Separate Opinion of Judge Dillard

Document Number
054-19720818-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
054-19720818-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE DILLARD '

1 an1 in fundamental agreeinent with the conclusioiis reached by the
Court and the reasons supporting them. In this separate opinion 1wish,
first, merely to inake certain gerieral observations in further support of

the Court's Judgment and second, to indicate that the decision confirm-
ing the jurisdiction of the ICA0 Council can also cal1 on general prin-
ciples of law recognized in many jurisdictions. While in no seiise neces-
sary to the Court's Judgmtnt ' which, of course, stands on its own foot-
ing. an allusion to these principles niay be of possible interest especially

as the thrust of India's main contention has in~plicationsreaching beyond
this particular case.

1. Prelinzinary Nuturc of Proceedings ut Cout~cil Lcvel

The contention, raised by Pakistan for the first tiine iiithe oral hear-
ings, that no appeal lies to this Court owing to the preliminary and pro-
cedural nature of the jurisdictional issue, does not appear to me to be
persuasive.
Certainly the iniplications flowing from it are sufficiently unattractive
as to be avoided unless compelled by some reading of the relevant docu-

ments or some theory of the judicial process commanding unquestioned
application. As 1 understand it, had the Council decided that it had no
jurisdiction, then Pakistan's right of appeal, presumably granted in
Article 84 of the Convention (which speaks of "any" disagreement),
would have been forever foreclosed. On the other hand. the decision

sustaining jurisdiction would compel India to be put to its proof on the
merits witli the right of appeal postponed until after a full exposure of
the nierits-the very contingency which it isthe main purpose of a plea to
the jurisdiction to avoid.
Although the formal scheme of the Rules for the Settleiileiit of Dif-
ferences might lend a certain aura of validity to tliis kind of result, 1do

not think it coinpelled.
It assumes that a suhstrrntii?(jurisdictional issue, i.c.. one directed
either to the person or the subject-matter in coiitroversy. flills in the same

' Passages in the oral proceedings iiidicateby the symbol C.R. 721.. .iiiay be
located through the Table of Concordarice printed at the end of I.C.J. Plcodin~s,
Appeal r.elating ro the Jlrrisdiction of ICA0 Coirncil.
Hereafter referred to as the Judgment.93 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP.OP. DILLARD)

category as minor procedural requirements designed to regulate the
expeditious and orderly process of adjudication. The former engages
the fundamental rights of the parties and is usually non-waivable; the
latter do not

In essence, a substantive jurisdictional issue (1 say "substantive" only
because the "jurisdiction" is sometimes loosely used) has a double focus.
This is clearly revealed in the jurisprudence of federal States where juris-
dictional issues are so frequently litigated and syphoned off for appeal

before considering the merits l. Not only is the issue deemed fundamen-
ta1 to the rights of the individual litigant whose plea is not merely that
the court or other tribunal has no power to hear the merits but also that
it has no power to put the individual to the trouble, expense, potential
vexation and other features which attend the need for defending on the

merits. The issue is also fundamental at the level of competing power
controversy between contending governmental entities (i.e., central, local
or regional governments). While the latter factor may not be operative
in the present case, it yet points up the importance of a jurisdictional
issue directed either to power over the person or subject-matter.

On principle therefore it seems to me clear that the allegedly clean cut,
but questionable, distinction between procedural and substantive issues
does not for purposes of grounding an appeal embrace a plea to the
jurisdiction.

The Rules for the Settlement of Differences, like other rules, are subject
to varying interpretations. 1see no compelling reason for so interpreting
Rules 5 and 15 as to make them mutually exclusive. Furthermore the
Council itself appeared to construe them together and at no time con-
sidered the issue non-appealable.

While 1 do not think Article 86 of the Convention was intended to
create a right of appeal if none existed independent of Article 86, 1 yet
see nothing in this Article which negatives the conclusion above.
Although the contention concerning the lack of relationship between

the subject-matter of negotiations and the appeal under Article 84 raises
somewhat different issues, it too seems to me insufficiently compelling
to justify a denial of the appeal for reasons similar to those advanced
above. It may be true that prior negotiations were not specifically di-
rected to the jurisdictional issue itself,-an issue hardly susceptible to

such negotiations 2.A literal reading of Article 84 may then be invoked
to show that any appeal on such an issue is premature. But such a read-
ing presupposes that the drafters contemplated a consequence which

' See. for instance, Bell v. Hood 727 US 678, 682 (1945).
this issue, they would have proved abortive. (See C.R. 721pp.s12-13.)ted to embrace94 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

seerns out of line with the fundarnental purposes inherent in the right to
invoke an early and definitive decision on an issue of such importance.

The absence of any direct evidence on this point and the rernoteness
of any connection it rnay bear on the object and purpose of the Con-

vention and Transit Agreement have irnpelled me to agree with the reason-
ing of the Judgrnent.
The conclusions stated above are rested on broad principles toiiching
the nature and thrust of a jurisdictional issue. They are fortified, in the
present instance, by considering the violence done to Article 62 (1) of

the Rules of this Court if the opposite view were held; but 1 also agree
with the Judgment that the decision should not be grounded on this Rule.

2. The Applicution of Pakistun
Tt does not seem to me necessary to dwell extensively on this issue.

Article 36 (2) of the Statute is not involved.
The jurisdiction to entertain the appeal with respect to the Appli-
cation rests on the express terrns of Article 84 of the Convention and
Article II, Section 2, of the Transit Agreement when both are read in
conjunction with Articles 36 (1) and 37 of the Statute.
The latter Article provides for such jurisdiction " Whenever a treaty

or convention inforce provides for reference of a rnatter to . ..the Per-
manent Court of International Justice, the rnatter shall, as between the
parties to the present Statute, be referred to the International Court
of Justice". (Ernphasis added.)
Pakistan asserted that the Applicant's recourse to this jurisdictional

power "is a clear admission of the fact that the Convention and Transit
Agreement were in force between the parties at the tirne the cause of
action arose and continued to be so" (Rejoinder, para. 37).
This amounts to saying that lndia cannot "blow hot and cold", i.e.,
that she cannot rely on the continued existence of the Convention and
Transit Agreement for purposes of perfecting an appeal while denying

it forpurposes of attacking the jurisdiction of the Council of ICAO.
This apparently inconsistent position rnay, by implication. be pushed
still further. Thus it may be urged that the International Court of Justice's
assurnption of jurisdiction would constitute, in and of itself, a denial
of the main thrust of India's contention.
But this argument attempts :O prove too rnuch and the contradiction

is more apparent than real. This follows because the criteria for opposing
the jurisdiction of the Council of the ICAO and those for perfecting
an appeal are quite distinct. The former have to do with the basic power
to entertain the application in the first place; the latter have to do with
the judicial protection afforded the party against an allegedly erroneous

decision. If the latter were CO-extensivewith the former. then the latter
could be rendered cornpletely useless. 95 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

A siniple, if extreme, hypothetical instance will serve to illustrate the
point. Suppose India's contention were that she had not ratified or

adopted the Convention and therefore it was not,as between the Parties,
a "treaty or convention in force", if the decision of the ICAO Council
were adverse how could she avail herself of her appellate power without
invoking Article 37 of the Statute?
Nor does the matter end there. There is a familiar logical weakness
in attempting to charge the maker of a statement with a contradiction
when the terms he uses must necessarily invite a seeming contradiction

unless regard is paid to the different types of statements made. The
matter iscomplicated and need not bepursued inthe body of this opinion '.
In any event it seems evident that India's position isjustified and that
the jurisdiction of this Court to entertain the appeal on the Application
is clear.

3. The Complaintof Pakistun

If it is established that this Court hasjurisdiction over the Application
and if it is also established that the Council of the ICAO has jurisdiction
to entertain the Application, less practical significance attaches to the
issue of the appealability of the Complaint, and this is especially true
in this case inlight of their almost identical wording and reach.

Nevertheless, the issue was before the Court and a resolution of it
may have value for the future.
The theoretical problems posed were, in my opinion, difficult and
it may well be that the Council will wish to give further study to them.
1 propose, therefore, in the interest of exposure, to first advance an
argument against the appealability of the Complaint and then a brief

counter-argument in support of the position adopted in the Judgment.
(a) The Argument against theAppeal

This argument rests on a consideration of (a) the different objects

Pakistan's assertion may be linked with numerous supposedly contradictory
statements, analyzed by philosophers and logicians, of which the oldest is that of
the Epirnenides containing the farnous assertion by a Cretan "that1 Cretans are
liars". It is obvious that such a staternen! appears superficially to be inherently
contradictorysince if it is true, it contradicts itself and likewise if it is false. (Com-
pare sirnilar generalized statements such as "al1 generalizations are false" or that
of the skeptic who proclaims "he knows nothing".) The classic and perhaps still
the clearest analysis designed to show thatch assertions are not necessarily con-
tradictory is that of Whitehead and Russell in the Principia Mathematica (2nd ed.
of logical types". See also, Eaton, General Logic (1931). pp. 452-462 and Copi,theory
Symbolic Logic (1959), pp. 162-164.

There is no logical inconsistency or contradiction in India's reliance on the Con-
vention for purposes of appeal while still contending it is not "in force" for pur-
poses of denying the Council's jurisdiction. of a complaint in contrast to an application and (6) the structure of
the Rules dealing with each l.
The Rules, of course, make a sharp distinction between applications
filed under Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2. of
the Transit Agreement on the one hand, and complaints under Article
II,Section 1, on the other hand. This is true despite the fact that certain

rules are common to both (e.g., Arts. 3 (1) (a) and (c), 4 and 5of Chap.
IIIof Part 1 and the General Provisions of Part III).

The significant differences are:

(1) The Council is ohligated to decide on any disagreements under an
application; no such obligation obtains with respect to a cornplaint;

(2) the decisions of the Council with respect to an application are hinding;

no such binding quality attaches to the "findings and recommen-
dations" under a complaint (Arts. 24 and 25 of the Rules) which
envisage a consultative process;
(3) "complaints" do not deal with the interpretation or application of
the treaties but with actions by a State, which may be legally privi-
leged, yet are alleged "to cause injustice or hardships" to the com-
plaining State;

(4) the decisions of the Council with respect to an application are subject
to appeal pursuant to Article 84 of the Convention (Art. 18of Rules).
No similar right of appeal "appears" to apply to cornplaints under
Section 1.(To be noted later is the possibility of an appeal by trans-
ferring the complaint into a type of "disagreement".)

Cast against this background, how may India justify an appeal from

a decision of the Council, if its decisions under Section 1 are not subject
to appeal?
From what has been said above, it seems evident that the ultimate
jindings and recommendations of the Council under the Complaint would
not be subject to appeal and especially so since these findings and recom-
mendations are not necessarily based on a legal issue resulting from an
adjudication.

It would seem to follow logically that if there is no appeal frorn the
ultimate findings and recommendations this very lack of appellate power
would extend to any "preliminary" issue antecedent to those findings.
(To be questioned later.)
India attempted to convert a presumably non-appealable decision
under Article II, Section 1, of the Transit Agreement into an appealable

one under Section 2 (Reply, paras. 39-41) by asserting there was a "dis-

"Application" and "complaint" arecapitalized only when reference is made
to them with respect to the particularapplication and complaint in this case.

5497 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

agreement" over whether there was or was not "action" under the
Transit Agreement within the meaning of Section 1.This "disagreement"
in turn, so she asserted, attracted the applicability of Section 2 which
permits an appeal under Article 84 of the Convention. Support for this
ingenious approach was found in the Working Paper of the Secretary
General of the ICAO in Document C-WP/5433. (Reply, Annex C.)

The difficulty with this argument is two-fold.
First, the grounds lndia asserted to be controlling at the Council
level were al1 grounded on the assumption that Section 1 alone was
involved. India's attack on the jurisdiction of the Council raised no

issue of a disagreement-a point which, while not necessarily incom-
patible with her major argument that there could be no "action under"
a non-existent treaty, would yet have caused her difficulty.

Second, and more important, the Council's decision was dejînitely
rested on the assumptionthat it wasdealing wirh a Complaint under Sec-

tion 1 (see in particular Memorial of India, Annex E, (e), Discussion,
paras. 135-139). Indeed the explanation of the vote of the United States
delegate in favour of India was expressly based on the ground that the
action had been improperly brought under Section 1and that it should
have been brought under Section 2 (ihid.).However this was a minority

vote. There is no doubt that the decision was taken under Section 1.

An additional argument can be advanced, keyed to the concept that
the appellate jurisdiction of the Court is a limited one, and that it is
incompatible with that concept for the Court to review on appeal an
issue neither argued before the lower tribunal noF decided by it '.

If the analysis above is correct, the entire argument concerning the
Complaint, including the voting on Section 1,may be dismissed as beyond
the competence of the International Court of Justice.

(b) The Argument Sustaining the Appcal

There can be little doubt that, viewed in the abstract, the theoretical
arguments above are not without weight. When, however, more detailed
consideration is given to the particular character of the Application and

' As stated by one conimentator:
"Whether new issues-that is questions of law or fact not argued beforc thc
ICAO Council-may be considered by the appellate tribunal is inore doubtful.
Unless al1the parties involved consent thereto, these issues would seem to be
ultra virethe jurisdiction of the appellate tribunal. This is not because of any
formalistic notion of estoppel, but because the consent to the jurisdiction of
the appellate tribunal islimited to the reviewof those issues that weresubmitted
to the ICAO Council for adjudication." (BuergenthaLaw Muking in the In-
fernufional Civil Aviution Organizat(1969), pp. 145-146.)98 ic~o COUNCIL (SLP. OP. DILLARD)

Complaint in this case, including their striking similarity, the arguments
are weakened. The Judgment has. in my view. adequately provided the
justification for assimilating, for purposes of appeal, the Complaint to
the Application and it would be an exercise in needless repetition to
rehearse the reasons. with which 1 agree. sustaining its position.

Iam moved, however, to make the following additional observations.
The argument that because the ultiinate findings and recommenda-
tions of the Council, in considering a complaint are non-appealable,
therefore a preliminary jurisdictional challenge is likewise non-appeal-
able is, in iny view, subject to doubt. They fall into different categories.

It may be true that the former may turn on considerations of equity
and expediency which do not readily furnish suitable material for appeal
to a court of law (a proposition which may need some qualification),
but surely a jurisdictional issue, which turns on basic questions of in-
stitutional power, furnishes the very paradigm of a legal issue.

Nor does it logically follow that because the former are iiot "legally"
binding, the latter is non-appealable. The institution of a coinplaint
sets in motion a whole series of chain reactions. It is a two-stane Drocess
in which the respondent State is put to his proof with potential sanctions

of a severe character. The very purpose of a challenge to jurisdiction is
to arrest this process, with its potentially vexatious requirements and
implications, in limine. Its purpose is to deny that the Council can subject
the challenging party to any enquiry whatever concerning alleged "in-
justice or hardship" especially when an adverse finding or recomnien-

dation may well generate the sanction of suspension from rights and
privileges under the Agreement, provided (at the second stage of the
process) that the Council considers that the allegedly offending State
has "unreasonably" failed to take suitable corrective action.

It is hardly necessary to add that the legally oriented observations
above carry no implication whatever that the Council would assunie
an unwarranted jurisdictional power or that to allow an appeal on this
issue would in any way impede the non-appealable character of its ulti-
mate findings and recommendations. Assuming it has power, its highly
desirable flexible procedures are in no way impaired. At the policy level

it may also be suggested that considerations of the kind noted above
are more likely to stimulate than retard the number of States willing to
adhere to the Transit Agreement.

4. The Voting Issue

The issue of possible irregularity in the manner and method of voting
becomes irrelevant if, as indicated earlier, the Complaint is not appeal-able. It is also irrelevant in so far as the Application is concerned since,
under any view, a statutory majority favoured the appeal.
1s it relevant on the assumption that the Complaint, viewed in iso-
lation from the Application, is appealable?
Tt is possible to assert that the manner in which the Council behaves
is not central to the issue of whether it can behave at all, i.e., the juris-

dictional issue. 1 take this to be the thrust of a question put to counsel
(C.R. 7217,p. 40). Thus, if the jurisdictional issue is in favour of lndia's
contention, Le., that, ohjectivrly viewed, there is no jurisdiction, then
clearly the issue becomes irrelevant and likewise if the issue favours,
on an objective assessment, the position of Pakistan.

The force of this argument may be somewhat dented by the counter-
assertion which India was quick to make that the decision by the Council
was itself on the jurisdictional issue (C.R. 7218,p. 10).

Fundamentally, however, the voting problem does not go to the
jurisdictional issue itself since this issue is clearly focussed on the reach

of the Council's competence to deal with the subject-mutter of the dis-
agreement.
Considerations of a different kind also fortify the view that the Court
should not treat the voting issue as critically significant.

As to the "manner" of putting the vote, there is little validity in India's

claim that it was framed in the wrong way '.While the Council's being
"seised" of the case is not to be confused with its jurisdictional power to
handle it, nevertheless it isclear that, as with anyotherbodyendowed with
adjudicating authority, it may legitimately assume (in the absence of a
claim that is patently frivolous or groundless) that, in the first instance,
itis possessed ofjurisdiction pending a challenge to its power. In keeping
with general principles of adjudication it was incumbent on India to prove

the contrary.
Turning to the problem of the "statutory majority" the proposal
put to vote was stated by the President of the Council to be whether
"those who think that the Council of ICA0 has no jurisdiction to consider
Pakistan's Complaint to so indicate by saying 'yes' and those who
disagree with that to say 'no' .. .".

The result of the voting was 1 yes, 13 no, 3 abstentions (Memorial of
India, Annex E, (e), Discussion, para. 136).The President therefore ruled
that the Council had jurisdiction. In light of this result, it would appear
that ever. if there were error, it was harmless error, since, in my view, the
manner of putting the voting in this particular case was permissible and
only one vote was negative.

' See infraunder II, 1.

57 That there was some confusion on the meaning of a majority was
revealed in the subseq~ient discussion and was relied on by Pakistan to
show that the whole issue of a statutory majority has by no means been
resolved (Rejoinder, para. 78; Counter-Memorial. para. 59).

The point made by India was that, had the issue been put in such a man-
ner that a statutory majority were needed to estublish jurisdiction, then
only 13 States so voted and the decision would not be sufficiently sup-
ported '.
Pakistan's point was that the majority needed was not that of the

total membership of the Council but only the majority of those on the
Council who are also parties to the Transit Agreement and thus entitled
to vote or who are not otherwise disqualified as a party in interest.

Article 52 of the Convention specifies that decisions of the Council

shall require "approval by a majority of its members". It does not,
however, specify how the majority is to be determined. Article 66 (6)
specifically strips a member of the Council who is not a member of the
Transit Agreement from voting on any question under the provisions of
the Agreement. And parties in interest are also excluded (1957 Rules,
Arts. 15 and 26 (3)).

It had been assumed by the Secretary General of the ICA0 that despite
the provisions of Article 66 (h), a statutory majority of 14 was needed
for al1decisions of the Council. That this interpretation may be subject
to doubt wasindicated by Pakistan and may well await renewed study by
the Council, especially since the requirement might. under readily

conceivable circumstances, paralyse the decision-making powers of the
Council. It may be noted, in passing, that the general Rules of Procedure
forthe Council (as opposed to the Rules for the Settlement of Differences)
are not so restricted and speak of the majority of votes cast (Rules 42,49)'.

It is, of course, not impossible to contemplate a situation of gross abuse
of procedural requirements leading to a miscarriage of justice. In such a
situation the validity of the decision adopted by a subordinate adjudi-
cating body may be legitimately challenged on appeal. As previously
noted, a challenge of this kind is quite distinct from one directed to the

issue of jurisdiction.
It seems to me abundantly clear that no such abuse was evident in

The Council is composed of 27 States but the nuniber qiialified to vote on the
Cornplaint was lirnited to 18 owing to the fact that lndia was a party in interest
and 8 other States represented on the Council were not parties to the Transit Agree-
ment. Only 17 votes were cast because the representatiof one State was absent.

majority of those Council members who aretqualified to vote in deciding the par-
ticular case (Buergenthal, ocir., supra, p. 191). 101 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP.DILLARD)

the present case either with respect to the "voting" issue or other alleged
procedural irregularities.
The observations above are merely supplied in further support of the
conclusions of the Court in paragraphs 44 and 45.

II. JURISDICTIO OF THE ICA0 COUNCIL

1. Preliminary

The following broad principles seem to me applicable to the present
controversy :

(1) As a general rule any organ endowed with jurisdictional power
has the right in thejirst place to determine the extent of itsjurisdiction.
This clearly applies in the absence of a clause contraireand it is particu-
larly applicable to a pre-established international institution. As stated in

the Nottebohm case (Prel.Obj.), I.C.J. Reports 1953,page 11 1at page 119
(emphasis added) :
"This principle which isaccepted bygeneral international law inthe
matter of arbitration, assumes particular force when the international

tribunal is no longer an arbitral tribunal constituted by virtue of a
special agreement between the parties for the purpose of adjudicating
on a particular dispute, but is an institution whichhas beenpre-
establishedby an international instrument ..."

