and the express provisions of, the Convention..Pakistan's conduct also
amounts to a repudiation of the Transit Agreementvis-à-vis India. In the circum-
ment stand repudiated, or in any event suspended, by Pakistan vis-à-visndia" Agree-
(Memorial of India, Annex C, para. 22). ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 126

pretation and the application, of a treaty, confers on that body juris-
diction to interpret "al1or any provisions [of the Treaty], whether they
relate to substantive obligations" or not (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 343),

which logically includes the legal consequences of the violation of such
obligations (pacta suntservanda). This isa conclusion which is of general
application, whether the organ having jurisdiction is ICA0 or an organ
of another organization l.
The Indian argument is based on a narrow conception of the word
"interpretation". "Where such a method of interpretation results in a
rneaning incompatible with the spirit, purpose and context of the clause
or instrument in which the words are contained, no reliance can be
validly placed on it" (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 336).
India has advanced a supplemental argument based on the absurdity

of entrusting the settlement of legal questions to the Council. The
Council is composed of persons without legal training; it is composed
not of men but of States; it is an administrative or technical body. It
is therefore not equipped to carry out judicial functions, still less to
decide questions touching the rights of sovereign States. How then can
Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Agreement
be understood as conferring power on the Council to pass judgment as
to the termination or suspension of a treaty?
The impression that has thus been given to us of the Council's functions
is not supported by the Chicago Convention.. The power which the Arti-
cles mentioned confer upon the Council apparently extends to ail the

rules contained in the Convention; but the interpretation of the rules
contained in a convention is a legal function, not an administrative func-
tion. The Council have to decide disputes between States as to the inter-
pretation and application of the Convention and the Agreement. The
Council is also to insure that the rights of contracting States are fully
respected (Art. 44 (f)) and report to contracting States aiiy infraction
of theConvention (Art. 54 (j))and thesefunctions are also legalfunctions.
The interpretation of the rules of the Convention may relate to ques-
tions touching the sovereignty of the contracting States over the airspace
above their territory-1 am thinking here of the problem of prohibited

areas (Art. 9 of the Convention), which has given rise to disputes between
States which have been brought before the Council (two such cases are
known to me), and which bristle with legal problems 2.
The Council is made up for the most part of aviation experts. But when
it is in theirnterest to do so, States take care to send qualified lawyers to
the Council, and to give instructions which have been carefully worked
out beforehand in their foreign ministries.

Cf. Article 36, para. 2 (a), of the Court's Statute. In the Mandate for German
South West Africa, disputes relating to "the interpretation or the application of
the provisions of the Mandate" were to be subrnitted to the Permanent Court of
International Justice (Art. 7).
The interpretation of Article 89 may also give rise to disputes touching the
sovereignty of States. CAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 127

The very possibility of an appeal to this Court demonstrates the im-
portance attached to the legal functions of the Council when it has to

decide questions which involve interpretation or application of the Con-
vention or Agreement.
It does not therefore seem that there is any "inherent limitation"
(C.R. 7213,p. 23) in the jurisdictional clauses, resulting from the nature
and composition of the Council.
Arguments as to restrictive interpretation of declarations of acceptance
of compulsury jurisdiction do not apply (and India seems to concede
this: C. R. 7213,p. 25)tojurisdictional clauses, which must be interpreted
according to their aims and objectives. But the provisions of Article 84
of the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Agreement are clauses
of special jurisdiction. The attitude of States at the -enna Conference
cannot be re!ied on to limit the jurisdictional clauses in the Convention
and the Agreement. At Vienna, apart from the particular circumstances of
the time, which are well known, the hesitation of States isto be explained

by their fear of writing a blank cheque for treaties of al1 kinds. In the
Convention, on the other hand, the objective of thejurisdictional clause is
concrete and clearly defined.
The observation that States would not welcome a judgnient upholding
the Council's jurisdiction seems to be entirely contradicted by the actual
attitude of the States, or representatives of the States, at the time of the
vote taken in the Council. The interpretation given by the Council to the
jurisdictional clauseisnot contrary to sound principles, but isa step in the
right direction, which is to strengthen international organizations.
To ascertain the true meaning of a clause, one must not play with
words. When jurisdiction is conferred on a body to intepret a treaty,
jurisdiction is given above al1to Saywhether or not the treaty is in force,
that is to say whether or not it has been terminated or suspended. The
question which has arisen is not whether a State has theright tosuspend or

terminate a treaty under general rules of international law, but whether it
may do so under the rules of the treaty. The question is this: does breach
by one party of its contractual obligations entitle the other to declare its
own obligations at an end? It must not be overlooked that it iscategorizing
the conduct of the parties as lawful or otherwise which enables one to say
whether there has been a breach of the Convention by one party or by
both, and if there has been a breach, what are the proper sanctions.
To do this one has to interpret the Convention and the Agreement.
For example, one would certainly need to interpret Article 89 of
the Convention in order to ascertain whether a certain State had acted
lawfully. in accordance with the Convention, if in EJsituation of hostility,
of acuteconfrontation, of cold war, it took the viewthat it had freedom of
action to do away with the privileges granted by the Convention, and
perhaps even to declare the effects of the Convention suspended vis-à-vis
another State.

But it does not appear to be correct to interpret the jurisdictional
clause as conferring the possibility of saying: 1 may, as and when 1
85wish, avoid the sanctions which follow a breach committed by me of my
contractual obligations, by saying that 1 regard the treaty as at an end

vis-à-vis the injured party, or that1have not ceased to fulfil those obliga-
tions, because 1have declared a suspension of the treaty.
2. The second contention of India has an impressive appearance of
logic. The argument is that a power or faculty conferred by a treaty
cornes to an end ipso factoat the moment when the treaty ceases to
exist. Thus the Council's jurisdiction to pass judgment on the disagree-

ment between India and Pakistan came to an end with the termination
of the Convention and the Agreement vis-à-vis Pakistan (breach by
Pakistan of its obligations).
This reasoning is not acceptable. It confuses different causes and cate-
gories of termination of treaties.
The termination of a treaty may depend on a cause which is external to

what is contained in the treaty (abextra), or on a cause which originates
from the very operation of the treaty. When one party accuses another of
a breach of the obligations resulting from the treaty, it is an existing treaty
which is involved. In order to ascertain whether there have been breaches,
the treaty must be interpreted; it is a question of interpretation of a
treaty which is still in existence.

Breach of an obligation resulting from the treaty does not involve
ipso jure the termination of the treaty. It entitles the injured party to
invoke the breach as a ground for terminating the treaty, or suspending
its operation (see Art. 60 of the Vienna Convention)'. This right is with-
out prejudice to the provisions of the treaty applicable in the event of a

breach (Art. 60, para. 4,of the Vienna Convention), and thus to the pro-
visions concerning disagreements over breaches of obligations (jurisdic-
tion to settle disputes).
The Vienna Convention also makes the consequences of breaches of
its obligations by one party to the treaty subject to the general rules
concerning the settlement of disputes as to the existence and effects of

the breach (Arts. 65 and 66).
The material breaches of which India accuses Pakistan do not by them-
selves put an end to the treaty, and do not put an end to the jurisdiction
of the Council. On the contrary, it falls within the jurisdiction of the Coun-
cil to decide whether or not Pakistan has committed breaches, and if so,
whether they are material. It will be for the Council to decide these ques-

tions which pertain to the merits, and it ishen that India, may, if it wishes,
rely on the breach ofa material obligation in order to terminate the treaty
or suspend its operation.

' It should not be overlooked that the rule opens the possibility of raising the
e.rceprio inadimpleti non est adimplcndum. The breach of an obligation is not the
and of new obligations or sanctions. Alongside this, it is the material breach ofility
a treaty which entitles the injured partyto invoke it in order to terminate or sus-
pend the operation of the treaty. See the Report of the International LawCom-
mission, 1966 (Art.57 of the draft)(Yearbook of rhe Z.L.C., 1966, Vol. II, pp. 253-
255). ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 129

It is not correct that the principle laid down in Article 60 of the Vienna
Convention is dehors the Chicago Convention. On the contrary, it is a
principle which follows from the contractual nature of treaties. There is
no frontier between treaties and international law; there is no frontier
which leaves the content of treaties outside international law. On the
contrary, it is thanks to international law that treaties have a legal signi-
ficance. The rules of international law are not outside treaties, they give
legal force to treaty rules. The principle pacta sunt servanda (Vienna
Convention, Art. 26)is not dehorstreaties; it isthis principle which makes
it possible tocal1for performance in good faith of contractual obligations.
Article 60 is a complement and the sanction of the principle pacta sunt
servandu. It is the breach of rights or obligations having their source in

the agreement which lies at the root of the exceptio non adimpleti.

3. A fundamental point in the argument put forward in the Memorial
of India, to the effectthat the Convention and Agreement are terminated
or suspended vis-à-vis Pakistan, is based on the application of Article 60
of the Vienna Convention and on certain observations of the Court in its
Advisory Opinion on Namibia (I.C.J. Reports 1971, pp. 47 and 49).
Perhaps one of the sources of the error in the construction of the Indian
argument may be found here: it does not take into account the differing
nature of treaties.
The draftsman of the Vienna Convention did not conceive of Article
60, paragraph 1, as imperative and general; quite the contrary. There
must be taken into account, above all,the rules peculiar to each treaty,

not only because of the principlepacta sunt servanda (Arts. 26,56 and 58),
but also because of the reservations made in Article 42, paragraph 2,
and Article 60,paragraph 4.The differencesbetween bilateral and multila-
teral treaties, and those which give rise to an international organization,
must also be taken into account.
The Vienna Convention "applies to any treaty which isthe constituent
instrument of an international organization and to any treaty adopted
within an international organization without prejudice to any relevant
rules of the organization" (Art. 5).
In the course of the discussions at the Vienna Conference, emphasis
was laid on the need for the utmost respect for the peculiarities of inter-

national organizations. The States did not wish to weaken the growing
achievements and the effectiveness of international organizations l.In
any treaty creating an organization a distinction isto be drawn between:
(1) the constituent instrument of the organization, which is subject to the
IPXgeneralis on the coming to birth of treaties, and (2) the constitution
which sets up the 1e.uspecialis or rules to govern the life and functioning

See in this sense, Article 20, paragraph 3, of the Vienna Convention. See also
the I.L.C., 1966. Vol. 11,pp. 202-208, particularly para. 20).e 17 (Yearbook of ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 130

of the organization. It is this special aspect which is responsible for the
classification of this type of treaty by writers among "treaty-laws" or
"Vereinbarungen".
From the moment of its creation, an international organization is a
new juridical reality. It is an entity having its own rights and obligations,
its own purposes and functions, and thus a certain legal personality

(I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 179-181). It has the tie of legal personality,
which excludes the autonomy of its several members (I.C.J. Reports 1970,
p. 34, para. 40).
Whatever the nature of its legal personality may be, each organization
has a constitution which provides it with a general rule to which al1its
members are subject. Their rights and obligations towards each other flow
from this constitution. It is the fact that the organization is a legal person

which prevents the legal relationships between its members being con-
sidered as governed by a series of independent bilateral treaties. The life
of the organization is not governed disjunctively by an accumulation of
bilateral treaties. Members of the organization are linked together by the
constitution, and their relationships are governed by the. constitution.
Such relationships are those resulting from the status of member of the

organization, and not the status of a party to bilateral treaties. This is of
the very essence of organizations; it is required by the common interest,
and is a necessity for their functioning and effectiveness.

The State which is inbreach of those of its obligations or duties which
derive from this constitution, towards another member State of the orga-
nization, is not in breach of a single bilateral treaty between them, it is

in breach of the constitution of the organization. The effects of such a
breach are governed by that constitution. It is only in a supplementary
way that the general rules of international law, those enshrined in the
Vienna Convention, may be applied l.

India has referred to the Advisory Opinion given by the Court in the Namibia
case (I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 47), and drawn the conclusion that Article 60 of the
Vienna Convention applies generally to al1treaties, and thus to the Convention and
the Transit Agreement. But the observations to be found in the Opinion must not
be taken out of context. In the Advisory Opinion it was said that "[the] General
Assembly ... determines that... rnaterial breach had occurred in this case" (p. 47,
para. 95) and the 1962 Judgment was cited to the effect that "this Mandate, like
site in nature and instituting a novel international régime. It incorpoa definite
agreement ..."(I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 46, para. 94). The Court, here as elsewhere,
had in contemplation the very particular nature of the Mandate. In a mandate or
a trust, the power of revocation is regarded as implicit. The Mandatorthe League
of Nations, grants themandate for the benefit of the people under trusteeship. The
United Nations, the successor to the League of Nations, has the right and the obli-
gation to withdraw the mandate, trust or guardianship, in any case where the man-
datory, the trustee or the guardian commitsa breach of his obligationstowards the
people of whom he was appointed trustee.
The Advisory Opinion in the Namibia case does not support India's contention.
into account for the purposes of application of Article 60.each treaty must be taken

88 Therefore in order to ascertain the consequences of the breaches of
which Iiidia accuses Pakistan, one must above al1 take into account
the constitutional significance of the Convention and the Transit Agree-
ment.

ICA0 is orle of the most perfected interriational organizations. Its
legal personality is clear, as is also its legal independence with regard to
its inen~bers. In the Convention, it was sought to bring out the full
juridical personality of the Organization for the exercise of its functioris
in the territory of each State, subject to the sole reservation of the laws
of the State concerned (Art. 47).

The Organization ha; its ow; aims and objects, which are independcnt
of the particular interests of each member State, namely those of the
international community (Preamble and Art. 93his); and~each contrac-
ting State agrees not to use civil aviation for any purpose inconsistent
with the aiins of the Convention (Art. 4).
The Convention lists the rights and obligations of the members of the

Organization; it set iip organs (the Assenibly and the Council) to ensure
their implementation, and even provides for sanctions against States
which do not comply with their decisions (Arts. 84 to 88 of the Conven-
tion; Art. II of the Agreement). It was in order tu facilitate the achieve-
ment of the objects and principles of the Organization, it was to facilitate

its functioning, that;Isystem was set up for settlcment of disputes between
States as to the exercise or the breach of their rights and obligations (Art.
84 of the Convention; Art. II of the Agreement).
Two further groups of provisions may be mentioned which throw
light on the system of the Organization.
In the first place there are those provisions which lay down the prin-

ciple of non-discriniination between inember States. In the solemn enume-
ration of the objectives of the Organization, one objective is to "avoid
discrimination between contracting States" (Art. 44 (g)). In the very
preanible to the Convention, there ismention of "equalityof opportunity",
and in several other articles stress in laid on the prohibition of any dis-
tinction betueen the aircraft of contracting States (Arts. 9, 11, 35). Still

with a view to avoiding special relationships between States which are
preferential or discriniinatory, it was laid down that "the Contracting
Statesaccept this Convention as abrogating al1obligations and understan-
dings between them which are inconsistent with its terms, and undertake
not to enter into any such obligations and understandings" (Art. 82 of the
Convention).

Secondly, there are the provisions governing the way in which States'
obligations coine to an end. Article 95 lays down the rules for denunci-
ation of the Convention. that is to say, for leaving the Organization. It
does not recognize the possibility ofdenunciation vis-à-vis asingle member
State.This would seem to be inadniissible as contrary to the principles of

non-discrimination and legal personality. Are these principles the raison
d'être of Article 89? In case of war. the provisions of the Convention do
not affect the freedom of action of any of the contracting States con- ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 132

cerned, whether as belligerents or as neutrals; theame principle is applied
when a contracting State declares a state of national emergency. It should
be observed that even a state of war does not involve the termination of
the Convention between the contracting States; the point is that there are
no bilateral treaties between them. It is the Convention itself, which is
still in force, which confers upon the States concerned freedom of action

with regard to the obligations undertaken by them.
Ttwould seem that the following conclusions may be drawn:

(1) Treaties creating organizations are subject to special rules, and not
to the rule laid down in Article60 of the Vienna Convention.
(2) The rules of the Chicago Convention do not recognize the possibility
of a State declaring the Convention at an end vis-à-vis oneother State.

(3) The special rules of the Convention and the Transit Agreement
exclude any possibility of applying the rule laid down in Article 60
of the Vienna Convention.

(4) The interpretation of Article 84 of the Convention, and Article II
of the Transit Agreement, advanced by India, is contrary not only to
the letter and to the purpose of those Articles, but also to the system
of ICA0 as an international organization.

4. lndia conteiids further-and this is the last point in its argument-
that it had power to put an end to its obligations toward Pakistan by

~inilateral declaration. This argument has been advanced in a somewhat
unusual way. The chief counsel for lndia explains it thus:

". .. assume hypothetically that a State has acted in such a way
that my overflying that State's territory is unsafe-that destroys
the very objective, the very purpose, of the Convention and the
Transit Agreement. If because of that I terminate the Agreement,
1 have terminated in rightfully. Suppose 1 get panicky and hastily

jump to the conclusion-1 will assume wrongly jump to the conclu-
sion-that my overflying the territory of the other State is unsafe.
Suppose that the view 1 have taken is an unduly apprehensive one
and the correct view should be that it is al1right for me, it is safe
enough for me, to overfly, then 1 have wrongfully terminated the
agreement. But whether 1 have terminated it rightfully or wrong-
fully is a dispute as to termination. That is the important point."

(Memorial of India, Annex E, (a). Discussion, para. 24.)

Consequently, according to the chief counsel for India, since there
is no disagreement as to the interpretation or the application of the
Convention. but a dispute over its termination, the Council has no

90 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 133

jurisdiction to determine this dispute or disagreement. The Convention
and the Agreement have thus come to an end vis-à-vis the other State '.

The errors in the Tndian argument have already been pointed out.
The closely reasoned and logical argument of the chief counsel for
lndia shows inost clearly the practical importance of the question
raised in this case, and its general importance for the functioning of
international organizations.

The direct consequence of the doctrine which India advances before
us is to confer on member States the possibility of freeing themselves at
will from their obligations as members of the Organization vis-à-vis
another member State. It affords a convenient cover for a non volumus.

Ttis enough to accuse the other party of breach of an obligation, and to
treat the breach as an appropriate ground for putting an end to the treaty.
A State might act thus in order to withdraw a breach on its own part
from the jurisdiction of the Council; it might also declare that the Con-
vention had come to an end vis-à-vis another member state in order to

exert pressure on that State to make a discrimination in its own favour.
In any event, the Organization would be reduced to impotence when faced
with this manŒuvre designed to evade the jurisdiction of the Council,
whatever may be the breach of the obligations flowing from the Conven-
tion or the Agreement; it would be sufficient to dress it up artificially,

or simply to take a dispute over the existence of a breach of the treaty
and baptise it a dispute over the termination of the treaty.
The explanations given by the chief counsel for lndia also make it
clear how far the Indian contention is contrary to the uniformity and
interna1 tie appropriate to the nature of organizations, and how in prac-

tice it disregards the principle of non-discrimination, to substitute there-
for another principle, that of optional discrimination.
It has been said that the consequences of an interpretation are the
touchstone of that interpretation. Any interpretation which leads to ab-
surdity, which opens the door to fraud. which disregards the aims and

the object of the rule to be interpreted, must be rejected. But these are
the inescapable results of the Indian contention.
Tt may therefore be concluded without hesitation that Article 84 of
the Convention and Article II of the Transit Agreement confer jurisdic-
tion on the Council for al1questions relating to the breach of obligations

deriving froni the Convention or the Agreement, because it has juris-

l The argument here set forth seems to be pervaded by what is a fairly common
source of confusion, namely the belief that the absence of any tribuhaving com-
pulsory jurisdictionarbitrarilyleaves States free to terminate or suspend treaties.
The true position is that a declaration of termination or suSpension must be objec-
tively justified to be valid. This also has importpractiîal consequences: an ar-
bitrary declarationdoes not suspend the treaty and does not terminate it, it will
bynthe international community, andvein the present case, by the Court (Arts. 36tates,
and 37 of the Statute).diction to settle any dispute as to the interpretation or application of the
Convention and Transit Agreement.

