Separate Opinion of Judge Padilla Nervo

Document Number
050-19700205-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
050-19700205-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE PADILLA NERVO

In its Judgment of 24 July 1964the Court joined to the merits the third
preliminary opjection raised by the Spanish Government to the Applica-
tion of Belgium.
The Court then stated that:

"the third objection invo1ves.anumber of closelyinterwoven strands
of mixed law, fact and status, to a degree such that the Court could
not pronounce upon it at this stage in full confidence that it was in
possession of al1 the elements that might have a bearing on its
decision" (I.C.J. Reports 1964, p. 46).

In the present proceedings the Parties have dealt fully with questions
of merits, in the course of their written and oral pleadings.
The Spanish Government contests the Belgian Government's capacity
to act, its jus standi, its right to intervene on behalf of Belgian nationals
(natural or artificial persons) whom the Belgian Government claims to
have been injured by a breach of international law, for which liability is
attributed to the Spanish authorities.
The Belgian Government asserts that it is exercising protection ex-
clusively and directly on behalf of persons of Belgian nationality and
contends that the legal question which arises when examining its jus

standi in the present case is that of the diplomatic judicial protection,
"not of foreign trading companies, but of natural and artificial persons"
who, having invested their funds in the said companies, suffered losses as
shareholders in these companies, as a result of illegal actions committed
against the companies.
The respondent Government contends that-
"international law does not recognize, in respect of injury caused by

a State to a foreign company, any diplomatic protection of share-
holders exercised by a State other than the national State of the
company".
The applicant Government asserts its right to intervene on behalf of
Belgian nationals, shareholders in the company, and contends that such
right is conferred on it in respect of its nationals by the rules of inter-
national law concerning the treatment offoreigners.
The real issue is whether international law recognizes for the share-

holders in a company "a separate and independent right or interest in
respect of damage done to the company by a foreign government". The Belgian Government, in its first submission, asked the Court to
adjudge and declare that the Spanish State is under an obligation towards
Belgium to make reparationfor the damage caused to "Belgian nationals,
individual or legal persons, being shareholdersof Barcelona Traction".
In the second submission, it asks that the Court will-

"adjudge and declare that this reparationshould, as far as possible,
annul al1the consequences whichthese acts, contrary to international
law, have had for the said nationals, and that the Spanish State is
therefore under an obligation to secure, if possible, the annulment

by administrative means of adjudication in bankruptcy and of the
judicial and other acts resulting therefrom, obtaining for the said
injured Belgian nationals, al1 the legal effects which should result
from this annulment .. .".(Application filed 19 June 1962, second
submission.)
What is then the real meaning and scope of the present Belgian claim?

'Thenew Application presents as the object of Belgium'sprotection, not
the Canadian commercial company of Barcelona Traction but Belgian
nationals who are said to be shareholders of Barcelona Traction.

The Spanish Government disputes the Belgian Government's capacity
to act-

"in view of the fact that the Barcelona Traction Company does not
possess Belgian nationality and that, in the case in point, it is not
possible to allow diplomatic action or international judicial pro-
ceedings on behalf of the alleged Belgian shareholders of the com-
pany on account of the damage which the company asserts it has
suffered".(P.O., submissions on third objection.)

1do concur in the view that, in the present case, diplomatic action or
international judicial proceedings on behalf of the shareholders in the
company on account of damage which the company allegesit has suffered,
couldnot be allowed.
It has not been proved that there existsa special customary rule which,
by derogation of the basic principles of international law with regard to
the status of aliens, would have helped the Belgian contention.
Nor has it been demonstrated that there exists an alleged general rule
establishing, in al1 circumstances, the lawfulness of the protection of
shareholders following damage caused to the company.
1believe it is right to Saythat international law does not recognize the
right of diplomatic protection of shareholders as such if their rights
stricto sensu have not been violated.
Nor does any rule of international law givesupport to the admissibility
of a double diplomatic protection, one for the corporation and another
for the shareholders in that corporation. To Saythat the corporation and the shareholders have parallel interests
does not make admissible a concurrent diplomatic intervention.
No State could be safe from the pressure and danger of a plurality of
diplomatic interventions by States protecting their nationals, share-
holders in a given corporation, if the right of diplomatic protection of
shareholders were recognized.
For the time being, the principle which recognizes the capacity of a
State to intervene, by way of diplomatic protection of a company of its
own nationality, has proved to be a fair and well-balanced safeguard or
insurance, both for the investor and for the State, where foreign com-
panies operate.
This regime, whose consequencesare well known, has no surprises and
establishesa legal order which, so far, has proved to be generally adequate
and satisfactory.
There seems to be no fundamental reason or essential need to depart
from it. If a door is open to the intervention, by way of diplomatic

protection of shareholders, of a plurality of States-as many as could
claim to have shareholders of their nationality-a chaotic situation of the
gravest international consequences would, in time, develop.

Private investments, needed for. economic development, will be en-
couraged if the States receiving them are convinced that the national
State of the investor will not use the so-called right of diplomatic protec-
tion as a pretext for political or economic pressure, dangerous to the
sovereignty and independence of weaker or less developed States, who
cherish more their national dignity than the speed of their development.
In the relation between the investor and the State where the investment
takes place, a just balance should be aimed at, for it is good for the inter-
national community that capital which goes abroad in search of gain
should not be a potential threat to the essential values and dignity of
States.
The lessons of history and past experience are, after all, the source of
the law and of judicial precedents and must have place and weight in the

conscience of the judge.
Mervyn Jones, in his work Claimson behalfof nationalswhoare share-
holdersinforeign companies,makes the following historic remarks by way
of introduction :

"The era of foreign investment on a large scale-reachedits height
during the fifty years or so preceding the First World War, when
British and American capital poured into al1 parts of the world,
financing railway and harbour construction, exploitation of minera1
deposits and innumerable other projects in undeveloped countries.
At the same time the institution of the joint-stock company with
limited liability (which was of recent growth) made it possible for small capitalists to invest their money in remote countries for a
better yieldthan was obtainable at home. There is little doubt that,
at first, those countries welcomed foreign capital, which was badly
needed, and were not strict as to conditions of investment. It was but
rarely, during these early days, that any necessity arose for diplo-

matic intervention by foreign powers on behalf of their nationals.
With the turn of the nineteenth century, however, nationalist move-
ments became directed against 'economic exploitation' by the
foreigner. These movements emphasized economic, as well as
political, sovereignty, and, as time went on, began to interfere more
and more with the projects of foreign capital. The decay of liberal
capitalism and laisser-faire, accompanied by the spread of socialist
doctrine throughout the world, caused governments everywhere to
assume greater control of the economic assets and resources of the
nation: in certain countries foreign capital came to be regarded as
an emblem of subordination, and not merely as a means of devel-
oping the country. Much, of course, had happened to justify such
an attitude; the extent to which foreign capital held a grip on the
economic life of many countries was considerable. Against this
background the revolutions of 1911-20in Mexico transformed the
political and socialutlook of the nation, as did the later revolutions

in central Europe after the First World War, and those in eastern
Europe after the Second. These revolutions were accompanied by
measures of expropriation, which inevitably raised the question of
the ~osition under international law of individuals who had invested
in companies carrying on business in the countries concerned."
(British Year Book of International Law, 1949, p. 225.)

The history of the responsibility of States in respect to the treatment
of foreign nationals is the history of abuses, illegal interference in the
domestic jurisdiction of weaker States, unjust claims, threats and even
military aggression under the flag of exercisiiigrights of protection, and
the imposing of sanctions in order to oblige a government to make the
reparations demanded.
Special agreements to establish arbitral tribunals were on many oc-

casions concluded under pressure, by political, economic or military
threats.
The protecting States, in many instances, are more concerned with
obtaining financial settlements than with preserving principles. Against
the pressure of diplomatic protection, weaker States could do no more
than to preserve and defend a principle of international law, while giving
way under the guise of accepting friendly settlements, either giving the
compensation demanded or by establishing claims commissions which had as a point of departure the acceptance of responsibility for acts or
omissions, where the government was, neither in fact nor in law, really
responsible.
In the written and in the oral pleadings the Applicant has made re-
ference, in support of his thesis, to arbitral decisions of claims commis-
sions-among othersthose between Mexico and the United States, 1923.

"These decisions do not necessarily give expression to rules of
customary international law, as. . .the Commissions were autho-
rized to decide these claims 'in accordance with principles of inter-

national law, justice and equity' and, therefore, may have been
influenced by other than strictly legal considerations." (Schwarzen-
berger, International Law, Vol. 1,p. 201.)
In the Special Claims Commission : Mexico-United States, established
by the convention of 10 September 1923,Article II states:
"... each member of the Commission ...shall make and subscribe
a solemn declaration stating that he will ...examine and decide,
according to the best of his judgment and in accordance with the
principles ofjustice and equity,l1claims presented for decision ...".
(Italics are mine.)

The second paragraph of the same Article II reads as follows:
"The Mexican Government desires that the claims shall be so
decided because Mexico wishes that her responsibility shall not be
fixed according to the generally accepted rules and principles of
international law, but ex gratia feels morally bound to make full
indemnification and agrees, therefore ..." (U.N.R.I.A.A., Vol. IV,
p. 780.)

Article VI of the same convention makes another exception to the
accepted general rules, when it states:

"... the Mexican Government agrees that the Commission shall
not disallow or reject any claim by the application of the general
principle of international law that the legal remedies must be ex-
hausted as a condition precedent to the validity or allowance of any
claim". (Ibid., p. 781.)
Some of the decisions of claims commissions invoked during the
pleadings are not, in my view, relevant precedents in respect to this case.

Now the evolution of international law has other horizons and its
progressive development is more promising, as Rosenne wrote:

"There is prevalent in the world today a widespread questioning
of the contemporary international law. This feeling is based on the view that for the greater part international law is the product of
European imperialism and colonialism and does not take suf-
ficient account of the completely chanjed pattern of international
relations which now exists. .. .
Careful scrutiny of the record of the Court may lead to the con-

clusion that it has been remarkably perceptive of the changing cur-
rents of internationalist thought. In this respect it has performed a
major service to the international community as a whole, because
the need to bring international law into line with present-day re-
quirements and conditions is real and urgent." (Rosenne, TheLaw
and Practice of the InternationalCourt, 1965,Vol. 1, pp. 17-18.)

The law, in al1its aspects, the jurisprudence and the practice of States
change, as the world and the everyday requirements of international life
change, but those responsible for its progressive evolution should take
care that their decisions do, in the long run, contribute to the maintenance
of peace and security and to the betterment of the majority of mankind.

In considering the needs and the good of the international community
in Our changing world, one must realize that there are more important
aspects than those concerned with economic interests and profit making;
other legitimate interests of a political and moral nature are at stake and
should be considered injudging the behaviour and operation of the com-
plex international scope of modern commercial enterprises.

It is not the shareholders in those huge corporations who are in need of
diplomaticprotection; it is rather the poorer or weaker States, where the
investments take place, who need to be protected against encroacbment
by powerful financial groups, or against unwarranted diplomatic pressure
from governments who appear to be always ready to back at any rate
their national shareholders, even when they are legally obliged to share
the risk of their corporation and follow its fate, or even in case of share-
holders who are not or have never been under the limited jurisdiction of
the State of residenceaccused of having violated in respect of them certain
fundamental rights concerning the treatment of foreigners. It can be said
that, by the mere fact of the existence of certain rules concerning the
treatment of foreigners, these have certain fundamental rights that the
State of residencecannot violate without incurring international responsi-
bility;but this is not the case of foreign shareholders as such, who may be
scattered al1overthe world and have never been or need not be residents
of the respondent State or under itsjurisdiction.

In the case of the Rosa Gelbtrunkclaim between Salvador and the
United States, the President of the arbitration commission expressed aviewwhich may summarize the position of foreigners in a country where
they are resident. This view was expressed as follows:

"Acitizen or subject of onenation who, in the pursuit of commercial
enterprise, carries on trade within the territory and under the pro-
tection of the sovereignty of a nation other than his own, is to be
considered as having cast inhis lot with the subjects or citizens of
the State in which he resides and carried on business." (Italics
added.)
"In this case", Schwarzenbergerremarks, "the rule was applied to
the loss of foreign property in the course of a civilwar. The decision
touches, however, one aspect of a much wider problem: the ex-
istence of international minimum standards, by which, regarding
foreigners, territorial jurisdiction is limited."

As the Permanent Court of International Justice said in the Lotus case
in 1927 (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10, p. 19)-
"al1that can be required of a State is that it should not overstep the
limits which international law places upon its jurisdiction; within
these limits, its title to exercisejurisdiction rests in its sovereignty".

The rules concerning the treatment of foreigners are a limitation of a
State's jurisdictionrationepersonae. Schwarzenberger saysin this respect:

"States generally exercise exclusivejurisdiction over their nation-
als within their territory, concurrent jurisdiction over their nationals
abroad, and limited jurisdiction over, for example, individuals and
groups within their territory who are protected by international
customary or treaty law." (Italics added.)

"While, in principle, territorial sovereignty applies to nationals
and foreigners alike,the home State retains a concurrent jurisdiction
over its nationals abroad. ...Furthermore, the unrestricted ex-
ercise of territorial jurisdiction over foreigners on the part of the
State ofresidencemay be limited by rules of international customary
law or treaties. If such exercise of territorial jurisdiction happens to
come into conflict with international law, the question turns into
an issue between the subjects of international law concerned. The

home State is entitled to demand respect for international limita-
tions of territorial jurisdiction, and the State ofesidencemay have
to answer for its interference 'withthe rights which each State may
claim for its national inforeign territory'. As the World Court laid
down in the case of the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions(1924),
'it is an elementary principle of international law that a State is
entitled to protect its subjects, when injured by acts contrary to international law committed by another State, from whom they have
been unable to obtain satisfaction through the ordinary channels'."
(Schwarzenberger, International Law, Vol. 1, pp. 189-190.)

Much has been said about the justification for not leaving the share-
holders in those enterprises without protection.
Perhaps modern international business practice has a tendency to be
soft and partial towards the powerful and the rich, but no rule of law
could be built on such flimsy bases.

Investors who go abroad in search of profits take a risk and go there
for better or for worse, not only for better. They should respect the
institutions and abide by the national laws of the country where they
chose to go.

The main preliminary question on the merits in the present proceedings
is that of the international diplomatic and legal protection of natural and
artificial persons who, having invested fundsin foreign trading companies,
have suffered lossesin their capacity as shareholders of those companies,
as a result of acts contrary to international law of which a State has been
guilty towards those companies.

This problem is of capital importance in the modern world, and pre-
occupies the governments, economists and businessmen of numerous
countries which are anxious to ensure the security of investments made
abroad. Jurists, for their part, are actively concerned with it and are
constantly examining it.
A necessaryfoundation of a valid international claim isthat the national
of the plaintiff State would have been directly injured in his rights by an

act contrary to international law done by the State to whom the claim is
addressed.
It is indispensable that the protected person be himself the possessor
of a right which would entitle him to formulate a claim for damages in
the interna1 judicial order.
If a debtor of a foreign creditor is affected in his rights by an act which
violates international law, the national State of the foreign creditor is not
authorized, by that fact, to the diplornatic protection of such creditor.
This question has been submitted and decided in various instances by
arbitral tribunals in thesense that "creditors do not have legal bases to
plead for damages inflicted on their debtors".

In U.S.A. (W. C. Greenstreet, Receiver) v. United Mexican States,
General Claims Commission, it was held that the natiorzality of the
creditors of an insolvent corporation need not be shown, "the nationalityof the creditors beingjust as immaterial as is that of the stockholders of
an insolvent company".
The case of Société civiledes porteurs d'obligations du Crédit foncier
mexicain, before the French-Mexican Commission involved a claim on
behalf of the shareholders of a bank. The bank held mortgages on rural
property and damages were claimed because the security had been dam-
aged by depredations of revolutionary forces. The Commission held that
only the owners of the property might claim. (Feller, TheMexican Claims
Commission, p. 122.) Arbitral jurisprudence confirms the thesis that
international law does not authorize the protection of affected economic
interests, but only of rights really violated.

The following arguments weremade by counsel for the applicant State :

"The problem of the diplomatic protection of the shareholders
practically only arises when the shareholders are of a different
nationality from that of the company. Indeed, an infringement ofthe
interests and rights of the company and of its shareholders might
then in this case affect the rights possessed by two or even several
States, and might consequently give rise to two or more rights to
claim, in so far as the rules relating to the treatment of foreigners
have not been respected. ...
Indeed, if one disregards the fact that the shareholders are for-
eigners, if one admits that these foreign shareholders have no rights
or interests distinct and independent from those of the company,
that they are totally inseparable from the latter vis-à-visthe outside
world, that they are entirely coveredby the veilof thejuristic person-

ality, one must then conclude that, in this event too, the case is
entirelyoutside the scope of international law."

That line of argument leads up to saying that therefore :

"The national State of the shareholders cannot exercise any right
conferred on it in favour of itsnationalsby the rules of international
law concerning thetreatment offoreigners." (Hearing of9May 1969.)

1disagree with the above statements; of course, any State can exercise

such rights in favour of its nationalsabroad,but not because they happen
to be in possession of bearer shares, but because and only ifthey have
been injured in their own specificrights by the State of residencewhich
has a duty to respect the rights of foreigners under its jurisdiction, ac-
cording to the relevant rules of international law concerning the treat-
ment of foreigners. It is claimed by the Belgian side that the Spanish Government ad-
mitted "that there were certain cases in which diplomatic protection of

the shareholders in the event of damage done to the company was
allowed under international law", and quotes the Spanish admission as
saying that such protection is allowed "solely in caseswhere the company
possessesthe nationality of the State against which the claim is made, so
that diplomatic protection of the company as such is excluded".

The Spanish Government, in its Rejoinder, contends that in al1 the
cases in which the protection of the shareholders was admitted, the com-
plaints raised concerned damage done exclusively to the shareholders'
"own rights", that is to say not affecting the company itself.
In the present case, for Belgium to be able to intervene, it would thus
be necessary that there had been a violation of the rights of the Belgian
shareholders.
Such a violation is excluded, if what is complained of is steps which
were ostensibly directed against the company. It was admitted by the

Applicant, during the oral proceedings, that the Belgian claim did not
include damage resulting from an infringement of any of the recognized
direct rights of a shareholder assuch.
International law goes no further than imposing on States certain
obligations towards other States, including the obligation to afford aliens
certain treatment, for example, to give them access to their courts and
to enable them to have their lawsuits impartiallyjudged within reasonable
time limits and without discrimination.
A careful distinction should be drawn, contends the Spanish Govern-
ment, between two hypotheses which are mutually exclusive.Either there
is a wrongful injury to the righto sf the shareholders, in which case
diplomatic protection of the latter is permissible and indeed is the only
protection permissible, or else there is a wrongful injury to the rights of
the company and only the company may be the subject of such protection.
The contention is that it is utterly impossible to escape from this option.
To this contention the Belgian answer was:

"The Spanish Government reaiiy wishes to demonstrate by this
argument that in cases of multiple claims, no one may bring action
by relying on the right of another Party. But is it necessary to take
this extraordinary detour to reach a conclusion which nobody
contests? Belgium is not concerned with the injury suffered by
Barcelona Traction itself-that would be Canada's business; it is
concerned with the damage suffered by its own nationals who held
shares in the company."

