Separate Opinion of Judge Tanaka

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050-19700205-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
050-19700205-JUD-01-00-EN
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SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TANAKA

Although 1 subscribe to the Court's conclusion in dismissing the
Belgianclaimthat Spainviolated an international obligation and incurred
responsibility vis-à-vis Belgium, 1 regret to have to say that my view
differs from that of the Court in its reasoning. The majority opinion

reached its conclusion bydecidingthe question ofthejus standiof Belgium
in the negative, i.e., by upholding the third preliminary objection of the
Spanish Government, whereas my position would be to proceed to
examine the question of the merits after the third and fourth (non-
exhaustion of local remedies) preliminary objections. An examination of
the merits, however, leads to the same result as that reached by the
majority opinion, namely the dismissal of the Belgian claim.
Such preliminary remarks are made necessary in order to determine
the scope and limit of individual, separate or dissenting opinions. By
reason of the complexity of the instant case, we are confronted with a
need to make judges' rights, as provided by Article 57 of the Statute,
clearer.
A question may arise as to whetherjudges' opinions should be limited
to those matters which have been dealt with in the majority opinion or
whether they are not subject to some limitation.
Here, 1do not go deeper into the study of this question. 1simplywish
to say that my viewfavours a liberal attitude which would not allow any

limitation to be imposed onjudges' statements,other than considerations
of decency.
That this issue was taken up in some of the opinions of judges in the
Judgment of the South West Africa case (South West Africa, Second
Phase,Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966) is still vivid in Ourmemory. So far
as thedetail isconcerned I should liketo referto a declaration ofPresident
Sir Percy Spender (ibid., pp. 51 ff.) representing a restrictive theory and
my contrary viewon this issueas stated in myopinion (ibid.,pp. 262-263),
appended to that Judgment.
For the above-mentioned reason my following statement is not obliged
to remain within the framework of the majority opinion. 1feelthat I must
follow a logical process of my own which, according to my conscience,
I believeto bejust. If the question of Belgium'sjus standiisresolved in the
affirmative,the question of the exhaustion oflocal remedieswillremain to
be examined. If given an affirmative answer, then the question on themerits, namely the denial of justice allegedly committed by the Spanish
authorities vis-à-visthe Barcelona Traction Company and its subsidiaries
should be taken up. This logical process cannot be interrupted in the
middle.

The Judgment of 24 July 1964rejected the first and second preliminary
objections and joined the third and fourth preliminary objections to the
merits.
Considering that the joinder of thesetwo preliminary objections would
not cause them to lose their preliminary character, wemust first deal with
these objections before examining questions relating to the merits, though
bearing the latter in mind.
We shall begin with the third preliminary objection.
The object of the Belgian Government's Application of 14June 1962
is reparation for the damage allegedly caused to a certain number of its

nationals, includingjuridical persons, in their capacity as shareholders of
the Barcelona Traction Company, by the conduct, allegedly contrary to
international law, of various organs of the Spanish State toward that
company and various other companies in its group.

The Spanish Government, on the other hand, denies by the third
prelirninary objection that the Belgian Government possesses jus standi
either forthe protection of the Barcelona Traction Company of Canadian
nationality (Application filedon 23 September 1958)or for the protection
of alleged Belgian"shareholders" of that company (present case).
The third preliminary objection involves questions of both law and
fact.The question of law, which is a most important one in deciding this
case, is concerned with whether a Statehas a right to protect its nationals
who are shareholders in a company of a nationality other than that of the
protecting State. More concretely, the question may be formulated as
follows: has the Belgian Government jus standi to protect its nationals,
namely Sidro and others, who are shareholders in the Canadian Barcelona
Traction Company?

Within the framework of diplomatic protection, the third preliminary
objection involves other issues concerning protégés, inparticurar the
question of the nationality of shareholders, their identification and the
question concerning the separation of legal and beneficial owner-which
of them is to be treated as the true shareholder from the viewpoint of
diplomatic protection?-in shareholding, which also involves a legal
question.
First, let useal with the question concerning the diplomaticprotection
of shareholders in a company of a nationality other than that of the pro-
tecting state. Assuredlyit constitutesa mostfundamental question under-
lying the third preliminary objection and is logicallyprior to other ques- tions, so that a decision on the former in the negative would make a
decision on the latter unnecessary. Therefore the question of diplomatic
protection of shareholders may be recognized as constituting the core of
the third preliminary objection.
Here, it is not necessary to emphasize the spirit of a universally
recognized rule of customary international law concerning every State's
right of diplomatic protection over its nationals abroad, that is, a right
to require that another State observe a certain standard of decent treat-
ment to aliens in its territory. The spirit of the institution of diplomatic
protection is clearly declared by a Judgment of the Permanent Court of
International Justice:

". ..ir, taking up the case of one of its nationals, by resorting to
diplomaticaction or international judicial proceedings on his behalf,
a State is in reality asserting its own right, the right to ensure in the
person of its nationals respect for the rules of international law.
This right is necessarily limited to intervention on behalf of its own
nationals because, .. .it is the bond of nationality between the
State and the individual which alone confers upon the State the
right of diplomatic protection, and it is as a part of the function of
diplomatic protection that the right to take up a claim and to ensure
respect for the rules of international law must be envisaged."

(Panevezys-Saldutiskis Railway case, P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 76, p.
16.)
Briefly, the idea of diplomatic protection does not seem to be a blind
extension of the sovereign power of a State to the territory of other coun-
tries; the spirit of this institution signifies the collaboration of the pro-
tecting state for the cause of the rule of law and justice.
Now, in the present case, we are confronted with concrete questions of
than that of
whether a national who is a shareholder in a company other
the protecting State, is covered by diplomaticprotection and whether the
interest involved in the shares is susceptible of being protected by the
national State of the shareholders. In other words, can the rule of diplo-
matic protection be extended to a shareholder in a company of a nation-
ality which is not that of the protecting State, and to an interest which is
characterized by many corporative particularities? This is a question of
interpretation of customary international law regarding the diplomatic
protection of the nationals of a State.

To solve these questions, we shall start from the examination of the
nature and characteristics of a shareholder in a corp.oration (joint-stock
company). For that purpose we shall consider the concept of a corpora-
tion, legal relations between a corporation and its shareholders, and more
particularly the legal significanceof thejuridical personality of a corpora-
tion. We can easily understand the importance of the consideration ofthislast issue, if we seethat many questions discussedin the course of the
proceedings onthe preliminary objections and on the merits appear to be
centred round the question of the juridical personality of a corporation,
especially the question of whether in particular matters an interpretation
of the "piercing of theeil of thecorporate personality" is to be admitted
or not.

We shall first make someobservations on the characteristics ofcorpora-
tions.
The corporation, which is a product par exceIIence of the capitalistic
economic system, possesses in many points remarkable characteristics
compared with other forms of commercial entities such as partnership
and limited partnership which are called in continental countries "société
de personnes" or "Peisonalgesellschaft", as distinguished from the cor-

poration, designated as "société de capitaux" or "Kapitalgesellschaft".
As these nomenclatures indicate, the partnership is an association which
presents itself as a combination of individuals who have persona1 con-
fidence in one another in moral as well as in economic aspects and who,
in many cases, as the name "société en nom collectif" indicates,are united
usually on the basis of a family tie, whereas the corporation is nothing
other than an aggregation of strangers, passers-by, who become united
only from an economic motive, namely the desire for possible increased
dividends.

In a partnership the members of a partnership retain their own legal
and economic individuality. In interna1 relations, they are bound by a
contractual nexus (between the members qua individuals and between the
members and the partnership) and in external relations they have an
unlimited liability toward the creditors of the partnership. On the con-
trary, in the case of a corporation, its members, the shareholders, stand

in no legal relationship either to one another or to outsiders, Le., the
creditors of the corporation. The shareholders, different in that from
partners whose entire personality and individuality is absorbed into the
business of the partnership, do not and cannot participate in the activities
of the corporation Save by way of exercising their voting rights in the
general meeting. Even this kind of participation of the shareholders in
the corporate business is reduced to a minimum by the natural tendency
to indifference and "absenteeism" on the part of shareholders. Their only
obligation consists in the payment of a sum of money for the shares
subscribed by them and their only risk is the impossibility of reimburse-
ment of their invested sum in case of liquidation or bankruptcy of the
corporation.
Thus the legal position of shareholders lacks the individuality which isfound in the case of partners. It is characterized by its abstractness and
makes the existence of shareholders something passive.

The typical corporation, considered from the point of view of those

characteristics in which it differs from the partnership, is designated as a
"sociétéanonyme". This term is used in contrast with the "sociétéen
nom collectif". The anonymity relates of course to the corporation itself,
but we may assert that this character is derived from the anonymity of
each shareholder in the corporation. The anonymity can be said to be a
characteristic not only of a bearer share but of a registered share as well.
The anonymity of corporations as well as of shareholders makes pos-
sible and facilitates the establishment among several corporations of
dependent relationships and concentrations of diverse kinds and degrees
such as the cartel, the "Interessengemeinschaft", "concerns", mergers
(fusion), etc. Particularly, it tends to produce at the national and inter-
national levels the phenomenon of the mammoth pyramidal structure in
which innumerable enterprises, crowned by a controlling holding com-
pany at the top, are affiliated with one another in links of parent-and-
child relationships, by means of holding, subsidiary and sub-subsidiary

companies.
The concentration due to the aforesaid anonymity disregards national
frontiers and may cover many countries. In this way international invest-
ments are facilitated. The case of the Barcelona Traction Company offers
an excellent example of the concentration of enterprises and international
investment.
The relationship existing among innumerable companies possessing
separate juridical personality is commonly called a "group".

The anonymity of shareholders manifests itself in the recent tendency
to separate power or management from the ownership by mechanisms
such as life insurance companies, pension trusts, and mutual funds, as
pointed out by Professor Adolf A. Berle Jr. (Power Without Property,
1959, pp. 160 ff.). The separation of nominee and beneficial owner of
shares, one of the issueswith which the third preliminary objection in the
present case is concerned, may be considered an example of the manifesta-

tion of this tendency.
Anonymity of shareholders and separation of control from ownership
in corporative life necessarily exercise a profound influence upon the
character of a corporation as a juridical entity. In contrast with the
partnership, where autonomy among members or contractual freedom
largely prevails and consequently the corporative regulation by the
articles of incorporation is limited to a minimum, matters concerning
corporations are, even in regard to their interna1 relations, minutely
prescribed by jus cogensin Company law and a very narrow sphere is left
to the autonomy of the general meeting as the highest organ of the
corporation. The degree of the rule of law in commercial societies is ininverse proportion to theimportance which law attaches to the individual
member. In the partnership it is minimal; in the corporation maximal.

From what has been stated above, we may conclude that the tie of the
juridical personality is, in the case of a corporation, far strongerhan in
the case of a partnership. In a corporation juridical personality plays the
role of holding together incoherent individuals by a compact legal frame,
while in the case of a partnership, even under some legal systems re-
cognizing its juridical personality, the partners are directly liable to
creditors of the partnership in the event of its insolvency and accordingly
the function played by its juridical personality is extremely limited.

The above-mentioned characteristics of a corporation are very suc-
cinctly indicated by the following description:

"Dans les sociétésde capitaux . . le lien de la sociétéavec la
personne de ses membres est moins marqué; le concept de person-
nalité morale est donc pour elles plus nécessaire. Les associésne
sont pas normalement responsables des dettes de la société;l'actif
social seul en répond. La duréede la sociéténe dépend pas dela vie
des associés,qui ne se connaissent souvent pas, et ont réuni leurs
capitaux, non leurs personnes; les actions, qui représentent les parts
sociales, sont, en principe, librement négociableset ainsi appelées à
changer continuellement de mains." (Professeurs Henri et Léon
Mazeaud et Conseiller Jean Mazeaud, Leçons de droit civil, tome 1,
3' éd.,1963,pp. 602, 603.)

If we recognize these observations as right, the natural conclusion
therefrom would be that the object of diplomatic protection in the case
of a corporation should be the corporation itself and not its shareholders.
From the viewpoint of emphasizing the significance of the juridical
personality of the corporation, it appears that it must be theCompanyas
juridicalperson which is capable of enjoying the protection and not the
shareholders, since they are excluded from the protection by the screen of
juridical personality of theZompany.
The traditional doctrine on this matter has been based on the theory of

the juridical personality of a corporation, which holds that "a corpora-
tion is a juridical person distinct from its members". J. Mervyn Jones
stated:

"Assuming, therefore, that corporations may be nationals, it follows
that only the state of which they are nationals may intervene on
their behalf, and this notwithstanding the fact that most of the mem-
bers may be nationals of another state." ("Claims on behalf of
nationals who are shareholders in foreign companies", British Year
Book of International Law, 1949,p. 227.) The argument of the Spanish Government which denies the right of
diplomatic protection of shareholders in fûvour of the national State of
the Barcelona Traction Company, namely Canada, is precisely based on

theabove-mentioned theory of ajuridical personality recognized as being
distinct from its members.