III. OBJECTIONS BY INDIA AS TO THE METHOD FOLLOWE DY THE
COUNCIL TO REACH ITS DECISION

In the Memorial of India, the nullity of the decision of the Council
is asserted, in view of the way in which the decision was adopted.
Before embarking on an examination of the grounds on which India
asks the Court to declare the Council's decision unfair and prejudicial
to India, and bad in law, it would seem useful briefly to recall the meaning
of nullity. Nullity is a very serious sanction. Its application is confined

to acts contra legeni. For absolute nullity, which is herein question, it
is necessary that the act under scrutiny should have been incompatible
with the law. For this, it is necessary that the law should be imperative
or prohibitive, that the act be contrary to the object of the law, and that
the defect in the act should have not been put right. For a judgment or
other decision to be declared nuIl and void, it must be defective with

regard to its results, its substance, its essence, and not merely with regard
to the reasoning, or to inessential aspects of it.
India's criticism of the method followed by the Council is addressed
to five points:

1. The way in which the question of jiirisdiction was put to the Coun-
cil. The proposals put to the vote were drawn up negatively, namely
"the Council has no jurisdiction .. .", whereas the point should, it is
asserted, have been expressed afirmatively: "the Co~incil has jurisdic-
tion . . ." (Memorial of India, para. 93 and Annex E, (e), Discussion,

paras. 58 et seqq.). India's reasoning appears to be based on the belief
that if a preliminary objection is raised, the Council must take acision
on its own jurisdiction and not on the preliminary objection (see Art. 5,
para. 4, of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences, and what was said
on this by the representative of lndia in the Council, Memorial of
India, Anriex E, (e), Discussion, para. 76).

But the express terms of the French text of this provision of the Rules
(Art. 5, para. 4) seem to say the contrary. Once the preliminary objec-
tion is raised, "le Conseil .. rend une décision sur cette question pré-
judicielle", that is toay that the Council must give a decision on the
preliminary objection, which is "cette question préjudicielle". The Coun-
cil does not have to take a decision on its own iurisdiction as if this was
a preliminary issue. It must take a decision on the objection; it must

u~hold the obiection or dismiss it '.
This procedure presupposes a presumptioii in favour of thejurisdiction
of the Council. It is the normal conseauence of the ~rocedural machinerv.
A judgment or judicial decision must correspond to the submissions of
the applicant; if it does not, it will be defective as a decision ultra petita.

'Except where one of the parties does not appear (Art. 16 of the Rules).
92It is also well known that reus in excipiendo fit actor l. India asks the

Council to declare "that the Council has no jurisdiction to hear them
[Pakistan's Application and Complaint] or handle the matters contained
therein" (Memorial of India, Annex C, para. 39).
On a preliminary objection, the former respondent becomes the ap-
plicant, and it is therefore on him that the burden falls of proving the

grounds of his objection 2. The Council had to decide whether there
were any reasons for it to declare that it had no jurisdiction. 1s it not
therefore logical that it should have asked itself "Has the Council no
jurisdiction ...?" This is what India advanced in the written text of its
objection. It does not therefore appear that the Council's decisions are

defective because the questions were incorrectly put.
2. India complains that the Council did not afford its members further
time to study the issues after having heard the parties, on the basis of a
full verbatim record, and to consult their Governments as to the weight
of the arguments put forward during the oral proceedings; furthermore,

one member of the Council was not present throughout the oral pro-
ceedings (Memorial of India, paras. 93-99).
All these arguments seem somewhat lame; no provision can be found
to support them.
The procedure adopted by the Council is not contrary to equity. The

members of the Council and their Governments had had reasonable
time to acquaint themselves with India's objection, and to study it, and
the grounds put forward in support of it. Far from being contrary to
the law, this procedure is in accordance with it. The Rules lay down that
the Council, after hearing the parties, shall decide the question (Art. 5,

para. 4).After the hearing, the discussion is closed and its decision must
be given without further time. With regard to "the time-limits . . . fixed",
the Council "may" extend them at its discretion (Art. 28 of the Rules).
Certain members of the Council took the view that the time-limit before
taking the decision should be extended, and this was in fact proposed.

A vote was taken, and the proposa1 was not adopted; it received 8 votes
as against the 14 which were necessary (Memorial of India, Annex E,
(e), Discussion, para. 42) 3.
As to the absence of one member of the Council during the oral pro-
ceedings, there is no provision in the Rules which treats this as invali-

dating-the vote. In ahy event, the point would seem to be irrelevant,
because the vote was not necessary for the dismissal of the objection raised
by India.

'Agere etiam is videtur, qui exceprione utitur; nam reus in exceprione actor est,
D. 44.1.1.
"Reus exceptiones quasobiicit probare videturM-Decio, in tir. de reg. juris,
regula 43, 5. See also Art. 62, paras. 2 and 3, of the Rules of Court.
The chief counsel of India seernsto have admitted, with referenceto tirne-limits
that "itis their [the Council's] decision" (Mernorial of India, Annex E(e),Dis-
cussion, para. 82). ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CAS1 RU)
136

3. In the lndian Government's Reply, it is claimed that for questions
relating to the Transit Agreement, a majority of 14 votes was required,
and the decision of the Council on India's objection received only 13
votes (ibid., para. 78). This observation is not to the point, because the

vote was not on the jurisdiction of the Council, but on the lack of juris-
diction of the Council. It was on this that the vote was taken. On the
Indian proposal there was one Aye, 13 Noes, and 3 abstentions.
It may be added that India's argument as to the calculation of the
votes, notwithstanding the authority of the memoranduin by the Secre-
tary General of ICA0 (Annex D to the Indian Reply) is not convincing.

Article 52 of the Convention states that "decisions by the Council shall
require approval by a majority of its members". But Article 66 (6)
provides that "Meinbers of the. . . Council who have not accepted ...
the Transit Agreement. .. shall not have the right to vote on any ques-
tions referred to the .. . Council under the provisions of the . .. Agree-
ment". In view of the object and spirit of these Articles. they must be

interpreted in the sense that decisions on questions raised under the
Agreement must be taken by a majority of the members entitled to vote.
The abstentions of the members of the Council which are not signatories
to the Agreement, or have not accepted it, should not be counted in
calculating the majority, because one can only talk of abstentions with
reference to those who are able to vote.

A rule of law may not be interpreted in a way which leads to an absurd
result (reductio ad ubsurdum). Can the abstentions (which are required
by Art. 66) of the members of the Council which have not signed or
accepted the Agreement, prevent decisions on questions relating to the
Agreement being taken, even if the members which have signed and
accepted the Agreement have voted unanimously for such decisions?

4. lndia ar"ues further that the Council's decision is vitiated because
the proposais put to the vote by the President were neither introduced
nor seconded by any member of the Council, as required by Rules 41 and
46 of the Rules of Procedüre.
This objection seems to be the result of a niisunderstanding. The
President did not in this case put forward any proposai; he put-to the

vote the questions raised by India in its preliminary objections.
5. At the very last moment, towards the end of the public hearing of
23 June 1972,India made a fresh objection to the validity of the Council's
decision ', and referred to the text of the decision, as reported in the
Pakistan Counter-Memorial (Annex II). Article 15 of the Rules for the
Settlement of Differences states that the decision of the Council shall

1s Jndia's objection contrary, on that accouto the procedural rules? This
is not a question of jurisdiction on which the Court would have to take a decision
proprio mofu.
1s it possible on appeal to argue that the Council's decision was invalidated on
a ground which was not advanced before the lower tribunal?
1s not Jndia's silence throughout whole of the proceedings ~intil the hearing
of 23 June a case of acquiescence? ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO)
137

be in writing and shall contain "(v) the conclusions of the Council
together with its reasons for reaching them". But the decision does not
give any reasons, and it is argued that this invalidates the decision.

The criticism thus made by India is ambiguously expressed. If one
compares the text of the decision with Article 15, referred to above, it
is apparent that the text does not comply with any of the forma1 require-
ments of the Article. What we have before us is not a decision within the
meaning of Article 15, it is the officia1notification of a resolution adopted
by the Council.

The problem of the validity of the Council's decision is thus not the
problem raised by India. lndia claims that the decision is invalid for breach
of a formal requirement, but what we are concerned with is nota decision
within the meaning of Article 15.
The problem is thus whether a decision within the meaning of Article

15 is necessary for a valid settlement of the preliminary isstÏe raised by
India. India has not brought any evidence of the Council's practice in
similar cases, and has not addressed any thorough legal argument to the
Court on the point. India simply States that according to Article 5, if
a preliminary objection is raised, the Council shall decide,and that ac-
cording to Article 15,decisions must contain the conclusioiiswith reasons,

whereas the Council has given no reasons.
It is somewhat startling that the Secretary General and Legal Officers
of ICAO, the members of the Council, and even the Representative of
India, did not point out that the Council had not really taken any deci-
sion, that in fact nothing valid had been done, since there had been a
failure to take account of Article 15.

Without being an expert in the procedure of ICAO, it seems to me
that we may find in the Rules for the Settlement of Differences a satis-
factory explanation for the Council's conduct.
It would seem that in those Rules a distinction is made between two
procedures. One is governed by Article 5; it is a procedure which might

be regarded as interlocutory, short and simple, by which, after the parties
have been heard, a decision is taken, yes or no, to proceed or not to
proceed with the application. The preliminary issue raised by the preli-
minary objection is not governed by Chapter IV, which applies to or-
dinary proceedings. Chapter IV contemplates a more forma1 and com-
plicated procedure. It is this procedure which is terminated by the deci-

sion provided for in Article 15; this is a true judgment, a final decision
which presupposes the close of the proceedings; the decision is given
"after the close of the proceedings" (Art. 15, para.4),and it must respect
formal requirements which are not necessary when it is the preliminary
issue which has to be decided. The decision under Article 15puts an end
to the case for the Council. The decision dismissing the preliminary

objection, on the other hand, means that the procedure can continue,
and this explains why the Council at this stage continues to invite the
parties to the dispute to engage in negotiations.
There is no doubt as to the nature of the Note of 30 July 1971 on the ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO)
138

preliminary objections of lndia (Annex II to the Counter-Memorial
of Pakistan). Itis a communication by which Pakistan (and there was no
doubt an identical communication to India) was informed that on 29July
1971the Council had decided not to uphold the preliminary objections,
and that accordingly the time-limit set for delivery of the Counter-
Memorial began to run as from 29 July. The Secretary General drew the
attention of the parties to the Council's resolution of 8April 1971in which
they were invited to negotiate.

It is apparent that we are here in the frame of reference of Article 5,
and not at al1in that of Article 15.
Furthermore it cannot be said, as lndia has done (C.R. 7215,p. 45),
that the Rules of Procedure are statutory rules, having the same force
as the constituent instrument of the Council. The Rules for the Settle-
ment of Differences were not adopted by vote of the Parties to the Con-
vention, or of the members of the Assembly; it was the Council which
approved them on 9 April 1967. It is not the constituent instrument of
the Council, but something which the Council itself has produced. The
Council reserves to itself powers over the procedure (Art. 28), and
Article 33 tells us that "the present Rules may, at any time, be amended
by the Council".
Since it was the Council which approved its Rules of Procedure, the

interpretation given by it of those Rules in the exercise of its functions
(facta concludentia) ranks as an authoritative interpretation l.There is
thus a strong presumption that the decision taken by the Council is in
conformity with the true n~eaningof the Rules.

IV. THESPECIAA LGREEMEN T F 1966

lndia has contended that the question of overflights of its territory by
aircraft of Pakistan is not governed by the Convention and Transit
Agreement, but by the Special Agreement of 1966(which has been sus-
pended) between India and Pakistan. The consequence is thus that the
ICA0 Council has no jurisdiction to take a decision on a question which
is outside the Convention and Transit Agreement.

India's argument does not seem to take into account Article 82 of the
Convention, and Articles 30, paragraph 4, and 41, paragraph 1, of the
Vienna Convention. In the case of a multilateral treaty, anda fortiori in
the case of the constituent instrument of an international organizatioii,
two of the parties to the treatyan only conclude an agreement to modify
the treaty as between themselves if the possibility of such a modification
is provided for by the treaty, or the modificationis not prohibited and is
not incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty as a whole.
The Convention, in Article 82,imposes an obligation on al1contracting

In the sense of what has been called an "interprétation institutionnelle".States not to contract obligations or understandings which are inconsis-
tent with the terms of the Convention.

The 1966 Agreement may be interpreted in two ways. One can either

hold that it contains provisions incompatible with the Convention, or
that its provisions are compatible with the Convention.
On the first hypothesis (incompatibility), it was not possible for the
Council to consider these provisions. because, being contrary to the
obligations undertaken by lndia and Pakistan, they are nuIl and void
(contra Iegem).

On the other hypothesis (compatibility), the 1966Agreement respected
al1 the imperative provisions of the Convention. It could not, therefore,
exclude the rules in the Convention concerning the jurisdiction of the
Council to take decisions on the interpretation or the application of the
Convention and Agreement, so that the Council has jurisdiction to state
whether India has or has not committed a breach of its obligations

towards Pakistan under the Convention, or the Transit Agreement, and
to state also, if appropriate, whether the provisions of the 1966Agreement
are, or are not, compatible with those of the Convention '.

' Possibly taking into account the very special circumstances of the relationship
between the two States. and a teleological interpretatof Article 89 of the Con-
vention.

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. DE CASTRO '

Usant du droit qui ni'est conférépar l'article 57 du Statut, je me per-

mets d'exposer en détail quelques-unes des raisons qui ont déterminémon
vote.
Les opinions dissidentes et indiviciuelles sont critiquées, surtout dans
les pays de système latin, parce qu'elles affaiblissent l'autorité des arrêts:
ce n'est pas la Cour, dit-on, mais une majorité minime qui décide; en
outre, dans les opinions individuelles, certains des arguments sur lesquels

repose l'arrêtsont mis en doute par des membres de la majorité.

D'un autre côté,les opinions montrent la vie, l'évolutionde la doctrine
juridique. Des opinions dissidentes sont le droit de l'avenir, d'autres
traduisent la résistance des idées anciennes. Pour ma part, je crois

à l'utilitédes opinions individuelles; elles donnent la possibilité auxjuges
d'expliquer lesraisons de leur vote. La rédaction cie I'arrêtest une tache
très délicatecar ildoit refléter avec beaucoup de prudence le consensus
de la ma.jorité,et cela avec clarté, simplicitéet sans équivoque. Dans ces
conditions, si les raisonnements q~i'~injuge considère comme décisifsne

trouvent pas leur expression dans l'arrêt, l'opinion individuelle permet
de les indiquer. Elle offre Linmoyen de connaître les raisons du vote des
membres de la majorité et cela peut êtreutile pour les études critiques
des commentateurs.
Dans l'affaire soumise à la Cour. il y a, i mon avis, des questions

d'importance qu'il n'a pas été possibled'examiner de façon approfondie
dans l'arrêt. Je crois, aux fins limitées que j'ai mentionnées, pouvoir
exposer en détail mon opinion sur quelques points soiilevésdans le litige.

1. L'attitude du Pakistan en ce qui concerne la compétence de la Cour
a évolué.
A la séancedu Conseil de I'OACI du 18 octobre 1971, le conseil prin-
cipal du Pakistan, M. Pirzada. a soutenu que (l'appel interjeté par
l'Inde à propos de la plainte ...déposée[par le Pakistan] conformément à

la section Ide l'article II de l'Accord de transit est irrecevab1et que son
gouvernement se réservait le droit de soulever a son sujet ccune exception

' Pour les renvois aux conlptes rendus d'audienc(C.R. 721...),voir table de
concordance jointeà C.I.JMirnoires, Appel concernant la con~phencedu Conseil de
I'OACI. in fine. SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE DE CASTRO '

Exercisirig the right conferred upon me by Article 57 of the Statute,

1venture to set out in detail a few of the reasons which determined my
vote.
Dissenting and separate opinions are criticized, especially in countries
which follow the Latin system, because they weaken the authority of
judgments: it is not the Court. it is said, but only a tiny majority which

takes the decision; furthermore, in separate opinions, some of the argu-
ments on which the jiidgment rests are called into question by members
of the majority.
On the other harid, such opinions are evideilce of the life and of the
evolution of legai doctrine. Some dissenting opinions are the law of the

future; others are the expression of the resistance of old ideas. Personally,
1think separate opinions have their uses: they givejudges an opportunity
to explain the reasons for their votes. The drafting of a judgment is a
very deliczite task. for it must, with great prudence. refiect the "consen-
sus" of the majority and it must do so clearly, simply and unambiguously.

In these circiimstances. if the arguments which a judge regards as con-
clusive do not find expression in thejudgment, a separate opinion makes
it possible forthem to be stated. Separate opinions provide a means for
making known the reasons for the votes of members of the majority and
this may be iiseful for the purposes of critical studies by commentators.

In the case submitted to the Court, there are, to my mind, important
questions to which it was not possible to give due consideration in the
Judgment. With the limited objects 1 have mentioned, 1 should like to
give in some detail my opinion on a few of the points raised in this case.

1.PAK~STAYO 'SBJECTION TO THE COURT'S JURISDICTION

1. Pakistan's attitude with regard to the Court's jurisdiction has under-
gone a progressive change.
At the meeting of the ICA0 Council on 18 October 1971, the Chief
Counsel of Pakistan, Mr. Pirzada, maintained that "the Appeal by India

in respect of our Cornplaint filed under Section 1 of Article II of the
Transit Agreement is incompetent" and that his Government reserved
the right "to raise these issues and objections as to competency thereof

' Passages in the oral proceedings indicated by the symbol C.R. 7.may be
located throcigh the Table of Concordancprinted at the end oI.C.J. Pleadings,
Apprvil relotiIOgthr Jlo.ivdir,ofoflrICA0 Council.d'irrecevabilitédevant la Cour internationale de Justice, en temps voulu ))
(duplique du Gouvernement pakistanais, par. 40). Cette exception n'a
pas été soulevée.

Dans le contre-mémoire, le Pakistan soutient que I'article 36 du Statut
est sans pertinence, étant donnéla réserve formuléepar leGouvernement
de l'Inde dans sa déclaration d'acceptation de juridiction en ce qui con-
cerne les différends avec lesgouvernements membres du Commonwealth
de nations. Le Pakistan soutient aussi que l'appel interjeté par l'Inde
contre la décision prise par le Conseil est irrecevable parce que c'est la

section 1 et non la section 2 de I'article II de l'Accord au'il convient
d'appliquer (contre-mémoire du Gouvernement pakistanais, par. 24 et
25).
La duplique pakistanaise discute des assertions de l'Inde mais, sur la
com~étencede la Cour. elle se borne à une affirmation: (La décisiondu

Conseil sur tout ce qui se rapporte à une plainte est sans appel )(par. 40).

C'est à l'audience publique du 27 juin 1972 que le conseil principal
du Pakistan devant la Cour, M. Bakhtiar, a niéque la Cour ait com-
pétencepour juger de l'appel de I'Inde sur la décisiondu Conseil relative

à sa propre compétence. Jusque-là le Pakistan avait contesté la possibilité
d'un appel sur la décision du Conseil en ce qui concerne l'Accord de
transit (art. II, section 1) maisil n'avait rien opposé à la possibilité d'un
appel sur la décision du Conseil relative au différend exposédans la
requêtedu Pakistan dans la mesure où ce différendporte sur la Conven-

tion (art. 84).
Malgré cette irrégularité procédurale, la Cour doit examiner sa com-
pétencede manière explicite puisqu'elle a étémise en doute.
2. La plainte fondée sur la section 1de I'article II de l'Accord n'est
pas susceptible d'appel, parce qu'elle aboutit non pas à une décision du

Conseil, mais à des consultations et des recommandations aux parties
et, au cas où un Etat contractant intéresséomet de prendre les mesures
correctives appropriées sans raison valable, à d'éventuellesrecommanda-
tions à l'Assemblée. Maisla décisiondu Conseil sur sa compétence pour
connaître du désaccord concernant l'Accord de transit peut.faire l'objet

d'un appel, parce que le Pakistan a fondé ses allégations, en face de
l'exception de l'Inde, sur I'article 84 de la Convention et I'article II,
section 2, de l'Accord.
L'exception préliminaire de l'Inde, par sa nature même,a empêché
que l'on procède à l'étude de la plainte sur la base de la section I de
l'article11de l'Accord. On a discuté non pas une mesure prise par I'Inde

mais la compétence du Conseil pour examiner une telle mesure. De là il
résultequ'au Conseil le débat a été centrésur l'interprétation des traités
en généralet celle de la Convention et de I'Accord en particulier (voir
les déclarations de M. Pirzada, mémoire du Gouvernement indien,
annexe E, 3' séance, Débat. par. 25 et suiv; 4' séance, Débat, par. 28 et

suiv.). Dans la réplique du Gouvernement pakistanais aux exceptions
soulevéespar I'lnde, on trouve ceci:before the International Court of Justice at the appropriate time"
(Rejoinder of Pakistan, para. 40). Such an objection has not been raised.