If the owner of the right or rights which have suffered injury is the
company and not the shareholder, it is beyond al1doubt that the case isone which falls entirely outside the sphere in which the diplomatic
protection of shareholders by their national State can be admissible, or
even conceivable.
The Respondent in its Rejoinder States:

"The international Societyof today is certainly not asking for a
further reinforcement of the protection of certain capitalist groups
already too powerful and only too capable of securing support for
themselves, a reinforcement which would take the shape of the
possibility of increased pressureon the weaker nations." (Rejoinder,
Part III, Chapter II, Section II, para. 43.)

It adds :
"Contemporary international law tends to concern itself more
with the need to protect countries with a weak economy than to
favour, as the Belgian Government would wish, 'the financial needs
of great modern undertakings'." (Zbid.)

"Very many States insist, for very good reasons, that foreign
capital must be invested in national companies. This is the case, in
particular, in many countries in the course of development, but a
certain number ofhighly industrialized countries impose similarcon-
ditions either defucto or de jure. What is more, foreign investors
themselves frequently and spontaneously chose this legal formula
which may in their view offer certain advantages."

There is a case to which the Belgian side ascribe importance. This is
the case of the American national, McPherson, who laid a claim before
the U.S.-Mexican Commission in 1923against the Mexican Government,
which had refused to honour the postal money-orders which McPherson
had bought through an agent from illegalauthorities and which the latter
had issued in the name of the agent. The decision in that case was deliv-
ered on the basis of'a convention which, in several essential aspects
and by its veryspirit, manifestlyderogated from general international law.

Which are the applicable principles of international law and what are
the consequences of their application to the present case?
What follows expresses my views on the matter:
International law lays upon every State in whose territory foreign
natural or juristic persons reside, remain, operate or even simply possess
property, an obligation towards the State of which such persons are
nationals: the obligation to afford them certain treatment. That treat-
ment, which is defined most usuallyand in greater detail by the rules of
treaty law, neverthelesshas its minimum requirements laid down by CUS-tomary international law. Those minimum requirements consist essen-
tially in the respect, within givenlimits and conditions, of certain rights
of a persona1 or corporate nature, and in the granting, at the same time,
of the possibility of making use, if necessary, of appropriate judicial or
administrative remedies.

Correlative with that obligation, the State of which such persons are
nationals has, at the international level, a right to require the State which
is bound by the obligation to act in conformity therewith, and it has a
right, if occasion arises, to submit a claim in proper form and through
accepted channels, should that obligation fail to be discharged. That is
preciselywhat is known as the exercisingof diplomaticprotection. It also
includes protection by means of recourse to international jurisdiction.

The rights attributed to a State by international legal rules concerning
the treatment of foreigners, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the
rights granted to individuals by the rules of municipal law, are situated at

different legal levels.
The existence of the individual's right at the municipal levelis the con-
dition whereby a state is authorized, at the international level,to require
that that right be not infringed. Al1that a State can require of another
State forits own nationals isthe respect of those rights which are accorded
to them under the national legal system, as they are defined by that legal
system.
When the foreigner in question is a juristic person, the case is no dif-
ferent, theoretically, from a case in which a natural person is involved.
Al1legal systems agree in consideringjoint-stock companies (sociét des
capitaux) as independent legal entities. The latter represent autonomous
beings to which rights and obligations may be ascribed; they are, in
short, of themselves subjects in law.
International law, both customary and treaty law, recognizes precisely
in respect of the treatment of foreigners, the existence of companies as
entities which are separate from their members.
For juridical persons as for natural persons, "nationality" expresses a

link of legally belonging to a specificState. The requirement for juridical
persons as for natural persons, is that the existence of the link of legally
belonging to a specificcountry must, if it is to serve as a plea at the inter-
national level, be accompanied by that of a "real" link with the same
country. In general international law, a State is not entitled to require a
specifictreatment for a person who has not its nationality and it can thus
not complain that such treatment has not been accorded to that person.

A State may present a claim on behalf of its national if it becomes
apparent that there has been a breach of a right belonging to the latter;
but no State may present a claim on behalf of a person of its nationalityon the ground that there was failure to respect a right belonging to
another person, possessing another nationality.
The national State of the company can present a claim for the breach
of a right of the company as such; the national State of the shareholder
can present a claim for the breach of a right "strictosensu"of the share-

holder as such. The fact that there are relationships and links between
different persons does not imply that they merge into a single person.

A claim by a State under the head of diplomatic protection of a
national who is a shareholder of a commercial company is only admis-
sible subject to a two-fold condition: the applicant State must be able to
claim violation of a right of the shareholder as such; and it must be
established that the State which was the author of the alleged violation
was under an international obligation to the applicant State to ensure
respect for the right in question. The receivability of a claim under that
head is ruled out if it appears, firstly, that the right which is said to have
been violated isa right of the company and not of the shareholder, and,
secondly, that the international obligation to ensure respect for the said
right was incumbent on the respondent State in respect of the national
State ofthe company and not in respect ofthe national State of the share-

holder.
It follows from the principles of international law that in order for a
State to be able to submit a claim in behalf of a national, it must be able
to claim that its national has sufferedan infringement ofhis ownrightsby
a foreign State, and that rights have been infringed for which the latter
State was bound to ensure respect by virtue of an international obligation
binding on it in respect of the claimant State.
There is nothing to prevent a'StateYssubmitting a claim in behalf of a
national which relates to that national's position in his capacityas a
shareholder in a company; but, in such a case, it must prove that the
person in question has been injured in the rights conferred upon him
himself precisely onaccountof his capacity of beinga shareholder :that he
has been injured in rights which are inherent in that capacity.
It is by nomeans sufficientthat the claimant State rely upon an injury
to the rights of the company as such, for no State may submit a claim in
behalf of a person on the ground that there has been a failure to respect

a right which belongs to another person, whether such latter person be a
natural or a juristic person.
International law only authorizes a State to intervene by way of diplo-
matic protection if such State relies upon a complaint which is its own
complaint: that is to say, if it complains of the infringement of a right of
one of its nationals, committed in violation of an international obligation
which binds to it the State which has committed the infringement.
If there has not been in the case at issue any infringement of any right
of a shareholder, that fact cannot be altered simply by referring to
interestsas well as rights. The situation of the shareholder as definedby the various legal systems,
covers the rights which are defined in the decision on the Brincart case.
No system of positive law confers on a shareholder in a limited company
other subjective legalsituations and, in particular, no systemattributes to
him any legal interest in the property of the cornpany, as has been ex-
pressly acknowledged by both sides.

One cannot accept the transformation of a shareholder's hope for the
prosperity of the cornpany into a right or a legal interest, nor any possi-
bility for a shareholder to claim that an infringement of the rights of the
company constitutes an infringement of his own legal situation.

The rules of international law concerning the responsibility of the
State regarding the treatment of foreigners would not make it possible to
impute to a State an internationally unlawful act even in a case where the
said State had only harmed an interest which was not protected by the
municipal legal system of that State.

There has not been established, in respect ofthe alleged Belgian share-
holders of Barcelona Traction, the existence of any juridical situation
whatsoever attaching to their status as shareholders which suffered any
internationally unlawful attack on the part of the Spanish administrative
or judicial authorities.

Barcelona Traction is said to have been a "practically defunct" com-
PanY.
Shareholders are not entitled to take the place of the company in
defending the latter's own rights when it is these rights which have been
affected, for so long at least as the company has not yet been dissolved
and liquidated and the shareholderstherefore have ho right to its property
and assets.
It is only when a company has been dissolved and consequently ceases
to exist as a separate legal entity that the shareholders take its place and
are entitled to receive the balance of its property, after the corporate

debthas been deducted. Thus it is only the "legal death" of the corporate
person that may give rise to new rights appertaining to the shareholders
as successors to the company.

In 1925the United States claimed the right, as against the Government
of the United Kingdom, to intervene on behalf of American interests in
a non-American corporation (the Romano-Americana).
In the United Kingdom answer to the American contention, it was
said: ". ..it is not until a Company has ceased to have an active exis-
tence or has gone into liquidation that the interest of its shareholders
ceasesto be merely the righttoshare in theCompany'sprojitsand becomesa right to share in its actual surplus assets" (Hackworth, Digest oflnter-
nationalLaw, Vol. V (1943), p. 843).
In the case of the Mexican Eagle, a company incorporated in Mexico,
inwhichthe shareholdings were 70percent. British andDutch, 25per cent.
French and the remainder Swiss,Danish and other interests (as the shares
were in bearer form it was impossible to state the exact proportion of
each national interest), a dispute arose between the Mexican Government
and the United Kingdom Government regarding claims by British share-
holders arising from the expropriation of the properties of the Mexican
Eagle Company.
The Mexican Government in a Note of 26 April 1938,maintained the
viewthat a shareholder was not a CO-ownerof the property of the under-
taking but "merely the possessor of a right in equity to represent a part of
the liquid assets at the moment of the dissolution or liquidation of the

company".
lt was not until the moment of dissolution that it was possible to
establish the damage and injuries sustained by shareholders as distinct
from thecompany (MervynJones, British YearBook of InternationalLaw,
1949,p. 241).
On that occasion the Mexican Government stated: "Mexico cannot
admit that any State, on the pretext of protecting the interests of the
shareholders of a Mexican company, may deny the existence of the legal
entity of companies organised in Mexico in accordance with Ourlaws."

1do not concur with the viewthat the national State of the shareholders
may exercisediplomatic protection when the act complained of was done
by the national State of the company, for this would be equivalent to
admitting that any State, on the pretext of protecting the interests of the
shareholders in a foreign company, may deny the existence of the legal
entity of companies organized in accordance with the laws of the national

State of such companies.
1 have reservations about paragraph 92 of the Judgment. For the rea-
sons stated above 1am of the opinion that the so-called theory to which
the paragraph refers does not have any validity. The fact that the Judg-
ment ends the paragraph with the sentence: " Whatever the validity of this
theory rnaybe, itis certainly not applicableto thepresent case,since Spain
is not the national State of Barcelona Traction"should not be interpreted
as an admission that such "theory" might be applicable in other cases
where the State whose responsibility isinvoked isthe national State of the
company.
This is a fundamental point in the field of intervention on behalf of
nationals who are shareholders in foreign companies of limited liability.

Regardless of the numerous cases of protection which took place inthe
past-outside international law or contrary to it-by the use of economic,
political or military pressure, it is worth recalling that-ain the past-in other cases when a stand was taken within a legal point of view and

respect for the sovereignty of other States, there has been a historical
recognition of the separate entity of corporations of limited liability, and
the opinions given in such instances did stress the independent existence
of a company as juridical person.

For example, when the Government of the United States was approach-
ed in 1875with a request that it should intervene on behalf of American

stockholders in Chilean corporations, it refused to do so. It adhered to
the view that a corporation formed under local law should have recourse
to the local courts and that although the good officesof the Government
might with propriety be exercised on behalf of American interests, there
could be no officia1intervention l (Moore, Digest of International Law
(1906), Vol. VI, p. 644). The practice of the United Kingdom followed

similar lines. Thus Sir Robert Phillimore advised that the British Minister
to Mexico should be instructed to limit himself to "good offices" on
behalf of a British shareholder in a Mexican railway siezedbythe Mexican
Government and that the British subject should be told that he must rely
principally on local remedies. Years later both Governments found reason
to depart from this practice.
1 therefore cannot accept that this situation-which is not the one

before the Court-should be considered as a limitation or exception to
the strict application of the rule of international law, according to which
the shareholders cannot be protected by their national State except in
two instances: (a) when the company has been liquidated, and (b) when
a right of the shareholder as such (right stricto sensu) has been violated
by an illicit act entailing international responsibility.
The scope and increasing activities of powerful international corpora-

tions have had as their field of operation the exploitation of the natural

The Secretary of State of the United States in a dispatch to the (American)
Minister to Colornbia, dated27 April 1866, wrote as follows:

holders in our national banks.tSuch persons may own al1 the shares except aock-
few necessary for the directors whom they select.

1sit to be thought that each of those Governments shall intervene when their
subjects consider the bank aggrieved by the operations of this Government?
If it were tolerated, supposegland were to agree to one mode of adjustment,
or one rneasure of darnages,while France shouid insist upon another, what end
is conceivable to the cornplications that mightsue?

It is argued that there is no policy which requires us to encourage the ern-
ployment of Arnerican capital abroad by extending to it any protection beyond
capacity of our citizens domiciled abroad forrposes of rnere pleasure, ease or
profit toinvolve this Government in controversy with foreign powers." (Loc.
cir.,pp. 645-646.) resources of many countries in the process of development and have con-
trolled the functioning of many of their public services over which the
territorial States have corne to be, notwithstanding their sovereignty, in
a subordinated position, and their right to demand compliance with the
prescription of their municipal law on the matter has in many cases been
challenged and put in jeopardy. Faced with the structure and practice of
capitalist society in regard to foreign investment, many countries have
imposed the requirement on foreign capital of taking the legal form
prescribed by local legislation. The exercise of the sovereignty of States
in thismatter cannot be legally construed as a device to deprive the even-
tua1 shareholders in corporations of limited liability (sociétésanonymes)
of the diplomatic action of their national State. Nationalization and
expropriation, in accordance with the law on the matter, have been the
result of the essential need not to have public utilities and national
resources subordinated to the private interests of foreign corporations.
1 am also of the opinion that neither is a limitation to the rule-

according to which it is the national State of the company who has the
right of protection-the fact that the protecting State does not exercise
its right or ceases to do it. The right of protection is a discretionary
one and the national State of the company is not under a duty to pro-
tect.
In respect to paragraph 93 1 must make the following observations.
The paragraph begins with the consideration that "in the field of
diplomatic protection of shareholders as in al1other fields... it is neces-
sary that the law be applied reasonably".
The phrase immediately following refers to a suggestion which might
be interpreted as an example of reasonableness on the matter. The sug-
gestion, or hypothesis, is to the effect that, "if in a given case it is not
possible to apply the general rule" . . then, "considerations of equity
might cal1for the possibility of protection of the shareholders in question
by their own national State". The last sentence in this paragraph States:
"This hypothesis does not correspondto the circumstancesof the present

case."
1 am of the opinion that there is no need for the Judgment to include
reference to an irrelevant hypothesis. Tt is difficiilt to imagine a case in
which it would be impossible to apply the general rule that the right of
diplomatic protection of a company belongs to its national State.
It might be argued that in case the company is liquidated and therefore
ceases legally to exist its national State loses the subject of its right and
the general rule cannot be applied. In such eventuality the shareholders
can undertake the defence of their interest before the courts of the State
whose responsibility is invoked and exhaust the local Iègalremedies open
to them. If a denial of justice is claimed, then the national State of the
person whose rights are violated may intervene according to the rules
concerning the protection of foreigners, but in such hypothesis the State
of the shareholders exercises a right of its own (whether or not such right260 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP. PADILLA NERVO)

is qualified as "secondary") and if so its action is not based on "con-
siderations of equity".

The whole Judgment is based on the ground that according to inter-
national law the national State of the company, and only and exclusively
it, has the right'of diplomatic and judicial protection of such company.
Therefore it is a contradiction of a legal nature to state even as an ir-
relevant hypothesis that there might be a circumstance when that State
which, by definition, has the legal capacity to act could be legally or
juridically incapacitated-the State concerned is free to exercise its right
or not but its abstention to pursue an action does not affect its right to
take it. Tt cannot lose its legal capacity and a hypothesis based on the
impossibility to apply thegeneral ruleis a juridical contradiction and has

no reasonable explanation even as a whimsical hypothesis. It is also in-
conceivable that if Canada does not exercise its discretionary right of
protection then this fact givesbirth to the right of the shareholders' State.

Therefore on those hypothetical limitations it is not possible to build
a Belgian iusstcmdi.
In respect of the attitude in this case of the national State of Barcelona
Traction, the Respondent describes as follows the three successivephases
of the Canadian Government's action, resulting from the examination of
the diplomatic correspondence and relevant documents:

"The first, going up to the time of the Tripartite Statement, was
the phase in which, misinformed by the interested parties, it accused
Spain of having violated obligations in general international law
with regard to the treatment of foreigners and, on that ground,
requested the Spanish Government to intervene with a view to the
annulment of the acts of the judicial authorities.

The second phase, which followed upon the Tripartite Statement
and did not last long, was characterized by thedefinite abandonment
of that request and of any allegation of a breach by Spain of obliga-
tionsunder general international law. The Canadian Government, on
the other hand, raised the particular complaint that certain clauses of

the treaties in force between the two countries had been broken.
It proposed the settlement of the differences on that point by arbi-
tration.
In the third phase, after expressing regret that the Spanishovern-
ment had not accepted the proposa1 to submit the specific point
about the treaties to arbitration, theCanadian Government, which
had meanwhile become better acquainted with the facts, definitely opted for endeavouring to get the dispute settled on an amicable
basis through direct negotiations between the private parties con-
cerned.
It isthus once again clearly confirmed that the famous exceptional
circumstances of 'the absence of protection by the national govern-

ment of the company', which the Belgian Government has relied on
so often and in so many forms in order to justify its claim to have
jus standii n the case to act under the head of the protection of the
Belgian 'shareholders' in Barcelona Traction, quite apart from the
fact that even theoretically it cannot constitute any valid justifica-
tion, is not in fact by anymeans present in the case."

In my view the right of diplomatic protection of shareholders in a
company of a nationality other than that of the protecting State, is not
in accordance with the principles of international law in forze, i.e., the
rule of the diplomatic protection of companies by the State ofwhich they
are nationals.
Nor is such protection recognized by any special customary rule in

international practice. The arbitral decisions rendered on the basis of
special bilateral conventions are not norm-creating, nor have constituted
the foundation of, or generated a rule of customary international law
which is now accepted as such by the opiniojuris.

There arenot, in the present case, exceptional circumstances justifying
any departure from the strict application of the general rule of inter-
national law on the matter.
The right of diplomatic protection, like any other right, has to be
understood as a right which a particular State has against another
particular State. To which State does that right pertain in the present
case? Does it pertain to the Applicant? 1s Spain under an international
obligation towards Belgium?
Has the respondent State committed a breach of an international
obligation owed to the applicant State by the measures taken in respect

to Barcelona Traction? 1s the person affected by the measures of which
Spain is accused linked to the applicant State by a bond of nationality?
In my opinion al1those questions ought to be answered in the negative
and, if so, the international liabilityalleged by the Applicant does not
exist.
Towards the eventual and sporadic possessor of a bearer share there
is not a direct and immediate obligation from the State accused of having
violated the rights of aprivate foreign national (natural orjuristic person)
by an unlawful art damaging the c~rporation (sociétéanoliyme) which
has issued the bearer shares.
The fact that theoretically thereis not (or there need not be) continuityof ownership of a bearer share, the nationality of the eventual possessor
does not give to his State a right towards the Respondent, who is not
under an international obligation owed to every State which might have,
or has, at a given date, some nationals in the possession of bearer shares
in the corporation alleged to be injured by an illicit international act,
unless specificrights of the shareholders as such were violated.

It is not justifiable to create anad hoc rule in disregard of existing
and generally accepted ones to fit a particular case which could and
should be decided by the application of the rules of general international
law governing the matter.
The claim in the present case and its characteristics are in the nature
of a request to go around or avoid the strict application of the relevant
rules of international law which "does not recognize, in respect of injury
caused by a State to a foriegn company, any diplomatic protection of
shareholders exercised by a State other than the national State of the
company".
The shareholders in commercial limited liability companies (sociétés
anonymes) do not have a separate and independent right in respect to
damage done to the company by a foreign government.
The rules of international law concerning the treatment of foreigners
are not rightly invoked in respect of shareholders as such.

