Separate Opinion of Judge Morelli (translation)

Document Number
050-19700205-JUD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
050-19700205-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE MORELLI

[Translation]

1. It wiiibe advisable to begin by defining,on the one hand,the subject
of the dispute between the Belgian State and the Spanish State and, on
the other, the object of the claim submitted to the Court by Belgium in
its Application of 19 June 1962. This Application has been compared,
particularly from the Spanish side, with the other Application submitted
by Belgium on 23 September 1958,and the question has been raised as to
whether what is involved is the same claim or two different claims.
Having regard to the circumstances of the case, comparison of the
two Applications is useful only for the purpose of a precise determina-
tion of the object of the claim submitted by the 1962Application, the
only one on which the Court had to give a decision in the present Judg-
ment. The proceedings instituted by the 1958 Application having been
closed pursuant to the discontinuance, there was no litispendance ob-

stacle to prevent Belgium from again submitting the same claim to the
Court. On the other hand there can be no doubt that Belgium was com-
pletely free to refer a different claim to the Court.
2. As regards the subject of the dispute between Belgium and Spain,
that dispute has from the outset been characterized, in the first place, by
the complaint put forward by Belgium on account of the measures taken
by the Spanish authorities in respect of Barcelona Traction and, in the
second place, by Belgium's claim to reparation of some kind for the
damage sustained as a result of those measures, regarded as contrary to
international law. Now these elements (and the resulting dispute) re-
mained unchanged even after the discontinuance, which did not affectthe
dispute in any way. It may also be said that the subject of the dispute
remained unchanged, for that subject can only be the product of the
component elements of the disputel
3. 1s it possible, despite the continuance of the same dispute, to con-
sider that in its 1962Application Belgium referred to the Court a claim

having a different object from that submitted to the Court in 1958?1am
of the opinion that this question must be answered in the negative.

When a State is said to be exercising, as against another State, diplo-
matic protection of a particular person, to be protecting that person, to be taking up his case, what is meant by these expressions is that a State is

exercising as against another State a right of its own conferred on it by
the international legalorder, concerninga particular treatment due to the
person concerned. The national State of the person is entitled to demand
that thatperson be accorded the treatment required by the relevant rules
of international law and, should such treatment not be accorded, may
claim reparation in the form of either restitutio inintegrumor compensa-
tion. International reparation is always owed to the State and not to the
private person, even in the case of compensation and despite the fact that
the amount of compensation must be determined on the basis of the
damage suffered by the private person.

These very elementary notions explain quite simply why in the present
case the two claims successively referred to the Court by Belgium, that
of 1958and that of 1962,must be regarded as completely identical.

4. In the first as in the second Application Belgium asked the Court

to adjudge and declare that the Spanish State was under an obligation
towards Belgium to make a certain form of reparation for an alleged
international wrong. Naturally the international wrong, as such, could
have been done by the Spanish State only to the Belgian State and not to
the injured persons.
The wrong complained of by Belgium is described in the same way in
both Applications: according to both it consists of the same conduct on
the part of the Spanish authorities. The principal claim for reparation as
expressed in both Applications has restitutio inintegrumas its object and
seeks the annulment by the Spanish State of the measures complained of
against it in theame way in both Applications. As regards the alternative
claim for compensation, it is perfectly true that in the 1962Application
the amount of compensation was reduced to 88 per cent. of Barcelona
Traction's net assets and that, in conformity with the new presentation of
the case, the justification for this alternative claim was changed, so that
reference is no longer made to thedamage sufferedby Barcelona Traction,
but to the damage suffered by the company's Belgian shareholders.

However, neither the reduction of the amount claimed nor the alteration
of the argument in support of the claim for compensation in any way
changes the object of thaf claim as to its substance.

5. Between the two claims there is identity not only ofpetitum but also
of causapetendi.
In this case the causapetendi is the allegedly unlawful character where
Belgium is concerned of ,a particular course of conduct on the part of the
Spanish authorities composed, according to both Applications, of the
same acts and omissions. Thus the identical nature of the causapetendi is
not affected by the fact that there is, as between the two Applications, a
difference in the way in which they set out to prove that a right of BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP.MORELLI) 224

Belgium'swas indeed infringed by the measures complained of. The fact
that in the first Application Belgium complained of the damage suffered,
as a result ofthose measures, by a company in which there was asserted
to be a preponderance of Belgian interests, whereas in the second Appli-
cation Belgium complained of the damage indirectly suffered as a result
of the same measures, by Belgian nationals in their capacity as share-
holders in the company, is merely a change of argument which has noth-
ing to do with the object of the claim.
Whenever, as in the present case, there is a claim for reparation on
account of the breach, through a particular course of conduct, of the
rules of international law concerning the treatment of foreigners, the
specifying of such and such a person as the one in respect of whom

diplomatic protection is exercised is not a matter which is at al1relevant
to the object of the claim, for the claim has no other object than the
reparation sought by the State for itself. This is so of course only if the
description of. the allegedly unlawful conduct of the other State remains
unchanged throughout, otherwise there would be a change of claim
because of a change in the causapetendi.
Matters are otherwise when diplomatic protection is exercised not in
the form of a claim for reparation on account of a wrong asserted to
have been done but, onthe contrary, in the form of a claim to a particular
sort of treatment due by the other State to a private person. ln this case
the specifying of the private person in respect of whom diplomatic pro-
tection is exercised is an integral part of the specification of the conduct
which the State exercising diplomatic protection calls for on the part of

the other State. Consequently, in the case of such a claim submitted in
judicial proceedings, the substitution of one protected person for another
entails a change in the object of the claim. In such a case there is indeed a
change of petitum.
6. The reasons why 1am of the opinion that both claims submitted by
Belgium to the Court must be regarded as objectivelyidentical arenot the
same as those advanced by the Spanish Government in reaching the
same conclusion.
The Spanish Government appears to start from the idea that in order
to determine the object of the claim (or of the case, as it sometimes puts
it) regard must be had to the identity of the protected person. In the
argument and submissions of the Counter-Memorial it reaches, by the
use of a perhaps elliptic form of words, the point of envisaging either

the Barcelona Traction Company or the Belgian shareholders as them-
selves constituting the possible"objet" of the Belgian "claim". Thus in
that pleading a case involving company protection is contrasted with a
case involving shareholder protection.
Now if the idea is accepted that the protected person himself con-
stitutes theobjet of the claim, or at least the decisive element for deter-
mining the object of the claim, it would have to be inferred as a logical
conclusion that the claim submitted by Belgium in 1962is different fromthat submitted to the Court in 1958,because Belgium now States that it
is protecting not Barcelona Traction but its Belgian shareholders.

However, according to the Spanish Government, this conclusion must
be rejected,because, it alleges, Belgium sought in its 1962Application to
disguise,under the appearance of a case concerning Belgian shareholders
in Barcelona Traction, a case which really concerns the company as such.
This is purported to be proved by, on the one hand, the complaints
advanced (relating to the measures taken by the Spanish authorities in

respect of the company) and, on the other, the form of reparation
claimed (in the first placerestitutio in integrumof the undertaking).

7. 1 am of the opinion that, in submitting its new claim in the way it
considered most suitable, Belgium was only exercising a freedom which
-as the Court has observed in the Judgment-it undoubtedly possessed.
The claim had therefore to be examined and judged in accordance with
the content which Belgium had imparted to it. It would have been quite
arbitrary, on the pretext of bringing to light what was alleged to be hidden
behind a disguise, to substitute for the actual claim as formulated by
Belgium a different, purely hypothetical claim.
If, then, the 1962claim is to be compared with that submitted to the
Court in 1958(the only useful purpose to be served thereby, as already
said, being the better to define the content of the new claim), both claims

must be regarded as objectively identical. But the reason for this is not,
as alleged by the SpanishGovernment, that the new claim also concerns,
despite its outward appearance, diplomatic protection of the Barcelona
Traction Company as such, but rather that in both claims there is identity
of petitum (the reparation sought) and of causapetendi (the allegedly un-
lawful conduct of the Spanish authorities).

This having been established, it must however be observed that as
between the two claims there is a differencein respect of the way in which
Belgium seeks to prove that the measures complained of constitute a
wrong done by Spain to Belgium. In its endeavour to prove this (and
hence its right to reparation) Belgium ceased relying on the contention of
damage suffered by a company in which there were allegedly prepon-
derant Belgian interests and, on the contrary, based its claim on the

purported fact that the measures complained of, although taken in
respect of the company, indirectly injured the Belgian shareholders in it.
But this new argument could not be rejected out of hand on the ground
that it was only ameans of disguising a different claim. It was the actual
argument put fonvard by Belgium in its 1962Application which had to be
considered on its own merits in order to judge whether or not it was well-
founded. THEORDER OF THE QUESTIONS

1. Belgium claims reparation from Spain for the measures taken by
the Spanish authorities in respect of Barcelona Traction, which are con-
sidered by Belgium as internationally unlawful. The unlawfulness here
concerned must naturally be unlawfulness vis-à-vis Belgium resulting
from the infringement ofa right pertaining to Belgium,or in other words

from the breach by Spain of an obligation it owed to Belgium. For the
international rules concerning the treatment of foreigners, although they
are rules of general international law and, as such, are binding on every
State with regard to every other State, take concrete form in the shape of
bilaterallegal relationships, so that a State's obligation to accord the
requiredtreatment to a particularperson existssolelytowardsthenational
State of that person and not towards other States.

Inorder to prove that it was indeeda right pertaining to Belgiumwhich
was infringed by the measures complained of, the Belgian Government
contends that those measures, although taken in respect of a Canadian
company, indirectly injured Belgian nationals as shareholders in the
company. The Spanish Government challengesthisargument from several
standpoints, thus posing, inter alia, a problem as to Belgium'scapacity.

2. It is necessary to be clear as to the sense in which it is possible in
this connection properly to speak of capacity; in particular because the
Parties have used terms which are open to misunderstanding: "qualité
pour agir" or "jus standi". These terms would appear to indicate a form
of procedural capacity relating to the right to apply to court. But that
right is not now in issue, since the 1964 Judgment upheld the Court's
jurisdiction in the present case and thereby Belgium's corresponding
power to seise the Court, that is to say, Belgium's power to institute
proceedings.
At the present stage its possible to speak of capacity only in the sense
of substantive and not procedural capacity, that is to say in the sense of
the vesting in one State rather than in another of the substantive right
invoked in the case.The hypothesis ofthe existenceof acertain obligation

on the part of a given State (the respondent State) is assumed, and the
question is which State possesses the corresponding hypothetical right;
in particular whether or not that right pertains to the applicant State.

As 1 said in my dissenting opinion attached to the Judgment on the
Preliminary Objections (I.C.J. Reports 1964, pp. 111 f.), the question of
capacity, understood in this way, is one concerning a substantive right
with regard to the actual merits of the case. A judgment declaring that
the applicant State is devoid of capacity in respect of the right ofplo-matic protection which it invokes is not a judgment declaring the claim
inadmissible, but one dismissing the claim on the merits. A judgment of
this kind has the effect of res judicatu in the material sense.
3. In my dissenting opinion (pp. 112ff.; see also pp. 98 ff.) 1 also ex-
plained that the question of capacity, as a question concerning the pos-
session by the applicant State of the substantive right invoked by it as
the basis for its claim, does not have any preliminary character, in the
sense that there is no logical necessity to resolve the question of capacity
before going on to examine the other questions that likewise concern the
merits.
It follows that it rests with the judge to determine the most suitable

order, taking convenience and economy as his criteria. It is open to him
to begin with an examination of the question of capacity, assuming as a
hypothesis the existence of the obligation relied on as the basis for the
claim. But he may also find it simpler, without going into the question of
capacity at al], to find that the claim should be dismissed on the ground
that the obligation asserted by the Applicant is not one which exists on
the part of the Respondent vis-à-vis any State at all. For this it might be
sufficient to resolve a question of pure law, either by showing the non-
existence of the legal rule invoked as the basis for the claim, or by ascer-
taining its true content '.

4. Now the Spanish Government opposes the Belgian claim by raising,
among others, questions which are undoubtedly questions of capacity.

For it denies the existence of major Belgian shareholdings in Barcelona
Traction by disputing the possibility of regarding certain persons, in re-
spect of whom Belgium claims to exercise diploinatic protection, as
Belgian shareholders in the Company; and it does this from two different
standpoints. In the first place the Spanish Government denies that certain
persons described by Belgium as Belgian nationals can really be regarded
and treated as Belgian. In the second place the Spanish Government
denies that certain persons protected by Belgium can be regarded as
shareholders in Barcelona Traction.

There is thus raised from two different standpoints a problem which is

undoubtedly one of capacity, relating as such to the direction of the
obligation assumed to exist on the part of Spain. In the first instance the
question is whether the right corresponding to the hypothetical obligation
pertains to Belgium or to some other State which must be considered to
be the national State of the person concerned. Similarly, in the second

l See, in my separate opinion on the cases concerning South West Africa, Second
Phase, I.C.J. Reports 1966, pp. 65 f., the observations as to the relationship between
the hypothetical nature of the former question when raised before the obligation as to
has been shown to exist.instance, the question is whether the right of diplomatic protection per-

tains to Belgium or to some other State as the putative national State of
the real shareholder. In short, it is what is known as the nationality of
the claim which is the issue in both instances.

5. As willhave been noted, al1this assumes the existencewith regard to
the treatment of Barcelona Traction of an obligation on the part of
Spain toward the national State or States of the shareholders. But the
existence of any such obligation is denied in another argument put
forward by the Spanish Government. That argument does not raise a
problem of capacity at all;itraises no problem concerning the nationality
of the claim. It raises on the contrary a problem concerning the very
existence of therule of law invoked by Belgium as the basis for its claim;
and it is possible to pose this problem even if it is assumed that the pro-
tected persons really are Barcelona Traction shareholders and also
Belgian nationals.

It is not possible to maintain that this issue is none the less one
concerning the direction of the obligation (hence one of capacity
in relation to the corresponding right) on the ground that regard
must also be had to the right of diplomatic protection pertaining
to Canada as the national State of the company, and therefore seek
to resolve the question of whether it is not Canada rather than
Belgium which has the capacity to claim reparation. This is so because
Canada's right is derived from a rule different from that invoked by
Belgium, the latter concerning not diplomatic protection of the company
as such, but diplomatic protection of the shareholders in connection with
measures taken in respect of the company. If it is decided that no such rule
exists, no problem of capacity arises at all.
6. The point is that any question of capacity can only be raised in rela-
tion to a rule of law which is either undisputed or assumed to exist. The
question is then as follows: which is the entity, as between the various
entities to which that rule is directed, on which, in the actual case, that

rule confers the right invoked? More particularly, is it in fact on the Ap-
plicant that such a right is conferred? If the very existence of the rule is
negated, any possibility of raising a problem of capacity is excluded.

Consequently, to say that there is no rule which authorizes diplomatic
protection of shareholders on account of measures taken in respect of the
company isto excludethe existenceof any obligation of Spain in this con-
nection, vis-à-vis any other States. Belgium'sright is thereby denied, not
because such a right might hypothetically belong to a State other than
Belgium(in other words, not for lack of capacity on the part of Belgium),
but rather because no such right can be invoked by any State, since no
rule exists from which it could derive. BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP.MORELLI) 229

On the other hand, the other question, that of the nationality of the
claim, does concern capacity. The possible existence is postulated of a
rule authorizing each State to exercisediplomatic protection of its nation-
als holding shares in a company, in respect of the treatment given to the
company by another State; and the question is whether, on the basis of
this hypothetical rule, it is to Belgium that the right to protect certain
private persons would belong, on the ground of their being, according to
Belgium'sassertion, both Belgian nationals and shareholders in Barcelona
Traction. Thus, as will be seen, a true problem of capacity is raised, the
problem, in other words, of the attribution of the right deriving from a
certain rule which is assumed to exist. A negative answer to this question
would also have brought about the dismissal of the Belgian claim on the
merits.

7. Nevertheless, the fact that this problem is one of capacity does not
mean that it ought to have been examined and settled in the affirmative
before the Court had any possibility of going on to examine the other

problem, that of the existence of an obligation owed by Spain to the
national States of the shareholders in Barcelona Traction with regard to
the treatment of that company. 1said above thatthe problem of capacity
also concerned the merits and that there was, on that account, no logical
necessity to solve it before the others likewise concerning the merits. The
order to be followed could only be dictated by considerations of economy.

As it happens, the Court gave priority to examining the problem of pure
international law relative to the diplomatic protection of shareholders in
a company by their national State, in respect of measures taken vis-à-vis
the company. This choice appeared in itself the most apt; that it was so
was subsequently borne out by the result to which it led.
For, having settled that problem in the negative-having, in other
words, denied the existence, as regards the treatment accorded by a State
to a given company, of any obligation owed by that State to the national
States of the shareholders-, the Court was thereby enabled to leave aside
any problem of capacity, that is to Say, the problem as to whether the
persons that Belgium claims to protect are or are not shareholders in the

company and at the same time Belgian nationals. In that way many very
delicate problems of fact and of municipal law, the solution of which was
not necessary for the disposal of the case, have been avoided.
8. And so the Court has been able to bestow a very simple logical
structure on its decision, which in substance consists in negating the
major premise of the syllogismor, in other words, in denying the existence
of the rule relied upon by Belgium. In this way the Court has given a
final, concrete solution to the fundamental problem at issue between the
Parties, which lay in the very question whether the rule of international
law invoked by Belgium existed or not. The negative answer to this
question implies that none of the national States of the shareholders,irrespective of the quantity of shares possessed by its nationals, could

exercise diplomatic protection. In consequence, the Belgian claim had to
be dismissed on that basis, even if it had been proved that the whole or
nearly the whole of the shares in Barcelona Traction were in the hands of
Belgian nationals.
If, on the other hand, the Court had begun by examining the problem
of capacity, its reasoning and the logical structure of its decision would
have been, at al1events, much more complex. As 1have already said, any
question of capacity can only be raised in relation to a given rule, which,
if it is disputed, as in the present case, must be supposed to exist for the
purposes of the argument. Thus the Court would have set out from the
hypothesis that a certain rule, constituting the major premise of the
syllogism,existed;assuming that premise to be true, the Court would have
examined and settled the various questions of fact which went to make up
the minor premise (it being borne in mind that, in the eyes of an inter-
national tribunal, questions of municipal law also are questions of fact).
Now the problem of capacity raised in this hypothetical way would have

had to be settled either in the affirmative or in the negative.

In the first event, once the Court had decided that Belgium would have
capacity on the basis of arule of law supposed for the sake of argument to
exist, it would have been obliged to examine and solve the problem as to
whether that rule really existed or not: that is to Say,the very problem to
which the Court did in fact give priority and the negative solution of
which has been sufficient in itself to dispose of the case without there
being any need to tackle the highly complex question of capacity.
It was only in the event of replying in the negative to the question of
capacity that the Court could, on that basis, have dismissed the Belgian
claim without troubling to see whether the hypothesis on which it had
been based corresponded or not to the real state of affairs in international
law. But the hypothetical character of the reasoning would have ap-
peared somewhat strange. Faced with a very important problem of inter-
national law, one basic to the respective arguments of the Parties, the
because, instead of setting
Court would have evaded the task of solving it
about that problem, it had started from a mere hypothesis, that of the
solution of the same problem in the affirmative.