The Belgian Government on the contrary, wishes to advocate its
position by arguing from a fundamental theory concerning the juridical
person. It intends to defend its viewpoint on the strength of the doctrine
of fiction, whichdenies the real existence of the juridical person by reduc-
ing it to a simple conglomeration of its constituent members and mini-
mizing the juridical person as being a mere legal technique that makes it
possible for plural individuals to own property or conclude a transaction.
In order to assert its view, the Belgian Government has repeatedly
referred to a figurative concept of "piercing the veil" ofcorporate person-
ality. So far as this slogan is concerned, however, it simply means that
the shareholders must be protected by their national State regardless of
the juridical personality of the corporation. It is a petitio principii and

nothing more.
The Belgian Government, basing itself on the fiction theory, insists that
the real existence of a corporation isits shareholders and that accordingly
the subject to be protected is not limited to the Barcelona Traction
Company, but includes its shareholders who are Belgian nationals.
The argument developed by the Spanish Government to deny the
protection of shareholders is, as indicated above, based on the role at-
tributed to the juridical personality of corporation.
The viewpoint of the Spanish Government is not in itself wrong. As we
have seen, in a corporation the role of the juridical personality is at a
maximum and that of shareholders is reduced to a minimum. Never can
the shareholders come in contact with a third person through the wall of
the corporate personality. This wall seems too solid to be penetrated. It
appears that diplomatic protection cannot reach to shareholders, con-
sequently the Spanish vie~ on this point seems to be well founded.

I,nshort, both Governments, the Belgian and the Spanish as well, ap-
pear to base their respective positions on a theory ofjuridical personality:
either on the theory of fiction or on the realistic theory,her disregarding
or emphasizing the functional importance of juridical personality.

However, we must approach the issue in question from a different
angle. The question should be considered on quite another plane. What
we have seen above and what the Spanish Government has put forward
are arguments concerned with the juridical concept of corporation in themeaning of municipal law, private law and particularly commercial law,
and they deal with this concept only.
Law relating to corporations is concerned with matters of private law,
namely private interests, relationships between corporation, shareholders

and third parties. Company law in respect of incorporation, formation,
ultra viresca,pital, its increase and reduction, organs, the rights and duties
of shareholders (particularly limited liability), the transfer of shares,
accounts, the issuing of bonds, dissolution, liquidation, etc., isabove al1
related to interna1 matters of corporations, or business transactions with
outsiders and belongs to the plane of municipal law. The principles
prevailingin these matters are directed, on the onehand, to theprotection
ofthird parties, namely thecreditorsof a company, and on the other hand,
to the protection of the shareholders in the company itself. These prin-
ciples are not in themselves connected in any way with international law.
The protection of shareholders is intended to be guaranteed in corpora-
tion law mainly by provisions concerning the limited liability of share-
holders, the maintenance of enterprises, the principle of publicity,
liability of corporate organs, etc.;t belongs to an entirely different plane
of law the prevailing principle of which is quite extraneous to that of

diplomatic protection.

The Spanish concept of the impenetrability of a company's wall of
juridical personality is based on a principle of private law, and therefore
it cannot be applied to the question of diplomatic protection of share-
holders.
Sincethe matter of diplomaticprotection of shareholders belongs to an
entirely different plane, namely to the field of international law, the
juridical personality created from the necessity of the viewpoint of
private law or commercial law cannot be recognized as an obstacle for
the protection of shareholders on the plane of international law.
For this reason the fact that a corporation has juridical personality
under the law of a State does not necessarilyjustify diplomaticprotection
by that State only.
This conclusion is based on recognition of the relativity of the validity

of eacli legal principle and concept.
Every branch of law, for example, private law, procedural law, ad-
ministrative law, fiscal law, private international law, law concerning
enemy character in wartime, etc., has its own purpose and accordingly,
the sphere which it governs is necessarily limited. Certain legal principles
and concepts may have a relative validity in the specific sphere to which
they belong. Each legal system or institution has its own objective; to
attain this objective, a system of norms, i.e., principles, rules and pro-
visions, is developed. The system is teleologically constructed. The
meaning of the norms and concepts included in it will be relative to the
objective of the system itself and limited by it, although the existence ofcommon principles and concepts underlying diverse systems cannot be
denied. To give an example: we cannot help recognizing the difference
between the legal position of seller and purchaser and that of parties each
playing a specific role with regard to a bill of exchange, although both
cases belong to the law of obligations. We rnay cite another example,
namely the difference between the legalrelationship governing a Company

and its shareholders and that involved in an ordinary commercial trans-
action.

What we want to emphasize is that each branch of law, each system
and institution, each provision belonging to it, possesses a specific
character from the viewpoint of its objective and is susceptible of or
requires a different interpretation. This phenomenon is what a dis-
tinguished commercialist, Rudolf Müller-Erzbach more than 55 years
ago ingeniously pointed out in an article ("Relativitat der Rechtsbegriffe
und ihre Begrenzung durch den Zweck des Gesetzes", Jherings Jahr-
bücher für die Dogmatik des heutigen Romischen und Deutschen Privat-
rechts, Bd. 61, 1912,ss. 343-384).
On the matters we are interested in, a concept such as nationality,

which is concerned with both municipal and international law, rnay have
a different content according to the objective of each branch of law and
its interpretation and application rnay be relative. Even if the nationality
of an individual is established by municipal law, it rnay not necessarily
have validity in international law. It is possible that one rnay not be
entitled to diplomatic protection from one's national State by reason of
lack of effectiveness, as the Nottebohm case indicates (I.C.J. Reports
1955,p. 23).The fact that the effectivenessis questioned, implies that the
concept of nationality rnay Vary in meaning according to whether it is
interpreted by municipal law or by international law.

The viewpoint mentioned above rnay be stressed further with regard to
the question of the nationality of a corporation in relation to itsridical

personality. To begin with, the concept of nationality as applied to a
physical person differsfromthat applied to ajuridical person. In regard to
the latter, the relationship of allegiance originating from the natural tie
between physical persons and their national State rnay be lacking.
Furthermore, the meaning implied in the nationality of corporations rnay
not be identical according to different branches of law, for example, law
concerning the treatment of foreign corporations, conflict of laws,
diplomatic protection of nationals, law on enemy character, etc. (Prof.
Paul Reuter, Droit internationalpublic, 1958,pp. 164, 165.)

Hypothetically, a corporation obtains juridical personality by being
incorporated in a State under the law of that State and acquires the
nationality of that State, but the corporation rnay possess a foreign character in other respects: preponderance of foreign participation in the
capital stock, nationality of members of boards of directors, place of
control, place of business activities, etc. In such cases it rnay become
controversial whether the national State of the corporation can claim
diplomatic protection on its behalf solelybecause the corporation has its
nationality; in any event, the national State of the corporation, even if
it is entitled to diplomaticprotection, rnay hesitate to exercise its right.

Tt is not without reason that Rabel renounced his attempt to seek a

uniform content for the concept of nationality of corporations and
declared that each rule should be interpreted separately (Ernst Rabel,
The Conpict of Laws, 1947,Vol. II, p. 21).

We rnay quote an example for the purpose of demonstrating the non-
application of a rule of municipal law to a matter of international law.
The so-called principle of equal treatment of shareholders, we believe,
is considered one of the most fundamental principles governing the law
of corporations. According to this principle, al1shares in a corporation-
or, if several categories of shares exist, al1shares in the same category-
are, from the viewpoint of the rights and duties incorporated in them,
equal (with the exception of quantative differences proportionate to the
degree of participation), and therefore shareholders are to be treated
equally. This principle is perhaps derived from the fact of anonyrnity or
lack of individuality where the position of shareholders is concerned, in

contrast with that of partners; the idea rnay go back to canon Iaw and,
further, to the Aristotelian notion of justitia distributiva.
The principle of equal treatment of shareholders, however important
it rnay be, nevertheless has its limitation. The limitation rnay come from
municipal law, but in any case it comes from outside commercial law.
It rnay take the form of a restriction of the rights of foreign shareholders
in public law. Or it rnay be based on international law where the latter
recognizes the protection of shareholders in a foreign Company who are
nationals of the protecting State. Unequal treatment arising as the result
of a discretionary exercise of diplomatic protection cannot be avoided
when there are shareholders of different nationalities. A situation
wherein some of the shareholders enjoy effective protection and the rest
do not is inevitable. Whether such situation is desirable or not is a dif-
ferent matter.

What we meant above is that a principle such as equal treatment of

shareholders, being of m.unicipa1law character, is not ipsojure applicable
to matters belonging to the plane of international law, including matters
concerning diplomatic protection of shareholders. The shareholders who
have been excluded from diplomatic protection cannot protest againstdiplomatic protection of other shareholders by their respective national
States by referring to the principle of equal treatment of shareholders,
which is valid only in municipal law and not in the matter of international
law to which the rule of diplomatic protection belongs.
What has been said concerning the principle of the equality of share-
holders can be applied mutatis mutandis to the question of the juridical
personality of a corporation. Juridical personality is, as stated above,
conferred on a corporation primarily for the purposes of maintaining the
enterprise, owning property, concluding transactions with outsiders and
limiting or denying the liability of shareholders in regard to creditors

of the company. Accordingly, juridical personality possesses meaning
only as a legal technique to serveand guaranteethe corporate existence in
respect of private and commercial law. Its validity isrelative and therefore
limited.
The Spanish Government conceives the juridical personality of a
corporation as an impenetrable wall lying between corporation and
shareholders as far as di~lomatic ~rotection is concerned. so that it can
prevent protection of the'shareholders and monopolize it in favour of the
corporation itself. In other words, the framework ofjuridical personality
should involve in itself the susceptibility of diplomatic protection of the
company and at the same time the exclusion of shareholders from the
protection. The question of diplomatic protection could not be distin-
guished from the conclusion of ordinary transactions, where the corpora-
tion itself was represented and the shareholders excluded.
Such a construction, however, would fa11into the error of conceiving
the juridical personality of a corporation as an aim in itself, whereas it is

nothing but a means in the interest of its constituent members.
Professor (at that time Judge) Charles De Visscher said:
"L'intérêt de l'individu, l'intérêt de l'homm est toujours le but du
droit et sa fin suprême.IIen est ainsi alors mêmeque la poursuite de
cet intérêts'effectue sous le couvert du régime de la personnalité
civile." ("De la protection diplomatique des actionnaires d'une
sociétécontre 1'Etat sous la législation duquel cette sociétés'est

constituée": Revue de droit international et de législation comparée,
Vol. 61, 1934, p. 639.)

By what is set forth above, we have tried negatively to remove an
important obstacle to the recognition of diplomatic protection in favour
of shareholders. Next, we shall demonstrate positively the necessity and
raison d'être of protection of shareholders and establish the reason why

the shareholders should be protected independently of the company to
which they belong.
We shall solve the question of whether the shareholders' rights and
interests are included in the subject-matter of diplomatic protection according to the universally recognized customary rule of international
law, the existence of which does not admit of any doubt; we are con-
fronted with the interpretation of this customary rule of international
law, i.e., whether diplomatic protection covers the position, namely
rights and interests, of shareholders in a corporation or not.
Roughly speaking, international law places no qualification on
"property", "rights" and "interests", and consequently it seems that the
position of shareholders can be recognized as involving property, rights
or interests, and is able to be covered by diplomatic protection. Before
we reach a definite conclusion, however, we must examine the nature of
the shareholders' legal position and their rights and interests, because
some aspects of the legal position of shareholders have appeared to be an
obstacle to the recognition of its diplomatic protection and, therefore,
much discussion has taken place belween both Parties concerning this

issue.
Let us examine what are usually indicated as shareholders' rights in
books on corporation law of many countries: the right to dividends, the
right to surplusassets in case of liquidation, the right to vote in general
meetings, the right of minority shareholders to sue for the liability of
directors, the right to transfer shares, the right to request certificates, etc.

Examining these so-called shareholders' rights we can distinguish two
categories of rights: the one includes those rights which are enjoyed by
shareholders themselves, namely the right to dividends, the right to
surplus assets and the right to transfer shares; and the other includes the
right of voting and al1those rights the aim of which constitutesthe com-
mon interest of the corporation itself andnot the individual interest of the
shareholders. Some German scholars of corporation law cal1the rights in
the first category ~igennützige Reclzre (rights for self-interest) and the

rights in the second category gemeinnützige Rechte (rights for common
purpose). The latter category constitutes rights of shareholders sensu
lato; however they are not exercised by them as shareholders but as an
organ composing the general meeting, and therefore this kind of righî
cannot be classified in a category of rights of shareholders in sensu
stricto. Of course a preponderant shareholding in the general meeting
would confer on the shareholder right of control, but this so-called right
cannot be said to be a "right" in the proper sense, but mere "interest".

As to the rights of shareholders to request dividends or surplus assets,
we cannot deny them the nature of a right sensu srricro; nor do we
hesitate to classify shares in the categories of "property", "rights" or
"interests" which may be covered by diplomatic protection.

This conclusion, we consider, cannot be denied on the ground that the
realization of the right to dividends or surplus assets presupposes the existence of profits or surplus assets on the balance sheet, and is therefore
conditioned by the future financial circumstances of the company. It is
true that the position of shareholders is, in this respect, more uncertain
than the position of creditors and bondholders, but a conditional right
cannot be excluded frorn diplomaticprotection simpiy because it involves
uncertainty; nor can the fact that shareholders do not possess any right as
regards corporate property-its forma1owner being the company itself-
be used to deny diplornatic protection.

In short, whatever construction may be put on the rights of share-
holders each constituent element of a share can be characterized as a
"right" or "interest". Furthermore, we can conceive rights and interests
as a whole, as a conglomeration of diverse rights, duties and interests.
Perhaps we can consider them as Mitgliedschaft or Mitgliedsc/zaftsrecht,

which is nothing else but a kind of legal position possessed by a sharehol-
der. That this legal position can be and will be considered an object of
diplornatic protection, is easily understood by the fact that the legal
position as a whole, being incorporated in the share certificate, becomes
negotiable as a movable and quoted in stock-exchange operations.