This question ought to be considered in relation to the protection of

citizens abroad and taking into account the jurisdiction of the State
where the foreigner resides.
The following concepts contained in Borchard's Diplomatic Protection
of Citizens Abroad are relevant in this respect:

"The bond of citizenship implies that the State watches over its
citizens abroad, and reserves the right to interpose actively in their
behalf in an appropriate case. Too severe an assertion of territorial
control over them by the State of residence will be met by the
emergence of the protective right of the national State, and the
potential force of this phenomenon has largely shaped the rights
assumed by States over resident aliens."

"The principles of territorial jurisdiction andrsona1sovereignty
are mutually corrective forces. An excessive application of the
territorial principle is limited by the custom which grants foreign
States certain rights over their citizens abroad, sometimes merely

the application of foreign law by the local courts, sometimes, in
acknowledgment of the principle of protection, a certain amount of
jurisdiction." "Each State in the international community is presumed to extend
complete protection to the life, liberty and property of al1individuals
within itsjurisdiction."
"Not every injury warrants immediate interposition by the State.
In the first place, reparation is demanded only for such injuries as
the State in its discretion deems a justification for diplomatic

protection. Factors which enter into consideration in determining
the State's interposition are the seriousness of the offence, the
indignity to the nation, and the political expediency of regarding
the private injury as a public wrong to be repaired by national
action-in short, the interests of the people as a whole, as against
those of the citizen, receive first consideration before State action is
initiated."

"The individual has in fact sustained no injury in international
law, until the State of residence or its authorities have in some way
connected themselves with the original act or have declined to
afford him legal means of redress."

In the present case, i:is not Belgium but Canada who is the one
entitled to protect its na.tional, Barcelona Traction, in accordance with
the existing recognized rule of protection of a company orzly by its
national State.
Regarding the question: ". .. whether international law recognizes
the righ: of a State to protect its nationals, l,;iitiral or juristic persons,
as shareholders in a foreign company, for the damage they might have
suffered as a consequence of an internationally illicit act done to the
company by a third State", the answer, as a matter of law, should be in
the negative.
As regards the facts and circumstances of the particular case, they
do not constitute a juridically valid ground to justify an exception to the
existing rule.

The shareholders of bearer shares in a sociétéanonyme do not have
responsibility and they are unknown. Jf the alleged right of diplomatic
and judicial protection of shareholders in a sociétéanonyme were recog-
nized, any State investor of capital abroad could buy, in the stock
market, the capacity to present claims in the name of its nationals to the
territorial State who admitted in its territory a foreign company whose
nationality it knew, and who was also aware that, according to theexisting and accepted rules on the matter, the national States of the
numerous and unknown shareholders did not have, in international law,
a right of diplomatic protection independent from that of the national
State of the company.

Such recognition would be a derogation of the relevant principles
of international law and would entai1 unexpected complications and
unnecessary confiicts in modern commercial and financial international
relations.
If the different States, whose nationals were shareholders in thesame
corporation, were empowered to undertake, each one in his own right,
acts of diplomatic protection on behalf of their respective nationals,
the admission and operations of foreign commercial corporations of
limited liabilitysociétéasnonymes) would constitute a great risk to the
territorial States in need of investments who admit them.
Such recognition will create distrust, insecurity and unforeseen
potential danger of pressures from unforeseen quarters. It will, besides,
hinder the activities of modern commercial enterprises eager to invest
capital abroad.
Mervyn Jones, in regard to the law on the subject, states:

"If a State of which the corporation is not a national could
normally take up a claim in respect of an injury to the corporation
merely because there are shareholders who are nationals of that
State, and who have sufferedloss, the results would bejust as chaotic
on the international plane as they would be under municipal law
if anygroup of shareholders were allowed to sue in any case where
the company has sustained damage.
If a State could intervene without restriction on behalf of its
individual nationals who wereshareholders in a foreign corporation,
the position of .Governments whose national the corporation was

and that of the State against whom the claims were brought, would
be rendered intolerable. It might well be, in such circumstances,
that the number of possible State claimants in respect of an injury
to one large company could comprise half the world. Again, share-
holders are not infrequently corporations themselves, and the
process of identifying individual shareholders might be prolonged
ad infinitum; such a process is in any case difficult in practice."
("Claims on behalf of Nationals who are Shareholders in Foreign
Companies", British Year Book of International Law, 1949, pp.
234-235.)

The Court did not examine the merits regarding the fourth preliminary
objection. Nevertheless the written and oral pleadings did show that

265the local remedies in respect to the alleged wrongs and damages were
not exhausted.
There are no grounds to say that a miscarriage ofjustice took place or
that the bankruptcy was fictitious. There is no question that the bank-
ruptcy declaration was made in accordance with Spanish law on the
subject.
There are no legal bases to state that Spain is responsible internation-
ally for the standard of its laws and for the quality of the justice ad-

ministered by its courts.
By which crireriumis the Court to measure the standard of Spanish
laws in order to decide if it is high or low, good or bad? And by which
test could the Court make a finding regarding the quality of the justice
administered?
Which principles of international law, recognized by al1nations, give
the Court authority to pass judgment on those matters?

After careful consideration of the argumentsfrom both sides contained
in their pleadings, 1 conclude that there is not convincing evidence of
a predominant Belgian interest in natural or juristic Belgian persons,
having the character of shareholders of Barcelona Traction at the critical
dates, even if it is admitted that those critical dates are 1948 and 1962.
Namely the date of the bankruptcy declaration and the date of the filing
of the present Application.
It has not been proved that the majority of shareholders in Barcelona

Traction had the Belgian nationality at the critical dates, nor that the
capital in the Belgian corporations alleged to be shareholders of Bar-
celona Traction, was a capital invested or belonging to Belgiannationals
or necessarily linked to the national wealthof the Applicant.

The unfavourable impact on the wealth of a nation cannot be the
legal foundation of a claim when a State considers that its nationals
have lost money abroad, due to an act of the territorial State which is
alleged to be a breach of an international responsibility.

If the defence of the national wealth could be the legal foundation
of the State's own right to diplornatic or judicial intervention, the rules
concerning the treatment of foreigners would be, in fact, substituted by
vague and undefined concepts regarding non-existing duties of the
territorial State to guarantee against loss, the investment, by a person,
of money which the national State could, arbitrarily, claim was originally
part of its national wealth when the investor sent his money abroad.

The national wealth is affected, maybe, when any resident takes orsends his money abroad, rather than the moment he loses such money,
or his interests, dividends, ores of pecuniary gains from his invest-
ment.

If the defenceof the national wealth wouldtai1the right to intervene,
the violation of a duty towards a foreigner would not be the foundation
of the claim, but the so-called harm to the wealth of a State as an
matic consequence of the pecuniary losses eventually suffered by its
nationals abroad.Such losses could be traced to events in the territorial
State regardless of its international responsibility, or the existenceof any
legal duty towards the success of business enterprises, or speculative
ventures offorlign nationals.

1 agree with the Judgment of the Court that the Belgian claim be
dismissed.

(Signed Luis PADILLN AERVO.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE PADILLA NERVO

In its Judgment of 24 July 1964the Court joined to the merits the third
preliminary opjection raised by the Spanish Government to the Applica-
tion of Belgium.
The Court then stated that:

"the third objection invo1ves.anumber of closelyinterwoven strands
of mixed law, fact and status, to a degree such that the Court could
not pronounce upon it at this stage in full confidence that it was in
possession of al1 the elements that might have a bearing on its
decision" (I.C.J. Reports 1964, p. 46).

In the present proceedings the Parties have dealt fully with questions
of merits, in the course of their written and oral pleadings.
The Spanish Government contests the Belgian Government's capacity
to act, its jus standi, its right to intervene on behalf of Belgian nationals
(natural or artificial persons) whom the Belgian Government claims to
have been injured by a breach of international law, for which liability is
attributed to the Spanish authorities.
The Belgian Government asserts that it is exercising protection ex-
clusively and directly on behalf of persons of Belgian nationality and
contends that the legal question which arises when examining its jus

standi in the present case is that of the diplomatic judicial protection,
"not of foreign trading companies, but of natural and artificial persons"
who, having invested their funds in the said companies, suffered losses as
shareholders in these companies, as a result of illegal actions committed
against the companies.
The respondent Government contends that-
"international law does not recognize, in respect of injury caused by

a State to a foreign company, any diplomatic protection of share-
holders exercised by a State other than the national State of the
company".
The applicant Government asserts its right to intervene on behalf of
Belgian nationals, shareholders in the company, and contends that such
right is conferred on it in respect of its nationals by the rules of inter-
national law concerning the treatment offoreigners.
The real issue is whether international law recognizes for the share-

holders in a company "a separate and independent right or interest in
respect of damage done to the company by a foreign government". OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. PADILLA NERVO

[Traduction]

Par son arrêtdu 24 juillet 1964,la Cour a joint au fond la troisième
exception préliminairesoulevéepar le Gouvernement espagnol contre la
requête dela Belgique.
La Cour a déclaré à cette occasion:

«La troisièmeexceptioncomporte un tel enchevêtrementdequestions
de droit, de fait et de qualitépour agir que la Cour ne saurait se
prononcer sur cette exception au présentstade avec la pleine assu-
rance d'être enpossession de tous les élémentspouvant avoir de
l'importance pour sa décision. (C.Z. Recueil 1964, p. 46.)

Dans la présente instance,les Parties ont amplement débattules ques-
tions de fond dans leurs exposés écritet oraux.
Le Gouvernement espagnol conteste la capacité du Gouvernement
belge à agir en justice, son jus standi, son droit d'intervenir au nom de
ressortissants belges (personnes physiques ou morales) que le Gouverne-
ment belgeprétend avoirété léséspar une violation du droit international
dont il rend les autoritésespagnoles responsables.
Le Gouvernement belge soutient qu'il exerce saprotection exclusive-

ment et directementau nom de personnes de nationalité belge et il affirme
que la question de droit qui se pose lorsqu'on examinesonus standidans
la présente affaire est celle de la protection diplomatique et judiciaire
((non des sociétés commercialesétrangères commetelles mais des per-
sonnes physiques et morales ))qui, ayant investi des fonds dans lesdites
sociétés,ont subi des pertes en tant qu'actionnaires de ces sociétés,par
suite d'actes illicitescommis contre ces dernières.
A cela, le Gouvernement défendeuroppose que

«le droit international [n'admet] pas, en cas de préjudice causépar
un Etat à une sociétéétrangère, une protectiondiplomatique d'ac-
tionnaires exercée par un Etat autre que 1'Etat national de la
société11.

Le Gouvernement demandeur se prévaut du droit d'intervenir au nom
des ressortissants belges, actionnaires de la société,et il affirme que ce
sont les règlesdu droit international relatives auitement des étrangers
qui lui confèrent ce droit en ce qui concerne ses ressortissants.
En fait, il s'agitde savoiriledroit international reconnaît aux action-
naires d'une société, en cas de préjudicecausé à cette sociétépar un
gouvernement étranger,un droit ou un intérêd t istincts et indépendan)). The Belgian Government, in its first submission, asked the Court to
adjudge and declare that the Spanish State is under an obligation towards
Belgium to make reparationfor the damage caused to "Belgian nationals,
individual or legal persons, being shareholdersof Barcelona Traction".
In the second submission, it asks that the Court will-

"adjudge and declare that this reparationshould, as far as possible,
annul al1the consequences whichthese acts, contrary to international
law, have had for the said nationals, and that the Spanish State is
therefore under an obligation to secure, if possible, the annulment

by administrative means of adjudication in bankruptcy and of the
judicial and other acts resulting therefrom, obtaining for the said
injured Belgian nationals, al1 the legal effects which should result
from this annulment .. .".(Application filed 19 June 1962, second
submission.)
What is then the real meaning and scope of the present Belgian claim?

'Thenew Application presents as the object of Belgium'sprotection, not
the Canadian commercial company of Barcelona Traction but Belgian
nationals who are said to be shareholders of Barcelona Traction.

The Spanish Government disputes the Belgian Government's capacity
to act-

"in view of the fact that the Barcelona Traction Company does not
possess Belgian nationality and that, in the case in point, it is not
possible to allow diplomatic action or international judicial pro-
ceedings on behalf of the alleged Belgian shareholders of the com-
pany on account of the damage which the company asserts it has
suffered".(P.O., submissions on third objection.)

1do concur in the view that, in the present case, diplomatic action or
international judicial proceedings on behalf of the shareholders in the
company on account of damage which the company allegesit has suffered,
couldnot be allowed.
It has not been proved that there existsa special customary rule which,
by derogation of the basic principles of international law with regard to
the status of aliens, would have helped the Belgian contention.
Nor has it been demonstrated that there exists an alleged general rule
establishing, in al1 circumstances, the lawfulness of the protection of
shareholders following damage caused to the company.
1believe it is right to Saythat international law does not recognize the
right of diplomatic protection of shareholders as such if their rights
stricto sensu have not been violated.
Nor does any rule of international law givesupport to the admissibility
of a double diplomatic protection, one for the corporation and another
for the shareholders in that corporation. Dans sa première conclusion, le Gouvernement belge demande à la
Cour de dire etjuger que 17Etatespagnol est tenu, à l'égardde la Belgique,
de réparer lepréjudicecauséaux ((ressortissants belges, personnes physi-
ques et morales, actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction s.
Dans la seconde, il demande à la Cour de

«dire et juger que cette réparationdoit, autant que possible, effacer

toutes les conséquencesque ces actes contraires au droit des gens
ont eues pour lesdits ressortissants et que 1'Etat espagnol est tenu,
dèslors, si possible, d'assurer par voie administrative l'annulation
du jugement de faillite et des actes judiciaires et autres qui en ont
découlé,en assurant auxdits ressortissants belges léséstous les
effets juridiques devant résulter pour eux de cette annulation ...))

Quels sont alors le sens et la portée véritablesde l'actuelle requête
belge?La nouvelle requête présente comme l'objet dela protection belge,
non la sociétécommerciale canadienne Barcelona Traction, mais les res-
sortissants belges que l'on prétend êtreactionnaires de la Barcelona

Traction.
Le Gouvernement espagnol conteste le droit d'action du Gouverne-
ment belge

«étantdonné quela société Barcelona[Traction] n'a pas la nationa-
litébelge et que dans le cas d'espèce, l'on ne saurait admettre une
action diplomatique ou judiciaire internationale en faveur des
prétendus actionnaires belges de la sociétépour le préjudice que
cette dernière affirme avoir subi )).(Exceptions préliminaires, con-
clusions ad exception préliminaireno3.)

Je partage l'opinion selonlaquelle, en l'espèce,on ne sauraitpermettre
d'intervenir diplomatiquement ou d'entamer une procédure judiciaire
internationale au nom desactionnaires de la société en raison du préjudice
que la sociétéprétend avoir subi.
Il n'a pas été établq iu'il existeune règlecoutumière particulière qui,

dérogeantaux principes fondamentaux du droit international relatifs au
statut des étrangers, viendrait appuyer la thèsebelge.
Il n'a pas non plus étédémontréqu'il existeune règlegénéraleou pré-
tendue telle autorisant dans tous les cas la protection des actionnaires
à la suite d'un préjudice causé à une société.
Il me parait juste de dire que le droit international ne reconnaît pas
le droit de protection diplomatique des actionnaires en tant que tels
si leurs droits propres n'ont pas étéviolés.
De même,aucune règlede droit international n'étaie ni ne justifieune
double protection diplomatique, pour la société d'unepart et pour les
actionnaires de la sociétéd'autre part. To Saythat the corporation and the shareholders have parallel interests
does not make admissible a concurrent diplomatic intervention.
No State could be safe from the pressure and danger of a plurality of
diplomatic interventions by States protecting their nationals, share-
holders in a given corporation, if the right of diplomatic protection of
shareholders were recognized.
For the time being, the principle which recognizes the capacity of a
State to intervene, by way of diplomatic protection of a company of its
own nationality, has proved to be a fair and well-balanced safeguard or
insurance, both for the investor and for the State, where foreign com-
panies operate.
This regime, whose consequencesare well known, has no surprises and
establishesa legal order which, so far, has proved to be generally adequate
and satisfactory.
There seems to be no fundamental reason or essential need to depart
from it. If a door is open to the intervention, by way of diplomatic

protection of shareholders, of a plurality of States-as many as could
claim to have shareholders of their nationality-a chaotic situation of the
gravest international consequences would, in time, develop.

Private investments, needed for. economic development, will be en-
couraged if the States receiving them are convinced that the national
State of the investor will not use the so-called right of diplomatic protec-
tion as a pretext for political or economic pressure, dangerous to the
sovereignty and independence of weaker or less developed States, who
cherish more their national dignity than the speed of their development.
In the relation between the investor and the State where the investment
takes place, a just balance should be aimed at, for it is good for the inter-
national community that capital which goes abroad in search of gain
should not be a potential threat to the essential values and dignity of
States.
The lessons of history and past experience are, after all, the source of
the law and of judicial precedents and must have place and weight in the

conscience of the judge.
Mervyn Jones, in his work Claimson behalfof nationalswhoare share-
holdersinforeign companies,makes the following historic remarks by way
of introduction :

"The era of foreign investment on a large scale-reachedits height
during the fifty years or so preceding the First World War, when
British and American capital poured into al1 parts of the world,
financing railway and harbour construction, exploitation of minera1
deposits and innumerable other projects in undeveloped countries.
At the same time the institution of the joint-stock company with
limited liability (which was of recent growth) made it possible for Dire que la sociétéet les actionnaires ont des intérêtsparallèles ne
justifie pas une intervention diplomatique concurrente.
Aucun Etat ne serait à l'abri de pressions et du risque d'une pluralité
d'interventions diplomatiques de la part d'Etats protégeant leurs res-
sortissants, actionnaires d'une même société si, le droit de protection
diplomatique des actionnaires étaitreconnu.
Pour l'instant, le principe qui admet la capacité d'unEtat àintervenir,
par voie de protection diplomatique, en faveur d'une sociétéayant sa
nationalité, s'est révélconstituer une garantie ou une assurance juste et
équilibrée, aussibien pour l'investisseur que pour 1'Etat où les sociétés
étrangères déploientleur activité.
Ce système,dont les effets sont bien connus, ne cause pas de surprises
et il établitun ordre juridique qui, jusqu'ici, s'estmontrégénéralement

adéquatet satisfaisant.
11semble qu'il n'y ait ni raison fondamentale ni nécessité essentielle
qui conduise à s'en écarter. Si l'on ouvre la porte à l'intervention, par
voie de protection diplomatique des actionnaires, d'une pluralitéd'Etats
- autant que de nationalités parmi les actionnaires - une situation
chaotique qui pourrait avoir les plus graves conséquencesinternationales
s'instaurerait avec le temps.
Les investissements privés, nécessairesau développementéconomique,
seront encouragéssi les Etats qui les reçoivent sont certains que 1'Etat
national de l'investisseur n'usera pas du prétendu droit de protection
diplomatique comme d'un prétextepour exercer des pressions politiques
ou économiques dangereuses pour la souveraineté et l'indépendance
d'Etats moins puissants ou moins développésp ,lus attachés àleur dignité

nationale qu'au rythme de leur développement.Il faudrait tendre à un
juste équilibredans les relations entre l'investisseuret'Etatoù il investit,
car il est de l'intérêtde la collectivitéinternationale que les capitaux
exportésen vue de réaliserun bénéfice neconstituent pas une menace
latente pour les valeurs essentielles et la dignité desEtats.
Les leçons de l'histoire et l'expériencedu passésont, somme toute, la
source du droit et de la jurisprudence, et elles doivent avoir leur place
et leur importance dans la conscience du juge.
Mervyn Jones, dans son ouvrage sur les réclamationsau nom de na-
tionaux actionnaires de sociétés étrangères (Claims on behavof nationals
who are shareholders inforeign companies) fait lesobservations historiques
ci-après en guise d'introduction :

((L'èredes grands investissements étrangers a atteint son apogée
au cours des quelque cinquante années qui ont précédé la première
guerre mondiale, au moment où les capitaux britanniques et améri-
cains se sont déversésdans toutes les parties du monde pour financer
la construction de chemins de fer et de ports, l'exploitation de gise-
ments miniers et d'innombrables autres projets dans les pays sous-
développés. En mêm temps, l'institution de la sociétéanonyme par small capitalists to invest their money in remote countries for a
better yieldthan was obtainable at home. There is little doubt that,
at first, those countries welcomed foreign capital, which was badly
needed, and were not strict as to conditions of investment. It was but
rarely, during these early days, that any necessity arose for diplo-

matic intervention by foreign powers on behalf of their nationals.
With the turn of the nineteenth century, however, nationalist move-
ments became directed against 'economic exploitation' by the
foreigner. These movements emphasized economic, as well as
political, sovereignty, and, as time went on, began to interfere more
and more with the projects of foreign capital. The decay of liberal
capitalism and laisser-faire, accompanied by the spread of socialist
doctrine throughout the world, caused governments everywhere to
assume greater control of the economic assets and resources of the
nation: in certain countries foreign capital came to be regarded as
an emblem of subordination, and not merely as a means of devel-
oping the country. Much, of course, had happened to justify such
an attitude; the extent to which foreign capital held a grip on the
economic life of many countries was considerable. Against this
background the revolutions of 1911-20in Mexico transformed the
political and socialutlook of the nation, as did the later revolutions

in central Europe after the First World War, and those in eastern
Europe after the Second. These revolutions were accompanied by
measures of expropriation, which inevitably raised the question of
the ~osition under international law of individuals who had invested
in companies carrying on business in the countries concerned."
(British Year Book of International Law, 1949, p. 225.)