9. It must further be observed that the solution either way of a prob-
lem of capacity is dependent on the particular rule in relation to which the
problem is raised. If forexample the postulate consisted of a hypothetical
rule whereby each State had the right to protect its nationals holding
shares in a Company, irrespective of the quantity of shares possessed by
those nationals, there would be no difficultyin the present case in finding
that Belgium had capacity, considering that Spain does not dispute the
existence in the hands of Belgian nationals of a certain number of shares
in Barcelona Traction, whether that number be large or small. The question of capacity would, on the other hand, appear very delicate if, in
accordance with the Belgian position, one were to posit the existenceof a
different and, in aense, more restricted rule, one bestowing a monopoly
of the diplomatic protection of the shareholders in a company affected by
a certain measure on the State whose nationals possessed the largest pro-
portion of the shares, or of arule confining diplomatic protection to the
various States whose nationals possessed a substantial quantity of shares.

Furthermore, the very usefulness of any preliminary, hypothetical

solution of the capacity problem depends on the choice of the assumed
rule in relation to which the problem is raised. It need only in this con-
nection be pointed out, for example, that an affirmative solution of the
capacity problem would be absolutely useless unless the rule whose
existence was assumed for the sake of argument coincided with a rule
subsequently shown to exist.

III

THEPROBLEM OF THE DIPLOMATIP ROTECTIO NF SHAREHOLDERS

1. 1 shall now turn to the problem of whether a State has the right to
exercise diplomatic protection over those of its nationals who, as share-
holders in a company of a different nationality, have suffered damage on

account of measures taken with regard to the company by a foreign
State. To solve this problem correctly it is in my opinion necessary to
begin with a few very general observations on the rules of international
law governing the treatment of foreigners.
These rules are invariably concerned to ensure the protection of certain
interests proper to individuals or collective entities. These interests,
although contemplated by rules of international law, remain simple
interests for theurposes of the international legal order. For it would be
contrary to the present structure of the international community and of
the international legalrder to consider that the latter might either bestow
or simply predicate rights upon individuals or upon any collective
entities other than those, such as States, which qualify as subjects of inter-
national law. It is only within the State legalrder that the interests of
foreign nationals may acquire protection by means of the attribution to

the latter either of rights or of otherpersonal legal situations in their
favour (faculties, legal powers or expectations).

However, the fact that this possibility is open to the legal order of the
State may in one way or another be taken into account in such rules of
international law as are framed with a view to imposing certain obli-
gations upon States in the treatment of foreigners. The rules of international law in this matter, although they al1 seek
to protect interests, as such, of individuals or collective entities, may
employ different means to attain their ends and refer in different ways to
the systems of municipal law.
2. In the first place there are rules of international law concerning the
treatment of foreigners which directly specifythe interests they seek to
protect, regardless ofthe prevailing attitude ofthemunicipal legal order in
that respect. The interests contemplated by the rules in this category are
always interests persona1 to individuals and never interests of collective
entities. Moreover, the rules in question alwaysconcern those interests of
individual foreign nationals which are of fundamental importance, such
as their interest in life or liberty, and never interests of a purely economic
nature.

In such cases the international rule refers to the legal order of the
State solely in the sense that it is addressed to the State with a view to
laying upon it an obligation to observe a given line of conduct in its own
internal legalorder; which conduct may consist in conferring, within that
legal order, certain rights or other persona1 legal situations on foreign
nationals.
The international rules in this category are somewhat analogous to the
rules of international law concerningthe protection of human rights. For
the latter rules also are concerned not with the protection of such rights as
may already have been conferred by the internal legal systembut with the
actual predication, binding upon States, of rights within the municipal
order. While it is true that, in this context, it is to human "rights" that
reference ismade as being the subject of the protection sought by the rule
of international law. the term is here em~ioved in the sense of natural
rights. In this case also international law envisages the protection of
certain individual interests and not of rights already resulting from any
positive legal order.

3. Those international rules regarding the treatment of foreigners
which belong to the category 1 have just described may be contrasted,
having regard to their structure, with the rules in a second category.
These have a much wider area of applicability, because, on the one hand
they concern not only foreign individuals but also foreign. collective,
entities, whilethey are, on the other hand, for that very reason, designed
not to protect a small number of interests of fundamental importance to
the human person but rather to protect other, more numerous interests
which more often than not possess a purely economic character.

Like the rules in the firstcategory, those in the second are also intended
for the protection of interests, to which end they enjoin upon the States
to which theyare directed a certain line of conduct which they place those
States under an obligation to observe in their municipal legal orders. But before referring in this way to the interna1 legal order, the international
rules of which 1now speak refer to that same legal order for the purpose
of performing a preliminary task, that of determining what interests are
to be the subject of the protection envisaged. This is so in that the inter-
national rule postulates a certain attitude on the part of the State legal
order, inasmuch as it has regard solely to interests which, within that
legalorder, have already received some degree of protection through the
attribution of rights or other advantageous persona1 legal situations
(faculties, legal powers or expectations): an attitude on the part of the
State legalorder which in itself is not obligatory in international law.

It is onthe hypothesis that this state of affairshas arisen in the municipal
legalorder that the international rule lays upon the State the obligation
to observe a certain line of conduct with regard to the interests in ques-
tion: with regard, one might thenceforward say, to the rights whereby the

interests in question stand protected in the municipal legal order. 1should
explain that it is only forthe sake of brevity that in this connection 1speak
of rights, because instead of a right some other advantageous legal
situation may be involved: a faculty, legal power or expectation.

The conduct which international law renders incumbent upon a State
with regard to the rights which the same State confers on foreign nationals
within its own municipal order consists, in the first place, in the judicial
protection of those rights. Any State which, having attributed certain
rights to foreign nationals, prevents them from gaining access to the
courts for the purpose of asserting those rights is guilty, in international
law, of a denial of justice. In addition, international law lays upon a
State, within certain limits and on certain conditions, the obligation to
respect, in the conduct of its administrative or even legislative organs, the
rights which the municipal legal order of the same State confers on foreign
nationals. This is what is known as respecting the acquired rights of
foreigners.
As will be observed, the fact that the rules of international law in

question envisage solely such interests of foreigners as already constitute
rights in the municipal order is but the necessary consequence of t.hevery
content of the obligations imposed by those rules; obligations which,
precisely, presuppose rights conferred on foreigners by the legal order
of the State in question.
Both the obligation to afford rights judicial protection and the obliga-
tion to respect them apply, then, to rights as conferred by the municipal
legal order. This provides an indirect way of determining what interests
the international rule is intended to protect, given that this rule only
protects the interests of foreign individuals or foreign collectiveentities if
those interests already enjoy a certain degree of protection within the
municipal legal system. This means that the international rule refers to
the municipal legal order in that, to impose upon a State a particular BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. MORELLI) 234

obligation, it presupposes a certain freely adopted attitude on the part of
the legalorder of that State.
4. There is nothing abnormal in this reference of an international rule
to the law of a given State. It is wholly untenable to object, asthe Belgian
Government has done, that in this way the international responsibility of
the State is made to depend upon categories of municipal law, thus
enabling a State to set up the provisions of its own legal order as a
means of evading the international consequences of its acts. In reality,
no subordination of international responsibility, assuch, to the provisions

of municipal law is involved; the point is rather that the very existence of
the international obligation depends on a state of affairs created in
municipal law, though this is so not by virtue of municipal law but, on the
contrary, by virtue of the internationalrule itself, which to that end refers
to the law of the State.
Nor is it possible to invoke against this, as has also been done, the
alleged basic principle of the supremacy of international law. Despite
what the Belgian Government has asserted to the contrary, this principle
has never been affirmed, as such, by the International Court and, so far
as the Permanent Court is concerned, it stands in clear contradiction to
the idea, by which that Court was always guided, of the separateness of
international and municipal law.
Quite another principle underlay the Permanent Court's statement to

the effect that municipal laws were simply facts from the standpoint of
international law (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7, p. 19).This was a reference
not to any supposed principle of the supremacy of international law but
rather to the exclusive character of the international legal order, as of
any non-derivative legal system. But this principle does not by any means
rule out the possibility that a rule of international law may refer to
municipal law in some way or another: for example, for the very purpose
of rendering an obligation laid upon a State subject to a certain point of
fact within the province of that State's municipal law. Very clear illus-
trations of that possibility are to be found in treaties dealing with extradi-
tion or with the recognition of foreign judgments.
5. In the present instance, the interests concerned are either interests
of collective entities, or more precisely companies, such as Barcelona
Traction and the companies holding shares in it, or interests of individ-

uals, such as the individual shareholders in Barcelona Traction. But,
either way, we are dealing with interests of a purely economic nature.

It follows that the international rules which may be invoked for the
sake of protecting those interests are exclusively rules entering into the
second of the two categories 1have described. But, as has been seen, these
rules postulate that, if those same interests are to be protected, certain
rights must already have been bestowed by the municipal legal order. It is
on the hypothesis that the municipal order has adopted this attitude, op-tional in international law, that the international rule imposes certain
obligations on the State.
From the considerations 1have set forth it needs must follow that, in
terms of general international law at least, a State is free even to deny
companies-or certain companies-legal personality. For it is only in
respect of individuals that the State isnder an obligation in international
law to recognize personality, or in other words to confer a set of rights.
The rights in question are precisely those which the State, by virtue of the
rules of international law entering into the first category, has an obliga-
tion to confer upon individuals so as to protect certain of their interests
which are fundamental in nature. It is only in the event that certain rights
and, consequently, legal personality are conferred on a company within
the municipal order that the State is bound by certain internatiocal

obligations with regard to the judicial protection of those rights and
respect for the same.
Where the municipal legal order denies a company legal personality,
this signifiesthat the municipal order in question considers the corporate
property as the subject-matter of rights pertaining to the members. In
that event it is in relation tohese rights, freely conferred on the members
by the municipal order, that there is incumbent upon the State an inter-
national obligation of protection and respect.
If, on the other hand, the municipal legal order allows the company
legal personality, itcan but treat the members' rights accordingly. Con-
sistently with the attribution of the corporate property to the company,
considered as ajuristic person, the members willin thiscaseenjoyno more
than limited rights, the subject-matter of which will not be the corporate
property. Needless to Say, in this case too, the rights accorded to the
members, whatever they may be, enjoy the international protection which
is appropriate to them.
In other words, there is on the onehand a set of rights conferred by the
municipal order on the company and, on the other hand, within the same

legal order, another, quite distinct set of rights conferred on the members.
Each set of rights is entitled to its own, distinct international protection.

As has been seen, both these protections afforded by the international
legal order presuppose a certain attitude on the part of municipal law,
namely a certain manner in which it deals with the rights of the company,
on the one hand, and those of the members on the other. In the present
case, the State legal order to be considered is the Spanish legal system,
that is to say the legalorder of the State whose international obligations
have to be determined.
So far as the members of the company are concerned, to say that the
international legal order affords protection only to their rights, such as
recognized by the municipal order ofthe State whose international obliga-
tion is in question, is not in any way to deny that the subject of inter-
national protection is, in the upshot, in this case as always, interests.The reference to the legal order of the State and to the rights which it
confers constitutes merely the means whereby international law estab-
lishes what interests it is concerned to protect. International law protects,
by laying certain obligations upon a State, solely such interests of the
members as already enjoy protection within the municipal legal order of
that State on account of the attribution to those members of rights or
other persona1legal situations.
If that condition is not satisfied or if, in other words, what is at stake
is interests which do not, within the municipal order, constitute rights

conferred on the members, those interests are not subject to any specific
protection in international law. They may however be interests of the
members which coincide with interests of the company. In that event, if
the interests of the company are legally protected within the municipal
order, it is to these interests (constituting rights of the company) that the
international obligations apply.
6. The application to the present case of the principles 1 have just
mentioned does not occasion any difficulty.
There is nodisagreement between the Parties with regard to the attitude
of the Spanish municipal order so far as concerns the way in which it
deals with the legal situation of a limited-liability company, on the one
hand, and the rights of its shareholders on the other. No-one denies that
Barcelona Traction, like any such company, enjoyed legal personality in
the legal order of Spain and that it had consequently to be regarded as
the owner of the rights over the corporate property. Accordingly, the
shareholders in Barcelona Traction were not recognized to possess any
rights over the corporate property; they enjoyed only those rights proper
to shareholders in a limited-liability company, such as the right to divi-
dend and certain rights relating to the conduct of the company's business.

However, Belgium does not complain of any damage that might have
been sufferedby Barcelona Traction shareholders in respect of their own
rights as shareholders on account of the measures taken by the Spanish
authorities. On the contrary, Belgium complains of the fact that those
measures, although (or rather, preciselybecause) they weretaken vis-à-vis
the company, were detrimental to the interests of the shareholders. But
these were simpleinterests, not interests constituting rights in the Spanish
legal order.
It follows, in accordance with the principles 1have stated, that, so far
as such shareholders' interests are concerned, Spain was under no obliga-
tion in international law; which rules out any international responsibility
on the part of Spain for such damage as the measures taken by its
authorities may have caused to the interests of foreign shareholders. If
simple interests are (as they must be) disregarded, and only rights con-
sidered, such as they arise out of the Spanish legal order, it is only to the
rights of the company that the measures of which complaint is made
could have caused harm. But damage caused in respect of the rights of
Barcelona Traction, a Canadian company, could, if internationally un-lawful, have constituted an international wrong only vis-à-vis Canada,
not vis-à-visBelgium or any other State. In this connection itcan properly
be said that it is the Canadian State alone which, on account of the
nationality of the injured private party, has capacity to claim reparation.

7. Mention must now be made of another way in which the Parties put
the question of whether the measures taken by the Spanish authorities
were of an unlawful nature vis-à-vis Belgium. In place of reference to the
distinction between rights and simple interests, a distinction was drawn
between direct damage and indirect damage, and it was asked whether
the measures complained of, although taken with respect to Barcelona
Traction and, as such, causing it direct damage, constituted an inter-
nationally unlawful act vis-à-vis Belgium because they also, albeit in-
directly, caused damage to the Belgianshareholders in Barcelona Traction.

On the basis of what 1have said with regard to the different attitudes
evinced by the international rules on the treatment of foreigners with
respect to simple interests on the onehand and rights on the other, 1find
that the distinction between direct damage and indirect damage serves no
useful purpose.
For, to consider that very limited category of international rules on the
treatment of foreigners which is concerned to protect certain interests
independently of whether or not they constitute rights in the municipal
legal order, an injury to such an interest is, of itself, an internationally
unlawful act. No importance could be attached in this connection to the
relationship in which such an injury might stand towards an injury to
another interest, more especially in the sense of its having to be regarded
as the latter's indirect consequence.
Similarly, to consider the other category of international rules, con-
cerned to protect solely rights recognized by the municipal legal order,
what matters in a given instance is of course to establish whether or not
there was an injury in infringement of such a right. If this is not the case

or if, thatis to say, there was only an injury to a simple interest, such
injury will not constitute an international wrong even if it stands in some
relationship to an injury in respect of a right which might, as such, con-
stitute an unlawful act vis-à-vis the national state of the injured party.
It would appear, moreover, that the distinction between direct damage
and indirect damage is, in substance, merely a different way of statingthe
distinction between injury in respect of a right and injury to a simple
interest. For, supposing a measure to have been taken with respect to a
private party who, as a result of that measure, has directly suffered
damage, if it be enquired, in a concrete case, who is the private party with
respect to whom the measure can be regarded as having been taken, the
only way of answering this question is tu consider the legal effects of the
measure. A measure can only be regarded as having been taken with
respect to a particular party if itproduces legal effects for that party; if,in other words, it involves the rights of that party. Al1that other parties
could suffer from such a measure would be consequences affecting their
simple interests. To term such consequences indirect is in fact merely an
imprecise way of describing the injury of a particular party's simple
interest, an injury standing in a certain relationship to the injury suffered
by another party in respect of his right.
8. From this 1conclude that an international obligation on the part of
Spain with respect to the treatment of Barcelona Traction and, in con-
sequence, international responsibility on the part of Spain for any
breach of that obligation, could only be held to exist vis-à-vis Canada,
the company's national State. Neither an obligation nor responsibility on
the part of Spain could be held to exist vis-à-vis Belgium,or vis-à-visany
other State of which Barcelona Traction shareholders might be nationals.

The absence of any responsibility on the part of Spain vis-à-visBelgium
in respect of the measures taken by the Spanish authorities with regard
to Barcelona Traction is simply a consequence of the absence of any
obligation owed in this respect by Spain to Belgium; this, in its turn,
results from the fact that there is norule of international law from which
such an obligation might be derived.
In sum, therefore, Belgium has no possibility of exercisingdiplomatic
protection with respectto the Belgianshareholders in Barcelona Traction,
since, as has already been said, a State which exercises diplomatic pro-
tection with respect to one of its nationals is merely demanding for such
national the treatment required by the international rules governing the
matter or else claiming reparation for the violation of those rules.

9. No importance can be attached in this connection to the facts that
the Belgian shareholders in Barcelona Traction might have benefited
indirectly, so far as their own interests were concerned, from the exercise

by Canada of diplomatic protection of the company and that such pro-
tection was not pursued.
We have seen that the interests of shareholders, as simple interests not
constituting rights within the municipal legal order, enjoy no protection
under the international rules governing the treatment of foreigners. This
obviously does not rule out the possibility that those interests might
benefit indirectly from the protection which those same rules afford the
company's interestsin so far as these constitute rights under the municipal
legal order. It is therefore possible that the exercise of diplomatic pro-
tection of the company by its national state may eventually lead, through
the retrieval of the interests of the company, to the indirect retrieval of
the shareholders' interests too.
But this in no way influences the attitude evinced toward the interests
of shareholders by the international rules governing the treatment of
foreigners. The mere possibility of an indirect protection of shareholders'
interests, in thesense indicated above, does not warrant any inferencethat whenever such indirect protection is lacking it must be replaced by
direct protection. There could be no question of such direct protection
unless a State owed an obligation and happened to have incurred respon-
sibility toward the national State of the shareholders. And 1 cannot see
where any basis for such an obligation or such responsibility is to be
found.
Actually the very idea of the diplomatic protection of shareholders
by their national State, it being conceived as a second line of protection
that may be brought into play if protection of the company by its own
national State should be lacking, is strictly bound up with a way of
thinking that misconceives the very basis of diplomatic protection in
general, regarding it not as a State's mere exercise of a right bestowed
upon it by the rules of international law concerning the treatment of
foreigners, but rather as a procedure entirely independent of the existence

of a right.

Only by taking such a standpoint could it be possible, where the
treatment afforded a company is concerned, to envisage diplomatic pro-
tection of the shareholders by their national state as a second line of
protection, that is to Say as a protection subordinated to the condition
that diplomatic protection is not exercised,or not pursued, by the national
State of the company. This view, on the contrary, would be utterly in-
conceivable on the correct premise that an act of diplomatic protection is
simply the exercise of an international right, and is consequently con-
ditional on the existence of such a right.
10. Neither is it possible, with a view to demonstrating the admissi-
bility of a second-line diplomatic protection of shareholders in the event
that diplomatic protection of the company is lacking, to rely on a sup-
posed analogy or rather parallel between that alleged second-line diplo-
matic proteçtion and such possibility as may be afforded shareholders in
municipal law of taking action against the organs of the company, or in

their stead, should they remain inactive.