In the Counter-Menlorial, Pakistan claims that Article 36 of the Statute
is irrelevant, in view of. the reservation in the Government of India's

declaration accepting the Court's jurisdiction, concerning disputes with
States members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Pakistan also claims
that the appeal brought by Tndia against the Council's decision is inad-
missible because it is Section1and not Section 2 of ArticleIlof the Agree-
ment which should be applied (Counter-Memorial of Pakistan, paras.
24 and 25).

In the Rejoinder of Pakistan, some of India's assertions are disputed,
but on the jurisdiction of the Court it is confined to a simple affirmation
that "the decision of the Council on any matter relating to a Complaint
is not subject to appeal" (Rejoinder, para. 40).
It was at the publicsitting of 27 June 1972that Pakistan's Chief Coun-
sel before the Court, Mr. Bakhtiar, denied that the Court had jurisdic-

tion to determine India's appeal against the decision of the Council on
its own jurisdiction. Up to that point, Pakistan had disputed the pos-
sibility of appeal against the Council's decision with regard to the
Transit Agreement (Art. II,Sec. l), but had not advanced any argument
against the possibility of appeal against the Council'secision concerning
the dispute indicated in Pakistan's Application. to the extent that that
dispute related to the Convention (Art. 84).

Despite this procedural irregularity, the Court must deal explicitly with
its own jurisdiction since this has been called in question.
2. Appeal does not lie against a complaint based on Section 1 of Ar-
ticle II of the Agreement, because it does not lead to a decision of the
Council, but to consultations and recommendations to the parties and-
if the contracting State concerned unreasonably fails to take suitable
corrective action-to possible recommendations to the Assembly. But

appeal does lie against the Council's decision on its own jurisdiction to
deal with a disagreement concerning the Transit Agreement, because
Pakistan based its claims, in reply to India's objection, on Article 84 of
the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Agreement.

India's preliminary objection, by its very nature, prevented the Com-
plaint being dealt with on the basis of Section 1 of Article II of the Agree-

ment. What was argued was not the action taken by India, but the Coun-
cil'sjurisdiction to exaniine such action. It thus follows that in the Coun-
cil the discussion was centred on the interpretation of treaties in general,
and that of the Convention and the Agreement in particular (see the
remarks of Mr. Pirzada, Annex E to the Memorial of India, (b), Dis-
cussion, paras. 25 fT. (.), Discussion, paras. 28 ff.)In Pakistan's reply
to India's preliminary objections, the following passages may be found: ((11existe un désaccord entre l'Inde et le Pakistan à propos de
l'interprétation ou de l'application de la Convention et de l'Accord
detransit ))(mémoire du Gouvernement indien, annexe D, par. Il a)).

(La requêtedu Pakistan tombe sous le coup de l'article 84 de la
Convention, du paragraphe 2 de I'article II de l'Accord de transit

et du paragraphe 1 de I'article premier du Rkglenient 1)(ihid., par. 25
et 26; voir aussi par. 18).

(Le Conseil a compétence pour étudier et trancher tout différend
découlant de l'interprétation et/ou de l'application de la Convention
et de I'Accord de transit et pour formuler les conclusions et recom-

mandations appropriées en vertu de l'Accord de transit 1)(ibid.,par.
39 d) ).

La question qui a étédiscutéeau Conseil et décidéepar Iiiest celle de
sa compétence pour interpréter I'Accord, eu égardà l'exception opposée
par l'Inde '.A partir du moment où I'lnde soulève une exception, la
plainte du Pakistan ne peut pas êtreassujettie à la procédure spéciale

prévue pour les plaintes (art. 23 et suiv. du Règlement pour la solution
des différends). L'exception de l'Inde change la nature delaquestion posée
au Conseil. Elle ne concerne plus une mesure prise par I'lnde conformé-
ment à l'Accord (art. II, sect. 1): il y a, dèsce moment, un désaccord sut

la possibilité d'appliquer I'Accord, sur son extinction ou sa suspension
et ce désaccord implique aussi un désaccord sur son interprétation (art.
II, sect. 2).
L'article II, section 2, de l'Accord renvoie au chapitre XVlII de la

Convention, dont I'article 84 réservela faculté d'appeler de la décisiondu
Conseil 2.
On peut noter aussi qu'il sembleque la plainte et la requête du Pakistan
ainsi que les mémoires qui y sont joints, sont presque identiques bien

qu'introduits séparément conformément au Règlement (mémoire du
Gouvernement indien, annexe B, Plainte, deuxième lettre, note).
3. L'lnde avait fondéla compétence de la Cour sur I'article 37 de son
Statut, l'article 84 de la Convention et I'article II, section 2, de l'Accord.

A la séancepublique du 27 juin 1972,le Pakistan a fait valoir qiie I'article

l La question mise au vote au Conseil est celle-ci:

Le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour connaître du désaccord exposé dans
la requêtedu Pakistan en ce qui concerne l'Accord relatif auransit des services
aériens internationaux. 1) (Mémoire du Go~ivernemcnt indien, annexe E.
6e séance, questions débattues et décisions prises, 29 juillet 1971, par. 2.)
La question poséeau Conseil n'est pas de savoir si la plainte du Pakistan est justifiée
ou non mais. comme le président du Conseil l'a expliqué, si '(le Conseil n'est pas
compétent pour connaître de la requête présentéeaux termes de I'Accord de transit1'
(ibid.. Débat. par. 91). Cette question est soulevée parce que l'Inde soutient que
I'Accord a pris fin ou est suspendu et qu'en conséquence le Conseil n'a pas coni-
pétence selon I'Accord.
Voir dans ce sens la note présentée par le secrétaire général de I'OACI sur
I'article 86 (répliqueu Goiivernenient indien. annexe C. par. 5). [CAO COUNCIL (SEP.OP. DE CASTRO) 118

"There exists a disagreement between lndia and Pakistan relating

to the interpretation or application of the Convention and the Tran-
sit Agreement" (Annex D to the Memorial of India, para. Il (a)).

"Pakistan's Application is within the scope of Article 84 of the
Convention, Article II (2) of the Transit Agreement and Article 1
(1) of the Rules" (ihid., paras. 25 and 26; see also para. 18).

"The Council has jurisdiction to entertain and decide any dis-
pute regarding the interpretation and/or application of the Con-
vention and theTransit Agreement and to make appropriate findings

and recommendation under the Transit Agreement" (ibid., para. 39
(d)).

The question which was argued in the Council, and decided by it, is
the question of its jurisdiction to interpret the Agreement, taking into
account the objection raised by Tndia '. Once India had raised an objec-
tion, Pakistan's Coinplaint could not be dealt with under the special
procedure laid down for complaints (Arts. 23 ct seq, of the Rules for

the Settlement of Differences). Tndia's objection changes the nature of
the question laid before the Council. It no longer concerns action taken
by India under the Agreement (Art. II.Sec. 1): from that moment there
is a disagreement as to the possibility of applying the Agreement, as to

its termination or its suspension, and that disagreement implied a further
disagreement as to its interpretation (Art. II,Sec. 2).
Article II, Section 2. of the Agreement refers back to Chapter XVIII of
the Convention. Article 84 of which reserves a right of appeal from the
Council's decision ?.

Tt may also be noted that it appears that Pakistan's Complaint and
Application. and the Memorials attached thereto, are almost identical,
although they were filed separately in con~pliancewith the Rules (Annex
B to the Indian Memorial, Complaint, note).
3. lndia had founded the Court's jurisdiction on Article 37 of its

Statute. Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the
Agreement. At the public sitting of 27 June 1972, Pakistan contended

'The question put t« the vote in the Council was as follows:
"The Council fias no jurisdiction to consider the disagreement in Pakistan's
Application in sofar as concerns the International AServices Transit Agree-
inent." (Annex to Meniorial of India, (e), Subjects discussed and action
taken, para. 2.)
The question put to the Council is not whether Pakistan'sCornplaint is or is not
justified but, as the President of the Council explained, whet"the Council has
no jurisdictionto consider the Application under the Transit Agreement" (ihid.,
para. 91). This question is raised because India maintains ththe Agreement has
come to an end or is suspended and that, consequently, the Council hasno juris-
diction under the Agreement.
See in thisense the Note presented by the Secretary General of ICA0 on Ar-
ticle 86 (Annex C to the Indian Reply, para. 5).37 est une disposition transitoire du Statut et qu'il contient les termes
1entre les parties au présent Statut j)Or ce Statut a étépromulgué avant

la naissance du Pakistan (C.R. 7216,p. 39). A l'appui de sa thèse, le con-
seil pakistanais cite divers arrêtsde la Cour (C.J.J. Recueil 1959, p. 139,
140, 142; C.I.J. Recueil 1961, p. 27-32; C.I.J. Recueil 1962,p. 602).

Mais l'expression 11entre 1 les/ parties au présent Statut 1)se trouve aussi
à I'article 36, paragraphe 5. Cette disposition concerne les déclarations
faites en application de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente et

comportant acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour. L'article
37 concerne, lui, les traités ou conventions en vigurur prévoyant le renvoi
à la Cour permanente (cas de I'article 84 de laconvention et de I'article II,

section 2, de l'Accord).
Les arrêtsde la Cour citéspar le Pakistan visent l'application de I'article
36, paragraphe 5, du Statut et non l'article 37. La doctrine de la Cour sur
l'article 37 est contraire à la thèse du Pakistan. La Cour - elle nous le

dit elle-même - ne peut admettre IIque la dissolution de la Cour per-
manente ait pu entraîner la caducité ou l'abrogation de l'une quelconque
des clauses juridictionnelles en question [etj elle doit conclure que la
date à laquelle le défendeur est devenu partie au Statut est sans pertinen-

ce » (C.J.J. Recueil 1964,p. 34). 1Le but premier de la clause n'étaitpas
de désigner tel tribunal plutôt que tel autre, mais de créerune obligation
de règlement judiciaire. Cette obligation impliquait naturellement la

désignation d'une juridiction 1)(ibid., p. 38). Une fois dissoute la Cour
permanente a un autre tribunal :la Cour internationale de Justice j est
fourni par le jeu automatique d'un instrument :le Statut de la Cour/
liant les deux parties 1)(ibid., p. 39).

Rien dans la plaidoirie du Pakistan ne peut justifier un revirement de
jurisprudence de la part de la Cour.
4. Le cŒur de la toute nouvelle thèse pakistanaise est son interpré-

tation de I'article 84 de la Convention. Selon celle-ci. I'article doit s'a~-
pliquer aux décisions finales ou aux décisions de fond - celles que vise
l'article 15 du Règlement pour la solution des différends -, mais il ne
s'applique pas aux décisions sur les exceptions préliminaires, qui ne

sont donc pas susceptibles d'appel.
a) Cette interprétation s'appuie tout d'abord sur la lettre de l'article
84. Elle met en relief qu'on y mentionne fla décision )>du Conseil (let non
pas n'importe quelle (any) décision du Conseil 11;et que Ken utilisant le

mot I(règlement », on a dû vouloir dire qu'une question qui ne pourrait
êtrerégléeau fond par voie de négociation serait tranchée par le Con-
seil 1)(C.R. 7216, p. 25). On ajoute que si on pouvait appeler de toute

ordonnance qu'elle soit rendue par le Conseil l'cela détruirait l'objet
même de laConvention de Chicago )(ibid., p. 26). La lecture sans préjugé
de l'article 84 nous invite à lui donne] un autre sens. II parle d'un désac-
cord (any disagreement) qui ne peut ître réglépar voie de négociation.

Certes il ne se réfèrepas à toutes lescatégoriesde désaccordspouvant être
tranchés par des ordonnances. IIse réfère auxdésaccordsquipeuvent être ICA0 COUNClL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 119

that Article 37 is a transitory provision of the Statute, which speaks of
"as between the parties to the present Statute"; but the Statute was pro-
mulgated before Pakistan came into existence (C.R. 7216, p. 39). In
support of this argument counsel for Pakistan quoted various Judgments
of the Court (I.C.J. Reports1959 ,p. 139, 140, 142; I.C.J. Reports1961,

pp. 27-32, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , .602).
But tlie expression "as between the parties to the present Statute" also
occurs in Article 36,paragraph 5. This provision relates to declarations
made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Permanent Court, deemed to
be acceptances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the present Court. Ar-
ticle37 however concerns treaties or conventions in force providing for
reference of a rnatter to the Permanent Court (the case of Article 84 of

the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Agreement).
The Judgments of the Court which Pakistan has quoted relate to the
application of Article36, paragraph 5,of the Statute, and not Articl37.
The Court's doctrine on Article 37 is contrary to the argument of Pakis-
tan. The Court, as it has itself stated, cannot "accept the dissolution of
the Permanent Court as a cause of lapse or abrogation of any of the juris-
dictional clauses concerned, [and] it must hold that the date at which the

Respondent became a party to the Statute is irrelevant" (I.C.J. Reports
1964, p. 34). "It was not the primary purpose to specify one tribunal
rather than another, but to create an obligation of compulsory adjudi-
cation. (Such an obligation naturally entailed that a forum would be
indicated.)" (Ibid ..,38.) On the dissolution of the Permanent Court,
"another tribunal the[International Court of Justice].. is supplied by the
automatic operation of some ... instrument [the Statute of the Court] by

which both parties are bound". (Ibid p..39.)
Nothing in the argument of Pakistan could justify tlie Court's reversing
its previous rulingson this point.
4. The kernel of the whole new argument of Pakistan is its interpreta-
tioi-iof Article 84 of the Convention. On this interpretation,the Article
should be applied to final decisions or decisions on the merits-thedeci-
sions contemplated by Article 15of the Rules for the Settlement of Dif-

ferences-, but it does not apply to decisions on preliminary objections,
against which therefore appeal does not lie.
(a) This interpretation is based first of al1 on the letter of Article 84.
Attention is drawn to the fact that the Article mentions "the decison"
of the Council and not "any decision" of the Council; and that "the
word 'settlement' ought to rnean that when the matter could not be settled

by negotiation then it ought to be decided by the Council" (C.R. 7216,p.
25). If appeal were allowed-so the argument continues-from any Order
of the Council "that will defeat the very purpose of the Convention"
(ibid p..26). However, a reading of Article 84 without any preconceived
view leads us to give it a different meaning. It refers to "any disagreement"
which cannot be settled by negotiation. It does not of courserefer toevery
kind of disagreement which could be resolved by an Order. It refers to
disagreements which could be settled by negotiation and which relate to 120 CONSEIL DE L'OAC'I(OP. IND. DE CASTRO)

réglésparvoiede négociation etconcernent l'interprétation ou l'application
de la Convention. Le nombre des désaccords est limité, et les décisionsà

leur sujet n'incluent pas n'importe quelle espèce d'ordonnance. II doit
s'agir de décisions importantes et d'un certain intérêtgénéral.On ne
saurait sans une raison précise en exclure les décisions sur des questions

de conipktence. A l'encontre de l'interprétation trop restrictive de I'article
84 par le Pakistan, on peut faire observer que I'article 86, fig~irantsous
la rubrique Appels 11,nous dit qu'en dehors des décisions sur I'exploi-

tation des entreprises de transport aérien 11sur toute autre question les
décisions du Conseil sont suspendues en cas d'appel JI.Comment penser
qu'on a exclu de ces 1autres questions ))celles qui ont trait à la compé-

tence du Conseil '? Une décisiondu Conseil sur la compétence n'est pas
une ordonnance quelconque (comme par exemple une ordonnance sur
l'admission d'lin moyen de preuve). C'est une décision définitiveet d'im-
portance généralesi elle statiie sur une question d'interprétation de la

Convention. Dans l'affaire Pakistan contre Inde, si le Conseil fait droit
à I'exception préliminaire de l'Inde, la procédure est terminée, avec le
résultat que le Pakistan est déboutédéfinitivement de sa requêteet de sa

plainte 2.
Le désaccord sur la compétence du Conseil p:ut êtrerc;glépar une
décision du Conseil ou par des négociations. Le secrétaire généralde

I'OACI, en communiquant la décision du Conseil du 29 juillet 1971,
exprime son désirde ((rappeler a votre attention [celle des Parties] la ré-
solution du Conseil en date du 8 avril 1971invitant IesPartiesànégocier »

(contre-mémoire du Gouvernement pakistanais, annexe II) A .".

h) La thèse du Pakistan s'appuie aussi sur quelques articles du règle-

ment du Conseil pour la solution des différends. En résumé,le raisonne-
nient est le suivant: I'article 5 sur les exceptions préliminaires ne parle
pas d'appel. C'est qu'une décision sur une exceptioii préliminaire n'est
pas une décisioncontre laquelle on peut interjeter appel selon I'article 18.

'Voir aussi la note du secrétaire généralde I'OACI déjà citée(réplique du Gou-
vernement indien, annexe C, note 1).
Je ne vois pas de motif pour traiter différemment, selon leur aboutissenient. les
exceptions préliminaires sur la compétence et admettre l'appel seulement quand la
compétence est niée. Une telle distinction est dépourvue de tout fondement en
droit. Au surplus, le plaideur peut avoir unntérétdigne de protectionà faireappel de
la décision rejetant l'exception. Ajoutons que les décisions sur les exceptions d'in-
conipétence ont aussi un intérét généralcar elles peuvent devenir source de droit
comme jurisprudence.
Bien que la juridiction d'un tribunal ne soit pas subordonnée à la volonté des
plaideurs, ily a des possibilités de négociations sur la con~pétence. Un Etat peut
renoncer à I'exception préliminaire d'incompétence, d'iiiie manière expresse ou
tacite (.forutn prorogatutn), et cela à la suite de négociations.
Le membre de phrase de I'article 84, fa tout Etat contractant ..peut appeler 11,
doit être interprété comme donnant la faciilté d'appeà ,'tout Etat in-ipliq~iédans
ce désaccord 11.L'appel est ouvert aux partics à un litige. L'intervention, régie par
l'article19 du Règlement, est autre chose. ICA0 C'OUNCIL(SEP. OP. Ot: CAS1 RU) 120

the interpretation or application of the Conventioii. The nuinber of
possible disagreements is limited, and decisions on these do not include

any kind of Order whatsoever. They must be important decisions, and
decisions of a certain general interest. Decisions on questions of jurisdic-
tion caniiot therefore be excluded from this category without specific
reason. Against the over-restrictive interpretation of Article 84 advanced

by Pakistan, it may be observed that Article 86, under the heading "Ap-
peals", tells us that, apart from decisions on theoperation of international
airlines, "on any other niatter, decisions of the Council shall, if appealed
from, be suspended". How can it be conceived that questions relating to

the jui-isdiction of tlie Council were to be excluded from these "other
matters"'? A decision by the Council on its jurisdiction is not just any
sort of Order (comparable, for exaniple, to an Order on the admission
of evidence). It is a final decision and one of general importance if it deals

with a question of interpretation of the Convention. In the Pakistan v.
India case, if the Council upholds India's preliniinary objection, the
procedure is terminated, with the result that Pakistan is finally non-
suited with regard to its Application and Complaint '.

The disagreeinent as to the jurisdiction of the Council can be settlecl
by decision of the Council or by negotiation. The Secretary General of
ICAO, when informing the parties of the Council's decision of 29 July

1971, said that he desired "once more to draw your attention [i.e., the
Parties' attention] to the Couticil's resolution of 8 April 1971in which the
Parties were invited to negotiate" (Annex II to the Counter-Memorial of
Pakistan 3.4).