Statements from numerous cases can be marshalled in support of the
general principle, noted above. See, e.g., Interpretation ofthe Greco-
Turkish Agreement of 1 December 1926, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 16, at
page 20 (1928) '.
(2) Assuming that the principles announced in Section 3of the Vienna
Convention give expression to general principles of international law
antedating the Convention, it is clear that Article 60 (1) must be read in

conjunction with Article 65 (4). In keeping with the broad principle
aiinounced above, this Article provides:

wish to associate rnyself with the concluding staternent on this point by Judgeld
Read in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case (I.C.J. Reports 1952, at pp. 143, 144) in
which he ernphasized that within certain lirnits both the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justiceand the InternationaCourt of Justice have "given liberal inter-
pretations to jurisdictional clauses, designed to give full effect to the intentions of
the parties concerned". (Ernphasis added.)
And, also, with the view expressed by Lauterpacht that tCourt "has applied
boldly the view that effect rnust be given to the ostensible purposes of the juris-
dictional clause" (The Development of International Dywthe International Court
of Jusfice, 1958, p. 341). "Nothing in the foregoing paragraphs shall affect the right or

obligation of the parties under any provisions in force binding the
parties with regard to the settlement of disputes."
Furthermore it should be noted that under Article 60 (2)(h), an alleged

material breach of a multilateral treaty by one of the parties does not give
a party "specially affected" the privilege of terminating the treaty but
only provides grounds for "suspending" the operation of the treaty in
whole or in part in the relations between itself and the defaulting State"
(emphasis added). The concept of "suspension" which isclearly keyed to
a temporary condition,pre-supposes the continued existence of tlte treaty.
Even if certain operationsgoverning air rights were deemed suspended

it would not logically follow that such suspended operotions embraced
the compromissory clause of the treaty which falls conceptually and func-
tionally in a separate category and may thus become operative since the
treaty remains in force.

2. Formulation of the Qurstion

Tn its Application of 3 March 1971 before the Council of the ICA0
Pakistan invoked the power of the Council to decide and declare. inter

dia, that the decision of the Government of India suspending the over-
flights of Pakistan aircraft over the territory of India "is illegal and void
and in violation of India's international obligations under the Convention
and Transit Agreement".
It also requested that the Council decide and declare that the decision
of the Government of India suspending flights of Pakistan aircraft over
the Indian territory is causing injustice, hardship, loss and injury to

Pakistan.
Thus it sought a directive that the Goverilment of India should
restore the "two freedoms" and adequately compensate Pakistan for the
losses and injury suffered by it as a result of "the arbitrary, unilateral and
illegal decision of the Government of India in breach of its international
obligations".

As previously noted, the Complaint filed the same day was similar
in terms except for the omission of the paragraph seeking compensation
(Memorial of India, Annex A. item 3, (f] .7). and Annex B. item 3. ("1).
For purposes of this analysis the two may be treated together.

The Council has no general power to adjudicate disagreements among
contracting States. Tts powers are strictly derivative and thus depend

on the terms of the Convention and Transit Agreement.

Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Transit
Agreement (by reference to Article 84) confer the power to decide ". ..
ariy disagreement between two or more contracting States relating to
the intrrpretation or application" of the Convention and its Annexes.103 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

In its Application instituting proceedings before this Court, India's
submissions were:

(1) that the Council has no jurisdiction to handle the Application and
Complaint of Pakistan as the Convention and Transit Agreement
"have been terminated or suspended between the two States";
(2) that the Council has no jurisdiction over the Complaint since no
action has been taken "under" the Transit Agreement .. .since that
Agreement has been terminated or suspended as between the two
States ;
(3) that the question of overflights is governed by a special régimeof
1966and not by the Convention or the Transit Agreement.

From the above it appeared that the principal issue before the Court
could be stated as follows:

"Did Pakistan's Application (and Complaint), considered in ligkt of
India'sobjections, reveal any disagreement between the two Parties relating
to the interpretation or application of the Convention and its Annexes?"

3. India's Principal Contention

In denying that the Council had jurisdiction India's principal con-
tention (presented with great thoroughness, force and ingenuity) was that
any disagreement relating to the termination or suspension of a treaty
lies completely dehors the treaty. (Dehors-the-treaty theory.) Inasmuch
as it liesdehors the treaty itcannot relate to any disagreement over the
interpretation or application of the treaty. Supplementing the dehors-
the-treaty theory was a logically distinct yet related theory viz., the "non-
existing" treaty theory. This was revealed in the repeated assertion that
"to interpret or apply" presupposes the continued existence of some-
thing to interpret or apply-an assertion which reverberated throughout
the Mernorial, Reply and oral argument '.

India recognized, of course, that international law does not sanction
the arbitrary termination or suspension of either a bilateral or multi-
lateral treaty. The privilege is not absolute but qualified by various re-
quirements of which the most significant is that the breach justifying the
termination or suspension must be material.
But al1this is quite irrelevant, so she asserted, when the issue centres
on the power of the ICA0 Council to handle the disagreement. Since
the source of this power is the Convention it cannot embrace niatters
lying beyond it.

para.p8;C.R.io72/6, p. 13. 27 (a); Mernorial, paras. 55, 68, 70, 72, 85; Reply, 104 [CAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

Her chain of reasoning appeared to be:

(1) Al1 questions of termination or suspension lie dehors the treaty;

(2) the jurisdiction of the ICAO Council lies ivithinthe treaty; therefore

(3) the Council of the ICAO has no jurisdiction to handle the disagree-
ment.

Had her premise been soundly grounded, the conclusion would follow
that, in sofur as thejurisdiction of the ICA0 Council is concerned, any
contracting State may, vis-à-vis any other contracting State, arbitrarily
suspend the treaty and do so by her mere ipse disit.This conclusion
India cheerfully conceded (C.R. 7218, p. 14) '.

In my view the argument contains the hidden assumption that al1
questions of termination or suspension lie "dehors" the treaty irrespec-
tive of any terms of the treufj.
Because this assumption is questionable, India's premise was too
sweeping and, in the context of the present case, it therefore begged the

central question.

In fairness it should be said that she attempted to avoid questioii-
begging and circularity by indulging anotherassumption.This wasexposed
by a question put to her bya Member of the Court. Herfurtherassumption

was that "inherent limitations" on the Council's jurisdiction inhibit it
from considering questions of "substantive" international law under
which the suspension was effected. Under this assumption any challenge
to her right to suspend the treaties could be aired only by a court com-
petent to handle such matters.

Putting aside the validity of the asserted distinction between substan-
tive and non-substantive international law (to be alluded to later) India
nevertheless reaffirmed her basic premise.
This was especially revealed in the following passage in response to
another question put by the same Member of the Court. The question

dealt with the potential application or relevance of Article 89 of the
Convention. After discussing this critically significant Article, counsel
stated :

". .. if apart from Article 89, the Council has no jurisdiction to deal
with the question of substantive international law, how could the
absence of jurisdiction be cured by invoking Article 89? The cruciol
point aguinst the Council e'rercisingjurisdiction ~,ouldstill renzain,

To avoid any misunderstanding it should be pointcd out that India at no timc
contended that she could arbitrarily suspend treatHer contention was that such
an issue could only be determined by a court competeto enter into the matter and
that the ICAO Council was not competent to do so. See Judgment, para32 and 34. 105 ICAO COUNCIL (SEP.OP. DILLARD)

namely that the operation of the treaties has been suspendeda , nd

therefore neither Article89 nor any other article cal1for application
or interpretution."(Einphasis added.)

This recourse to the "non-existing treaty" theory is made even more

explicit in the next passage where he stated:
"The crux of the matter is that the treaties must be in operation
before any question of interpretation or application can arise ... If
the operation of a treaty has been suspended or terminated, the

jurisdiction of the Council cannot br invoked on the ground that
there has been a breach of the treaty." (C.R. 7216,p. 13.)(Emphasis
added.)

It can be suggested that India, by her combined theories, was in effect
challenging the applicability of the entire Convention as opposed to the
mere application of any particular article in it. But this point need not
be pressed since ultimately the Council must, as a matter of the merits,
decide whether the disagreement relates to the interpretation or appli-
cation of one or more articles of the Convention. This point is mentioned
infru,under 5.

4. Suhsidiary Argunients

India's attempt to fortify her case through a nurnber of subsidiary
arguments needs only passing reference.
(1) In discussing the inherent limitations on the Council's jurisdiction,
she drew the inference that the nations of the world could not have in-

tended to endow it with the power to determine issues of a sophisticated
legal nature especially when the dispute may be highly charged with
political implications and inspired by military considerations.
It is true, of course, that the Council is endowed with a mix of mediat-
ing, conciliating and adjudicating functions. In so far as the last is
brought into play, its composition may seem ill-suited to its function as
numerous commentators have suggested '.
Grant this and the argument is yet incomplete. This is so because it
ignores the safeguard provided by the right of appeal to either an arbitral

tribunal or this Court, bodies presumably capable of handling sophisti-
cated legal issues.

It also ignores the fiindamental distinction between the power of the
international community to establish an organ with adjudicative powers
and the policy considerations prompting it to do so. There is no question
but that this power was exercised with the consent of al1 contracting
States.

See, for exaniple, Goedhuis, "Questions of Public International Air Law",
81 Recueil des cours, pp. 2ff. ,t pp. 222-224.
63 Finally, it is signifiant to riote that the powers of the Council are part
of a futictioning "systein" or régimein which some supervisory authority
over its adjudicating pouers is integral to the operation of the entire
system. This point, alluded to in the Judgment (para. 26) is, in my view,
important.

It is important not because third-party judgment is always preferable
to more flexible procedures of settlement but because it providesa method
for ultimately settling legally relevant issues and can, by so doing (es-
pecially when the process is located within a functioning system), facili-
tate rather than impede the processes of negotiation, mediation and
conciliation.

(2) It is, of course, axioniatic that questions of international law inhere
in the interpretation or application of treaties. The attempt by lndia to
segregate those legal issues which might faIl within the proper province
of the ICA0 Council and those beyond its reach, while ingeniously ar-
gued, was not persuasive in light of the unsupported and novel distinc-

tion between substantive and non-substantive international law. The
matter needs no elaboration.

(3) India's attempt iiarrowly to restrict the concept of "application",
while also ingenious, was also unpersuasive. The distinction she drew was

between the "operation" (of the treaty) and the "application" of its
provisions to "an existing state of affairs". By way of illustration she
invoked the kinds of applications which she clairned might legitimately
arise under Articles 5,9 and Il of the Convention. (C.R. 72i1. pp. 18-24;
7215, p. 53.)
Her invocation of Article 9, in particular, deserves a digressive coin-

ment. It is difficult to discern how the legal issues arising from theappli-
cation of this Article, involving as they do. considerations of "reasons of
military necessity and public safety", are not, under India's view, so highly
charged with political and military factors as to make them beyond the
reach of the Coiincil. Yet lndia herself invoked the jurisdiction of the
Council in its dispute with Pakistan in 1952 and relied specifically on

Article 9 (as well as Articles 5 and 6) '.

The articles of the Convention are, of course, not "applied" in a va-
cuum. They must relate to a dispute involving, to some extent. an existing
state of affairs. If that "state of affairs" is generated by a suspension of
the treaty, it is difficult to see how the distinction between "application"

and "operation" is helpful or why the former is automatically excluded.

Judicial prorioiincenietits do not give to the teriii "application" n

' The controversy was ultiniatrly settlby negotiations. Foraninteresting ana-
lysis, see 1953United Sra/es and CrincrdiirrtAviation Reporpp. 110-133.

64 107 ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

restricted meaning as statements in the Mavroinr?~atiscase, P.C.I.J.,

Series A, No. 5, page 48, and the Peace Trrutirs case, I.C.J. Reports 1950,
page 74, attest. 1 refrain from extending this opinion with quotations.

5. Spccijîcation of Relevant Articles

It seenied to me desirable to go through the laboured exercise above
because the major contention of India was rested rather more on logical

than empirical grounds. If its basic assumption had been correct then
(as in the domestic arena when a contract is deemed void) the compro-
missory clause (Art. 84) could have no effect. It seems clear, however,
that her assumption was iiot sufficiently supported.

It rernains to deterinine, therefore, whether the disagreement between
India and Pakistan relates to the "interpretation or application" of ciny
article of the Convention and Transit Agreement.
On this positive point it will be observed that the Judgmcnt carefully
avoids trespassing on matters which are the proper province of the Coun-

cil to determine. Whether India was or was not justified in suspending
the treaties obviously goes to the merits and is irrelevant to the juris-
dictional issue. It suffices therefore to point to a number of articles of
the Convention and Transit Agreement the interpretation and application

of which appears to be involved in the disagreement between the Parties.
1havelittle to add to theanalysis inthe Judgment which has called attention
to the disputes over the interpretation and application of Articles 5, 82,
83, 89 and 95. The specification of these Articles does not necessarily

imply that others might not also be relevant, i.e., Articles 25 and 37.
Furthermore, if regard is had to the Preamble of the Chicago Convention
and Article 44, it is arguable that their interpretation and application
are also implicated especially in light of Article 31 (1) and (2) of the
Vienna Convention. But al1 this falls within the province of the ICAO

Council to decide '.
Since in my view Article 89 was particularly relevant, and since 1 have

The "jurisprudential" point might be mentioned. even at the risk of appearing
over-academic, that multilateraltreaties establishing functioning institutionfre-
quently contain articles that represent idesls and aspirations whibeing hortatory,
are not considered to be legally binding except by those who seek to apply them
to the other fellow. On the other hand there are other articles which are generally
recognired as imposing definite legal obligations. The point at which the former
merge into the latter constituteone of the most delicate and dificult problems of
law and especially so in the internationalarena where generally accepted objective
criteria for determining the meaning of language in light of aroused expectations
are more difficult to ascertain and apply than in domestic jurisdictions. Nevertheless
the problem of detcrmining, within the context of a specific controversy,which
articles are and which are not. legally binding cannot be altogether avoidedwith-
out indulging the twin assumptions that law is a "brooding omnipresence in the
sky" (an extreme natural law tenet) or that the language of law is at once self
revealirig and self contained, a propositionwhich al1 modern scholars concerned
with linguistic analysis and cornm~~nication theory reject. Happily, considerations
of this kind are not required in the present controversysince it is unnecessary to
invoke the vaguer norms of the Convention and Transit Agreement in order to de-108 {CAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

alluded to it earlier, 1 shall attempt to characterize the nature of the
disagreement over that Article.

Article 89

India's consistently maintaiiied position, to repeat, was that in sus-
pending the Convention and Transit Agreement vis-à-vis Pakistan she
was acting in accordance with privileges accorded her under international
law. Whether she was right or wrong in doing so is an issue going to the

merits which, she asserted, can oiily be deterinined by a court of compe-
tent jurisdiction. It has nothing to do with the jurisdiction of the ICAO
Council.
Article 89 of the Convention specifically provides:

"III case of war, the provisions of this Covenant shall not affect
the freedom of action of any of the contracting States affected,
whether as belligerents or as neutrals. The same principle shall

apply in the case of any contracting State which declares a state
of national emergency and notifies the fact to the Council."

India's suspension was occasioned by the hostilities in 1965. She
claimed the suspension was never lifted.
Pakistan contended that as a party to the Convention India was obli-
gated to observe its requirements. Article 89 specifically provides for the
very contingency which occasioned the suspension and is thus binding,
so she contends, on Tndia. She fortified this by alluding to India's own

conduct in sendinga notification to the Council of the ICAO. She asserted
that India was, in fact, operating under Article 89 and that her subsequent
actions were consistent with this view. Frorn al1this it followed that the
Convention and Transit Agreement were not suspended even if the oper-
ation of certain rights accorded Pakistan under Article 5 and Article

1, Section 1. of the Transit Agreement were temporarily suspended.
Furthermore, so asserted Pakistan, lndia revoked the ernergency.

At the legal level Pakistan insisted that Article 89 confers freedom of
action regarding the rights and obligations of contracting States regarding

emergencies, including notification and the lifting of the ernergency. It
gives States al1 the needed protection afforded by international law and
has, in effect, supplemented international law by the consent manifested
in adopting the Convention.

Tndia's reply was, in effect, three-pronged. At the factual level she

disputed both the facts and inferences drawn from them by Pakistan.
At the legal level she contended that Article 89 is completely irrelevant

monstrate that the jurisdictiof the ICA0 Council is keyed to very specific pro-
visions involving legal obligations of one kind or another, which it inay be the duty
of the Council to consider.

66to the jurisdictional issue and leaves untouched the correctness of her
basic rights under international law. This follows, she asserted, because
Article 89 is merely declaratory of international law. Its purpose was
merely to assure States that their rights of suspension remained unaffected
by the Convention. Therefore it neither confers new rights nor disturbs
those already existing. She analogized the thrust of the Article to Ar-

ticle 73 of the Vienna Convention which, she asserted, has a similarly
innocuous, if cautionary, function.

Tndia's third contention was that the controversy over Article 89 was
irrelevant or better, perhaps, that it was rendered moot by virtue of the

suspension in February 1971 at which time there was neither a war nor
a national emergency.
Tt is true that Pakistan's Application before the ICA0 Council was
precipitated by the hijacking incident and the compensation sought in
its prayer for relief appeared to be limited to losses consequent upon
that incident. On the other hand, her letter to the President of the ICA0

Council invoked Article 89, and it was relied upon in the Counter-Me-
morial (para. 29). Counsel, of course, vigorously argued its applicability,
as witness C.R. 72!4, at pages 19-22; 7216, at pages 10-1 1 and 42-50;
72/7, at pages 8-10; 7218, at page 48 and 7219at page 22.

A more fundamental answer to India's third point lies however, else-
where. Clearly if the suspension in February 1971 is found to be illegai

as Pakistan contended then it can hardly render moot the controversy
over the application of Article 89. Equally clearly, this is for the Council
to determine as one of the issues on the merits.

From the above it becomes apparent that we have in these contrasting
views a disagreement relating to the interpretation and application of the

Convention and Transit Agreement sufficient to bring the disagreement
within the reach of Article 84 and thus to justify the assumption of juris-
diction by the Council. Once this is determined the Court has exhausted
its appellate function at this stage of the proceedings.

1. Relevance

In what follows 1 do not mean to suggest that the Judgment need be
fortified by reference to Article 38 (c) and (d) of the Statute. The case

for sustaining the jurisdiction of the ICA0 Council is, in my view, suf-
ficiently compelling that further support from "general principles of
law" in domestic fora or "judicial decision" of the highest authority in
those jurisdictions, may appear superfluous. At the risk of appearing over academic. 1append this analysis because:

(1) It may shed additional light on the theoretical aspects of the case.

(2) Both Pakistan and India have alluded to Heynzan v. Durwins Ltd.
(Memorial bf India, paras. 83, 84; Counter-Memorial, para. 52;
Reply,paras. 70,71; Rejoinder,paras. 70-72; and C.R. 7213,pp. 23-25).
(3) 1agree with the view ofJudge Moore, expressed in the Mavrotlzrnatis
Pulestine Concessions case (P.C.I.J., Srrirs A, No. 2 (1924), pp. 57-

59), and that of many commentators that recourse to general prin-
ciples can enlighten issues before the Court and enrich its jurispru-
dence.
(4) Finally, in this instance, in particular, the analogy to domestic fora
is not (as is frequently the case) either irrelevant or misleading.

While this is true generally of contracts which have a provision that
disputes "relating to the interpretation and application of the contract"
should be first submitted to arbitration, it seems particularly true in the
field of labour controversy where contending power blocs (management
and unions), each jealous of its own prerogatives, are reluctant toconcede
more power to the arbitral tribunal than the terms of the collective bar-

gaining agreement warrant. The analogy here is al1 the more suggestive
since in this area, as in the international area, the purpose of the agree-
ment is to establish a "system" designed to absorb conflict through proce-
dura1 techniques in the interest of industrial peace. The purpose of
establishing the ICA0 was, in the large, to establish a systeni or régime
of civil air peace. Chapter XVIII of the Convention was designed to

facilitate the functioning of the entire system.

Tt is customary to dismiss the domestic analogy on two connected
grounds :

(1) The over-riding need in the international field for strict proof of
consent to submit to the jurisdiction of any tribunal; and

(2) the absence of a total system of compulsory third-party settlement
in the event of a breakdown in the arbitral process.

Tn the context of the present controversy, neither of these grounds is
persuasive. The cases in the domestic arena also stress the fact that the
consent of the parties is at the root of their obligation to submit a par-
ticular dispute to arbitration.

The second ground does not apply in this in'stance because under
India's theory of the case, it is irrelevant to the jurisdictional issue whether
the parties were or were not bound to subrnit the controversy to this III ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

Court or any other. In other words, the existence vrl non of compulsory

jurisdiction outside the Council had no bearing on the meaning and
scope of the compromissory clause. This is precisely the assumption
which is indulged in the municipal sphere. The issue centres on exactly
the same problem, Le., the impact of a repudiation of the contract by
one party on the meaning and scope of a compromissory clause framed
in terms of interpretation or application of the contract.

It should be added that the question whether the repudiation was
just$ed by an alleged prior breach (the usual assertion) or for any other
reason, goes to the merits; hence the issue is whether the arbitral tribunal
has the power to enter into the merits-a narrow, jurisdictional issue
precisely as in the IndiaIPakistan case.