It is the very idea behind such reasoning which, in my opinion, is
unacceptable: the idea that international law must necessarily offer some
kind of protection to shareholders' interests. There is nothing necessary
about such protection; it exists only within the limits and on the con-
ditions which are fixed by international law itself. Furthermore the
requirements which municipal law is concerned to satisfy are not neces-
sarily requirements that ought also to be the concern of international law.
Needless to Say,if the municipal legal order does, in the event of the
inactivity of the organs of a company, confer certain rights on the share-
holders, those rights, like any other rights peculiar to shareholders, will
as such enjoy the protection which international law affords in general
to rights conferred on individuals by a municipal legal order. 11. The lack, in a given case, of any exercise of diplomatic protection
in respect of the company might result from the actual impossibility, in
that case, of exercisingsuch protection.
As an example of a case where it would be impossible for the national
State of the company to exercise diplomatic protection in its respect, the
hypothesis has been adduced of the company's being dissolved, or being
in a state of legal or simplymaterial incapacity to act.
With regard to the extreme case, that of dissolution, this must naturally
be taken to mean a dissolution which took place after the measure com-
plained of, whether as a result or independently of that measure. For if
the company were already dissolved at the time when the measure com-
plained of was taken, it would obviously be impossible to speak of a
measure taken with regard to the company; one would on the contrary
have to speak of a measure taken directly with regard to the members of
the company, which would ipsfoacto authorize the national States of the
members to exercise diplomatic protection of them.
Furthermore the logic of the argument implies that the dissolution in

question must be an extinction which is effectivefrom the standpoint of
the legal order of the company's national State. Such an extinction is not
necessarily the automatic consequence of an extinction occurring in the
legal order of the State that had taken the measure complained of.
Now it is quite obvious that if a company is dissolved from the stand-
point of the legal order of its national State, there is no possibility of its
applying to that State for diplomatic protection. However, the ability of
persons to request diplomatic protection of their national State is one
thing, and entirely .depends on the interna1 legal system of the State in
question; but the exercise of diplomatic protection on the international
plane is quite another matter. Diplomatic protection, as the exercise of
a right arising out of the international legalorder, belongs exclusivelyto
the State, which has entire discretion in its respect. A State is free not to
exercise diplomatic protection even if the national concerned requests it.
Conversely, a State may exercise diplomatic protection even if there is
no request from its national. It follows that the dissolution of a company
does not prevent its national State from exercising diplomatic protection

in its respect and that, consequently, the hypothesis envisaged cannot
arise at all.

12. On the other hand it must be recognized that diplomatic protection
of a company really may be impossible when there is no foreign State to
exercise it. This would be so in the case of a company which had the
nationality of the very State whose international obligation was in ques-
tion.
Nevertheless, 'to Say that in such a case the national States of the
shareholders are entitled to protect the latter's interestsbecause there is
no possibility of their benefiting indirectly from any protection afforded
the company would be to make havoc with the system of international rules regarding the treatment of foreigners. It would, furthermore, be a
wholly illogical and arbitrary deduction.
For to envisage the possibility of indirect protection in certain even-
tualities is tantamount to recognizing the absence, so far as shareholders
are concerned, of any direct protection on the part of international law-
to recognizing, in other words, that international law does not consider
the interests of shareholders, as simple interests, worthy of its protection
and that it consequently refrains from imposing upon a State, in this con-
nection, any obligations toward shareholders' national States. This neg-
ative attitude on the part of international law cannot be reversed on the
ground that the interests of shareholders might, in other circumstances,
benefit from a purely indirect protection. Such artificial and illogical
reasoning would lead to the creation, for the interests of shareholders, of

a direct protection such as their national States might take up: the very
protection which is refused by international law.

13. A fortiori, the diplomatic protection of shareholders by their
national States must be ruled out where, as in the present case, the
diplomatic protection of the company by its national State is possible
but, for some reason or other, is not exercised or not pursued.

To my general remarks on the notion of a second line of diplomatic
protection for shareholders, and to those 1have just made regarding the
hypothesis of the impossibility of the company's receiving diplomatic
protection, remarks which remain no less valid for the hypothesis now
under consideration, 1 would add certain other observations of specific
application to the latter.
According to this latter hypothesis, the possibility ofa State'sexercising
diplomatic protection of those shareholders in a company who are its
nationals would not be absolute, but contingent on a certain attitude
which a third State, i.e., the national State of the company, is free to

adopt or not: an attitude consisting either in refraining from exercising
diplomaticprotection of the company or in not pursuing diplomatic pro-
tection once exercised.It would not be easy to establish at what moment
the requisite condition might be regarded as fulfilled. In any event, there
would be a point in time before which the diplomatic protection of the
shareholders would not be admitted; as from that moment, on the other
hand, the possibility of exercising such protection would exist.

But any diplomatic protection presupposes that the State approached
by the protector owes an obligation or, it may be, has incurred a debt of
responsibility, because it is precisely such obligation or responsibility
that diplomatic protection relies on and asserts. Consequently, to Say
that the national State of the shareholders cannot exercise diplomatic
protection for solongas it is not possible to affirmthat the national State
of the company is refraining from exercisingdiplomaticprotection of thelatter amounts to excluding the existence, until then, of any obligation or
responsibility vis-à-vis the national State of the shareholders. It is only
later that such an obligation and, it may be, such responsibility (indeed
the very unlawfulness of the measure taken vis-à-vis the company) would
arise, necessarily with retroactive effect, owing to the conduct of a third
State, the national State of the company, in abstaining-for some motive
the appraisal of which would be a matter for its own discretion-from
the exercise of diplomatic protection in respect of the company.

Simply to propound such a theory is to expose its absurdity. Generally
speaking, it is hard to see how a State's non-exercise of its right could
have any influence on the possibility of exercising, let alone the very
existence of, another State's right.1 have already pointed out that the

international rules governing the treatment of foreigners take concrete
shape in bilateral relationships. Now each ofthese relationships, between
clearly circumscribed subjects, is absolutely independent of any other
relationship which, though deriving from those same rules, might exist
between other, or partly other, subjects. Hence no such relationship
could, through its own existence or merely through its activation, exert
any influence on the very existence of another. Consequently, if the view
be taken that a State is not, vis-à-vis the national State of shareholders
in a limited company, under any obligation whatever concerning the
treatment of that company, it is impossible to seehow such an obligation
could arise retroactively out of the fact that the national State of the
company does not, for whatever reason, exercise its own right.

(Signed Gaetano MORELLI.

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. MORELLI

1. Il convient de préciser, tout d'abord, l'objet du différend qui

oppose 1'Etat belgeà 1'Etat espagnol aussi bien que l'objet de la de-
mande que la Belgique a présentée à la Cour par sa requêtedu 19juin
1962. Cette requête a été comparée,en particulier du côté espagnol,
avec l'autre requêteque la même Belgiqueavait présentéele 23 septem-
bre 1958; et l'on a poséla question de savoir s'il s'agitde la mêmede-
mande ou plutôt de deux demandes différentes.
Etant donné les circonstances de l'affaire, une comparaison entre
les deux requêtesn'a d'utilité qu'auxfins de la détermination exacte de
l'objet de la demande présentéepar la requêtede 1962, la seule sur la-
quelle la Cour étaitappeléeà se prononcer dans l'arrêt actuel.En effet,
la procédureintroduite par la requêtede 1958ayant étéclose par suite
du désistement, il n'existait aucun obstacle de litispendance pouvant
empêcherla Belgique de soumettre de nouveau àla Cour la mêmede-

mande. II ne fait pas de doute, d'autre part, qu'il était parfaitement
loisibleàla Belgique de saisir la Cour d'une demande différente.
2. Pour ce qui est de I'objet du différend opposant la Belgique à
l'Espagne, ce différenda étédès le début caractérisé,en premier lieu,
par le grief avancépar la Belgique à raison des mesures prises par les
autorités espagnolesà l'égard dela Barcelona Traction et, en deuxième
lieu, par la prétention de la Belgiquàune certaine réparation pour le
préjudice causépar ces mesures, considéréescomme internationalement
illicites. Or ces éléments (etle différendqui en résulte)sont restés in-
changés mêma eprès le désistement, quin'a eu, sur le différend,aucune
conséquence. On peut dire aussi que l'objet du différend estresté in-
changé,car l'objet d'un différend nepeut qu'êtredéfinipar ses éléments
constitutifs.

3. Malgré la persistance du mêmedifférend, peut-on estimer que,
par la requêtede 1962,la Belgique a saisi la Cour d'une demande diffé-
rente, quantà son objet, de celle que la même Belgiqueavait soumiseà
la Cour en 1958?Je suis d'avis que c'est par la négative qu'ilfaut répon-
dre à cette question.
Lorsqu'on dit qu'un Etat exerce,à l'égardd'un autre Etat, la protec-
tion diplomatique par rapport à un particulier donné, qu'il protège ce SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE MORELLI

[Translation]

1. It wiiibe advisable to begin by defining,on the one hand,the subject
of the dispute between the Belgian State and the Spanish State and, on
the other, the object of the claim submitted to the Court by Belgium in
its Application of 19 June 1962. This Application has been compared,
particularly from the Spanish side, with the other Application submitted
by Belgium on 23 September 1958,and the question has been raised as to
whether what is involved is the same claim or two different claims.
Having regard to the circumstances of the case, comparison of the
two Applications is useful only for the purpose of a precise determina-
tion of the object of the claim submitted by the 1962Application, the
only one on which the Court had to give a decision in the present Judg-
ment. The proceedings instituted by the 1958 Application having been
closed pursuant to the discontinuance, there was no litispendance ob-

stacle to prevent Belgium from again submitting the same claim to the
Court. On the other hand there can be no doubt that Belgium was com-
pletely free to refer a different claim to the Court.
2. As regards the subject of the dispute between Belgium and Spain,
that dispute has from the outset been characterized, in the first place, by
the complaint put forward by Belgium on account of the measures taken
by the Spanish authorities in respect of Barcelona Traction and, in the
second place, by Belgium's claim to reparation of some kind for the
damage sustained as a result of those measures, regarded as contrary to
international law. Now these elements (and the resulting dispute) re-
mained unchanged even after the discontinuance, which did not affectthe
dispute in any way. It may also be said that the subject of the dispute
remained unchanged, for that subject can only be the product of the
component elements of the disputel
3. 1s it possible, despite the continuance of the same dispute, to con-
sider that in its 1962Application Belgium referred to the Court a claim

having a different object from that submitted to the Court in 1958?1am
of the opinion that this question must be answered in the negative.

When a State is said to be exercising, as against another State, diplo-
matic protection of a particular person, to be protecting that person, to be particulier, qu'il prend fait et cause pour lui, on veut dire, par ces for-

mules, que 1'Etat exerce,à l'égardd'un autre Etat, un droit propre, à
lui conférépar l'ordre juridique international et ayant pour objet un
certain traitement à accorder au particulier. L'Etat, dont le particulier
est le ressortissant, est autoriàéexiger, pour celui-ci, le traitement re-
quis par les règlesinternationales en la matière et, au cas où un tel traite-
ment ne serait pas accordé, il peut prétendre à une réparation sous la
forme soit d'une restitutio in integrum soit d'un dédommagement. La
réparation, sur le plan international, est due en tout cas1'Etatet non
pas au particulier; cela même lorsqu'il s'agit d'undédommagement et
bien que le montant doive en êtreétablisur la base du préjudicesubi
Dar le ~articulier.
Ces notions très élémentairesexpliquent d'une façon bien simple

pourquoi dans le cas d'espèce les deux demandes dont la Belgique a
successivement saisi la Cour, celle de 1958et celle de 1962,oiven~être
considérées comme tout à fait identiques.
4. Par la première requête aussibien que par la deuxièmela Belgique
a demandé à la Cour de dire et juger que 1'Etat espagnol est tenu, à
l'égardde la Belgique, à une certaine réparation pour un fait qualifié
d'internationalement illicite. Naturellement ce fait internationalement
illicite, en tant que tel, n'aurait pu êtrecommis parEtatespagnol qu'à
l'égardde 1'Etatbelge et non pas des particuliers lésés.
Le fait illicite dénoncépar la Belgique est décrit, dans les deux re-
quêtes, d'une façonidentique: il consiste, d'après l'une et l'autre, en
une mêmeconduite des autorités espagnoles. La demande principale
de réparation, formuléedans les deux requêtes,a pour objet la restitutio

in integrum et viseà l'annulation par 1'Etat espagnol des mesures qui,
dans les deux requêtes, luisont identiquement reprochées. Pour ce
qui concerne la demande subsidiaire de dédommagement, il est bien
vrai que, dans la requête de 1962, on a réduit le montant de celui-ci
à 88 pour cent du patrimoine de la Barcelona Traction et que, en con-
formitéavec la nouvelle façon de présenter l'affaire,on a donné à cette
demande subsidiaire une justification différenteen se référant,non plus
au préjudice subipar la Barcelona Traction, mais au préjudicesubi par
les actionnaires belges de la société.Toutefois ni la réduction de la
somme demandéeni l'argumentation différente àl'appui de la demande
de dédommagement ne changent d'aucune façon, dans la substance,
l'objet de celle-ci.
5. Entre les deux demandes il n'ya pas seulement identitéde petitum;

il y a aussi identité decausapetendi.
Dans le cas d'espècela causapetendi consiste dans le caractère pré-
tendument illiciteà l'égardde la Belgique, d'une certaine conduite des
autoritésespagnoles résultant, d'après l'uneet l'autre des deux requêtes,
des mêmes acteset omissions. Aussi l'identitéde la causapetendi n'est-
elle pas affectéepar le fait qu'il y a, entre les deux requêtes,changement
dans la façon de démontrer que c'est précisément ledroit de la Belgique taking up his case, what is meant by these expressions is that a State is

exercising as against another State a right of its own conferred on it by
the international legalorder, concerninga particular treatment due to the
person concerned. The national State of the person is entitled to demand
that thatperson be accorded the treatment required by the relevant rules
of international law and, should such treatment not be accorded, may
claim reparation in the form of either restitutio inintegrumor compensa-
tion. International reparation is always owed to the State and not to the
private person, even in the case of compensation and despite the fact that
the amount of compensation must be determined on the basis of the
damage suffered by the private person.

These very elementary notions explain quite simply why in the present
case the two claims successively referred to the Court by Belgium, that
of 1958and that of 1962,must be regarded as completely identical.

4. In the first as in the second Application Belgium asked the Court

to adjudge and declare that the Spanish State was under an obligation
towards Belgium to make a certain form of reparation for an alleged
international wrong. Naturally the international wrong, as such, could
have been done by the Spanish State only to the Belgian State and not to
the injured persons.
The wrong complained of by Belgium is described in the same way in
both Applications: according to both it consists of the same conduct on
the part of the Spanish authorities. The principal claim for reparation as
expressed in both Applications has restitutio inintegrumas its object and
seeks the annulment by the Spanish State of the measures complained of
against it in theame way in both Applications. As regards the alternative
claim for compensation, it is perfectly true that in the 1962Application
the amount of compensation was reduced to 88 per cent. of Barcelona
Traction's net assets and that, in conformity with the new presentation of
the case, the justification for this alternative claim was changed, so that
reference is no longer made to thedamage sufferedby Barcelona Traction,
but to the damage suffered by the company's Belgian shareholders.

However, neither the reduction of the amount claimed nor the alteration
of the argument in support of the claim for compensation in any way
changes the object of thaf claim as to its substance.

5. Between the two claims there is identity not only ofpetitum but also
of causapetendi.
In this case the causapetendi is the allegedly unlawful character where
Belgium is concerned of ,a particular course of conduct on the part of the
Spanish authorities composed, according to both Applications, of the
same acts and omissions. Thus the identical nature of the causapetendi is
not affected by the fact that there is, as between the two Applications, a
difference in the way in which they set out to prove that a right of qui aurait étélésépar les mesures incriminées.La circonstance que dans
la premièrerequêtela Belgique avait dénoncéle préjudice subi,par suite
de ces mesures, par une sociétédans laquelle on affirmait la présence
d'intérêtsbelges prépondérants, tandisque dans la deuxièmerequête la
même Belgiquea dénoncéle préjudice indirectement subi, par suite des
mêmes mesures,par des ressortissants belges en tant qu'actionnaires
de la société,constitue simplement un changement d'argumentation,
qui n'a rien àfaire avec l'objet dela demande.

En effet, toutes les fois qu'il s'agit, comme dans le cas d'espèce,d'une
demande en réparation pour violation, par une conduite donnée, des
règlesinternationales sur le traitement des étrangers, l'indication detel
ou tel particulier, l'égardduquel la protection diplomatique est exercée,
ne concerne pas du tout l'objet de la demande, car celle-ci n'a d'autre
objet que la réparation que 1'Etat réclamepour lui-même. Cela, bien
entendu, à la condition que l'indication de la conduite prétendument
illicite de l'autre Etat reste inchangéepar la suite; au cas contraire il y
aurait changement de la demande par changement de causapetendi.

Les choses se passent autrement lorsque la protection diplomatique
est exercée,non pas sous la forme d'une demande en réparation pour un
fait illicite que I'on affirmeaccompli, mais, au contraire, sous la forme
de la prétention à un traitement donné que l'autre Etat devrait réserver
à un particulier. En ce cas, l'indication du particuliàrl'égardduquel la
protection diplomatique est exercéefait partie intégrante de l'indication
de la conduite étatiqueréclamée par1'Etatqui exerce la protection diplo-
matique. Par conséquent,s'il s'agitd'une demande présentéepar la voie
judiciaire, la substitution d'un particulier protégéun autre entraîne un

changement de l'objet de la demande. Il y a précisément,en ce cas, un
changement de petitum.
6. Les raisons pour lesquelles je suis d'avis que les deux demandes
soumises à la Cour par la Belgique doivent êtreconsidéréescomme ob-
jectivement identiques ne sont pas celles que le Gouvernement espagnol
invoque pour aboutir à la mêmeconclusion.
Le Gouvernement espagnol semble partir de l'idéeque, pour établir
l'objet de la demande (ou de l'affaire, comme il dit parfois), il faudrait
avoir égard au particulier protégé.Dans le contre-mémoire et dans les
conclusions qui y figurent on en arrive, par une formule peut-êtreellip-

tique, à envisager soit la sociétéBarcelona Traction soit les actionnaires
belgescomme constituant eux-mêmes 1'«objet)possible de la(demande »
belge. Et I'on oppose, dans le mêmecontre-mémoire, uneaffaire de pro-
tection de sociétésà une affaire de protection d'actionnaires.