In this context, we shall clarify the distinction between protection of
shareholders from the viewpoint of the material content of shares and
protection of shareholders as owners of the share certificates. What we
are concerned with is only the former case in which alleged wrongful
acts vis-à-vis the company are involved and consequently the intrinsic
value of shares is affected, while in the latter case the question of protec-
tion is concerned with an owner or possessor of a particular share
certificate asa titre-valeur as in the case of rei vindicatio, where a share
certificate has been stolen or damaged; the latter case therefore, is not

concerned with the protection of shareholders which is what we are
dealing with here.
In sum, the legal position of shareholders can itself be considered to be
the object of diplomatic protection by their national State. From the
viewpoint of diplomatic protection it does not matter whether this
position can be conceived as "property", "a right" or "interests". Even
if it cannot be recognized as property or a right, it constitutes"interest".

The share can be said to be a new type of property which isa product of
modern capitalism; although, unlike copyright, patents and trademarks,
it has its origin in municipal law, it has acquired a highly international
character owing to its anonymity and transferability. There is no other
movable property comparable with the share which is furnished with the
highest degree of negotiability through the mechanism. of international
exchange markets. Parallel with the development of international investment, the necessity
of its protection becomes acute. It will be recognized that absence of a
uniform law relative to companies and the highly imperfect state of private
international law on this matter increasingly require diplomatic protec-
tion of shareholders in a way that supplements the measures provided by
municipal law .
Briefly, we should approach the customary rule of diplomatic protec-
tion from a teleological angle, namely from the spirit and purpose of
diplomaticprotection,without being bound by municipal law and private
law concepts, recognizing its relative validity according to different
fieldsand institutions. The concept ofjuridical personality mainly governs
private law relationships. It cannot be made an obstacle to diplomatic
protection of shareholders. Concerning diplomatic protection, inter-
national law looks into the substance of matters instead of the legal

form or technique; it pays more consideration to ascertaining where real
interest exists, disregarding legal concepts. International law in this
respect is realistic and therefore flexible.

Judge Wellington Koo in his separate opinion appended to the 1964
Judgment concerning the third preliminary objection in the present case
says :

"International law, being primarily based upon the general
principles of law and justice, is unfettered by technicalities and
formalistic considerations which are often given importance in
municipal law .. .It is the reality which counts more than the ap-
pearance. It is the equitable interest which matters rather than the
legal interest. In other words it is the substance which carried weight
on the international plane rather than the form." (Barcelona Trac-
tion, Liglzt and Power Company, Limited, Prelirninary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1964,pp. 62 and 63.)

Even if the existence of an interest (in a broad sense) in diplomatic
protection is recognized, however, the State concerned would have the
discretion to exercise the power of diplomatic protection on certain mat-
ters. Here, we must distinguish two questions: the one is whether diplo-
matic protection is, from the viewpoint of the nature of the object of
protection, legally possible or not; the other is whether, in a specific
case, intervention for the purpose of diplomatic protection by a State on
behalf of its national, is appropriate or not. The former question is of a
legal nature, to be distinguished from the latter which constitutes nothing
else but the political evaluation of the fact from various aspects (above all,
economic considerations). The two questions should not be confused. These two questions arise fromthe existence of the two kinds of interest
pertaining to the diplomaticprotection of shareholders:one isthe original

interest of shareholders which requires the protection of their national
State, the other is the interest which the national State of the share-
holders possesses and which may become a deciding factor in the exercise
of a discretionary power of intervention. These two interests must not be
confused either.
In this respect, we shall consider the meaning of the percentage of
participation of shareholders to be protected in the capital stock of a
company. This matter has been repeatedly discussed between the Parties
in the present case relative to the preponderance of percentage of Sidro's
participation in the capital stock of Barcelona Traction. It has been
claimed that this preponderance constitutes an essential condition for the
existence or exercise of the right of diplomatic protection of shareholders.
But we consider that the preponderance of percentage does not appear to
constitute a condition of diplomatic protection. It seems that the percen-
tage itself possesses no relevance to the legal possibility of diplomatic
protection. Even the holding of one share would jusify-theoretically-

the right of diplomatic protection. Whether this right will be exercised or
not, is aatter belonging to the discretion of the national State. What is
essentialis the existence of an interest worthy of protection by the share-
holders' national State. In this sense the total value of the shares to be
protected should be considered objectively without regard to the per-
centage which it occupies in the total capital stock. A holding of 25 per
cent. in a big company may be sufficient for the exercise of diplomatic
protection; contrariwise, a 99 per cent. holding in an insignificant com-
pany may be excluded from the consideration of diplomatic protection.
Of course other factors may come into consideration. This is a matter of
political expediency, belonging to the discretion of the protecting State,
which presupposes the possibility of protection, and not a matter of law
which is concerned with the legal possibility of protection.
We presume that the discussion concerning the percentage of the
participation of Sidro in the capital stock of Barcelona Traction is

motivated by the idea of protection of the Barcelona Traction Company
itself, on which viewpoint the Belgian Application of 1958stood. Con-
troversy around the percentage of participation, so far as the third
preliminary objection is concerned, may be understood as a residuum
of the viewpoint of protection of the company represented by the initial
Application; therefore, it seems that it is not relevant to the question
with which we are dealing now.
The question of whether a State is entitled to exercise a right of dip-
lomatic protection of a foreign corporation is entirely another matter.
It seems that it must be decided in the negative sense, by reason of the
fact that the corporation itself does not possess the nationality of the
protecting State. However, some State practice recognizes the protec-
tion of a foreign corporation, if substantial interest in the corporation is owned by its nationals (see Edwin M. Borchard, The Diplornatic
Protection of Citizens Abroad, 1915, p. 622). This is not the case which
we are now considering. Here we are concerned with the issue of the
protection of shareholders and not the company itself. But much progress
has been made such that through protection of a foreign company the
protection of shareholders is attained. It is quite natural that, so long
as the standpoint of protection of a company itself is defended, the
percentage of the participation of the protected shareholders does corne
into consideration. However, since we refuse to recognize an obstacle
to diplomatic protection in the juridical personality of a company and
attribute to shareholders an independent status which may be an object
of diplomatic protection, the fact of Sidro's holding a certain fairly

large percentage of the Barcelona Traction Company must be deemed
to be one of the factors to be taken into consideration in exercising
diplomatic protection but not one legally required as a condition for
the right of protection.

It is true that the internationally wrongful acts allegedly committed
by the Spanish administrative or judicial State organs, such as refusal
of the transfer of foreign currency, the bankruptcy judgment of 12
February 1948, etc., are directed to the Barcelona Traction Company,
which possesses Canadian nationality. Accordingly, the Spanish Govern-
ment argues that only Canada, the national State of the company, is
entitled to exercise its diplomatic protection. This argument is based
on the municipal law concept of the corporation on which we made
observations above and according to which only the corporate personality

prevails regarding external matters. According to this concept, since
only the company could be the victim of a wrongful act, the damage
suffered by the shareholders should be indemnified through the company
indirectly. In short, only the national State of the company would be
entitled to exercise diplomatic protection and not the national State of
the shareholders.
It islso true that the national State of a company is entitled to take
measures of diplomatic protection on behalf of the company, assuming
that the bond of nationality is effective, and that the national State is
materially interested in the protection of the company. But there are
many cases where the nationality of the company is not effective, where
the bond between the national State of thecompany and the shareholders
is lacking and, accordingly, the national State is not inclined to exercise
the right of protection. There may exist another circumstance for the
national State of the company, such as the fact that between this State
and the State responsible for the wrongful acts a nexus of compulsory
jurisdiction islacking; or the former State, for some political or other

reasons may not wish to pursue diplomatic protection against the latter State; or diplomatic protection by the former State might not bring a
satisfactory result, etc. Under these circumstances there remains no
other remedy than that the national State of the shareholders should
take the initiative for the purpose of the protection of its nationals. A
vacuum with respect to protection should not be tolerated: otherwise
shareholders would be left in an entirely helpless condition and the result
would be injustice and inequity which would be harmful for the healthy
development of international investment.
As one of the objections raised to the above-mentioned argument
in favour of diplomatic protection of a national State of shareholders,
we may point out the difficulty which would be produced by the zumu-
lative existence or competitive concurrence of rights of several States
concerning the same object of diplomatic protection. It follows that
inthe case of multinational composition of capital, more thanone national

State of shareholders might intervene on the condition that the juris-
dictional basis exists, either by the way of intervention as provided for
in Articles62and 63 of the Statute or by special agreement or application
(Article40 of the Statute). Each of those entitled to diplomatic protection
would be able to exerciseits right of protection accordingto its discretion
without prejudicing the rights of protection of other States concerned.

Such competitive existence of rights of diplomatic protection of
diverse States appears an extraordinary phenomenon, but we consider
that the same kind of legal phenomenon can be found in contractual or
delictual matters where the same contract or wrongful act gives rise to
a claim for compensation by diverse persons concerned. In such a case,
concurrent plural claims may serve a common purpose; if one of them
were exercised and satisfied, the remaining rights would be extinguished,
having attained their purpose.
Accordingly, in the present case, there does not exist any contradic-

tion between, on the one hand, the right of diplomatic protection of the
Barcelona Traction Company by its national State, namely Canada and,
on the other hand, the right of diplomatic protection of its shareholders
by their national State, namely Belgium. The existence of the former
right does not exclude either the existence of the latter right or its exercise.

Since the two rights of diplomatic protection-that of Canda and
that of Belgium-CO-exist in parallel but independently, it is not a
necessity forBelgium'sright of diplomatic protection that Canada should
finally waive its right of protection in regard to the Barcelona Traction
Company. Such a fact is not relevant to the existence of the right of
diplomatic protection of Belgium in favour of its shareholders.

We cannot deny the possibility of a cumulative existence of rights
of diplomatic protection in the case of a Company just as a natural
person may have dual nationality. If a claim of one State is realized, the claim of the other State will be extinguished to this extent by losing
its object. Accordingly, the defendant State cannot be compelled to
pay the damage twice over.
Of course, we recognize that the fear of complication which would
be caused by plural or multiple interventions of several governments
has some justification. But if we deny them, the legitimate interests
of shareholders rnight be left without protection by their national States.
These phenomena would represent some of the defects inherent in the
present institution of diplomatic protection, which might be related to
the non-acceptability of individuals to international tribunals. Practically
complication and confusion might be avoided to a considerable degree
by negotiations and "solutions inspired by goodwill and common
sense ..."(Reparationfor Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United
Nations, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports I949, p. 186) between the
States concerned. Or it would be a task of international legislativepolicy
to provide means to guarantee the protection of private investments and
to find appropriate solutions in order to overcome the difficulties arising
from the multiple intervention of several governments. We should not
refuse the necessary remedies to protect legitimate shareholders by

conjecturing extreme cases.

It is true that there is norule of international law which allows two
kinds of diplomatic protection to a company and its shareholders re-
spectively, but thereis no rule of international law either which prohibits
double protection. It seems that a lacuna of law exists here; it must be
filled by an interpretation which emanates from the spirit of the institu-
tion of diplomatic protection itself.

From what is stated above, we can conclude that whether Canada
is entitled to diplomatic protection of the Barcelona Traction Company
as its national State or whether the Canadian Government once wanted
to intervene in the dispute but finally gave up the original intention, is
not legally relevant to solve the question of the right of diplornatic
protection of shareholders by their national State. This right exists
independently of the right of the national State of the company. The
history of the comparatively short-livedCanadian intervention (1948-1952
or 1955),however,would prove the raisond'être of the right of diplornatic
protection of shareholders by their national State.

The above-mentioned protection of the shareholders themselves is
based on the concept which characterizes relationships between the
company and its members, namely the shareholders. Although an inde- 137 HAKCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. TANAKA)

pendent juridical personality is conferred on a cornpany, this personality
does not present itself as an end, but simply as a rneans to achieve an
economic purpose, namely a maximum degree of peciiniary interest by
a limited sum of investrnent
A company in the sociological sense belongs to the category of the
"Gesellschaft", and presents itself as a pure means to achieve the eco-
nomic purpose of its members, namely the shareholders; the shareholders
constitute the substance of its existence; they are the sovereign of the
company like the citizens in a democratic State. Who require, in the
material sense, diplomatic protection in the case of a company? No-one
other than the shareholders in the company, although in some cases
the company itself, may appear as a formal protégé onthe scene, having
its cause espoused by its national State. Therefore in a company. the
shareholders, as being its real substance, and the subject of interests,
must be considered as the object of diplomatic protection; not the
company itself which has nothing but a fictive existence and can only

play the role of a technique for the purpose of protection of the share-
holders who are the real owners of the corporate property and enterprise.
From what has been said above, we can conclude that there exists
between acompany and its shareholders a relationship of cornrnunity of
destiny which has been repeatedly emphasized, particularly in the oral
arguments by the Belgian Government, in order to justify its right of
diplomatic protection on behalf of its shareholders in the present case.
The alleged internationally wrongful acts, it is true, are directed against
the company itself and not against the shareholders, but only in a
forma1 sense; in reality both are inseparably connected to each other
in such a way that prejudicial acts committed against a company neces-
sarily produce an effect detrimental to its shareholders by reduction of
the sum of dividends or surplus assets. In a cornpany. we can recognize
the existence of unity between company and shareholders in the sense
that profit and loss are in the final instance attributed to the shareholders

-of course under the condition that the liability of each shareholder is
limited to the sum of shares which he has subscribed.
Therefore, the alleged internationally wrongful acts directed against a
company can be conceived as directed against its shareholders themselves.
because both can be considered, in substance, i.e., economically,identical.