Furthermore, it is now firmly established, at least in common law
jurisdictions, that the jurisdictional issue remains to be decided whether
the repudiating party (as in the Heyman case) invokes the dispute settle-
ment clause or, as is more usual, the aggrieved party does so.

2. Some Distinctions

A critical distinction exists when the contract is shown to be void
ab initio as opposed to a showing that is it voidable '.

In the former instance it is clear that if the entire contract fails, al1
subordinate clauses collapse including the arbitration clause. This is
comparable to India's reliance on a kind of "non-existing" treaty con-
tention. But this presupposes a showing that the party opposing arbi-
tration never consented to the contract in the first place or that this con-

sent was vitiated by fraud in the factum or other factors destroying the
entire contract. Clearly this is not the situation in the IndiaIPakistan
case, although India's reliance on a "non-existing" treaty approach
would seem to require it. India freely consented to the Convention and
Transit Agreement.

When the repudiating party resists the jurisdiction of the arbitral tri-
bunal on the ground that he has legitimately repudiated the contract be-
cause of prior material breach, then the contract is not rendered void but
only voidable. This is comparable to the situation in international law.
All the authorities agree that the treaty is not ipso,facto rendered void
and especially so in a multilateral convention, even if the repudiation is

This distinction is so well established as hardly to need a recitation to authority.
Kulukindis Shipping Co. S.A. AmtorgcTrading Corp. (C.A. 2. 1942) 126 F. 2d 978.

69related to only one other party '.The issue then arises as to the operation
and scope of the compromissory clause. To what extent does this depend
on the actual wording of the clause?

In the first place it is clearthan when the contract is ivoid,the wording
of the clause is irrelevant. When it is voidable, it becomes significant
chiefly when the broad larzguageof the clause is qualified by more specific
exclusions, as for instance, in collective bargaining agreements when
"management prerogative" clauses qualify the obligation to submit to

arbitration. The issue can then arise as to whether the arbitral tribunal's
jurisdiction extends to the determination of the scope of the exclusion.
See, U.S. Steel Workers of America v. Warrior and Gulf Nasigation Co.
363 US 574 (1960) (holding that it did) 2.

The big point is that the wording of a clauseconfined to "interpretation

or application" of the contract or similar language, is customary in the
municipal as in the international field. It will be recalled that Article 84
also speaks of "any" disagreement without any exclusionary provision
either with respect to a class of disagreements or a particular disagree-
ment.

Counsel for India sought to distinguish the Hejwmn case because of
certain dicta indulged by Lord Simon calling attention to the breadth of
the compromissory clause. But a reading of that case will show that it did
not turn at al1on this point, and indeed this is true of practically al1the
cases in which a general clause is not coupled with expressly stated ex-

clusions.
3. Tlle Cases

Heyman and Another v. Darwins Lld., 1942, A.C. 356, 1All Eng. Rep.
337 (H.L.) is, perhaps, the most frequently cited and quoted case on the
subject in the common-law world. It may be well, therefore, to quote two
passages from the opinions ofthe Law Lords. (References are to All Eng-
land Law Reports.)

Lord MacMillan, after making the distinction between void and void-
able contracts, continued:

". . .an admittedly binding contract containing a generai arbitration
clause may stipulate that in certain events the contract shall come
to an end. If a question arises whether the contract has for any such

For an interesting analysis see, Sinha, Unilateral Denu~tciarion of Treatj. Be-
cause of Prior Violations of Obligations by Otlier Party, 1966, especially at pp.
35-58. So far as 1 can ascertain the literatuof internationallaw is sparse in the
analysis of therelationship between repiidiation and a coniprornissory clauin the
repudiated treaty.
It is true but not relevant to the present analysis to observe that national poli-
cies in many States favour the arbitral process in contrast to the attitude prevalent
in the nineteenth century. reason come to an end, L can see no reason why the arbitrator should
not decide that question." (P. 346.)

Viscount Simon sounds the same note in expressly approving a state-
ment by Viscount Finlay in a previous case:

"The proposition that the mere allegation by one party of repu-
diation of the contract by the other deprives the latter of the right
to take advantage of an arbitration clause is unreasonable in itself,
and there is no authority to support it." (P. 341.)

Sometimes the argument is advanced as lndia did in the present case
that it is unreasonable to suppose that critical issues of material breach
should be left to a tribunal not exclusively composed of lawyers. In a
leading and much-cited case in the United States dealing with a labour
controversy in which management claimed that the union's violation of a
"no-strike" clause was such a material breach as to terminate thecontract,
including the arbitration clause, the court stated:

"lf the union did strike in violation of the contract, the company is
entitled to its damages; by staying this action, pending arbitration,
we have no intention of depriving it of those damages. We simply
remit the company to the forum it agreed to use for processing its
strikedamage claim. That forum, it is true, may be very different
from a courtrooni, but we are not persuaded that the remedy there
will be inadequate."

This case, incidentally, followed the reasoning in theHeyman case and
cited it. While the compromissory clause was broader than Article 84,

it was still keyed to "disputes or grievances . ..involving questions of
interpretation or application of any clauses or matter covered by this
contract ..." (Drake Bakeries Incorporated v.Local 50, American Bakery
and Confectionary Workers International, AFL-CIO, et al.370 US 254,
266 (1962)).

The Heyman case is only one of many others in numerous jurisdictions
which concur in the conclusions above.

Attention is invited, in particular, to the following: Woolf v. Collis
Remval Service (1947) 2 AI1Eng. Rep. 260; The Tradesman (1961) AI1
Eng. Rep. 661 ; Mackinder v. Feldia A.C. (1966) 3 Al1 Eng. Rep. 847;

Prima Paint Corp. v. Flood & Conklin Mfg. Co. 388 US 395 (1967).
For a comprehensive analysis and citations to cases not only in the
United States, but in England, Canada, South Africa, Australia and Ireland, see Breacli or Repudiation of Cotztract as Affecting Riglit to En-
force Arbitration Clause Tllerein 32 A.L.R. 3d 377-419 '.

A leading United States case, Su$ Chaplin Products v. Love 219 Cal.
App. 2d 110, 32 Cal. Rep. 758, 5 A.L. 12. 1001, which cited many

Supreme Court cases, is particularly instructive. In that case the compro-
missory clause was similar to that in Article 84. The contract had been so
modified as to generate a dispute. On this basis the lower court had held
(as India contended in the present case) that "no right to enforce arbi-
tration now exists, there being no contract then or now existing between

the parties" (p. 1004).

In reversing this holding, the appellate court, after stating that the
function of the court is a very limited one when the parties have agreed
to submit disputes to arbitration, continued:

"It is confined to ascertaining whether the party seeking arbi-
tration is making a claim which on its face is governed by the con-

tract. Whether the moving party is right or wrong is a question of
contract interpretation for the arbitrator. In these circumstances the
moving party sl~ould not be depriveci of the arhitrator's judgment,
when it M3ashisjudgment and al1 tlzat it connotes tl~at was bargained
for." (Emphasis added.)

When India ratified the Convention, she freely consented to the right
of al1other parties to invoke Chapter XVIll of the Convention. She can-
not unilaterally derogate froni that right without demonstrating that her

consent was void ab initio orthat the disagreement was of such a charac-
ter as to fall entirely outside the category of disagreements embraced
in Article 84. She did not address herself to the former and her attempt
to justify the latter was, of course, disputed by Pakistan.

IV. CONCLUSION

For al1 the reasons above, supplementing and reinforcing the Judg-
ment, it seems çlear that the Court had jurisdiction to entertain the

' 1 regret that the refereqces above are confined to common law jurisdictions.
The analysis of comparableproblems in other legal systems was beyond my reach
especially as 1 do not conceive that they can be adequately understood abstracted
from the total legal environment in which they are located.assume, however,
that the principles announced above are so fundamentaas not to be ~arochiaiiy
(Dalloz, 1967).iscussion of French law, see Robert, Arbitrage civil ~t~ornrnerci~l115 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP.DILLARD)

Appeal byIndia and that theCouncil of the ICA0 was investedunder
the ConventionandTransitAgreementwith thecornpetenceto entertain
Pakistan's Application and Cornplaint.

(Signed) HardyC. DILLARD.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE DILLARD '

1 an1 in fundamental agreeinent with the conclusioiis reached by the
Court and the reasons supporting them. In this separate opinion 1wish,
first, merely to inake certain gerieral observations in further support of

the Court's Judgment and second, to indicate that the decision confirm-
ing the jurisdiction of the ICA0 Council can also cal1 on general prin-
ciples of law recognized in many jurisdictions. While in no seiise neces-
sary to the Court's Judgmtnt ' which, of course, stands on its own foot-
ing. an allusion to these principles niay be of possible interest especially

as the thrust of India's main contention has in~plicationsreaching beyond
this particular case.

1. Prelinzinary Nuturc of Proceedings ut Cout~cil Lcvel

The contention, raised by Pakistan for the first tiine iiithe oral hear-
ings, that no appeal lies to this Court owing to the preliminary and pro-
cedural nature of the jurisdictional issue, does not appear to me to be
persuasive.
Certainly the iniplications flowing from it are sufficiently unattractive
as to be avoided unless compelled by some reading of the relevant docu-

ments or some theory of the judicial process commanding unquestioned
application. As 1 understand it, had the Council decided that it had no
jurisdiction, then Pakistan's right of appeal, presumably granted in
Article 84 of the Convention (which speaks of "any" disagreement),
would have been forever foreclosed. On the other hand. the decision

sustaining jurisdiction would compel India to be put to its proof on the
merits witli the right of appeal postponed until after a full exposure of
the nierits-the very contingency which it isthe main purpose of a plea to
the jurisdiction to avoid.
Although the formal scheme of the Rules for the Settleiileiit of Dif-
ferences might lend a certain aura of validity to tliis kind of result, 1do

not think it coinpelled.
It assumes that a suhstrrntii?(jurisdictional issue, i.c.. one directed
either to the person or the subject-matter in coiitroversy. flills in the same

' Passages in the oral proceedings iiidicateby the symbol C.R. 721.. .iiiay be
located through the Table of Concordarice printed at the end of I.C.J. Plcodin~s,
Appeal r.elating ro the Jlrrisdiction of ICA0 Coirncil.
Hereafter referred to as the Judgment. OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. DILLARD

[Traductiorij

Je souscris pour l'essentiel aux conclusions de la Cour et à ses motifs.
Dans mon opinion individuelle, je voudrais d'abord forniuler quelques
observations généralessupplémentaires à l'appui de I'arrêtpuis indiquer
que la décision confirmant la compétence du Conseil de 1'OACI peut
aussi se réclamer de principes généraux de droit reconnus par de nom-

breux systèmes. Sans être en rien nécessaire à l'arrêt dela Cour qui
se suffit évidemment à lui-même,une allusion à ces principes peut pré-
senter de l'intérêt,d'autant plus que la thèse principale de l'Inde a des
conséquences dont la portée dépasse la présente affaire.

1. Caractèrepréliminaire de la procédure au niveau du Conseil
La thèse avancéepar le Pakistan pour la première fois en plaidoirie
et suivant laquelle le caractère préliminaire et procédural de la question

de compétence exclut tout appel devant la Cour ne me paraît pas con-
vaincante.
Elle aurait assurément des conséquences assez regrettables pour qu'on
doive les éviter à moins d'y êtrecontraint par une interprétation des
textes applicables ou une théorie du processus judiciaire qui s'impose-
raient sans conteste. De la façon dont je comprends cette thèse, si le

Conseil avait décidé qu'il n'étaitpas compétent, toute possibilité, pour
le Pakistan, d'exercer le droit d'appel que semble lui reconnaître l'ar-
ticle84 de la Convzntion (où figure l'expression ((un »désaccord) aurait
étéàjamais écartée.En revanche, une décision favorable à la compétence
eût obligél'Inde à faire valoir ses moyens sur le fond, l'exercice du droit

d'appel étant alors retardéusqu'à l'épuisementdu débatau fond, qu'une
exception d'incompétence a précisémentpour objet principal d'éviter.
Bien que l'économie généraledu Règlement pour la solution des dif-
férends paraisse justifier dans une certaine mesure cette conception, je ne
pense pas que ce soit là un argument décisif.
La thèse susviséesupposerait en effet qu'une question portant sur le

fond mêmede la compétence, c'est-à-dire tenant à la personne ou à la

' Pour les renvois aux comptes rendus d'audienc(C.R. 721...), voir table de
concordance jointeà C.I.J. Mémoires, Appel concernant la comphence du Conseil
de ICi-après dénommél'arrêt.

5093 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP.OP. DILLARD)

category as minor procedural requirements designed to regulate the
expeditious and orderly process of adjudication. The former engages
the fundamental rights of the parties and is usually non-waivable; the
latter do not

In essence, a substantive jurisdictional issue (1 say "substantive" only
because the "jurisdiction" is sometimes loosely used) has a double focus.
This is clearly revealed in the jurisprudence of federal States where juris-
dictional issues are so frequently litigated and syphoned off for appeal

before considering the merits l. Not only is the issue deemed fundamen-
ta1 to the rights of the individual litigant whose plea is not merely that
the court or other tribunal has no power to hear the merits but also that
it has no power to put the individual to the trouble, expense, potential
vexation and other features which attend the need for defending on the

merits. The issue is also fundamental at the level of competing power
controversy between contending governmental entities (i.e., central, local
or regional governments). While the latter factor may not be operative
in the present case, it yet points up the importance of a jurisdictional
issue directed either to power over the person or subject-matter.

On principle therefore it seems to me clear that the allegedly clean cut,
but questionable, distinction between procedural and substantive issues
does not for purposes of grounding an appeal embrace a plea to the
jurisdiction.

The Rules for the Settlement of Differences, like other rules, are subject
to varying interpretations. 1see no compelling reason for so interpreting
Rules 5 and 15 as to make them mutually exclusive. Furthermore the
Council itself appeared to construe them together and at no time con-
sidered the issue non-appealable.

While 1 do not think Article 86 of the Convention was intended to
create a right of appeal if none existed independent of Article 86, 1 yet
see nothing in this Article which negatives the conclusion above.
Although the contention concerning the lack of relationship between

the subject-matter of negotiations and the appeal under Article 84 raises
somewhat different issues, it too seems to me insufficiently compelling
to justify a denial of the appeal for reasons similar to those advanced
above. It may be true that prior negotiations were not specifically di-
rected to the jurisdictional issue itself,-an issue hardly susceptible to

such negotiations 2.A literal reading of Article 84 may then be invoked
to show that any appeal on such an issue is premature. But such a read-
ing presupposes that the drafters contemplated a consequence which

' See. for instance, Bell v. Hood 727 US 678, 682 (1945).
this issue, they would have proved abortive. (See C.R. 721pp.s12-13.)ted to embrace CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DILLARD) 93

matière en cause, devrait êtremise sur le mêmeplan que des exigences
mineures de procédure dont l'objet est d'assurer le déroulement rapide
et ordonné du procès. Le premier point intéresseles droits fondamentaux
des parties, auxquels on ne peut habituellement renoncer; ilen va autre-

ment du second.
Une question concernant le fond mêmede la compétence (je dis le
((fond ))parce que le terme ((compétence )est parfois enlployé de façon
assez lâche) présente un double aspect. C'est ce qui ressort nettement de
la jurisprudence des Etats fédéraux où la compétence est si souvent en

litige et régléeà part, en appel, avant tout examen de fond l.Le carac-
tère fondamental de la question n'est pas reconnu seulement en ce qui
concerne les droits du plaideur, lequel ne se borne pas à soutenir que
la Cour ou le tribunal ne peut connaître du fond, mais fait valoir aussi
qu'on ne peut lui imposer les tracas, les frais, les éventuelles irritations
et autres conséquences d'un procès où il devra se défendre au fond. Il

est tenu pour tout aussi fondamental lorsque sont en cause des contro-
verses sur la division des pouvoirs entre divers organes de l'administra-
tion (au niveau central, local ou régional). Ce dernier élément n'inter-
vient pas dans la présente espèce, mais ilmontre bien l'importance d'une
question juridictionnelle concernant la conlpétence ratione personae ou

ratione materiae.
Il me parait donc clair en principe que la distinction prétendument
nette, mais discutable, entre les questions de procédure et les questions
de fond ne s'applique pas à l'exception d'incompétence, quand ils'agit
d'interjeter appel.

Le Règlement pour la solution des différends, comme d'autres règle-
ments de procédure, se prêteà des interprétations diverses. Je ne vois
aucune raison déterminante de conclure que les articles 5 et 15s'excluent
mutuellement. De plus le Conseil lui-mêmea paru les appliquer concur-
remment et n'a jamais considéréqu'il n'y avait pas d'appel en matière

de compétence.
Je ne pense pas que l'objet de l'article 86 de la Convention ait été de
créerun droit d'appel qui n'aurait pas existépar ailleurs, mais je ne vois
rien dans cet article qui contredise la conclusion ci-dessus.
Certes, la thèse sur l'absence de rapport entre ce qui peut faire l'objet

de négociations et l'appel forméen vertu de l'article 84 soulève des pro-
blèmes assez différents, mais elle ne me paraît pas non plus décisiveau
point qu'on puisse opposer à l'appel une fin de non-recevoir pour des
motifs semblables à ceux qui ont été indiqués.Il est peut-être vrai que
les négociations préalables ne portaient pas expressément sur la question
de compétence elle-même,question qui ne prête guèreà négociations 2.

On peut donc arguer d'une interprétation littérale de l'article 84 pour
soutenir que tout appel sur un point de ce genre est prématuré. Cette

' Voir par exemple Bell c. Hood 327 US 678, 682 (1945).
Il va presquede soi que, si les négociationspréalables avaientessayéde s'étendre
à cette question, elles se seraient soldéespar un échec(voir C.R. 7218, p. 12-13).
5194 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

seerns out of line with the fundarnental purposes inherent in the right to
invoke an early and definitive decision on an issue of such importance.

The absence of any direct evidence on this point and the rernoteness
of any connection it rnay bear on the object and purpose of the Con-

vention and Transit Agreement have irnpelled me to agree with the reason-
ing of the Judgrnent.
The conclusions stated above are rested on broad principles toiiching
the nature and thrust of a jurisdictional issue. They are fortified, in the
present instance, by considering the violence done to Article 62 (1) of

the Rules of this Court if the opposite view were held; but 1 also agree
with the Judgment that the decision should not be grounded on this Rule.

2. The Applicution of Pakistun
Tt does not seem to me necessary to dwell extensively on this issue.

Article 36 (2) of the Statute is not involved.
The jurisdiction to entertain the appeal with respect to the Appli-
cation rests on the express terrns of Article 84 of the Convention and
Article II, Section 2, of the Transit Agreement when both are read in
conjunction with Articles 36 (1) and 37 of the Statute.
The latter Article provides for such jurisdiction " Whenever a treaty

or convention inforce provides for reference of a rnatter to . ..the Per-
manent Court of International Justice, the rnatter shall, as between the
parties to the present Statute, be referred to the International Court
of Justice". (Ernphasis added.)
Pakistan asserted that the Applicant's recourse to this jurisdictional

power "is a clear admission of the fact that the Convention and Transit
Agreement were in force between the parties at the tirne the cause of
action arose and continued to be so" (Rejoinder, para. 37).
This amounts to saying that lndia cannot "blow hot and cold", i.e.,
that she cannot rely on the continued existence of the Convention and
Transit Agreement for purposes of perfecting an appeal while denying

it forpurposes of attacking the jurisdiction of the Council of ICAO.
This apparently inconsistent position rnay, by implication. be pushed
still further. Thus it may be urged that the International Court of Justice's
assurnption of jurisdiction would constitute, in and of itself, a denial
of the main thrust of India's contention.
But this argument attempts :O prove too rnuch and the contradiction

is more apparent than real. This follows because the criteria for opposing
the jurisdiction of the Council of the ICAO and those for perfecting
an appeal are quite distinct. The former have to do with the basic power
to entertain the application in the first place; the latter have to do with
the judicial protection afforded the party against an allegedly erroneous

decision. If the latter were CO-extensivewith the former. then the latter
could be rendered cornpletely useless. CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. VILLARD) 94

interprétation n'en présuppose pas moins que les auteurs du texte aient

voulu un résultat qui semble mal s'accorder avec les objectifs fondamen-
taux du droit de solliciter très tôt une décision définitivesur une question
aussi importante.
L'absence de toute preuve directe sur ce point et le rapport si lointain
qu'il peut avoir avec l'objet et le but de la Convention et de l'Accord de
tranîit m'ont contraint a accepter le raisonnement de l'arrêt.