Or, si l'on accepte l'idéeque le particulier protégéconstitue lui-même
l'objet de la demande ou tout au moins l'élément décisp ifour établir
quel est l'objet de la demande, il faudrait en déduire, comme consé-
quence logique, que la demande présentéepar la Belgique en 1962est BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP.MORELLI) 224

Belgium'swas indeed infringed by the measures complained of. The fact
that in the first Application Belgium complained of the damage suffered,
as a result ofthose measures, by a company in which there was asserted
to be a preponderance of Belgian interests, whereas in the second Appli-
cation Belgium complained of the damage indirectly suffered as a result
of the same measures, by Belgian nationals in their capacity as share-
holders in the company, is merely a change of argument which has noth-
ing to do with the object of the claim.
Whenever, as in the present case, there is a claim for reparation on
account of the breach, through a particular course of conduct, of the
rules of international law concerning the treatment of foreigners, the
specifying of such and such a person as the one in respect of whom

diplomatic protection is exercised is not a matter which is at al1relevant
to the object of the claim, for the claim has no other object than the
reparation sought by the State for itself. This is so of course only if the
description of. the allegedly unlawful conduct of the other State remains
unchanged throughout, otherwise there would be a change of claim
because of a change in the causapetendi.
Matters are otherwise when diplomatic protection is exercised not in
the form of a claim for reparation on account of a wrong asserted to
have been done but, onthe contrary, in the form of a claim to a particular
sort of treatment due by the other State to a private person. ln this case
the specifying of the private person in respect of whom diplomatic pro-
tection is exercised is an integral part of the specification of the conduct
which the State exercising diplomatic protection calls for on the part of

the other State. Consequently, in the case of such a claim submitted in
judicial proceedings, the substitution of one protected person for another
entails a change in the object of the claim. In such a case there is indeed a
change of petitum.
6. The reasons why 1am of the opinion that both claims submitted by
Belgium to the Court must be regarded as objectivelyidentical arenot the
same as those advanced by the Spanish Government in reaching the
same conclusion.
The Spanish Government appears to start from the idea that in order
to determine the object of the claim (or of the case, as it sometimes puts
it) regard must be had to the identity of the protected person. In the
argument and submissions of the Counter-Memorial it reaches, by the
use of a perhaps elliptic form of words, the point of envisaging either

the Barcelona Traction Company or the Belgian shareholders as them-
selves constituting the possible"objet" of the Belgian "claim". Thus in
that pleading a case involving company protection is contrasted with a
case involving shareholder protection.
Now if the idea is accepted that the protected person himself con-
stitutes theobjet of the claim, or at least the decisive element for deter-
mining the object of the claim, it would have to be inferred as a logical
conclusion that the claim submitted by Belgium in 1962is different fromautre que celle qui avait étésoumise à la Cour en 1958, parce que la

Belgique déclare maintenant protéger, non pas la Barcelona Traction,
mais les actionnaires belges de cette dernière
Toutefois, d'après le Gouvernement espagnol, cette déduction de-
vrait être écartéepour la raison que, dans sa requête de 1962,la Bel-
gique aurait tenté decamoufler, sous les apparencesd'une affaire relative
à des actionnaires belges de la Barcelona Traction, une affaire qui con-
cerne en réalitéla sociétéen tant que telle. Ce qui serait prouvé, d'une
part, par les griefs avancés (se rapportant aux mesures prises par les
autoritésespagnoles à l'égard dela société)et, de l'autre, par les moda-
litésde la réparation demandée (consistant, en premier lieu, dans la
restitutio in integrumde l'entreprise).
7. Je suis d'avisque la Belgique,en présentant la nouvelle demandede
la façon qu'elle a estiméela plus convenable, n'a fait qu'exercer une
liberté qui,comme la Cour l'a remarqué dans son arrêt,lui appartenait

sans aucun doute. Partant, c'est d'aprèsle contenu que la Belgique lui a
donné que la demande devait êtreexaminéeet jugée. Il aurait ététout a
fait arbitraire, sous prétextede rechercher ce qui se cache sous de pré-
tendues apparences,de remplacer la demande réelle,telle que la Belgique
l'a formulée, par une demande différente etpurement hypothétique.
Or, si l'on veut comparer la demande de 1962avec celle qui avait été
soumise à la Cour en 1958(ce qui, comme on l'a déjàdit, n'a d'autre
utilité que de mieux préciser le contenu de la demande nouvelle), il
faut considérer les deux demandes comme objectivement identiques.
Mais cela non pas pour la raison que, comme leprétendle Gouvernement
espagnol,la nouvelle demande aussi concernerait, malgréles apparences,
la protection diplomatique de la société BarcelonaTraction en tant que
telle, mais plutôt pour la raison qu'il y a, entre les deux demandes,

identité depetitum (réparationdemandée)aussi bien que de causapetendi
(conduite prétendument illicite des autoritésespagnoles).
Cette constatation faite, il faut toutefois remarquer qu'il y a, entre
les deux requêtes,une différencepour ce qui concerne la façon dont la
Belgique prétend démontrer queles mesures incriminéesconstituent un
fait illicite de l'Espagne l'égardde la Belgique. Pour démontrer cela
(et pour prouver, par conséquent, son droit à la réparation) la Belgique
ne s'est plus appuyéesur la thèsedu préjudicesubi par une sociétédans
laquelle il y aurait des intérêtsbelges prépondérants; laBelgique s'est
fondée,au contraire, sur le fait que les mesures incriminées, bien que
prisesà l'égardde la sociétéa,uraient indirectement lésé leactionnaires
belges de la société.Or il n'étaitpas possible d'écarterd'embléecette
nouvelle thèse en disant qu'elle ne constitue que la façon de camoufler
une demande différente.C'est la thèse réellementavancée par la Belgique

dans sa requête de1962qui devait êtreexaminéedans les aspects qui lui
sont propres pour juger si elle étaitbien ou mal fondée.that submitted to the Court in 1958,because Belgium now States that it
is protecting not Barcelona Traction but its Belgian shareholders.

However, according to the Spanish Government, this conclusion must
be rejected,because, it alleges, Belgium sought in its 1962Application to
disguise,under the appearance of a case concerning Belgian shareholders
in Barcelona Traction, a case which really concerns the company as such.
This is purported to be proved by, on the one hand, the complaints
advanced (relating to the measures taken by the Spanish authorities in

respect of the company) and, on the other, the form of reparation
claimed (in the first placerestitutio in integrumof the undertaking).

7. 1 am of the opinion that, in submitting its new claim in the way it
considered most suitable, Belgium was only exercising a freedom which
-as the Court has observed in the Judgment-it undoubtedly possessed.
The claim had therefore to be examined and judged in accordance with
the content which Belgium had imparted to it. It would have been quite
arbitrary, on the pretext of bringing to light what was alleged to be hidden
behind a disguise, to substitute for the actual claim as formulated by
Belgium a different, purely hypothetical claim.
If, then, the 1962claim is to be compared with that submitted to the
Court in 1958(the only useful purpose to be served thereby, as already
said, being the better to define the content of the new claim), both claims

must be regarded as objectively identical. But the reason for this is not,
as alleged by the SpanishGovernment, that the new claim also concerns,
despite its outward appearance, diplomatic protection of the Barcelona
Traction Company as such, but rather that in both claims there is identity
of petitum (the reparation sought) and of causapetendi (the allegedly un-
lawful conduct of the Spanish authorities).

This having been established, it must however be observed that as
between the two claims there is a differencein respect of the way in which
Belgium seeks to prove that the measures complained of constitute a
wrong done by Spain to Belgium. In its endeavour to prove this (and
hence its right to reparation) Belgium ceased relying on the contention of
damage suffered by a company in which there were allegedly prepon-
derant Belgian interests and, on the contrary, based its claim on the

purported fact that the measures complained of, although taken in
respect of the company, indirectly injured the Belgian shareholders in it.
But this new argument could not be rejected out of hand on the ground
that it was only ameans of disguising a different claim. It was the actual
argument put fonvard by Belgium in its 1962Application which had to be
considered on its own merits in order to judge whether or not it was well-
founded. 1. La Belgique demande de l'Espagne réparation pour les mesures
prises.par les autorités dece dernier Etat l'égardde la Barcelona Trac-
tion, mesures considéréespar la Belgique comme internationalement
illicites.l doit naturellement s'agir d'illicéité vis-à-visde la Belgique
résultant de la violation d'un droit subjectif propre de la Belgique, de la
violation, èn d'autres termes, d'une obligation de l'Espagne envers la
même Belgique.En effet, les règles internationales relatives au traite-
ment des étrangers, bien que règlesde droit international général obli-
geant, en tant que telles, chaque Etat à l'égardde tous les autres Etats,
se concrétisenten des rapports juridiques bilatéraux, de sorte que l'obli-
gation d'un Etat de réserver à un particulier donnéle traitement requis

existe uniquement à l'égardde 1'Etatdont ce particulier est le ressortis-
sant et non pasà l'égard desautres Etats.
Or, pour démontrer que c'est précisémentun droit subjectif de la
Belgique qui a étéviolépar les mesures incriminées, leGouvernement
belge soutient que ces mesures, bien que prises à l'égardd'une société
canadienne, ont indirectement lésédes ressortissants belges en tant
qu'actionnaires de la société.Cette argumentation est contestée, sous
plusieurs aspects, par le Gouvernement espagnol. Ce qui pose, entre
autres, un problème de qualitépour la Belgique.
2. Il faut s'entendre quant au sens dans lequel il est possible, à ce

propos, de parler proprement de qualité;cela pour la raison que les Par-
ties ont employé des termesqui peuvent prêter à équivoque: (qualité
pour agir ))ou jus standi. Ces termes sembleraient indiquer une qualité
procéduralese rapportant au droit d'ester en justice. Or ce droit est
actuellement hors de discussion, une fois que l'arrêt de1964a affirméla
juridiction de la Cour dans la présente affaire et, par là, le pouvoir
corrélatif de la Belgique de la saisir, c'est-à-dire le pouvoir d'action de
la même Belgique.
Il est possible maintenant de parler de qualité uniquement dans le
sens d'une qualité substantielle et non pas procédurale,c'est-à-dire dans
le sens de l'appartenance à un Etat plutôt qu'à un autre Etat du droit

substantiel invoqué dans le procès. On suppose, par hypothèse, l'exis-
tence d'une certaine obligationà la charge d'un Etat donné(1'Etatdéfen-
deur) et l'on se demande quel est 1'Etat titulaire du droit subjectif hy-
pothétique correspondant: on se demande, en particulier, si un tel droit
appartiendrait ou non à 1'Etatdemandeur.
Comme je l'ai indiqué dans mon opinion dissidente jointe à l'arrêt
sur les exceptions préliminaires (C.I.J. Recueil 1964, p. 111 et suiv.),
la question de la qualité, entendue de cette façon, est une question de
droit substantiel concernant le fond mêmede l'affaire. Un arrêtdisant
que 1'Etat demandeur est dépourvu de qualité,par rapport au droit de THEORDER OF THE QUESTIONS

1. Belgium claims reparation from Spain for the measures taken by
the Spanish authorities in respect of Barcelona Traction, which are con-
sidered by Belgium as internationally unlawful. The unlawfulness here
concerned must naturally be unlawfulness vis-à-vis Belgium resulting
from the infringement ofa right pertaining to Belgium,or in other words

from the breach by Spain of an obligation it owed to Belgium. For the
international rules concerning the treatment of foreigners, although they
are rules of general international law and, as such, are binding on every
State with regard to every other State, take concrete form in the shape of
bilaterallegal relationships, so that a State's obligation to accord the
requiredtreatment to a particularperson existssolelytowardsthenational
State of that person and not towards other States.

Inorder to prove that it was indeeda right pertaining to Belgiumwhich
was infringed by the measures complained of, the Belgian Government
contends that those measures, although taken in respect of a Canadian
company, indirectly injured Belgian nationals as shareholders in the
company. The Spanish Government challengesthisargument from several
standpoints, thus posing, inter alia, a problem as to Belgium'scapacity.

2. It is necessary to be clear as to the sense in which it is possible in
this connection properly to speak of capacity; in particular because the
Parties have used terms which are open to misunderstanding: "qualité
pour agir" or "jus standi". These terms would appear to indicate a form
of procedural capacity relating to the right to apply to court. But that
right is not now in issue, since the 1964 Judgment upheld the Court's
jurisdiction in the present case and thereby Belgium's corresponding
power to seise the Court, that is to say, Belgium's power to institute
proceedings.
At the present stage its possible to speak of capacity only in the sense
of substantive and not procedural capacity, that is to say in the sense of
the vesting in one State rather than in another of the substantive right
invoked in the case.The hypothesis ofthe existenceof acertain obligation

on the part of a given State (the respondent State) is assumed, and the
question is which State possesses the corresponding hypothetical right;
in particular whether or not that right pertains to the applicant State.

As 1 said in my dissenting opinion attached to the Judgment on the
Preliminary Objections (I.C.J. Reports 1964, pp. 111 f.), the question of
capacity, understood in this way, is one concerning a substantive right
with regard to the actual merits of the case. A judgment declaring that
the applicant State is devoid of capacity in respect of the right ofplo-protection diplomatique qu'il invoque,est, non pas un arrêtdéclarant la
demande irrecevable, mais plutôt un arrêtrejetant la demande au fond.
Un tel arrêt produitles effetsde la chosejugéeau sens matériel.

3. Dans mon opinion dissidente (p. 112 et suiv.; voir aussi p. 98 et
suiv.),j'ai expliqué aussique la question de la qualitéen tant que ques-
tion concernant l'appartenance à1'Etat demandeur du droit substantiel
invoquépar lui comme fondement de sa demande, n'a aucun caractère
préliminaire; cela dans le sens qu'il n'y a aucune nécessité logiquede
résoudre la question de la qualité avant d'aborder l'examen des autres
questions concernant également lefond.
II s'ensuit qu'ilappartient au juge de déterminer l'ordre le plus con-
venable à suivre, en s'inspirant pour cela de critères d'opportunité et

d'économie.Lejuge peut bien déciderde commencer par l'examen de la
question de la qualitéen prenant pour hypothèse l'existencede l'obliga-
tion invoquée commefondement de la demande. Mais il se peut aussi
que lejuge trouve plus aisé,sans aborder du tout la question dela qualité,
de prononcer le rejet de la demande pour le motif de l'inexistence même,
pour le défendeur (n'importe à l'égardde quel Etat), de l'obligation
affirméepar le demandeur. Pour cela il pourrait êtresuffisantde résoudre
une question de droit pur, en établissantl'inexistence ou en déterminant
le véritablecontenu de la règlejuridique invoquéecomme fondement de

la demande l.
4. Or le Gouvernement espagnol s'oppose à la demande belge en
soulevant, entre autres, des questions qui sont sans doute des questions
de qualité.
En effet, le Gouvernement espagnol nie l'existence d'uneparticipation
belge élevée au capital-actions de la Barcelona Traction, contestant que
certains particuliers,à l'égard desquelsla Belgique prétend exercerla
protection diplomatique, puissent êtreconsidérés comme des actionnaires
belges de la société;et cela sous deux aspects différents.En premier lieu,
le Gouvernement espagnol nie que certains particuliers, qualifiésde

ressortissants belgespar la Belgique,puissent êtreréellementconsidéréest
traités comme des Belges. En deuxièmelieu le Gouvernement espagnol
nie que certains particuliers protégéspar la Belgique puissent être con-
sidéréscomme des actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction.
On pose ainsi, sous deux aspects différents, unproblème qui est sans
doute un problème de qualité, concernant, en tant que tel, la direction
de l'obligation supposée existante à la charge de l'Espagne. Il s'agit,
sous le premier des deux aspects, de savoir si le droit correspondant
à cette obligation hypothétique appartient à la Belgique ou plutôt à un

autre Etat quelconque dont le particulier en question devrait être consi-

deuixème phase,C.Z.J. Recueil 1966, p. 65 et suiv., les remarques concerlentricain,
rapport dans lequel la question de la qualitése trouve avec la question de I'existence
de l'obligation et le caractère hypothétique que revêtla question de la qualité lors-
qu'elle est poséeavant que l'existence de l'obligation ne soit établie.matic protection which it invokes is not a judgment declaring the claim
inadmissible, but one dismissing the claim on the merits. A judgment of
this kind has the effect of res judicatu in the material sense.
3. In my dissenting opinion (pp. 112ff.; see also pp. 98 ff.) 1 also ex-
plained that the question of capacity, as a question concerning the pos-
session by the applicant State of the substantive right invoked by it as
the basis for its claim, does not have any preliminary character, in the
sense that there is no logical necessity to resolve the question of capacity
before going on to examine the other questions that likewise concern the
merits.
It follows that it rests with the judge to determine the most suitable

order, taking convenience and economy as his criteria. It is open to him
to begin with an examination of the question of capacity, assuming as a
hypothesis the existence of the obligation relied on as the basis for the
claim. But he may also find it simpler, without going into the question of
capacity at al], to find that the claim should be dismissed on the ground
that the obligation asserted by the Applicant is not one which exists on
the part of the Respondent vis-à-vis any State at all. For this it might be
sufficient to resolve a question of pure law, either by showing the non-
existence of the legal rule invoked as the basis for the claim, or by ascer-
taining its true content '.

4. Now the Spanish Government opposes the Belgian claim by raising,
among others, questions which are undoubtedly questions of capacity.

For it denies the existence of major Belgian shareholdings in Barcelona
Traction by disputing the possibility of regarding certain persons, in re-
spect of whom Belgium claims to exercise diploinatic protection, as
Belgian shareholders in the Company; and it does this from two different
standpoints. In the first place the Spanish Government denies that certain
persons described by Belgium as Belgian nationals can really be regarded
and treated as Belgian. In the second place the Spanish Government
denies that certain persons protected by Belgium can be regarded as
shareholders in Barcelona Traction.