Accordingly, one cannot deny to the national State of shareholders
the right of diplomatic protection of its nationals on the ground that
another State may possess or exercise the same right on behalf of the
company itself. Consequently, in the present case, the recognition of
the right of diplomatic protection of Canada, which is the national
State of the Barcelona Traction Company, does not exclude the same
right of Belgium, the national State of the shareholders of that company
on their behalf; hence Belgium may be entitled to exercise its originalright of protection of her shareholders independently of the protection
of the company itself by Canada. Therefore, the Belgian Government
cannot be regarded as substituting the Canadian claim to the protection
of the company.
It might be said in passing that by this assertion we do not go so
far as to maintain that the interest of the company coincides perfectly
with the totality of the shareholders' interests. We must recognize that
originally a company is no more than a means for its shareholders to
achieve their lucrative purpose; but so long as the company continues
as a going concern it would enjoy in some measure an independent
existence free from the arbitrary decision of the shareholders. So long
as a company exists for a considerable space of time and fulfils its
corporate purpose it acquires an objective existence (the idea of so-
called "Unternehmen an sich" of Walther Rathenau) which, owing to
its important social role the shareholders would not dare dissolve arbi-
trarily, even if it were legally possible, by the prescribed majority vote.

We know that many contemporary big and influential corporations are
entending their activities to fields of an educational, scientific and phil-
anthropic nature and are contributing to the solution of social and
cultural problems for the welfare of humanity (A. A. Berle, The 20th
Century Capitalist Revolution, 1954, pp. 164, 188). Accordingly, even
in the case of a corporation created for the egoistic purposes of share-
holders, there may exist a common interest of the company distinct
from the individual interest of the shareholders, and therefore we can-
not deny the possibility of conflict between these two interests.
However, the possibility of common interest does not preclude the
fact that between the company and the shareholders a relationship of
community normally exists and wrongful acts done to and damage
inflicted on the former can be considered also as being directed against
the latter.
We recognize that an adequate connection of cause and effect may
exist between the wrongful acts done to the company and the damage

inflictedon the shareholders, but we can explain thisfact, as is mentioned
above, by the existence of a community of destiny or a substantial
economic identity between them.

From what has been stated above, weconsider that wecan demonstrate
the raison d'êtreof the right of diplomatic protection by a State of its
nationals who are shareholders in a company of a nationality other than
that of the protecting State.
The Parties have argued by quoting international arbitral precedents,
the practice of States and the writings of authoritative publicists to
defend their standpoints. Although cases concerning the protection of
shareholders exactly analogous to the present case cannot be found,international practice and doctrine do not seem to deny the protection
of shareholders by their national State to which the company itself does
not belong.
The Spanish Government admits the protection of shareholders by
their national State (1) where, following the general tendency of inter-

national practice and doctrine, the company possesses the nationality
of the State responsible for the damage, and (2) where the foreign
company has been dissolved or is practically defunct. In these cases there
exists the circumstance that the protection of the shareholders by the
national State of the company cannot be expected, either factually or
legally. This is why in these cases the protection of shareholders directly
by their national State is justified. The question is whether these two
instances are to be considered as a manifestation of a more general
principle in favour of the protection of shareholders or as an exception
to the main principle which does not admit their protection.
The principle of customary international law concerning diplomatic
protection by the State of its nationals, however general and vague it may
be, does not prohibit the rights or the legal position of shareholders being
included in "property, rights and interests" as an object of protection.
This conclusion can be justified as a correct interpretation of customary
international law concerning diplomatic protection, particularly taking
into account the above-mentioned necessityof international investment in

the past as well as in the future. The nature of thenterest of shareholders
is to be interpreted as a legitimate one worthy of protection by their
national State.
Next, customary international law does not prohibit protection of
shareholders by their national State even when the national State of the
company possesses the right of protection in respect of the latter.
The SpanishGovernment denies the right of protection of shareholders
by their national State. It admits diplomatic protection of shareholders
only in the two above-mentioned exceptional cases. Protection of share-
holders from this viewpoint is considered only as a substitute for the
protection of thecompany itself which has becorne irnpracticable through
the circumstances indicated above. From our viewpoint, the protection
of the shareholders possesses a meaning independently of the protection
of the company itself. Accordingly, it can exist regardless of circum-
stances which might rnake the exercise of the right of protection of a
company and the intervention of its national government impossible or
difficult. Theredoes not appear to exist in international law any restric-

tion to the effectthat the protection of shareholders in a foreign company
by their national State rnust belimited to the above-mentioned two cases.
The national State of shareholders, in the present case Belgiurn, is
entitled to protect thern just asin the cases where a company possesses
the nationality of the responsible State, or a cornpany has been dissolved
or is practically defunct.
In short, the contention of the Spanish Governrnent is based on the municipal law concept of corporate personality and that of shareholders
which is its corollary. The two protections, we consider-protection of

the company and that of the shareholders-may CO-existand on equal
terms; the latter is not supplementary to the former.

For the foregoing reasons, we conclude that Belgium has an indepen-
dent right to protect the Belgian shareholders in Barcelona Traction in
conformity with the interpretation of customary international law con-
cerning the diplomatic protection of nationals.

So far we have been concerned with the question of the legal, that is to
Say, the theoretical basis for thejus standiof the Belgian Government:
the question whether a State has a right to protect its nationals who are
shareholders in a company of a nationality other than that of the pro-
tecting state. This question having been answered in the affirmative, we

must now consider some questions from the viewpoint of the identifica-
tion of individual shareholders with reference to the present case.
These questions are concerned of course with the existence of share-
holders who are entitled to receive diplomatic protection by their home
State. Not al1so-called "shareholders", but only those who are qualified
from the functional and temporal viewpoint to receive protection. (It
goes without saying that proof of their status as shareholders must be
furnished as a matter of principle either by the register in the case of
registered shares or by possession in the case of bearer shares.)

From the viewpoint of functional differentiation a question arises when
shares are owned by two persons: the one, a nominee, whose name is
entered in the share register and who exercises rights as alter egoof the
real owner; the other, the beneficial owner, who enjoys rights as the real
or economic owner of the shares. By what criterion shall it be decided

which of those two is entitled as shareholder to be the object of pro-
tection: the nominee or the beneficial owner?

In the present case, the register of the shareholders of the Barcelona
Traction Company kept by the National Trust Company of Toronto
gives successively as from 7 November 1939 the names of the Charles
Gordon Company, a partnership of New Jersey and Newman & Com-
pany, a partnership of New York-the two are of American nationality-
and does not give the name of Sidro which is of Belgian nationality. It is
contended by the Belgian Government that a contractual nominee-
beneficial-owner relationskip exists between the two American partner-
ships and Sidro. The purpose of the establishment of such a relationship136 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. TANAKA)

seems to have been a wartime necessity of German-occupied Belgium to
protect Sidro's participation in the capital and management of Barcelona
Traction against an enemy power. Under such relationships a question
arises: which of the nationalities-American or Belgian-prevails, in
deciding the national character of Sidro's shares?

The Spanish Government denies the effect of the Belgian nationality
of Sidro by regarding the nominees, who are of American nationality, as
the true shareholders. We consider that the beneficial ownership, and,
accordingly, in the present case, Sidro's position asbeneficialowner,must
be the criterion for deciding this question. The reason therefor is as

follows: diplomatic protection depends upon where the real interest
resides; it is not concerned with a legal mechanism of private law such as
corporate personality, nominee relationship, etc. As we have seen in
another context, just as therule of diplomatic protection should disregard
the legal veil of the corporate personality of the company in favour of its
real substance, namely the shareholders, so it should disregard the legal
veil of the nominee in favour of the beneficial owner. The existence of a
nominee relationship does not exerciseany influenceupon the diplomatic
protection of shareholders. Sidro loses neither its shareholding in the
Barcelona Traction Company nor its Belgian nationality. It is quite
unthinkable that the conclusion of the norninee contract which was
motivated by a wartime necessity could exercise any influence upon the
status of Sidro as a shareholder of the Barcelona Traction Company.
In short, the fact that the two above-mentioned partnerships are of

American nationality has no relevance for the purpose of establishing
the jus standi of the Belgian Government. What is relevant for the jus
standi of Belgiumis the fact that Sidro is the beneficial, that is to say, the
real owner of Barcelona Traction's shares in respect of which the
American partnerships are nominees.

Next, we shall consider the question of the existence of a bond of
nationality between the shareholders and the protecting State as a con-
dition of protection in the present case.
The object of the Belgian Government's Application of 14June 1962is
reparation for the darnage allegedly caused to a certain number of its
nationals in their capacity as shareholders of the Barcelona Traction,

Light and Power Company. In the shareholders are included both natural
and juridical persons.
The contention of the Belgian Government concerning its jus sfundi is
based on the preponderance of the Belgian interest in the Barcelona
Traction Company. The preponderance of the Belgian interest is evident,
the Belgian Government argues, from the fact that the majority of the
shareholders in that company are of Belgian. nationality and that itamounted to 88 per cent. of Barcelona Traction's capital stock.The inost
important shareholder in the Barcelona Traction Company, according to

the Belgian Government, is admitted to be Sidro, S.A. (SociétéInter-
nationale d'Energie Hydro-Electrique), whose holding is said to amount
to 75 per cent. of the shares of the Belgian holding.
The preponderance of the Belgian participation in Barcelona Traction
at the time of its adjudication in bankruptcy is indicated by the Belgian
Government (Memorial, paragraphs 1-10) by the following figures:
Registered shares issued ............ 1,080,446
Bearer shares issued ............. 718,408

Total shares issued .............. 1,798,854

Shares owned by Belgian nationals (minimum) . . 1,607,845

Shares not owned by Belgian nationals (maximum) 191,009

Belgian participation in the capital of Barcelona Traction at the date
of the adjudication in bankruptcy of that Company therefore amounted
to not lessthan 89.3 per cent. of the capital issued.
Of this figure of 89.3 per cent., 75.75 per cent. belonged to Sidro, so
that 13.55per cent. at least of the capital of Barcelona Traction belonged
to other Belgian nationals.
The figures given above come from three main sources of information,
namely :

1. Information derived from the register of Barcelona Traction
registered shares.
A statement drawn up by the National Trust Company of
Toronto, which keepsthe register ofthe shares of Barcelona Traction,
gives the following figures:

Total issued shares .............. 1,798,854
Registered shares ............... 1,080,446
Registered sharesowned by Sidro ........ 1,012,688
Registered shares owned by shareholders other than ,
Sidro ................... 67,758

The total number of registered shares in Belgian hands was
1,013,108 in which 420 shares belonging to Belgian shareholders
other than Sidro are included.
The shares mentioned above as belonging to the Sidro Company
had been entered in the list cf registered shares since 7 November
1939in the name of Charles Gordon & Company as nominee. 2. Information derived from the accounts of Sidro.
The above information is confirmed and supplemented by the
accounts of Sidro, for the certificate drawn up by the firm cf
chartered accountants, Deloitte, Plender, Giffiths & Co., dated
6 May 1959 shows that, as at 12 February 1948, Sidro owned
1,012,688 Barcelona Traction registered shares and 349,905 bearer
shares,i.e., in al11,362,593shares out of a total of 1,798,854shares
issued, which represented 75.75 per cent. of the capital of thecom-

Pa3. Facts derived from the information gathered by the Institut
belgo-luxembourgeois du change (Belgo-Luxembourg Exchange
Institute).

At the time of adjudication in bankruptcy of Barcelona Traction,
this company had issued 1,798,854shares, of which at least 1,607,845
were owned by Belgian nationals; that is to say, 1,362,593shares
owned by Sidro (1,012,688 registered and 349,905 bearer shares),
and at least 245,252shares (420 registered and 244,832bearer shares)
owned by other Belgian nationals.
Belgian participation amounted therefore toat least 89.3per cent.
of the capital of the company.

Next, we shall see Belgian interests in Barcelona Traction at the time
of the institution of international proceedings (14June 1962)(Memorial,
paras. 11-19).This is shown by the following figures:
Registered shares issued ............ 1,472,310
Bearersharesissued .............. 326,544

Total shares issued .............. 1,798,854

Shares owned by Belgian nationals ....... 1,588,130

Shares not owned by Belgian nationals ..... 210,724
Proof of the preponderance of Belgian participation at that date will
be given with the help of information furnished by:

1. The register of registered shares of Barcelona Traction.
The statement drawn up by the National Trust Company of
Toronto gives the following facts:

Total issued shares .............. 1,798,854
Registered shares ............... 1,472,310

Registered shares owned by Sidro ....... 1,354,514
Registered shares owned by shareholders other than
Sidro ................... 117,796

Total .... 1,472,310 The total number of registered shares in Belgian hands was there-

fore 1,356,902 in which 2,388 shares belonging to Belgian share-
holders other than Sidro are included.
As to the registered shares owned by Sidro, the nominee this time
was the firm of Newman & Co., New York, which had succeeded
Charles Gordon & Co.
2. Information derived from the accounts of Sidro.
A certificate drawn up by the firm of Deloitte, Plender, Griffiths
& Co., dated 23 August 1962, shows that on 14 June 1962 Sidro
owned 1,354,514 Barcelona Traction registered shares, and 31,228
bearer shares, that is to Say, a total of 1,385,742 shares out of
1,798,854shares issued, which represented 77 per cent. of the total
capital of Barcelona Traction.
3. Information concerning bearer shares owned by Belgian
nationals.
As at 1 April 1962 there were in circulation 326,554 Barcelona
Traction bearer shares of which 31,228shares were owned by Sidro.