(h) Pakistan's argument is also based on certain articles of the Coun-
cil's Rules for the Settlement of Differences. The reasoning may be
summarized as follows: Article 5, on preliminary objections, makes
no mention of appeal. Thus a decision on a preliminary objection is not

a decision against which an appeal lies under Article 18. The decisions

' See also tlie Nol<: by the Secretary General of ICAO alrcady quoted above
(Annex C to the Reply, footnote).
1 see no reason why preliminary objections relating to jurisdictionsliould be
treated differently according to the decisions taken upon them or wliy the appeal
should bc upheld only when jurisdiction is denied. Such a distinction hasno foun-
dation in law. Moreover. a party inay have an interest. wortliy of protection, in
appealing froiii theecision disinissing the objection. It may be addcd that decisions
on objections to jurisdictionare also of generalinterest sincc, as judicial decisions.
they may become a source of law.
j Although the jurisdiction of a court is not subjcct to the will of the parties to
a caFe, there are possibilities for negotiatioconcerning jurisdiction.A State may
waive a preliniinary objection to jurisdiction. eithcrexplicitly or tacitly (/oruni
proro~at~rnzI,and this niay happen as a result of negotiations.
The phrase in Article 84 "Any contracting State may .. appeal" must be in-
terpreted as giving to "any contracting State involved in thiq dispute" the right to
appeal. An appeal is open tothe parties to a dispute. Interveiition, which is governed
by Article 19 of the Kulcî, is anotlier matter. 121 CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. INU. DE CASTRO)

Les décisions dont on peut faire appel sont les décisionsviséesà I'article
15 et non celles que mentionne l'article 5.

En premier lieu ilfaut tenir compte du caractèredes normes réglemen-
taires. Elles ont pour but de développer et de compléter les normes de la
Convention. Elles ne peuvent êtreinterprétéesdans un sens contraire à
celui des normes dont elles tirent leur force obligatoire.
C'est à partir de l'article 84 de la Convention qu'on doit résoudre la

question de I'appel et c'est en partant de cet article qu'on devra examiner
les dispositions réglementaires. Ces règles servent comme moyen auxi-
liaire d'interprétation ou comme élémentspermettant decorroborer une
interprétation donnée.
Il est vrai que l'article 5 ne mentionne pas la possibilité d'un appel

pour les décisions sur des exceptions préliminaires. Mais, si on l'avait
fait, on aurait alourdi sa rédaction d'une manière excessive et inutile.
On aurait dû distinguer les différentes catégories d'exceptions prélimi-
naires. Or la question a ététranchée par I'article 84 de la Convention
qui n'autorise I'appel que pour une sorte de décisions, celles qui concer-

nent l'interprétation ou l'application de la Convention.

Selon le Pakistan, l'article 18, alinéa 2, du Règlement 1précisc ...dans
quelles limites étroites ilpeut êtreinterjetéappel, et cela montre que cette
faculté ne s'applique pas à n'importe quelle ordonnance)) (C.R. 7216,

p. 26). C'est vrai, mais 'cen'est pas un argument en faveur de la thèse
pakistanaise. On ne peut interjeter appel contre n'importe quel genre
d'ordonnance. Les limites de I'appel sont posées car seules peuvent
faire l'objet d'un appel, conformément à I'article 84, les affaires soumises
en vertu des clauses a) et b) de l'alinéa 1 de I'article premier, c'est-à-dire

tout désaccord survenu entre deux ou plusieurs Etats contractants à
propos de l'interprétation ou de l'application de la Convention (art. 1,
al. I a) du Règlement; art. 84 de la Convention), tout désaccord survenu
entre deux ou plusieurs Etats contractants à propos de I'interprétation ou
de l'application de l'Accord de tran~it (art. 1, al. 1b) du Règlement; art.
II, sect.2, de l'Accord).

Les limites fixéespar I'article 18 sont les mêmesque celles qui sont
établies par I'article 84 de la Convention et I'article II, section 2, de
l'Accord. C'est donc toujours ces deux articles qui sont décisifspour la
question de I'appel '.

La division en chapitres et titres du Règlement polir la solution des différends
a pu faire naître des doutes mais sanvrai fondement.
L'article 5, au chapitre III. établit la procédure pour les exceptions préliminaires.
deux chapitres ne sont pas des compartiments étanches, pasxplus que ne le sont les
titres 1et II (voir par exemple les articles 5 et 18).
Les articles3, 4 et6 doivent s'appliquerà la procédure ordinaire et se trouvent
au chapitre III. Le chapitre IV contient des règles visant les exceptions préliminaires
(par exemple les articles 16, 17 et 18): les notifications sont traitées dans le même
article 18.1y a aussi des dispositionnon applicables aux exceptions préliminaires
(comme les articles7 à 15). ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. vc CASTRO) 121

against which appeal may be brought ai-ethe decisions refered to in Article

15, and not those nientioned in Article 5.
Now, in the first place, the nature of the norms contained in these
Rules must be taken into account. They are intended to extend and sup-
plement the norms of the Convention. They cannot be interpreted in a
contrary sense to the norms from which they derive their binding force.
Article 84 of the Convention must be taken as the starting point in

order to solve the problem of appeals, and it is starting from that Article
that the provisions of the Rules must be studied. These Rules serve as an
auxiliary means of interpretation, or as data which rnay corroborate a
given interpretation.

It is true that Article 5does not mention any possibility of appeal against
decisions on prelirninary objections. But if this had been done, thedrafting
would have been excessively, and unnecessarily, complicated. It would
have been neczssary to distinguish between the various categories of
preliminary objections. The question was in fact settled by Article 84 of

the Convention, which only allows appeal against decisions of one kind,
namely, those which relate to the interpretation of application of the
Convention.
According to Pakistan, Article 18, paragraph 2,of the Rulcs "indicates
the narrow scope of appeals, and that also shows that appeal does not
lie against every order" (C.R. 7216, p. 26). This is perfectly true, but it is

not an argument which supports the Pakistan contention. Appeal does
not lie against any kind of order. Limits to the right of appeal are laid
down, because, under Article 84, appeal only lies in cases brought by
virtue of clauses (CI)and (h) of paragraph 1 of Article 1, that is to Say

in a disagreement between two or more contracting States relating to the
interpretation or application of the Convention(Art. 1,para. 1 (di),of the
Rules; Art. 84 of the Convention), or disagreement between two or more
contracting States relating to the interpretation or application of the
Transit Agreement (Art. 1, para. I (h), of the Rules; Art. II,Section 2,

of the Agreement).

The limits laid down by Article 18 are the same as those fixed by
Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2,of the Agreement.
It is thus still those two Articles which are decisive on the question of

appeal l.

' The division of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences iiito chapters and
parts may have raised doubts, but without any real foundation.
Article 5, in Chapter III, prescribes the procedure relating to preliminary objec-
tions. Chapter IV governs the ordinary procedure applicable to disagreements.
But the two chapters do not constitute water-tight compartments, any more than
do Parts 1 and II (see. for example, Arts. 5 and 18).
Articles 3, 4 and 6 are to apply to ordinary procedure andare found in Chapter
III. Chapter IV contains rules relating to preliminary objections (e.g., Arts. 16,
17 and 18); notificationsare dealt with in the same Article 18. There are alpro-
visions which are not applicablr to preliminary objections(e.g., Arts. 7 to 15). 5. Le Pakistan offre une autre raison pour expliquer que I'appcl d'une
décision du Conseil affirmant sa propre compétence n'ait pas étéprévu
par la Convention: (c'est la règle unibersellement admise en droit inter-

national d'après laquelle tout tribunal international est compétent pour
déterminer sa propre conipétence 1(C.R. 72/6, p. 28).
Mais la question de la conlpétence de la conlpétence naît quand il n'y
a pas de règles qui imposent I'appel. Quand il y a des règles sur l'appel,
le tribunal ou l'arbitre ne peut juger lui-même s'il est possible ou non de

faire appel de sa propre décision. II est de la compétence de lajuridiction
supérieure d'interpréter l'étenduede la règleconcernant I'appel. La juri-
diction infirieure ne peut pas priver de sa conipétence la cour d'appel en
se réservant la facultéd'interpréter à sa manière la règlerelative à I'appel;
sa compétence est limitée par la possibilitéd'appel. C'est la cour supé-
rieure qui a compétence pour décider desapropre compétence,pour dire

en appel si, d.ins une affaire donnée, ilest possible d'appeler de la décision
de l'instance inférieure.
Le Conseil ne pouvait pas statuer et n'a pas statué en niant le droit
d'appel de l'lnde devant la Cour. C'est la Cour qui a compétence pour
interpréter l'article 84 de la Convention et pour dire en çonsiqueiice si

l'Inde peut valablement faire appel de la dkcision du Conseil.
Le Conseil a, en connaissance de cause, fait droit à I'appel, et, en ap-
plication de l'article 86 de laconvention, tient pour suspenduesadécision.
Par la voix de son président il a fait connaitre la possibilité que l'affaire
soit renvoyée devant cette Cour (mémoire du Gouvernement indien,

annexe E, 6' séance, Débat, par. 19: réplique du Gouvernement indien,
annexe E, 73' séance). A la session du conseil, le représentant de I'lnde
a fait connaître l'intention de son gouvernement d'en appeler à la Cour
(mémoire, annexe E, 6' séance, Débat, par. 152, 159et 177).
A la demande de certains membres du Conseil, le secrétaire gknéral

de I'OACI a préparéune note sur l'article 86 de la Convention, notam-
ment le passage: lSur toute autre question, les décisions du Conseil sont
suspendues en cas d'appel, jusqu'à ce qu'il soit statué sur I'appel ))et
expliqué que la décision suspzndue par I'appel [(peut, par exemple,
conîister à affirmer ou à nier lacompétence du Conseil dans ilne affaire

donnée ))(réplique, annexe C.)
L'attitude des membres du Conseil est aussi significative. Aucun
membre n'a fait d'objection à l'annonce qu'il y aura Linappel de l'Inde.
Le représentant du Pakistan a contesté seulement I'appel du Gouverne-
ment de l'lnde à propos de la plainte déposéeconformément à la sec-
tion 1 de l'article II de l'Accord de transit (ttupliqiie du Gouvernement

pakistanais, par. 40).
6. Le Pakistan accuse aussi l'lnde de contradiction. La Cour a compé-
tence pour connaître de I'appel si la Convention est en vigueur (art. 37
du Statut), mais l'lnde soutient que la Convention a pris fin ou est
suspendue. Comment dire à la fois que la Convention est en vigueur et
qu'elle ne l'est pas?

La question n'a pas d'importance pratique si la Cour, se prononçant 5. Pakistaii advances anotlier reason to explain why appeal from a
decision of the Council upholding its oRn jurisdiction was not provided
for in the Convention: "The reason is the universally established rule
of international law that every international tribtinal has the jurisdiction
to determine its own jurisdiction" (C.R. 72(6, p. 28).

But the question of the cotiipc;trncede /a cotnpc;tcwcearises when there
are no rules laying dowii an appeal procedure. When there are rules as
to appeal, the court (or arbitrator) cannot itselfecide whether or not it
is possible to appeal against its own decision. lnterpretation of the extent
of the rule as to appeal falls withiri the jurisdiction of the higher court.
The lower court cannot deprive the appeal court of its jurisdiction,

by arrogating to itself the power to give its own interpretation of the rule
as to appeal; its jurisdiction is limited by the possibility of appeal. Itis
the higher court which has the jurisdiction to dccide on its own jurisdic-
tion, to say on appeal whether. in a given case, it is possible to appeal
against the decision of the lower court.
The Council could not, and did not, give a decision denying India's
right of appeal to this Court. It is this Court which has jurisdiction to

iiiterpret Article 84 of the Convention, and consequently to say whether or
not lndia can validly appeal from the Council's decision.
The Co~incil has, with full awareness, recognized the appeal, and, in
application of Article 86 of the Convention, treated its own decision as
suspended. Through its president, it mentioned the possibility that the
case might be brought before this Court (Memorial of India, Annex E,

(e), Discussion, para. 19; Reply of India, Annex E, 73rd Session).
At the meeting of the Council. the representative of India aniiounced his
Government's interitioii to appeal to the Court (Memorial of India,
Annex E. (c). Disciission, paras. 152, 159, 177).
At the reqiiest of certain inembers of the Council, the Secretary General
of ICA0 prepared a note on Article 86 of the Convention, and in parti-

ciilar on the passage "on any other matter, decisions of the Council
shall, if appealed from, be suspended until the appeal is decided". He
explained ihat the decision suspended by the appeal might. for example,
"be one affirming or negating the jiirisdiction of the Council in a particu-
lar matter" (Reply, Annex C, footnote).
The attitude of the members of the Council is alsornot without signi-

ticance. No nieinber objected when it was stated that there would be an
appeal by India. The representative of Pakistan only challenged the
Governinent of India's right of appeal with reference to the Coniplaint
tiled under Section l of Article II of the Transit Agreement (Pakistan
Rejoinder, para. 40).
6. Pakistan also accuses lndia of self-contradiction. The Court has
jurisdictiori to deal with the appeal if the Convention is in force (Art. 37

of the Statute) but India claims that the Convention has been terminated
or suspended. How can it be said, at the sanie tiine. that the Convention is
in force and that it is not?
The qiicstion is of rio pr:ictical importance if the Court rules against contre la thèse indienne, décideque la Convention est en vigueur entre
l'Inde et le Pakistan.
En tout cas, je pense que le Pakistan pousse l'Inde dans un faux dilem-

me. Quand on soulève une exception préliminaire d'incompétence de-
vant un tribunal, c'est que le plaideur n'accepte pas la compétence de
ce tribunal; il la nie, mais il soulève I'exception pour éviterd'être con-
damné dans un jugement par défaut. L'appel ne change pas la situation
juridique du plaideur. La mêmeexception préliminaire soulevée par

l'Inde au Conseil se trouve devant la Cour.
La compétence de la Cour ne découle pasde ce que la Convention soit
en vigueur entre I'lnde et le Pakistan, mais de la facultéd'appel devant la
Cour prévuepar l'article 84 de la Convention; donc, ce qui est nécessaire,
c'est que la Convention et l'article soient en vigueur envers la Cour.

C'est la Convention qui donne le droit d'appel et la Convention est
en vigueur pour la Cour. L'Inde, le Pakistan ou toute autre partie à la
Convention peut en appeler à la Cour d'une décision du Conseil sur sa
compétence.

La Cour est compétente pour statuer sur sa compétence, si une excep-
tion niant qu'un traité soit en vigueur est opposée. Le Conseil peut
aussi examiner sa compétence quand l'Inde soutient que Convention
et Accord ne sont pas en vigueur entre elle et le Pakistan. La Cour est
ici une cour d'appel. Les recours en appel ont un double effet, suspensif

et dévolutif - effet dévolutif parce que c'est le procès tout entier qui
est porté devant la cour supérieure, avec les questions qu'il avait com-
portées en première instance. La Cour doit décider si la Convention est
en vigueur pour rejeter ou non I'exception de l'Inde, comme le Conseil
pouvait le faire.

7. La question de l'appel devant la Cour a une importance indéniable,
pour la Cour et pour les organisations internationales. La Cour ne peut
pas éluder sa responsabilité. Pour les organisations, il est nécessaire
qu'il existe un organe de contrôle, une surveillance sur des décisionsjuri-
diques compliquées, sur l'interprétation et l'application de leurs règles

constitutionnelles et réglementaires.
L'appel d'une décision sur la compétence est normal en droit interne.
II n'est pas contraire à la nature des organisations internationales. II se
trouve justement que la nature administrative ou technique du Conseil
de I'OACI rend en pratique nécessaire l'appel à un organe judiciaire

2comme la Cour, à propos de I'interprétation de la Convention et de l'Ac-
cord dans toute son ampleur.
Ilne faut pas oublier que c'est un des desiderata de la communauté
internationale d'étendre la possibilité d'appel à toutes les décisions des
organisations internationales. L'Institut de droit international a étudié

la possibilité d'instituer le droit d'appel envers toutes les décisions des
organisations (ccRecours judiciaire à instituer contre les décisions d'or-
ganes internationaux 11,Anniraire 1957, p. 274 et suiv.).the lndian argument, and decides that the Convention is in force between
lndia and Pakistan.
In any event, 1consider that the dilemma on which Pakistan seeks to
impale lndia is unreal. When a preliminary objection as to jurisidiction is
raised before a court, it is because the litigant does not accept the juris-

diction of the court; he denies that the court hasjurisdiction, but he raises
an objection to avoid having judgment go against him by default. An
appeal does not change the litigant's position in law. The same preliminary
objection raised by lndia before the Council is now before the Court.
The Court's jurisdiction does not result from the Convention being in

force between India and Pakistan, but from the right of appeal to the
Court laid down by Article 84 of the Convention; thus what is necessary
is that the Convention and the Article should be in force with regard to the
Court.
It is the Convention which gives the rjght of appeal and, for the Court,
the Convention is in force. India, or Pakistan, or any other party to the

Convention, may appeal to the Court against a decision by the Council
concerning its jurisdiction.
The Court has jurisdiction to take a decision regarding its own juris-
diction, if an objection denying that a treaty is in force is raised. The
Council also can consider the question of its jurisdiction when India
contends that the Convention and the Agreement are not in force as

between India itself and Pakistan. The Court is here a court of appeal.
Appeals have a twofold effect, suspensory and devolutive-devolutive
effect because iL is the case as a whole which is transferred to the higher
court, with al1thequestions it entailed before thecourt of fir-; instance. In
ordertoreject or uphold the objection raised by India the Court niust decide
whether the Convention is in force, just as the Council was able to do.

7. The question of the appeal to this Court is of undeniable impor-
tance, both for the Court and for international organizations. The Court
cannot evade its responsibility. For such organizations, it is necessary
that there should be a supervisory body, to exercise supervision over
complicated legal decisions, and over the interpretation and application
of their constitutional and interna1 rules.

An appeal from a decision concerning jurisdiction is quite normal
in municipal law. It is not contrary to the nature of international organi-
zations. It is indeed a fact that the administrative and technical nature
of the ICA0 Council makes it a practical necessity that there should be
the widest possibility of appeal to a judicial body such as the Court,
with regard to the interpretation of the Convention and of the Agreement.

It must not be forgotten that it is one of the desiderata of the inter-
national community that the possibility of appeal should be extended to
cover al1 the decisions of international organizations. The lnstitute of
Lnternational Law has studied the possibility of establishing a right of
appeal in respect of al1 decisions of these organizations ("Recours
judiciaire à instituer contre les décisions d'organes internationaux",

Annuaire de I'institiit de droit internation1957,pp. 274 K.). II convient de considérer aussi que la possibilitéde l'appel est un droit
que les Etats souverains ont intérêtà conserver dans son intégralité,
quand ils l'ont établi comme précaution à l'égarddes décisions dec or-
ganisations internationales.

II.LA COMPÉTENCE DU CONSEIL DE L'OACL SELON LA CONVENTION

L'appel de I'Inde porté devant la Cour est fondé sur des questions
concernant la compétcnce déji présentéesau Conseil. Elles sont d'une
grande importance et d'un intérêt général.
En résumé,les principales questions soulevées par I'lnde concernent

les points suivants:
1) Les mots (1interprétation ))et application 11dans l'article 84 de la

Convention et l'article II, section 2,de l'Accord de transit ne peuvent
pas être interprétéscomme s'appliquant aux questions relatives a la
suspension ou a I'extinction de la Convention ou de l'Accord.
2) Une question d'interprétation ou d'application ne peut se poser à

propos d'un traité qui a cesséd'exister ou est suspendu.
3) Un Etat peut résilierun traité. quel qu'il soit, en cas de violation par
l'autre partie.

4) Un Etat peut résilier le traité du simple fait qu'il déclare l'existence
d'une telle violation.

J'examinerai successivement ces thèses indiennes.
1. Le mémoire du Gouvernement indien signale que les désaccords
entre Etats quant à la Convention et à l'Accord de transit peuvent prendre
l'une des quatre formes suivantes: 1) désaccords sur l'interprétation, 2)

désaccords sur l'application, 3) désaccords sur les mesures prises aux
termes de la Convention ou de I'Accord et 4) désaccords concernant
I'extinction ou la suspension de la Convention ou de I'Accord entre
un Etat et Linautre (mémoire, par. 72). 11conclut que seules les deux

premières catégoriesde désaccord peuvent êtreexaminéespar le Conseil,
aux termes de la Convention, et que seuls les trois premiers types de
désaccord relèventdu Conseil, selon l'Accord. Le Conseil n'a pas, d'après

lui, compétence pour examiner la quatrième catégorie de désaccord,
celle qui vise I'extinction ou la suspension de 13 Convention ou de l'Ac-
cord de transit (ihid., par. 73).