There is thus raised from two different standpoints a problem which is

undoubtedly one of capacity, relating as such to the direction of the
obligation assumed to exist on the part of Spain. In the first instance the
question is whether the right corresponding to the hypothetical obligation
pertains to Belgium or to some other State which must be considered to
be the national State of the person concerned. Similarly, in the second

l See, in my separate opinion on the cases concerning South West Africa, Second
Phase, I.C.J. Reports 1966, pp. 65 f., the observations as to the relationship between
the hypothetical nature of the former question when raised before the obligation as to
has been shown to exist.228 BARCELONATRACTION(OP. IND. MORELLI)

dérécomme ressortissant. Egalement, sous le deuxièmeaspect, il s'agit
de savoir si le droit de protection diplomatique appartieàtla Belgique
ou plutôt à un autre Etat quelconque dont le véritable actionnaire serait
ressortissant.Il s'agit en définitive,sous l'un et l'autre aspect, de ce
qu'on appelle la nationalité dela réclamation.
5. Comme on le voit, tout cela suppose I'existence,pour ce qui con-
cerne le traitement de la Barcelona Traction, d'une obligation à la
charge de l'Espagne età I'égardde 1'Etatnational ou des Etats nationaux
des actionnaires. Or le Gouvernement espagnol nie l'existence même
d'une telleobligation en recourant à une autre argumentation. Par cette

argumentation on ne soulève pasdu tout un problème de qualité; on ne
soulève pasun problèmede nationalitéde la réclamation.On soulève,au
contraire, un problème concernant I'existence même de la règlede droit
invoquéepar la Belgique comme fondement de sa demande; problème
qu'il est possiblede poser même si I'on suppose que les particuliers pro-
tégéssont réellementdes actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction et qu'ils
sont aussi des ressortissants belges.
On ne peut pas affirmer qu'il s'agit malgrétout d'un problème de
direction de l'obligation (et, par conséquent, de qualité par rapport
au droit subjectif correspondant) pour la raison qu'il faudrait tenir
compte aussi du droit de protection diplomatique appartenant au Ca-

nada, en tant qu'Etat national de la société,et partant se demander si
c'est précisément leCanada, plutôt que la Belgique, qui aurait qualité
pour prétendre à la réparation.En effet ledroit du Canada découle d'une
règleautre que celle qui est invoquéepar la Belgique et qui concerne,
non pas la protection diplomatique de la société entant que telle, mais
plutôt la protection diplomatique des actionnaires par rapport à des
mesures prises à I'égardde la société.Si cette dernière règle est niée,
un problèmede qualiténe se pose pas du tout.
6. En effet toute question de qualité ne peut êtreposéeque par rap-
port à une règlede droit qui soit ou bien incontestéeou bien supposée
existante. Il s'agit de savoir, parmi les différents sujets auxquelscette
règles'adresse, quel est celui auquel. dans le cas concret, la même règle
confère le droit subjectif invoqué; il s'agit, en particulier, de savoir

si c'est précisémentau demandeur qu'un tel droit est conféré. Si l'exis-
tence mêmede la règle est niée,toute possibilitéde poser un problème
de qualitéest écartée.
Par conséquent,si I'on dit qu'il n'y a pas de règleautorisant la pro-
tection diplomatique des actionnaires à raison de mesures prises à
I'égardde la société,on exclut par là I'existencede toute obligation de
l'Espagne, en lamatière,vis-à-visde tous les autres Etats. On nie partant
le droit de la Belgique, non pas pour la raison qu'un tel droit appartien-
drait, par hypothèse, à un Etat autre que la Belgique (en d'autres ter-
mes, pour défaut dequalité pour la Belgique), mais plutôt pour la rai-
son que le mêmedroit ne peut êtreinvoquépar aucun Etat, parce qu'il

n'existe aucune règled'où il pourrait découler.instance, the question is whether the right of diplomatic protection per-

tains to Belgium or to some other State as the putative national State of
the real shareholder. In short, it is what is known as the nationality of
the claim which is the issue in both instances.

5. As willhave been noted, al1this assumes the existencewith regard to
the treatment of Barcelona Traction of an obligation on the part of
Spain toward the national State or States of the shareholders. But the
existence of any such obligation is denied in another argument put
forward by the Spanish Government. That argument does not raise a
problem of capacity at all;itraises no problem concerning the nationality
of the claim. It raises on the contrary a problem concerning the very
existence of therule of law invoked by Belgium as the basis for its claim;
and it is possible to pose this problem even if it is assumed that the pro-
tected persons really are Barcelona Traction shareholders and also
Belgian nationals.

It is not possible to maintain that this issue is none the less one
concerning the direction of the obligation (hence one of capacity
in relation to the corresponding right) on the ground that regard
must also be had to the right of diplomatic protection pertaining
to Canada as the national State of the company, and therefore seek
to resolve the question of whether it is not Canada rather than
Belgium which has the capacity to claim reparation. This is so because
Canada's right is derived from a rule different from that invoked by
Belgium, the latter concerning not diplomatic protection of the company
as such, but diplomatic protection of the shareholders in connection with
measures taken in respect of the company. If it is decided that no such rule
exists, no problem of capacity arises at all.
6. The point is that any question of capacity can only be raised in rela-
tion to a rule of law which is either undisputed or assumed to exist. The
question is then as follows: which is the entity, as between the various
entities to which that rule is directed, on which, in the actual case, that

rule confers the right invoked? More particularly, is it in fact on the Ap-
plicant that such a right is conferred? If the very existence of the rule is
negated, any possibility of raising a problem of capacity is excluded.

Consequently, to say that there is no rule which authorizes diplomatic
protection of shareholders on account of measures taken in respect of the
company isto excludethe existenceof any obligation of Spain in this con-
nection, vis-à-vis any other States. Belgium'sright is thereby denied, not
because such a right might hypothetically belong to a State other than
Belgium(in other words, not for lack of capacity on the part of Belgium),
but rather because no such right can be invoked by any State, since no
rule exists from which it could derive. Au contraire, l'autre question, celle de la nationalité de la réclama-
tion, concerne proprement la qualité. On postule l'existence possible
d'une règleautorisant chaque Etat àexercer la protection diplomatique
à l'égardde ses ressortissants actionnaires d'une sociétépour le traite-
ment réservé àcelle-ci par un autre Etat; et l'on sedemande si, sur la
base de cette règle hypothétique, c'est la Belgique qu'appartiendrait
le droit de protéger certains particuliers, cela pour la raison que, con-
formément à l'affirmation de la Belgique, ces particuliers seraieàt

la fois des ressortissants belges et des actionnaires de Barcelona Trac-
tion. On poseinsi, comme on le voit, un véritable problèmede qualité,
le problème, en d'autres termes, de l'appartenance du droit subjectif
découlant d'une certaine règle supposée existante.La solution par la
négativede cette question aurait, elle aussi, conduitejeter la demande
belge au fond.
7. Toutefois, le fait qu'il s'agitd'un problème de qualiténe veut pas
dire que ce problèmeaurait dû êtreexaminéet tranchépar l'affirmative
avant qu'il fût possible pour la Cour de passerà l'examen de l'autre
problème, celuide l'existence d'une obligation de l'Espagne à l'égard
des Etats nationaux des actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction pour ce

qui concerne le traitement de cette dernière. J'ai déjàdit que le problème
dela qualitéconcerne lui aussi lefond et que, pour cela,iln'yavait aucune
nécessité logiquede le résoudre avant les autres questions concernant
également lefond. La décisionsur l'ordre à suivre ne pouvait tenir qu'à
des motifs d'économie.
Or la Cour a donnéla priorité à l'examen du problème de pur droit
international relatif la protection diplomatique des actionnaires d'une
sociétépar leur Etat national par rapportà des mesures prisesà l'égard
de la sociétéC. e choix étaiten soi le plus opportun; ce qui a étépar la
suite confirmépar le résultatmêmeauquel il a abouti.
En effet, ayant tranché ledit problème par la négative, ayant nié,

en d'autres termes, l'existence,pour ce qui concerne le traitement réservé
par un Etat àune sociétédonnée, detoute obligation de cet Etaà l'égard
des Etats nationaux des actionnaires, la Cour a pu par là mêmeécarter
tout problème de qualité,c'est-à-dire leproblème de savoir si les parti-
culiers que la Belgique prétend protégersont ou non actionnaires de la
sociétéet, en même temps,ressortissants belges. De cettefaçon, bien des
questions trèsdélicatesde fait et de droit interne, dont la solution n'était
pas nécessaireaux fins du règlementde l'affaire, ont étéévitées.
8. Aussi la Cour a-t-elle pu conférer unestructure logique trèssimple
à sa décision,qui consiste en substance à nier la prémisse majeuredu

syllogisme,à nier, en d'autres termes, la règle invoquéepar la Belgique.
De cette façon la Cour a donné une réponse définitiveet concrète au
problème fondamental débattu entre les Parties, qui consiste précisé-
ment àsavoir si la règlede droit international invoquéepar la Belgique
existe ou non. La solution par la négatived'un tel problème implique
qu'aucun des Etats nationaux des actionnaires ne pourrait exercer la BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP.MORELLI) 229

On the other hand, the other question, that of the nationality of the
claim, does concern capacity. The possible existence is postulated of a
rule authorizing each State to exercisediplomatic protection of its nation-
als holding shares in a company, in respect of the treatment given to the
company by another State; and the question is whether, on the basis of
this hypothetical rule, it is to Belgium that the right to protect certain
private persons would belong, on the ground of their being, according to
Belgium'sassertion, both Belgian nationals and shareholders in Barcelona
Traction. Thus, as will be seen, a true problem of capacity is raised, the
problem, in other words, of the attribution of the right deriving from a
certain rule which is assumed to exist. A negative answer to this question
would also have brought about the dismissal of the Belgian claim on the
merits.

7. Nevertheless, the fact that this problem is one of capacity does not
mean that it ought to have been examined and settled in the affirmative
before the Court had any possibility of going on to examine the other

problem, that of the existence of an obligation owed by Spain to the
national States of the shareholders in Barcelona Traction with regard to
the treatment of that company. 1said above thatthe problem of capacity
also concerned the merits and that there was, on that account, no logical
necessity to solve it before the others likewise concerning the merits. The
order to be followed could only be dictated by considerations of economy.

As it happens, the Court gave priority to examining the problem of pure
international law relative to the diplomatic protection of shareholders in
a company by their national State, in respect of measures taken vis-à-vis
the company. This choice appeared in itself the most apt; that it was so
was subsequently borne out by the result to which it led.
For, having settled that problem in the negative-having, in other
words, denied the existence, as regards the treatment accorded by a State
to a given company, of any obligation owed by that State to the national
States of the shareholders-, the Court was thereby enabled to leave aside
any problem of capacity, that is to Say, the problem as to whether the
persons that Belgium claims to protect are or are not shareholders in the

company and at the same time Belgian nationals. In that way many very
delicate problems of fact and of municipal law, the solution of which was
not necessary for the disposal of the case, have been avoided.
8. And so the Court has been able to bestow a very simple logical
structure on its decision, which in substance consists in negating the
major premise of the syllogismor, in other words, in denying the existence
of the rule relied upon by Belgium. In this way the Court has given a
final, concrete solution to the fundamental problem at issue between the
Parties, which lay in the very question whether the rule of international
law invoked by Belgium existed or not. The negative answer to this
question implies that none of the national States of the shareholders,protection diplomatique, cela indépendamment de la quantité d'actions
possédéespar ses nationaux. Par conséquent, la demande belge devait
être,sur cette base, rejetée même au cas où l'on aurait prouvé que la
totalitéou la presque totalitédes actions de la Barcelona Traction sont
entre les mains de ressortissants belges.
Si, par contre, la Cour avait commencépar l'examen du problème de
la qualité, son raisonnement et la structure logique desa décisionauraient
été entout cas beaucoup plus complexes. J'ai déjàdit que toute question
de qualiténe peut êtreposéeque par rapport à une certaine règle qui,
si elle est, comme dans le cas d'espèce, contestée,doit être,aux fins du
raisonnement, supposée exister. La Cour serait précisémentpartie de
l'hypothèse qu'unecertaine règle constituant la prémisse majeure du

syllogisme existe; supposant exacte cette prémisse,la Cour aurait exa-
minéet tranchéles différentesquestions de fait rentrant dans le domaine
de la prémisse mineure (lesquestions de droit interne aussi sont, pour le
juge international, des questions de fait).
Or de deux choses l'une: ou bien le problème de la qualité, poséde
cette façon hypothétique, aurait ététranché par I'affirmative ou bien
le mêmeproblème aurait ététranchépar la négative.
Dans le premier cas, une fois reconnue la qualité de la Belgique par
rapport à une règlede droit tenue par hypothèsepour existante, la Cour
aurait étéobligée d'examineret de résoudre le problème de savoir si
cette règle existe réellement ou non: c'est-à-dire le problème même
auquel la Cour a donnéen fait la priorité et dont la solution négative
suffit par elle-même à régler l'affairesans aucun besoin d'aborder la
question très complexe de la qualité.

C'est seulementdans le cas d'une solution négativedu problème de la
qualité que la Cour aurait pu, sur cette base, prononcer le rejet de la
demande belge, sans se soucier de vérifiersi l'hypothèse sur laquelleelle
s'était fondéecorrespondait ou non à la réalitéde l'ordre juridique in-
ternational. Or ce caractère hypothétique db raisonnement aurait eu
quelque chose d'étrange.Confrontéeavec un problèmetrèsimportant de
droit international, problème tenant une place fondamentale dans les
argumentations respectives des Parties, la Cour se serait dérobée à la
tâche de lui donner une solution, parce qu'au lieu de résoudre ce pro-
blème elle serait partie d'une simple hypothèse, celle de la solution du
même problèmepar I'affirmative.
9. Il faut encore remarquer que la solution, dans un sens ou dans
l'autre, d'un problème de qualité est fonction de la règle par rapport

à laquelle ce problème est posé.Si, par exemple, on part de la règle
hypothétique d'après laquelle chaque Etat a le droit de protéger ses
ressortissants actionnaires d'une sociétéindépendamment de la quantité
d'actions possédéespar ces mêmes ressortissants,il n'y aurait aucune
difficulté, en l'espèce, reconnaître la qualité de la Belgique, étant
donné quel'Espagne ne conteste pas l'existence,entre les mains de res-
sortissants belges, d'un certain nombre (peu importe s'il est plus ouirrespective of the quantity of shares possessed by its nationals, could

exercise diplomatic protection. In consequence, the Belgian claim had to
be dismissed on that basis, even if it had been proved that the whole or
nearly the whole of the shares in Barcelona Traction were in the hands of
Belgian nationals.
If, on the other hand, the Court had begun by examining the problem
of capacity, its reasoning and the logical structure of its decision would
have been, at al1events, much more complex. As 1have already said, any
question of capacity can only be raised in relation to a given rule, which,
if it is disputed, as in the present case, must be supposed to exist for the
purposes of the argument. Thus the Court would have set out from the
hypothesis that a certain rule, constituting the major premise of the
syllogism,existed;assuming that premise to be true, the Court would have
examined and settled the various questions of fact which went to make up
the minor premise (it being borne in mind that, in the eyes of an inter-
national tribunal, questions of municipal law also are questions of fact).
Now the problem of capacity raised in this hypothetical way would have

had to be settled either in the affirmative or in the negative.

In the first event, once the Court had decided that Belgium would have
capacity on the basis of arule of law supposed for the sake of argument to
exist, it would have been obliged to examine and solve the problem as to
whether that rule really existed or not: that is to Say,the very problem to
which the Court did in fact give priority and the negative solution of
which has been sufficient in itself to dispose of the case without there
being any need to tackle the highly complex question of capacity.
It was only in the event of replying in the negative to the question of
capacity that the Court could, on that basis, have dismissed the Belgian
claim without troubling to see whether the hypothesis on which it had
been based corresponded or not to the real state of affairs in international
law. But the hypothetical character of the reasoning would have ap-
peared somewhat strange. Faced with a very important problem of inter-
national law, one basic to the respective arguments of the Parties, the
because, instead of setting
Court would have evaded the task of solving it
about that problem, it had started from a mere hypothesis, that of the
solution of the same problem in the affirmative.

9. It must further be observed that the solution either way of a prob-
lem of capacity is dependent on the particular rule in relation to which the
problem is raised. If forexample the postulate consisted of a hypothetical
rule whereby each State had the right to protect its nationals holding
shares in a Company, irrespective of the quantity of shares possessed by
those nationals, there would be no difficultyin the present case in finding
that Belgium had capacity, considering that Spain does not dispute the
existence in the hands of Belgian nationals of a certain number of shares
in Barcelona Traction, whether that number be large or small. The 231 BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. MORELLI)

moins grand) d'actions de la Barcelona Traction. La question de la
qualitése prtsenterait au contraire comme une question très délicatesi,

en conformité avec la thèse belge, on supposait I'existence d'une règle
différenteet, dans un certain sens, plus limitée: d'unerèglequi donnerait
le monopole de la protection diplomatique des actionnaires d'une so-
ciété,frappée d'une certainemesure, à 1'Etat dont les ressortissants se-
raient en possession de la plus grande partie des actions ou bien d'une
règle qui réserverait la protection diplomatique aux différents Etats
dont les ressortissants seraient en possession d'une quantité substan-
tielle d'actions.
En outre, l'utilité même d'une solution préa!able et hypothétique
du problème dela qualitédépenddu choix de la règle,supposée existante,

par rapport à laquelle le problème est posé.Il suffàtce propos de faire
remarquer que, par exemple, la solution affirmative du problème de la
qualité serait dépourvue de toute utilité s'il n'y avait pas coïncidence
entre la règle prise, par hypothèse, comme existante et la règle dont
l'existence réelle estpar la suite établie.

III

1. J'en viensmaintenant au problème de ;avoir si un Etat a le droit

d'exercer la protection diplomatique à l'égard deses ressortissants qui,
en tant qu'actionnaires d'une sociétéanonyme ayant une nationalité
différente,auraient subi un préjudicedu fait de mesures prises à l'égard
de la sociétpar un Etat étranger.Pour la solution correctede ceproblème
il faut,à mon avis, partir de quelques remarques très généralessur les
règlesde droit international concernant le traitement des étrangers.
Ces règles visent toujours àla protection de certainsintérêtspropres
à des individus ou à des entitéscollectives. Lesdits intérêts,bien qu'en-
visagéspar des règlesde droit international, restent, pour l'ordre juridi-
que international, de simples intérêts.Ce serait en effet contraire à la

structure actuelle de la communauté internationale et de l'ordre juridi-
que international que de penser que cet ordre juridique puisse soit
conférer soit simplement reconnaître des droits subjectifà des individus
ou à des entitéscollectives autres que celles qui, comme les Etats, ont
la qualité de sujets du droit international. C'est seulement dans l'ordre
juridique étatique que les intérêtsdes ressortissants étrangers peuvent
trouver protection moyennant l'attribution à ces derniers soit de droits
subjectifs soit d'autres situations juridiques subjectives favorables (fa-
cultés,pouvoirs juridiques, expectatives).
Les règles de droit international peuvent toutefois tenir compte,
d'une façon ou d'une autre, de l'existencede cette possibilitépour l'ordre

juridique étatique,lorsqu'elless'adressentaux Etats pour leur imposer des
obligations donnéesen matière detraitement des étrangers. question of capacity would, on the other hand, appear very delicate if, in
accordance with the Belgian position, one were to posit the existenceof a
different and, in aense, more restricted rule, one bestowing a monopoly
of the diplomatic protection of the shareholders in a company affected by
a certain measure on the State whose nationals possessed the largest pro-
portion of the shares, or of arule confining diplomatic protection to the
various States whose nationals possessed a substantial quantity of shares.

Furthermore, the very usefulness of any preliminary, hypothetical

solution of the capacity problem depends on the choice of the assumed
rule in relation to which the problem is raised. It need only in this con-
nection be pointed out, for example, that an affirmative solution of the
capacity problem would be absolutely useless unless the rule whose
existence was assumed for the sake of argument coincided with a rule
subsequently shown to exist.