When the proceedings were instituted the number of Barcelona
Traction shares in circulation was 1,798,854 of which at least
1,588,130 were owned by Belgian nationals. Of these 1,385,742
shares were owned by Sidro (1,354,514 registered and 31,228 bearer
shares) and at least 202,388 (2,388 registered and 200,000 bearer
shares) were owned by other Belgian nationals.

From the facts given above, it can be concluded that more than
88 per cent. of the Barcelona Traction shares were in Belgian hands
both at the time of the adjudication in bankruptcy of that company
and at the time the present proceedings were instituted.
This Belgian participation is made up as follows: 10 to 15 percent.
of the capital of Barcelona Traction is owned by the general public
in Belgium, whilst 75 to 77 per cent. of the capital is owned by Sidro,
a company under Belgian law.

The foregoing is the demonstration on the part of the Belgian Govern-
ment concerning the preponderance of the Belgian participation in the
capital of Barcelona Traction.
Are the figures of 88 per cent. of the Belgian participation and 75 per
cent. of Sidro's participation at acritical date in Barcelona Traction
correct? Itdepends on the reliability of information furnished by the
National Trust Company of Toronto, the firm of chartered accountants,
Deloitte, Plender, Griffith& Company, and the Institut belgo-luxem-
bourgeois du change.
Itis argued that these three main sources being on the Belgianside, one
cannot therefore expect unprejudiced information from them. But it is
also not just to deny absolutely their evidential value in such circum-
stances. Each case should be valued according to its own merits. Particularly, the matter in question is that of degree. The figure for
Belgian participation may not be correct to the last digit. It may be 90 or
80 per cent. instead of 88 per cent. But one cannot deny the evidential
value of a statement simply because it may involve some minor incor-
rectness or mistake. Whether the percentage is 80 or 10 per cent. the
question of thejus standi of the Belgian Government is entirely the same.

Next, we are confronted with the question as to whether Sidro can be
said to have Belgian character. It is quite a different question from that

of whether the 75 per cent. participation of Sidro in the Barcelona
Traction's capitalstock reallyexisted. It isconcerned withtheconstitution
of Sidro as a corporate body which may include natural and juridical
persons as its constituent elements. In the case where a shareholder of
Sidro is a company, the Belgian character of Sidro might depend on the
nationality of individual shareholders of that company. If a shareholder
of this latter company is a company the same process should be repeated,
and would go on ad infinitum. Under such circumstances the national
character of Sidro could only be decided by the nationality of ultimate
individual shareholders who were natural persons.

The Spanish Government denies the Belgian character of Sidro by
contending that Sofina, the principal shareholder of Sidro, is very limited
in its Belgian holding. However, to establish the Belgian character of
Sidro, which is required for its protection, we need not go to such ex-

cessivelengths of logical formalism.
The fact that Sidro is of Belgian nationalityan be recognized without
the slightest doubt. This company was formed under Belgian law and it
has its seat (siège social) in Belgian territory, namely in Brussels. Its
Belgian nationality has never been denied by the Spanish Government.
Sidro, accordingly, is entitled to receive diplomatic protection from the
Belgian Government, being qualifiedtherefor by the facts of its formation
and seat. These facts are sufficient to justify the connecting link between
Sidro and Belgium. Just as the Barcelona Traction Company can enjoy
the diplomatic protection of the Canadian Governnient by reason of
similar factors, so Sidro is entitled to receive diplomatic protection from
the BelgiariGovernment by reason of its Belgian nationality.
It is possible that Sidro may be susceptible of two protections which
are compatible with each other: on the one hand, it might be protected
indirectly by the Canadian Government as a shareholder of a Canadian
company, Barcelona Traction, on the other hand, it might be protected

directly by the Belgian Government owing to its Belgian nationality. In
this latter respect Sidro isubject to Belgian protection as a shareholder
of Barcelona Traction, by virtue of having Belgian nationality and as a
company as such. In this context we must add a few words concerning a Judgment of
the International Court of Justice in the Nottebohm case (SecondPhase,
I.C.J. Reports 1955, pp. 16, 17, 25, 26). This Judgment denied the ex-
tension of the right of diplomatic protection of Liechtenstein to Mr.
Nottebohm vis-à-vis Guatemala on the ground that his nationality of
Liechtenstein lacked effectiveness. That Judgment was concerned with
the effectiveness of nationality of a natural person and not that of a
Company. That Judgment is not germane to the present case, however,
because here the nationality of Sidro is undoubtedly established.
In short, thejus standi of the Belgian Government can be founded on
the Belgian nationality of Sidro, even if the Belgian nationality of the
majority of the shareholders ultimately cannot be proved.
The percentage of Sidro and other Belgian holdings in the whole
capital stock of the Barcelona Traction Company has no particular

relevance for the question of the jus standi of the Belgian Government,
but it would become an important factor for the assessment of damage
allegedly incurred by Belgian shareholders.
The question of continuity of nationality, that is, identification of
shareholders from the temporal viewpoint, can be decided in the affir-
mative. Sidro's continued existence since 1923,covering the two critical
dates, is sufficient to prove this continuity.

As to the question of bearer shares, this does not seem relevant to a
decision concerningjus standi and continuity.
For the above-mentioned rea.sons the third preliminary objection
raised by the Spanish Government should be rejected.
We shall proceed to examine the fourth preliminary objection raised
by the Spanish Government against the Belgian Application.

III

In the fourîh preliminary objection the Spanish Government holds
that the Belgian Application of 14 June 1962 is inadmissible by reason
of the non-exhaustion of local remedies by the Barcelona Traction Com-
pany and those concerned, as required by international law.
The Spanish Government invokes not only the rule of customary
international law on local remedies, but Article 3 to the Treaty of Con-

ciliation, Judicial Settlement and Arbitration of 19 July 1927, which
provides as follows :
"In the case of a dispute the occasion of which, according to the
municipal law of one of the Parties, falls within the competence
of the national courts,such Party may require that the dispute shall
not be submitted to the procedure laid down in the present Treaty
until a judgment with final effect has been pronounced within a reasonable time by the competent judicial authority." [English
text from League of Nations Treaty Series, Vol. LXXX, pp. 28 ff.
Note by the Registry.]
That the local remedies rule constitutes "a well-established rule of
customary international law" and that "the rule has been generally
observed in cases in which a State has adopted the cause of its national
whose rights are claimed to have been disregarded in another State in
violation of international law", is clearly declared by the International

Court of Justice (Interhandel, Judgment, Z.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 27).
The International Court of Justice continues :
"Before resort may be had to an international court in such a
situation, it has been considered necessary that the State where
the violation occurred should have an opportunity to redress it
by its own means, within the framework of its own domestic legal
system." (Zbid.,p. 27.)
The provision of Article 3 of the said Treaty is nothing else but the

recapitulation of this already existing rule, the spirit and principle of
which are found amplified in the Court's decision and implemented in
conventions providing for the compulsory jurisdiction of international
tribunals.
Before examining the well-foundedness or otherwise of the fourth
preliminary objection, we must consider the relationship between two
concepts, namely exhaustion of local remedies in detail and denial of
justice, which is regarded as the main or central issue arising from the
alleged internationally wrongful acts imputed by the Belgian Govern-
ment to the Spanish authorities.
We cannot understand the position of the Court, which ordered the
joinder of the fourth preliminary objection to the merits, without con-
sidering the relationship of the exhaustion of local remedies to denial
of Justice.
The Court decided as follows:

"As regards the fourth Preliminary Objection, the foregoing
considerations apply a fortiori for the purpose of requiring it to
be joined to the merits; for this is not a case where the allegation
of failure to exhaust local remedies stands out as a clear-cut issue
of a preliminary character that can be determined on its own. It is
inextricably interwoven with the issues of denial of justice which
constitute the major part of the merits. The objection of the Re-
spondent that local remedieswere not exhausted is met al1along the
line by the Applicant's contention that it was, inter alia, precisely
in the attempt to exhaust local remedies that the alleged denials of
justice were suffered."BarcelonaTraction,Light andPower Company
Limited, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, Z.C.J. Reports 1964,
p. 46.) Therefore, before deciding whether the fourth preliminary objection
isto be upheld or not, we shall make some observations on the compli-
cated relationship existing between the exhaustion of local remedies and
the denial of justice.
There can be no doubt that the local remedies rule possesses a proce-
dura1 character in that itrequires the person who isto be protected by his
government to exhaust local remedies which are available to him in the
State concerned, before his government espouses the claim before an
international tribunal.
What is the raison d'êtreof this rule?
In the first place, the consecutive existence of two procedures-mu-
nicipal and international-would guarantee and promote the justness
of a decision. (It goes without saying that the procedure of an inter-
national tribunal is not comparable to that of, for instance, the Cour
de Cassation.)

Secondly, so long as local remedies are not exhausted, and some
other remedies remain, the condition is not fulfilled. The exhaustion
means the existence of a "judgment with final effect" or analogous
circumstances. In such situation recourse to international remedies will
be justified.
Thirdly, this procedural rule appears to express a higher conception
of equilibrium or harmony between national and international require-
ments in the world community. The intention of this rule is explained as
follows by Professor Charles De Visscher: "Il s'agit donc ici avant tout
d'une règle de procédure propre a réaliser uncertain équilibre entre la
souveraineté de 1'Etat recherché et, d'autre part, les exigences supé-
rieures du droit international ..." ("Le déni dejustice en droit interna-
tional", 52 Académiede droit international, Recueil des cours, 1935, II,
p. 423), or, as Judge Cordova said:

"The main reason for its existence lies in the indispensable necessity
to harmonize the international and the national jurisdictions-
assuring in this way the respect due to the sovereign jurisdiction
of States-by which nationals and foreigners have to abide and to
the diplomatic protection of the Governments to which only foreign-
ers are entitled" (separate opinion, Iriterlzandel,Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1959, p. 45).

The procedural requirement of the exhaustion of local remedies
presupposes the existence of a high degree of confidence by the claimant
in the judicial system and in its application, and this constitutes one
of the fundamental conditions to be fulfilled in the matter of the exhaus-
tion of remedies in the State concerned. Next, we shall consider the concept of denial of justice.
Although the exhaustion of local remedies belongs to the plane of
procedural law, denial of justice belongs to the plane of substantive
law. In the present case, the latter constitutes the fundamental concept

applied to al1the allegedly internationally wrongful acts imputed by the
Belgian Government to the Spanish authorities. The former, on the
contrary, is nothing other than a condition for the obtaining of repara-
tion for the damage suffered by the Barcelona Traction Company'~
shareholders through denial ofjustice.
We shall examine, in the first place, the concept of denial of justice,
and next the logical relationship between this latter and the local remedies
rule.
The term "denial ofjustice7'in its loose sense means any international
delinquency towards an alien for which a State is liable to make repara-
tion. Itdenotes in its ordinary meaning an injury involving the responsi-
bility of the State committed by a court of justice. As far as acts of a
court which would involve the State in responsibility are concerned, a
very narrow interpretation practically does not admit the existence of a
denial where decisions of any kind given by a court are involved, but
seeks to limit the application of this institution to the case of the denial

to foreigners of access to the courts. This view would virtually mean by
denial the exclusion of foreigners from al1 actions instituted in courts
of law; therefore this concept cannot be accepted. Another more mod-
erate and generally approved view which can be considered as acceptable
is thatdenial ofjustice occurs in the case of such acts as-
"corruption, threats, unwarrantable delay, flagrant abuse ofjudicial
procedure, a judgment dictated by the executive, or so manifestly
unjust that no court which was both competent and honest could

have given it, ... But no merely erroneous or even unjust judgment
of a court will constitute a denial of justice,...". (Brierly-Waldock,
The Law of Nations, 6th ed., 1963,p. 287; see also Sir Gerald Fitz-
maurice, "The meaning of the term 'denial of justice' ", British
Year Book of InternationalLaw, 1932,p. 93.)

Now we shali consider the logical relationship between the two con-
cepts: exhaustion of local remedies and denial of justice, and proceed
to examine the admissibility of the fourth preliminary objection.
As we have seen above. the exhaustion of local remedies is a condition
of a procedural nature, which is imposed on an individual whose interests
his national State wants to protect by international proceedings. But to
be able to fulfil this condition there must exist in the State concerned a
judicial situation such as to make the realization of exhaustion possible.
Consequently, we must recognize that some cases constitute exceptionsin regard to the application of the local remedies rule. Instances of such
cases are given in the following passage:

"La réclamation internationale n'est pas subordonnée à I'épuise-
ment préalable des recours quand ceux-ci sont absents, inadéquats
ou a priori inefficaces.Il en est ainsi quand l'organisation judiciaire
de 1'Etat ne fournit aucune voie légalement organisée, quand les
voies légalesn'ouvrent auxintéressésaucune perspective raisonnable
de succès, ou enfin quand, au cours mêmede la procédure, le
plaideur étranger est victime de lenteurs ou d'obstructions équiva-
lant à un refus de statuer et qui l'autorisentà abandonner une voie
qui se révèlesans issue." (Charles De Visscher, op. cit., pp. 423-424.)

Under these circumstances respect for and confidence in the sovereign
jurisdiction of States which, as indicated above, constitute the raison
d'être of the local remedies rule, do not exist. The rule does not seem to
require from those concerned a clearly futile and pointless activity, or a
repetition of what has been done in vain.