Comme l'a dit le conseil principal de I'lnde dans son exposé devant
le Conseil, à propos de cette distinction, 1c'est là toute la question ))
(mémoire, annexe E, 2' séance,Débat, par. 7). 11 considère que, le texte
des traités ne mentionnant pas les expressions csuspension )et (1cxtinc-

tion ))dont le sens est très net, on doit en déduire le manque de compé-
tence du Conseil à cet égard.
L'argument de I'Inde repose sur une donnée inexacte, celle de la nature
homogène des quatre causes de désaccord. En vérité.elles sont hétéro-

gènes. It must be borne in mind also that when sovereign States have estab-
lished an appeal as a safeguard in respect of the decisions of international
organizations, it is a right which it is in their interests to preserven-
diminished.

II. THEJURISDICTION OF THE ICA0 COUNCIL UNDER THE CONVENTION

India's appeal to the Court is based on questions relating to jurisdic-
tion which have already been raised before the Council. These are of
great importance and of general interest.
In brief, the main questions raised by India relate to the following
points:
(1) The words "interpretation" and "application" in Article 84 of the
Convention, and Article IL, Section 2, of the Transit Agreement,

cannot be interpreted as applying to questions relating to the sus-
pension or termination of the Convention or the Agreement.
(2) No question of iriterpretation or application can arise with regard to
a treaty which has ceased to exist or which has been suspended.
(3) A State may terminate any treaty whatever in case of breach by the
other Party.
(4) A State may terminate a treaty simply by declaring the existence of
such a breach.

1will take these Indian arguments one by one.
1. It is observed in the Memorial of the Indian Government that
disagreements between Statespertaining to the Convention or theTransit
Agreement may arise in one of four ways: (1) disagreements as to inter-
pretation, (2) disagreements as to application, (3) disagreements arising
from action taken -under the Convention or the Agreement, and (4)
disagreements pertaining to termination or suspension of the Conven-
tion or the Transit Agreement by one State as against another (Me-
morial of India, para. 72).India then contends that only the first two types
of disagreement can be considered by the Council under the terms of the
Convention, and only the first three types of disagreement can be con-
sidered by the Council as far as the Agreement is concerned. According
to India, the Council is not competent to consider the fourth type of
disagreement, which is concerned with termination or suspension of the

Convention or the Transit Agreement (ibid.,para. 73).
As the chief counsel of lndia said in his addresi to the Council, this
distinction "is the crux of the case" (Memorial of India, Annex E, (a),
Discussion, para. 7). His argument is that since the text of the treaties
does not use the expressions "suspension" and "termination", which
have very c2ear meanings, it must follow that the Council has no juris-
diction in this connection.
India's argument is based on an incorrect premise, namely, that the
four causes of disagreement are of the same kind, whereas in fact they
are of different kinds. L'interprétation est une fonction généraleet préalable.Elleest decher-
cher et de trouver le vrai sens de la Convention et de l'Accord, en rela-
tion avec toute action, toute situation ou tout fait. II s'agit par exemple
de savoir si l'application faite est ou non licite, de qualifier les actions

des Etats, de déterminer s'ils ont rempli leurs devoirs ou violé leurs
obligations, si les réservesétabliesen faveur de la souverainetédes Etats
ont étérespectées.

Le postulat à la base des exceptions indiennes, c'est que la Convention
et l'Accord sont éteintsou suspendus à l'égarddu Pakistan; la conduite

du Pakistan implique, dit I'lnde, une violation des obligations qu'il
avait assuméeset c'est elle qui est cause de cette extinction ou de cette
suspension. Mais, pour arriver à une telle conclusion, on a besoin d'in-
terpréter la Convention et l'Accord. Pour savoir si le Pakistan a violé
ses obligations envers l'Inde, on a besoin de savoir quelles sontces obli-
gations; pour savoir si une violation de telle ou telle catégorieentraîne

l'extinction ou la suspension, il est nécessairede connaître les sanctions
appropriées à une telle violation et la procédure pertinente pour les im-
poser. La réponse dépend toujours du sens (interprétation) des règles a
appliquer (Convention et Accord).

Dans les exceptions préliminaires présentéespar l'Inde au Conseil
(28 mars 1971), on explique que clla politique de confrontation qui

frise l'hostilité)de la part du Pakistan, et ((lacapture illicite d'un avion
indien ))sont les causes de I'extinction oude la suspension de la Conven-
tion et de l'Accord, l'attitude du Pakistan ((allant à l'encontre de tous
les buts et objectifs, de l'esprit et des dispositions de la Convention et
de l'Accord » (mémoire, annexe C, par. 5 et 6) '.

On peut voir que l'Inde offre sa propre interprétation de la Convention
et de l'Accord, qu'elle qualifie laconduite du Pakistan en la considérant
comme contraire a tous les buts et objectifs,à l'esprit et aux dispositions
de l'un et de l'autre. Dès lors que cette interprétation est contraire à
celledu Pakistan, ily a un désaccordsur I'interprétation dela Convention
et de I'Accord (art. 84 de la Convention; art. II, section 2, de l'Accord
de transit).

La phrase par laquelle on donne compétence à un organepour trancher
les différends ayant pour objet I'interprétation ou bien I'interprétation

II est dit aus~que le Pakistan, par sa conduite, a répudié Convention à l'égard.
de l'Inde, puisque sa conduite a militécontre les objectifs mêmesde la Convention
et a contrevenu à ses dispositions expresses...la conduite du Pakistan équivaut
aussi à une répudiation deI'Accord de transit à l'égardde l'Inde. Dès lors,
l'Inde considère que,à son égard,la Convention et l'Accord de transit ont été
répudiés ou, à tout le moins, suspendus par le Pakist1)(Mémoire,annexe C, par.
22.) Interpretation is a general function and one to be carried out as a
preliminary step. It signifiesthe search for and ascertainment of the true
meaning of the Convention and the Agreement, with reference to any
action, any situation or any fact. For example, it involves ascertaining
whether the application effected is or is not a correct one, classifying
the actions of States, determining whether they have carried out their
duties or committed any breach of their obligations, and whether the
established reservations in favour of State sovereignty have been re-

spected.
The basic postulate underlying the lndian objections is that the Con-
vention and the Agreement have been terminated or suspended with
regard to Pakistan; Pakistan's conduct, according to India, implies a
breach of the obligations undertaken by Pakistan, and it is this which is
the cause of thetermination or suspension. But to reach such a conclusion
one has to interpret the Convention and the Agreement. To ascertain
whether Pakistan has committed a breach of its obligations towards
India, one needs to know what those obligations are;to ascertain whether
a breach of this category or that gives rise to termination or suspension,
it is necessary to know what are the appropriate sanctions for such a
violation, and what the relevant procedure is for those sanctions to be
imposed. The answer to these questions depends on the meaning (inter-
pretation) ofthe rules to be applied (the Convention and the Agreement).
In the preliminary objections made by India before the Council (28

March 1971), it is explained that the "policy of political confrontation
bordering on hostility" on the part of Pakistan, and "the hijacking of
an Indian aircraft" were the cause of the termination or suspension of
the Convention and the Agreement, the conduct of Pakistan amounting
"to the very negation of al1 the aims and objectives, the scheme and
provisions, of the Convention .. .and of the. ..Agreement" (Memorial
of India, Annex C, paras. 5 and 6) '.
It is apparent that India is offering jts own interpretation of the
Convention and the Agreement, that it is putting Pakistan's conduct in
a particular category, by regarding it as contrary to the aims and objec-
tives, the scheme and provisions, of each of these instruments. As soon
as this interpretation differs from that advanced by Pakistan, there is a
disagreement as to the interpretation of the Convention and the Agree-
ment (Art. 84ofthe Convention,Art. II, Sec.2,ofthe Transit Agreement).
The form of words by which jurisdiction is conferred on a body to

settle disputes the subject of which is the interpretation, or the inter-

It is also stated that "Pakistan by its conduct has repudiated the Convention
vis-à-vis India, since its conduct has militated against the very objectives under-
lying, and the express provisions of, the Convention..Pakistan's conduct also
amounts to a repudiation of the Transit Agreementvis-à-vis India. In the circum-
ment stand repudiated, or in any event suspended, by Pakistan vis-à-visndia" Agree-
(Memorial of India, Annex C, para. 22).et l'application d'un traitéconfère compétence à cet organe pour inter-
préter (l'ensemble ou une quelconque de ces dispositions [dispositions
du traité], qu'elles aient trait aux obligations de fond a ou non (C.I.J.
Recueil 1962, p. 343) et logiquement les conséquencesjuridiques de la
violation de ces obligations (pacra sunr servanda).Conclusion toujours
applicable que l'organe compétent soit I'OACI ou l'organe d'une autre
organisation l.

La thèse de l'Inde est fondéesur une conception étroite du mot in-
terprétation. (Lorsque cette méthode d'interprétation aboutit à un résul-
tat incompatible avec l'esprit, l'objet et le contexte de la clause ou de
l'acte où les termes figurent, on ne saurait valablement lui accorder cré-
dit 1(C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 336).
L'Inde a présentéun argument complémentaire reposant sur l'absurdité
qu'il y aurait à confier la décision de questions juridiques au Conseil.

11est composé de personnes sans connaissances juridiques; il n'est pas
composé par des hommes mais par des Etats; c'est un organe adminis-
tratif ou technique. II n'est donc pas à mêmede remplir des fonctions
judiciaires, et encore moins de trancher de questions touchant aux droits
des Etats souverains. Dès lors, comment entendre les articles 84 de la
Convention et II, section 2, de l'Accord comme donnant pouvoir au
Conseil de statuer sur l'extinction ou la suspension d'un traité?

L'impression qu'on nous donne de la fonction du Conseil n'est pas
avaliséepar la Convention de Chicago. En effetle pouvoir que les articles
citésdonnentau Conseil s'étend, semble-t-il,à toutes les règlesde la Con-
vention; or I'interprétationdes règlesd'une convention est une fonctionju-
ridique et non pas une fonction administrative. Le Conseilaura a décider
des différendsentreEtatssur l'interprétationet l'application de la Conven-
tion et de l'Accord. Le Conseil devra aussi assurer le respect intégral
des droits des Etats contractants (art. 44f)) et signaler aux Etats toute

infraction à la Convention (art. 54 j)) et ces fonctions sont également
juridiques.
L'interprétation des règlesde la Convention peut avoir pour objet des
questions touchant à la souveraineté des Etats contractants sur l'espace
aérien au-dessus deleur territoire-je pense au problème des zones inter-
dites (art. 9 de la Convention), lequel a donnélieu à des différendsentre
Etats qui ont été portés devant le Conseil (je connais deux cas) et four-

millent de questions juridiques 2.
Le Conseil est composéen grande partie d'experts en aviation. Mais,
quand c'est de leur intérêt,les Etats ont bien soin d'envoyer au Conseil
des juristes qualifiés etde dorrner des instructions préalablement bien
étudiéesdans les chancelleries.

'Comp. article 36, paragraphe Za),du Statut de la Cour. Dans le mandat pour
le Sud-Ouest africain allemand, les différends relatifsI'interprétationoua I'ap-
plication des dispositions du mandat2sont sounlis à la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale (art.7).
L'interprétationde l'article 89 peut aussi susciter des litiges touchana la
souverainetédes Etats. ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 126

pretation and the application, of a treaty, confers on that body juris-
diction to interpret "al1or any provisions [of the Treaty], whether they
relate to substantive obligations" or not (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 343),

which logically includes the legal consequences of the violation of such
obligations (pacta suntservanda). This isa conclusion which is of general
application, whether the organ having jurisdiction is ICA0 or an organ
of another organization l.
The Indian argument is based on a narrow conception of the word
"interpretation". "Where such a method of interpretation results in a
rneaning incompatible with the spirit, purpose and context of the clause
or instrument in which the words are contained, no reliance can be
validly placed on it" (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 336).
India has advanced a supplemental argument based on the absurdity

of entrusting the settlement of legal questions to the Council. The
Council is composed of persons without legal training; it is composed
not of men but of States; it is an administrative or technical body. It
is therefore not equipped to carry out judicial functions, still less to
decide questions touching the rights of sovereign States. How then can
Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Agreement
be understood as conferring power on the Council to pass judgment as
to the termination or suspension of a treaty?
The impression that has thus been given to us of the Council's functions
is not supported by the Chicago Convention.. The power which the Arti-
cles mentioned confer upon the Council apparently extends to ail the

rules contained in the Convention; but the interpretation of the rules
contained in a convention is a legal function, not an administrative func-
tion. The Council have to decide disputes between States as to the inter-
pretation and application of the Convention and the Agreement. The
Council is also to insure that the rights of contracting States are fully
respected (Art. 44 (f)) and report to contracting States aiiy infraction
of theConvention (Art. 54 (j))and thesefunctions are also legalfunctions.
The interpretation of the rules of the Convention may relate to ques-
tions touching the sovereignty of the contracting States over the airspace
above their territory-1 am thinking here of the problem of prohibited

areas (Art. 9 of the Convention), which has given rise to disputes between
States which have been brought before the Council (two such cases are
known to me), and which bristle with legal problems 2.
The Council is made up for the most part of aviation experts. But when
it is in theirnterest to do so, States take care to send qualified lawyers to
the Council, and to give instructions which have been carefully worked
out beforehand in their foreign ministries.

Cf. Article 36, para. 2 (a), of the Court's Statute. In the Mandate for German
South West Africa, disputes relating to "the interpretation or the application of
the provisions of the Mandate" were to be subrnitted to the Permanent Court of
International Justice (Art. 7).
The interpretation of Article 89 may also give rise to disputes touching the
sovereignty of States. La possibilité mêmed'un appel à la Cour montre bien l'importance
donnée à la fonction juridique du Conseil quand il doit décider des
questions qu'impliquent I'interprétation ou l'application de la Conven-
tion ou de l'Accord.
11ne semble donc pas que les clauses de compétencecomportent des
((limitesintrinsèques))(C.R. 7213,p. 23), en raison de la nature et de la
composition du Conseil.
Des arguments sur l'interprétation restrictive des déclarations dejuri-
diction obligatoire ne jouent pas (et I'lnde semble le reconnaître, C.R.
7213,p. 25) pour les clauses de juridiction qu'on doit interpréter selon
leur but et leur objet. Or les dispositions des articlesde la Convention

et II, section 2, de l'Accord sont des clauses de compétencespéciale. On
ne peut invoquer l'attitude des Etatsà Vienne pour restreindre lesclauses
de compétence de la Convention et de l'Accord. A Vienne, en plus des
circonstancesparticulières du moment qui sont bien connues, l'hésitation
des Etats s'expliqueparce qu'ils ont craint de donner un blanc-seing pour
toute espècede traités. Dans la Convention, au contraire, la clause de
juridiction a un but concret et bien délimité.

L'observation sur le fait que les Etats réserveraient un mauvais accueil
à un arrêtreconnaissant la compétencedu Conseil semble bien contredite
par l'attitude même desEtats ou des représentants des Etats au moment
du vote qui a eu lieu au Conseil. L'interprétation donnéepar le Conseil
à la clause de compétencen'est pas contraire aux bons principes, elle va
dans la bonnedirectionqui estdefortifier lesorganisations internationales.
Pourconnaître le vrai sens d'une clause, on ne doit pas jouer avec les

mots. Quand on confère compétence à un organe pour interpréter un
traité, on la lui confère pour dire avant tout si le traité est ou non en
vigueur, c'est-à-dire s'ilest ou non éteintou suspendu. La question posée
n'est pas de savoir si un Etat a le droit de suspendre un traité ou d'y
mettre fin selon les règles généralesdu droit international. Elle est de
savoir s'ilpeut lefaire selon les règlesdu traité. La question estcelle-ci: la
violation par une partie des obligations contractuelles donne-t-elle à
l'autre la faculté de déclarer éteintesses propres obligations? On ne doit
pas oublier que c'est la qualification de liciteou illicite, s'agissant de la
conduite des parties, qui permet de dire s'ily a eu violation de la Con-
vention par une partie ou par les deux parties et, s'il y a eu violation,
quelles seront lessanctions justes. Pour faire cela, ona besoin d'interpréter
la Convention et l'Accord.
Par exemple, on aura bien besoin d'interpréter l'article 89 de la Con-
vention pour savoir si uncertain Etat a agi d'une manière licite,nforme

à la Convention, quand, dans une situation d'hostilité, deconfrontation
aiguë, de guerre froide,il considèreavoir la libertéd'action de supprimer
les privilègesaccordéspar la Convention, et peut-êtremêmede déclarer
suspendus les effets de la Convention envers un autre Etat.
Mais il ne semble pas correct d'interpréter la clause de juridiction
comme donnant la possibilitéde lire: je peux, comme et quand je veux.
85 CAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 127

The very possibility of an appeal to this Court demonstrates the im-
portance attached to the legal functions of the Council when it has to

decide questions which involve interpretation or application of the Con-
vention or Agreement.
It does not therefore seem that there is any "inherent limitation"
(C.R. 7213,p. 23) in the jurisdictional clauses, resulting from the nature
and composition of the Council.
Arguments as to restrictive interpretation of declarations of acceptance
of compulsury jurisdiction do not apply (and India seems to concede
this: C. R. 7213,p. 25)tojurisdictional clauses, which must be interpreted
according to their aims and objectives. But the provisions of Article 84
of the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Agreement are clauses
of special jurisdiction. The attitude of States at the -enna Conference
cannot be re!ied on to limit the jurisdictional clauses in the Convention
and the Agreement. At Vienna, apart from the particular circumstances of
the time, which are well known, the hesitation of States isto be explained

by their fear of writing a blank cheque for treaties of al1 kinds. In the
Convention, on the other hand, the objective of thejurisdictional clause is
concrete and clearly defined.
The observation that States would not welcome a judgnient upholding
the Council's jurisdiction seems to be entirely contradicted by the actual
attitude of the States, or representatives of the States, at the time of the
vote taken in the Council. The interpretation given by the Council to the
jurisdictional clauseisnot contrary to sound principles, but isa step in the
right direction, which is to strengthen international organizations.
To ascertain the true meaning of a clause, one must not play with
words. When jurisdiction is conferred on a body to intepret a treaty,
jurisdiction is given above al1to Saywhether or not the treaty is in force,
that is to say whether or not it has been terminated or suspended. The
question which has arisen is not whether a State has theright tosuspend or

terminate a treaty under general rules of international law, but whether it
may do so under the rules of the treaty. The question is this: does breach
by one party of its contractual obligations entitle the other to declare its
own obligations at an end? It must not be overlooked that it iscategorizing
the conduct of the parties as lawful or otherwise which enables one to say
whether there has been a breach of the Convention by one party or by
both, and if there has been a breach, what are the proper sanctions.
To do this one has to interpret the Convention and the Agreement.
For example, one would certainly need to interpret Article 89 of
the Convention in order to ascertain whether a certain State had acted
lawfully. in accordance with the Convention, if in EJsituation of hostility,
of acuteconfrontation, of cold war, it took the viewthat it had freedom of
action to do away with the privileges granted by the Convention, and
perhaps even to declare the effects of the Convention suspended vis-à-vis
another State.

But it does not appear to be correct to interpret the jurisdictional
clause as conferring the possibility of saying: 1 may, as and when 1
85éviter les sanctions découlant d'une violation commise par moi des

obligations contractuelles qui m'incombent, en disant que je tiens ce
traitépour éteintenvers la partie lésée ou queje n'ai pas cesséde remplir
ces obligations puisque j'ai déclaré avoir suspendule traité.
2. La seconde thèsede I'Inde impressionne par son apparence logique.
Elle soutient que la facultéou le pouvoir conféréspar un traitéprennent
fin ipso facto dès le moment ou le traité cesse d'exister. Donc la com-
pétencedu Conseil pour statuer sur le désaccordentre l'Inde et le Pa-
kistan a pris fin par la terminaison de la Convention et de l'Accord vis-à-
vis du Pakistan (violation de ses obligations par le Pakistan).

Ce raisonnement n'est pas acceptable. 11confond les différentescauses

et catégories d'extinction des traités.
La terminaison d'un traitépeut dépendre d'une cause externe au con-
tenu du traité (ab extra) ou d'une cause qui a son origine dans le fonc-
tionnement mêmedu traité. Quand on accuse l'autre partie d'avoir violé
des obligations néesdu traité, on a affaire à un traité existant. Pour
vérifiers'il y a des violations,il faut interpréter le traité; c'est de I'inter-
prétation d'un traitéencore existant qu'il s'agit.