III

THEPROBLEM OF THE DIPLOMATIP ROTECTIO NF SHAREHOLDERS

1. 1 shall now turn to the problem of whether a State has the right to
exercise diplomatic protection over those of its nationals who, as share-
holders in a company of a different nationality, have suffered damage on

account of measures taken with regard to the company by a foreign
State. To solve this problem correctly it is in my opinion necessary to
begin with a few very general observations on the rules of international
law governing the treatment of foreigners.
These rules are invariably concerned to ensure the protection of certain
interests proper to individuals or collective entities. These interests,
although contemplated by rules of international law, remain simple
interests for theurposes of the international legal order. For it would be
contrary to the present structure of the international community and of
the international legalrder to consider that the latter might either bestow
or simply predicate rights upon individuals or upon any collective
entities other than those, such as States, which qualify as subjects of inter-
national law. It is only within the State legalrder that the interests of
foreign nationals may acquire protection by means of the attribution to

the latter either of rights or of otherpersonal legal situations in their
favour (faculties, legal powers or expectations).

However, the fact that this possibility is open to the legal order of the
State may in one way or another be taken into account in such rules of
international law as are framed with a view to imposing certain obli-
gations upon States in the treatment of foreigners. Les règles internationales en cette matière, bien que visant toutes à
protéger des intérêtse,n tant que tels, d'individus ou d'entités collectives,
peuvent employer, pour atteindre leur but, des moyens différents et
peuvent se référerde façons différentesaux ordres juridiques étatiques.
2. Il y a, en premier lieu, des règlesinternationales relatives au traite-

ment des étrangers qui déterminent directement les intérêtsqu'elles
visent à protéger, indépendamment de ce que pourrait être l'attitude
actuelle de l'ordre juridique interne à cet égard. Les intérêtsenvisagés
par les règlesde cette catégoriesont toujours des intérêts propresd'indi-
vidus et jamais des intérêtsd'entités collectives.En outre, parmi les
intérêtsd'individus ressortissants étrangers, les règles dont il s'agit
envisagent toujours des intérêtsayant une importance fondamentale,
tel que l'intérêt la vie ouà la libertéet jamais des intérêts d'ordpure-
ment économique.
La règleinternationale se réfère, ence cas, l'ordre juridique étatique

uniquement dans le sens qu'elle s'adresse à 1'Etat pour l'obligerà un
comportement donné dans son propre ordre juridique interne; compor-
tement qui peut consister à conférer,dans cet ordre juridique, certains
droits subjectifs ou certaines autres situations juridiques subjectives aux
ressortissants étrangers.
Les règlesinternationales de cette catégorie révèlent unecertaine ana-
logie avec les règlesinternationales concernant la protection des droits
de l'homme. Pour ces règlesaussi il ne s'agit pas de la protection de
droits subjectifs qui seraient déjà conférépsar l'ordre juridique interne,

mais il s'agit de l'attribution même (obligatoirepour 1'Etat) de droits
subjectifs dans l'ordre interne. Si l'on parle,à cet égard, de ((droits))
de l'homme en tant qu'objet de la protection viséepar la règleinterna-
tionale, c'est qu'on emploie ce terme dans le sens de droits naturels. Le
droit international vise, dans ce cas aussi, à la protection de certains
intérêtsindividuels et non pas de droits subjectifs découlant déjàd'un
ordre iuridi1ue Lositif.
3. Aux règlesinternationales sur le traitement des étrangersapparte-
nant à la catégorieque je viens d'indiquer on peut opposer, ayant égard

à leur structure, les règlesd'une catégorie différen.e champ d'applica-
tion des règlesqui entrent dans cette deuxième catégorie estbeaucoup
plus étendu que celui des règlesde la première, parce que, d'une part,
les règles de la deuxième catégorieconcernent non seulement les indi-
vidus étrangersmais aussi les entités collectivesétrangèreset que, d'autre
part et comme conséquence même de ce fait, elles visent non pasà la
protection de quelques intérêts donnésayant une importance fondamen-
tale pour la personnehumaine, maisplutôt à laprotectiond'autres intérêts
plus nombreux ayant le plus souvent un caractèrepurement économique.
De mêmeque les règlesde la première catégorie,celles de la deuxième

visent également à la protection d'intérêtset cela moyennant un certain
comportement que les Etats, auxquels ces règless'adressent, sont, par
ces mêmesrègles, obligésde suivre dans leur ordre juridique interne. The rules of international law in this matter, although they al1 seek
to protect interests, as such, of individuals or collective entities, may
employ different means to attain their ends and refer in different ways to
the systems of municipal law.
2. In the first place there are rules of international law concerning the
treatment of foreigners which directly specifythe interests they seek to
protect, regardless ofthe prevailing attitude ofthemunicipal legal order in
that respect. The interests contemplated by the rules in this category are
always interests persona1 to individuals and never interests of collective
entities. Moreover, the rules in question alwaysconcern those interests of
individual foreign nationals which are of fundamental importance, such
as their interest in life or liberty, and never interests of a purely economic
nature.

In such cases the international rule refers to the legal order of the
State solely in the sense that it is addressed to the State with a view to
laying upon it an obligation to observe a given line of conduct in its own
internal legalorder; which conduct may consist in conferring, within that
legal order, certain rights or other persona1 legal situations on foreign
nationals.
The international rules in this category are somewhat analogous to the
rules of international law concerningthe protection of human rights. For
the latter rules also are concerned not with the protection of such rights as
may already have been conferred by the internal legal systembut with the
actual predication, binding upon States, of rights within the municipal
order. While it is true that, in this context, it is to human "rights" that
reference ismade as being the subject of the protection sought by the rule
of international law. the term is here em~ioved in the sense of natural
rights. In this case also international law envisages the protection of
certain individual interests and not of rights already resulting from any
positive legal order.

3. Those international rules regarding the treatment of foreigners
which belong to the category 1 have just described may be contrasted,
having regard to their structure, with the rules in a second category.
These have a much wider area of applicability, because, on the one hand
they concern not only foreign individuals but also foreign. collective,
entities, whilethey are, on the other hand, for that very reason, designed
not to protect a small number of interests of fundamental importance to
the human person but rather to protect other, more numerous interests
which more often than not possess a purely economic character.

Like the rules in the firstcategory, those in the second are also intended
for the protection of interests, to which end they enjoin upon the States
to which theyare directed a certain line of conduct which they place those
States under an obligation to observe in their municipal legal orders. ButMais, avant de se référerde cette façon à l'ordre juridique interne, les
règlesinternationales dont il s'agit maintenant se réfèrentau mêmeordre
juridique pour accomplir une tâche préalable, consistant à déterminer
les intérêts quiforment l'objet de la protection envisagée. C'estque la
règle internationale suppose une certaine attitude de l'ordre juridique
étatique,dans le sens qu'elle a égarduniquement à des intérêtsqui, dans
cet ordre juridique, ont déjà reçu une certaine protection moyennant
l'attribution de droits subjectifs ou d'autres situations juridiques sub-
jectives favorables (facultés, pouvoirs juridiques, expectatives); atti-
tude de l'ordre juridique étatique qui, en soi, n'est pas internationale-
ment obligatoire.

C'est en supposant cette donnée, résultant de l'ordre juridique interne,
que la règleinternationale oblige SEtat à un certain comportement par
rapport aux intérêtsdont il s'agit: par rapport, pourrait-on dire désor-
mais, aux droits subjectifs par lesquels les intérêts en questionsont pro-
tégésdans l'ordre juridique interne. Il faut préciserque c'est par souci
de brièvetéque je parle, à ce propos, de droits subjectifs, parce que, au
lieu d'un droit subjectif, il pourrait bien s'agir d'une autre situation ju-
ridique favorable: d'une faculté, d'un pouvoir juridique, d'une expecta-
tive.
Le comportement auquel 1'Etat est obligépar le droit international
par rapport aux droits que le mêmeEtat confère aux ressortissants
étrangersdans son propre ordre interne consiste, en premier lieu, dans
la protection judiciaire de ces droits. Un Etat qui, ayant attribué cer-

tains droits aux ressortissants étrangers, barreraià ces derniers l'accès
aux tribunaux pour faire valoir ces mêmesdroits se rendrait coupable,
pour le droit international, d'un dénidejustice. part cela, le droit inter-
national oblige l'Etat, dans certaines limites eà certaines conditions,à
respecter, par la conduite de sesorganesadministratifs ou mêmelégislatifs,
les droits que l'ordre juridique interne du mêmeEtat confère aux res-
sortissants étrangers. On parle,à ce propos, du respect des droits acquis
des étrangers.
Comme on le voit, le fait que les règlesinternationales dont il s'agit
envisagent uniquement les intérêtsdes étrangers constituant déjà,pour
l'ordre interne, des droits subjectifs, n'est que la conséquence nécessaire
du contenu mêmedes obligations imposéespar ces règles; obligations
qui supposent précisémentdes droits subjectifs conférésaux étrangers
par l'ordre juridique étatique.

L'obligation de la tutelle judiciaire aussi bien que celle du respect des
droits ont donc pour objet des droits, tels qu'ils sont conférpar l'ordre
juridique interne. Il s'agit là d'une façon indirecte de déterminer les
intérêtsque la règleinternationale viseà protéger,étantdonnéque cette
règle neprotège les intérêts d'individus étrangers ou d'entitéscollectives
étrangèr.esque si ces intérêtsbénéficient déjà d'une certaine protection
de l'ordre juridique interne. Cela veut dire que la règleinternationale se
réfère à l'ordre juridique interne dans ce sens que, pour imposer une before referring in this way to the interna1 legal order, the international
rules of which 1now speak refer to that same legal order for the purpose
of performing a preliminary task, that of determining what interests are
to be the subject of the protection envisaged. This is so in that the inter-
national rule postulates a certain attitude on the part of the State legal
order, inasmuch as it has regard solely to interests which, within that
legalorder, have already received some degree of protection through the
attribution of rights or other advantageous persona1 legal situations
(faculties, legal powers or expectations): an attitude on the part of the
State legalorder which in itself is not obligatory in international law.

It is onthe hypothesis that this state of affairshas arisen in the municipal
legalorder that the international rule lays upon the State the obligation
to observe a certain line of conduct with regard to the interests in ques-
tion: with regard, one might thenceforward say, to the rights whereby the

interests in question stand protected in the municipal legal order. 1should
explain that it is only forthe sake of brevity that in this connection 1speak
of rights, because instead of a right some other advantageous legal
situation may be involved: a faculty, legal power or expectation.

The conduct which international law renders incumbent upon a State
with regard to the rights which the same State confers on foreign nationals
within its own municipal order consists, in the first place, in the judicial
protection of those rights. Any State which, having attributed certain
rights to foreign nationals, prevents them from gaining access to the
courts for the purpose of asserting those rights is guilty, in international
law, of a denial of justice. In addition, international law lays upon a
State, within certain limits and on certain conditions, the obligation to
respect, in the conduct of its administrative or even legislative organs, the
rights which the municipal legal order of the same State confers on foreign
nationals. This is what is known as respecting the acquired rights of
foreigners.
As will be observed, the fact that the rules of international law in

question envisage solely such interests of foreigners as already constitute
rights in the municipal order is but the necessary consequence of t.hevery
content of the obligations imposed by those rules; obligations which,
precisely, presuppose rights conferred on foreigners by the legal order
of the State in question.
Both the obligation to afford rights judicial protection and the obliga-
tion to respect them apply, then, to rights as conferred by the municipal
legal order. This provides an indirect way of determining what interests
the international rule is intended to protect, given that this rule only
protects the interests of foreign individuals or foreign collectiveentities if
those interests already enjoy a certain degree of protection within the
municipal legal system. This means that the international rule refers to
the municipal legal order in that, to impose upon a State a particular234 BARCELONATRACTION (OP. IND. MORELLI)

obligation donnée à la charged'un Etat, elle suppose une certaine attitude
librement suivie par l'ordre juridique du mêmeEtat.
4. Cette référencede la règleinternationale au droit étatique n'a rien

d'anormal. On ne peut pas du tout objecter, comme on l'a fait du côté
belge, que de cette façon on fait dépendre la responsabilitéinternationale
de 1'Etat de catégoriesdu droit interne, en permettant à un Etat d'op-
poser les dispositions de son propre ordre juridique afin d'échapperaux
conséquences internationales de ses actes. En réalitéil ne s'agit pas de
subordonner la responsabilité internationale, en tant que telle, aux dis-
positions du droit interne; il s'agit plutôt du fait que l'existence mêmede
l'obligation internationale dépend d'une donnée résultant du droit in-
terne, et cela en vertu, non pas du droit interne, mais, au contraire,
de la règle internationale elle-même,qui renvoie, à cet effet, au droit
étatique.
Il n'est pas possible non plus d'opposer, comme on l'a fait aussi, le
prétendu principe fondamental de la suprématie du droit international.

Malgrél'assertion contraire du Gouvernement belge à ce propos, ledit
principe n'a jamais étéaffirmé,en tant que tel, par la Cour internationale
et, pour ce qui est de la Cour permanente, il se trouve en opposition
nette avec l'idée,dont cette dernière s'est toujours inspirée,de la sépara-
tion entre le droit international et le droit interne.
Tout autre est le principe qui se trouve la base de l'affirmation de la
Cour permanente, selon laquelle, au regard du droit international, les
lois nationales sont de simples faits.P.J.I.séri Ae no7, p. 19).Il s'agit
là, non pas du prétendu principe de la suprématiedu droit international,
mais plutôt du caractère exclusif de l'ordre juridique international, com-
me de tout ordre juridique originaire. Or ce principe n'exclutpas du tout
la possibilité,pour une règlede droit international, de renvoyer au droit
interne de quelque façon que ce soit: par exemple, précisémentpour

subordonner l'obligation mise àla charge d'un Etatà une certaine donnée
relevant du droit interne de cet Etat. Les traités d'extradition et les
traités relatifs la reconnaissance des jugements étrangers offrent des
exemples très clairs de cette possibilité.
5. Dans le cas d'espèce lesintérêts quientrent en ligne de compte
sont soit des intérêts d'entitésollectives, plus précisémentde sociétés
de commerce, telles que la Barcelona Traction et les sociétésactionnaires
de celle-ci, soit des intérêts d'individus,tels que les actionnaires indivi-
duels de la Barcelona Traction. Mais il s'agit entout cas d'intérêd'or-
dre purement économique.
Il s'ensuit que les règles internationales qu'il est possible d'invoquer
pour la protection de ces intérêtssont uniquement des règles apparte-
nant à la deuxième des deux catégoriesque j'ai indiquées.Or, comme

on l'a vu, cesrèglessupposent que, pour la protection des mêmesintérêts,
des droits subjectifs soient déjà conféréspar l'ordre juridique interne.
C'est en supposant cette attitude, internationalement libre, de l'ordre BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. MORELLI) 234

obligation, it presupposes a certain freely adopted attitude on the part of
the legalorder of that State.
4. There is nothing abnormal in this reference of an international rule
to the law of a given State. It is wholly untenable to object, asthe Belgian
Government has done, that in this way the international responsibility of
the State is made to depend upon categories of municipal law, thus
enabling a State to set up the provisions of its own legal order as a
means of evading the international consequences of its acts. In reality,
no subordination of international responsibility, assuch, to the provisions

of municipal law is involved; the point is rather that the very existence of
the international obligation depends on a state of affairs created in
municipal law, though this is so not by virtue of municipal law but, on the
contrary, by virtue of the internationalrule itself, which to that end refers
to the law of the State.
Nor is it possible to invoke against this, as has also been done, the
alleged basic principle of the supremacy of international law. Despite
what the Belgian Government has asserted to the contrary, this principle
has never been affirmed, as such, by the International Court and, so far
as the Permanent Court is concerned, it stands in clear contradiction to
the idea, by which that Court was always guided, of the separateness of
international and municipal law.
Quite another principle underlay the Permanent Court's statement to

the effect that municipal laws were simply facts from the standpoint of
international law (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7, p. 19).This was a reference
not to any supposed principle of the supremacy of international law but
rather to the exclusive character of the international legal order, as of
any non-derivative legal system. But this principle does not by any means
rule out the possibility that a rule of international law may refer to
municipal law in some way or another: for example, for the very purpose
of rendering an obligation laid upon a State subject to a certain point of
fact within the province of that State's municipal law. Very clear illus-
trations of that possibility are to be found in treaties dealing with extradi-
tion or with the recognition of foreign judgments.
5. In the present instance, the interests concerned are either interests
of collective entities, or more precisely companies, such as Barcelona
Traction and the companies holding shares in it, or interests of individ-

uals, such as the individual shareholders in Barcelona Traction. But,
either way, we are dealing with interests of a purely economic nature.

It follows that the international rules which may be invoked for the
sake of protecting those interests are exclusively rules entering into the
second of the two categories 1have described. But, as has been seen, these
rules postulate that, if those same interests are to be protected, certain
rights must already have been bestowed by the municipal legal order. It is
on the hypothesis that the municipal order has adopted this attitude, op-interne, que la règleinternationale impose à 1'Etat des obligations don-
nées.
Des considérations que j'ai développéeisl faut déduire que,du moins
d'aprèsle droit international général,un Etat est libre mêmede nier la
personnalité juridique aux sociétésde commerce ou à certaines sociétés
de commerce. En effet, c'est uniquemment aux individus que 1'Etat est
internationalement obligéde reconnaître la personnalité juridique, de
conférer,en d'autres termes, un ensemble de droits subjectifs. Il s'agit
précisément desdroits subjectifs que 1'Etat est obligé,par les règles in-
ternationales de la première catégorie, de conféreraux individus pour

la protection de certains de leurs intérsyant un caractèrefondamental.
C'est seulement au cas où certains droits subjectifs et, par conséquent,
la personnalité juridique sont conférésà une sociétéde commerce dans
l'ordre interne que 1'Etatest liépar des obligations internationales don-
néesconcernant la protection judiciaire et le respect de ces mêmedroits.
Au cas où l'ordre juridique interne déniela personnalité juridique à
une sociétéde commerce, cela veut dire que le mêmeordre interne consi-
dère le patrimoine social comme l'objet de droits propres des associés.
Alors c'est par rapport à ces droits, librement conférésaux associéspar
l'ordre interne, que subsisteàla charge de I'Etat, l'obligation internatio-
nale de protection et de respect.
Si, par contre, I'ordre juridique interne reconnaît la sociétéla per-

sonnalité juridique, le mêmeordre juridique ne peut que réglerd'une
façon correspondante les droits des associés.Par cohérenceavec I'attribu-
tion du patrimoine social à la société, considéré comme personne juri-
dique, les associésn'auront alors que des droits limités,dont l'objet ne
sera pas lepatrimoine social.Il va sans dire que, danscette hypothèseaussi
les droits accordés aux associés,quels qu'ils soient, jouissent de la pro-
tection internationale qui leur est propre.
En d'autres termes, il y a, d'un côté,un ensemble de droits conférés
par l'ordre interneà la société; et, de l'autrecôté, ily a, dans le même
ordre juridique, un ensemble, tout à fait distinct, de droits conférés
aux associés.Chaque ensemble de droits jouit d'une protection inter-
nationale distincte.
Comme on le voit, l'une et l'autre de ces deux protections accordées

par I'ordre juridique international supposent une certaine attitude du
droit interne,à savoir une certaine façon dont celui-ci règle lesdroits de
la société,d'une part, et les droits des associés,de l'autre. Dans le cas
d'espèce,I'ordre étatique qui entre en ligne de compte est I'ordre juri-
dique espagnol, c'est-à-dire I'ordre juridique de 1'Etat dont il s'agit
d'établirles obligations internationales.
Pour ce qui concerne les associés,dire que l'ordre juridique inter-
national ne protège que leurs droits, tels qu'ils sont reconnus par l'ordre
interne de 1'Etatdont l'obligation internationale est en cause, ne signifie
pas du tout nier que la protection internationale a pour objet en définitive,
en ce cas comme toujours, des intérêts.La référence à I'ordre juridiquetional in international law, that the international rule imposes certain
obligations on the State.
From the considerations 1have set forth it needs must follow that, in
terms of general international law at least, a State is free even to deny
companies-or certain companies-legal personality. For it is only in
respect of individuals that the State isnder an obligation in international
law to recognize personality, or in other words to confer a set of rights.
The rights in question are precisely those which the State, by virtue of the
rules of international law entering into the first category, has an obliga-
tion to confer upon individuals so as to protect certain of their interests
which are fundamental in nature. It is only in the event that certain rights
and, consequently, legal personality are conferred on a company within
the municipal order that the State is bound by certain internatiocal

obligations with regard to the judicial protection of those rights and
respect for the same.
Where the municipal legal order denies a company legal personality,
this signifiesthat the municipal order in question considers the corporate
property as the subject-matter of rights pertaining to the members. In
that event it is in relation tohese rights, freely conferred on the members
by the municipal order, that there is incumbent upon the State an inter-
national obligation of protection and respect.
If, on the other hand, the municipal legal order allows the company
legal personality, itcan but treat the members' rights accordingly. Con-
sistently with the attribution of the corporate property to the company,
considered as ajuristic person, the members willin thiscaseenjoyno more
than limited rights, the subject-matter of which will not be the corporate
property. Needless to Say, in this case too, the rights accorded to the
members, whatever they may be, enjoy the international protection which
is appropriate to them.
In other words, there is on the onehand a set of rights conferred by the
municipal order on the company and, on the other hand, within the same

legal order, another, quite distinct set of rights conferred on the members.
Each set of rights is entitled to its own, distinct international protection.