Les conclusions qui précèdent reposent sur des principes généraux
touchant la nature et l'effet des questions de compétence. En l'espèce,
elles sont encore renforcéespar cette considération que I'on ferait violence
à I'article 62, paragraphe 1, du Règlement de la Cour en soutenant le
contraire; mais je m'associe aussi à l'arrêtpour estimer que I'on ne doit

pas fonder la décision sur cet article.
2. Requête du Pakistan

II ne me paraît pas nécessairede traiter longuement de cette question.
L'article36, paragraphe 2,du Statut n'entre pas en ligne de compte.
La compétence pour connaître de l'appel relatif a la requête découle

des termes exprèsde I'article 84 de la Convention et de I'article II,section
2, de l'Accord de transit, considérés avec I'article 36, paragraphe 1, et
I'article37 du Statut.
Ce dernier article traite ainsi de la compétence: 1Lorsqu'un traité ou
une convention en iigueur prévoit le renvoi a ..la Cour permanente de
Justice internationale, la Cour internationale de Justice constituera cette

j uridiction entre les parties au présent Statut» (les italiques sont de nous).

Le Pakistan a affirméque, quand le demandeur invoque cette compé-
tence, cilreconnaît clairement par là que la Convention et l'Accord de
transit étaient en vigueur entre les Parties au moment où est néle motif
de l'action et qu'ils ont continué de l'être )(duplique, par. 37).

Cela revient a dire que l'Inde ne peut pas edire blanc et noir »: in-
voquer le maintien en vigueur de la Convention et de l'Accord de transit
pour motiver un appel devant la Cour et nier ce maintien en vigueur
pour contester la juridiction du Conseil de I'OACI.
On pourrait pousser plus loin la critique de cetteposition apparemment
illogique et souligner par exemple que, si la Cour internationale de Jus-

tice se déclare compétente, cela constituera ipso facto un démenti in-
fligéà la thèse principale de l'Inde.
C'est cependant vouloir trop prouver et l'illogisme est plus apparent
que réel. En effet les critèrespar lesquels on peut s'opposer à la compé-
tence du Conseil de I'OACI et ceux qui justifient un appel sont tout à
fait distincts. Les premiers concernent le pouvoir fondamental de con-
naître de la requêteen première instance; les seconds la protection judi-

ciaire d'une partie contre une décision contestée. Si les deux types de
critères coïncidaient, les seconds deviendraient totalement inutiles. 95 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

A siniple, if extreme, hypothetical instance will serve to illustrate the
point. Suppose India's contention were that she had not ratified or

adopted the Convention and therefore it was not,as between the Parties,
a "treaty or convention in force", if the decision of the ICAO Council
were adverse how could she avail herself of her appellate power without
invoking Article 37 of the Statute?
Nor does the matter end there. There is a familiar logical weakness
in attempting to charge the maker of a statement with a contradiction
when the terms he uses must necessarily invite a seeming contradiction

unless regard is paid to the different types of statements made. The
matter iscomplicated and need not bepursued inthe body of this opinion '.
In any event it seems evident that India's position isjustified and that
the jurisdiction of this Court to entertain the appeal on the Application
is clear.

3. The Complaintof Pakistun

If it is established that this Court hasjurisdiction over the Application
and if it is also established that the Council of the ICAO has jurisdiction
to entertain the Application, less practical significance attaches to the
issue of the appealability of the Complaint, and this is especially true
in this case inlight of their almost identical wording and reach.

Nevertheless, the issue was before the Court and a resolution of it
may have value for the future.
The theoretical problems posed were, in my opinion, difficult and
it may well be that the Council will wish to give further study to them.
1 propose, therefore, in the interest of exposure, to first advance an
argument against the appealability of the Complaint and then a brief

counter-argument in support of the position adopted in the Judgment.
(a) The Argument against theAppeal

This argument rests on a consideration of (a) the different objects

Pakistan's assertion may be linked with numerous supposedly contradictory
statements, analyzed by philosophers and logicians, of which the oldest is that of
the Epirnenides containing the farnous assertion by a Cretan "that1 Cretans are
liars". It is obvious that such a staternen! appears superficially to be inherently
contradictorysince if it is true, it contradicts itself and likewise if it is false. (Com-
pare sirnilar generalized statements such as "al1 generalizations are false" or that
of the skeptic who proclaims "he knows nothing".) The classic and perhaps still
the clearest analysis designed to show thatch assertions are not necessarily con-
tradictory is that of Whitehead and Russell in the Principia Mathematica (2nd ed.
of logical types". See also, Eaton, General Logic (1931). pp. 452-462 and Copi,theory
Symbolic Logic (1959), pp. 162-164.

There is no logical inconsistency or contradiction in India's reliance on the Con-
vention for purposes of appeal while still contending it is not "in force" for pur-
poses of denying the Council's jurisdiction. CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DILLARD) 95

On peut, pour illustrer ce propos, recourir à une hypothèse simple,
encore qu'assez extrême. Supposons que l'Inde soutienne qu'elle n'a
ni ratifié niadopté la Convention et que celle-ci n'est donc pas, entre

les Parties, ((un traité ou une convention en vigueur »; si le Conseil de
I'OACI décidait le contraire, comment l'Inde pourrait-elle faire appel
sans invoquer l'article 37 du Statut?
Ce n'est d'ailleurs pas tout. On sait qu'il est illogique d'accuser l'auteur

d'une déclaration dese contredire quand les termes qu'il emploie le con-
duisent forcémentà une contradiction apparente sil'on netient pascompte
de la nature des arguments. C'est là une question complexe et qu'il n'y
a pas intérêt à pousser plus avant dans la présente opinion '.
De toute façon, il paraît évidentque la position de l'Inde est justifiée

et que la compétence de la Cour pour connaître de I'appel relatif à la
requêteest clairement établie.

3. Plainte du Pakistan

S'il est établique la Cour est compétente à l'égardde l'appel concer-
nant la requêteet que le Conseil de I'OACI est compétent pour con-
naître de celle-ci, la question de savoir s'il peut êtrefait appel de la
plainte est d'une moindre portée pratique; cela est d'autant plus vrai
qu'en l'espèce requête etplainte sont presque identiques par leur li-

belléet leur portée.
La Cour est cependant saisie de la question et il peut êtreutile pour
l'avenir qu'elle la résolve.
Les problèmes théoriques soulevésétaient à mon avis difficiles et il
se peut que le Conseil souhaite leur consacrer un plus ample examen.

Pour les besoins de l'exposé,je présenteraid'abord les arguments contre
la possibilité d'un appel relatif à la plainte puis, brièvement, les argu-
ments contraires pour étayerla position adoptée dans l'arrêt.

a) Arguments contre l'appel

Ces arguments reposent sur les considérations suivantes: a) l'objet

'L'affirmation du Pakistan peut être rapprochée de nombreuses propositions
soi-disant contradictoires,dont les philosophes et les logiciens ont fait l'analyse,
et dont la plus ancienne est celle d'Epimenide, contenant la fameuse déclaration
d'un Crétois 11que tous les Crétois sont menteurs 13A l'évidence. une telle proposi-
tion semble à première vue essentiellement contradictoire, puisque, si elle est vraie,
elle se dément elle-même et qu'il en va de mêmesi elle est fausse. (Comparer les
propositions générales du même genre comme (ctoutes les généralisations sont
fausses 1ou celle du sceptique qui demande: c(Que sais-je?11L'analyse classique et
peut-être encore la plus claire d'où il ressort que de telles propositions ne sont
pas nécessairement contradictoires est celle que font Whitehead et Russell dans
l'ouvrage intitulé Principia Ma~hematica (2e éd. 1950, p. 37-39 et 45-65) ou la fa-
meuse cthéorie des types logiques 11est énoncée pour la première fois. Voir aussi
Eaton, General Lo~ic (1931). p. 452-462 et Copi, Symbolic Logic (1959). p. 162-164.)
L'Inde pouvait, sans incohérence ou contradiction logique, se fonder sur la Con-
vention aux fins de I'appel tout en persistant à soutenir que celle-ci n'était pas
(en vigueur ipour nier la compétence du Conseil. of a complaint in contrast to an application and (6) the structure of
the Rules dealing with each l.
The Rules, of course, make a sharp distinction between applications
filed under Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2. of
the Transit Agreement on the one hand, and complaints under Article
II,Section 1, on the other hand. This is true despite the fact that certain

rules are common to both (e.g., Arts. 3 (1) (a) and (c), 4 and 5of Chap.
IIIof Part 1 and the General Provisions of Part III).

The significant differences are:

(1) The Council is ohligated to decide on any disagreements under an
application; no such obligation obtains with respect to a cornplaint;

(2) the decisions of the Council with respect to an application are hinding;

no such binding quality attaches to the "findings and recommen-
dations" under a complaint (Arts. 24 and 25 of the Rules) which
envisage a consultative process;
(3) "complaints" do not deal with the interpretation or application of
the treaties but with actions by a State, which may be legally privi-
leged, yet are alleged "to cause injustice or hardships" to the com-
plaining State;

(4) the decisions of the Council with respect to an application are subject
to appeal pursuant to Article 84 of the Convention (Art. 18of Rules).
No similar right of appeal "appears" to apply to cornplaints under
Section 1.(To be noted later is the possibility of an appeal by trans-
ferring the complaint into a type of "disagreement".)

Cast against this background, how may India justify an appeal from

a decision of the Council, if its decisions under Section 1 are not subject
to appeal?
From what has been said above, it seems evident that the ultimate
jindings and recommendations of the Council under the Complaint would
not be subject to appeal and especially so since these findings and recom-
mendations are not necessarily based on a legal issue resulting from an
adjudication.

It would seem to follow logically that if there is no appeal frorn the
ultimate findings and recommendations this very lack of appellate power
would extend to any "preliminary" issue antecedent to those findings.
(To be questioned later.)
India attempted to convert a presumably non-appealable decision
under Article II, Section 1, of the Transit Agreement into an appealable

one under Section 2 (Reply, paras. 39-41) by asserting there was a "dis-

"Application" and "complaint" arecapitalized only when reference is made
to them with respect to the particularapplication and complaint in this case.

54 CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DILLARD)
96

différent de la plainte et de la requête; 6) la structure des dispositions
du règlement traitant de chacune d'elles.

Bien entendu, le règlement fait une distinction nette entre les requêtes
présentéesau titre de l'article 84 de la Convention et de I'article II,
section 2, de l'Accord de transit d'une part, et les plaintes présentées
en vertu de I'article II, section 1, d'autre part. Cela reste vrai, bien que
certaines règles leur soient communes (par exemple les articles 3, par.

1, u) et c), 4 et 5 du chapitre III du titre 1et les dispositions générales
du titre III).
Les différencesà noter sont les suivantes:

1) le Conseil est tenu de statuer sur les désaccords qui lui sont soumis
par requête;il n'existe aucune obligation semblable dans le cas d'une
plainte;
2) les décisions rendues par le Conseil à l'égardd'une requêtesont obli-

gatoires; il n'en va pas de mêmedes (conclusions et recommandations ))
formulées à la suite d'une plainte (art. 24 et 25 du règlement, qui en-
visagent une procédure de consultation);
3) les plaintes 1)ne concernent pas l'interprétation ou l'application des
traités mais les mesures prises par un Etat, qui peuvent êtrejuridique-

ment inattaquables, mais n'en sont pas moins tenues pour injustes
ou préjudiciables à l'égard de1'Etat plaignant;
4) les décisions du Conseil prises à l'égardd'une requête peuvent faire
l'objet d'un appel conformément à l'article 83 de la Convention
(art. 18 du règlement).

II semble qu'il n'y ait pas de droit d'appel analogue pour les plaintes
présentéesen vertu de la section 1. (Comme on le verra par la suite, il

est possible d'ouvrir la voie à un appel en faisant de la plainte un cas
de Ndésaccord ».)
Dans ce contexte, comment I'lnde peut-elle justifier un appel d'une
décision du Conseil, si les décisions prises par celui-ci en vertu de la
section 1 ne sont pas susceptibles d'appel?

11paraît évident, d'après ce qui a été dit plus haut, que les conclusions
et recommandutions $nales du Conseil relativement à la plainte ne sont
pas susceptibles d'appel, d'autant plus que ces conclusions et recomman-
dations ne se fondent pas forcément sur des considérations juridiques

énoncéesdans un jugement.
II semble logique de conclure que, si les conclusions et recot~rtrzatidutions
finules sont sans appel, cette absence de pouvoir de réformation s'étend
à toute question ipréliminaire )précédantces conclusions (on y reviendra
par la suite).

L'Inde s'est efforcéede transformer une décision probablement non
susceptible d'appel, rendue en vertu de l'article II, section 1,de l'Accord
de transit en une décision susceptible d'appel rendue en vertu de la sec-97 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

agreement" over whether there was or was not "action" under the
Transit Agreement within the meaning of Section 1.This "disagreement"
in turn, so she asserted, attracted the applicability of Section 2 which
permits an appeal under Article 84 of the Convention. Support for this
ingenious approach was found in the Working Paper of the Secretary
General of the ICAO in Document C-WP/5433. (Reply, Annex C.)

The difficulty with this argument is two-fold.
First, the grounds lndia asserted to be controlling at the Council
level were al1 grounded on the assumption that Section 1 alone was
involved. India's attack on the jurisdiction of the Council raised no

issue of a disagreement-a point which, while not necessarily incom-
patible with her major argument that there could be no "action under"
a non-existent treaty, would yet have caused her difficulty.

Second, and more important, the Council's decision was dejînitely
rested on the assumptionthat it wasdealing wirh a Complaint under Sec-

tion 1 (see in particular Memorial of India, Annex E, (e), Discussion,
paras. 135-139). Indeed the explanation of the vote of the United States
delegate in favour of India was expressly based on the ground that the
action had been improperly brought under Section 1and that it should
have been brought under Section 2 (ihid.).However this was a minority

vote. There is no doubt that the decision was taken under Section 1.

An additional argument can be advanced, keyed to the concept that
the appellate jurisdiction of the Court is a limited one, and that it is
incompatible with that concept for the Court to review on appeal an
issue neither argued before the lower tribunal noF decided by it '.

If the analysis above is correct, the entire argument concerning the
Complaint, including the voting on Section 1,may be dismissed as beyond
the competence of the International Court of Justice.

(b) The Argument Sustaining the Appcal

There can be little doubt that, viewed in the abstract, the theoretical
arguments above are not without weight. When, however, more detailed
consideration is given to the particular character of the Application and

' As stated by one conimentator:
"Whether new issues-that is questions of law or fact not argued beforc thc
ICAO Council-may be considered by the appellate tribunal is inore doubtful.
Unless al1the parties involved consent thereto, these issues would seem to be
ultra virethe jurisdiction of the appellate tribunal. This is not because of any
formalistic notion of estoppel, but because the consent to the jurisdiction of
the appellate tribunal islimited to the reviewof those issues that weresubmitted
to the ICAO Council for adjudication." (BuergenthaLaw Muking in the In-
fernufional Civil Aviution Organizat(1969), pp. 145-146.) CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IN». VILLARD) 97

tion 2 (réplique, par. 39 à 41), en affirmant qu'il y avait eu ((désaccord ))
sur le point de savoir si une (mesure ))avait étéprise conformément à
l'Accord de tiansit au sens de la section 1. Ce ((désaccord )à son tour.
a-t-elle affirmé,entraînait l'application de la section 2, ce qui permettait

d'interjeter appel en vertu de l'article 84 de la Convention. Cette concep-
tion ingénieuse a trouvé une confirmation dans la note du secrétaire
généralde I'OACI figurant au document C-WP/5433 (réplique,annexe C).

Cet argument soulève deux difficultés.
Premièrement, les motifs considéréspar l'Inde comme déterminants
a l'échelondu Conseil partaient tous du principe que seule la section 1
était en jeu. Quand l'Inde a contesté la compétence du Conseil, elle n'a

pas soulevé la question d'un désaccord, ce qui, sans êtrenécessairement
inconciliable avec son argument principal selon lequel aucune ((mesure 1)
ne pouvait être ((prise )) conformément à un traité inexistant, l'aurait
cependant mise en difficulté.

Deuxièmement, et c'est plus grave, en prenant sa décision,le Conseil
est nettement parti de l'idéequ'il statuait sur une plainte présentéeen
vertu de la section 1 (voir en particulier le mémoire du Gouvernement
indien, annexe E, e), Débat, par. 135-139). En fait, lorsqu'il a expliqué

son vote favorable a l'Inde, le représentant des Etats-Unis a indiquécom-
me motif de son attitude que l'action avait étéintroduite à tort en vertu
de la section 1 et qu'elle aurait dû l'être envertu de la section 2 (ibid.).

Toutefois il s'agissait là d'une position minoritaire. IIne fait pas de doute
que la décision a étéprise en vertu de la section 1.
On peut avancer un argument supplémentaire, fondé sur l'idéeque la
juridiction d'appel de la Cour est limitée, qui est celui-ci: ilest incom-

patible avec cette idéeque la Cour puisse exercer un contrôle par voie
d'appel sur une question qui n'a fait l'objet, devant la juridiction in-
férieure, d'aucun débat ni d'aucune décision '.
Si l'analyse qui précèdeest juste, toute l'argumentation concernant la

plainte, y compris le vote sur la section 1, peut êtreécartée commesor-
tant du domaine de la compétence de la Cour internationale de Justice.

b) Arguments en,fai3eurde l'appel

11n'est guère douteux que, considérésdans l'abstrait, les arguments
théoriques indiqués ci-dessus ne manquent pas de poids. Cependant, si
l'on considère de plus près les caractères particuliers de la requêteet de

Comme l'a dit un commentateur:
(II parait plus douteux que de nouvelles questions - c'est-à-dire des ques-
tions de droit ou de fait qui n'auraient pas étédébattues devant le Conseil
de I'OACI - puissent êtreprises en considération par la juridiction d'appel.
A moins que toutes les parties n'y consentent, ces questions paraissent hors
de la compétence de cettejuridiction.Cela n'est pas dû à une notion formaliste
d'estoppel,mais au fait que le consentement à la compétence de la juridiction
d'appel ne concerne que les points sur lesquels il a été demandé au Conseil
de I'OACI de se prononcer. r (Buergenthal, Law Muking in the International
Civil Aviation Organization (1969), p. 145-146.)98 ic~o COUNCIL (SLP. OP. DILLARD)

Complaint in this case, including their striking similarity, the arguments
are weakened. The Judgment has. in my view. adequately provided the
justification for assimilating, for purposes of appeal, the Complaint to
the Application and it would be an exercise in needless repetition to
rehearse the reasons. with which 1 agree. sustaining its position.

Iam moved, however, to make the following additional observations.
The argument that because the ultiinate findings and recommenda-
tions of the Council, in considering a complaint are non-appealable,
therefore a preliminary jurisdictional challenge is likewise non-appeal-
able is, in iny view, subject to doubt. They fall into different categories.

It may be true that the former may turn on considerations of equity
and expediency which do not readily furnish suitable material for appeal
to a court of law (a proposition which may need some qualification),
but surely a jurisdictional issue, which turns on basic questions of in-
stitutional power, furnishes the very paradigm of a legal issue.

Nor does it logically follow that because the former are iiot "legally"
binding, the latter is non-appealable. The institution of a coinplaint
sets in motion a whole series of chain reactions. It is a two-stane Drocess
in which the respondent State is put to his proof with potential sanctions

of a severe character. The very purpose of a challenge to jurisdiction is
to arrest this process, with its potentially vexatious requirements and
implications, in limine. Its purpose is to deny that the Council can subject
the challenging party to any enquiry whatever concerning alleged "in-
justice or hardship" especially when an adverse finding or recomnien-

dation may well generate the sanction of suspension from rights and
privileges under the Agreement, provided (at the second stage of the
process) that the Council considers that the allegedly offending State
has "unreasonably" failed to take suitable corrective action.

It is hardly necessary to add that the legally oriented observations
above carry no implication whatever that the Council would assunie
an unwarranted jurisdictional power or that to allow an appeal on this
issue would in any way impede the non-appealable character of its ulti-
mate findings and recommendations. Assuming it has power, its highly
desirable flexible procedures are in no way impaired. At the policy level

it may also be suggested that considerations of the kind noted above
are more likely to stimulate than retard the number of States willing to
adhere to the Transit Agreement.

4. The Voting Issue

The issue of possible irregularity in the manner and method of voting
becomes irrelevant if, as indicated earlier, the Complaint is not appeal- CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. INU. DILLARI)) 98

la plainte dont il s'agit en l'espèceet notaminent leur ressemblance frap-
pante, ces arguments perdent de leur force. L'arrêt,nie semble-t-il, donne
des raisons satisfaisantes pour assimiler, aux fins de l'appel, la plainte
à la requête etce serait pratiq~ier l'art des redites inutiles que de répéter
les motifs sur lesquels il se fonde, et que j'approuve entièrement.

Cependant. je crois devoir ajouter les observ,!tions suivantes.
L'argument selon lequel, parce que les conclusions et recommanda-
tions finales du Conseil sur une plainte ne sont pas susceptibles d'appel,
une contestation préliminaire relative à la compétence pour connaître
d'une plainte ne le serait pas lion plus me semble d'une valeur douteuse.
IIs'agit là de catégories différentes.