It is said that "a claimant cannot be required to exhaust justice in a
State when there is no justice to exhaust" (Charles De Visscher, op. cit.,
p. 424); and again "A claimant in a foreign State is not required to
exhaust justice in such State when there is no justice to exhaust". (State-
ment by Mr. Fish, Secretary of State, quoted in Moore, International
Law Digest, Vol. VI, 1906,p. 677.)If astate of denial ofjustice prevails in

the country concerned, there can be no possibility of exhausting local
remedies. In the above-mentioned extreme cases, it is impossible for the
interested parties to comply with the condition concerning the exhaustion
of local remedies; accordingly this condition must be dispensed with
for them.
We must limit the application of the local remedies rule to cases and
circumstances where its fulfilment is possible. Thus it may be said that
this rule is not of an absolute character in its application.
In the light of theabove considerations, we shall examine whether the
exhaustion of local remedies can be required from the Belgian Govern-
ment and whether in the case of an affirmative answerithas been observed
or not.
Itis clear that the claim put forward by the Belgian Government is
based onthe alleged internationally wrongful acts imputed to the Spanish

Government and that these acts are characterized globally as a denial
of justice.
According to the Belgian Application (paragraph 43) they-
"relate to a whole series of positive measures, acts or omissions
which are often contradictory, which overlap and are interrelated,
and of which the unlawful character from the point of view of the
law of nations is seen particularly in the final result to which they
have led". The Belgian Government classifies these measures, acts and omissions
into administrative measures manifestly arbitrary or discriminatory, and
conduct on the part of the courts revealing a lack of impartiality, con-
tempt for the principle of the equality of parties before the court, and
other defects amounting to a denial of justice from the point of view of
international law. As to the conduct of the courts, the Belgian Govern-
ment contends that a large number of decisions of the Spanish courts
are vitiated by gross and manifest error in the application of Spanish
law, arbitrariness or discrimination in international law, denials of
justice lato sensu. Furthermore, the Belgian Government contends
that in the course of the bankruptcy proceedings the rights of the
defence were seriously disregarded (denials of justice stricto sensu).
(Final submissions of the Government of Belgium filed on 14 July

1969.)
In sum, the claim of the Belgian Government is based on the alleged
denials of justice, sensu stricto asell as sensu lato, committed by the
Spanish authorities in regard to the Barcelona Traction Company and
others concerned. In the circumstances of the present case, however,
we cannot recognize that so serious a situation of denial of justice has
in general prevailed that the interested party should be exempted from
the obligation to exhaust local remedies. But concerning this particular
case it is conceivable that, from the Applicant's viewpoint, the conten-
tion of the alleged denial of justice would imply the uselessness of the
exhaustion of local remedies.
If the facts of collusion and connivance of the Spanish courts or
judges with theMarchgroup really existed in dealingwith the proceedings
of the Barcelona Traction bankruptcy case, as contended by the Belgian
Government in the written and oral pleadings, we can conclude with
reason that, under such circumstances, to expect a successful outcome
of the exhaustion of local remedies by those concerned would be simple

nonsense.
The two concepts-exhaustion of local remedies and a denial of
justice-are in contradiction so far as the latters meant in sensu stricto.
The former is based on a positive viewpoint, namely the expectation of
the realization of a certain result by the courts; the latter on a negative
viewpoint, namely its renouncement.

Hypothetically, if a denial of justice really existed, there would be
justification for believing that the local remediesle would have become
useless to that extent, as in the case of lack of an appropriate legal and
judicial system and organization.
Briefly, in the concept of a denial of justice there seems to be inherent
the contradiction of denying the possibility of the fulfilment of the ex-
haustion of local remedies. It seems that, in a case where the "original
wrong" consists in a denial of justice, the fulfilment of the exhaustionof local remedies cannot be expected, unlike the case of other interna-
tionally wrongful acts (for instance, murder, confiscation of property,
etc.) where independent fulfilment of the exhaustion rule can be required.

If there is an element in the denial of justice which makes the ful-
filment of the exhaustion rule impossible, then the Belgian Government
would be dispensed to that extent from the observance of this rule.
Despite the contentions by the Belgian Government concerning alleged
facts of a denial of justice in the bankruptcy proceedings against the
Barcelona Traction Company, the Belgian Government does not insist
that "there is no justice to exhaust" in Spain and that Belgium should
exceptionally be exempt from the obligation to exhaust local remedies.
The Belgian Government does not contend that the Spanish judiciary as

a whole is paralyzed and corrupt or that the fulfilment of the exhaustion
rule is impossible; its complaints are concerned only with some of the
judges and courts.

Now let us seewhether the obligation of exhaustion of local remedies
was fulfilled by the Barcelona Traction Company and those concerned.

First, we must consider what kind of remedies should be exercised
and to what degree these remedies have been pursued. Owing to the
highly complicated structure and proceedings of this dispute, it is ex-
tremely difficult to answer these questions. Everything depends on the
circumstances ofthe caseand the issuesand, in particular, on theeffective-
ness of the available remedies (such as revision by the supreme court).
Sometimes, complication arises from a difference of interpretation of
law between the Parties. For instance, the Spanish Government insists

that, as a result of the Barcelona Traction Company's failure to observe
the time-limit of eight days for a plea of opposition to the Reus judg-
ment of 12February 1948,the case became res judicata and, consequent-
ly, al1actions of the Barcelona Traction Company and its subsidiaries
should be nul1 and void. The Belgian Government, on the contrary,
basing itself on the nullity of the publication in Spain of the judgrnent,
argues that the time-limit of eight days did not begin to run and there-
fore it did not expire. If the former argument is right, the Barcelona
Traction Company and its subsidiaries would lose the means of redress
by becoming unable to exhaust local remedies, the result of which would
be highly inequitable.

We are led to the conclusion that in the matter of the exhaustion of
local remediesthe samespirit of flexibilityshould existwhich, as indicated
in another context, prevails in matters of diplomaticprotection ingeneral.
If weinterpreted the provision of Article 3 of the Treaty of Conciliation, Judicial Settlement and Arbitration of 1927and the customary interna-
tional rule on the matter of local remedies too strictly, possible minor
errors in the technical sense would cause those concerned to be deprived
of the benefit of diplomatic protection, particularly in such an affair as
the Barcelona Traction case the complexity and extensiveness of which,
from the substantive and procedural viewpoints, appear to be extremely
rare in the annals of judicial history.

The guiding principle for resolving thequestionsconcerning exhaustion
of local remedies should be the spirit of diplomatic protection according
to which, in addition to a juristic, technical construction, praciical
considerations led by common sense should prevail. The decision as to
whether legal measures offer any reasonable perspective of success or not,
should be flexible in accordance with the spirit of diplomatic protection.
Even if, for instance, institutionally an administrative or judicial remedy

exists whereby an appeal may be made to higher authority, this remedy
may be ignored without being detrimental to the right of diplomatic
protection, ifuch an appeal would be ineffectivefromthe point of viewof
common sense.

From what has been said above, "exhaustion" can be seen to be a
matter of degree. Minor omissions should not be imputed to the negli-
gence of those concerned. It is sufficient that the main means of redress
be taken into consideration. The rule of exhaustion does not demand
from those concerned what is impossible or ineffective but only what is
required by common sense, namely "the diligence of a bonus pater-
familias".

Next, let us enumerate some of the main measures alleged to have been

taken by the Barcelona Traction Company and those concerned (ac-
cording to the final submissions filed on 14July 1969by the Government
of Belgium, Section VII).
(1) Concerning the Reus court's lack of jurisdiction to declare the
bankruptcy of Barcelona Traction :

opposition proceeding of 18June 1948;
application of 5 July 1948(for a declaration of nullity); its pleading
of 3 September 1948;
a forma1motion of National Trust in itsapplication of 27 November
1948 ;
Barcelona Traction Company entered an appearance (23 April 1949)
in the proceedings concerning the Boter declinatoria; its forma1
adherence to that declinatoria (1 1April 1953). (2)Concerningthe bankruptcy judgment and the related decisions:

application of 16 February 1948on the part of the subsidiary com-
panies, Ebro and Barcelonesa to have the bankruptcy judgment set
aside;
the bankrupt Companyitself entered opposition to the judgment by a
procedural document of 18 June 1948, confirmed on 3 September
1948 ;
incidental application for a declaration of nullity submitted by the
Barcelona Traction Company (5 July 1948).
(3) Concerning the blocking of the remedies:

numerous proceedings taken by the Barcelona Traction Company,
beginning with the incidental application for a declaration of nullity
(5 July 1948).
(4) Concerning the failure t6 observe the no-action clause:
clause referred to by National Trust in its application for admission
to the proceedings (27 November 1948).

(5) Concerning the conditions of sale:
the conditions of sale were attacked by Barcelona Traction in an ap-
plication to setaside and on appeal, in an application of 27 December
1951for a declaration of nullity containing a forma1prayer that the
order approving the conditions of sale be declared nul1and void, and
in an application of 28 May 1955;

the same challenge was expressedby Sidro in its action of 7 February
1953and by other Belgian shareholders of the Barcelona Traction
Company in their application of 26 May 1955.
These facts which have not been contested by the Spanish Government
and whose existencemay be considered as being ofjudicial notice, prove
that the case was effectivelypursued before the Spanish courts or judges
and that local remedies were exhausted as a condition for diplomatic
protection by the Belgian Government.
Whether local remedies have been exhausted or not must be decided
from a consideration of whether the most fundamental spirit of this
institution has been observed or not. Now, this spirit, as is indicated
above, constitutes a means of ensuring the respect and confidence due to

the sovereign jurisdiction of a State. The important point is that this
spirit has been respected.
The aim of the rule of exhaustion of local remedies is a practical one
and its application should therefore be elastic. Each situation, being
different, requires different treatment. We must beware of the danger to
which this rule is exposed because of its procedural and technical nature,
lest it make necessary diplomatic protection futile by an excessive
raising of the objection of non-exhaustion.

Moreover, the fact that in this case, which was pending for more than 14 years, from 12 February 1948 (date of the bankruptcy judgrnent
against the Bjrcelona Traction Company by the Reus judge) to 14June
1962(date of the Application by the Belgian Governrnent), 2,736 orders
and 494 judgments by lower courts and 37 by higher courts had been
delivered, accordingto the Spanish Government. Even if these figuresare

not correct in everydetail, wecan none the lessrecognize from thern as a
whole the fact that the condition of exhaustion of local rernedies was
indeed satisfied by the Barcelona Traction Company or its subsidiary
cornpanies. Accordingly, the argument contrary thereto by the Spanish
Government is unfounded.
Therefore, the fourth preliminary objection raised by the Spanish
Government must be rejected.

The third and fourth preliminary objections having been decided in
favour of Belgium, wemust now consider a basic question on the merits,
namely whether Spain is responsible for internationally wrongful acts
allegedlycommitted by Spain which constitute "a denial ofjustice".
First it must be made clear that the charge of a denial of justice
imputed to Spain by the Belgian Government does not denote a very

narrow interpretation, namely the denial to foreigners of access to the
courts. What the Belgian Government contends is not only not limited to
a denial in such a forma1sense, but includes a denial ofjustice in a wider
material sense,in which, generallyspeaking,gross injustice, irregularities,
partiality, flagrant abuse ofjudicial powers, unwarranted delay, etc., are
included, as we indicated in another context.
The judgment of the Reus judge of 12 February 1948 declaring the
bankiuptcy of Barcelona Traction, its consequences and the successive
acts of the Spanish courts constitute the main complaints of the Belgian
Government. But the complaints include acts not only of a judicial
nature but also of an administrative nature, since it is alleged that some
acts and omissions of the Spanish administrative authorities, particularly
of the Institute of Foreign Exchange, had caused the adjudication in
bankruptcy of the Barcelona Traction Company.