The history of the responsibility of States in respect to the treatment
of foreign nationals is the history of abuses, illegal interference in the
domestic jurisdiction of weaker States, unjust claims, threats and even
military aggression under the flag of exercisiiigrights of protection, and
the imposing of sanctions in order to oblige a government to make the
reparations demanded.
Special agreements to establish arbitral tribunals were on many oc-

casions concluded under pressure, by political, economic or military
threats.
The protecting States, in many instances, are more concerned with
obtaining financial settlements than with preserving principles. Against
the pressure of diplomatic protection, weaker States could do no more
than to preserve and defend a principle of international law, while giving
way under the guise of accepting friendly settlements, either giving the
compensation demanded or by establishing claims commissions which actions (qui étaitune créationrécente)a permis aux petits capitalistes
de placer leurs fonds dans des pays lointains où ils étaient d'un
meilleur rapport que chez eux. Il ne fait guèrededoute que ces pays
ont d'abord bien accueilli les capitaux étrangers, dont ils avaient
grand besoin, et qu'ils n'ont pas imposé deconditions strictes aux
investissements. Au cours de ces premières années,des puissances
étrangères n'onteu à intervenir que rarement par la voie diploma-

tique en faveur de leurs ressortissants. Toutefois, au débutdu XIXe
siècle, desmouvements nationalistes se sont élevés contre (l'exploi-
tation économique » étrangère.Ils ont placél'accent sur la souverai-
neté économiqueet politique et, peu àpeu, on en est venu à s'inté-
resser de plus en plusà l'emploi descapitaux étrangers. Lerecul du
capitalisme libéralet du claisser fair», qui s'est accompagnéde la
diffusion de la doctrine socialiste dans le monde entier. a conduit un
peu partout les gouvernements à intensifierleur contrôle des biens et

ressources économiques dela nation: dans certains pays on en est
venu à considérerles capitaux étrangers comme le Symbole de la
subordination et non pas seulement comme un moyen de développer
le pays. Bien des événementsont évidemmentjustifiécette attitude;
la mainmise des capitaux étrangers sur la vie économique denom-
breux pays étaitconsidérable. C'est dans ces circonstances que les
révolutions du Mexique, en 1911-1920, ont transformé l'aspect
politique et social de la nation, comme l'ont fait plus tard les révolu-
tions d'Europe centrale, aprèsla première guerre mondiale, et celles

de l'Europe de l'est aprèsla seconde. Cesrévolutionssesont accom-
pagnéesde mesures d'expropriation qui ont inévitablementposéle
problème de la situation, en droit international, des individus qui
avaient placé leurs fonds dans des sociétésexerçant une activité
dans les pays en question.»(British Year Book of InternationalLaw,
1949,p. 225.)

L'histoire de la responsabilitédes Etats, en matière de traitement des
étrangers, est une suited'abus, d'ingérences illégaledsans l'ordre interne

des Etats faibles, deréclamationsinjustifiées,de menaceset mêmed'agres-
sions militaires sous le couvert de l'exercice desdroits de protection, et de
sanctions imposées en vue d'obliger un gouvernement à faire les répara-
tions demandées.
Des accords spéciauxvisant à constituer des tribunaux d'arbitrage ont
étéconclus, dans de nombreux cas, sous la pression de menacespolitiques,
économiquesou militaires.
Bien souvent les Etats protecteurs sont plus soucieux d'aboutir à des
arrangements financiers que de sauvegarder des principes. Contre la

pression de la protection diplomatique, les Etats faibles ne pouvaient que
maintenir et défendreun principe du droit international, tout en cédant
du terrain par l'acceptation d'arrangements (amiables »qui, soit accor-
daient les compensations demandées, soit créaient des commissions de had as a point of departure the acceptance of responsibility for acts or
omissions, where the government was, neither in fact nor in law, really
responsible.
In the written and in the oral pleadings the Applicant has made re-
ference, in support of his thesis, to arbitral decisions of claims commis-
sions-among othersthose between Mexico and the United States, 1923.

"These decisions do not necessarily give expression to rules of
customary international law, as. . .the Commissions were autho-
rized to decide these claims 'in accordance with principles of inter-

national law, justice and equity' and, therefore, may have been
influenced by other than strictly legal considerations." (Schwarzen-
berger, International Law, Vol. 1,p. 201.)
In the Special Claims Commission : Mexico-United States, established
by the convention of 10 September 1923,Article II states:
"... each member of the Commission ...shall make and subscribe
a solemn declaration stating that he will ...examine and decide,
according to the best of his judgment and in accordance with the
principles ofjustice and equity,l1claims presented for decision ...".
(Italics are mine.)

The second paragraph of the same Article II reads as follows:
"The Mexican Government desires that the claims shall be so
decided because Mexico wishes that her responsibility shall not be
fixed according to the generally accepted rules and principles of
international law, but ex gratia feels morally bound to make full
indemnification and agrees, therefore ..." (U.N.R.I.A.A., Vol. IV,
p. 780.)

Article VI of the same convention makes another exception to the
accepted general rules, when it states:

"... the Mexican Government agrees that the Commission shall
not disallow or reject any claim by the application of the general
principle of international law that the legal remedies must be ex-
hausted as a condition precedent to the validity or allowance of any
claim". (Ibid., p. 781.)
Some of the decisions of claims commissions invoked during the
pleadings are not, in my view, relevant precedents in respect to this case.

Now the evolution of international law has other horizons and its
progressive development is more promising, as Rosenne wrote:

"There is prevalent in the world today a widespread questioning
of the contemporary international law. This feeling is based on the BARCELONATRACTION(OP. IND. PADILLANERVO) 247

réclamations,ce qui supposait que la responsabilité d'actesou omissions
divers était reconnue d'emblée,alors que le gouvernement n'étaitpas
vraiment responsable, ni en fait ni en droit.
Dansla procédure écrite et orale, le demandeur s'est référpo,ur étayer
sa thèse, aux décisionsarbitrales de commissions de réclamations - et
notamment de celles qui ont étécréées conjointement par le Mexique et

les Etats-Unis en 1923.Or:
«Ces décisionsn'expriment pas nécessairementdes règlesdu droit
international coutumier car les commissions pouvaient juger ces
réclamations cconformémentaux principes du droit international,
de la justice et de l'équité» et il se peut par conséquent qu'elles
aient étéinfluencéespar des considérations autres que strictement
juridiques.» (Schwarzenberger, International Law, vol. 1, p. 201.)

L'article 2dela convention du 10septembre 1923créantla Commission
spécialede réclamationsentre le Mexique et les Etats-Unis dispose:
«chaque membre de la Commission ...fera et signera une déclara-
tion solennelle par laquelle il s'engageraà examiner et juger ...au

mieux de son jugement et d'accord avec les principes de lajustice et
de l'équitétoutes les réclamations présentéespour décision. » (Les
italiques sont de nous.)
Le deuxièmeparagraphe du mêmearticle 2 précise:

((Le Gouvernement mexicain désireque les réclamations soient
ainsi décidées parce que le Mexique souhaite que sa responsabilité
ne soit pas établie conformément auxrègleset principes générale-
ment acceptés du droit international, mais il s'estime ex gratia
moralement obligéd'accorder une pleine indemnitéet il reconnaît
par conséquent ...»(Nations Unies, Recueil des sentencesarbitrales,
vol.IV, p. 780.)

L'article 6 de la mêmeconvention établit une autre exception aux
règlesgénéralement acceptées, lorsqu'd ilit:
cle Gouvernement mexicain convientque la Commission n'écartera
ni ne rejettera pas de réclamationen faisant application du principe
généraldu droit international selon lequel l'épuisement desvoies
de recours juridique est une condition préalable de la validitéou
de la recevabilitéde toute demande ».(Ibid., p. 781.)

Certaines des décisionsdes commissions de réclamationsinvoquéesau
cours des plaidoiries ne constituent pas,àmon avis, des précédentsperti-
nents pour la présente affaire.
L'évolution dudroit international ouvre maintenant d'autres horizons
et son développement progressifest plus riche de promesses. Ainsi que
Rosenne l'a écrit:

((11y a, dans le monde d'aujourd'hui, une remise en question
généraledu droit international contemporain. Ce sentiment procède view that for the greater part international law is the product of
European imperialism and colonialism and does not take suf-
ficient account of the completely chanjed pattern of international
relations which now exists. .. .
Careful scrutiny of the record of the Court may lead to the con-

clusion that it has been remarkably perceptive of the changing cur-
rents of internationalist thought. In this respect it has performed a
major service to the international community as a whole, because
the need to bring international law into line with present-day re-
quirements and conditions is real and urgent." (Rosenne, TheLaw
and Practice of the InternationalCourt, 1965,Vol. 1, pp. 17-18.)

The law, in al1its aspects, the jurisprudence and the practice of States
change, as the world and the everyday requirements of international life
change, but those responsible for its progressive evolution should take
care that their decisions do, in the long run, contribute to the maintenance
of peace and security and to the betterment of the majority of mankind.

In considering the needs and the good of the international community
in Our changing world, one must realize that there are more important
aspects than those concerned with economic interests and profit making;
other legitimate interests of a political and moral nature are at stake and
should be considered injudging the behaviour and operation of the com-
plex international scope of modern commercial enterprises.

It is not the shareholders in those huge corporations who are in need of
diplomaticprotection; it is rather the poorer or weaker States, where the
investments take place, who need to be protected against encroacbment
by powerful financial groups, or against unwarranted diplomatic pressure
from governments who appear to be always ready to back at any rate
their national shareholders, even when they are legally obliged to share
the risk of their corporation and follow its fate, or even in case of share-
holders who are not or have never been under the limited jurisdiction of
the State of residenceaccused of having violated in respect of them certain
fundamental rights concerning the treatment of foreigners. It can be said
that, by the mere fact of the existence of certain rules concerning the
treatment of foreigners, these have certain fundamental rights that the
State of residencecannot violate without incurring international responsi-
bility;but this is not the case of foreign shareholders as such, who may be
scattered al1overthe world and have never been or need not be residents
of the respondent State or under itsjurisdiction.

In the case of the Rosa Gelbtrunkclaim between Salvador and the
United States, the President of the arbitration commission expressed a de l'idéeque le droit international est pour l'essentiel leproduit de
l'impérialismeet du colonialisme européens et qu'il ne tient pas
suffisamment compte du fait que les relations internationales ont
complètement changéde caractère ...
Si l'on examine attentivement la jurisprudence de la Cour, on
peut arriverà la conclusion que celle-ci s'est révéléreemarquable-
ment consciente des nouveaux courants de la penséeinternationale.
A cet égard,elle a rendu un important service àla collectivitéinter-
nationale dans son ensemble car il est vraiment urgent d'harmoniser
le droit international avec les exigenceset les conditions de la vie

actuelle. (Rosenne, TheLawand Practice of the International Court,
1965,vol. 1,p. 17-18.)

Le droit, sous tous ses aspects, ainsi que lajurisprudence et la pratique
des Etats, ont changé parallèlement aux transformations du monde et
des nécessitéscourantes de la vie internationale, mais les responsables de
l'évolutionprogressive du droit devraient veiller ce que leurs décisions
contribuent, à la longue, à maintenir la paix et la sécuritéainsi qu'à
améliorerle sort de la majoritéde l'humanité.
Si l'on considère les besoinset les intérêts de lacommunauté inter-
nationale, dans notre monde en changement, on doit se souvenir qu'il
existe des aspects plus importants que ceux qui ont trait aux intérêts
économiques et au profit; d'autres intérêtslégitimes,d'ordre politi-

que et moral, sont en jeu, et il convient de les prendre en considé-
ration lorsqu'on porte un jugement sur la conduite et les opérations
d'entreprises commerciales modernes à structure internationale com-
plexe.
Ce ne sont pas les actionnaires de ces énormessociétésqui ont besoin
de protection diplomatique; ce sontplutôt les Etatspauvres ou faibles où
les capitaux sont investis qui ont besoin d'êtreprotégéscontre l'ingérence
de puissants groupes financiers ou contre la pression diplomatique in-
justifiéede gouvernements qui paraissent toujours prêtsà appuyer àtout
prix les actionnaires de leur nationalité,alors mêmeque cesderniers sont
juridiquement tenus de partager les risques de leur sociétéet de suivre
son sort, et que ces actionnaires ne sont pas ou n'ont jamais été sousla
juridiction limitéede1'Etatde résidence,qui est accusé d'avoir vioàéleur
encontre certains droits fondamentaux relatifs au traitement desétrangers.

On peut dire assurément que,du seul fait de l'existencede règles relatives
au traitement des étrangers,ces derniers possèdentcertains droits fonda-
mentaux que 1'Etatde résidence nepeut violer sans encourir de responsa-
bilitéinternationale; mais ce n'est pas le cas des actionnaires étrangers
en tant que tels, qui peuvent êtredisséminésdans le monde entier et qui
n'ont jamais étéet n'ont pas à êtrerésidentsdans 1'Etat défendeur,ni
soumis à sa juridiction.
Dans l'affaire Rosa Gelbtrunk entre le Salvador et les Etats-Unis, le
présidentde la commission arbitrale a exprimé uneopinion qui résumeviewwhich may summarize the position of foreigners in a country where
they are resident. This view was expressed as follows:

"Acitizen or subject of onenation who, in the pursuit of commercial
enterprise, carries on trade within the territory and under the pro-
tection of the sovereignty of a nation other than his own, is to be
considered as having cast inhis lot with the subjects or citizens of
the State in which he resides and carried on business." (Italics
added.)
"In this case", Schwarzenbergerremarks, "the rule was applied to
the loss of foreign property in the course of a civilwar. The decision
touches, however, one aspect of a much wider problem: the ex-
istence of international minimum standards, by which, regarding
foreigners, territorial jurisdiction is limited."

As the Permanent Court of International Justice said in the Lotus case
in 1927 (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10, p. 19)-
"al1that can be required of a State is that it should not overstep the
limits which international law places upon its jurisdiction; within
these limits, its title to exercisejurisdiction rests in its sovereignty".

The rules concerning the treatment of foreigners are a limitation of a
State's jurisdictionrationepersonae. Schwarzenberger saysin this respect:

"States generally exercise exclusivejurisdiction over their nation-
als within their territory, concurrent jurisdiction over their nationals
abroad, and limited jurisdiction over, for example, individuals and
groups within their territory who are protected by international
customary or treaty law." (Italics added.)

"While, in principle, territorial sovereignty applies to nationals
and foreigners alike,the home State retains a concurrent jurisdiction
over its nationals abroad. ...Furthermore, the unrestricted ex-
ercise of territorial jurisdiction over foreigners on the part of the
State ofresidencemay be limited by rules of international customary
law or treaties. If such exercise of territorial jurisdiction happens to
come into conflict with international law, the question turns into
an issue between the subjects of international law concerned. The

home State is entitled to demand respect for international limita-
tions of territorial jurisdiction, and the State ofesidencemay have
to answer for its interference 'withthe rights which each State may
claim for its national inforeign territory'. As the World Court laid
down in the case of the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions(1924),
'it is an elementary principle of international law that a State is
entitled to protect its subjects, when injured by acts contrary toassez bien la situation des étrangersdans le pays où ils résident.Cette
opinion est la suivante:
(Le citoyen ou le sujet d'unenation qui, dans l'exerciced'une activité
commerciale, fait des affaires sur le territoire et sous la protection
de la souverainetéd'une nation autre que la sienne, doit êtrecon-
sidéré comme ayant choisi de partager le sort des sujets ou des
citoyens de 1'Etatoù ilrésideet exerce son activité. [Lesitaliques sont

de nous.]
Dans cette affaire [fait observer Schwarzenberger],la règlea été
appliquée à la perte de biens étrangers survenue au cours d'une
guerre civile. La décisiontouche toutefois un aspect d'un problème
beaucoup plus vaste: l'existence de normes internationales mini-
males en vertu desquelles la juridiction territoriale est limitée ence
qui concerne les étrangers.))

Ainsi que la Cour permanente de Justice internationale l'a déclaré
dans l'affairedu Lotus (1927) (C.P.J.I. sériA no10, p. 19):
((tout ce qu'on peut demander à un Etat, c'est de ne pas dépasser
les limites que le droit international tracà sa compétence; endeçà
de ces limites, le titrela juridiction qu'il exercese trouve dans sa
souveraineté ».

Les règlesrelatives au traitement des étrangers constituent une limita-
tion de la juridictionrationepersonae de 1'Etat.Schwarzenberger écrit à
ce propos:
aLes Etats exercent généralementune juridiction exclusive sur
leurs ressortissants dans les limites de leur territoire, une juridiction

concurrente sur leurs ressortissants à l'étranger,et une juridiction
restreinte qui s'applique par exemple, dans les limites de leur terri-
toire,aux particuliers ou aux groupes de particuliers qui sont pro-
tégéspar le droit international coutumier ou conventionnel. [Les
italiques sont denous.]
Alors que la souveraineté territoriale s'applique en principe de la
même manièreaux nationaux et aux étrangers, 1'Etatnational con-
serve une juridiction concurrente sur ses nationaux à l'étranger.
En outre, l'exercice illimitéde la compétence territoriale sur les

étrangerspar 1'Etat de résidencepeut être restreintpar des règles
de droit international coutumier ou conventionnel. S'ilarrive que
cet exercice entreen conflit avec le droit international, cela devient
un problème entre les sujets de ce droit. L'Etat national est fondé
à exigerle respect des limites internationales auxquelles est soumise
la juridiction territoriale, et 1'Etatde résidencepeut avàirépondre
de son ingérence ((dansles droits que chaque Etat peut revendiquer
pour ses ressortissants en territoire étranger»; en effet, comme la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale l'a déclaré dans l'affaire

des ConcessionsMavrommatisenPalestine (1924), (c'estun principe
élémentairedu droit international que celui qui autorise 1'Etat à international law committed by another State, from whom they have
been unable to obtain satisfaction through the ordinary channels'."
(Schwarzenberger, International Law, Vol. 1, pp. 189-190.)