II est peut-être vrai que les conclusions et recomn~andations de la
première catégorie dépendent parfois de considérations d'équité et
d'opportunité qui peuvent dificilement motiver un appel judiciaire
(observatioii qui appellerait peut-être quelques précisions), mais à coup
sûr une question de compétence, axée sur des considérations relatives

à l'essence du pouvoir institutionnel, est le modèle rnême.dela question
iuridiaue.
IIn'est pas non plus très logique de dire que si les conclusions et re-
coinmandations de la preniière catégorie ne sont pas co juridiquement ))
obligatoires, les secondes ne sont pas susceptibles d'appel. L.edépôtd'une
plainte déclenchedes réactions en chaîne. C'est un processus àdeux degrés

oii I'Etat défendeur doit faire valoir ses moyens et risque éventuellement
des sanctions graves. L'objet inêrned'une exception d'incompétence est
d'arrêter ce processus, in limine, avec to~lt ce qu'il peut comporter
d'exigences et d'implications vexatoires. L'exception a pour fin de
contester in litnine le pouvoir du Conseil de soumettre la partie intéressée
à toute enquête concernant une injustice ou un préjudice, en particulier

quand une conclusion LI une recommandation défavorable pourrait
entraîner la suspension des droits et privilèges prévus par l'Accord si,
au second stade de la procédure, le Conseil considérait que I'Etat incri-
miné a, sans raison valable, omis de prendre des mesures correctives
appropriées.
IIn'est guère nécessaired'ajouter que les observations d'ordre juri-

dique qui précèdent n'impliquent nullenient que le Conseil s'arrogerait
une compétence juridictionnelle injustifiée, ou que si l'on déclarait
l'appel recevable sur cette question, cela changerait quoi que ce soit
à l'impossibilité de faire appel des conclusions et recommandations
finales du Conseil. Du moment que celui-ci est compétent, ses procédures

si heureusement souples ne subissent aucune atteinte. Sur un plan de
politique générale,on peut dire aussi que des considérations de ce genre
semblent de nature à inciter un plus grand nombre d'Etats à adhérer à
l'Accord de transit, plutôt que le contraire.

La question d'une irrégularitééventuellede la procédure de vote perd
tolite pertinence si, conime il est dit plus haut. ta plainte est sans appel.able. It is also irrelevant in so far as the Application is concerned since,
under any view, a statutory majority favoured the appeal.
1s it relevant on the assumption that the Complaint, viewed in iso-
lation from the Application, is appealable?
Tt is possible to assert that the manner in which the Council behaves
is not central to the issue of whether it can behave at all, i.e., the juris-

dictional issue. 1 take this to be the thrust of a question put to counsel
(C.R. 7217,p. 40). Thus, if the jurisdictional issue is in favour of lndia's
contention, Le., that, ohjectivrly viewed, there is no jurisdiction, then
clearly the issue becomes irrelevant and likewise if the issue favours,
on an objective assessment, the position of Pakistan.

The force of this argument may be somewhat dented by the counter-
assertion which India was quick to make that the decision by the Council
was itself on the jurisdictional issue (C.R. 7218,p. 10).

Fundamentally, however, the voting problem does not go to the
jurisdictional issue itself since this issue is clearly focussed on the reach

of the Council's competence to deal with the subject-mutter of the dis-
agreement.
Considerations of a different kind also fortify the view that the Court
should not treat the voting issue as critically significant.

As to the "manner" of putting the vote, there is little validity in India's

claim that it was framed in the wrong way '.While the Council's being
"seised" of the case is not to be confused with its jurisdictional power to
handle it, nevertheless it isclear that, as with anyotherbodyendowed with
adjudicating authority, it may legitimately assume (in the absence of a
claim that is patently frivolous or groundless) that, in the first instance,
itis possessed ofjurisdiction pending a challenge to its power. In keeping
with general principles of adjudication it was incumbent on India to prove

the contrary.
Turning to the problem of the "statutory majority" the proposal
put to vote was stated by the President of the Council to be whether
"those who think that the Council of ICA0 has no jurisdiction to consider
Pakistan's Complaint to so indicate by saying 'yes' and those who
disagree with that to say 'no' .. .".

The result of the voting was 1 yes, 13 no, 3 abstentions (Memorial of
India, Annex E, (e), Discussion, para. 136).The President therefore ruled
that the Council had jurisdiction. In light of this result, it would appear
that ever. if there were error, it was harmless error, since, in my view, the
manner of putting the voting in this particular case was permissible and
only one vote was negative.

' See infraunder II, 1.

57Elle est également sans intérêten ce qui concerne la requête puisque, de
toute façon, une majoritéstatutaire étaiten faveur de la décisionattaquée.

Devient-elle pertinente si l'on considère que la plainte, envisagée
comnie distincte de la requête, pouvait donner lieu à un appel?
IIest possible de soutenir que la fayon dont le Conseil agit n'est pas
lin élément essentielquand on se préoccupe de savoir s'ilpeut agir, autre-

ment dit quand le problème est celui de la compétence. Je pease que
c'est à cela que tendait l'une des questions poséesau conseil (C.R. 7217,
p. 40). Ainsi, si la décision sur la compétence est favorable a la thèse
indienne, à savoir qu'objectivement il n'y a pas juridiction, alors le
problème devient à coup sûr sans pertinence, et il en va de même si,

après une évaluation objective, la décision est en faveur du Pakistan.
L'argument est peut-être battu en brèche, jusqu'à un certain point,
par l'argument contraire que l'Inde n'a pas tardé à présenter, à savoir
que la décision du Conseil portait elle-mêmesur la compétence (C.R.

7218, p. 10).
Toutefois, le problème du scrutin ne concerne pas fondamentalement
la question de la compétence puisque celle-ci vise surtout la compétence
rutione materiac du Conseil quant à l'objet du désaccord.

Des considérations d'un caractère différent tendent aussi à renforcer
l'idée que la Cour ne devrait pas considérer le problème du scrutin
comme présentant une importance vitale.
Quant à la 1méthode ))suivie pour la consultation, la thèse indienne

suivant laquelle la question a été mal poséene repose pas sur grand-
chose '.Si la <saisine » du Conseil en l'espècene doit pas être confondue
avec sa compétence pour connaître du differend, il est cependant clair
que, comme tout autre organe doté de pouvoirs judiciaires, le Conseil

peut légitimementprésumer (sauf si la demande est manifestenicnt frivole
ou non fondée)qu'il a compétence en première instance pour statuer tant
que cette compétence n'est pas contestée. En vertu des principes généraux
applicables en matière judiciaire la preuve contraire incombait à l'Inde.
Pour en venir au problème de la 11majoritéstatutaire ),le présidentdu

Conseil avait demandé 11aux Etats qui estiment que le Conseil n'est pas
compétent pour connaître de la plainte du Pakistan, de le faire savoir en
disant 1oui ))et à ceux qui rejettent cette thèse de dire 11non »..))

Le résultat du scrutin a été 1 voix pour, 13 contre et 3 abstentions
(mémoire du Gouvernement indien, annexe E, e), Débat, par. 136).Le
président en a donc conclu que le Conseil était compétent. Etant donné
ce résultat, il semblerait que mêmes'il y a eu erreur, celle-ci n'a pas tiré

à conséquence, car selon moi la façon dont la question a étémise aux
voix en l'occurrence était admissible et un seul membre du Conseil s'est
prononcé contre la compétence.

' Voir ci-dessous,titreII, I That there was some confusion on the meaning of a majority was
revealed in the subseq~ient discussion and was relied on by Pakistan to
show that the whole issue of a statutory majority has by no means been
resolved (Rejoinder, para. 78; Counter-Memorial. para. 59).

The point made by India was that, had the issue been put in such a man-
ner that a statutory majority were needed to estublish jurisdiction, then
only 13 States so voted and the decision would not be sufficiently sup-
ported '.
Pakistan's point was that the majority needed was not that of the

total membership of the Council but only the majority of those on the
Council who are also parties to the Transit Agreement and thus entitled
to vote or who are not otherwise disqualified as a party in interest.

Article 52 of the Convention specifies that decisions of the Council

shall require "approval by a majority of its members". It does not,
however, specify how the majority is to be determined. Article 66 (6)
specifically strips a member of the Council who is not a member of the
Transit Agreement from voting on any question under the provisions of
the Agreement. And parties in interest are also excluded (1957 Rules,
Arts. 15 and 26 (3)).

It had been assumed by the Secretary General of the ICA0 that despite
the provisions of Article 66 (h), a statutory majority of 14 was needed
for al1decisions of the Council. That this interpretation may be subject
to doubt wasindicated by Pakistan and may well await renewed study by
the Council, especially since the requirement might. under readily

conceivable circumstances, paralyse the decision-making powers of the
Council. It may be noted, in passing, that the general Rules of Procedure
forthe Council (as opposed to the Rules for the Settlement of Differences)
are not so restricted and speak of the majority of votes cast (Rules 42,49)'.

It is, of course, not impossible to contemplate a situation of gross abuse
of procedural requirements leading to a miscarriage of justice. In such a
situation the validity of the decision adopted by a subordinate adjudi-
cating body may be legitimately challenged on appeal. As previously
noted, a challenge of this kind is quite distinct from one directed to the

issue of jurisdiction.
It seems to me abundantly clear that no such abuse was evident in

The Council is composed of 27 States but the nuniber qiialified to vote on the
Cornplaint was lirnited to 18 owing to the fact that lndia was a party in interest
and 8 other States represented on the Council were not parties to the Transit Agree-
ment. Only 17 votes were cast because the representatiof one State was absent.

majority of those Council members who aretqualified to vote in deciding the par-
ticular case (Buergenthal, ocir., supra, p. 191). CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DILLARD) 100

Qu'il y ait eu une certaine confusion sur la signification du terme
((majorité )Jressort nettement de la discussion qui a suivi et le Pakistan
s'en est prévalu pour démontrer que tout le problème de la majorité

statutaire n'étaitaucunement résolu(duplique, par. 78; contre*ménioire,
par. 59).
La thèse de I'lnde était que si le problème avait été présenté de façon
telle qu'il aurait fallu une majorité statutaire pour déclarer le Conseil
compétent, treize Etats seulement se seraient prononcés en faveur de la

proposition, qui n'aurait pas obtenu le nombre de voix nécessaire '.
Le Pakistan a rétorqué que la majorité indispensable n'étaitpas celle
du nombre total de membres du Conseil, mais la majorité des membres
du Conseil qui sont en outre parties à l'Accord de transit et possèdent
ainsi le droit de voter, et qui ne sont pas écartésdu scrutin comme étant
parties au différend.

L'article 52 de la Convention stipule que rles décisions du Conseil
sont prises à la majorité de ses membres )].II ne spécifiecependant pas
comment on calcule la majorité. L'article 66 b) interdit expressément à
un membre du Conseil qui n'est pas partie à l'Accord de transit de voter
sur les questions relatives aux dispositions de cet Accord. Les parties

en cause dans un litige sont également exclues (règlement de 1957, art.
15 et 26, par. 3).
Le secrétaire général de I'OACIa cru pouvoir conclure que, malgré
les dispositions de l'article66 b), une majorité statutaire de 14 voix était
nécessairepour toutes les décisionsdu Conseil. Que l'on puisse douter de

cette interprétation, c'est ce qu'a indiqué le Pakistan et l'on fera bien
d'attendre qu'elle ait été étudiéu ene nouvelle fois par le Conseil, d'autant
plus qu'une telle exigence pourrait, dans des circonstances qui sont
parfaitement imaginables, paralyser l'exercice des pouvoirs de décision
du Conseil. On notera en passant que le règlement intérieurdu Conseil,

par opposition au Règlement pour la solution des différends, n'est pas si
restrictif et requiert seulement la majorité des suffrages exprimés (règles
42, 49) 2.
Bien entendu, on peut imaginer une situation dans laquelle une vio-
lation flagrante des exigences procédurales entraînerait un mal-jugé. En

pareil cas, la régularité de la décision adoptée par une juridiction in-
férieure pourrait être contestéeen appel. Cette contestation, comme on
l'a vu, se distingue nettement d'une contestation de la compétence.

IInie semble on ne peut plus clair qu'aucune violation semblable n'a

' Le Conseil comprend vingt-sept Etats mais dix-huit seulement pouvaient
prendre part au vote sur la plainte, l'Inde étant partieau différendet huit autres
Etats représentésau Conseil n'étantpas parties à l'Accord de transit. Dix-sept
suffrages seulement ont été exprimése,n raison de l'absence du représentant d'un
Etat.
Un commentateur est favorable à l'idée qu'un différend devrait être tranché
à la majoritésimple des membres du Conseil habilités a voter en I'espécedont
il s'agit (Buergenthaop. rit.. p191). 101 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP.DILLARD)

the present case either with respect to the "voting" issue or other alleged
procedural irregularities.
The observations above are merely supplied in further support of the
conclusions of the Court in paragraphs 44 and 45.

II. JURISDICTIO OF THE ICA0 COUNCIL

1. Preliminary

The following broad principles seem to me applicable to the present
controversy :

(1) As a general rule any organ endowed with jurisdictional power
has the right in thejirst place to determine the extent of itsjurisdiction.
This clearly applies in the absence of a clause contraireand it is particu-
larly applicable to a pre-established international institution. As stated in

the Nottebohm case (Prel.Obj.), I.C.J. Reports 1953,page 11 1at page 119
(emphasis added) :
"This principle which isaccepted bygeneral international law inthe
matter of arbitration, assumes particular force when the international

tribunal is no longer an arbitral tribunal constituted by virtue of a
special agreement between the parties for the purpose of adjudicating
on a particular dispute, but is an institution whichhas beenpre-
establishedby an international instrument ..."

Statements from numerous cases can be marshalled in support of the
general principle, noted above. See, e.g., Interpretation ofthe Greco-
Turkish Agreement of 1 December 1926, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 16, at
page 20 (1928) '.
(2) Assuming that the principles announced in Section 3of the Vienna
Convention give expression to general principles of international law
antedating the Convention, it is clear that Article 60 (1) must be read in

conjunction with Article 65 (4). In keeping with the broad principle
aiinounced above, this Article provides:

wish to associate rnyself with the concluding staternent on this point by Judgeld
Read in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case (I.C.J. Reports 1952, at pp. 143, 144) in
which he ernphasized that within certain lirnits both the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justiceand the InternationaCourt of Justice have "given liberal inter-
pretations to jurisdictional clauses, designed to give full effect to the intentions of
the parties concerned". (Ernphasis added.)
And, also, with the view expressed by Lauterpacht that tCourt "has applied
boldly the view that effect rnust be given to the ostensible purposes of the juris-
dictional clause" (The Development of International Dywthe International Court
of Jusfice, 1958, p. 341). CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP.IND.DILLARD) 101

étécommise en l'espèce, qu'il s'agissedu vote ou d'autres prétendues
irrégularités deprocédure.
Les observations qui précèdent n'ont d'autre objet que d'apporter une
justification supplémentaire aux conclusions exprimées par la Cour aux

paragraphes 44 et 45 de l'arrêt.

II.COMPÉTENC DU CONSEIL DE L'OACI

1. Retnarquepréliminaire

Les grands principes suivants me semblent s'appliquer au présent

litige:

1) En règle générale,tout organe investi de pouvoirs juridictionnels
a le droit avant route chose de déterminer l'étendue de sa compétence.
Cela s'applique assurément en l'absence de clause contraire et en parti-
culier s'il s'agit d'une institution internationale préétablie. Comme il

a été ditdans l'arrêt Nottebohm (exceptionpréliminaire), C.I.J. Recueil
1953, page 119(les italiques sont de nous):

((Ceprincipe, que le droit international commun admet en matière
d'arbitrage, prend une force particulière quand lejuge international
n'est plus un tribunal arbitral constitué par l'accord spécial des

parties en vue de statuer sur un différend particulier, mais une
institution préétablipear un acte international ...))

On peut extraire d'innombrables décisions des déclarations venant à
l'appui du principe généralindiqué ci-dessus. Voir par exemple Inter-

prétarionde l'accordgréco-turcdu 1" décembre1926, C.P.J.1..sérieB no 16,
page 20 (1928) *.
2) Etant admis que les principes énoncésdans la section 3 de la cin-
quième partie de la convention de Vienne consacrent des principes de

droit international généralqui existaient antérieurement à la convention.
ilest clair que dans cet instrument l'article 60, paragraphe 1, doit être
' rapproché de l'article 65, paragraphe 4, qui, conformément au principe
généralénoncéci-dessus, dispose:

S'il fallait invoquer les règles généralesd'interprétation, je voudrais reprendre
à mon compte, surce point, la conclusion de M. Read en l'affaire I'Anglo-lranian
Oil Co. (C.I.J.Recueil 1952, p. 143, 144),soulignant que, dans certaines limites,
la Cour permanente de Justice internationale et la Cour internationale de Justice
ont l<donnédes interprétations libérales auxclauses de juridictionde manière à
faire sortir tousleurs effets aux intentions desparties intéressée1(les italiques
sont de nous).
Je fais mienne également l'opinion de Lauterpacht pour qui la Cour(a applique
hardiment le principe qu'il faut donner effet aux buts apparents dla clause juri-
dictionnelle1(The Development of International Law by the International Court of
Jiistice. 1958p. 341). "Nothing in the foregoing paragraphs shall affect the right or

obligation of the parties under any provisions in force binding the
parties with regard to the settlement of disputes."
Furthermore it should be noted that under Article 60 (2)(h), an alleged

material breach of a multilateral treaty by one of the parties does not give
a party "specially affected" the privilege of terminating the treaty but
only provides grounds for "suspending" the operation of the treaty in
whole or in part in the relations between itself and the defaulting State"
(emphasis added). The concept of "suspension" which isclearly keyed to
a temporary condition,pre-supposes the continued existence of tlte treaty.
Even if certain operationsgoverning air rights were deemed suspended

it would not logically follow that such suspended operotions embraced
the compromissory clause of the treaty which falls conceptually and func-
tionally in a separate category and may thus become operative since the
treaty remains in force.

2. Formulation of the Qurstion

Tn its Application of 3 March 1971 before the Council of the ICA0
Pakistan invoked the power of the Council to decide and declare. inter

dia, that the decision of the Government of India suspending the over-
flights of Pakistan aircraft over the territory of India "is illegal and void
and in violation of India's international obligations under the Convention
and Transit Agreement".
It also requested that the Council decide and declare that the decision
of the Government of India suspending flights of Pakistan aircraft over
the Indian territory is causing injustice, hardship, loss and injury to

Pakistan.
Thus it sought a directive that the Goverilment of India should
restore the "two freedoms" and adequately compensate Pakistan for the
losses and injury suffered by it as a result of "the arbitrary, unilateral and
illegal decision of the Government of India in breach of its international
obligations".

As previously noted, the Complaint filed the same day was similar
in terms except for the omission of the paragraph seeking compensation
(Memorial of India, Annex A. item 3, (f] .7). and Annex B. item 3. ("1).
For purposes of this analysis the two may be treated together.

The Council has no general power to adjudicate disagreements among
contracting States. Tts powers are strictly derivative and thus depend

on the terms of the Convention and Transit Agreement.

Article 84 of the Convention and Article II, Section 2, of the Transit
Agreement (by reference to Article 84) confer the power to decide ". ..
ariy disagreement between two or more contracting States relating to
the intrrpretation or application" of the Convention and its Annexes. ((Rien dans les paragraphes qui précèdent ne porte atteinte aux
droits ou obligations des parties découlant de toute disposition en

vigueur entre elles concernant le règlement des différends. ))
11convient de noter, en outre, qu'aux termes de l'article 60, paragraphe

2, alinéa b). une prétendue violation substantielle d'un traité multila-
téral par l'une des parties ne donne pas à une ((partie spécialement
atteinte N le privilège de mettre fin au traité, mais lui fournit seulement un

motif de 11suspension de l'application du traité en totalité ou en partie dans
les relations entre elle-même etI'Etat auteur de la violation ))(les itali-
ques sont de nous). Le concept de (isuspension ))qui se rattache claire-
ment à une condition de temps, présuppose quele traité continue d'exister.

Même si l'on considérait comme suspendues certaines applications
concernant les droits aériens, il ne s'ensuivrait pas logiquement que
ces applications suspendues engloberaient la clause compromissoire du
traité,qui entre, du point du vue conceptuel et fonctionnel, dans une caté-

gorie distincte et peut êtreappeléeàjouer, puisque letraitéreste en vigueur.

2. Formulation de la question

Dans sa requêtedu 3 mars 1971devant le Conseil de I'OACI, le Pakis-
tan a invoqué le pouvoir du Conseil de décider et déclarer notamment

que la décision du Gouvernement indien de suspendre le survol de son
territoire par les aéronefs pakistanais (est illégale et nulle et constitue
une violation des obligations internationales de I'lnde aux termes de la
Convention et de l'Accord de transit )).

II demandait aussi au Conseil de décider et de déclarer que la décision
du Gouvernement indien de suspendre le survol de son territoire par les
aéronefs pakistanais est cause d'injustice, de préjudice, de pertes et de

dommages pour le Pakiçtan.
II cherchait ainsi à faire ordonner que le Gouvernement indien réta-
blisse les (1deux libertés et indemnise de manière suffisante le Pakistan
des pertes et préjudices subis du fait de iila décisionarbitraire, unilaté-

rale et illégale prise par le Gouvernement indien en infraction de ses obli-
gations internationales 1).
On a déjàvu que la plainte déposéele mêniejour était rédigée en des
termes semblables, sauf l'omission du paragraphe demandant une in-

demnité (mémoiredu Gouvernement indien, annexe A, point 3, f), 7), et
annexe B, point 3, ,f)). Aux fins de la présente analyse lesdeux demandes
peuvent êtreconsidérées ensemble.
Le Conseil n'a pas de pouvoir généralde statuer sur les désaccords

entre Etats contractants. LI exerce des pouvoirs strictement dérivéset
qui dépendent donc des clauses de la Convention et de I'Accord de
transit.