From the lengthy arguments in the written and oral proceedings, we
can guess the existence of antagonism between the two economic and
financial groups: the one, the Mr. Juan March group and the other, the
Barcelona Traction group. Whilethe BelgianGovernment emphasizesthe

financial and political ambition and the collusion with the Spanish
administrative and juridical authorities ofthe former group, the Spanish
Government contends that there was abuse of the pyramidal structure of
the latter group and stresses the tax evasion and financial irregularitiescommitted by that group, such as the creation of fictitious debts and the
sacrifice of creditors by means of auto-contracts between Barcelona
Traction and its subsidiaries.
The Spanish Government contends that the Barcelona Traction Com-
pany had been constantly in a state of "latent bankruptcy" owing to its
financial methods detrimental to creditors and bondholders; the Belgian
Government on the contrary insists that the financial situation ofBarce-
lona Traction had been normal or evenprosperous exceptin the period of
the Spanish Civil War and the Second World War.
The Belgian Government also contends that individual judicial and
administrative measures which constitute separate subjects of complaint,
were combined into an integral whole to bring about the "hispaniciza-
tion" of a prosperous foreign enterprise. According to the Belgian
Government, the adjudication in bankruptcy of Barcelona Traction is
nothing other than the result of the machinations of Juan March in
collusion with Spanish judicial and administrative authorities. This is the

reason why the Belgian Government, alongside of individual complaints,
advanced an overall complaint which unites and integrates numerous
separate complaints.
The main complaintsput forward by the BelgianGovernment focus on
the irregularities allegedly committed by the Spanish courts in the
bankruptcy judgment and the judicial acts following this judgment.
These allegedirregularities are included in the concept of denial ofjustice
Zato sensuT .he usurpation of jurisdiction may come within denial of
justice in thii sense.
The usurpation of jurisdiction by the Spanish courts is alleged on the
ground that Barcelona Traction was a company under Canadian law
with its company seat in Canada, having neither company seat nor com-
mercial establishment in Spain, nor possessing any property or carrying
on any business there.
Also, disregard for the territorial limits of acts of sovereigntyispointed
out in the measures of enforcement taken in respect of property situated
outside Spanishterritory, without the concurrence of foreign authorities.
Furthermore, irregularities aresaid to have been committed byconferring

upon the bankruptcy authorities, through the device of "mediate and
constructive civil possession"-not physical possession-the power of
exercising in Spain the rights which attached to the shares located in
Canada of several subsidiary and sub-subsidiary companies and on
which, with the approval of the Spanish judicial authorities, they relied
for the purpose of replacing the directors of those companies, modifying
their articles of association, etc.
It is to be noted that Canada did not protest against the Spanish
Government's usurpation of Canadian jurisdiction which was alleged by
the Belgian Government.
As denials ofjustice latosenstuhe Belgian Government complains that
a large number of decisions made by the Spanish courts are vitiated bygross and manifest error in the application of Spanish law, by arbitrari-
ness or discrimination, in particular:

(1) flagrant breach of the provisions of Spanish law which do not permit
that a foreign debtor should be adjudged bankrupt if that debtor
does not have his domicile, or at least an establishment, in Spanish

territory;
(2) adjudication in bankruptcy when the company was not in a state of
insolvency,was not in a state of final, general and complete cessation
of payment either, and had not ceased its payments in Spain;

(3) the judgment of 12 February 1948failed to order the publication of
the bankruptcy by announcement in the place of domicile of the bank-
rupt, which constitutes a flagrant breach of Article 1044 (5) of the
1829Commercial Code ;
(4) the decisions failing to respect the separate estates of Barcelona
Traction's subsidiaries and sub-subsidiaries, in that they extended to
their property the attachment arising out of the bankruptcy of the
parent company, and thus disregarded their distinct juridical per-
sonalities;
(5) the judicial decisions which conferred on the bankruptcy authorities
the fictitious possession (termed"mediate and constructive civil pos-

session") of securities of certain subsidiary and sub-subsidiary
companies have no legal basis in Spanish bankruptcy law and were
purely arbitrary.
(Final Submissions filed on 14July 1969 bythe Agent of the Belgian
Government, Section III.)
There are other items which are concerned with the alleged violation of
the provisions on bankruptcy and which include among others: the
bestowal on the commissioner of power to proceed to the dismissal,

removal or appointment of members of the staff, employees and manage-
ment, of the companies al1 of whose shares belonged to Barcelona
Traction or one ofits subsidiaries;ignoringthe separate legalpersonalities
of the subsidiary and sub-subsidiary companies in the matter of the
attachment of their property in Spain; irregularities concerning the
convening of the general meeting of creditors of 19 September 1949;
violation of the provisions concerning the sale of the property of the
bankrupt company; authorization of the sale based on the allegedly
perishable nature of the property to be sold; in violation of the legal
provisions the commissioner fixed an exaggeratedly low upset price on
the basis of an expert's opinion submitted by one side only; numerous
irregularities in the General Conditions of Sale.
Next, the Belgian Government alleges that various denials of justice
stricto sensu (Final Submissions, Section IV) were committed by the
Reus court in the course of the bankrup'tcy proceedings, the Spanish courts disregarding the rights of the defence; in particular: insertion by
the Reus court in itsjudgrnent on an exparte petition of provisions which
wentfar beyond findingthepurported insolvencyof or a generalcessation
of payments by the bankrupt company (particularly in respect of the at-
tachment ofthe property ofthe subsidiarycompanies without their having

been sumrnonsed and without their having been adjudicated bankrupt) ;
the applications for relief presented by subsidiary companies directly
affected by the judgment of 12 February 1948were rejected as inadmis-
sible on the grounds of lack ofjus standi; it was impossible to develop or
argue the complaints against the General Conditions of Sale because the
order which had approved the General Conditions of Sale was regarded
as a matter of mere routine.
The Belgian Government considers that "many years elapsed after the
bankruptcy judgment and even after the ruinous sale of the property of
the Barcelona Traction group without either the bankrupt company or
those CO-interestedwith it having had an opportunity to be heard on the
numerous complaints put forward against the bankruptcy judgment and
related decisions in the opposition of 18June 1948and in various other
applications for relief". It continues that "those delayswerecaiisedbythe
motion to declinejurisdiction fraudulently lodged by a confederate of the
petitioners in bankruptcy and by incidental proceedings instituted by
other men of straw of the March group .. .".Furthermore, it concludes:

"that both general international law and the Spanish-Belgian Treaty of
1927regard such delays as equivalent to the denial of a hearing".

From what we have seen above, we can recognize that the alleged
ground for complaint on the merits consists essentially of a denial of
justice for which the Belgian Government blamed the Spanish State. It is
one of the casesin which a State may incur responsibility through the act
or omission of any of its organs (legislative,administrative, or judicial).
But whether a State incurs responsibility or not depends on the concrete
circumstances of each case; in particular, the characteristics of the three
kinds of State activities-legislative, administrative and judicial-must
be taken into consideration. Mechanical, uniform treatment must be
avoided.
The case before the Court is concerned mainly with the acts and
omissions of somejudicial organs, particularly of the Spanish judges and

courts, which, the Belgian Government alleges, constitute denials of
justice.
Whether the above-mentioned acts and omissionsallegedlyconstituting
denials ofjustice would entai1international responsibilitiesas constituting
infringements of international law, must of course be decided from the
nature of each act and omission in question; but we must consider also the characteristics of the judicial function of a State as a whole and the
judiciary in relation to the executive in particular.

One of the most important political and legal characteristics of a
modern State is the principle ofjudicial independence. The independence
of the judiciary in aformal sense means the guarantee of the position of
judges, and in a material sense it means that judges are not bound except
by their conscience.
Although judges possess the status of civil servants, they do not belong
to the ordinary hierarchy of government officials with superior-subordi-
nate relationships. They are not submitted to ordinary disciplinary rules,
but to rules suigeneris.
As to the institutional independence of courts as a whole, differences
exist among various countries. In the first category of countries a system
isadopted whereby the highest court or the lower courts, or both, have
conferred upon them the power of judicial review, namely the power to
pass judgment on the constitutionality of laws, ordinances and official
acts. In these countries, as a corollary of this system, the independence of
courts and judges vis-à-vis the government is outstanding. But in other

countries where the whole body of courts and judges is under the author-
ity of the Minister of Justice who is a member of the Cabinet, this does
not seem to create much difference, so far as judicial independence is
concerned, from the former group of countries. What is required from
judges byjudicial ethics does not differ in the two systems.

The judicial independence of courts and judges must be safeguarded
not only from other branches of the government, that is to say, the
political and administrative power, but also from any other external
power, for instance, political parties, trade unions, mass media and
public opinion. Furthermore, independence must be defended as against
various courts and as between judges. Courts of higher instance and
judges of these courts do not function as superiors exercising the power of
supervision and control in the ordinary sense of the term vis-à-vis courts
of lower instance and their judges.

This is a particularity which distinguishes the judiciary from other
branches of government. Thisdistinction, weconsider, seemsto bederived,
on the one hand, from consideration of the social significance of the
judiciary for the settlement of conflicts of vital interest as an impartial
third party and, on the other hand, from the extremely scientific and
technical nature of judicial questions, the solution of which requires the
most highly conscientious activities of specially educated and trained
experts. The independence of the judiciary, therefore, despite the exis-
tence of differences in degree between various legal systems, may be
considered as a universally recognized principle in most of the municipal
and international legal systems of the world. It may be admitted to be a "general principle of law recognized by civilized nations" (Article 38,
paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute).
The above-mentioned principle ofjudicial independence has important
repercussions in dealing with the question of the responsibility of States
for acts of their organs internally as well as internationally.

In the field of municipal law, wehave, in the matter of responsibility of
States for acts of their judiciary, the following information furnished by
the Max-Planck Institute in Hafung des Staates für rechtswidriges
Verhalten seiner Organe, 1967. So far as the judiciary is concerned, it
concludes :

"In the overwhelming majority of the legal systems investigated,
the State is not liable for the conduct of its judicial organs." (Op.
cit., p. 773.)

In addition, it must be pointed out that those countries exceptionally
recognizing State responsibility limit its application to criminal matters
under specificcircumstances (in particular, the compensation of innocent
persons who have been held in custody).
As to the international sphere, an analogous principle exists. Unlike
internationally injurious acts committed by administrative officiais, a
State is, in principle, not responsible forthose acts committed byjudicial
functionaries (mainlyjudges) in their officia1capacity. The reason for this
is found in the fact that in modern civilized countries they are almost
entirely independent of their government.

We shall take into account the above-mentioned characteristics of the
judiciary to resolve the question of whether the Spanish State incurs
responsibility by reason of alleged internationally wrongful acts and
omissions of the Spanish courts and judges, because their activities

constitute the main grounds for the complaints which are presented as
charges of denials of justice.
The question may be whether the acts and omissions mentioned here
(in the final submissions) really constitute an international wrong for
which the Spanish State is responsible for reparation in respect of the
damage.
If judicial organs function quite independently of the government, it
may be impossible for a State to incur responsibility by reason of any
judicial act or omission on the municipal as well as on the international
plane. But, in the case of some serious mistakes injudicial actions,a State
is made responsible, by special legislativemeasures, for the reparation of
damage; grave irregularities committed by the municipal judiciary may
involve a State's responsibility on the plane of international law.

In short, on the one hand, a State by reason of the independence of thejudiciary, in principle, is immune from responsibility concerning the
activities ofjudicial organs; this immunity, on the other hand, is not of an
absolute nature. In certain cases the State is responsible for the acts and
omissions of judicial organs, namely in cases where grave circumstances
exist. That is the reason why denial ofjustice is discussed by writers as a
matter involving a State's responsibility.
The concept of a denial of justice, understood in the proper sense, is
that of an injury committed by a court of justice involving the respon-
sibility of the State. difference of views-narrower and broader inter-
pretations-exists concerning acts of this kind, as we have seen in other
contexts. The view which we consider as acceptable is the broader one,
which covers cases of denial of justice, such as "corruption, threats, un-
warrantable delay, flagrant abuse of judicial procedure, a judgment
dictated bythe executive,or so manifestly unjust that no court which was

both competent and honest could have given it". But from the latter
viewpoint, as a principle, no erroneous or even unjust judgment of a
court will constitute a denial of justice.
Justification forthis interpretation can be found in the independence
of the judiciary (Oppenheim-Lauterpacht, International Law, Vol. 1,
8th ed., 1955,p. 360). Brierly-Waldock says:
"It will be observed that even on the wider interpretation of the
term 'denial of justice' which is here adopted, the misconduct must

be extremely gross. The justification of this strictness is that the
independence of courts is an accepted canon of decent government,
and the law therefore does not lightly hold a state responsible for
their faults. It follows that an allegation of a denial of justice is a
serious step which States ... are reluctant to take-when a claim can
be based on other grounds." (Op. ci?.p. 287.)

Next, we shall consider the content and character of a denial ofjustice
allegedly committed by the Spanish judicial authorities.
It is to be noted that the various complaints raised by the Belgian
Government are mainly concerned with the interpretation of municipal
law, namely provisions of the Spanish commercial code and civil pro-
cedure code in the matter of bankruptcy, and provisions of Spanish
private international law on thejurisdiction of Spanish Courts concerning
bankruptcy. Questions relating to these matters are of an extremely
complicated and technical nature: they are highly controversial and it is
not easy to decide which solution is right and which wrong. Even if one
correct solution could be reached, and if other contrary solutions could
be decided to be wrong, we cannot assert that incorrect decisions con-
stitute in themselves a denial ofjustice and involve international respon-
sibility.
For instance, the attachment of the property of the subsidiary com- panies by the Reusjudge in disregard of theirjuridical personalities and
relying on the doctrine of "piercing the veil", even if it might be deemed
illegal, could not be recognized as a denial ofjustice. As a legal question,
this issue involves an element similar to the question of whether the
Belgian Government can base itsjus standfi or the purpose of the diplo-
matic protection of Belgian shareholders on the doctrine of "piercing
the veil". The controversies concerning the alleged failure to order the
publication of the bankruptcy in the place of domicile of the bankrupt
and the validity of decisions failing to respect the separate estates of
Barcelona Traction's subsidiary and sub-subsidiary companies or con-

ferring on the bankruptcy authorities the fictitious possession (termed
"mediate and constructive civil possession") of securities of certain
subsidiary and sub-subsidiarycompanies,should be considered in them-
selves irrelevant to the question of the existenceof a denial ofjustice also.
These questions which are concerned with the interpretation of the
positive law of a State and which are of a technical nature, cannot in
themselves involve an important element which constitutes a denial of
justice. Questions of the kind mentioned above may constitute at least
"erroneous or unjust judgment" but cannot come within the scope of
a charge of denial ofjustice.
The same can be said concerningthe validity of the bankruptcy judg-
ment from the viewpoint of the existence or non-existence of a cessation
of payments or a state of insolvency. Even if any error in fact-finding or
in the interpretation and application of provisions concerningbankruptcy
exists, it would not constitute in itself a denial of justice.