Much has been said about the justification for not leaving the share-
holders in those enterprises without protection.
Perhaps modern international business practice has a tendency to be
soft and partial towards the powerful and the rich, but no rule of law
could be built on such flimsy bases.

Investors who go abroad in search of profits take a risk and go there
for better or for worse, not only for better. They should respect the
institutions and abide by the national laws of the country where they
chose to go.

The main preliminary question on the merits in the present proceedings
is that of the international diplomatic and legal protection of natural and
artificial persons who, having invested fundsin foreign trading companies,
have suffered lossesin their capacity as shareholders of those companies,
as a result of acts contrary to international law of which a State has been
guilty towards those companies.

This problem is of capital importance in the modern world, and pre-
occupies the governments, economists and businessmen of numerous
countries which are anxious to ensure the security of investments made
abroad. Jurists, for their part, are actively concerned with it and are
constantly examining it.
A necessaryfoundation of a valid international claim isthat the national
of the plaintiff State would have been directly injured in his rights by an

act contrary to international law done by the State to whom the claim is
addressed.
It is indispensable that the protected person be himself the possessor
of a right which would entitle him to formulate a claim for damages in
the interna1 judicial order.
If a debtor of a foreign creditor is affected in his rights by an act which
violates international law, the national State of the foreign creditor is not
authorized, by that fact, to the diplornatic protection of such creditor.
This question has been submitted and decided in various instances by
arbitral tribunals in thesense that "creditors do not have legal bases to
plead for damages inflicted on their debtors".

In U.S.A. (W. C. Greenstreet, Receiver) v. United Mexican States,
General Claims Commission, it was held that the natiorzality of the
creditors of an insolvent corporation need not be shown, "the nationality protéger ses nationaux léséspar des actes contraires au droit inter-
national commis par un autre Etat, dont ils n'ont pu obtenir satis-
faction par les voies ordinairesB.))(Schwarzenberger, International
Law, vol. 1, p. 189-190.)

On a beaucoup parlé de la nécessitéde ne pas laisser sans protection
les actionnaires de ces entreprises.
La pratique moderne, dans le domaine du commerce international,
a sans doute tendance à êtreindulgente et partialeà l'égarddes puissants
et des riches mais,lorsqu'il s'agit d'érigerune règlede droit, ce n'est pas
là un argument suffisant.
Les investisseurs qui vont à I'étranger enquête deprofits prennent un

risque et ils y vont pour le meilleur et pour le pire, et non pas seulement
pour le meilleur. Ils doivent respecter les institutions detatoù ils ont
choisi d'aller et se conformerà ses lois nationales.

La principale des questions préliminaires intéressant le fond de la
présente instance porte sur l'exercice de la protection diplomatique et
judiciaire internationale de personnes physiques et morales qui, ayant
investi des fonds dans des sociétés commercialesétrangères,ont, en leur
qualité d'actionnaires de ces sociétés, subi despertes par suite d'actes
contraires au droit international dont un Etat s'est rendu coupable
envers ces sociétés.
Il s'agit d'un problème d'une importance capitale dans le monde
moderne, qui préoccupe lesgouvernements, leséconomisteset leshommes
d'affaires de nombreux pays soucieux d'assurer la sécurité des investisse-

ments effectués à I'étranger. Les juristes, de leur côté, s'en occupent
activement et en font un sujet d'étude constant.
Pour êtrevalable, une réclamation internationale doit nécessairement
êtrefondée sur le fait que le ressortissant de 1'Etat réclamant a été
directement Iésédans sesdroits par un acte contraire au droit international
commis par 1'Etatauquel la réclamation est adressée.
Il est indispensable que la personne protégée soit elle-mêmn eantie
d'un droit qui l'habiliterait, dans l'ordre judiciaire interne,formuler
une réclamation à raison du dommage subi.
Lorsque le débiteur d'un créancier étranger est Iésédans ses droits
par un acte qui violeledroit international, 1'Etatdont lecréancier possède

la nationalité n'est pas autoriséde ce faitexercer une protection diplo-
matique en safaveur. La question a étésoulevée à diversesreprises devant
des tribunaux arbitraux qui ont statué que ((descréanciersne sont pas
fondésen droit à demander réparation des dommages subis, par leurs
débiteurs ».
Dans l'affaire Etats-Unis d'Amérique(W. C. Greenstreet, Receiver)
c. Etats-Unis du Mexique, GeneraI Claims Commission, ila étéconclu
que la nationalité des créanciers d'une société insolvable n'avapia ts àof the creditors beingjust as immaterial as is that of the stockholders of
an insolvent company".
The case of Société civiledes porteurs d'obligations du Crédit foncier
mexicain, before the French-Mexican Commission involved a claim on
behalf of the shareholders of a bank. The bank held mortgages on rural
property and damages were claimed because the security had been dam-
aged by depredations of revolutionary forces. The Commission held that
only the owners of the property might claim. (Feller, TheMexican Claims
Commission, p. 122.) Arbitral jurisprudence confirms the thesis that
international law does not authorize the protection of affected economic
interests, but only of rights really violated.

The following arguments weremade by counsel for the applicant State :

"The problem of the diplomatic protection of the shareholders
practically only arises when the shareholders are of a different
nationality from that of the company. Indeed, an infringement ofthe
interests and rights of the company and of its shareholders might
then in this case affect the rights possessed by two or even several
States, and might consequently give rise to two or more rights to
claim, in so far as the rules relating to the treatment of foreigners
have not been respected. ...
Indeed, if one disregards the fact that the shareholders are for-
eigners, if one admits that these foreign shareholders have no rights
or interests distinct and independent from those of the company,
that they are totally inseparable from the latter vis-à-visthe outside
world, that they are entirely coveredby the veilof thejuristic person-

ality, one must then conclude that, in this event too, the case is
entirelyoutside the scope of international law."

That line of argument leads up to saying that therefore :

"The national State of the shareholders cannot exercise any right
conferred on it in favour of itsnationalsby the rules of international
law concerning thetreatment offoreigners." (Hearing of9May 1969.)

1disagree with the above statements; of course, any State can exercise

such rights in favour of its nationalsabroad,but not because they happen
to be in possession of bearer shares, but because and only ifthey have
been injured in their own specificrights by the State of residencewhich
has a duty to respect the rights of foreigners under its jurisdiction, ac-
cording to the relevant rules of international law concerning the treat-
ment of foreigners.êtreprouvée,((lanationalitédes créanciersayant tout aussi peu de perti-
nence que celle des actionnaires d'une société insolvable ».
En l'affaire de la Société civiledes porteurs d'obligations du Crédit
foncier mexicain, soumise à la commission franco-mexicaine, une récla-
mation avait été présentée au nom des actionnaires d'unebanque. Celle-ci
avait des hypothèques sur desbiens fonciers ruraux et réclamait desdom-

mages-intérêtp sarce que les biens servant de garantie avaient été endom-
magéspar des déprédations imputables auxforces révolutionnaires.La
commission a décidé que seuls les propriétaires desbiens visésétaienten
droit de demander réparation. (Feller, TheMexican Claims Commission,
p. 122.)
La jurisprudence arbitrale confirme la thèse selon laquelle le droit
international n'autorise pas à protéger des intérêté s conomiques lésés,
mais seulement des droits qui ont étéeffectivement violés.
Un conseil de 1'Etatdemandeur a développé l'argumenlation suivante:

«Le problème de la protection diplomatique des actionnaires ne
se trouve ... posé pratiquement que lorsque les actionnaires ont
une nationalitédifférentede celle de la sociétéE. n effet,une atteinte
aux intérêts et aux droits de la sociétéet de ses actionnaires risque
alors dans ce cas de toucher les droits de deux ou mêmede plusieurs
Etats et par conséquent de faire naître deux ou plusieurs droits à
réclamationdans la mesure où les règlesrelatives au traitement des
étrangers n'ont pasétérespectées.

En effet, si l'on fait abstraction du fait que des actionnaires sont
étrangers,si l'on admet que ces actionnaires étrangers n'ont pas de
droits ou d'intérêts distincts et indépendants dc eeux de la société,
qu'ils se confondent totalement avec celle-ci vis-à-vis du monde
extérieur,qu'ilssont entièrementrecouverts par levoile de la person-
nalité morale, alorsilfaut en conclureque, dans ce cas aussi, l'affaire
se trouve entièrement en dehors du champ d'application du droit
international.»

Et cette argumentation conduit à conclure que
((L'Etat national des actionnaires n'a à faire valoir aucun droit

qui lui aurait étéconféré enfaveur de sesressortissants par les règles
dedroit international relativesautraitement desétrangers.)(Audience
du 9 mai 1969.)
Je ne puis souscrire à cette thèse; bien entendu, un Etat peut exercer
de tels droits en faveur de ses ressortissantsà l'étranger,mais non pas

parce que ces ressortissants se trouvent posséder desactions au porteur;
il peut le faire parce que ses ressortissants ont étélésédans leurs droits
propres - et seulement s'ils l'ont été- par 1'Etatde résidence,lequel
est tenu de respecter les droits des étrangersplacés sous sa juridiction,
conformément auxrèglesdu droit international concernant le traitement
des étrangers. It is claimed by the Belgian side that the Spanish Government ad-
mitted "that there were certain cases in which diplomatic protection of

the shareholders in the event of damage done to the company was
allowed under international law", and quotes the Spanish admission as
saying that such protection is allowed "solely in caseswhere the company
possessesthe nationality of the State against which the claim is made, so
that diplomatic protection of the company as such is excluded".

The Spanish Government, in its Rejoinder, contends that in al1 the
cases in which the protection of the shareholders was admitted, the com-
plaints raised concerned damage done exclusively to the shareholders'
"own rights", that is to say not affecting the company itself.
In the present case, for Belgium to be able to intervene, it would thus
be necessary that there had been a violation of the rights of the Belgian
shareholders.
Such a violation is excluded, if what is complained of is steps which
were ostensibly directed against the company. It was admitted by the

Applicant, during the oral proceedings, that the Belgian claim did not
include damage resulting from an infringement of any of the recognized
direct rights of a shareholder assuch.
International law goes no further than imposing on States certain
obligations towards other States, including the obligation to afford aliens
certain treatment, for example, to give them access to their courts and
to enable them to have their lawsuits impartiallyjudged within reasonable
time limits and without discrimination.
A careful distinction should be drawn, contends the Spanish Govern-
ment, between two hypotheses which are mutually exclusive.Either there
is a wrongful injury to the righto sf the shareholders, in which case
diplomatic protection of the latter is permissible and indeed is the only
protection permissible, or else there is a wrongful injury to the rights of
the company and only the company may be the subject of such protection.
The contention is that it is utterly impossible to escape from this option.
To this contention the Belgian answer was:

"The Spanish Government reaiiy wishes to demonstrate by this
argument that in cases of multiple claims, no one may bring action
by relying on the right of another Party. But is it necessary to take
this extraordinary detour to reach a conclusion which nobody
contests? Belgium is not concerned with the injury suffered by
Barcelona Traction itself-that would be Canada's business; it is
concerned with the damage suffered by its own nationals who held
shares in the company."

If the owner of the right or rights which have suffered injury is the
company and not the shareholder, it is beyond al1doubt that the case is La Belgique soutient que le Gouvernement espagnol a reconnu cqu'il
existait certains cas où la protection diplomatique en cas de préjudice
causé à la sociétéétaitadmise par le droit international », et, citant ses
sources, la Belgique indique que, selon l'Espagne, cette protection est
admise cexclusivement dans des cas où la société ala nationalité de

1'Etat mêmecontre lequel la réclamation est adressée,de sorte qu'une
protection diplomatique de la sociétéen tant que telle se trouve être
exclue v.
Dans sa duplique, le Gouvernement espagnol expose que dans tous les
cas où la protection des actionnaires a été admise,les réclamations
visaient un préjudice causéexclusivement aux adroits propres )) des
actionnaires, c'est-à-dire n'atteignant pas la société elle-même.
En l'espèce,pour que la Belgique puisse intervenir, il faudrait donc
qu'il y ait eu violation des droits des actionnaires belges.

Une telle violation est excluesi l'on se plaint de mesures dirigéesosten-
siblement contre la société. Enplaidoirie, le demandeur a admis que la
réclamation belge ne visait pas les dommages résultant d'une violation
de l'un quelconque des droits propres reconnus aux actionnaires.

Le droit international se borne à imposer à 1'Etat un certain nombre
d'obligations vis-à-vis des autres Etats, dont celle de réserveraux étran-
gers un traitement déterminé,par exemple de leur donner accès à ses

tribunaux et de permettre que leurs demandes soient impartialement
jugéesdans des délaisraisonnables et sans discrimination.
Le Gouvernement espagnol soutient qu'ilya lieu dedistinguer soigneu-
sement deux hypothèses qui s'excluent mutuellement. Ou bien il y a at-
teinte illicite auxdroit des actionnaires, et la protection diplomatique
de ces derniers est permise et mêmela seule àl'être,ou bien il y a atteinte
illicite aux droits de la sociéet seulecelle-cipeut faire l'objet d'une telle
protection. Il serait radicalement impossible de sortir de cette alternative.

A cette affirmation, la Belgique a rétorquéque:
((Le Gouvernement espagnol veut en réalitédémontrer par là
qu'en cas de réclamations multiples, nul ne peut agir en invoquant
le droit de l'autre. Mais est-il nécessairede passer par cet extra-
ordinaire détour pour en arriver là? ..La Belgique ne se préoccupe

pas du préjudicesubi par la Barcelona Traction elle-même - ce qui
serait l'affaire du Canada - mais bien de celui qui a étésupporté
par ses propres nationaux, actionnaires de la société. ))

Si le titulaire du ou des droits auxquels il a étéporté atteinte est la
sociétéet non pas l'actionnaire, il est hors de doute que l'on se trouveone which falls entirely outside the sphere in which the diplomatic
protection of shareholders by their national State can be admissible, or
even conceivable.
The Respondent in its Rejoinder States:

"The international Societyof today is certainly not asking for a
further reinforcement of the protection of certain capitalist groups
already too powerful and only too capable of securing support for
themselves, a reinforcement which would take the shape of the
possibility of increased pressureon the weaker nations." (Rejoinder,
Part III, Chapter II, Section II, para. 43.)

It adds :
"Contemporary international law tends to concern itself more
with the need to protect countries with a weak economy than to
favour, as the Belgian Government would wish, 'the financial needs
of great modern undertakings'." (Zbid.)

"Very many States insist, for very good reasons, that foreign
capital must be invested in national companies. This is the case, in
particular, in many countries in the course of development, but a
certain number ofhighly industrialized countries impose similarcon-
ditions either defucto or de jure. What is more, foreign investors
themselves frequently and spontaneously chose this legal formula
which may in their view offer certain advantages."

There is a case to which the Belgian side ascribe importance. This is
the case of the American national, McPherson, who laid a claim before
the U.S.-Mexican Commission in 1923against the Mexican Government,
which had refused to honour the postal money-orders which McPherson
had bought through an agent from illegalauthorities and which the latter
had issued in the name of the agent. The decision in that case was deliv-
ered on the basis of'a convention which, in several essential aspects
and by its veryspirit, manifestlyderogated from general international law.

Which are the applicable principles of international law and what are
the consequences of their application to the present case?
What follows expresses my views on the matter:
International law lays upon every State in whose territory foreign
natural or juristic persons reside, remain, operate or even simply possess
property, an obligation towards the State of which such persons are
nationals: the obligation to afford them certain treatment. That treat-
ment, which is defined most usuallyand in greater detail by the rules of
treaty law, neverthelesshas its minimum requirements laid down by CUS-entièrement hors du domaine dans lequel la protection diplomatique
d'actionnaires par leur Etat national peut êtreadmissible, voire conce-
vable.

Dans sa duplique, le défendeur affirme:
(La société internationale d'aujourd'hui ne demande certainement
pas un renforcement ultérieurde la protection de certains groupes
capitalistes déjàtrop puissants et trop capables de se procurer des
appuis, renforcement qui setraduiraitdans une possibilitédepression

accrue su? les pays plus faible* (duplique, vol. II, p. 1062).

11ajoute:

((Ledroit international contemporain est amené à se préoccuper
davantage des exigences de protection des pays à économie faible
qu'à favoriser, comme le voudrait le Gouvernement belge, ((les
besoins de financement des grandes entreprises modernes )).(Ibid.)

((Detrès nombreuxEtats exigent,pour de trèsbonnes raisons, que
les capitaux étrangers s'investissent dans des sociétésnationales.
C'est le fait, en particulier, de beaucoup de pays en voie de
développement, mais uncertain nombre de pays hautement indus-
trialisésposent, en fait ou en droit, des conditions analogues. Bien
mieux, les inv~stisseursétrangerschoisissent eux-mêmesspontané-
ment, dans plus d'une occasion, cetteformule juridique qui peut
présenter àleurs yeux des avantages certains.»

La Partie belge a fait beaucoup de cas d'une certaine affaire. Il s'agit
de la réclamation dont un ressortissant américain, McPherson, avait
saisi la Commission des réclamations Etats-Unis-Mexiaue en 1923. Il
était reprochéau Gouvernement mexicain d'avoir refuséd'honorer les

mandats-poste, que McPherson avait achetés à des autorités illégales
par l'intermédiaired'un mandataire, et que ces autorités avaientémisau
nom de ce dernier. Or la décisionrendue dans cette affaire sefondait sur
une convention qui, sur des points essentiels et dans son esprit même,
dérogeait manifestementau droit international général.
Quels sont les principes de droit international applicables et quelles
sont les conséquencesde leur application à la présente affaire?
Mon opinion est la suivante:
Le droit international impose à tout Etat sur le territoire duquel des
personnes physiques et morales étrangèresrésident,demeurent, exercent

leur activitéou simplement possèdent des biens, uneobligation envers
1'Etat dont ces personnes sont ressortissantes: l'obligation de leur ac-
corder un certain traitement. Ce traitement, généralement défind ie
manière plus précise par le droit conventionnel, n'en est pas moins prévutomary international law. Those minimum requirements consist essen-
tially in the respect, within givenlimits and conditions, of certain rights
of a persona1 or corporate nature, and in the granting, at the same time,
of the possibility of making use, if necessary, of appropriate judicial or
administrative remedies.

Correlative with that obligation, the State of which such persons are
nationals has, at the international level, a right to require the State which
is bound by the obligation to act in conformity therewith, and it has a
right, if occasion arises, to submit a claim in proper form and through
accepted channels, should that obligation fail to be discharged. That is
preciselywhat is known as the exercisingof diplomaticprotection. It also
includes protection by means of recourse to international jurisdiction.