La violation d'une obligation néedu traité n'entraîne pas ipso jure
l'extinction du traité. Elle autorise la partie léséeà invoquer la violation

comme motif pour mettre fin au traité ou suspendre son application
(voir art. 60 de la convention de Vienne) '.Cette facultéest subordonnée
aux dispositions du traité applicables en cas de violation (convention de
Vienne, art. 60, par. 4), donc aux dispositions relatives aux désaccords
sur les violations d'obligations (compétence pour régler les différends).

La convention de Vienne subordonne aussi les conséquences des
violations des obligations par une partie A un traitéaux règlesgénérales
concernant la solution des différendssur l'existence et les effets de la
violation (art. 65 et 66).
Les violations substantielles dont I'lnde accuse le Pakistan ne mettent

pas, par elles-mêmes,fin au traitéet ne mettent pas fin àla compétence
du Conseil. IIest au contraire de la compétencedu Conseil de décidersile
Pakistan a ou non commis des violations et, dans l'affirmative, si elles
sont substantielles. Le Conseil devra déciderde ces questions de fond et
c'est alors que I'Inde pourra éventuellementinvoquer la violation d'une
obligation substantielle pour mettre fin au traitéou suspendre son appli-
cation.

' On ne doit pas oublier que la règle donne la possibiljté d'opposer une excepfio.
validité ou d'extinction du traité. Elle est source de responsabilde nouvellesn-
obligations ou sanctions. A côté.de cela, c'est la violation substad'un traité
qui autorise la partie lésàl'invoquer pour résilier ou suspendre l'applicatdun
traité. Rapport de la Commission du droit international1966 (art. 57 du projet)
(Annuai~e de la Commission riccdroit infernational, vol.p.1276 à 278).wish, avoid the sanctions which follow a breach committed by me of my
contractual obligations, by saying that 1 regard the treaty as at an end

vis-à-vis the injured party, or that1have not ceased to fulfil those obliga-
tions, because 1have declared a suspension of the treaty.
2. The second contention of India has an impressive appearance of
logic. The argument is that a power or faculty conferred by a treaty
cornes to an end ipso factoat the moment when the treaty ceases to
exist. Thus the Council's jurisdiction to pass judgment on the disagree-

ment between India and Pakistan came to an end with the termination
of the Convention and the Agreement vis-à-vis Pakistan (breach by
Pakistan of its obligations).
This reasoning is not acceptable. It confuses different causes and cate-
gories of termination of treaties.
The termination of a treaty may depend on a cause which is external to

what is contained in the treaty (abextra), or on a cause which originates
from the very operation of the treaty. When one party accuses another of
a breach of the obligations resulting from the treaty, it is an existing treaty
which is involved. In order to ascertain whether there have been breaches,
the treaty must be interpreted; it is a question of interpretation of a
treaty which is still in existence.

Breach of an obligation resulting from the treaty does not involve
ipso jure the termination of the treaty. It entitles the injured party to
invoke the breach as a ground for terminating the treaty, or suspending
its operation (see Art. 60 of the Vienna Convention)'. This right is with-
out prejudice to the provisions of the treaty applicable in the event of a

breach (Art. 60, para. 4,of the Vienna Convention), and thus to the pro-
visions concerning disagreements over breaches of obligations (jurisdic-
tion to settle disputes).
The Vienna Convention also makes the consequences of breaches of
its obligations by one party to the treaty subject to the general rules
concerning the settlement of disputes as to the existence and effects of

the breach (Arts. 65 and 66).
The material breaches of which India accuses Pakistan do not by them-
selves put an end to the treaty, and do not put an end to the jurisdiction
of the Council. On the contrary, it falls within the jurisdiction of the Coun-
cil to decide whether or not Pakistan has committed breaches, and if so,
whether they are material. It will be for the Council to decide these ques-

tions which pertain to the merits, and it ishen that India, may, if it wishes,
rely on the breach ofa material obligation in order to terminate the treaty
or suspend its operation.

' It should not be overlooked that the rule opens the possibility of raising the
e.rceprio inadimpleti non est adimplcndum. The breach of an obligation is not the
and of new obligations or sanctions. Alongside this, it is the material breach ofility
a treaty which entitles the injured partyto invoke it in order to terminate or sus-
pend the operation of the treaty. See the Report of the International LawCom-
mission, 1966 (Art.57 of the draft)(Yearbook of rhe Z.L.C., 1966, Vol. II, pp. 253-
255). IIn'estpas vrai que leprincipe consacrépar I'article 60de la convention

de Vienne soit ((endehors ))de la Convention de Chicago. Au contraire,
c'est un principe qui découle de la nature contractuelle des traités.II
n'existe pas de frontière entre les traités et le droit international; il
n'existe pas de frontière qui laisse en dehors du droit international le
contenu des traités. Bien au contraire, les traités ont une signification
juridique grâce au droit international. Les règlesde droit international
ne sont pas en dehors des traités,elles donnent forcejuridique aux règles
conventionnelles. Le principe pacta suntservanda (convention de Vienne,

art. 26) n'est pas ((endehors )des traités; ce principe, c'est celui quiper-
met d'exiger l'accomplissement de bonne foi des obligations contrac-
tuelles. L'article 60 est un complément et la sanction du principe pacta
sunt servanda. C'est la violation des droits ou des obligations ayant leur
source dans le pacte qui est à l'origine de I'exceptio non adimpleti.
3. Un point fondamental de la thèse soutenue dans le mémoire de
l'Inde, selon laquelle la Convention et l'Accord sont éteintsou suspen-
dus vis-à-vis du Pakistan, est tiré de l'application de I'article 60 de la

convention de Vienne et de certaines considérations de la Cour dans son
avis sur la Namibie (C.I.J. Recueil 1971,p. 47 et 49). Peut-être trouve-t-on
ici une des sources d'erreur dans la construction de la thèse indienne:
elle n'envisage pas la différencede nature des traités.

Les rédacteurs dela convention de Vienne n'ont pas penséque l'article
60, paragraphe 1,ait un caractère impératifet général,bien au contraire.
On doit tenir compte, avant tout, des règles spécialesde chaque traité,

non seulement en raison du principe pacta sunrserllanda (art. 26, 56,58),
mais aussi en raison des réserves faites à l'article 42, paragraphe 2 et à
I'article 60, paragraphe 4. On doit tenir compte aussi des différencesentre
les traitésbilatéraux, multilatérauxet ceux qui font naître une organisa-
tion internationale.
La convention de Vienne I(s'applique à tout traité qui est l'acte consti-
tutif d'une organisation internationale et à tout traitéadoptéau seind'une

organisation internationale, sous réserve de toute règle pertinente de
l'organisation )(art. 5).
Dans les débats à la conférence de Vienne, on a souligné que le
respect le plus grand pour les particularités des organisations inter-
nationales est nécessaire. Les Etats n'ont pas voulu affaiblir l'Œuvre
progressive et l'efficacitédes organisations internationales '.On distingue
dans tout traitécréantune organisation: 1)l'acteconstitutif de I'organisa-
tion, lequel est soumis à la lex generalis sur la naissance des traités, 2)

le statut créant la lex specialis ou les règles destinées à régirla vie et le
fonctionnement de I'organisation. Spécialitéqui a fait que les auteurs

lVoir dans ce sens I'article20, paragraphe 3, de la convention de Vienne. Voir
cernant I'article 17)Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 1966, vol.
II, p. 220 à 226, en particulier par. 20). ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 129

It is not correct that the principle laid down in Article 60 of the Vienna
Convention is dehors the Chicago Convention. On the contrary, it is a
principle which follows from the contractual nature of treaties. There is
no frontier between treaties and international law; there is no frontier
which leaves the content of treaties outside international law. On the
contrary, it is thanks to international law that treaties have a legal signi-
ficance. The rules of international law are not outside treaties, they give
legal force to treaty rules. The principle pacta sunt servanda (Vienna
Convention, Art. 26)is not dehorstreaties; it isthis principle which makes
it possible tocal1for performance in good faith of contractual obligations.
Article 60 is a complement and the sanction of the principle pacta sunt
servandu. It is the breach of rights or obligations having their source in

the agreement which lies at the root of the exceptio non adimpleti.

3. A fundamental point in the argument put forward in the Memorial
of India, to the effectthat the Convention and Agreement are terminated
or suspended vis-à-vis Pakistan, is based on the application of Article 60
of the Vienna Convention and on certain observations of the Court in its
Advisory Opinion on Namibia (I.C.J. Reports 1971, pp. 47 and 49).
Perhaps one of the sources of the error in the construction of the Indian
argument may be found here: it does not take into account the differing
nature of treaties.
The draftsman of the Vienna Convention did not conceive of Article
60, paragraph 1, as imperative and general; quite the contrary. There
must be taken into account, above all,the rules peculiar to each treaty,

not only because of the principlepacta sunt servanda (Arts. 26,56 and 58),
but also because of the reservations made in Article 42, paragraph 2,
and Article 60,paragraph 4.The differencesbetween bilateral and multila-
teral treaties, and those which give rise to an international organization,
must also be taken into account.
The Vienna Convention "applies to any treaty which isthe constituent
instrument of an international organization and to any treaty adopted
within an international organization without prejudice to any relevant
rules of the organization" (Art. 5).
In the course of the discussions at the Vienna Conference, emphasis
was laid on the need for the utmost respect for the peculiarities of inter-

national organizations. The States did not wish to weaken the growing
achievements and the effectiveness of international organizations l.In
any treaty creating an organization a distinction isto be drawn between:
(1) the constituent instrument of the organization, which is subject to the
IPXgeneralis on the coming to birth of treaties, and (2) the constitution
which sets up the 1e.uspecialis or rules to govern the life and functioning

See in this sense, Article 20, paragraph 3, of the Vienna Convention. See also
the I.L.C., 1966. Vol. 11,pp. 202-208, particularly para. 20).e 17 (Yearbook ofclassent ce genre de traitésparmi les (traités-lois11ou ((Vereinbarungen ».

Dès le moment de sa constitution, une organisation internationale est
une nouvelle réalité juridique. C'est une entitéayant des droits et des
obligations, des buts et des fonctions propres et donc une certaine per-
sonnalité juridique (C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 179-181).Elle a la cohésion
propre aux personnes juridiques, qui s'oppose à l'autonomie des mem-

bres qui la composent (C.I.J. Recueil 1970,p. 34, par. 40).
Quelle que soit la nature de sa personnalitéjuridique, chaque organisa-
tion a un statut qui lui donne une règle générale à laquelle sont soumis
tous les membres. Leurs droits et obligations les uns envers les autres
découlent de ce statut. C'est la condition de personne juridique de

I'organisation qui empêchede considérer que les relations juridiques
entre les membres soient régiespar une sériede traités bilatéraux in-
dépendants. La vie de I'organisation n'est pas régléed'une manière
disparate par une somme de traités bilatéraux. Les membres de I'orga-
nisation sont liésentre eux par le statut, et leursrelations sont réglées par

le statut. Ces relations sont celles qui résultent de la condition de mem-
bres de I'organisation et non de la condition de parties à des traités
bilatéraux. Cela est de l'essence même des organisations, c'est une exi-
gence qu'impose l'intérêt commun et une nécessité pour leur fonctionne-
ment et leur efficacité.
L'Etat qui viole des obligations ou devoirs qui découlent du statut

envers un autre Etat membre de I'organisation ne viole pas un traité
bilatéralet particulier entre eux, il viole le statut de l'organisation. Les
effets d'une telle violation sont régispar ce statut. C'est seulement à
titre supplétifqu'on devra appliquer les règles générales du droit inter-
national, celles qui sont consacréespar la convention de Vienne '.

' L'Inde a fait référencea l'avis rendu par la Cour dans l'affaire de la Nanribie
(C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 47) pour conclure a l'application générale de l'article 60
de la convention de Vienne à tous les traités, donc à la Convention et à l'Accord
de transit. Mais les expressions qui s'y trouvent ne doivent pas êtredétachéesde
l'ensemble du texte. Dans l'avis consultatif, on a dit:Assembléegénéraleconstate
qu'il y a eu en l'occurrence violation substantielleibid., par. 95) et l'on a cité le
passage de l'arrêtde 1962 où il est dit ((comme presque tous les autres mandats
instituant un régime international nouveau.unII contient un accordurprécis))(ibid.,
p. 46, par. 94). La Cour, ici comme ailleurs, a envisagé la nature toute particulière
du mandat. Dans le mandat ou dans le trust, on considère comme implicite la faculté
de révocation. Le mandant, la Sociétédes Nations, confère le mandat pour qu'il
bénéficieau peuple sous tutelle. Les Nations Unies, ayants droit de la Société des
Nations, ont le droit et l'obligation de retirer le mandat.st ou pouvoir tutélaire,
danstous les casoù le mandataire, le trustee ou le tuteur vient à violer ses obligations
envers le peuple dont la tutelle lui a étéconfiée.

L'avis rendu dans l'affaire de la Nanlibie ne vient pas appuyer valablement la
thése de I'lnde. C'est un exemple de plus qu'on doit tenir compte de la nature de
chaque traité pour l'application de l'article0. ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 130

of the organization. It is this special aspect which is responsible for the
classification of this type of treaty by writers among "treaty-laws" or
"Vereinbarungen".
From the moment of its creation, an international organization is a
new juridical reality. It is an entity having its own rights and obligations,
its own purposes and functions, and thus a certain legal personality

(I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 179-181). It has the tie of legal personality,
which excludes the autonomy of its several members (I.C.J. Reports 1970,
p. 34, para. 40).
Whatever the nature of its legal personality may be, each organization
has a constitution which provides it with a general rule to which al1its
members are subject. Their rights and obligations towards each other flow
from this constitution. It is the fact that the organization is a legal person

which prevents the legal relationships between its members being con-
sidered as governed by a series of independent bilateral treaties. The life
of the organization is not governed disjunctively by an accumulation of
bilateral treaties. Members of the organization are linked together by the
constitution, and their relationships are governed by the. constitution.
Such relationships are those resulting from the status of member of the

organization, and not the status of a party to bilateral treaties. This is of
the very essence of organizations; it is required by the common interest,
and is a necessity for their functioning and effectiveness.

The State which is inbreach of those of its obligations or duties which
derive from this constitution, towards another member State of the orga-
nization, is not in breach of a single bilateral treaty between them, it is

in breach of the constitution of the organization. The effects of such a
breach are governed by that constitution. It is only in a supplementary
way that the general rules of international law, those enshrined in the
Vienna Convention, may be applied l.

India has referred to the Advisory Opinion given by the Court in the Namibia
case (I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 47), and drawn the conclusion that Article 60 of the
Vienna Convention applies generally to al1treaties, and thus to the Convention and
the Transit Agreement. But the observations to be found in the Opinion must not
be taken out of context. In the Advisory Opinion it was said that "[the] General
Assembly ... determines that... rnaterial breach had occurred in this case" (p. 47,
para. 95) and the 1962 Judgment was cited to the effect that "this Mandate, like
site in nature and instituting a novel international régime. It incorpoa definite
agreement ..."(I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 46, para. 94). The Court, here as elsewhere,
had in contemplation the very particular nature of the Mandate. In a mandate or
a trust, the power of revocation is regarded as implicit. The Mandatorthe League
of Nations, grants themandate for the benefit of the people under trusteeship. The
United Nations, the successor to the League of Nations, has the right and the obli-
gation to withdraw the mandate, trust or guardianship, in any case where the man-
datory, the trustee or the guardian commitsa breach of his obligationstowards the
people of whom he was appointed trustee.
The Advisory Opinion in the Namibia case does not support India's contention.
into account for the purposes of application of Article 60.each treaty must be taken

88 Par suite, pour connaître les conséquences des violations dont l'Inde

accuse le Pakistan, on doit tenir compte avant tout de la signification
statutaire de la Convention et de l'Accord de transit.

L'OACI est une des plus parfaites organisations internationales. Sa
personnalité juridique est évidente, comme aussi son indépendance

juridique envers ses membres. Dans la Convention, on tient à mettre
en vedette la pleine personnalité juridique de l'organisation, pour I'exer-
cice de ses fonctions dans le territoire de chaque Etat, sous la seule riserve
des lois de 1'Etat intéressé(art. 47).
L'organisation a des buts et objets propres, indépendants des intérêts

propres à chaque Etat membre, ceux de la communauté internationale
(préambule, art. 93 bis) et chaque Etat contractant convient de ne pas
employer l'aviation civile à des fins incompatibles avec les buts de la
Convention (art. 4).
La Convention; énumère les obligations et les droits des membres de

l'organisation; elle a établi des organes (l'Assembléeet le Conseil) pour
en assurer la mise en Œuvreet a mêmeprévudes sanctions pour les Etats
qui n'obéiraient pas à leurs décisions (art. 84 à 88 de la Convention; art.
II de l'Accord). C'est pour favoriser la réalisation des buts et principes de
l'organisation, c'est pour favoriser son fonctionnement, qu'on a créé

un système destiné à régler les différendsentre Etats sur l'exercice et les
violations de leurs droits et obligations (art. 84 de la Convention: art. II
de l'Accord).
On peut signaler encore deux groupes de dispositions qui éclairent le
système de I'organisation.

Il y a en premier lieu les dispositions qui établissent le principe de non-
discrimination entre les Etats membres. Dans l'énumération solennelle
des objectifs de I'organisation, on dit ((éviter la discrimination entre
Etats contractants jj(art.44 g)). Dans le préambule de la Convention,
on parle déjà de (ll'égalité des chances ))et dans plusieurs autres articles

on insiste sur l'interdiction de toute distinction entre les aéronefs des
Etats contractants (art. 9, 11, 35). Toujours afin d'éviter des relations
particulières préférentielles ou discriminatoires entre les Etats, on a
stipulé ((les Etats contractants reconnaissent que la présente Convention
abroge toutes les obligations et ententes entre eux qui sont incompati-

bles avec ses dispositions et s'engagent à ne pas contracter de telles
obligations ni à conclure de telles ententes 1)(art. 82 de la Convention).

II y a en second lieu les dispositions qui régissent la manière dont les
obligations des Etats prennent fin. L'article 95 formule la règle pour la

dénonciation de la Convention, c'est-à-dire pour la sortie de l'organisa-
tion. Il n'admet pas la possibilité de la dénonciation vis-à-vis d'un seul
Etat membre. ~lle semble inadmissible comme contraire aux principes
de non-discrimination et de personnalité juridique. Ces principes sont-ils
la raison d'être de l'article 89? En cas de guerre, les dispositions de la

Convention ne portent pas atteinte à la liberté des Etats contractants Therefore in order to ascertain the consequences of the breaches of
which Iiidia accuses Pakistan, one must above al1 take into account
the constitutional significance of the Convention and the Transit Agree-
ment.

ICA0 is orle of the most perfected interriational organizations. Its
legal personality is clear, as is also its legal independence with regard to
its inen~bers. In the Convention, it was sought to bring out the full
juridical personality of the Organization for the exercise of its functioris
in the territory of each State, subject to the sole reservation of the laws
of the State concerned (Art. 47).

The Organization ha; its ow; aims and objects, which are independcnt
of the particular interests of each member State, namely those of the
international community (Preamble and Art. 93his); and~each contrac-
ting State agrees not to use civil aviation for any purpose inconsistent
with the aiins of the Convention (Art. 4).
The Convention lists the rights and obligations of the members of the

Organization; it set iip organs (the Assenibly and the Council) to ensure
their implementation, and even provides for sanctions against States
which do not comply with their decisions (Arts. 84 to 88 of the Conven-
tion; Art. II of the Agreement). It was in order tu facilitate the achieve-
ment of the objects and principles of the Organization, it was to facilitate

its functioning, that;Isystem was set up for settlcment of disputes between
States as to the exercise or the breach of their rights and obligations (Art.
84 of the Convention; Art. II of the Agreement).
Two further groups of provisions may be mentioned which throw
light on the system of the Organization.
In the first place there are those provisions which lay down the prin-

ciple of non-discriniination between inember States. In the solemn enume-
ration of the objectives of the Organization, one objective is to "avoid
discrimination between contracting States" (Art. 44 (g)). In the very
preanible to the Convention, there ismention of "equalityof opportunity",
and in several other articles stress in laid on the prohibition of any dis-
tinction betueen the aircraft of contracting States (Arts. 9, 11, 35). Still

with a view to avoiding special relationships between States which are
preferential or discriniinatory, it was laid down that "the Contracting
Statesaccept this Convention as abrogating al1obligations and understan-
dings between them which are inconsistent with its terms, and undertake
not to enter into any such obligations and understandings" (Art. 82 of the
Convention).