L'article 84 de la Convention et l'article II, section 2, de l'Accord de
transit (qui fait référenceà l'article 84) confèrent le pouvoir de statuer
sur (un désaccord entre deux ou plusieurs Etats contractants à propos de
l'interprétation ou de l'application )de la Convention et de ses annexes.103 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

In its Application instituting proceedings before this Court, India's
submissions were:

(1) that the Council has no jurisdiction to handle the Application and
Complaint of Pakistan as the Convention and Transit Agreement
"have been terminated or suspended between the two States";
(2) that the Council has no jurisdiction over the Complaint since no
action has been taken "under" the Transit Agreement .. .since that
Agreement has been terminated or suspended as between the two
States ;
(3) that the question of overflights is governed by a special régimeof
1966and not by the Convention or the Transit Agreement.

From the above it appeared that the principal issue before the Court
could be stated as follows:

"Did Pakistan's Application (and Complaint), considered in ligkt of
India'sobjections, reveal any disagreement between the two Parties relating
to the interpretation or application of the Convention and its Annexes?"

3. India's Principal Contention

In denying that the Council had jurisdiction India's principal con-
tention (presented with great thoroughness, force and ingenuity) was that
any disagreement relating to the termination or suspension of a treaty
lies completely dehors the treaty. (Dehors-the-treaty theory.) Inasmuch
as it liesdehors the treaty itcannot relate to any disagreement over the
interpretation or application of the treaty. Supplementing the dehors-
the-treaty theory was a logically distinct yet related theory viz., the "non-
existing" treaty theory. This was revealed in the repeated assertion that
"to interpret or apply" presupposes the continued existence of some-
thing to interpret or apply-an assertion which reverberated throughout
the Mernorial, Reply and oral argument '.

India recognized, of course, that international law does not sanction
the arbitrary termination or suspension of either a bilateral or multi-
lateral treaty. The privilege is not absolute but qualified by various re-
quirements of which the most significant is that the breach justifying the
termination or suspension must be material.
But al1this is quite irrelevant, so she asserted, when the issue centres
on the power of the ICA0 Council to handle the disagreement. Since
the source of this power is the Convention it cannot embrace niatters
lying beyond it.

para.p8;C.R.io72/6, p. 13. 27 (a); Mernorial, paras. 55, 68, 70, 72, 85; Reply, CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. VILLARD) 103

Dans sa requêteintroductived'instance, I'lndeformulait lesconclusions
suivantes:

1) le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour connaitre de la requêteet de la
plainte du Pakistan, la Convention et l'Accord de transit ((ayant pris
fin ou ayant été suspendusentre les deux Etats a;
2) le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour connaitre de la plainte, aucune
mesure n'ayant été prise((envertu 1)de l'Accord de transit ..puisque
celui-ci avait pris fin ou avait été suspenduentre les deux Etats;

3) la question des survols est régiepar un régime spécial de1966et non
pas par la Convention, ni par l'Accord de transit.
De ce qui précède,il résulteque la question principale dont se trouve

saisie la Cour internationale de Justice peut êtreénoncée plusprécisé-
ment comme suit:
((Larequête etla plainte duPakistan, considérée s la lumièredes ex-

ceptions de l'Inde, faisaient-elles apparaître un désaccordentre les deux
Parties à proposdel'interprétationoudel'applicationdela Conilentionet de
ses annexes? ))

3. Thèse principalede l'Inde

Pour s'opposer a la compétence du Conseil, la thèse principale de
l'Inde (présentéeavec beaucoup de vigueur, d'ingéniositéet de méthode)
était que tout désaccord survenu à propos de l'extinction ou de la sus-
pension d'un traitése situe complètementen dehorsdu traité (théoriede
I'extérioritépar rapport au traité). Dans la mesure où le désaccord se
situe en dehorsdu traité, il ne peut pus se rapporter à un différendrelatif

a l'interprétation ou à l'application du traité. La théorie de l'extériorité
par rapport au traité était donccomplétéepar une autre théorie logique-
ment distincte et pourtant connexe, celle de ((l'inexistence))du traité.
C'est ce qui ressort de l'affirmation répétée selon laquelle l'acte ((d'inter-
préter et d'appliquer )suppose qu'il continue d'exister quelque chose à
interpréter ou appliquer, affirmation qui reparaît d'un bout a l'autre du
mémoire,de la réplique et de la plaidoirie l.

L'Inde reconnaissait évidemment que le droit international ne sanc-
tionne pas la résolutionou la suspension arbitraired'un traité bilatéralou
multilatéral. Le privilègen'est pas absolu, mais limitépar diversesexigen-
ces, dont la plus marquante est qce la violation qui justifie la résolution
ou suspension doit être importante, «substantielle )).
Cependant, rien de tout cela n'est pertinent, affirmait-elle, car la
question portait surtout sur la compétence du Conseil de 1'OACIpour

connaître du désaccord. Cette compétence a pour source la Convention
et ne peut s'étendre à des matières qui en débordent le cadre.

Requête,par. 1, 27 a); mémoire,par. 55, 68, 70, 72, 85; réplique,par. C.R.
7216,p. 13. 104 [CAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

Her chain of reasoning appeared to be:

(1) Al1 questions of termination or suspension lie dehors the treaty;

(2) the jurisdiction of the ICAO Council lies ivithinthe treaty; therefore

(3) the Council of the ICAO has no jurisdiction to handle the disagree-
ment.

Had her premise been soundly grounded, the conclusion would follow
that, in sofur as thejurisdiction of the ICA0 Council is concerned, any
contracting State may, vis-à-vis any other contracting State, arbitrarily
suspend the treaty and do so by her mere ipse disit.This conclusion
India cheerfully conceded (C.R. 7218, p. 14) '.

In my view the argument contains the hidden assumption that al1
questions of termination or suspension lie "dehors" the treaty irrespec-
tive of any terms of the treufj.
Because this assumption is questionable, India's premise was too
sweeping and, in the context of the present case, it therefore begged the

central question.

In fairness it should be said that she attempted to avoid questioii-
begging and circularity by indulging anotherassumption.This wasexposed
by a question put to her bya Member of the Court. Herfurtherassumption

was that "inherent limitations" on the Council's jurisdiction inhibit it
from considering questions of "substantive" international law under
which the suspension was effected. Under this assumption any challenge
to her right to suspend the treaties could be aired only by a court com-
petent to handle such matters.

Putting aside the validity of the asserted distinction between substan-
tive and non-substantive international law (to be alluded to later) India
nevertheless reaffirmed her basic premise.
This was especially revealed in the following passage in response to
another question put by the same Member of the Court. The question

dealt with the potential application or relevance of Article 89 of the
Convention. After discussing this critically significant Article, counsel
stated :

". .. if apart from Article 89, the Council has no jurisdiction to deal
with the question of substantive international law, how could the
absence of jurisdiction be cured by invoking Article 89? The cruciol
point aguinst the Council e'rercisingjurisdiction ~,ouldstill renzain,

To avoid any misunderstanding it should be pointcd out that India at no timc
contended that she could arbitrarily suspend treatHer contention was that such
an issue could only be determined by a court competeto enter into the matter and
that the ICAO Council was not competent to do so. See Judgment, para32 and 34. CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP.INU.UILLARU) 104

Voici donc l'enchaînement de l'argumentation indienne:

1) toutes les questions d'extinction ou de suspension sont en dellors du

traité;
2) la compétence du Conseil de I'OACI se situe dans le cadre di1 traité;
en conséquence :
3) le Conseil de I'OACI n'est pas compétent pour connaitre du désac-

cord.
Si les prémisses étaient justes, on pouvait en déduire que, s'agissant

de la compétence du Conseil de I'OACI, tout Etat contractant pouvait,
vis-à-vis de tout autre Etat contractant, suspendre arbitrairement le
traitéet cela par sa seule décision. Cette conclusion, l'lnde non seulement
l'admettait de bon cŒur, mais encore elle la proclamait (C.R. 7218, p. 14) l.

A mon avis, l'argument suppose implicitement que toutes les questions
d'extinction ou de suspension se situent ((en dehors ))du traité indépen-
damment des termes du traité.
Parce que cette supposition est discutable, les prémisses de l'Inde

étaient beaucoup trop généraleset,dans le contexte de la présenteaffaire,
elles se présentaient comme une pétition de principe par rapport à la
question principale.
Pour êtrejuste. il faut dire que I'lnde s'est efforcéed'éviterla pétition
de principe et le cercle vicieux en recourant à une autre supposition. C'est

ce qu'a révélé une question que lui a poséeun membre de la Cour. Cette
autre supposition consistait à dire que des (limites intrinsèques )de la
compétence du Conseil empêchent celui-ci d'examiner les considéra-
tions de droit international ((fondamental ))à l'origine de la suspension.

II en résultait que si le droit de I'lnde de suspendre les traités étaitcon-
testé, seul un tribunal compétent pour connaître de ces questions était
habilité à en entreprendre l'examen.
Laissons de côtéla validitéde la distinction entre les questions de droit

international fondamental et non fondamental (qui sera reprise plus
loin); I'lnde réaffirmait ses prémisses.
C'est ce aui ressort. .n ~a.ticulier. de la déclaration suivante faite en
réponse à une autre question poséepar le même membrede la Cour, et
qui concernait l'éventuelleapplication ou pertinence de I'article 89 de la

Convention. Après avoir examiné cet article dont l'importance est
essentielle, le conseil de l'lnde a déclaré:

lfsi, en dehors de l'article 89, le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour
connaitre de cette question de droit international fondamental,
comment pourrait-on remédier à l'absence de compétence en in-
voquant l'article 89? L'obstacle essentiel à l'exercice de la juridiction

' Pour éviter tout nialentendu il convient de souligner que I'lnde n'a jamais
prétendu avoir le droit de suspendre arbitrairement les traités. Ce qu'elle affirmait,
c'est que seul un tribunal compétent pour statuer pouvait se prononcer sur un tel
problème et que le Conseil de I'OACI, quant à lui, n'était pas compétent. Voir
les paragraphes 32 et 34 de !'arrêt. 105 ICAO COUNCIL (SEP.OP. DILLARD)

namely that the operation of the treaties has been suspendeda , nd

therefore neither Article89 nor any other article cal1for application
or interpretution."(Einphasis added.)

This recourse to the "non-existing treaty" theory is made even more

explicit in the next passage where he stated:
"The crux of the matter is that the treaties must be in operation
before any question of interpretation or application can arise ... If
the operation of a treaty has been suspended or terminated, the

jurisdiction of the Council cannot br invoked on the ground that
there has been a breach of the treaty." (C.R. 7216,p. 13.)(Emphasis
added.)

It can be suggested that India, by her combined theories, was in effect
challenging the applicability of the entire Convention as opposed to the
mere application of any particular article in it. But this point need not
be pressed since ultimately the Council must, as a matter of the merits,
decide whether the disagreement relates to the interpretation or appli-
cation of one or more articles of the Convention. This point is mentioned
infru,under 5.

4. Suhsidiary Argunients

India's attempt to fortify her case through a nurnber of subsidiary
arguments needs only passing reference.
(1) In discussing the inherent limitations on the Council's jurisdiction,
she drew the inference that the nations of the world could not have in-

tended to endow it with the power to determine issues of a sophisticated
legal nature especially when the dispute may be highly charged with
political implications and inspired by military considerations.
It is true, of course, that the Council is endowed with a mix of mediat-
ing, conciliating and adjudicating functions. In so far as the last is
brought into play, its composition may seem ill-suited to its function as
numerous commentators have suggested '.
Grant this and the argument is yet incomplete. This is so because it
ignores the safeguard provided by the right of appeal to either an arbitral

tribunal or this Court, bodies presumably capable of handling sophisti-
cated legal issues.

It also ignores the fiindamental distinction between the power of the
international community to establish an organ with adjudicative powers
and the policy considerations prompting it to do so. There is no question
but that this power was exercised with the consent of al1 contracting
States.

See, for exaniple, Goedhuis, "Questions of Public International Air Law",
81 Recueil des cours, pp. 2ff. ,t pp. 222-224.
63 CONSEILDE L'OACI (OP. IND. DILLARD) 105

du Conseil subsisterait, à savoir le fait que le fonctionnement des
traitésa étésuspenduet que, par conséquentni l'article 89 ni aucun
autre article n'est plus susceptibled'application ou d'interprétation))
(Les italiques sont de nous.)

Ce recours à la théoriedu ((traitéinexistant »est encore plus manifeste
dans le passage suivant, où le conseil déclarait:

ccLe nŒudde I'afSaire, c'est que les traitésdoivent êtreen Lgueur
avant qu'aucune questiond'interprétation ou d'application puisse se
poser ...si le fonctionnement du traité a été suspenduou a pris fin,
on ne saurait invoquer la compétence du Conseil en faisant valoir
qu'ily a eu violation du traité»(C.R. 7216,p. 13).(Les italiques sont
de nous.)

On peut dire que l'Inde, par l'effetcombiné deses théories,contestait,
en réalité, l'applicabilitéde la Convention tout entière opposée à la
simple application d'un article quelconque de celle-ci. Cependant, il
n'est pas nécessaire d'insistersur ce point, car en fin de compte le Conseil

devra décider, dans le cadre de l'examen du fond, si le désaccord se
rapporte à l'interprétation ou à l'application d'un ou de plusieurs ar-
ticles de la Convention. Ce point est évoquéci-dessous, 5.

4.Arguments subsidiaires

La tentative de I'lnde pour renforcer sa cause à l'aide de divers argu-
ments subsidiaires n'appelle que de brèves remarques.
1) A propos des limites intrinsèques de la coinpétence du Conseil,
elle a conclu que les nations n'ont pas pu avoir l'intention de conférer
à cet organe le pouvoir de statuer sur des questionsjuridiques complexes,

surtout quand le différendpeut être lourd de conséquences politiqueset
quand des considérations militaires interviennent.
II est assurémentvrai que le Conseil a été chargé de fonctions diverses,
qui comprennent la médiation, la conciliation et le jugement. On peut
penser toutefois que sa composition le rend mal adapté a cette dernière
fonction, comme de nombreux commentateurs l'ont souligné '.
Admettons qu'il en soit ainsi; l'argument n'en reste pas moins in-
complet parce qu'il ne tient pas compte de la garantie constituée par le

droit d'appel devant un tribunal arbitral ou devant la Cour, c'est-à-dire
devant des organes à première vue capables de s'occuper de questions
juridiques difficiles.
il méconnaît en outre la distinction fondamentale entre le pouvoir de
la communauté internationale d'établir un organe investi d'une compé-
tence juridictionnelle et les considérations de politique générale quiI'in-
citent à le faire. On ne saurait contester que ce pouvoir ait été exercé

avec le consentement de tous les Etats contractants.

' Par exemple Goedhuis, questions of Public International Air Law», 81
Recueil descours,p. 222.224.

63 Finally, it is signifiant to riote that the powers of the Council are part
of a futictioning "systein" or régimein which some supervisory authority
over its adjudicating pouers is integral to the operation of the entire
system. This point, alluded to in the Judgment (para. 26) is, in my view,
important.

It is important not because third-party judgment is always preferable
to more flexible procedures of settlement but because it providesa method
for ultimately settling legally relevant issues and can, by so doing (es-
pecially when the process is located within a functioning system), facili-
tate rather than impede the processes of negotiation, mediation and
conciliation.

(2) It is, of course, axioniatic that questions of international law inhere
in the interpretation or application of treaties. The attempt by lndia to
segregate those legal issues which might faIl within the proper province
of the ICA0 Council and those beyond its reach, while ingeniously ar-
gued, was not persuasive in light of the unsupported and novel distinc-

tion between substantive and non-substantive international law. The
matter needs no elaboration.

(3) India's attempt iiarrowly to restrict the concept of "application",
while also ingenious, was also unpersuasive. The distinction she drew was

between the "operation" (of the treaty) and the "application" of its
provisions to "an existing state of affairs". By way of illustration she
invoked the kinds of applications which she clairned might legitimately
arise under Articles 5,9 and Il of the Convention. (C.R. 72i1. pp. 18-24;
7215, p. 53.)
Her invocation of Article 9, in particular, deserves a digressive coin-

ment. It is difficult to discern how the legal issues arising from theappli-
cation of this Article, involving as they do. considerations of "reasons of
military necessity and public safety", are not, under India's view, so highly
charged with political and military factors as to make them beyond the
reach of the Coiincil. Yet lndia herself invoked the jurisdiction of the
Council in its dispute with Pakistan in 1952 and relied specifically on

Article 9 (as well as Articles 5 and 6) '.

The articles of the Convention are, of course, not "applied" in a va-
cuum. They must relate to a dispute involving, to some extent. an existing
state of affairs. If that "state of affairs" is generated by a suspension of
the treaty, it is difficult to see how the distinction between "application"

and "operation" is helpful or why the former is automatically excluded.

Judicial prorioiincenietits do not give to the teriii "application" n

' The controversy was ultiniatrly settlby negotiations. Foraninteresting ana-
lysis, see 1953United Sra/es and CrincrdiirrtAviation Reporpp. 110-133.

64 CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DILLARD) 106

Enfin, il est à noter que les pouvoirs du Conseil s'inscrivent dans un
~(systeme ))ou régime qui fonctionne et dont une autorité habilitée a
contrôler son activité judiciaire constitue un élémentnécessaire. Cet as-

pect, auquel l'arrêt faitalliision (par. 26), est à mon avis important. II
est important, non pas parce que le jugement d'un tiers est toujours
préférableà des procédures de règlement plus souples, mais parce qu'il
offre une méthode qui permet en définitivede réglerdes questions juri-

diquenient pertinentes et peut ainsi (en particulier quand le processus se
déroule à l'intérieur d'lin système en fonctionnement) faciliter au lieu
d'empêcherla négociation, la médiation ou la conciliation.

2) C'est évidemment un principe établi que diverses questions de droit
international sont inséparables de l'interprétation ou de l'application des
traités. La tentative ingénieusede l'Inde pour dresser une barrière entre

les questions juridiques qui seraient légitimement du ressort du Conseil
de I'OACI et celles qui lui échappent aurait peut-être été plus convain-
cante si cette dichotomie reposait sur un fondement plus solide que la
distinction nouvelle et non demontréeentredroit international fondamen-

tal et non fondamental. II n'y a pas lieu d'insister davantage sur cette
question.
3) La tentative de l'Inde pour circonscrire étroitement la notion id'ap-
plication )1,bien qu'ingénieuse elle aussi, n'est pas plus convaincante.

L'Inde a distingué entre le 1fonctionnement 1)loprration~ du traité et
l'application 1de ses dispositions à 1une situation existante )).A titre
d'illustration, elle a invoqué les cas d'application qui. à l'entendre,

pourraient légitimenient se poser en vertu des articles 5. 9 et 1 I de la
Convention (C.R. 7211, p. 18-24; 721.5,p. 53) .
En particulier, le moyen qu'elle tire de l'article 9 mériteque l'on fasse
une digression. On voit mal comment les questions juridiques relatives

à l'application de cet article, mettant en jeu. comme elles le font, des
(1raisons de nécessitémilitaire et de sécurité politique 11,pourraient ne
pas être, à en croire I'lnde, sufisamment lourdes de-consequences poli-
tiques et militaires pour échapper à la compétence du Conseil. L'Inde

elle-mêmes'est prévalue de la compétence du Conseil dans son différend
de 1952 avec le Pakistan et elle a expressément invoqué l'article 9, ainsi
que les articles 5 et 6 '.

Certes, les articles de la Convention ne sont pas appliqués » dans le
vide. Ils doivent se rapporter à un ditlérend qui suppose, dans une cer-
taine mesure, une situation existante. SIcette (isituatiori existante 11résulte
d'une suspension du traité, on comprend mal à quoi peut servir la dis-

tinction entre I'~lapplication ))et le fonctionnement », ou pourquoi la
première serait automatiquement exclue.
Les décisions judiciaires ne donnent pas au terme ~lapplication 1) un

'Le différend a finalement étéréglépar des négociations. On en trouvera une
analyse intéressante dans 1953 United Stutes and Canadian A~iution Rt~ports,p. 110
à 133. 107 ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

restricted meaning as statements in the Mavroinr?~atiscase, P.C.I.J.,

Series A, No. 5, page 48, and the Peace Trrutirs case, I.C.J. Reports 1950,
page 74, attest. 1 refrain from extending this opinion with quotations.

5. Spccijîcation of Relevant Articles

It seenied to me desirable to go through the laboured exercise above
because the major contention of India was rested rather more on logical

than empirical grounds. If its basic assumption had been correct then
(as in the domestic arena when a contract is deemed void) the compro-
missory clause (Art. 84) could have no effect. It seems clear, however,
that her assumption was iiot sufficiently supported.