The rights attributed to a State by international legal rules concerning
the treatment of foreigners, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the
rights granted to individuals by the rules of municipal law, are situated at

different legal levels.
The existence of the individual's right at the municipal levelis the con-
dition whereby a state is authorized, at the international level,to require
that that right be not infringed. Al1that a State can require of another
State forits own nationals isthe respect of those rights which are accorded
to them under the national legal system, as they are defined by that legal
system.
When the foreigner in question is a juristic person, the case is no dif-
ferent, theoretically, from a case in which a natural person is involved.
Al1legal systems agree in consideringjoint-stock companies (sociét des
capitaux) as independent legal entities. The latter represent autonomous
beings to which rights and obligations may be ascribed; they are, in
short, of themselves subjects in law.
International law, both customary and treaty law, recognizes precisely
in respect of the treatment of foreigners, the existence of companies as
entities which are separate from their members.
For juridical persons as for natural persons, "nationality" expresses a

link of legally belonging to a specificState. The requirement for juridical
persons as for natural persons, is that the existence of the link of legally
belonging to a specificcountry must, if it is to serve as a plea at the inter-
national level, be accompanied by that of a "real" link with the same
country. In general international law, a State is not entitled to require a
specifictreatment for a person who has not its nationality and it can thus
not complain that such treatment has not been accorded to that person.

A State may present a claim on behalf of its national if it becomes
apparent that there has been a breach of a right belonging to the latter;
but no State may present a claim on behalf of a person of its nationality par le droit international coutumier pour ce qui est de ses exigences
minimales. Celles-ciconsistent essentiellement, mais dans certaines limites
et sous certaines conditions, dans lerespect decertains droits desindividus
ou des personnes morales, ainsi que dans l'octroi concomitant de la
faculté d'avoirrecours, en cas de besoin, aux organes judiciaires et ad-
ministratifs appropriés.
Corrélativement à ces obligations, 1'Etatdont ces personnes sont res-
sortissantes a le droit, sur le plan international, d'exiger queEtat tenu
par cette obligation s'yconforme, et il a aussi le droit de présenter,le cas
échéant;une réclamation dans les formes et suivant la procédure ap-
propriées, si cette obligation n'est pas honorée. C'est exactement là ce
qu'on entend par l'exercice de la protection diplomatique. Celle-ci
comprend égalementla protection par voie de recours exercésdevant des

juridictions internationales.
Les droits reconnus aux Etats par les règlesde droit international con-
cernant le traitement des étrangers,d'une part, et les droits reconnus aux
individus par les règlesde droit interne, d'autre part, se situent sur des
plans juridiques différents.
L'existence du droit de l'individu sur le plan interne est la condition
qui permet d'exiger, sur le plan international, que ce droit ne soit pas
enfreint. Tout ce qu'un Etat peut exiger d'un autre Etat pour ses propres
nationaux est le respect des droits qui leur sont reconnus dans le système
juridique interne, tels que ce systèmeles définit.

Quand l'étrangerest une personne morale, le cas n'est pas différent,

en théorie, decelui des personnes physiques. Tous les systèmesjuridiques
s'accordent pour considérerque les sociétésde capitaux sont des entités
juridiques indépendantes. Elles sont des personnes autonomes auxquelles
desdroits etdesobligations peuvent êtreattribués;en résumée ,llessont en
elles-mêmesdes sujetsde droit.
En matière de traitement des étrangers,le droit international tant cou-
tumier que conventionnel, reconnaît précisément l'existence des sociétés
comme entitésdistinctes de leurs membres.
Pour les personnes morales comme pour les personnes physiques, la
((nationalité»exprime le lien juridique d'appartenance à un Etat déter-
miné.Pour les personnes morales comme pour les personnes physiques,
la condition imposée, si l'on veut invoquer cette appartenance à l'appui
d'une réclamation internationale, est qu'elle s'accompagne d'un lien

de rattachement ((réel » avec le même pays. En droit international
général,un Etat n'a pas le droit d'exiger qu'un certain traitement soit
accordé à une personne qui ne possède pas sa nationalité, et en consé-
quence il ne peut se plaindre si cetraitement n'a pasété accordé à ladite
personne.
Un Etat peut formuler une réclamationau nom d'un de ses nationaux
s'il apparaît qu'il y a eu violation d'un droit appartenant à ce dernier;
mais aucunEtat n'a ledroit deformuler uneréclamationaunom d'uneper-on the ground that there was failure to respect a right belonging to
another person, possessing another nationality.
The national State of the company can present a claim for the breach
of a right of the company as such; the national State of the shareholder
can present a claim for the breach of a right "strictosensu"of the share-

holder as such. The fact that there are relationships and links between
different persons does not imply that they merge into a single person.

A claim by a State under the head of diplomatic protection of a
national who is a shareholder of a commercial company is only admis-
sible subject to a two-fold condition: the applicant State must be able to
claim violation of a right of the shareholder as such; and it must be
established that the State which was the author of the alleged violation
was under an international obligation to the applicant State to ensure
respect for the right in question. The receivability of a claim under that
head is ruled out if it appears, firstly, that the right which is said to have
been violated isa right of the company and not of the shareholder, and,
secondly, that the international obligation to ensure respect for the said
right was incumbent on the respondent State in respect of the national
State ofthe company and not in respect ofthe national State of the share-

holder.
It follows from the principles of international law that in order for a
State to be able to submit a claim in behalf of a national, it must be able
to claim that its national has sufferedan infringement ofhis ownrightsby
a foreign State, and that rights have been infringed for which the latter
State was bound to ensure respect by virtue of an international obligation
binding on it in respect of the claimant State.
There is nothing to prevent a'StateYssubmitting a claim in behalf of a
national which relates to that national's position in his capacityas a
shareholder in a company; but, in such a case, it must prove that the
person in question has been injured in the rights conferred upon him
himself precisely onaccountof his capacity of beinga shareholder :that he
has been injured in rights which are inherent in that capacity.
It is by nomeans sufficientthat the claimant State rely upon an injury
to the rights of the company as such, for no State may submit a claim in
behalf of a person on the ground that there has been a failure to respect

a right which belongs to another person, whether such latter person be a
natural or a juristic person.
International law only authorizes a State to intervene by way of diplo-
matic protection if such State relies upon a complaint which is its own
complaint: that is to say, if it complains of the infringement of a right of
one of its nationals, committed in violation of an international obligation
which binds to it the State which has committed the infringement.
If there has not been in the case at issue any infringement of any right
of a shareholder, that fact cannot be altered simply by referring to
interestsas well as rights.sonne ayant sa nationalité en raison de ce qu'un droit appartenantà une
autre personne, possédant uneautre nationalité, n'a pas étérespecté.
L'Etat national d'une société peut formuler une réclamation pour la
violation d'un droit appartenant à cette sociétéen tant que telle; 1'Etat
national de I'actionnaire peut formuler une réclamation pour une in-
fraction au droit stricto sensude l'actionnaire en tant que tel. L'existence
de rapports ou de liens entre des personnes différentes n'implique pas
que ces personnes se confondent.
Une réclamationprésentéepar un Etat au titre de la protection diplo-
matique d'un de sesressortissants, actionnaire d'une société commerciale,

n'est recevable qu'àla double condition suivante:I'Etat demandeur doit
pouvoir invoquer laviolation d'undroitpropre deI'actionnaireentant que
tel, et il doit être établi queatqui est l'auteur de la violation alléguée
avait envers 1'Etat demandeur l'obligation internationale d'assurer le
respect de ce droit. Une demande de cette nature n'est pas recevable s'il
apparaît, premièrement, que le droit prétendumentvioléappartient à la
sociétéet non à I'actionnaire, et, deuxièmement, que l'obligation inter-
nationale d'assurer le respect de ce droit incombait à 1'Etat défendeur
envers 1'Etatnational de la sociétéet non envers 1'Etatnational de l'ac-
tionnaire.

11découle des principesdu droit international que pour formuler une
réclamation aunom d'un desesnationaux, un Etat doit êtreen mesure de
dire que son ressortissant a étévictime d'une violation de ses droits

propres dela part d'un Etat étranger, etque lesdroits ainsi violésfaisaient
partie de ceux dont cedernier Etat étaittenu d'assurer le respect en vertu
d'une obligation internationale qui le liaàtl'égardde 1'Etat réclamant.
Rien n'interditàun Etat de présenter,au nom d'un de ses nationaux,
une réclamationrelative à la situation de cedernier en tant qu'actionnaire
d'une société;mais alors il doit prouver que cette personne a étélésée
dans les droits qui lui appartiennent titre personnel etprécisément ena
qualitéd'actionnaire;en d'autres termes, qu'elle a étéatteinte dans des
droits inhérentsà cette qualité.
Il ne suffit nullement que 1'Etat réclamant invoque une atteinte aux
droits de la société elle-mêmc e,r aucun Etat ne peut présenterde ré-
clamation au nom d'une personne à raison du non-respect d'un droit
appartenant à une autre personne, que cette dernière soit une personne

physique ou une personne morale.
Le droit international n'autorise un Etatà intervenir au moyen de la
protection diplomatique que pour autant que cet Etat invoque un grief
qui lui est propre, c'est-à-dire s'il se plaint d'uneraciion aux droits
d'un de ses ressortissants, commise en violation d'une obligation inter-
nationale liantà son égard1'Etatqui a commis l'infraction.
Si, dans l'affaire soumisà la Cour, il n'y a pas eu violation d'un droit
appartenant à l'actionnaire, onne change rienà cefait en parlant simple-
ment d'intérêtesn même tempsque de droits. The situation of the shareholder as definedby the various legal systems,
covers the rights which are defined in the decision on the Brincart case.
No system of positive law confers on a shareholder in a limited company
other subjective legalsituations and, in particular, no systemattributes to
him any legal interest in the property of the cornpany, as has been ex-
pressly acknowledged by both sides.

One cannot accept the transformation of a shareholder's hope for the
prosperity of the cornpany into a right or a legal interest, nor any possi-
bility for a shareholder to claim that an infringement of the rights of the
company constitutes an infringement of his own legal situation.

The rules of international law concerning the responsibility of the
State regarding the treatment of foreigners would not make it possible to
impute to a State an internationally unlawful act even in a case where the
said State had only harmed an interest which was not protected by the
municipal legal system of that State.

There has not been established, in respect ofthe alleged Belgian share-
holders of Barcelona Traction, the existence of any juridical situation
whatsoever attaching to their status as shareholders which suffered any
internationally unlawful attack on the part of the Spanish administrative
or judicial authorities.

Barcelona Traction is said to have been a "practically defunct" com-
PanY.
Shareholders are not entitled to take the place of the company in
defending the latter's own rights when it is these rights which have been
affected, for so long at least as the company has not yet been dissolved
and liquidated and the shareholderstherefore have ho right to its property
and assets.
It is only when a company has been dissolved and consequently ceases
to exist as a separate legal entity that the shareholders take its place and
are entitled to receive the balance of its property, after the corporate

debthas been deducted. Thus it is only the "legal death" of the corporate
person that may give rise to new rights appertaining to the shareholders
as successors to the company.

In 1925the United States claimed the right, as against the Government
of the United Kingdom, to intervene on behalf of American interests in
a non-American corporation (the Romano-Americana).
In the United Kingdom answer to the American contention, it was
said: ". ..it is not until a Company has ceased to have an active exis-
tence or has gone into liquidation that the interest of its shareholders
ceasesto be merely the righttoshare in theCompany'sprojitsand becomes La situation de l'actionnaire, telle qu'elle est définiepar les différents
systèmesjuridiques, recouvre les droits définispar la décisionrendue dans
l'affairerincart.Aucun systèmede droit positif neconfère à l'actionnaire
d'une sociétéanonyme une autre situation juridique faite d'éléments
subjectifs, et en particulier aucun système nelui reconnaît unntérêtjuri-
dique sur le patrimoine de la société,e qui a d'ailleurs étéexpressément
admis par les deux Parties.
On ne saurait accepter que l'espoir d'un actionnaire de voir la société
prospérerse transforme en un droit ou en un intérêtjuridique, eton ne

saurait davantage accepter la possibilité,pour l'actionnaire, de prétendre
qu'une atteinte aux droits de la sociéconstitue une atteinteà ses droits
propres.
Les règlesde droit international concernant la responsabilitéde 1'Etat
en matière de traitement des étrangersne permettent pas d'imputer à un
Etat un acte internationalement illicite, si cet Etat a seulement porté
atteinteà un intérêqtui n'est pas protégépar le systèmejuridique interne
dudit Etat.
Pour ce qui concerne les actionnaires censémentbelgesde la Barcelona
Traction, an n'a établil'existence d'aucune situation juridique liée à
leur statut d'actionnaires qui ait souffert d'atteintes internationalement
illicites du fait des autoritésadministratives ou judiciaires espagnoles.

La Barcelona Traction aurait été((pratiquement défunte)), nous
dit-on.
Mais les actionnaires ne sont pas habilitésà se substituerà la société
pour défendreles droits propres de celle-ci quand ce sont ces droits qui
ont été atteints car, du moins tant que la sociétén'est pas dissoute et
liquidée,les actionnaires n'ont aucun droit sur le patrimoine social.

C'est seulementquand une société a été dissouteet qu'elle cesseainsi
d'exister entant qu'entité juridique distincte, que les actionnaires pren-
nent sa place et sont habilités à se partager le reliquat de ses avoirs,

une fois les dettes sociales acquittées. C'est donc uniquement le ((décès
juridique »de la personne moralequi peut donner naissance àde nouveaux
droits au profit des actionnaires en leur qualité de successeurs de la
société.
En 1925les Etats-Unis firent valoirà l'encontre du Gouvernement du
Royaume-Uni le droit d'intervenir pour le compte d'intérêts américains
dans une sociéténon américaine(la Romano-Americana).
Dans sa réponse à la réclamation américaine,le Royaume-Uni disait:
((ce n'est que lorsqu'une sociétén'a plus d'existence active ou est en
liquidation que l'intérêt dees actionnaires cesse d'êtreun simple droià
unepart desbénéJced se la sociétet devient un droitàune part de l'excé-a right to share in its actual surplus assets" (Hackworth, Digest oflnter-
nationalLaw, Vol. V (1943), p. 843).
In the case of the Mexican Eagle, a company incorporated in Mexico,
inwhichthe shareholdings were 70percent. British andDutch, 25per cent.
French and the remainder Swiss,Danish and other interests (as the shares
were in bearer form it was impossible to state the exact proportion of
each national interest), a dispute arose between the Mexican Government
and the United Kingdom Government regarding claims by British share-
holders arising from the expropriation of the properties of the Mexican
Eagle Company.
The Mexican Government in a Note of 26 April 1938,maintained the
viewthat a shareholder was not a CO-ownerof the property of the under-
taking but "merely the possessor of a right in equity to represent a part of
the liquid assets at the moment of the dissolution or liquidation of the

company".
lt was not until the moment of dissolution that it was possible to
establish the damage and injuries sustained by shareholders as distinct
from thecompany (MervynJones, British YearBook of InternationalLaw,
1949,p. 241).
On that occasion the Mexican Government stated: "Mexico cannot
admit that any State, on the pretext of protecting the interests of the
shareholders of a Mexican company, may deny the existence of the legal
entity of companies organised in Mexico in accordance with Ourlaws."

1do not concur with the viewthat the national State of the shareholders
may exercisediplomatic protection when the act complained of was done
by the national State of the company, for this would be equivalent to
admitting that any State, on the pretext of protecting the interests of the
shareholders in a foreign company, may deny the existence of the legal
entity of companies organized in accordance with the laws of the national

State of such companies.
1 have reservations about paragraph 92 of the Judgment. For the rea-
sons stated above 1am of the opinion that the so-called theory to which
the paragraph refers does not have any validity. The fact that the Judg-
ment ends the paragraph with the sentence: " Whatever the validity of this
theory rnaybe, itis certainly not applicableto thepresent case,since Spain
is not the national State of Barcelona Traction"should not be interpreted
as an admission that such "theory" might be applicable in other cases
where the State whose responsibility isinvoked isthe national State of the
company.
This is a fundamental point in the field of intervention on behalf of
nationals who are shareholders in foreign companies of limited liability.

Regardless of the numerous cases of protection which took place inthe
past-outside international law or contrary to it-by the use of economic,
political or military pressure, it is worth recalling that-ain the past- dent d'actif réel1)(Hackworth, Digest of International Law, vol. V, 1943,

p. 843).
Dans le cas de la Mexican Eagle, sociétéconstituéeau Mexique, 70 pour
cent du capital-actions était britannique et néerlandais, 25 pour cent
était français, le reste se répartissant en intérêtssuisses, danois et autres

(mais les actions étant au porteur il était impossible de connaître la
proportion exacte de chacun de ces intérêtsnationaux). Un litige surgit
entre le Gouvernement du Mexique et celui du Royaume-Uni, des
actionnaires britanniques ayant formulé des réclamations à la suite de

l'expropriation des biens de la société.
Dans une note du 26 avril 1938, le Gouvernement mexicain exprimait
l'opinion qu'un actionnaire n'était pas copropriétaire du patrimoine de
l'entreprise mais ((qu'ilpossédait simplement un droit en équité représen-

tant une part de l'actif liquide au moment de la dissolution ou de la liqui-
dation de la société 11.
Ce n'est qu'au moment de la dissolution qu'il est possible de déter-
miner les dommages et le préjudice subis par les actionnaires en les

distinguant de ceux 'éprouvéspar la société (MervynJones, British Year
Book of International Law, 1949, p. 241).
A cette occasion, le Gouvernement mexicain avait déclaré: 1LeMexique
ne peut pas admettre que, sous prétexte de protéger les intérêtsdes action-

naires d'une société mexicaine,un Etat quelconque puisse nier l'existence
de la personnalitéjuridique de sociétésconsti:uées au Mexique conformé-
ment à nos lois. 11
Je ne partage pas le point de vile selon lequel I'Etat national des action-
naires peut exercer la protection diplomatiquequand l'acte incriminéa été

commis par 1'Etat national de la société.car cela revient à admettre que
tout Etat, sous prétexte de protkger les intérêtsdes actionnaires d'une
société étrangère, peutrefuser de reconnaître la personnalitk juridique de
sociétésconstituées conformément aux lois de 1'Etat national de ces

sociétés.
J'ai des réserves à formuler sur le paragraphe 92 de l'arrêt.Pour les
raisons que je viens d'énoncer,je suis d'avis que la prétendue thèse visée
par ce paragraphe est dépourvue de toute validité. Le fait que ce para-

graphe de l'arrêtse termine par la phrase suivante: (Quelle que soit la
validitéde cette thèse,elle ne saurait aucunement être appliquéà elaprésente
afaire, puisque l'Espagne n'est pas I'Etat national de la Barcelona Trac-
tion 11ne doit pas êtreinterprété comme impliquant que cette (thèse 1)

pourrait être applicabledans d'autres cas où 1'Etat dont la responsabilité
est alléguéeest 1'Etat national de la société.
Il s'agit là d'un point fondamental dans le domaine de l'intervention
exercée pour le compte de nationaux qui sont actionnaires de sociétés

anonymes étrangères.
Abstraction faite des nombreux cas où le droit de protection a été
exercé dans le passé - en marge ou en contravention du droit inter-
national - au moyen de pressions économiques, politiques ou militaires,in other cases when a stand was taken within a legal point of view and

respect for the sovereignty of other States, there has been a historical
recognition of the separate entity of corporations of limited liability, and
the opinions given in such instances did stress the independent existence
of a company as juridical person.