As has been seen, both these protections afforded by the international
legal order presuppose a certain attitude on the part of municipal law,
namely a certain manner in which it deals with the rights of the company,
on the one hand, and those of the members on the other. In the present
case, the State legal order to be considered is the Spanish legal system,
that is to say the legalorder of the State whose international obligations
have to be determined.
So far as the members of the company are concerned, to say that the
international legal order affords protection only to their rights, such as
recognized by the municipal order ofthe State whose international obliga-
tion is in question, is not in any way to deny that the subject of inter-
national protection is, in the upshot, in this case as always, interests.étatique et aux droits subjectifs conféréspar celui-ci ne constitue que le
moyen par lequel le droit international établit quels sont les intérêts

qu'il viseà protéger.Le droit international protège, par l'imposition de
certaines obligations à la charge de I'Etat, uniquement les intérêtsdes
associésqui, dans I'ordre juridique interne de cet Etat, reçoivent déjà
une protection moyennant l'attribution aux mêmes associés de droits
subjectifs ou d'autres situations juridiques subjectives.
Si cette condition ne se réalisepas, si, en d'autres termes, il s'agit d'in-
térêts quine constituent pas, dans I'ordre interne, des droits subjectifs
conférés aux associés,ces intérêtnse forment pas l'objet d'une protection
spécifiquepar le droit international.Il peut bien s'agird'intérêtses asso-
ciéscoïncidant avec les intérêtsde la société. Ence cas, si les intérêts de
la sociétésont juridiquement protégésdans I'ordre interne, c'est à ces
intérêts(constituant des droits subjectifs de la sociét)ue les obligations
internationales ont égard.
6. L'application au cas d'espèce desprincipes que je viens d'indiquer
ne donne lieu àaucune difficulté.
Il n'y a pas de divergence entre les Parties quantà l'attitude de I'ordre

interne espagnol pour ce qui concerne la façon de réglerla situation juri-
dique d'une société anonyme, d'unepart, et les droits des actionnaires
de l'autre. Personne ne conteste que la Barcelona Traction, comme toute
société anonyme, jouissait,dans I'ordrejuridique espagnol, de la person-
nalité juridique et qu'elle devait, partant, êtreconsidéréecomme le titu-
laire des droits sur le patrimoine social. Par conséquent,aucun droit sur
le patrimoine social n'était reconnuaux actionnaires de la Barcelona
Traction, qui nejouissaient que des droits propres aux actionnaires d'une
sociétéanonyme, tels que le droit au dividende et les droits relatifs à la
gestion de la société.
Or la Belgique ne se plaint pas d'un préjudice quelconque que les
actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction auraient subi, dans leurs droits
propres d'actionnaires, par suite des mesures prises par les autorités
espagnoles. La Belgique se plaint, au contraire, du fait que ces mesures,
bien que prises à l'égardde la société(ou plutôt précisément enraison
de cela), auraient porté atteinte aux intérêtsdes actionnaires. Or ces
intérêtsétaientde simples intérêtsn , e constituant pas, dans I'ordre juri-

dique espagnol, des droits subjectifs.
Il s'ensuit, enconformitéavec les principes que j'ai énoncésq , ue, pour
ce qui concerne ces intérêtsdes actionnaires, le droit international ne
mettait aucune obligation à la charge de l'Espagne; ce qui exclut toute
responsabilitéinternationale de la mêmeEspagne pour le préjudiceque
les mesures prises par ses autorités auraient causé aux intérêtdses action-
naires étrangers. Si I'on fait abstraction des simples intérêts (comme on
doit le faire) et si I'on neconsidère que les droits subjectifs, tels qu'ils
découlaientde l'ordre juridique espagnol, c'est seulementaux droits de la
sociétéque les mesures incriminéespouvaient porter atteinte. Mais le
préjudiceaux droits de la Barcelona Traction, en tant que société cana-The reference to the legal order of the State and to the rights which it
confers constitutes merely the means whereby international law estab-
lishes what interests it is concerned to protect. International law protects,
by laying certain obligations upon a State, solely such interests of the
members as already enjoy protection within the municipal legal order of
that State on account of the attribution to those members of rights or
other persona1legal situations.
If that condition is not satisfied or if, in other words, what is at stake
is interests which do not, within the municipal order, constitute rights

conferred on the members, those interests are not subject to any specific
protection in international law. They may however be interests of the
members which coincide with interests of the company. In that event, if
the interests of the company are legally protected within the municipal
order, it is to these interests (constituting rights of the company) that the
international obligations apply.
6. The application to the present case of the principles 1 have just
mentioned does not occasion any difficulty.
There is nodisagreement between the Parties with regard to the attitude
of the Spanish municipal order so far as concerns the way in which it
deals with the legal situation of a limited-liability company, on the one
hand, and the rights of its shareholders on the other. No-one denies that
Barcelona Traction, like any such company, enjoyed legal personality in
the legal order of Spain and that it had consequently to be regarded as
the owner of the rights over the corporate property. Accordingly, the
shareholders in Barcelona Traction were not recognized to possess any
rights over the corporate property; they enjoyed only those rights proper
to shareholders in a limited-liability company, such as the right to divi-
dend and certain rights relating to the conduct of the company's business.

However, Belgium does not complain of any damage that might have
been sufferedby Barcelona Traction shareholders in respect of their own
rights as shareholders on account of the measures taken by the Spanish
authorities. On the contrary, Belgium complains of the fact that those
measures, although (or rather, preciselybecause) they weretaken vis-à-vis
the company, were detrimental to the interests of the shareholders. But
these were simpleinterests, not interests constituting rights in the Spanish
legal order.
It follows, in accordance with the principles 1have stated, that, so far
as such shareholders' interests are concerned, Spain was under no obliga-
tion in international law; which rules out any international responsibility
on the part of Spain for such damage as the measures taken by its
authorities may have caused to the interests of foreign shareholders. If
simple interests are (as they must be) disregarded, and only rights con-
sidered, such as they arise out of the Spanish legal order, it is only to the
rights of the company that the measures of which complaint is made
could have caused harm. But damage caused in respect of the rights of
Barcelona Traction, a Canadian company, could, if internationally un-dienne, pourrait, s'il est internationalement illicite, constituer un fait
illicite international uniquementà l'égarddu Canada: non pas à l'égard
de la Belgiquenià l'égardde tout autre Etat. A cepropos on peut propre-
ment dire que c'est exclusivement 1'Etat canadien qui, à raison de la
nationalitédu particulier léséa, qualité pour prétendre à la réparation.
7. Il faut maintenant faire mention d'une autre façon de poser le pro-
blèmedu caractère illicite ou non, envers la Belgique, des mesures prises
par les autoritésespagnoles, àlaquelle les Parties ont eu recours. Au lieu

de se référeràla distinctionentre droits et simplesintérêt, n a distingué
entre un préjudicedirect et un préjudice indirect etl'on s'est demandési
les mesuresincriminées,bien que prises à l'égarddela Barcelona Traction
et causant, en tant que telles, un préjudice diàecelle-ci,constituent un
fait illiciteinternational envers la Belgiquepour la raison qu'ellesauraient
causé aussi,bien qu'indirectement, un préjudiceaux actionnaires belges
de la Barcelona Traction.
Sur la base de ce que j'ai dit quant à l'attitude différentedes règles
internationales sur le traitement des étrangers à l'égard des simples
intérêtsd,'une part, et des droits, de l'autre, je trouve que la distinction
entre un préjudicedirect et un préjudice indirect estdépourvuede toute
utilité.

En effet, si l'on envisage cette catégorie très limitée de règles inter-
nationales sur le traitement des étrangers qui visentà protéger certains
intérêts indépendamment du fait que ceux-ci constituent ou non, dans
l'ordre interne, des droits, la lésion d'un deces intéest, en soi, un fait
internationalement illicite. Aucune importance, à ce propos, ne pourrait
être attachée aurapport dans lequel une telle lésionse trouverait avec la
lésion d'unautre intérêt,dans le sens, en particulier, qu'elle devrait être
considérée comme une conséquence indirectede cette dernière lésion.
De même,si l'on considèrel'autre catégoriede règlesinternationales,
qui visentà protéger uniquementles droits reconnus par l'ordrejuridique
interne, ce qui importe, dans un cas concret, c'est précisémentd'établir
s'il s'agit de la lésiond'un droit. Si cela n'est pas le cas, s'il s'agit, en
d'autres termes, de la lésion d'un simpleintérêt,ette lésionne constitue

pas un fait internationalement illicite, même si elle setrouve dans un
rapport quelconque avec la lésiond'un droit constituant éventuellement,
en tant que telle, un fait illicite envers 1'Etatnational du particulier lésé.
Il semble, par ailleurs, que la distinction entre préjudice direct et pré-
judice indirect n'est, en substance, qu'une façon différente d'énoncer la
distinction entre la lésion d'un droit et la lésiond'un simple intérêt.
En effet, si l'on part de l'idéed'une mesure prise'égardd'un particulier
donné,qui, par suite de cettemesure, aurait directement subiun préjudice,
et quel'on sedemande, dans un casconcret, quelest leparticulierà l'égard
duquel la mesure peut êtreconsidérée commeayant été prise,il n'y a,
pour répondre àcette question, d'autre moyen que de considérerles effets
juridiques de la mesure. Une mesure ne peut êtretenue pour prise à
l'égard d'un sujetdonnéque si elle produit des effetsjuridiques pour celawful, have constituted an international wrong only vis-à-vis Canada,
not vis-à-visBelgium or any other State. In this connection itcan properly
be said that it is the Canadian State alone which, on account of the
nationality of the injured private party, has capacity to claim reparation.

7. Mention must now be made of another way in which the Parties put
the question of whether the measures taken by the Spanish authorities
were of an unlawful nature vis-à-vis Belgium. In place of reference to the
distinction between rights and simple interests, a distinction was drawn
between direct damage and indirect damage, and it was asked whether
the measures complained of, although taken with respect to Barcelona
Traction and, as such, causing it direct damage, constituted an inter-
nationally unlawful act vis-à-vis Belgium because they also, albeit in-
directly, caused damage to the Belgianshareholders in Barcelona Traction.

On the basis of what 1have said with regard to the different attitudes
evinced by the international rules on the treatment of foreigners with
respect to simple interests on the onehand and rights on the other, 1find
that the distinction between direct damage and indirect damage serves no
useful purpose.
For, to consider that very limited category of international rules on the
treatment of foreigners which is concerned to protect certain interests
independently of whether or not they constitute rights in the municipal
legal order, an injury to such an interest is, of itself, an internationally
unlawful act. No importance could be attached in this connection to the
relationship in which such an injury might stand towards an injury to
another interest, more especially in the sense of its having to be regarded
as the latter's indirect consequence.
Similarly, to consider the other category of international rules, con-
cerned to protect solely rights recognized by the municipal legal order,
what matters in a given instance is of course to establish whether or not
there was an injury in infringement of such a right. If this is not the case

or if, thatis to say, there was only an injury to a simple interest, such
injury will not constitute an international wrong even if it stands in some
relationship to an injury in respect of a right which might, as such, con-
stitute an unlawful act vis-à-vis the national state of the injured party.
It would appear, moreover, that the distinction between direct damage
and indirect damage is, in substance, merely a different way of statingthe
distinction between injury in respect of a right and injury to a simple
interest. For, supposing a measure to have been taken with respect to a
private party who, as a result of that measure, has directly suffered
damage, if it be enquired, in a concrete case, who is the private party with
respect to whom the measure can be regarded as having been taken, the
only way of answering this question is tu consider the legal effects of the
measure. A measure can only be regarded as having been taken with
respect to a particular party if itproduces legal effects for that party; if, sujet, si, en d'autres termes, elle touche aux droits de ce sujet. Les autres
sujets ne pourraient, le cas échéant,ressentir de la mesure que des consé-
quences affectant leurs simples intérêts. ualifier ces conséquencesd'in-
directes n'est qu'une formule imprécisepour indiquer justement la lésion
du simple intérêtd'un sujet donné, lésionse trouvant dans un certain
rapport avec la lésiondu droit d'un autre sujet.
8. J'en arrive à la conclusion qu'une obligation internationale de
l'Espagne pour ce qui concerne le traitement de la Barcelona Traction et,
par conséquent, la responsabilité internationale de l'Espagne à raison
d'une violation éventuellede cette obligation ne pourraient êtreaffirmées

qu'envers le Canada, Etat national de la société. Ni l'obligation ni la
responsabilité de l'Espagne ne pourraient êtreaffirméesvii-à-vis de la
Belgique ni vis-à-vis de tout autre Etat dont les actionnaires de la Barce-
lona Traction seraient les ressortissants.
L'absence de toute responsabilité del'Espagne enversla Belgiquepour
ce qui concerne les mesures prises par les autorités espagnolesà l'égard
de la Barcelona Traction n'est que la conséquencede l'absence de toute
obligation,à ce sujet, de l'Espagne enversla Belgique; ce qui dépend, à
son tour, du fait qu'il n'existeaucune règlede droit international d'où
une telle obligation pourrait êtredéduite.
Tout cela revientà dire qu'il n'y a, pour la Belgique,aucune possibilité
d'exercer la protection diplomatique à l'égard desactionnaires belges de
la Barcelona Traction, étant donné que, comme on l'a déjàdit, 1'Etat
qui exercela protection diplomatique à l'égardde l'unde sesressortissants

ne fait qu'exiger, pour celui-ci, le traitement requis par les règlesinter-
nationales en la matière ou encore que prétendre à une réparation pour
la violation de ces règles.
9. A ce propos aucune importance ne pourrait être attachéeau fait
que lesactionnaires belgesde la Barcelona Traction auraient pu bénéficier
indirectement, pour ce qui concerne leurs propres intérêts,de l'exercice,
par le Canada, de la protection diplomatique à l'égardde la sociétéet
qu'une telle protection n'a pas étépoursuivie.
Nous avons vu que les intérêtsdes actionnaires, en tant que simples
intérêtsne constituant pas, dans l'ordre interne, des droits subjectifs,
sont dépourvus detoute protection par les règlesinternationales relatives
au traitement des étrangers.Celan'exclut évidemmentpas que cesintérêts
puissent indirectement bénéficiedre la protection accordéepar les mêmes

règlesaux intérêtsde la société,ans la mesure où cesintérêts constituent,
pour l'ordre interne, des droits subjectifs. Il peut arriver, par conséquent,
que l'exercice,par 1'Etatnational de la société, e la protection diploma-
tique à l'égardde celle-ciaboutisse, avec le rétablissement desintérêts de
la société,à rétabliraussi indirectement les intérêtdes actionnaires.
Mais cela.n'a aucune influence sur l'attitude, par rapport aux intérêts
des actionnaires, desrèglesinternationales sur letraitement des étrangers.
La simple possibilitéd'une protection indirecte des intérêtsdes action-
naires, dans le sens que l'on a indiqué,ne peut nullement amenerà penserin other words, it involves the rights of that party. Al1that other parties
could suffer from such a measure would be consequences affecting their
simple interests. To term such consequences indirect is in fact merely an
imprecise way of describing the injury of a particular party's simple
interest, an injury standing in a certain relationship to the injury suffered
by another party in respect of his right.
8. From this 1conclude that an international obligation on the part of
Spain with respect to the treatment of Barcelona Traction and, in con-
sequence, international responsibility on the part of Spain for any
breach of that obligation, could only be held to exist vis-à-vis Canada,
the company's national State. Neither an obligation nor responsibility on
the part of Spain could be held to exist vis-à-vis Belgium,or vis-à-visany
other State of which Barcelona Traction shareholders might be nationals.

The absence of any responsibility on the part of Spain vis-à-visBelgium
in respect of the measures taken by the Spanish authorities with regard
to Barcelona Traction is simply a consequence of the absence of any
obligation owed in this respect by Spain to Belgium; this, in its turn,
results from the fact that there is norule of international law from which
such an obligation might be derived.
In sum, therefore, Belgium has no possibility of exercisingdiplomatic
protection with respectto the Belgianshareholders in Barcelona Traction,
since, as has already been said, a State which exercises diplomatic pro-
tection with respect to one of its nationals is merely demanding for such
national the treatment required by the international rules governing the
matter or else claiming reparation for the violation of those rules.