Secondly, there are the provisions governing the way in which States'
obligations coine to an end. Article 95 lays down the rules for denunci-
ation of the Convention. that is to say, for leaving the Organization. It
does not recognize the possibility ofdenunciation vis-à-vis asingle member
State.This would seem to be inadniissible as contrary to the principles of

non-discrimination and legal personality. Are these principles the raison
d'être of Article 89? In case of war. the provisions of the Convention do
not affect the freedom of action of any of the contracting States con-concernés, qu'ilssoient belligérants ou neutres; on applique le même
principe dans le cas où un Etat proclame l'état decrise nationale. On
peut observer que l'état de guerre mêmen'entraîne pas l'extinction de la
Convention entre les Etats contractants; c'est qu'il n'y a pas de traités
bilatérauxentre eux. C'est la Convention elle-même,toujours en vigueur,
qui accorde aux Etats intéressésla libertéd'action quant aux obligations
qu'ils avaient assumées.

Il semble qu'on peut tirer les conclusions suivantes:

1) Les traités qui instituent des organisations sont soumis à des règles
propres et non à la règlede l'article 60de la convention de Vienne.

2) Les règlesde la Convention de Chicago n'admettent pas la possibilité
qu'un Etat diclare éteintela Convention vis-à-vis d'un autre Etat.
3) Lesrègles spécialesde la Convention et de l'Accord de transit excluent
la possibilitéd'appliquer la règlede I'article 60 de la convention de
Vienne.

4) L'interprétation de I'article 84 de la Convention et de I'article II
de l'Accord de transit donnéepar l'Inde est contraire non seulement
à la lettre et au but de ces articles mais aussi au systèmede I'organisa-
tion internationale qu'est I'OACI.

4. L'Inde soutient encore - c'est le dernier élémentde sa thèse -
qu'elleavait la facultéde mettre finà ses obligations vis-à-visdu Pakistan
par une déclaration unilatérale. L'argumentest développé d'une manière
qui n'est pas banale. Le conseil principal de l'Inde explique ceci:

c.Supposez, à titre d'hypothèse, qu'en raison de l'action d'un
Etat le survol de son territoire présente pour moi des dangers- cela
détruit l'objet même,le but mêmede la Convention et de l'Accord
de transit. Sà cause de celaje mets fin à l'Accord, c'està bon droit
que j'y mets fin. Supposez que je sois pris de panique et que j'en
vienne à la conclusion hâtive - et supposez que cela soit à tort-

qu'il serait dangereux pour moi de survoler le territoire de l'autre
Etat. Supposez que mon point de vue soit le fait d'une crainte exces-
sive et que le point de vue qui corresponde à la vérité soitque je
peux très bien,en toute sécurité,survoler le territoire de l'autre Etat.
Dans ce cas-là, j'ai eutort de mettre finàl'Accord. Mais que j'y aie
mis finà tort ou à raison, cela relèved'un différend à propos de la
résiliation. C'est là le point important. » (Mémoire, annexe E,
2' séance,Débat,par. 24.)

En conséquence,dit le conseil principal de l'Inde, comme il n'y a pas
de désaccord sur l'interprétationou l'application, mais un différendsur
la résiliation, le Conseil n'aura pas compétence pour trancher ce dés- ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 132

cerned, whether as belligerents or as neutrals; theame principle is applied
when a contracting State declares a state of national emergency. It should
be observed that even a state of war does not involve the termination of
the Convention between the contracting States; the point is that there are
no bilateral treaties between them. It is the Convention itself, which is
still in force, which confers upon the States concerned freedom of action

with regard to the obligations undertaken by them.
Ttwould seem that the following conclusions may be drawn:

(1) Treaties creating organizations are subject to special rules, and not
to the rule laid down in Article60 of the Vienna Convention.
(2) The rules of the Chicago Convention do not recognize the possibility
of a State declaring the Convention at an end vis-à-vis oneother State.

(3) The special rules of the Convention and the Transit Agreement
exclude any possibility of applying the rule laid down in Article 60
of the Vienna Convention.

(4) The interpretation of Article 84 of the Convention, and Article II
of the Transit Agreement, advanced by India, is contrary not only to
the letter and to the purpose of those Articles, but also to the system
of ICA0 as an international organization.

4. lndia conteiids further-and this is the last point in its argument-
that it had power to put an end to its obligations toward Pakistan by

~inilateral declaration. This argument has been advanced in a somewhat
unusual way. The chief counsel for lndia explains it thus:

". .. assume hypothetically that a State has acted in such a way
that my overflying that State's territory is unsafe-that destroys
the very objective, the very purpose, of the Convention and the
Transit Agreement. If because of that I terminate the Agreement,
1 have terminated in rightfully. Suppose 1 get panicky and hastily

jump to the conclusion-1 will assume wrongly jump to the conclu-
sion-that my overflying the territory of the other State is unsafe.
Suppose that the view 1 have taken is an unduly apprehensive one
and the correct view should be that it is al1right for me, it is safe
enough for me, to overfly, then 1 have wrongfully terminated the
agreement. But whether 1 have terminated it rightfully or wrong-
fully is a dispute as to termination. That is the important point."

(Memorial of India, Annex E, (a). Discussion, para. 24.)

Consequently, according to the chief counsel for India, since there
is no disagreement as to the interpretation or the application of the
Convention. but a dispute over its termination, the Council has no

90 133 CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DE CASTRO)

accord ou différend. La Convention et l'Accord ont ainsi pris fin vis-à-vis
de l'autre Etat '.
On a déjàrelevéles erreurs de la thèseindienne. L'argumentation serrée
et si logique du conseil principal de l'Inde montre en toute clarté I'impor-
tance pratique de la question soulevéedans cette affaire et l'importance

générale qu'elleprésente pour le fonctionnement des organisations inter-
nationales.

La doctrine que l'Inde nous propose a pour conséquence immédiate
de donner aux Etats membres la possibilité de s'exonérer à volonté

de leurs obligations de membres de I'organisation vis-à-vis d'un autre
Etat membre. Elle offre une façon commode de déguiserLin non vo[umus.
II suffitd'accuser l'autre partie de violation d'une obligation et dequalifier
la violation de cause propre à mettre fin au traité. Un Etat peut le faire
pour soustraire sa propre violation à la compétence du Conseil; il peut
aussi déclarer que la Convention a pris fin vis-à-vis d'un autre Etat

membre pour l'inciter à une discrimination en sa faveur. En tout cas,
l'organisation est réduite à l'impuissance en face de cette manŒuvre
faite pour échapper à la compétence du Conseil, quelle que soit la vio-
lation des obligations découlant de la Convention ou de l'Accord; il
suffira de la travestir artificiellement ou simplement de baptiser de diffé-
rend sur l'extinction d'~intraité un différend sur l'existence d'une vio-

lation du traité.

Les explications du conseil principal de l'Inde mettent aussi en relief
combien la thèse indienne va à l'encontre de !a cohésion et de I'unifor-
mité propres à la nature des organisations et combien elle méconnaît
dans la pratique le principe de non-discrimination pour y substituer un

autre principe, celui de la discrimination facultative.
On a dit que les conséquences d'une interprétation sont la pierre de
touche de cette interprétation. Est à rejeter l'interprétation qui mène à
l'absurde, qui ouvre la porte à la fraude, qui méconnaît les buts et l'objet
de la règleà interpréter. Or tels sont les résultats inéluctables de la thèse
indienne.

On peut donc conclure avec conviction que I'article 84 de la Convention
et l'article II de l'Accord de transit donnent compétence au Conseil pour
toutes les questions relatives à la violation des obligations naissant de la
Convention ou de l'Accord, parce qu'il a compétence pour décider tout

Dans la thèse ici exposée semble planer une confusion assez courante, celle
de croire que i'absence d'une juridiction obligatoire larbitrairement les Etats
libres de suspendre les traités ou d'y mettre La vraie doctrine est qu'une décla-
ration d'extinction ou de suspension doit être objectivement justifiée pour être
valide. Elle a aussi d'importantes conséquences pratiques: une déclaration arbitraire
ne suspend pas le traité et n'y met pas fin, sera toujours en vigueur et il devra
êtreconsidérécomme en vigueur par les Etats tiers, par la communauté internatio-
nale et, en l'occurrence, par la Cour (Statut, art.t37). ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 133

jurisdiction to determine this dispute or disagreement. The Convention
and the Agreement have thus come to an end vis-à-vis the other State '.

The errors in the Tndian argument have already been pointed out.
The closely reasoned and logical argument of the chief counsel for
lndia shows inost clearly the practical importance of the question
raised in this case, and its general importance for the functioning of
international organizations.

The direct consequence of the doctrine which India advances before
us is to confer on member States the possibility of freeing themselves at
will from their obligations as members of the Organization vis-à-vis
another member State. It affords a convenient cover for a non volumus.

Ttis enough to accuse the other party of breach of an obligation, and to
treat the breach as an appropriate ground for putting an end to the treaty.
A State might act thus in order to withdraw a breach on its own part
from the jurisdiction of the Council; it might also declare that the Con-
vention had come to an end vis-à-vis another member state in order to

exert pressure on that State to make a discrimination in its own favour.
In any event, the Organization would be reduced to impotence when faced
with this manŒuvre designed to evade the jurisdiction of the Council,
whatever may be the breach of the obligations flowing from the Conven-
tion or the Agreement; it would be sufficient to dress it up artificially,

or simply to take a dispute over the existence of a breach of the treaty
and baptise it a dispute over the termination of the treaty.
The explanations given by the chief counsel for lndia also make it
clear how far the Indian contention is contrary to the uniformity and
interna1 tie appropriate to the nature of organizations, and how in prac-

tice it disregards the principle of non-discrimination, to substitute there-
for another principle, that of optional discrimination.
It has been said that the consequences of an interpretation are the
touchstone of that interpretation. Any interpretation which leads to ab-
surdity, which opens the door to fraud. which disregards the aims and

the object of the rule to be interpreted, must be rejected. But these are
the inescapable results of the Indian contention.
Tt may therefore be concluded without hesitation that Article 84 of
the Convention and Article II of the Transit Agreement confer jurisdic-
tion on the Council for al1questions relating to the breach of obligations

deriving froni the Convention or the Agreement, because it has juris-

l The argument here set forth seems to be pervaded by what is a fairly common
source of confusion, namely the belief that the absence of any tribuhaving com-
pulsory jurisdictionarbitrarilyleaves States free to terminate or suspend treaties.
The true position is that a declaration of termination or suSpension must be objec-
tively justified to be valid. This also has importpractiîal consequences: an ar-
bitrary declarationdoes not suspend the treaty and does not terminate it, it will
bynthe international community, andvein the present case, by the Court (Arts. 36tates,
and 37 of the Statute). désaccord à propos de l'interprétation ou de l'application de la Conven-
tion et de l'Accord de transit.

III. OBJECTION SRBSENTÉESPAR L'INDE QUANT À LA MÉTHODE
SUIVIE PAR LE CONSEIL POUR PARVENIR À SA DÉCISION

Dans le mémoire de l'Inde on demande la nullité de la décision du
Conseil, étant donnéla manière dont ila adopté cette décision.
Avant d'entrer dans l'examen des motifs pour lesquels I'lnde prie
la Cour de déclarer la décision du Conseil injuste et préjudiciable à
l'Inde, et mal fondée en droit, il semble utile de rappeler brièvement

la signification de la nullité. La nullité est une sanction très grave.
Elle est limitéeaux actes contre legem. Pour la nullitéabsolue, dont ilest
ici question, il est nécessaire que l'acte incriminé soit incompatible avec
la loi. Pour cela, ilfaut que la loi soit impérativeou prohibitive, que l'acte
soit contraire au but de la loi, que le vice dont l'acte estentachéne soit pas

corrigé.La nullité d'un arrêt ou d'une autre décisionjudiciaire requiert
un vice qui touche à son résultat, à sa substance, au fond et pas seulement
à ses raisonnements ou à des aspects non essentiels.

La critique de I'lnde à l'égardde la méthode suivie par le Conseil porte

sur cinq points:
1. La manière dont la question de la compétencea été poséa eu Conseil.

Les propositions mises aux voix étaientrédigéessous une forme négative,
à savoir: (Le Conseil n'a pas compétence ..»,alors qu'il eût fallu s'expri-
mer affirmativement: ((Le Conseil a compétence ...1)(mémoire, par. 93,
et annexe E, 6' séance,Débat, par. 58 et suiv.). Le raisonnement de I'lnde
semble reposer sur la croyance que, si une exception préliminaire est

soulevée,le Conseil doit prendre une décision sur sa propre compétence
et non sur I'exception préliminaire (voir l'art. 5, par. 4, du Règlement
pour la solution des differends et ce qu'en dit le représentant de I'lnde au
Conseil, mémoire, annexe E, 6' séance,Débat, par. 76).

Or à la lettre, le texte français de cette disposition du règlement (art.
5, par. 4) semble dire tout autre chose. Une fois soulevéeltexception pré-
liminaire, le Conseil (rend une décision sur cettequestion préjudicielle JJ
r'est-à-dire qu'il doit décider I'exception préliminaire, qui est ecette
question préjudicielle ».Le Conseil n'a pas besoin de se prononcer sur sa

propre compétence comme s'il s'agissait d'une question préalable. II
doit statuer sur l'exception, il fait droit à I'exception ou illa rejette1.

Cette manière d'agir suppose une présomption de compétence en
faveur du Conseil. Elle est la conséquence normale de la mécanique

procédurale. Un arrêt ou une décision judiciaire doit répondre aux
conclusions du demandeur. Sinon ilaura statué ultra petita et sera vicié

' Excepté le cas où l'une des parties ne comparaît pas (art. 16 du Règlement).diction to settle any dispute as to the interpretation or application of the
Convention and Transit Agreement.

III. OBJECTIONS BY INDIA AS TO THE METHOD FOLLOWE DY THE
COUNCIL TO REACH ITS DECISION

In the Memorial of India, the nullity of the decision of the Council
is asserted, in view of the way in which the decision was adopted.
Before embarking on an examination of the grounds on which India
asks the Court to declare the Council's decision unfair and prejudicial
to India, and bad in law, it would seem useful briefly to recall the meaning
of nullity. Nullity is a very serious sanction. Its application is confined

to acts contra legeni. For absolute nullity, which is herein question, it
is necessary that the act under scrutiny should have been incompatible
with the law. For this, it is necessary that the law should be imperative
or prohibitive, that the act be contrary to the object of the law, and that
the defect in the act should have not been put right. For a judgment or
other decision to be declared nuIl and void, it must be defective with

regard to its results, its substance, its essence, and not merely with regard
to the reasoning, or to inessential aspects of it.
India's criticism of the method followed by the Council is addressed
to five points:

1. The way in which the question of jiirisdiction was put to the Coun-
cil. The proposals put to the vote were drawn up negatively, namely
"the Council has no jurisdiction .. .", whereas the point should, it is
asserted, have been expressed afirmatively: "the Co~incil has jurisdic-
tion . . ." (Memorial of India, para. 93 and Annex E, (e), Discussion,

paras. 58 et seqq.). India's reasoning appears to be based on the belief
that if a preliminary objection is raised, the Council must take acision
on its own jurisdiction and not on the preliminary objection (see Art. 5,
para. 4, of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences, and what was said
on this by the representative of lndia in the Council, Memorial of
India, Anriex E, (e), Discussion, para. 76).

But the express terms of the French text of this provision of the Rules
(Art. 5, para. 4) seem to say the contrary. Once the preliminary objec-
tion is raised, "le Conseil .. rend une décision sur cette question pré-
judicielle", that is toay that the Council must give a decision on the
preliminary objection, which is "cette question préjudicielle". The Coun-
cil does not have to take a decision on its own iurisdiction as if this was
a preliminary issue. It must take a decision on the objection; it must

u~hold the obiection or dismiss it '.
This procedure presupposes a presumptioii in favour of thejurisdiction
of the Council. It is the normal conseauence of the ~rocedural machinerv.
A judgment or judicial decision must correspond to the submissions of
the applicant; if it does not, it will be defective as a decision ultra petita.

'Except where one of the parties does not appear (Art. 16 of the Rules).
92135 CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DE CASTRO)

de ce fait. II est bien connu que reus in excipiendo Jit actor '. L'lnde
demande au Conseil de déclarer (que le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour
...connaître [de la requêteet de la plainte du Pakistan] ni pour traiter des
affaires qui en sont l'objet » (mémoire, annexe C, par. 39).

Dans une exception préliminaire, l'ancien défendeur devient deman-
deur et c'est donc à lui qu'incombe la charge de prouver les motifs de son
exception2. Le Conseil avait à déciders'ilexistait des raisons de se déclarer
incompétent. N'est-il pas logique qu'il se soit demandé: Le Conseil n'a

pas compétence ..? C'est ce que I'lnde soutenait dans le texte écritfor-
mulant I'exception. II ne semble donc pas que les décisions du Conseil
soient viciéesdu fait que les questions auraient étémal posées.

2. L'lnde fait grief au Conseil de n'avoir pas accordé à ses membres

un nouveau délai pour étudier les questions, après avoir entendu les
parties, sur la base d'un procès-verbal in extenso et pour consulter leurs
gouvernements sur la valeur des arguments avancés pendant la procédure
orale; de plus, un membre du Conseil n'avait pas assistéà toute la procé-

dure orale (mémoire, par. 93-99).
Tous ces arguments semblent boiteux; on ne trouve pas une disposition
qui les appuie.
Le procédé employépar le Conseil n'est pas contraire à l'équité.

Les membres du Conseil et leurs gouvernements avaient joui de délais
raisonnables pour connaître et étudier l'exception de I'lnde et les motifs
formuléspour l'étayer. Loind'êtrecontraire à la loi, cela y est conforme.
Le règlement dispose que le Conseil après avoir entendu les parties rend
une décision (art. 5, al. 4). Après l'audience, le débat est clos et on doit

décider sans délai. Dans le cas des 1délais fixés 11c'est le Conseil qui
1peut IIles proroger àson gré(art. 28 du règlement).Certains membres du
Conseil ont étéd'avis et ilfut proposé de proroger le délaiavant de pren-
dre une décision. On est passéau vote. La proposition n'a pas étéadoptée;

elle a recueilli 8 voix sur les 14 voix nécessaires (mémoire, annexe E,
6' séance, Débat, par. 42) j.

Sur l'absence d'un membre du Conseil lors de la procédure orale, il
n'y a pas de disposition du règlement qui la considère comme viciant le
vote. En tout cas, la question semble oiseuse parce que ce vote n'était
pas nécessairepour le rejet de l'exception opposéepar l'Inde.

'Agere etiam is videtur, qui exceptionu utitur; nutn reus in exc<,ptioneuctor est,
D. 44. 1, 1.
Reus exceptiones quas obiicir probare videtur. Dueio, in rit. du reg. iuris, regula
43, 5. Voir aussi l'article 62, paragraphes 2 et 3. du Règlement de la Cour.
Le conseil principal de l'Inde semble avoir reconnu a propos des délais que
1(la décision ..revient 11au Conseil sur la question des délais (mémoire, annexe
E, 5eséance, Débat, par. 82).It is also well known that reus in excipiendo fit actor l. India asks the

Council to declare "that the Council has no jurisdiction to hear them
[Pakistan's Application and Complaint] or handle the matters contained
therein" (Memorial of India, Annex C, para. 39).
On a preliminary objection, the former respondent becomes the ap-
plicant, and it is therefore on him that the burden falls of proving the

grounds of his objection 2. The Council had to decide whether there
were any reasons for it to declare that it had no jurisdiction. 1s it not
therefore logical that it should have asked itself "Has the Council no
jurisdiction ...?" This is what India advanced in the written text of its
objection. It does not therefore appear that the Council's decisions are

defective because the questions were incorrectly put.
2. India complains that the Council did not afford its members further
time to study the issues after having heard the parties, on the basis of a
full verbatim record, and to consult their Governments as to the weight
of the arguments put forward during the oral proceedings; furthermore,

one member of the Council was not present throughout the oral pro-
ceedings (Memorial of India, paras. 93-99).
All these arguments seem somewhat lame; no provision can be found
to support them.
The procedure adopted by the Council is not contrary to equity. The

members of the Council and their Governments had had reasonable
time to acquaint themselves with India's objection, and to study it, and
the grounds put forward in support of it. Far from being contrary to
the law, this procedure is in accordance with it. The Rules lay down that
the Council, after hearing the parties, shall decide the question (Art. 5,

para. 4).After the hearing, the discussion is closed and its decision must
be given without further time. With regard to "the time-limits . . . fixed",
the Council "may" extend them at its discretion (Art. 28 of the Rules).
Certain members of the Council took the view that the time-limit before
taking the decision should be extended, and this was in fact proposed.