For example, when the Government of the United States was approach-
ed in 1875with a request that it should intervene on behalf of American

stockholders in Chilean corporations, it refused to do so. It adhered to
the view that a corporation formed under local law should have recourse
to the local courts and that although the good officesof the Government
might with propriety be exercised on behalf of American interests, there
could be no officia1intervention l (Moore, Digest of International Law
(1906), Vol. VI, p. 644). The practice of the United Kingdom followed

similar lines. Thus Sir Robert Phillimore advised that the British Minister
to Mexico should be instructed to limit himself to "good offices" on
behalf of a British shareholder in a Mexican railway siezedbythe Mexican
Government and that the British subject should be told that he must rely
principally on local remedies. Years later both Governments found reason
to depart from this practice.
1 therefore cannot accept that this situation-which is not the one

before the Court-should be considered as a limitation or exception to
the strict application of the rule of international law, according to which
the shareholders cannot be protected by their national State except in
two instances: (a) when the company has been liquidated, and (b) when
a right of the shareholder as such (right stricto sensu) has been violated
by an illicit act entailing international responsibility.
The scope and increasing activities of powerful international corpora-

tions have had as their field of operation the exploitation of the natural

The Secretary of State of the United States in a dispatch to the (American)
Minister to Colornbia, dated27 April 1866, wrote as follows:

holders in our national banks.tSuch persons may own al1 the shares except aock-
few necessary for the directors whom they select.

1sit to be thought that each of those Governments shall intervene when their
subjects consider the bank aggrieved by the operations of this Government?
If it were tolerated, supposegland were to agree to one mode of adjustment,
or one rneasure of darnages,while France shouid insist upon another, what end
is conceivable to the cornplications that mightsue?

It is argued that there is no policy which requires us to encourage the ern-
ployment of Arnerican capital abroad by extending to it any protection beyond
capacity of our citizens domiciled abroad forrposes of rnere pleasure, ease or
profit toinvolve this Government in controversy with foreign powers." (Loc.
cir.,pp. 645-646.) BARCELONATRACTION (OP. IND. PADlLLA NERVO) 258

il n'est pas inutile de rappeler que - dans le passé égalemen t à l'acca-

sion de prises de positions juridiques sur le respect de la souverainetédes
autresEtats, il ya eu reconnaissancehistorique de la personnalité distincte
des sociétésanonymes, et que les opinions exprimées à ce propos ont
soulignél'existenceindépendantede la sociétéen tant que personne juri-
dique.
C'est ainsi qu'en1875le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis, invité à inter-

venir pour le compte d'actionnaires américains de sociétés chiliennes,
répondit par un refus. Sa position fut alors qu'une société forméecon-
formément à la loi locale doit avoir recours aux tribunaux locaux. et
que, si le gouvernement pouvait légitimement user de ses bons ofices
en faveur des intérêts américains il, ne pouvait êtrequestion d'une inter-

vention officielle ' (Moore, Digest of International Law, 1906, vol. VI,
p. 644). Le Royaume-Uni a eu une pratique similaire. Ainsi, sir Robert
Phillimore fit savoir que le ministre britannique au Mexique devait être
prié de limiteraux <bons offices 1son intervention en faveur d'un action-
naire britanniaue d'un chemin de fer mexicain saisioar le Gouvernement

mexicain et qu'il fallait inciter ce sujet britannique à utiliser avant-tout
les recours locaux. Plus tard, les deux gouvernements jugèrent bon de
s'écarter de cettepratique.
Par conséquent,je ne peux accepter que cette situation - qui n'est pas
cellede l'espèce - soit considérée commeunelimitation ou uneexception
à l'application stricte de la règle dedroit international suivant laquelle

les actionnaires ne peuvent pas êtreprotégéspar leur Etat national, sauf
dans deux cas: a) quand la société aété liquidée;b) quand un droit
propre de l'actionnaire (droit stricto sensu) a étéviolépar un acte illicite
entraînant une responsabilitéinternationale.
De ouissantes sociétésinternationales ont étendu leur activité sans

cesse croissante à l'exploitation des ressources naturelles de maints pays

le secrétaire'Etat des Etats-Unis écrivait cequi suit:e datée du 27 avril 1866,

<Il se peut que des ressortissants de la Grande-Bretagne, de la France et de la
Russie soient actionnaires de nosbanques nationales. De telles personnes peuvent
en posséder toutes les actions a l'exception du petit nombre nécessaire aux
admSerait-il concevable que les gouvernements de chacun de ces pays puissent
intervenir quand leurs ressortissants se considèrent léséspar les actes de notre
gouvernement? Si on le tolérait, supposez que l'Angleterre accepte un certain
mode de règlement ou un certain montant de dommages-intérêts, etque la
France en réclameun autre; verrait-on jamais la fin des complications qui en
résulteraient?
On peut faire valoir qu'aucune politique ne nous obligeencourager l'emploi
de capitaux américains a l'étranger en leur accordant davantage que la pro-
tectionà laquelle nous sommes strictement tenus. Ce serait une politique peu
sage que de donner à nos concitoyens établisà l'étrangerpour leur seul plaisir,
confort ou intérêtdes moyens accrus d'impliquer le gouvernement de notre
pays dans des controverses avec les puissances étrangères.(Loc. cit., p. 645-
646.) resources of many countries in the process of development and have con-
trolled the functioning of many of their public services over which the
territorial States have corne to be, notwithstanding their sovereignty, in
a subordinated position, and their right to demand compliance with the
prescription of their municipal law on the matter has in many cases been
challenged and put in jeopardy. Faced with the structure and practice of
capitalist society in regard to foreign investment, many countries have
imposed the requirement on foreign capital of taking the legal form
prescribed by local legislation. The exercise of the sovereignty of States
in thismatter cannot be legally construed as a device to deprive the even-
tua1 shareholders in corporations of limited liability (sociétésanonymes)
of the diplomatic action of their national State. Nationalization and
expropriation, in accordance with the law on the matter, have been the
result of the essential need not to have public utilities and national
resources subordinated to the private interests of foreign corporations.
1 am also of the opinion that neither is a limitation to the rule-

according to which it is the national State of the company who has the
right of protection-the fact that the protecting State does not exercise
its right or ceases to do it. The right of protection is a discretionary
one and the national State of the company is not under a duty to pro-
tect.
In respect to paragraph 93 1 must make the following observations.
The paragraph begins with the consideration that "in the field of
diplomatic protection of shareholders as in al1other fields... it is neces-
sary that the law be applied reasonably".
The phrase immediately following refers to a suggestion which might
be interpreted as an example of reasonableness on the matter. The sug-
gestion, or hypothesis, is to the effect that, "if in a given case it is not
possible to apply the general rule" . . then, "considerations of equity
might cal1for the possibility of protection of the shareholders in question
by their own national State". The last sentence in this paragraph States:
"This hypothesis does not correspondto the circumstancesof the present

case."
1 am of the opinion that there is no need for the Judgment to include
reference to an irrelevant hypothesis. Tt is difficiilt to imagine a case in
which it would be impossible to apply the general rule that the right of
diplomatic protection of a company belongs to its national State.
It might be argued that in case the company is liquidated and therefore
ceases legally to exist its national State loses the subject of its right and
the general rule cannot be applied. In such eventuality the shareholders
can undertake the defence of their interest before the courts of the State
whose responsibility is invoked and exhaust the local Iègalremedies open
to them. If a denial of justice is claimed, then the national State of the
person whose rights are violated may intervene according to the rules
concerning the protection of foreigners, but in such hypothesis the State
of the shareholders exercises a right of its own (whether or not such right en voie de développementet se sont assuréle contrôle d'un bon nombre
deleurs servicespublics, desorte que cesEtats, malgré leursouveraineté,se
sont trouvésplacés à cet égarddans une situation de subordination, et il
est souvent arrivé que leur droit d'exigerle respect des dispositions de leur
législation interne en la matière soit contesté et compromis. Face aux

structures et aux pratiques de la sociétécapitaliste en matière d'investisse-
ments étrangers, de nombreux pays ont exigéque lescapitaux étrangers se
soumettent aux formes juridiques prescrites par la législationnationale.
L'exercice de la souveraineté des Etats dans ce domaine ne saurait être
juridiquement interprété commeun stratagème destiné à priver lesaction-
naires éventuels de sociétés anonymes du bénéficed'une intervention
diplomatique de leur Etat national. Les nationalisations et les expropria-
tions réalisées,conformément à la loi, s'expliquent par la nécessitéfon-
damentale de soustraire les services publics et les ressources nationales

à la mainmise des intérêts privésde sociétésétrangères.
Je suis également d'avisque la règle - suivant laquelle c'est 1'Etat
national de la sociétéqui est investi du droit de protection - n'est pas
non plus limitéepar le fait que 1'Etathabilité à protégern'exerce pas son
droit ou cessede l'exercer. Le droit de protection est un droit discrétion-
naire et 1'Etatnational de la sociétén'est nullement tenu de l'exercer.

Sur le paragraphe 93, je formulerai les observations suivantes.
11est dit au débutde ce paragraphe que cdans le domaine de la pro-

tection diplomatique des actionnaires comme dans tous les autres do-
maines, le droit ...exige une application raisonnable )).
La phrase qui suit immédiatement se rapporte à une suggestion pou-
vant être interprétée comme un exemple de ce qui est raisonnable dans ce
domaine. Cette suggestion, ou hypothèse, est que, «si l'on ne peut ap-
pliquer dans un cas d'espècela règle générale ..il pourrait être indiqué,
pour des raisons d'équité, quela protection des actionnaires en cause soit
assuréepar leur propre Etat national ))Et le paragraphe se termine par
la phrase suivante: (L'hypothèseenvisagéene correspondpas aux circons-

tances de la présenteaffaire. »
A mon avis, il n'y a pas lieu d'envisager dans l'arrêtune hypothèse
sans pertinence en l'espèce.Il est difficiled'imaginer un cas où il serait
impossible d'appliquer la règlegénérale suivant laquellele droit de pro-
tection diplomatique d'une société appartient à son Etat national.
On pourrait soutenir qu'au cas où la société est liquidée et cesse donc
juridiquement d'exister, le droit de 1'Etat dont elle a la nationalité perd
son objet et la règle générale ne peut pas êtreappliquée.Dans une telle
éventualité,les actionnaires peuvent venir défendre leurs intérêts devant

les tribunaux de 1'Etat dont ils allèguent la responsabilité et épuiserles
recours internes qui leur sont ouverts en droit. Si l'on estime qu'il y a
déni dejustice, 1'Etatnational de la personne dont les droits ont étéviolés
peut intervenir conformément aux règles relatives à la protection des
étrangers, mais dans cette hypothèse 1'Etat national des actionnaires260 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP. PADILLA NERVO)

is qualified as "secondary") and if so its action is not based on "con-
siderations of equity".

The whole Judgment is based on the ground that according to inter-
national law the national State of the company, and only and exclusively
it, has the right'of diplomatic and judicial protection of such company.
Therefore it is a contradiction of a legal nature to state even as an ir-
relevant hypothesis that there might be a circumstance when that State
which, by definition, has the legal capacity to act could be legally or
juridically incapacitated-the State concerned is free to exercise its right
or not but its abstention to pursue an action does not affect its right to
take it. Tt cannot lose its legal capacity and a hypothesis based on the
impossibility to apply thegeneral ruleis a juridical contradiction and has

no reasonable explanation even as a whimsical hypothesis. It is also in-
conceivable that if Canada does not exercise its discretionary right of
protection then this fact givesbirth to the right of the shareholders' State.

Therefore on those hypothetical limitations it is not possible to build
a Belgian iusstcmdi.
In respect of the attitude in this case of the national State of Barcelona
Traction, the Respondent describes as follows the three successivephases
of the Canadian Government's action, resulting from the examination of
the diplomatic correspondence and relevant documents:

"The first, going up to the time of the Tripartite Statement, was
the phase in which, misinformed by the interested parties, it accused
Spain of having violated obligations in general international law
with regard to the treatment of foreigners and, on that ground,
requested the Spanish Government to intervene with a view to the
annulment of the acts of the judicial authorities.

The second phase, which followed upon the Tripartite Statement
and did not last long, was characterized by thedefinite abandonment
of that request and of any allegation of a breach by Spain of obliga-
tionsunder general international law. The Canadian Government, on
the other hand, raised the particular complaint that certain clauses of

the treaties in force between the two countries had been broken.
It proposed the settlement of the differences on that point by arbi-
tration.
In the third phase, after expressing regret that the Spanishovern-
ment had not accepted the proposa1 to submit the specific point
about the treaties to arbitration, theCanadian Government, which
had meanwhile become better acquainted with the facts, definitelyexerce un droit qui lui est propre (que ce droit soit ou non qualifiéde
csubsidiaire »),et par conséquent son action n'est pas fondée sur des
(considérations d'équité ».
L'arrêttout entier se fonde sur le motif qu'en droit international c'est
à 1'Etat national de la société,et à lui exclusivement, qu'appartient le
droit de protection diplomatique et judiciaire de ladite société. C'est

donc une contradiction juridique d'envisager, même à titre de simple
hypothèse sans pertinence, que cet Etat, qui par définitiona la capacité
juridique d'agir, puisse être juridiquementprivéde cette capacité:1'Etat
en question est libre d'exercer ou non son droit de protection mais s'il
s'abstient d'agir, cela n'apas d'incidence sur son droit de le faire. Il ne
peut en aucun cas perdre sa capacitéd'agir et l'hypothèse d'uneimpossi-
bilitéd'appliquerla règle générae lest une contradiction juridique et ne
peut recevoir aucune justification raisonnable mêmeen tant que simple
fantaisie de l'esprit. On ne peut non plus concevoir que, si le Canada

n'exercepas son droit discrétionnairede protection, ce fait puisse donner
naissance a un droit de protection chez 1'Etatnational des actionnaires.

11 n'est donc pas possible d'établirsur la base de pareilles limitations
hypothétiquesune quelconque qualitéde la Belgiquepour agir.
A propos de l'attitude adoptée en l'espècepar 1'Etat national de la
Barcelona Traction, le défendeur décrit commesuit les trois phases
successives de l'action exercéepar le Gouvernement canadien, telle
qu'elle ressort de l'examen de la correspondance diplomatique et des
documents qui s'yrapportent:

((La première [phase],qui va jusqu'au moment de la déclaration
tripartite, est celle où le Gouvernement canadien, informéde façon
inexacte par les intéressés, allègue des prétendues violations par
l'Espagne d'obligations de droit international général à propos du
traitement des étrangerset demande, sur cette base, au Gouverne-
ment espagnol d'intervenir pour faire annuler les actes des autorités
judiciaires.

La seconde phase, qui fait suite à la déclaration tripartite et qui
est de courte durée, est caractériséepar le net abandon de cette
demande ainsi que de toute allégation d'une violationpar l'Espagne
d'obligations de droit international général. Le Gouvernement
canadien fait valoir, par contre, le grief particulier de la violation
de certaines clauses des traités en vigueur entre les deux pays.
Il propose de résoudrepar l'arbitrage les divergences de vues sur ce
point.
Dans la troisième phase, après avoir exprimé le regret que le
Gouvernement espagnol n'ait pas accepté la proposition de sou-

mettre à l'arbitrage le point spécifique relatifaux traités,le Gouver-
nement canadien, qui entre-temps a acquis une meilleure connais- opted for endeavouring to get the dispute settled on an amicable
basis through direct negotiations between the private parties con-
cerned.
It isthus once again clearly confirmed that the famous exceptional
circumstances of 'the absence of protection by the national govern-

ment of the company', which the Belgian Government has relied on
so often and in so many forms in order to justify its claim to have
jus standii n the case to act under the head of the protection of the
Belgian 'shareholders' in Barcelona Traction, quite apart from the
fact that even theoretically it cannot constitute any valid justifica-
tion, is not in fact by anymeans present in the case."

In my view the right of diplomatic protection of shareholders in a
company of a nationality other than that of the protecting State, is not
in accordance with the principles of international law in forze, i.e., the
rule of the diplomatic protection of companies by the State ofwhich they
are nationals.
Nor is such protection recognized by any special customary rule in

international practice. The arbitral decisions rendered on the basis of
special bilateral conventions are not norm-creating, nor have constituted
the foundation of, or generated a rule of customary international law
which is now accepted as such by the opiniojuris.

There arenot, in the present case, exceptional circumstances justifying
any departure from the strict application of the general rule of inter-
national law on the matter.
The right of diplomatic protection, like any other right, has to be
understood as a right which a particular State has against another
particular State. To which State does that right pertain in the present
case? Does it pertain to the Applicant? 1s Spain under an international
obligation towards Belgium?
Has the respondent State committed a breach of an international
obligation owed to the applicant State by the measures taken in respect

to Barcelona Traction? 1s the person affected by the measures of which
Spain is accused linked to the applicant State by a bond of nationality?
In my opinion al1those questions ought to be answered in the negative
and, if so, the international liabilityalleged by the Applicant does not
exist.
Towards the eventual and sporadic possessor of a bearer share there
is not a direct and immediate obligation from the State accused of having
violated the rights of aprivate foreign national (natural orjuristic person)
by an unlawful art damaging the c~rporation (sociétéanoliyme) which
has issued the bearer shares.
The fact that theoretically thereis not (or there need not be) continuity BARCELONA TRACTION(OP. IND. PADILLA NERVO) 261

sance des faits, s'engage définitivementsur la voie d'un effort tendant
à obtenir que le différend soit résoàul'amiable par des négociations
directes entre les'particuliers intéressés.
Il est donc clairement confirmé, une fois de plus, que la fameuse
circonstance exceptionnelle de l'cabsence de protection par le gou-
vernement national de la société »,que le Gouvernement belge a in-
voquée à tant de reprises et sous tant de formes pour justifier sa
prétention àavoir qualitépour agir en l'espèceau titrede laprotection
des ((actionnaires» belges de Barcelona Traction, en plus de ne
pouvoir constituer, en théorie, aucunejustification valable, n'est en

fait nullement présente en l'espècen

A mon avis, l'exercice du droit de protection diplomatique au profit
d'actionnaires d'une sociétéd'une autre nationalité que celle de 1'Etat
protecteur n'est pas conforme aux principes de droit international en
vigueur, c'est-à-dire la regle qui veut que la protection diplomatique
des sociétés soit exercéear 1'Etatdont les sociétéssont ressortissantes.
Dans la pratique internationale, il n'existe pas non plus de règle cou-
tumière spécialeautorisant une telle protection. Les décisionsarbitrales
rendues sur la base de conventions bilatérales particulières ne sont pas

normatives et n'ont constitué ni le fondement ni la source d'une règle
de droit international coutumier que l'opiniorisaccepterait aujourd'hui
comme telle.
11n'y a pas non plus, en la présente instance, de circonstances excep-
tionnelles qui autorisent la moindre dérogation à la règle généralede
droit international en la matière.
Le droit de protection diplomatique, de mêmeque n'importe quel autre
droit, doit s'entendre comme un droit que possède un Etat déterminé
à l'encontre d'un autre Etat déterminé.A quel Etat ce droit appartient-il
en l'espèce? Est-ceau demandeur? L'Espagne est-elle liéepar une obliga-
tion internationale envers la Belgique?
L'Etat défendeur a-t-ilviolé uneobligation internationale envers'Etat

demandeur du fait des mesures qu'il a prises à l'égardde la Barcelona
Traction? La personne atteinte par les mesures dont il est fait grief à
l'Espagne est-elle liéà 1'Etatdemandeur par un lien de nationalité?
A toutes ces questions, il convienà mon avis de répondre par la néga-
tive, de sorte que la responsabilité internationale alléguéepar le deman-
deur n'existe pas.
L'Etat accuséd'avoir violé lesdroits d'une personne privéeétrangère
(personne physique ou personne morale) par un acte illicite préjudiciable
à une sociétéanonyme qui a émis desactions au porteur, n'a aucune obli-
gation directe et immédiateenvers celui qui,à un moment ou à un autre,
se trouve être possesseur d'une de ces actions au porteur.