It rernains to deterinine, therefore, whether the disagreement between
India and Pakistan relates to the "interpretation or application" of ciny
article of the Convention and Transit Agreement.
On this positive point it will be observed that the Judgmcnt carefully
avoids trespassing on matters which are the proper province of the Coun-

cil to determine. Whether India was or was not justified in suspending
the treaties obviously goes to the merits and is irrelevant to the juris-
dictional issue. It suffices therefore to point to a number of articles of
the Convention and Transit Agreement the interpretation and application

of which appears to be involved in the disagreement between the Parties.
1havelittle to add to theanalysis inthe Judgment which has called attention
to the disputes over the interpretation and application of Articles 5, 82,
83, 89 and 95. The specification of these Articles does not necessarily

imply that others might not also be relevant, i.e., Articles 25 and 37.
Furthermore, if regard is had to the Preamble of the Chicago Convention
and Article 44, it is arguable that their interpretation and application
are also implicated especially in light of Article 31 (1) and (2) of the
Vienna Convention. But al1 this falls within the province of the ICAO

Council to decide '.
Since in my view Article 89 was particularly relevant, and since 1 have

The "jurisprudential" point might be mentioned. even at the risk of appearing
over-academic, that multilateraltreaties establishing functioning institutionfre-
quently contain articles that represent idesls and aspirations whibeing hortatory,
are not considered to be legally binding except by those who seek to apply them
to the other fellow. On the other hand there are other articles which are generally
recognired as imposing definite legal obligations. The point at which the former
merge into the latter constituteone of the most delicate and dificult problems of
law and especially so in the internationalarena where generally accepted objective
criteria for determining the meaning of language in light of aroused expectations
are more difficult to ascertain and apply than in domestic jurisdictions. Nevertheless
the problem of detcrmining, within the context of a specific controversy,which
articles are and which are not. legally binding cannot be altogether avoidedwith-
out indulging the twin assumptions that law is a "brooding omnipresence in the
sky" (an extreme natural law tenet) or that the language of law is at once self
revealirig and self contained, a propositionwhich al1 modern scholars concerned
with linguistic analysis and cornm~~nication theory reject. Happily, considerations
of this kind are not required in the present controversysince it is unnecessary to
invoke the vaguer norms of the Convention and Transit Agreement in order to de- CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DILLARD) 107

sens restreint, comme l'attestent des passages de l'arrêt Mavromtnatis
(C.P.J.I. série A no 5, p. 48) et de l'avis relatif aux Traités de paix (C.I.J.
Recueil 1950, p. 74). Je ni'abstiens d'alourdir cette opinion avec des
citations.

5. Spéc~Jïcationdes articles pertinents

J'ai cru opportun d'examiner assez laborieusement le problème parce
que la prétention de l'Inde reposait sur des motifs qui relèvent plutôt de la
logique que de l'empirisme. Si son point de départ avait étéjuste, alors
(comme dans le domaine du droit interne lorsqu'un contrat est réputé
nul) la clause compromissoire (art. 84) n'aurait pu avoir d'effet. Or, il

semble évidentque son hypothèse ne reposait sur aucune base suffisante.
II reste donc à déterminer si le désaccord entre l'Inde et le Pakistan a
trait à l'interprétation ou l'application B d'un article quelconque de la
Convention ou de l'Accord de transit.

Sur ce point précison notera que l'arrêtévite soigneusement d'empiéter
sur des domaines qui sont du ressort du Conseil. Que I'lnde ait eu raison
ou tort de suspendre les Traités, c'est là de toute évidence, une question
de fond qui n'intéresse en rienle problème de la compétence. IIsuffit donc
de signaler divers articles de la Convention et de l'Accord de transit dont

le désaccord entre les Parties paraît mettre en cause l'interprétation ou
l'application. Je n'ai pas grand-chose à ajouter à l'analyse contenue dans
l'arrêt qui fait état de controverses affectant les articles 5, 82, 83, 89 et
95. Le fait que ces articles soient spécifiésne veut pas forcément dire que

d'autres ne puissent être pertinents, par exemple les articles 25 et 37.
De plus, si I'on tient compte du préambule de la Convention de Chicago et
de son article 44, on peut soutenir que le~ir interprétation et leur ap-
plication sont aussi mises en jeu, surtout si I'on songe à l'article3 1,para-
graphes 1 et 2, de la convention de Vienne. Mais c'est au Conseil de

1'OACI à déciderde tout cela '.

A mon sens le cas de l'article 89 est particulièrement intéressant.

'En se plaçant sous l'angle de la philosophie du droit on peu: >ire, au risque
de paraître professoral, que les traités multilatéraux établissant"es institutions
permanentes contiennent souvent des articles où sont exprimés des idéaux et des
aspirations qui, ayant le caractère d'exhortations, nesont considéréscomme juri-
diquement obligatoires que par ceux qui cherchent à les appliquer à autrui. En
revanche on y trouve d'autres articles dont on reconnaît généralement qu'ils irn-
posent des obligations juridiq~ies précises. Le point où les deux types de disposi-
tions se confondent constitue l'un des problèmes juridiques les plus dificiles qui
soient, en particulier dans le domaine international,où des critèresobjrcrifJgéné-
ralement acceptés pour déterniiner le sens des termes par rapport aux espoirs
qu'ils ont fait naître sont plus difficilesdécouvrir et à appliquer que dans les
juridictions nationales.II n'empêche que I'on ne saurait eluder totalement le pro-
blème qui consiste à déterminer, a propos d'un différend concret quels articles sont
ou ne sont pas juridiquement obligatoires, i moins de s'en tenirà deux hypothèses
jumelles: que le droit est une'1omniprésence dans le ciel qui recouvre tout ".con-
ception extrême qui ressortit au droit naturel,ou encore que les termes juridiques
sont à la fois autonomes et clairs en eux-mêmes. idée rejetéepar tous les spécialistes
modernes de l'analyse ling~iistique et de la théorie de la coiii~iiiinication. Fort108 {CAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

alluded to it earlier, 1 shall attempt to characterize the nature of the
disagreement over that Article.

Article 89

India's consistently maintaiiied position, to repeat, was that in sus-
pending the Convention and Transit Agreement vis-à-vis Pakistan she
was acting in accordance with privileges accorded her under international
law. Whether she was right or wrong in doing so is an issue going to the

merits which, she asserted, can oiily be deterinined by a court of compe-
tent jurisdiction. It has nothing to do with the jurisdiction of the ICAO
Council.
Article 89 of the Convention specifically provides:

"III case of war, the provisions of this Covenant shall not affect
the freedom of action of any of the contracting States affected,
whether as belligerents or as neutrals. The same principle shall

apply in the case of any contracting State which declares a state
of national emergency and notifies the fact to the Council."

India's suspension was occasioned by the hostilities in 1965. She
claimed the suspension was never lifted.
Pakistan contended that as a party to the Convention India was obli-
gated to observe its requirements. Article 89 specifically provides for the
very contingency which occasioned the suspension and is thus binding,
so she contends, on Tndia. She fortified this by alluding to India's own

conduct in sendinga notification to the Council of the ICAO. She asserted
that India was, in fact, operating under Article 89 and that her subsequent
actions were consistent with this view. Frorn al1this it followed that the
Convention and Transit Agreement were not suspended even if the oper-
ation of certain rights accorded Pakistan under Article 5 and Article

1, Section 1. of the Transit Agreement were temporarily suspended.
Furthermore, so asserted Pakistan, lndia revoked the ernergency.

At the legal level Pakistan insisted that Article 89 confers freedom of
action regarding the rights and obligations of contracting States regarding

emergencies, including notification and the lifting of the ernergency. It
gives States al1 the needed protection afforded by international law and
has, in effect, supplemented international law by the consent manifested
in adopting the Convention.

Tndia's reply was, in effect, three-pronged. At the factual level she

disputed both the facts and inferences drawn from them by Pakistan.
At the legal level she contended that Article 89 is completely irrelevant

monstrate that the jurisdictiof the ICA0 Council is keyed to very specific pro-
visions involving legal obligations of one kind or another, which it inay be the duty
of the Council to consider.

66 Comme j'y ai déjàfait allusion, je vais; m'efforcer de caractériser la na-
ture du désaccord au sujet de cet article.

La position constante de l'lnde était, on l'a vu, qu'en suspendant la
Convention et l'Accord de transit à l'égarddu Pakistan elle a agi con-

formément aux privilèges que lui accordait le droit international. Quant
à savoir si elle a eu raison ou tort de le faire, c'est une question de fond,
a-t-elle affirmé,que seul un tribunal compétenr pouvait trancher et qui
ne concerne en rien la compétence de I'OACI.

L'article 89 de la Convention a la teneur suivante:
(En cas de guerre, les dispositions de la présente Convention ne

portent atteinte à la liberté d'action d'aucun des Etats contractants
concernés, qu'ils soient belligérants ou neutres. Le mêmeprincipe
s'applique dans le cas de tout Etat contractant qui proclame l'état
de crise nationale et notifie ce fait au Conseil. 1)

L'Inde a procédéà la suspension par suite des hostilités de 1965. Elle a
affirméque la suspension n'a jamais étélevée.

Le Pakistan a soutenu qu'étant partie à la Convention l'Inde était
tenue d'en respecter les dispositions. L'article 89 prévoit expressémentla
circonstance qui a occasionné la suspension et il a donc force obligatoire
pour l'lnde, a prétendu le Pakistan. A l'appui de cette manière de voir,
il a évoquéle comportement de I'lnde elle-même quia envoyénotification

au Conseil de I'OACI. LIa affirméqu'en fait l'Inde avait agi en vertu de
I'article 89 et que ses actes ultérieurs ont confirmécette thèse. 11résultait
de tout cela que la Convention et l'Accord de transit n'avaient pas été
suspendus, bien que l'exercice de certains droits accordésau Pakistan en

,vertu de I'article 5 et de I'article 1,section 1, de l'Accord de transit eût
été temporairement suspendu. Le Pakistan a affirméencore que l'Inde
a levél'étatde crise.
Sur le plan juridique, le Pakistan a soutenu que I'article 89 laisse aux
Etats contractants, en période de crise, toute liberté d'action en ce qui

concerne les droits et les obligations, ce qui vaut notamment pour la
notification et la levée de l'état de crise. IIdonne aux Etats toute la
protection nécessaire assurée par le droit international et, en fait, il a
conlplétéle droit international en y ajoutant le consentement manifesté
par l'adoption de la Convention.

La réponse de I'lnde comportait, en réalité,trois éléments.Sur le plan
des faits, elle a contesté à la fois les faits eux-mêmeset les conséquences
qu'en a tiréesle Pakistan. Sur le plan juridique, elle a soutenu que I'article

heureusenient, des considérations de cette nature sont superflues en l'espèce, car
l'Accord de transit pourvdémontrer que la compétence du Conseil de I'OACI set de
rattache à des dispositions trèsprécises impliquant tel ou tel ordre d'obligations
juridiques que le Conseil aura peut-étre examiner.to the jurisdictional issue and leaves untouched the correctness of her
basic rights under international law. This follows, she asserted, because
Article 89 is merely declaratory of international law. Its purpose was
merely to assure States that their rights of suspension remained unaffected
by the Convention. Therefore it neither confers new rights nor disturbs
those already existing. She analogized the thrust of the Article to Ar-

ticle 73 of the Vienna Convention which, she asserted, has a similarly
innocuous, if cautionary, function.

Tndia's third contention was that the controversy over Article 89 was
irrelevant or better, perhaps, that it was rendered moot by virtue of the

suspension in February 1971 at which time there was neither a war nor
a national emergency.
Tt is true that Pakistan's Application before the ICA0 Council was
precipitated by the hijacking incident and the compensation sought in
its prayer for relief appeared to be limited to losses consequent upon
that incident. On the other hand, her letter to the President of the ICA0

Council invoked Article 89, and it was relied upon in the Counter-Me-
morial (para. 29). Counsel, of course, vigorously argued its applicability,
as witness C.R. 72!4, at pages 19-22; 7216, at pages 10-1 1 and 42-50;
72/7, at pages 8-10; 7218, at page 48 and 7219at page 22.

A more fundamental answer to India's third point lies however, else-
where. Clearly if the suspension in February 1971 is found to be illegai

as Pakistan contended then it can hardly render moot the controversy
over the application of Article 89. Equally clearly, this is for the Council
to determine as one of the issues on the merits.

From the above it becomes apparent that we have in these contrasting
views a disagreement relating to the interpretation and application of the

Convention and Transit Agreement sufficient to bring the disagreement
within the reach of Article 84 and thus to justify the assumption of juris-
diction by the Council. Once this is determined the Court has exhausted
its appellate function at this stage of the proceedings.

1. Relevance

In what follows 1 do not mean to suggest that the Judgment need be
fortified by reference to Article 38 (c) and (d) of the Statute. The case

for sustaining the jurisdiction of the ICA0 Council is, in my view, suf-
ficiently compelling that further support from "general principles of
law" in domestic fora or "judicial decision" of the highest authority in
those jurisdictions, may appear superfluous.89 est sans aucune pertinence pour la question de compétence et ne
porte nullement atteinte à la réalitédes droits fondamentaux qu'elle
tient du droit international. II en est ainsi, a-t-elle affirmé, parce que
I'article 89 est purement déclaratoire du droit international. II a pour

seul but de garantir aux Etats que leurs droits de suspension ne sont
pas modifiés par la Convention. Par conséquent il ne confère pas de
nouveaux droits ni ne modifie ceux qui existaient déjà. L'lnde établitune
analogie entre la portée de I'article et celle de I'article 73 de la conven-
tion de Vienne qui, dit-elle, joue le mêmerôle d'avertissement pareille-
ment inoffensif.

Le troisième argument de I'lnde était que la controverse sur I'article 89
est sans pertinence ou mieux, peut-être, qu'elle est rendue vaine par la
suspension de février 1971, époque à laquelle il n'y avait ni guerre ni
état de crise nationale.
11est vrai que la requêtedu Pakistan au Conseil de I'OACI a été brus-

quéepar l'incident du détournement d'avion et que l'indemnité réclamée
à titre de dommages-intérêtssemble avoir été limitéa eux pertes résultant
de cet incident. En revanche, la lettre du Pakistan au président duconseil
de I'OACI invoquait I'article 89, et le Pakistan s'en est prévalu dans le
contre-mémoire (par. 29). Le conseil du Pakistan a naturellement plaidé

énergiquement son applicabilité, comme le prouvent divers comptes
rendus: C.R. 7214, pages 19-22; C.R. 7216,pages 10, 11 et 42-50; C.R.
7217,pages 8-10; C.R. 7218,page 48 et C.R. 7219,page 22.
Mais c'est ailleurs que l'on trouve une réponse plus fondamentale au
troisième point de l'lnde. De toute évidence,si lasuspension de février1971

est jugéeillégale,comme le soutenait le Pakistan, elle ne peut guère alors
rendrevaine la controverse surI'applicationde I'article 8Il est tout aussi
évident qu'il appartient au Conseil de trancher ce point qui est une des
questions de fond.
II ressort de ce qui précèdeque ces vues antagonistes démontrent I'exis-
tence d'un désaccord à propos de l'interprétation et de l'application de la

Convention et de l'Accord de transit, qui suffit à faire jouer l'article 84
et par conséquent à justifier la décision du Conseil de se déclarer com-
pétent. Ce point une fois établi, la Cour s'est acquittée de ses fonctions
de juridiction d'appel au stade actuel de la procédure.

III. ANALOG AVEEC LE DROIT INTERNE

1.Pertinence

Loin de moi I'iiiteniion de suggérer que l'arrêtaurait besoin d'être
étayépardes motifsressortissant à I'article 38, alinégsc) et d) du Statut.
A mon avis, la compétence du Conseil de I'OACI est si évidente qu'il
peut paraître superflu d'invoquer les ((principes généraux de droit»
reconnus par les tribunaux internes ou les Idécisionsjudiciaires » rendues
par les plus hautes instances nationales. At the risk of appearing over academic. 1append this analysis because:

(1) It may shed additional light on the theoretical aspects of the case.

(2) Both Pakistan and India have alluded to Heynzan v. Durwins Ltd.
(Memorial bf India, paras. 83, 84; Counter-Memorial, para. 52;
Reply,paras. 70,71; Rejoinder,paras. 70-72; and C.R. 7213,pp. 23-25).
(3) 1agree with the view ofJudge Moore, expressed in the Mavrotlzrnatis
Pulestine Concessions case (P.C.I.J., Srrirs A, No. 2 (1924), pp. 57-

59), and that of many commentators that recourse to general prin-
ciples can enlighten issues before the Court and enrich its jurispru-
dence.
(4) Finally, in this instance, in particular, the analogy to domestic fora
is not (as is frequently the case) either irrelevant or misleading.

While this is true generally of contracts which have a provision that
disputes "relating to the interpretation and application of the contract"
should be first submitted to arbitration, it seems particularly true in the
field of labour controversy where contending power blocs (management
and unions), each jealous of its own prerogatives, are reluctant toconcede
more power to the arbitral tribunal than the terms of the collective bar-

gaining agreement warrant. The analogy here is al1 the more suggestive
since in this area, as in the international area, the purpose of the agree-
ment is to establish a "system" designed to absorb conflict through proce-
dura1 techniques in the interest of industrial peace. The purpose of
establishing the ICA0 was, in the large, to establish a systeni or régime
of civil air peace. Chapter XVIII of the Convention was designed to

facilitate the functioning of the entire system.

Tt is customary to dismiss the domestic analogy on two connected
grounds :

(1) The over-riding need in the international field for strict proof of
consent to submit to the jurisdiction of any tribunal; and

(2) the absence of a total system of compulsory third-party settlement
in the event of a breakdown in the arbitral process.

Tn the context of the present controversy, neither of these grounds is
persuasive. The cases in the domestic arena also stress the fact that the
consent of the parties is at the root of their obligation to submit a par-
ticular dispute to arbitration.

The second ground does not apply in this in'stance because under
India's theory of the case, it is irrelevant to the jurisdictional issue whether
the parties were or were not bound to subrnit the controversy to this CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DILLARD) 110

Au risque de paraître par trop professoral, je présente toutefois I'ana-
lyse qui suit, parce que:

1) elle me semble contribuer à mieux éclairer lesaspects théoriques de
l'affaire;

2) le Pakistan et l'Inde ont tous deux fait allusion à l'affaire Heyman c.
Darwins Ltd. (mémoire, par. 83 et 84; contre-mémoire, par. 52; ré-
plique, par. 70 et 71 ;duplique, par. 70-72, et C.R. 7213,p. 23-25);
3) je suis d'accord avec l'opinion expriméepar lejuge Moore en l'affaire
des ConcessionsMavrommatis enPalestine (C.P.J.I. série A no 2 (1924),
p. 57-59) ainsi que par de nombreux commentateurs qui ont estimé

que le recours aux principes généraux peutéclairer despoints soumis
à la Cour et enrichir sa jurisprudence;
4) enfin, en l'espèce, l'analogie avec la pratique des tribunaux internes
n'est pas (comme c'est fréquemment le cas) dépourvue de pertinence
ni fallacieuse.

L'analogie est fondée, généralement,quand ils'agit de contrats qui
contiennent des dispositions stipulant que les différends à propos de

leur interprétation ou application doivent d'abord faire l'objet d'un ar-
bitrage, mais elle l'est plus encore dans le domaine des conflits du travail
où des groupes opposés (patronat et syndicat). I'un et l'autre jaloux de
ses prérogatives, lie sont guère enclins à reconnaître plus d'autorité au
tribunal arbitral qu'il n'est prévudans les conventions collectives. L'ana-

logie est d'autant plus intéressante que, dans ce domaine, tout comme
dans le domaine international, les accords en question visent à mettre
en place un asystènie »permettant de résorber les conflits par le recours à
certaines techniquc:~ procédurales dans l'intérêtde la paix sociale. Or
I'OACL a étécréée, engros, pour faire régner l'harmonie dans le do-
maine de l'aviatiori civile grâce à un système ou à un régimeapproprié.

Le chapitre XVIll de la Convention visait à faciliter le fonctionnement
de tout ce système.
On a coutume de repousser I'analogie avec le droit interne pour deux
motifs interdépendants:

1) la nécessitéabsolue, dans le domaine international, d'établir la preuve
stricte du conseritement à se soumettre à la juridiction d'un tribunal

quelconque; et
2) l'absence d'un système généralde règlement judiciaire obligatoire en
cas d'échec du processusarbitral.

Dans le cas présent, ni I'un ni l'autre de ces motifs n'est convaincant.
Les décisions de tribunaux internes montrent aussi que l'obligation des

parties de soumettre un différend à l'arbitrage repose sur le consente-
ment.
Le second motif ne s'applique pas non plus en l'espèce,vu que, selon
la théoriede l'Inde, Inquestion de savoir si les Parties étaient, ou n'étaient
pas, tenues de porter leur désaccord devant la Cour internationale de III ICAO COUNCIL (SEP. OP. DILLARD)

Court or any other. In other words, the existence vrl non of compulsory

jurisdiction outside the Council had no bearing on the meaning and
scope of the compromissory clause. This is precisely the assumption
which is indulged in the municipal sphere. The issue centres on exactly
the same problem, Le., the impact of a repudiation of the contract by
one party on the meaning and scope of a compromissory clause framed
in terms of interpretation or application of the contract.