A vote was taken, and the proposa1 was not adopted; it received 8 votes
as against the 14 which were necessary (Memorial of India, Annex E,
(e), Discussion, para. 42) 3.
As to the absence of one member of the Council during the oral pro-
ceedings, there is no provision in the Rules which treats this as invali-

dating-the vote. In ahy event, the point would seem to be irrelevant,
because the vote was not necessary for the dismissal of the objection raised
by India.

'Agere etiam is videtur, qui exceprione utitur; nam reus in exceprione actor est,
D. 44.1.1.
"Reus exceptiones quasobiicit probare videturM-Decio, in tir. de reg. juris,
regula 43, 5. See also Art. 62, paras. 2 and 3, of the Rules of Court.
The chief counsel of India seernsto have admitted, with referenceto tirne-limits
that "itis their [the Council's] decision" (Mernorial of India, Annex E(e),Dis-
cussion, para. 82).136 CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP.[NU. DL CASTRO)

3. Dans la réplique du Gouvernement indien, on soutient que, pour
les questions relatives à l'Accord de transit, on avait besoin d'une
majorité de 14 voix et que la décision du Conseil sur l'exception de
I'lnde n'a recueilli que 13 voix (par. 78). L'observation n'est pas utile
parce que le vote ne visait pas la compétence du Conseil, mais visait la

non-compétence du Conseil. C'est sur elle qu'on a voté. Pour la propo-
sition indienne ily a eu I (oui ))13 11non ))et 3 abstentions.
A cela, on peut ajouter que la thèse de l'Inde sur la computation des
votes, malgré l'autorité que lui donne le mémorandum du secrétaire

général deI'OACI (annexe D à la réplique indienne), n'est pas convain-
cante. L'article 52 de la Convention dit que ((les dkcisions du Conseil
sont prises à la majorité de ses membres 1)Mais l'article 66 b) dispose que
les membres du Conseil ((quin'ont pas acceptéI'Accord ..n'ont pas droit

de vote sur les questions soumises ...au Conseil en vertu des dispositions
de l'Accord 1).Attendu le but et l'esprit de ces articles, on doit les inter-
préteren ce sens que les décisionssur les questions soulevéesen vertu de
l'Accord doivent êtreprises à la majorité des membres autorisés à voter.

Les abstentions des membres du Conseil non signataires de I'Accord ou
qui ne l'ont pas accepté ne sont pas à compter pour fixer la majorité
car on ne peut parler d'abstention que pour ceux qui peuvent voter.

Une règlede droit ne doit pas être interprétée d'une manière qui mène
à l'absurde (reducrioab absurdum).Les abstentions (imposées par l'art.
66) des membres du Conseil n'ayant pas signé ou accepté I'Accord

peuvent-elles empêcherque des décisions sur des questions relevant de
I'Accord soient approuvées, mêmesi les membres qui ont signéou accepté
I'Accord lesont votéesà l'unanimité?
4. En outre, l'Inde soutient que la décision du Conseil est viciée

parce que les propositions mises aux voix par le président n'ont été
déposées ouappuyéespar aucun membre du Conseil, comme le requièrent
les règles41 et 46 du règlement intérieur.
Cette objection semble résulter d'une confusion. Le président, en
l'occurrence, n'a pas présentédes propositions, il a mis aux voix les

questions soulevéespar l'Inde dans son exception préliminaire.
5. Au tout dernier moment, vers la fin de l'audience publique du
23 juin 1972, l'Inde présente une nouvelle objection à la validité de la
décisiondu Conseil'. Elle le fait en se référant autexte de cette décision,

rapporté dans le contre-mémoire pakistanais (annexe II). L'article 15
du Règlement pour la solution des différendsdit que la décisiondu Con-

'L'objection de I'lnde est-elle pour cela contraire aux règles procédurales? Ce
n'est pas une question de compétenceque la Cour aurait à décider moru proprio.

Peut-on argueren appel d'un vice entachant ladécisiondu Conseil, qui n'a pas
étéinvoqué devantl'instance inférieure?
Le silence de l'Inde pendant toute la procédurejusqu'à la séance du23juin n'est-
il pas un cas d'acquiescement? ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CAS1 RU)
136

3. In the lndian Government's Reply, it is claimed that for questions
relating to the Transit Agreement, a majority of 14 votes was required,
and the decision of the Council on India's objection received only 13
votes (ibid., para. 78). This observation is not to the point, because the

vote was not on the jurisdiction of the Council, but on the lack of juris-
diction of the Council. It was on this that the vote was taken. On the
Indian proposal there was one Aye, 13 Noes, and 3 abstentions.
It may be added that India's argument as to the calculation of the
votes, notwithstanding the authority of the memoranduin by the Secre-
tary General of ICA0 (Annex D to the Indian Reply) is not convincing.

Article 52 of the Convention states that "decisions by the Council shall
require approval by a majority of its members". But Article 66 (6)
provides that "Meinbers of the. . . Council who have not accepted ...
the Transit Agreement. .. shall not have the right to vote on any ques-
tions referred to the .. . Council under the provisions of the . .. Agree-
ment". In view of the object and spirit of these Articles. they must be

interpreted in the sense that decisions on questions raised under the
Agreement must be taken by a majority of the members entitled to vote.
The abstentions of the members of the Council which are not signatories
to the Agreement, or have not accepted it, should not be counted in
calculating the majority, because one can only talk of abstentions with
reference to those who are able to vote.

A rule of law may not be interpreted in a way which leads to an absurd
result (reductio ad ubsurdum). Can the abstentions (which are required
by Art. 66) of the members of the Council which have not signed or
accepted the Agreement, prevent decisions on questions relating to the
Agreement being taken, even if the members which have signed and
accepted the Agreement have voted unanimously for such decisions?

4. lndia ar"ues further that the Council's decision is vitiated because
the proposais put to the vote by the President were neither introduced
nor seconded by any member of the Council, as required by Rules 41 and
46 of the Rules of Procedüre.
This objection seems to be the result of a niisunderstanding. The
President did not in this case put forward any proposai; he put-to the

vote the questions raised by India in its preliminary objections.
5. At the very last moment, towards the end of the public hearing of
23 June 1972,India made a fresh objection to the validity of the Council's
decision ', and referred to the text of the decision, as reported in the
Pakistan Counter-Memorial (Annex II). Article 15 of the Rules for the
Settlement of Differences states that the decision of the Council shall

1s Jndia's objection contrary, on that accouto the procedural rules? This
is not a question of jurisdiction on which the Court would have to take a decision
proprio mofu.
1s it possible on appeal to argue that the Council's decision was invalidated on
a ground which was not advanced before the lower tribunal?
1s not Jndia's silence throughout whole of the proceedings ~intil the hearing
of 23 June a case of acquiescence?137 CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP.IND. DE CASTRO)

seil est formulée par écrit, et contient: (v) les conclusions motivéesdu
Conseil ». Mais la décision ne donne pas de raisons, n'est pas motivée,
ce qui entacherait d'un vice la décision.
La critique ainsi faite par I'lnde est formulée d'une manière équivoque.

En comparant le texte de la décision avec l'article 15cité,on voit que le
texte ne répond à aucune des formalitésrequises par I'article. Ce que nous
avons devant les yeux n'est pas une décisionau sens de I'article 15, c'est
une communication officielle d'une résolution prise par le Conseil.

La auestion de la valeur de la décisiondu Conseil est donc autre aue
celle qui est posée par l'Inde. Celle-ci prétend que la décision est viciée
faute d'une formalité, mais ce dont on s'occupe n'est pas une décision

au sens de I'article 15.
L~ rroblème est donc de savoir si une décision au sens de I'article 15
eit nécessairepour trancher valablement la question préjudicielle posée
par l'Inde. L'Inde n'apporte pas de preuve sur la pratique du Conseil
dans des cas semblables ni de raisonnements juridiques approfondis en la

matière. Elle nous dit seulement que, selon l'article 5, si une exception
préliminaire (preliminary objection) est soulevée, le Conseil statue ou
rend une décision (shall decide) et que, selon l'article 15, les décisions
doivent être motivées, alors que le Conseil ne fournit aucun motif.

On est surpris de voir que le secrétaire générall,eservice juridique de
I'OACI, les membres du Conseil et mêmele représentant de l'Inde, n'aient
pas fait observer que le Conseil n'avait pas réellement pris de décision,
qu'on n'avait véritablement rien fait de valable, faute de n'avoir pas tenu

compte de I'article 15.
Sans être un expert dans la procédure de I'OACI, il me paraît que la
lecture du Règlement pour la solution des différends nous donne une
ex~lication satisfaisante de la conduite du Conseil.

II semble que, dans le Règlement, on distingue deux procédures. L'une
est régie par I'article 5, c'est une procédure qu'on pourrait considérer
comme interlocutoire, brève et simple dans laquelle, après l'audition des
parties, on décidepar oui ou non de donner suite ou de ne pasdonner
suite à la requête. La question préjudicielle soulevéepar l'exception

préliminaire n'est pas régie par le chapitre IV consacré a la procédure
ordinaire. Ce chapitre IV vise une procédure plus solennelle et plus
compliquée. C'est cette procédure qui est close par la décision prévuea
I'article 15. 11s'agit alors d'un arrêtvéritable, d'une décision finale qui

suppose la clôture de la procédure; la décision est rendue 1après la fin
de la procédure >)(art. 15, par. 4), et doit respecter des formalitésqui ne
sont pas nécessaires quand il faut décider simplement la question pré-
judicielle. La décision de I'article 15 met fin à l'affaire pour le Conseil.

Au contraire, la décision qui rejette l'exception préliminaire signifie que
la procédure peut continuer et cela explique que le Conseil insiste encore
à ce stade auprès des parties pour les inviter a négocier.

La nature de la note du 30 juillet 1971sur les exceptions préliminaires ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO)
137

be in writing and shall contain "(v) the conclusions of the Council
together with its reasons for reaching them". But the decision does not
give any reasons, and it is argued that this invalidates the decision.

The criticism thus made by India is ambiguously expressed. If one
compares the text of the decision with Article 15, referred to above, it
is apparent that the text does not comply with any of the forma1 require-
ments of the Article. What we have before us is not a decision within the
meaning of Article 15, it is the officia1notification of a resolution adopted
by the Council.

The problem of the validity of the Council's decision is thus not the
problem raised by India. lndia claims that the decision is invalid for breach
of a formal requirement, but what we are concerned with is nota decision
within the meaning of Article 15.
The problem is thus whether a decision within the meaning of Article

15 is necessary for a valid settlement of the preliminary isstÏe raised by
India. India has not brought any evidence of the Council's practice in
similar cases, and has not addressed any thorough legal argument to the
Court on the point. India simply States that according to Article 5, if
a preliminary objection is raised, the Council shall decide,and that ac-
cording to Article 15,decisions must contain the conclusioiiswith reasons,

whereas the Council has given no reasons.
It is somewhat startling that the Secretary General and Legal Officers
of ICAO, the members of the Council, and even the Representative of
India, did not point out that the Council had not really taken any deci-
sion, that in fact nothing valid had been done, since there had been a
failure to take account of Article 15.

Without being an expert in the procedure of ICAO, it seems to me
that we may find in the Rules for the Settlement of Differences a satis-
factory explanation for the Council's conduct.
It would seem that in those Rules a distinction is made between two
procedures. One is governed by Article 5; it is a procedure which might

be regarded as interlocutory, short and simple, by which, after the parties
have been heard, a decision is taken, yes or no, to proceed or not to
proceed with the application. The preliminary issue raised by the preli-
minary objection is not governed by Chapter IV, which applies to or-
dinary proceedings. Chapter IV contemplates a more forma1 and com-
plicated procedure. It is this procedure which is terminated by the deci-

sion provided for in Article 15; this is a true judgment, a final decision
which presupposes the close of the proceedings; the decision is given
"after the close of the proceedings" (Art. 15, para.4),and it must respect
formal requirements which are not necessary when it is the preliminary
issue which has to be decided. The decision under Article 15puts an end
to the case for the Council. The decision dismissing the preliminary

objection, on the other hand, means that the procedure can continue,
and this explains why the Council at this stage continues to invite the
parties to the dispute to engage in negotiations.
There is no doubt as to the nature of the Note of 30 July 1971 on thede l'lnde (contre-mémoire du Pakistan, annexe II) n'est pas équivoque.
C'est une communication par laquelle on fait savoir au Pakistan (et il y
a sûrement une communication identique à I'lnde) que le Conseil a
décidéle 29juillet 1971de ne pas accepter les exceptions préliminaireset
aussi qu'en conséquencele délaipour la présentation du contre-mémoire
commence à courir le 29juillet. Lesecrétairegénéraa lttire l'attention des
parties sur la résolution du Conseil du 8 avril 1971invitant les parties à

négocier.
On voit bien que nous sommes dans lecadre de l'article 5etpas du tout
dans le cadre de l'article 15.
En outre on ne peut pas dire, comme le fait l'lnde (C.R. 7215,p. 45),
que les règlesde procédure soient des règlesstatutaires, ayant la même
force que la charte du Conseil. Le Règlementpour la solution des diffé-
rends n'est pas votépar les parties à la Convention ou les membres de
l'Assemblée; c'estle Conseil qui l'a approuvéle 9 avril 1967.Ce n'estpas
la charte.du Conseil mais l'Œuvredu Conseil. Le Conseil se réservedes
pouvoirs sur la procédure (art. 28) et l'article 33 nous dit: ((A tout

moment, le Conseil peut amender le présentrèglement ».

Le Conseil ayant approuvé le règlementde procédure, l'interprétation
qu'il fait de ce règlement dans l'exercicede ses fonctions (facra conclu-
dentia) a la valeur d'une interprétationauthentique '.IIya donc une forte
présomption que la décision prisepar le Conseil soit conforme au vrai
sens du règlement.

L'Inde soutient la thèseque la question du survol de son territoire par
des aéronefs pakistanais n'est pas régiepar la Convention et l'Accord de
transit, mais par l'accord spécialde 1966 (suspendu) entre l'Inde et le
Pakistan. La conséquence estdonc que le Conseil de 1'OACI n'a pas
con~pétencepour statuer sur une question qui est hors de la Convention
et de l'Accord de transit.
L'argumentation de l'lnde ne semble pas tenir compte de l'article 82
de la Convention et des articles 30, paragraphe 4, et 41, paragraphe 1,
de la convention de Vienne. Dans le cas d'un traité multilatéral, et à
fortiori dans lecasd'un traitéconstitutifd'une organisation internationale,
deux parties à ce traité ne peuvent conclure un accord ayant pour objet

de modifier les traités dans leurs relations mutuelles que si la possibilité
d'une telle modification est prévuepar letraitéou sielle n'estpas interdite
et n'est pas incompatible avec le but et l'objet du traité pris dans son
ensemble. La Convention, dans son article 82, impose l'obligation à

' Dans le sens de ce qu'on a appellinterprétation institutionn11.e

96 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO)
138

preliminary objections of lndia (Annex II to the Counter-Memorial
of Pakistan). Itis a communication by which Pakistan (and there was no
doubt an identical communication to India) was informed that on 29July
1971the Council had decided not to uphold the preliminary objections,
and that accordingly the time-limit set for delivery of the Counter-
Memorial began to run as from 29 July. The Secretary General drew the
attention of the parties to the Council's resolution of 8April 1971in which
they were invited to negotiate.

It is apparent that we are here in the frame of reference of Article 5,
and not at al1in that of Article 15.
Furthermore it cannot be said, as lndia has done (C.R. 7215,p. 45),
that the Rules of Procedure are statutory rules, having the same force
as the constituent instrument of the Council. The Rules for the Settle-
ment of Differences were not adopted by vote of the Parties to the Con-
vention, or of the members of the Assembly; it was the Council which
approved them on 9 April 1967. It is not the constituent instrument of
the Council, but something which the Council itself has produced. The
Council reserves to itself powers over the procedure (Art. 28), and
Article 33 tells us that "the present Rules may, at any time, be amended
by the Council".
Since it was the Council which approved its Rules of Procedure, the

interpretation given by it of those Rules in the exercise of its functions
(facta concludentia) ranks as an authoritative interpretation l.There is
thus a strong presumption that the decision taken by the Council is in
conformity with the true n~eaningof the Rules.

IV. THESPECIAA LGREEMEN T F 1966

lndia has contended that the question of overflights of its territory by
aircraft of Pakistan is not governed by the Convention and Transit
Agreement, but by the Special Agreement of 1966(which has been sus-
pended) between India and Pakistan. The consequence is thus that the
ICA0 Council has no jurisdiction to take a decision on a question which
is outside the Convention and Transit Agreement.

India's argument does not seem to take into account Article 82 of the
Convention, and Articles 30, paragraph 4, and 41, paragraph 1, of the
Vienna Convention. In the case of a multilateral treaty, anda fortiori in
the case of the constituent instrument of an international organizatioii,
two of the parties to the treatyan only conclude an agreement to modify
the treaty as between themselves if the possibility of such a modification
is provided for by the treaty, or the modificationis not prohibited and is
not incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty as a whole.
The Convention, in Article 82,imposes an obligation on al1contracting

In the sense of what has been called an "interprétation institutionnelle".tous les Etats contractants de ne pas contracter d'obligations et de ne
pas conclure d'ententes qui soient incompatibles avec les dispositions de
la Convention.
L'arrangement de 1966peut être interprété dd eeux manières. On peut
penser ou bien qu'il contient des dispositions incompatibles avec la Con-
vention ou bien que ses dispositions sont compatibles avecla Convention.
Dans la première hypothèse (cas de l'incompatibilité), le Conseil n'a
pas eu la possibilité de les considérer parce que, ces dispositions étant
contraires aux obligations assuméespar I'lnde et le Pakistan, elles sont
entachées de nullité (contra legem).

Dans l'autre hypothèse (compatibilité), l'accord de 1966 a respecté
toutes les dispositions impérativesde la Convention. II n'a donc pas pu
éliminerles règlesde la Convention relatives à la compétence du Conseil
pour statuer sur l'interprétation et l'application de la Convention et de
l'Accord, de sorte que le Conseil a compétencepour dire si l'Inde a violé
ou n'a pas violé sesobligations envers le Pakistan, selon la Convention
et l'Accord de transit, pour dire aussi, lecaséchéant,si les dispositions de
I'accord de 1966sont ou non compatibles avec celles de la Convention '.

(SignéF ). DE CASTRO.

En tenant peut-êtcompte des circonstances toutes spécialesdes relations entre
les deux Etats et d'une interprétationfinaliste de l'article Convention.

97States not to contract obligations or understandings which are inconsis-
tent with the terms of the Convention.

The 1966 Agreement may be interpreted in two ways. One can either

hold that it contains provisions incompatible with the Convention, or
that its provisions are compatible with the Convention.
On the first hypothesis (incompatibility), it was not possible for the
Council to consider these provisions. because, being contrary to the
obligations undertaken by lndia and Pakistan, they are nuIl and void
(contra Iegem).

On the other hypothesis (compatibility), the 1966Agreement respected
al1 the imperative provisions of the Convention. It could not, therefore,
exclude the rules in the Convention concerning the jurisdiction of the
Council to take decisions on the interpretation or the application of the
Convention and Agreement, so that the Council has jurisdiction to state
whether India has or has not committed a breach of its obligations

towards Pakistan under the Convention, or the Transit Agreement, and
to state also, if appropriate, whether the provisions of the 1966Agreement
are, or are not, compatible with those of the Convention '.

' Possibly taking into account the very special circumstances of the relationship
between the two States. and a teleological interpretatof Article 89 of the Con-
vention.

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Separate Opinion of Judge de Castro (translation)

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