Comme, théoriquement, la propriété d'une action au porteur n'est pasof ownership of a bearer share, the nationality of the eventual possessor
does not give to his State a right towards the Respondent, who is not
under an international obligation owed to every State which might have,
or has, at a given date, some nationals in the possession of bearer shares
in the corporation alleged to be injured by an illicit international act,
unless specificrights of the shareholders as such were violated.

It is not justifiable to create anad hoc rule in disregard of existing
and generally accepted ones to fit a particular case which could and
should be decided by the application of the rules of general international
law governing the matter.
The claim in the present case and its characteristics are in the nature
of a request to go around or avoid the strict application of the relevant
rules of international law which "does not recognize, in respect of injury
caused by a State to a foriegn company, any diplomatic protection of
shareholders exercised by a State other than the national State of the
company".
The shareholders in commercial limited liability companies (sociétés
anonymes) do not have a separate and independent right in respect to
damage done to the company by a foreign government.
The rules of international law concerning the treatment of foreigners
are not rightly invoked in respect of shareholders as such.

This question ought to be considered in relation to the protection of

citizens abroad and taking into account the jurisdiction of the State
where the foreigner resides.
The following concepts contained in Borchard's Diplomatic Protection
of Citizens Abroad are relevant in this respect:

"The bond of citizenship implies that the State watches over its
citizens abroad, and reserves the right to interpose actively in their
behalf in an appropriate case. Too severe an assertion of territorial
control over them by the State of residence will be met by the
emergence of the protective right of the national State, and the
potential force of this phenomenon has largely shaped the rights
assumed by States over resident aliens."

"The principles of territorial jurisdiction andrsona1sovereignty
are mutually corrective forces. An excessive application of the
territorial principle is limited by the custom which grants foreign
States certain rights over their citizens abroad, sometimes merely

the application of foreign law by the local courts, sometimes, in
acknowledgment of the principle of protection, a certain amount of
jurisdiction."ou n'a pas à êtrecontinue, la nationalitédu détenteur actuelne donne à
SEtat dont il est ressortissant aucun droàtl'égarddu défendeur, quin'a
aucune obligation internationale enverstous les Etats dont des nationaux
pourraient figurer,à une date déterminée,au nombre des porteurs d'ac-
tions de la sociétéanonyme considéréecomme léséepar un acte inter-
nationalement illicite, sauf s'il y a eu violation de certains droits bien
définisdes actionnaires en tant que tels.

Il n'estpasjustifiéde créer,au mépris des règles existanteset générale-
ment acceptées,une règle spécialeen fonction d'une affaire particulière
qui peut et doit êtretranchéepar application des règlesde droit inter-
national général régissan lt question.
Par les caractéristiquesqu'elle présente,la réclamation formulée en
l'espècerevientàdemander detourner ou de ne pas appliquer strictement
les règlespertinentes de droit international, alors que cesrèglesadmet-
tent pas, en cas de préjudice causépar un Etat à une sociétéétrangère,
une protection diplomatique d'actionnaires exercéepar un Etat autre que
1'Etatnational de la société».
Dans une société commerciale comme la sociétéanonyme, les action-

naires n'ont pas de droit distinct et indépendant exercer en ce qui con-
cerne un dommage causé àla sociétépar un gouvernement étranger.
On n'est pas fondé àinvoquer les règlesde droit international concer-
nant le traitement des étrangers à propos des actionnaires en tant que
tels.
Cette question doit êtreconsidéréesous l'angle de la protection des
nationaux àI'étrangeret compte tenu de la juridiction de 1'Etatoù réside
l'étranger.
Les principes ci-après, énoncés dans l'ouvrage de Borchard intitulé
Diplomatic Protection of Citizens Abroad, sont ici particulièrement
pertinents:

«Le lien de nationalité impliqueque 1'Etatexerce une surveillance
sur ses nationaux à I'étranger,et se réserve ledroit d'intervenir ac-
tivement en leur faveur dans des circonstances appropriées.Dèslors
que 1'Etatde résidenceprétendexercer sur eux un contrôle territorial
trop sévère, l'Etat dont ils ont la nationalité fait valoir son droit
de protection, et les droits exercéspar les Etats sur les étrangers
résidantsur leur territoire ont étédéfinisen grande partie sous l'in-
fluencede cette contrainte potentielle.
Les principes de juridiction territoriale et de compétence person-
nelle sont des forces opposéesqui se corrigent mutuellement. La
mise en Œuvre abusivedu principe de territorialité seralimitéepar la
coutume qui accorde aux Etats étrangers certains droits en faveur

deleursnationaux à I'étranger, lesquelsconsistent parfois simplement
à faire appliquer le droit étranger par les tribunaux locaux, ou par-
foisà admettre en faveur de ces Etats, en reconnaissance du principe
de protection, une certaine compétence. "Each State in the international community is presumed to extend
complete protection to the life, liberty and property of al1individuals
within itsjurisdiction."
"Not every injury warrants immediate interposition by the State.
In the first place, reparation is demanded only for such injuries as
the State in its discretion deems a justification for diplomatic

protection. Factors which enter into consideration in determining
the State's interposition are the seriousness of the offence, the
indignity to the nation, and the political expediency of regarding
the private injury as a public wrong to be repaired by national
action-in short, the interests of the people as a whole, as against
those of the citizen, receive first consideration before State action is
initiated."

"The individual has in fact sustained no injury in international
law, until the State of residence or its authorities have in some way
connected themselves with the original act or have declined to
afford him legal means of redress."

In the present case, i:is not Belgium but Canada who is the one
entitled to protect its na.tional, Barcelona Traction, in accordance with
the existing recognized rule of protection of a company orzly by its
national State.
Regarding the question: ". .. whether international law recognizes
the righ: of a State to protect its nationals, l,;iitiral or juristic persons,
as shareholders in a foreign company, for the damage they might have
suffered as a consequence of an internationally illicit act done to the
company by a third State", the answer, as a matter of law, should be in
the negative.
As regards the facts and circumstances of the particular case, they
do not constitute a juridically valid ground to justify an exception to the
existing rule.

The shareholders of bearer shares in a sociétéanonyme do not have
responsibility and they are unknown. Jf the alleged right of diplomatic
and judicial protection of shareholders in a sociétéanonyme were recog-
nized, any State investor of capital abroad could buy, in the stock
market, the capacity to present claims in the name of its nationals to the
territorial State who admitted in its territory a foreign company whose
nationality it knew, and who was also aware that, according to the Tout Etat qui fait partie de lacommunautéinternationale est censé

protéger intégralementla vie, la libertéet les biens de tous les parti-
culiers se trouvantdans leslimites de sajuridiction.
Lesdommages subis n'autorisent pas tous l'intervention immédiate
de 1'Etat. Tout d'abord, il n'est demandé réparation que pour les
préjudicesdont l'Etat, exerçant en cela un pouvoir d'appréciation
discrétionnaire, estime qu'ils justifient l'exercice de la protection
diplomatique. Les facteurs qui sont pris en considération en vue
d'une intervention de 1'Etat comprennent la gravité de l'infraction,
l'atteinteà la dignitéde la nation, et des considérations politiques

quant à l'opportunité de considérer le préjudice privé comme un
dommage public justifiant une action nationale: en somme, ce sont
les intérêtdu peuple dans son ensemble, par opposition à ceux du
citoyen, que 1'Etat prend d'abord en considération avant d'inter-
venir.
En fait, le particulier n'a pas subi de((préjudice))en droit inter-
national tant que 1'Etat de résidenceou les organes officiels de cet
Etat ne se sont pas, d'une manière ou d'une autre, associés à l'acte
dommageable initial ou qu'ils n'ont pas refusé à la personne lésée

la possibilitéd'un recours.))

En l'espèce,ce n'est pas la Belgique mais le Canada qui est habilité à
protéger son ressortissant, la Barcelona Traction, conformément à la
règleen vigueur admise qui veut qu'une sociéténe puisse êtreprotégée
que par 1'Etatdont elle a la nationalité.
A la question de savoir si [(ledroit international reconnaît à un Etat

le droit de protéger sesressortissants, personnes physiques ou morales,
qui sont actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangère,et qui ont subi un dommage
...du fait d'un acte internationalement illicite commis par un Etat tiers
à l'encontre dela société D,il convient.de répondre, sur le plan du droit,
par la négative.
Quant aux faits et aux circonstances propres à l'espèce, ilsne consti-
tuent pas un motif juridiquement valable de déroger à la règleapplicable.

Les actionnaires possédant des actions au porteur d'une sociétéano-
nyme n'ont pas de responsabilité et ne sont pas connus. Si le prétendu
droit de protection judiciaire et diplomatique au profit des actionnaires
d'une sociétéanonyme devait êtrereconnu, tout Etat investissant des
capitaux à l'étranger pourrait, par des achats en bourse, acquérir la
capacitéde présenter,au nom de ses nationaux, des réclamations à 1'Etat
qui a accepté l'installation surson territoire d'une sociétéétrangèredontexisting and accepted rules on the matter, the national States of the
numerous and unknown shareholders did not have, in international law,
a right of diplomatic protection independent from that of the national
State of the company.

Such recognition would be a derogation of the relevant principles
of international law and would entai1 unexpected complications and
unnecessary confiicts in modern commercial and financial international
relations.
If the different States, whose nationals were shareholders in thesame
corporation, were empowered to undertake, each one in his own right,
acts of diplomatic protection on behalf of their respective nationals,
the admission and operations of foreign commercial corporations of
limited liabilitysociétéasnonymes) would constitute a great risk to the
territorial States in need of investments who admit them.
Such recognition will create distrust, insecurity and unforeseen
potential danger of pressures from unforeseen quarters. It will, besides,
hinder the activities of modern commercial enterprises eager to invest
capital abroad.
Mervyn Jones, in regard to the law on the subject, states:

"If a State of which the corporation is not a national could
normally take up a claim in respect of an injury to the corporation
merely because there are shareholders who are nationals of that
State, and who have sufferedloss, the results would bejust as chaotic
on the international plane as they would be under municipal law
if anygroup of shareholders were allowed to sue in any case where
the company has sustained damage.
If a State could intervene without restriction on behalf of its
individual nationals who wereshareholders in a foreign corporation,
the position of .Governments whose national the corporation was

and that of the State against whom the claims were brought, would
be rendered intolerable. It might well be, in such circumstances,
that the number of possible State claimants in respect of an injury
to one large company could comprise half the world. Again, share-
holders are not infrequently corporations themselves, and the
process of identifying individual shareholders might be prolonged
ad infinitum; such a process is in any case difficult in practice."
("Claims on behalf of Nationals who are Shareholders in Foreign
Companies", British Year Book of International Law, 1949, pp.
234-235.)

The Court did not examine the merits regarding the fourth preliminary
objection. Nevertheless the written and oral pleadings did show that

265il connaissait la nationalité,et qui savait égalementque, conformément
aux règles en vigueur admises en la matière, les Etats nationaux des
actionnaires aussi nombreux qu'inconnus n'avaient pas, en droit inter-
national, de droit de protection diplomatique indépendant de celui de

1'Etatnational de la société.
Reconnaître un droit de protection à 1'Etatdes actionnaires constitue-
rait une dérogation aux principes de droit international applicables et
introduirait des complications inattendues et des conflits inutiles dans
les relations commerciales et financièresinternationales modernes.
Si les divers Etats dont les nationaux sont actionnaires de la même
sociétéanonyme étaient habilités à intervenir, chacun pour soi, afin
d'exercer une protection diplomatique en faveur de leurs nationaux
respectifs, l'implantation de sociétésanonymes étrangères constituerait
un grand risque pour 1'Etatayant besoin d'investissementsqui accueille-
rait ces sociétés.

Pareille situation engendrerait la méfianceet l'insécuriet ferait planer
la menace de pressions d'origine imprévisible. Elleentraverait, de sur-
croît, l'activité des entreprises commerciales modernesqui cherchent à
investirà l'étranger.
Sur le droit en la matière, Mervyn Jones écritceci:

«Si 1'Etatdont la sociétén'a pas la nationalité pouvait normale-
ment endosser une réclamation à raison d'un préjudiceinfligé à la
société, simplementparce qu'il existe des actionnaires qui ont la
nationalitédudit Etat et qui ont subi des pertes, on aboutirait, sur
le plan international, au mêmechaos que si, dans l'ordre interne, il
étaitpossible àn'importe quel groupe d'actionnaires d'intenter une
action dèslors aue la sociétésubit un dommagew
Si un Etat pouvait intervenir sans restriction en faveur de ses
nationaux actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangère, la situation du
gouvernement dont la sociétéa la nationalitéet celle du gouverne-

ment de I'Etat auquel les réclamations seraient adressées devien-
draient intolérables.Il pourrait arriver alors, en cas de préjudice
subi par une grosse société,que les Etats pouvant éventuellement
demander réparation, représententla moitiédu monde. Comme, de
surcroît, il n'est pas rare que les actionnaires soient eux-mêmes des
sociétésanonymes, l'identification de tous les actionnaires pourrait
se prolonger indéfiniment; cette identification est, en tout état de
cause, difficiledans la pratique. («Claims on behalf of Nationals
who are Shareholders in Foreign Companies »,.British Year Book
of International Law,1949,p. 234-235.)

La Cour n'a pas examinéau fond la quatrième exception préliminaire.
Néanmoins, il ressort de la procédure écriteet orale que les recoursthe local remedies in respect to the alleged wrongs and damages were
not exhausted.
There are no grounds to say that a miscarriage ofjustice took place or
that the bankruptcy was fictitious. There is no question that the bank-
ruptcy declaration was made in accordance with Spanish law on the
subject.
There are no legal bases to state that Spain is responsible internation-
ally for the standard of its laws and for the quality of the justice ad-

ministered by its courts.
By which crireriumis the Court to measure the standard of Spanish
laws in order to decide if it is high or low, good or bad? And by which
test could the Court make a finding regarding the quality of the justice
administered?
Which principles of international law, recognized by al1nations, give
the Court authority to pass judgment on those matters?

After careful consideration of the argumentsfrom both sides contained
in their pleadings, 1 conclude that there is not convincing evidence of
a predominant Belgian interest in natural or juristic Belgian persons,
having the character of shareholders of Barcelona Traction at the critical
dates, even if it is admitted that those critical dates are 1948 and 1962.
Namely the date of the bankruptcy declaration and the date of the filing
of the present Application.
It has not been proved that the majority of shareholders in Barcelona

Traction had the Belgian nationality at the critical dates, nor that the
capital in the Belgian corporations alleged to be shareholders of Bar-
celona Traction, was a capital invested or belonging to Belgiannationals
or necessarily linked to the national wealthof the Applicant.

The unfavourable impact on the wealth of a nation cannot be the
legal foundation of a claim when a State considers that its nationals
have lost money abroad, due to an act of the territorial State which is
alleged to be a breach of an international responsibility.

If the defence of the national wealth could be the legal foundation
of the State's own right to diplornatic or judicial intervention, the rules
concerning the treatment of foreigners would be, in fact, substituted by
vague and undefined concepts regarding non-existing duties of the
territorial State to guarantee against loss, the investment, by a person,
of money which the national State could, arbitrarily, claim was originally
part of its national wealth when the investor sent his money abroad.

The national wealth is affected, maybe, when any resident takes orinternes concernant les irrégularitéset actes préjudiciables qui auraient
été commisn'ont pas étéépuisés.
Rien ne permet de dire qu'ily a eu mal-jugéou que la failliteprononcée
étaitfictive.Il ne fait pas de doute que lejugement de faillite a été rendu
conformémentau droit espagnol en la matière.

On ne peut sefonder sur aucun motifjuridique pour déclarer l'Espagne
responsable, sur le plan international, duniveaude ses lois et de la qualité
de la justice rendue par ses tribunaux.
Selon quel critère la Cour pourrait-elle mesurer le niveau des lois
espagnoles pour déciders'il est élevé ou bas, bon ou mauvais? Et quelle
sera lapierre de touchelui permettant de se prononcer sur la qualitéde

la justice rendue?
Quels sont les principes de droit international, reconnus par toutes les
nations, qui autorisent la Cour à porter un jugement sur ces questions?

Après avoir examinéattentivement l'argumentation des deux Parties,
je conclus qu'aucune preuve convaincante n'a été apportée de l'existence
d'un intérêb telge prépondérantchez les personnes physiques ou morales
belges qui avaient le caractère d'actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction
aux dates critiques, mêmesil'onadmet que cesdates critiques sont 1948et
1962,c'est-à-dire la date du jugement de faillite et la date du dépôt de la
requête dansla présente instance.
11n'a pas été prouvé que la majoritédes actionnaires de la Barcelona

Traction avaient la nationalitébelge aux dates critiques, ni que les capi-
taux des sociétés belges considéréc esmme actionnaires de la Barcelona
Traction avaient étéinvestis dans ces sociétéspar des ressortissants
belges, appartenaient à des Belges ou avaient nécessairement un lien
avec la richesse nationaledu demandeur.
Un Etat ne peut, lorsqu'il considère que ses nationaux ont perdu de
l'argent à l'étrangerdu fait d'un acte de 17Etatde résidenceconstituant,
selon lui, une violation d'une obligation internationale, fonder juridique-
ment une réclamation sur les conséquencesdéfavorables quien seraient
résultéespour sa richesse nationale.
Si la défensede la richesse nationale pouvait êtrele fondement juri-
dique du droit propre d'intervention diplomatiqueou judiciaire de l'Etat,
les règles relatives au traitement des étrangers se trouveraient en fait

remplacéespar des notions vagues et mal définies selon lesquelles un
Etat aurait le devoir - devoir qui n'existe pas - de garantir contre
toute perte les investissements étrangers faits sur son territoire, 1'Etat
national de l'investisseur pouvant arbitrairement prétendre que l'argent
investi faisait partie de sa richesse nationale lorsque l'investisseur l'a
envoyé à l'étranger.
C'estplutôt, semble-t-il,au moment oùun résident quelconqueemportesends his money abroad, rather than the moment he loses such money,
or his interests, dividends, ores of pecuniary gains from his invest-
ment.

If the defenceof the national wealth wouldtai1the right to intervene,
the violation of a duty towards a foreigner would not be the foundation
of the claim, but the so-called harm to the wealth of a State as an
matic consequence of the pecuniary losses eventually suffered by its
nationals abroad.Such losses could be traced to events in the territorial
State regardless of its international responsibility, or the existenceof any
legal duty towards the success of business enterprises, or speculative
ventures offorlign nationals.

1 agree with the Judgment of the Court that the Belgian claim be
dismissed.

(Signed Luis PADILLN AERVO.ou envoie son argent à I'étrangerqu'au moment où il perd cet argent,
ou ses intérêts,ividendesouespérancesdeprofit, quelarichessenationale
est affectée.
Si la défensede la richesse nationale entraînait le droit d'intervenir,
ce ne serait pas la violation d'une obligation envers un étranger qui
fonderait la réclamation mais le prétendu dommage causé à la richesse
d'un Etat comme conséquenceautomatique des pertes financièreséven-
tuellement subies par ses ressortissantsà l'étranger. De telles pertes
pourraient être attribuéesà des faits survenus dans 1'Etatde résidence,
indépendamment de sa responsabilité internationale ou de l'existence
d'une obligation juridique quelconque concernant le succès d'affaires

commerciales ou d'opérationsspéculativesentreprises par des étrangers.

Je souscris donc àl'arrêtde la Cour qui conclut que la demande belge
doit êtrerejetée.

(Signé)Luis PADILLN AERVO.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Padilla Nervo

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