9. No importance can be attached in this connection to the facts that
the Belgian shareholders in Barcelona Traction might have benefited
indirectly, so far as their own interests were concerned, from the exercise

by Canada of diplomatic protection of the company and that such pro-
tection was not pursued.
We have seen that the interests of shareholders, as simple interests not
constituting rights within the municipal legal order, enjoy no protection
under the international rules governing the treatment of foreigners. This
obviously does not rule out the possibility that those interests might
benefit indirectly from the protection which those same rules afford the
company's interestsin so far as these constitute rights under the municipal
legal order. It is therefore possible that the exercise of diplomatic pro-
tection of the company by its national state may eventually lead, through
the retrieval of the interests of the company, to the indirect retrieval of
the shareholders' interests too.
But this in no way influences the attitude evinced toward the interests
of shareholders by the international rules governing the treatment of
foreigners. The mere possibility of an indirect protection of shareholders'
interests, in thesense indicated above, does not warrant any inferenceque, toutes les fois qu'une telle protection indirecte fait défaut,elle doive
êtreremplacéepar une protection directe. Cette protection directe ne

pourrait se concrétiserque dans une obligation et éventuellement dans
une situation de responsabilité de 1'Etat vis-à-vis de 1'Etat national des
actionnaires. Or on ne voit pas quel pourrait êtrele fondement de cette
obligation et de cette responsabilité.
En réalitél'idée mêmd e'une protection diplomatique des actionnaires
par leur Etat national, cette protection étant conçue comme une protec-
tion subsidiaire, susceptible d'êtreexercéedans l'hypothèse oùla protec-
tion de la sociétpar son Etat nationalfaitdéfaut, est une idéestrictement
liée à une conception qui méconnaît la base mêmede la protection
diplomatique en général.C'est qu'on conçoit la protection diplomatique,
non pas comme le simple exercice, par un Etat, d'un droit subjectif qui
lui est conférépar les règlesinternationales relatives au traitement des

étrangers,mais plutôt comme une procéduretout à fait indépendante de
l'existence d'undroit subjectif.
C'est seulement en se plaçant dans cette perspective qu'on pourrait
envisager, pour ce qui concerne le traitement réservé à une sociétéano-
nyme, une protectiondiplomatique des actionnaires par leur Etat national
en tant que protection subsidiaire, c'est-à-dire subordonnée au fait que
la protection diplomatique n'est pas exercée oupoursuivie par 1'Etat
national de la société.Ce qui est, au contraire, toutà fait inconcevable
si l'on part de l'idéecorrecte d'après laquellela protection diplomatique
n'est que l'exerciced'un droit subjectif international et qu'elle suppose,
par conséquent,l'existenced'un tel droit.
10. Il n'est pas possible non plus, pour démontrerl'admissibilité d'une
protection diplomatique subsidiaire des actionnaires, en cas de défaut

d'exercicede la protection diplomatique à l'égardde la société,de s'ap-
puyer sur l'analogie ou, pour mieux dire, sur le parallélismequi existerait
entre cette prétendue protection diplomatique subsidiaire, d'une part,
et,d'autre part, la possibilitééventuellementreconnue par le droit interne
aux actio:inaires d'agir contre les organes sociaux àuleur place si ceux-
ci se montrent inactifs.
C'est l'idée même à la base d'une telle argumentation qui,à mon avis,
ne peut être acceptée:celle de la nécessitéd'une protection quelconque
des intérêtsdes actionnaires par le droit international. Cette protection
n'a aucun caractère de nécessité;elle n'existe que dans les limites et aux
conditions qui sont fixéespar le droit international lui-même. Enoutre,
les exigencesque le droit interne viseà satisfaire ne sont pas nécessaire-

ment des exigencesdont le droit international doive aussi se soucier.
Il va sans dire que, si l'ordre juridique interne confère,en cas d'inac-
tivité des organes sociaux, certains droits subjectifs aux actionnaires,
ces droits, de mêmeque tous les autres droits propres des actionnaires,
jouiront, en tant que tels, de la protection que le droit international ac-
corde en généraalux droits conférés aux particuliers par l'ordre juridique
étatique.that whenever such indirect protection is lacking it must be replaced by
direct protection. There could be no question of such direct protection
unless a State owed an obligation and happened to have incurred respon-
sibility toward the national State of the shareholders. And 1 cannot see
where any basis for such an obligation or such responsibility is to be
found.
Actually the very idea of the diplomatic protection of shareholders
by their national State, it being conceived as a second line of protection
that may be brought into play if protection of the company by its own
national State should be lacking, is strictly bound up with a way of
thinking that misconceives the very basis of diplomatic protection in
general, regarding it not as a State's mere exercise of a right bestowed
upon it by the rules of international law concerning the treatment of
foreigners, but rather as a procedure entirely independent of the existence

of a right.

Only by taking such a standpoint could it be possible, where the
treatment afforded a company is concerned, to envisage diplomatic pro-
tection of the shareholders by their national state as a second line of
protection, that is to Say as a protection subordinated to the condition
that diplomatic protection is not exercised,or not pursued, by the national
State of the company. This view, on the contrary, would be utterly in-
conceivable on the correct premise that an act of diplomatic protection is
simply the exercise of an international right, and is consequently con-
ditional on the existence of such a right.
10. Neither is it possible, with a view to demonstrating the admissi-
bility of a second-line diplomatic protection of shareholders in the event
that diplomatic protection of the company is lacking, to rely on a sup-
posed analogy or rather parallel between that alleged second-line diplo-
matic proteçtion and such possibility as may be afforded shareholders in
municipal law of taking action against the organs of the company, or in

their stead, should they remain inactive.

It is the very idea behind such reasoning which, in my opinion, is
unacceptable: the idea that international law must necessarily offer some
kind of protection to shareholders' interests. There is nothing necessary
about such protection; it exists only within the limits and on the con-
ditions which are fixed by international law itself. Furthermore the
requirements which municipal law is concerned to satisfy are not neces-
sarily requirements that ought also to be the concern of international law.
Needless to Say,if the municipal legal order does, in the event of the
inactivity of the organs of a company, confer certain rights on the share-
holders, those rights, like any other rights peculiar to shareholders, will
as such enjoy the protection which international law affords in general
to rights conferred on individuals by a municipal legal order.240 BARCELONA TRACTION(OP. IND. MORELLI)

11. Le défaut,dans un cas concret, d'exercice de la protection diplo-
matique à l'égard de la sociétpourrait êtrela conséquence de l'impossi-
bilitémêmed'exercer une telle protection en l'espèce.
On a indiquécomme un cas d'impossibilitéd'exercice de la protection
diplomatique de la sociétépar son Etat national l'hypothèsed'une société
dissoute ou d'une sociétése trouvant dans une situation d'incapacité
légaleou de simple incapacitéde fait d'agir.
Pour ce qui est du cas extrême,celui de la dissolution, il doit naturelle-
ment s'agir d'une dissolution survenue après la mesure incriminée, soit

comme conséquence soit indépendamment mêmede cette mesure. En
effet, si la sociétéétaitdéjà dissoute lorsque la mesure incriminéea été
prise, on ne pourrait évidemment pasparler de mesure prise àl'égard de
la société, maisil faudrait parler, au contraire, de mesure prise directe-
ment à l'égard des associés;ce qui autoriserait, pour cette raison, les
Etats nationaux des associés à exercer la protection diplomatique de ces
derniers.
En outre la logique de l'argument implique qu'il doit s'agir d'une ex-
tinction qui soit efficace pour l'ordre juridique de 1'Etat national de la
sociétéO. r une telle extinction n'est pas nécessairement une conséquence

automatique de l'extinction qui se serait produite dans l'ordre juridique
de 1'Etatauteur de la mesure incriminée.
Il est touàfait évidentque, si la sociétéest dissoute pour l'ordre juri-
dique de son Etat national, il n'y a aucune possibilité que la même
société s'adresseà cet Etat pour lui demander d'êtrediplomatiquement
protégée. Mais une chose est lademande de protection diplomatique
qu'un particulier peut adresserà son Etat national et qui relèveentière-
ment de l'ordre juridique interne de cet Etat; autre chose est l'exercice
de la protection diplomatique sur le plan international. La protection
diplomatique, en tant qu'exerciced'un droit subjectifdécoulant del'ordre
juridique international, appartient exclusivementà I7Etat, qui est touà

fait libreà cet égard. Un Etat est libre de ne pas exercer la protection
diplomatique même sile particulier intéresséle demande. Par contre un
Etat peut exercer la protection diplomatique mêmes'il n'ya pas de de-
mande de la part du particulier. Il s'ensuitque la dissolution d'une société
n'empêchepas son Etat national d'exercer la protection diplomatique
à son égardet que, partant, l'hypothèse envisagéene se réalisepas du
tout.
12. Il faut reconnaître, au contraire, qu'il y a réellement impossibilité
de la protection diplomatique à l'égard de la société lorsqu'il n'existe
aucun Etat étranger qui pourrait l'exercer. C'est précisémenlte cas d'une
sociétéayant la nationalitédu mêmeEtat dont l'obligation internationale

est en cause.
Toutefois, dire qu'en ce cas les Etats nationaux des actionnairessont
autorisés à protéger les intérêtsde ceux-ci, parce que ces intérêtsne
peuvent bénéficierindirectement d'une protection quelconque accordée
à la société,ignifiebouleverser complètement le systèmedes règlesinter- 11. The lack, in a given case, of any exercise of diplomatic protection
in respect of the company might result from the actual impossibility, in
that case, of exercisingsuch protection.
As an example of a case where it would be impossible for the national
State of the company to exercise diplomatic protection in its respect, the
hypothesis has been adduced of the company's being dissolved, or being
in a state of legal or simplymaterial incapacity to act.
With regard to the extreme case, that of dissolution, this must naturally
be taken to mean a dissolution which took place after the measure com-
plained of, whether as a result or independently of that measure. For if
the company were already dissolved at the time when the measure com-
plained of was taken, it would obviously be impossible to speak of a
measure taken with regard to the company; one would on the contrary
have to speak of a measure taken directly with regard to the members of
the company, which would ipsfoacto authorize the national States of the
members to exercise diplomatic protection of them.
Furthermore the logic of the argument implies that the dissolution in

question must be an extinction which is effectivefrom the standpoint of
the legal order of the company's national State. Such an extinction is not
necessarily the automatic consequence of an extinction occurring in the
legal order of the State that had taken the measure complained of.
Now it is quite obvious that if a company is dissolved from the stand-
point of the legal order of its national State, there is no possibility of its
applying to that State for diplomatic protection. However, the ability of
persons to request diplomatic protection of their national State is one
thing, and entirely .depends on the interna1 legal system of the State in
question; but the exercise of diplomatic protection on the international
plane is quite another matter. Diplomatic protection, as the exercise of
a right arising out of the international legalorder, belongs exclusivelyto
the State, which has entire discretion in its respect. A State is free not to
exercise diplomatic protection even if the national concerned requests it.
Conversely, a State may exercise diplomatic protection even if there is
no request from its national. It follows that the dissolution of a company
does not prevent its national State from exercising diplomatic protection

in its respect and that, consequently, the hypothesis envisaged cannot
arise at all.

12. On the other hand it must be recognized that diplomatic protection
of a company really may be impossible when there is no foreign State to
exercise it. This would be so in the case of a company which had the
nationality of the very State whose international obligation was in ques-
tion.
Nevertheless, 'to Say that in such a case the national States of the
shareholders are entitled to protect the latter's interestsbecause there is
no possibility of their benefiting indirectly from any protection afforded
the company would be to make havoc with the system of international nationales sur le traitement des étrangers.Il s'agirait enoutre d'une dé-
duction tout à fait illogique et arbitraire.
En effet, si l'on envisageune protection indirecte et éventuelle, cela
veut dire que l'on constate, pour ce qui concerne les actionnaires, l'ab-
sence d'une protection directe de la part du droitinternational: on cons-
tate, en d'autres termes, que le droit international ne considère pas les
intérêtsdes actionnaires, en tant que simples intérêts, commedignes de
protection de sa part et qu'il s'abstientpartant de mettre la charge de
l'Etatà cesujet, desobligations quelconques vis-à-visdesEtats nationaux
des mêmesactionnaires. Cette attitude négativedu droit international
ne pourrait êtrerenverséepour le motif que les intérêts des actionnaires

pourraient, dans d'autres hypothèses,bénéficierd'une protection pure-
ment indirecte. Par cette voie artificielleet illogique on aboutiraiter,
pour les intérêtsdes actionnaires, une protection directe susceptible
d'êtremise en Œuvrepar leurs Etats nationaux: cette protection, précisé-
ment, qui est refuséepar le droit international.
13. A plus forte raison la protection diplomatique des actionnaires
par leurs Etats nationaux doit êtreexclue lorsque, comme dans le cas
d'espèce,la protection diplomatique de la sociétépar son Etat national
est possible mais, pour une raison quelconque, n'est pas exercéeou
poursuivie.
Aux remarques faites en généralsur la conception d'une protection
diplomatique subsidiaire des actionnaires età celles que je viens de faire
àpropos de l'hypothèsede l'impossibilité d'uneprotection diplomatique

de la sociétéet qui gardent toute leur valeur pour l'hypothèse considérée
maintenant, on peut ajouter d'autres remarques particulières à celle-ci.

Dans cette dernière hypothèse la possibilitépour un Etat d'exercer la
protection diplomatique à l'égard desactionnaires de la société, ui sont
ressortissants de cetEtat, n'aurait aucuncaractèreabsolu, étantsubordon-
née à une certaine attitude qu'un Etat tiers, c'est-à-dire 1'Etatnational de
la société, esltibre d'adopter on non: attitude consistant soàts'abstenir
d'exercer la protection diplomatique à l'égardde la sociétésoit à ne pas
poursuivre une protection diplomatique déjà engagée. Il ne serait pas
facile d'établià quel moment la condition requise pourrait êtreconsidé-
réecomme remplie. En tout cas il y aurait un moment avant lequel la
protection diplomatique des actionnaires ne serait pas admise; c'est à

partir de ce moment qu'il y aurait, au contraire, possibilité d'exercer
cette protection.
Or toute protection diplomatique suppose une obligation et éventuelle-
ment une situation de responsabilitépour 1'Etatvis-à-vis duquel la pro-
tection est exercée,parce que par la protection diplomatique on fait
justement valoir une telle obligation ou une telle responsabilité. Par
conséquent,dire que 1'Etat national des actionnaires ne peut exercer la
protection diplomatique tant qu'il n'est pas possible d'affirmerque 1'Etat
national de la société s'abstient d'en exercela protection diplomatique, rules regarding the treatment of foreigners. It would, furthermore, be a
wholly illogical and arbitrary deduction.
For to envisage the possibility of indirect protection in certain even-
tualities is tantamount to recognizing the absence, so far as shareholders
are concerned, of any direct protection on the part of international law-
to recognizing, in other words, that international law does not consider
the interests of shareholders, as simple interests, worthy of its protection
and that it consequently refrains from imposing upon a State, in this con-
nection, any obligations toward shareholders' national States. This neg-
ative attitude on the part of international law cannot be reversed on the
ground that the interests of shareholders might, in other circumstances,
benefit from a purely indirect protection. Such artificial and illogical
reasoning would lead to the creation, for the interests of shareholders, of

a direct protection such as their national States might take up: the very
protection which is refused by international law.

13. A fortiori, the diplomatic protection of shareholders by their
national States must be ruled out where, as in the present case, the
diplomatic protection of the company by its national State is possible
but, for some reason or other, is not exercised or not pursued.

To my general remarks on the notion of a second line of diplomatic
protection for shareholders, and to those 1have just made regarding the
hypothesis of the impossibility of the company's receiving diplomatic
protection, remarks which remain no less valid for the hypothesis now
under consideration, 1 would add certain other observations of specific
application to the latter.
According to this latter hypothesis, the possibility ofa State'sexercising
diplomatic protection of those shareholders in a company who are its
nationals would not be absolute, but contingent on a certain attitude
which a third State, i.e., the national State of the company, is free to

adopt or not: an attitude consisting either in refraining from exercising
diplomaticprotection of the company or in not pursuing diplomatic pro-
tection once exercised.It would not be easy to establish at what moment
the requisite condition might be regarded as fulfilled. In any event, there
would be a point in time before which the diplomatic protection of the
shareholders would not be admitted; as from that moment, on the other
hand, the possibility of exercising such protection would exist.

But any diplomatic protection presupposes that the State approached
by the protector owes an obligation or, it may be, has incurred a debt of
responsibility, because it is precisely such obligation or responsibility
that diplomatic protection relies on and asserts. Consequently, to Say
that the national State of the shareholders cannot exercise diplomatic
protection for solongas it is not possible to affirmthat the national State
of the company is refraining from exercisingdiplomaticprotection of the242 BARCELONATRACTION (OP. IND. MORELLI)

dire cela équivaut à exclure l'existence, avant ledit moment, de toute
obligation ou detoute responsabilitévis-à-visde1'Etatnational desaction-
naires. C'est seulement plus tard qu'une telle obligation et éventuellement
une telle responsabilité (et'illicéimêmede la mesure prise à l'égard
de la société)surgiraient, nécessairement aveceffet rétroactif, par le fait
d'un Etat tiers, c'est-à-dire deEtatnational de la société,qui s'abstien-
drait, pour un motif quelconque dont l'appréciationappartient au pou-
voir discrétionnaire de cet Etat, d'exercer la protection diplomatique de
la société.
Il suffit d'énoncer unetelle construction pour en faire ressortir toute
l'absurdité.En généralon voit mal de quelle façon le non-exercice, par
un Etat, de son droit pourrait avoir une influence quelconque sur la
possibilité d'exercice,voire sur l'existence mêmed, 'un droit d'un autre

Etat. J'ai déjà faitremarquer que les règlesinternationales relatives au
traitement des étrangers se concrétisent en des rapports bilatéraux.
Or chacun de ces rapports, subjectivement bien déterminé,est absolu-
ment indépendant de tout autre rapport qui, bien que découlant des
mêmes règlesp ,ourrait exister entre des sujets entièrement ou partielle-
ment différents. Aussi l'unesdits rapports ne pourrait-il, dans son exis-
tence ou simplement dans son exercice,avoir une influencequelconque sur
l'existence mêmed'un autre rapport. Par conséquent, si l'on est d'avis
qu'un Etat n'est pas lié, vis-à-de 1'Etatnational des actionnaires d'une
société anonyme, à une obligation quelconque concernant le traitement
de la société,on ne comprend pas pourquoi une telle obligation devrait
prendre rétroactivement naissancedu fait que1'Etatnational de la société
n'exerce pas, pour quelque raison que ce soit, son droit propre.

(Signé G)aetano MORELLI.latter amounts to excluding the existence, until then, of any obligation or
responsibility vis-à-vis the national State of the shareholders. It is only
later that such an obligation and, it may be, such responsibility (indeed
the very unlawfulness of the measure taken vis-à-vis the company) would
arise, necessarily with retroactive effect, owing to the conduct of a third
State, the national State of the company, in abstaining-for some motive
the appraisal of which would be a matter for its own discretion-from
the exercise of diplomatic protection in respect of the company.

Simply to propound such a theory is to expose its absurdity. Generally
speaking, it is hard to see how a State's non-exercise of its right could
have any influence on the possibility of exercising, let alone the very
existence of, another State's right.1 have already pointed out that the

international rules governing the treatment of foreigners take concrete
shape in bilateral relationships. Now each ofthese relationships, between
clearly circumscribed subjects, is absolutely independent of any other
relationship which, though deriving from those same rules, might exist
between other, or partly other, subjects. Hence no such relationship
could, through its own existence or merely through its activation, exert
any influence on the very existence of another. Consequently, if the view
be taken that a State is not, vis-à-vis the national State of shareholders
in a limited company, under any obligation whatever concerning the
treatment of that company, it is impossible to seehow such an obligation
could arise retroactively out of the fact that the national State of the
company does not, for whatever reason, exercise its own right.

(Signed Gaetano MORELLI.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Morelli (translation)

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