It should be added that the question whether the repudiation was
just$ed by an alleged prior breach (the usual assertion) or for any other
reason, goes to the merits; hence the issue is whether the arbitral tribunal
has the power to enter into the merits-a narrow, jurisdictional issue
precisely as in the IndiaIPakistan case.

Furthermore, it is now firmly established, at least in common law
jurisdictions, that the jurisdictional issue remains to be decided whether
the repudiating party (as in the Heyman case) invokes the dispute settle-
ment clause or, as is more usual, the aggrieved party does so.

2. Some Distinctions

A critical distinction exists when the contract is shown to be void
ab initio as opposed to a showing that is it voidable '.

In the former instance it is clear that if the entire contract fails, al1
subordinate clauses collapse including the arbitration clause. This is
comparable to India's reliance on a kind of "non-existing" treaty con-
tention. But this presupposes a showing that the party opposing arbi-
tration never consented to the contract in the first place or that this con-

sent was vitiated by fraud in the factum or other factors destroying the
entire contract. Clearly this is not the situation in the IndiaIPakistan
case, although India's reliance on a "non-existing" treaty approach
would seem to require it. India freely consented to the Convention and
Transit Agreement.

When the repudiating party resists the jurisdiction of the arbitral tri-
bunal on the ground that he has legitimately repudiated the contract be-
cause of prior material breach, then the contract is not rendered void but
only voidable. This is comparable to the situation in international law.
All the authorities agree that the treaty is not ipso,facto rendered void
and especially so in a multilateral convention, even if the repudiation is

This distinction is so well established as hardly to need a recitation to authority.
Kulukindis Shipping Co. S.A. AmtorgcTrading Corp. (C.A. 2. 1942) 126 F. 2d 978.

69Justice ou tout autre tribunal n'a absolument aucun intérêtpour ce qui
est de la question juridictionnelle. En d'autres termes, l'existence ou
l'inexistence de la juridiction obligatoire est sans rapport avec le sens

ou la portéede laclausecompromissoire. C'est là précisément la présomp-
tion admise en droit interne. L'affaire tourne exactement autour du
mêmeproblème, celui de l'effet que peut avoir la résiliation du contrat
par l'une des parties sur le sens et la portée d'une clause compromissoire
concernant les questions d'interprétation ou d'application du contrat.

Il convient d'ajouter que savoir si la résiliation étaitjustifiée par une
violation qui aurait été commise antérieurement(c'est lemotif habituelle-
ment allégué)ou pour tout autre motif, relèvedu fond; par conséquent,
il s'agit en réalitéde déterminer si le tribunal arbitral a compétence pour
connaître du fond - question juridictionnelle au sens étroit, précisé-
ment comme dans l'affaire Inde-Pakistan.

En outre, ilest maintenant clairement établi, du moins pour les tri-
bunaux de common law, que la question de compétence doit de toute
façon êtrerésolue, que ce soit la partie qui résilie(comme dans I'affaire
He-vman) ou, comme ilarrive plus souvent, la partie lésée,qui invoque
la clause juridictionnelle.

2. Quelques disî';~ctions

IIexiste une distinction critique entre les cas où I'on peut démontrer
que le contrat est nul de plein droit dès l'origine et ceux où I'on établit

qu'il est annulable '.
Dans le premier cas, il est clair que si tout le contrat tombe, ses dis-
positions subsidiaires disparaissent aussi, y compris la clause d'arbitrage.
Cela peut êtrecomparé à la thèse de l'Inde excipant en somme de I'inexis-
tence du traité. Mais il faut pouvoir démontrer que la partie qui s'oppose
à l'arbitrage n'a jamais acquiescé au contrat en premier lieu ou que son

consentement a étéviciépar une fraude réelle ou une autre cause de
nullitédu contrat tout entier. 11est évidentque telle n'est pas la situation
dans l'affaire Inde-Pakistan, et pourtant la théorie indienne du traité
((inexistant ))ne pourrait se justifier, semble-t-il, que s'il en était ainsi.
L'Inde a librement adhéréà la Convention et à l'Accord de transit.

Lorsque la partie qui résilieconteste la compétence du tribunal arbi-
tral, arguant qu'elle a légitimement résiliéle contrat à raison d'une viola-
tion substantielle antérieure, le contrat n'en est pas nul pour autant; il
peut seulement êtreannulé. Cette situation est exactement symétrique de
celle qui se présente en droit international. Toutes les autorités recon-

naissent que le traité n'est pas nul de plein droit, surtout lorsqu'il s'agit

' Cette distinction est si bien établie qu'il est à peine nécessaire de citer des
sources. On Deut ce~endant lire une analyse intéressanteà ce sujet dans l'opinion
du juge ~raik dans'~u1ukindis Shipping CO. S.A. c. Amtorg ~rading Corp. (C.A. 2,
1942) 126 F. 2d 978.related to only one other party '.The issue then arises as to the operation
and scope of the compromissory clause. To what extent does this depend
on the actual wording of the clause?

In the first place it is clearthan when the contract is ivoid,the wording
of the clause is irrelevant. When it is voidable, it becomes significant
chiefly when the broad larzguageof the clause is qualified by more specific
exclusions, as for instance, in collective bargaining agreements when
"management prerogative" clauses qualify the obligation to submit to

arbitration. The issue can then arise as to whether the arbitral tribunal's
jurisdiction extends to the determination of the scope of the exclusion.
See, U.S. Steel Workers of America v. Warrior and Gulf Nasigation Co.
363 US 574 (1960) (holding that it did) 2.

The big point is that the wording of a clauseconfined to "interpretation

or application" of the contract or similar language, is customary in the
municipal as in the international field. It will be recalled that Article 84
also speaks of "any" disagreement without any exclusionary provision
either with respect to a class of disagreements or a particular disagree-
ment.

Counsel for India sought to distinguish the Hejwmn case because of
certain dicta indulged by Lord Simon calling attention to the breadth of
the compromissory clause. But a reading of that case will show that it did
not turn at al1on this point, and indeed this is true of practically al1the
cases in which a general clause is not coupled with expressly stated ex-

clusions.
3. Tlle Cases

Heyman and Another v. Darwins Lld., 1942, A.C. 356, 1All Eng. Rep.
337 (H.L.) is, perhaps, the most frequently cited and quoted case on the
subject in the common-law world. It may be well, therefore, to quote two
passages from the opinions ofthe Law Lords. (References are to All Eng-
land Law Reports.)

Lord MacMillan, after making the distinction between void and void-
able contracts, continued:

". . .an admittedly binding contract containing a generai arbitration
clause may stipulate that in certain events the contract shall come
to an end. If a question arises whether the contract has for any such

For an interesting analysis see, Sinha, Unilateral Denu~tciarion of Treatj. Be-
cause of Prior Violations of Obligations by Otlier Party, 1966, especially at pp.
35-58. So far as 1 can ascertain the literatuof internationallaw is sparse in the
analysis of therelationship between repiidiation and a coniprornissory clauin the
repudiated treaty.
It is true but not relevant to the present analysis to observe that national poli-
cies in many States favour the arbitral process in contrast to the attitude prevalent
in the nineteenth century.d'une convention multilatérale, mêmesi la résiliationme visequ'une seule
des parties '. La question se pose alors de savoir quels sont l'effet et la
portée de la clause compron~issoire. Dans quelle mesure cela dépend-il
du libellémêmede cette clause?

En premier lieu, il est clair que lorsque le contrat est nul, les termes
exacts de la clause sont sans pertinence. Lorsqu'il est annulable, ces
termes prennent de l'importance surtout lorsque les dispositions générales

de la clause s'accompagnent d'exclusions plus spécifiques, comme c'est
le cas, par exemple, dans les conventions collectives où desclauses réser-
vant les llprérogatives de la direction 11limitent l'obligation de se sou-
mettre à l'arbitrage. On peut alors avoir à rechercher si la compétence

du tribunal arbitral comprend celle de déterminer laportr'e de l'exception.
Voir l'affaire U.S. Steel Workers of America c. Warrior and Gulf Navi-
gation Co. 363 US 574 (1960) (où la conclusion fut affirmative) 2.
Le fait essentiel est qu'il est habituel tant sur le plan interne que sur

le plan international de rédigerla clause de façon à limiter I'arbitrage à
1'1interprétation 1ou à 1'1application Idu contrat ou autre formule ana-
logue. On se souviendra que l'article 84 aussi vise 11un 11désaccord et ne

prévoit aucune exclusion concernant soit une certaine catégorie de dés-
accords, soit lin désaccord particulier.
Le conseil de l'Inde a insistésur I'aFdire Heyrnan parce que lord Simon
avait cru devoir souligner dans cette affaire le caractère très généralde

la clause compromissoire. Mais, à y regarder de plus près, on s'aperçoit
que la décision n'a nullement tenu à cela, ce qui est d'ailleurs vrai de
presque toutes les affaires où une clause généralen'est pas assortie d'ex-

ceptions expresses.

3. Affaires pertinentes

L'affaire Hrjtman and Another c. Durwins Ltd., 1942, A.C. 356, 1 All
Eng. Rep. 337 (H.L.) est sans doute celle qui est le plus souvent mention-

néeet citée à ce sujet dans le monde régi par la common law. II n'est
peut-être passans intérêtde citer deux passages des opinions exprimées
par les Law Lords (les références renvoienttoutes aux All Eng. Reports).
Lord MacMillan, après avoir fait la distinction entre les contrats nuls

et les contrats annulables, poursuit en ces termes:

11dans un contrat dont la force obligatoire est reconnue et qui con-
tient une clause générale d'arbitrage, ilpeut êtrestipulé qu'au cas
où certains événementsse produiraient le contrat prendra fin. Si la

' On trouve une analyse intéressante dans Sinha. Unilateral Drnunciation of
Treaty Becuuse of Prior Violutions of Obligations by Other Party, 1966, en parti-
culier aux pages 35-58. Pour autant que j'en puisse juger, on ne trouve guère d'é-
tudes, en droit international,consacrées à l'analyse du rapport entre la résiliation
et une clause compromissoire figurant dans le traite répudié.
Notons en passant - encore que cela ne concerne pas la présente analyse -
que de nombreux Etats sont officiellement favorablesà la procédure arbitrale, con-
trairement à l'attitude communément adoptée au XIXe siècle. reason come to an end, L can see no reason why the arbitrator should
not decide that question." (P. 346.)

Viscount Simon sounds the same note in expressly approving a state-
ment by Viscount Finlay in a previous case:

"The proposition that the mere allegation by one party of repu-
diation of the contract by the other deprives the latter of the right
to take advantage of an arbitration clause is unreasonable in itself,
and there is no authority to support it." (P. 341.)

Sometimes the argument is advanced as lndia did in the present case
that it is unreasonable to suppose that critical issues of material breach
should be left to a tribunal not exclusively composed of lawyers. In a
leading and much-cited case in the United States dealing with a labour
controversy in which management claimed that the union's violation of a
"no-strike" clause was such a material breach as to terminate thecontract,
including the arbitration clause, the court stated:

"lf the union did strike in violation of the contract, the company is
entitled to its damages; by staying this action, pending arbitration,
we have no intention of depriving it of those damages. We simply
remit the company to the forum it agreed to use for processing its
strikedamage claim. That forum, it is true, may be very different
from a courtrooni, but we are not persuaded that the remedy there
will be inadequate."

This case, incidentally, followed the reasoning in theHeyman case and
cited it. While the compromissory clause was broader than Article 84,

it was still keyed to "disputes or grievances . ..involving questions of
interpretation or application of any clauses or matter covered by this
contract ..." (Drake Bakeries Incorporated v.Local 50, American Bakery
and Confectionary Workers International, AFL-CIO, et al.370 US 254,
266 (1962)).

The Heyman case is only one of many others in numerous jurisdictions
which concur in the conclusions above.

Attention is invited, in particular, to the following: Woolf v. Collis
Remval Service (1947) 2 AI1Eng. Rep. 260; The Tradesman (1961) AI1
Eng. Rep. 661 ; Mackinder v. Feldia A.C. (1966) 3 Al1 Eng. Rep. 847;

Prima Paint Corp. v. Flood & Conklin Mfg. Co. 388 US 395 (1967).
For a comprehensive analysis and citations to cases not only in the
United States, but in England, Canada, South Africa, Australia and CONSEIL DE L'OACI (OP. IND. DILLARD) 113

question se posait de savoir si le contrat a pris fin pour un de ces
motifs, je ne vois pas pourquoi l'arbitre ne pourrait pas la trancher. 1)
(P. 346.)

Le vicomte Simon fait entendre le mêmeson de cloche en approuvant
formellement une déclaration du vicomte Finlay dans une affaire anté-

rieure:

((La proposition selon laquelle ilsuffirait à l'une des parties d'al-
léguer la résiliation du contrat par l'autre pour interdire à celle-ci
d'invoquer la clause d'arbitrage est déraisonnable en soi, et n'est
appuyée par aucune autorité. 11(P. 341.)

On tire parfois argument, comme l'Inde l'a fait en l'espèce, de ce
qu'il n'est pas raisonnable de supposer que des questions critiques de

violation substantielle soient confiées à un tribunal qui n'est pas com-
posé exclusivement de juristes. Dans une affaire très souvent citée etqui
a faitjurisprudence aux Etats-Unis, affaire relative à un conflit du travail
où les employeurs soutenaient que la violation par le syndicat d'une
clause antigrève »constituait une violation substantielle suffisante pour

mettre fin au contrat, y compris à la clause d'arbitrage, la Cour a déclaré:
«Si le syndicat a fait grève en contravention du contrat, la société

a le droit d'obtenir la réparation qu'elle réclame; en suspendant la
procédure dans l'attente de l'arbitrage, nous n'avons pas l'intention
de la priver de cette réparation. Nous renvoyons simplement la
sociétédevant l'instance à laquelle elle avait accepté de soumettre
ses demandes en réparation pour dommages subis du fait de la

grève. Cette instance, ilest vrai, est peut-être trèsdifférente d'une
cour de justice, mais nous ne sommes pas convaincus que la répa-
ration qu'elle décidera sera insuffisante. 1)

En cette affaire, on a d'ailleurs repris et cité le raisonnement suivi
dans l'affaire Heyman. Si la clause compromissoire était plus générale
que les dispositions de l'article 84, elle concernait aussi des (différends

ou griefs ... impliquant des questions relatives à l'interprétation ou à
l'application de toute clause ou matière envisagée dans ce contrat . .11
(affaire Drake Bakeries Incorporated c. Local 50, American Bakery and
Confectionary Workers International, AFL-CIO, et al. 370 US 254, 266
(1962)).

L'affaireHeyman n'est qu'une des nombreuses affaires plaidées devant
des juridictions très différentes où les conclusions précitées ont été
admises.
Signalons entre autres les affaires suivantes: Woolf c. Collis Remoral
Service (1947) 2 All Eng. Rep. 260; The Tradesman (1961) All. Eng. Rep.

661; Mackinder c. Feldia A.C. (1966) 3 Al1 Eng. Rep. 847; Prima Paint
Corp. c. Flood & Conklin Mfg. Co. 388 US 395 (1967).
Pour une analyse approfondie et l'évocation d'autres précédentséta-
blis non seulement aux Etats-Unis, mais aussi en Angleterre, au Canada, Ireland, see Breacli or Repudiation of Cotztract as Affecting Riglit to En-
force Arbitration Clause Tllerein 32 A.L.R. 3d 377-419 '.

A leading United States case, Su$ Chaplin Products v. Love 219 Cal.
App. 2d 110, 32 Cal. Rep. 758, 5 A.L. 12. 1001, which cited many

Supreme Court cases, is particularly instructive. In that case the compro-
missory clause was similar to that in Article 84. The contract had been so
modified as to generate a dispute. On this basis the lower court had held
(as India contended in the present case) that "no right to enforce arbi-
tration now exists, there being no contract then or now existing between

the parties" (p. 1004).

In reversing this holding, the appellate court, after stating that the
function of the court is a very limited one when the parties have agreed
to submit disputes to arbitration, continued:

"It is confined to ascertaining whether the party seeking arbi-
tration is making a claim which on its face is governed by the con-

tract. Whether the moving party is right or wrong is a question of
contract interpretation for the arbitrator. In these circumstances the
moving party sl~ould not be depriveci of the arhitrator's judgment,
when it M3ashisjudgment and al1 tlzat it connotes tl~at was bargained
for." (Emphasis added.)

When India ratified the Convention, she freely consented to the right
of al1other parties to invoke Chapter XVIll of the Convention. She can-
not unilaterally derogate froni that right without demonstrating that her

consent was void ab initio orthat the disagreement was of such a charac-
ter as to fall entirely outside the category of disagreements embraced
in Article 84. She did not address herself to the former and her attempt
to justify the latter was, of course, disputed by Pakistan.

IV. CONCLUSION

For al1 the reasons above, supplementing and reinforcing the Judg-
ment, it seems çlear that the Court had jurisdiction to entertain the

' 1 regret that the refereqces above are confined to common law jurisdictions.
The analysis of comparableproblems in other legal systems was beyond my reach
especially as 1 do not conceive that they can be adequately understood abstracted
from the total legal environment in which they are located.assume, however,
that the principles announced above are so fundamentaas not to be ~arochiaiiy
(Dalloz, 1967).iscussion of French law, see Robert, Arbitrage civil ~t~ornrnerci~len Afrique du Sud, en Australie et en Irlande, voir Brcacli or Hepudiation

of Contract as Affecting Rigllt to Enforce Arbitration Clause Tlterein 32
A.L.R. 3d 377-419 '.
Une importante affaire plaidée aux Etats-Unis, Siz.ift Cliaplin Products
c. Love 219 Cal. App. 2d 110, 32 Cal. Rep. 758, 5 A.L. 12. 1001, où de

nombreux procès en Cour suprême ont étécités, est particulièrement
intéressante. En cctte espèce, la clause conipromissoire était analogue
à.celle de l'article 84. Le contrat avait étémodifiéau point de susciter

un différend. Sur cette base, le tribunal de première instance avait con-
sidéré (conime l'Inde l'a affirmé en l'espèce actuelle) ((qu'il n'existe
maintenant aucun droit permettant d'exiger I'arbitrage, vu qu'il n'y a
jamais eu de contrat, passé ou présent, entre les parties 1)(p. 1004).

En infirmant cette conclusion, la cour d'appel, après avoir déclaré que
la fonction du tribunal est très limitéelorsque les parties sont convenues
de soumettre leur différend a l'arbitrage a fait observer:

((Elle se borne a déterminer si la partie qui demande l'arbitrage
formule une prétention fondée à première vue sur le contrat. La

question de savoir si le demandeur a raison ou tort .est un point
d'interprétation du contrat réservéà l'arbitre. Dans ces conditions
If.denianderrr 12edoit pas êtreprii~éclu,jlrgrlnrnt de l'arbitre, alors que
c'est précisét1ier1stonjuge~r~entet tout ce qu'il in~plic/ile qui font l'ohjc't

rie I'instanco.)J(Les italiqiies sont de nous.)

Quand I'inde a ratifiéla Convention, elle a librement admis que toutes
les autres parties avaient le droit d'invoquer le chapitre XVIIl de la
Convention. Elle ne peut pas s'opposer unilatéralement à ce droit sans

dbmontrrr que son consentement était nul dès l'origine ou que le dés-
accord était de telle nature qu'il se situait tout à fait en dehors de la
catégorie des désaccords envisagéspar l'article 84. L'Inde n'a pas cherché
a prouver la première proposition et son argumentation relative à la

seconde a évidemment été contestéepar le Pakistan.

IV. CONCLL'SION

Pour tous les motifs indiqués, qui complètent et renforcent l'arrêt,
il paraît évident que la Cour était compétente pour se prononcer sur

'Je regrette que les réfirences données plus liaut ne concernent que des juridic-
tions de conlmon Iuw. L'analyse de problèmes comparables dans d'autres systèmes
juridiques me dépasse, d'autant qu'à mon sens on ne peut les coniprendre suffisam-
nient si on les abstrait de tout le ',miliJIjuridique où ils se situent. Je présume
cependant que les principes susviséssontà tel point fondamentaux qu'ils nesauraient
étre orientés par un particularisme quelconque. Touchant la situation en droit
français voir Robert. Arhirrcrgeci~ycf con~t~~erci(Dallo7. 1967).115 ICA0 COUNCIL (SEP. OP.DILLARD)

Appeal byIndia and that theCouncil of the ICA0 was investedunder
the ConventionandTransitAgreementwith thecornpetenceto entertain
Pakistan's Application and Cornplaint.

(Signed) HardyC. DILLARD.l'appel de l'Inde et qu'aux termes de la Convl-ntion et de l'Accord de
transit le Conseil de 1'OACI avait compitence pour connaître de la
requêteet de la plainte du Pakistan.

(Signk) Hardy C. DILLARD.

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