The question of valuation of the property of the Barcelona Traction

Company as a going concern is a very complicated matter; various
methods are conceivable, diverse proposals have been made and experts'
opinions are divided. It is difficult toonclude that one method is abso-
lutely right and the other wrong and, therefore, that a judge by adopting
one alternative instead of the other would commit a denial ofjustice.
Arguments developed on the question as to whether the rights in-
corporated in negotiable securities may be exercised without possession
of the securities, in other words on the question of the temporal separa-
bility or non-separability of right and instrumentasregardstheshare may
be considered to have no relevance to the question of a denial ofjustice.
The innumerable controversies concerning the details of the bank-
ruptcy proceedings may aIso be considered as possessing no relevance
from this point of view.
In short, since these issues are of a technical nature, the possible error
committed by judges in their decisions cannot involve the responsibility
of a State. That the above-mentioned doctrine precludes such an error
from being a constituent element in a denial ofjustice as aninternationally

wrongful act is not difficultto understand from the other viewpointsalso.
The reason for this is that these issues are of a municipal law nature and therefore their interpretation does not belong to the realm of international
law. If an international tribunal were to take upthese issuesand examine
the regularity of the decisions of municipal courts, the international
tribunal would turn out to be a "cour de cassation", the highest court in
the municipal law system. An international tribunal, on the contrary,
belongs to quite a different order; it is called upon to deal with inter-
national affairs, not municipal affairs. Now, as we have seen above, the
actions and omissions complained of by the Belgian Government, so far

as they are concerned with incorrectness of interpretation and application
of municipal law, cannot constitute a denial ofjustice. This means that in
itself the incorrectness of a judgment of a municipal court does not have
an international character.
A judgment of a municipal court which gives rise to the responsibility
of a State by a denial of justice does have an international character
when, for instance, a court, having occasion to apply some rule of inter-
national law, gives an incorrect interpretation of that law or applies a
rule of domestic law which is itselfcontrary to international law (Brierly-
Waldock, op. cit., p. 287). Apart from such exceptionally serious cases,
erroneous and unjust decisions of a court, in general, must be excluded
from the concept of a denial ofjustice.

Now, excluding allegedlyerroneous or unjust decisions of the Spanish
judiciary as constituent elements of a denial of justice, it remains to ex-
amine whether behind the alleged errors and irregularities of the Spanish

judiciary some grave circumstances do not exist which may justify the
charge of a denial of justice. Conspicuous examples thereof would be
"corruption, threats, unwarrantable delay, flagrant abuse of judicial
procedure, a judgment dictated by the executive, or so manifestly unjust
that no court which was both competent and honest could have givenit",
which were quoted above. We may sumup these circumstances under the
single head of "bad faith".
Two questions arise. Does the Belgian Government contend that there
existed such circumstances as bad faith in order to justify its complaints
based on a denial ofjustice? If this question isansweredinthe affirmative,
has the existence of aggravating facts been sufficientlyproved?
Here wemust beaware that weare confronted with questions belonging
to a dimension entirely different to the one which we have dealt with
above: it is not a municipal or legal-technical, but an international and
moral dimension. An ethical valuation of the conduct of national judicial
organs has been introduced. It is not the correctness or incorrectness of
the interpretation or application of the positive law of a country which is
in question, but the conduct ofjudicial organs as a whole which must be

evaluated from supra-positive, transnational viewpoints(Philip C. Jessup,
Transnational Law, 1956). We would Say that we should consider thematter from the viewpoint of natural law which is supra-national and

universal. An ethical valuation such as a condemnation for bad faith,
abuse of powers or rights, etc., would become a connectinglink between
municipal and international law and the twojurisdictions-municipal and
international-in respect of a denial of justice, and would cause the
alleged acts to involve responsibility on the plane of international law.

It is true that the Belgian Government maintains the existence of bad
faith in actions and omissions of.the Spanish judiciary. However, most
of its arguments concentrate on pointing out the simple irregularities
in each measure. As stated above, this does not differ very much from
controversies concerning the interpretation and application of Spanish
bankruptcy law-matters which in themselvescannot justify the existence
of bad faith on the part of the Spanishjudiciary.

Althoughthe BelgianGovernment insists on the existence of bad faith
on the part of the Spanishjudiciary and puts forward someevidence con-
cerning the persona1relationship of Mr. Juan March and his group with
some governmental personalities, the use of henchmen in instituting and
promoting bankruptcy proceedings, etc., we remain unconvinced of the
existence of bad faith on the part of Spanish administrative and judicial
authorities. What the Belgian Government alleges for the purpose of
evidencingthe bad faith of the Spanishjudges concerned does not go very
much beyond surrounding circumstances; it does not rely on objective
facts constituting collusion, corruption, flagrant abuse of judicial pro-
cedure by the Spanishjudiciary, etc. If corruption of a judge were con-
sidered to have been committed, the Barcelona Traction Company and
its group should have had recourse to the measure of revision and, if it
was upheld, the fact of proving a denial of justice in the present case
could have been established.
Despite this, the Belgian Government did not choose this measure.

Instead of producing concrete objective facts to evidence the bad faith
of the Spanish authorities, the Belgian Government put forward an
"overall complaint" consisting of an agglomeration of circumstances
which do not appear to be relevant to the issue.The relyingupon such an
"overall complaint" would mean in itself a weakness in the standpoint of
the Belgian side, and it would have no reinforcing or supplementing effect
on the cause of the latter.
We consider that aggravating facts, namely those of bad faith, have
not been sufficientlyproved.
It is not an easymatter to prove the existence of bad faith, because it is
concerned with a matter belonging to the inner psychological process,
particularly in a case concerning adecision by a State organ.
Bad faith cannot be presumed. It is an extremely serious matter to make a charge of a denial ofjustice

vis-à-vis a State. It involves not only the imputation of a lower inter-
national standard to the judiciary of the State concerned but a moral
condemnation of that judiciary. As a result, the allegation of a denial of
justice is considered to be a grave charge which States are not inclined to
make if some other formulation is possible.
In short, for the reasons indicated above, the Belgian allegation that
Spain violated an international obligation and incurred responsibility
vis-à-vis Belgium is without foundation. Therefore, the Belgian Govern-
ment's claims must be dismissed.

(Signed) Kotaro TANAKA.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TANAKA

Although 1 subscribe to the Court's conclusion in dismissing the
Belgianclaimthat Spainviolated an international obligation and incurred
responsibility vis-à-vis Belgium, 1 regret to have to say that my view
differs from that of the Court in its reasoning. The majority opinion

reached its conclusion bydecidingthe question ofthejus standiof Belgium
in the negative, i.e., by upholding the third preliminary objection of the
Spanish Government, whereas my position would be to proceed to
examine the question of the merits after the third and fourth (non-
exhaustion of local remedies) preliminary objections. An examination of
the merits, however, leads to the same result as that reached by the
majority opinion, namely the dismissal of the Belgian claim.
Such preliminary remarks are made necessary in order to determine
the scope and limit of individual, separate or dissenting opinions. By
reason of the complexity of the instant case, we are confronted with a
need to make judges' rights, as provided by Article 57 of the Statute,
clearer.
A question may arise as to whetherjudges' opinions should be limited
to those matters which have been dealt with in the majority opinion or
whether they are not subject to some limitation.
Here, 1do not go deeper into the study of this question. 1simplywish
to say that my viewfavours a liberal attitude which would not allow any

limitation to be imposed onjudges' statements,other than considerations
of decency.
That this issue was taken up in some of the opinions of judges in the
Judgment of the South West Africa case (South West Africa, Second
Phase,Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966) is still vivid in Ourmemory. So far
as thedetail isconcerned I should liketo referto a declaration ofPresident
Sir Percy Spender (ibid., pp. 51 ff.) representing a restrictive theory and
my contrary viewon this issueas stated in myopinion (ibid.,pp. 262-263),
appended to that Judgment.
For the above-mentioned reason my following statement is not obliged
to remain within the framework of the majority opinion. 1feelthat I must
follow a logical process of my own which, according to my conscience,
I believeto bejust. If the question of Belgium'sjus standiisresolved in the
affirmative,the question of the exhaustion oflocal remedieswillremain to
be examined. If given an affirmative answer, then the question on the OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. TANAKA

[Traduction]

Bien que je souscriveà la conclusion de la Cour, tendant à rejeter la
thèse belge selon laquelle l'Espagne est responsable, à l'égard de la
Belgique,de la violation d'uneobligation internationale, je regrette de de-
voir dire que mon raisonnement ne coïncide pas avec le sien. La majo-
rité a tranchépar la négativela question de la qualitépour agir de la
Belgique; en d'autres termes elle a retenu la troisième exception préli-
minaire du Gouvernement espagnol. Je procéderai différemment:après
avoir étudiéla troisième et la quatrième exception préliminaire (cette
dernièreconcernant lenon-épuisement desrecours internes)je mepropose
d'examiner lefond. J'aboutis néanmoins,par cette voie, au même ré-
sultat que la majorité,savoir le rejet de la demande belge.

La nécessitéde déterminerla portée et les limites qui peuvent être
assignéesaux opinions individuelles ou dissidentes m'amène à présenter
ces observations liminaires. La présente affaire,par sa complexité,nous
obligeen effetà préciserlesdroits que l'article 57du Statut reconnaît aux
juges.
On peut se demander si les opinions des juges ne doivent porter que
sur les questions qui ont retenu l'attention de la majoritéou si, au con-
traire, elles ne sont soumises aucune limitation.
Sans vouloir ici examiner la questionfond, je me borneraià indiquer
que je suis partisan d'une attitude libérale,qui ne tende imposer aux
déclarationsdes juges d'autres limites que celles de la modération.

Il est encore présentà tous les esprits que ce problème a été évoqué
dans certaines opinions lors de l'affaire du Sud-Ouest africain (deuxième
phase, arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1966). Je voudrais renvoyer en particulier
à la déclarationdu Président sirPercy Spender (ibid.,p. 51 et suiv.), qui
représentel'attitude restrictive, et aux vues contraires que j'ai formulées
dans mon opinion (ibid., p. 262-263), annexée à cet arrêt.

Pour les raisons auxquelles je viens de faire allusion, je ne me sens
pas tenu, en présentant la présente opinion, de rester dans les limites
fixéespar la position de la majorité.J'estime devoir suivrelecheminement
logique qui m'est propre et qu'en conscienceje crois juste. Si la question
de la qualitépour agir de la Belgique est résoluepar l'affirmative,celle

de l'épuisement desrecours internes reste à examiner. Si là encore onmerits, namely the denial of justice allegedly committed by the Spanish
authorities vis-à-visthe Barcelona Traction Company and its subsidiaries
should be taken up. This logical process cannot be interrupted in the
middle.

The Judgment of 24 July 1964rejected the first and second preliminary
objections and joined the third and fourth preliminary objections to the
merits.
Considering that the joinder of thesetwo preliminary objections would
not cause them to lose their preliminary character, wemust first deal with
these objections before examining questions relating to the merits, though
bearing the latter in mind.
We shall begin with the third preliminary objection.
The object of the Belgian Government's Application of 14June 1962
is reparation for the damage allegedly caused to a certain number of its

nationals, includingjuridical persons, in their capacity as shareholders of
the Barcelona Traction Company, by the conduct, allegedly contrary to
international law, of various organs of the Spanish State toward that
company and various other companies in its group.

The Spanish Government, on the other hand, denies by the third
prelirninary objection that the Belgian Government possesses jus standi
either forthe protection of the Barcelona Traction Company of Canadian
nationality (Application filedon 23 September 1958)or for the protection
of alleged Belgian"shareholders" of that company (present case).
The third preliminary objection involves questions of both law and
fact.The question of law, which is a most important one in deciding this
case, is concerned with whether a Statehas a right to protect its nationals
who are shareholders in a company of a nationality other than that of the
protecting State. More concretely, the question may be formulated as
follows: has the Belgian Government jus standi to protect its nationals,
namely Sidro and others, who are shareholders in the Canadian Barcelona
Traction Company?

Within the framework of diplomatic protection, the third preliminary
objection involves other issues concerning protégés, inparticurar the
question of the nationality of shareholders, their identification and the
question concerning the separation of legal and beneficial owner-which
of them is to be treated as the true shareholder from the viewpoint of
diplomatic protection?-in shareholding, which also involves a legal
question.
First, let useal with the question concerning the diplomaticprotection
of shareholders in a company of a nationality other than that of the pro-
tecting state. Assuredlyit constitutesa mostfundamental question under-
lying the third preliminary objection and is logicallyprior to other ques-écartel'exception, il faut alors considérer le fond, à savoir la question
du déni de justicequ'auraient commis les autorités espagnoles a l'égard
de la sociétéBarcelona Traction et de ses filiales. Ce processus logique
ne peut être interrompu à mi-chemin.

Par son arrêt du 24 juillet 1964, la Cour a rejeté les première et

deuxièmeexceptions préliminaireset joint au fondla troisièmeet la qua-
trième.
La jonction au fond de ces deux exceptions ne leur ôtant pas leur ca-
ractère préliminaire, nous devons les examiner en premier lieu avant
d'aborder les questions de fond, mais sans perdre de vue ces dernières.

Nous commencerons par la troisikme exception.
Par sa requête du 14 juin 1962, le Gouvernement belge demande
réparation du dommage qu'auraient subi un certain nombre de ses na-
tionaux, y compris des personnes morales, en leur qualité d'actionnaires
de la sociétéBarcelona Traction, du fait du comportement prétendument
contraire au droit international de divers organes de 1'Etat espagnol

envers cette sociétéet diverses autres sociétésdu groupe auquel elle
appartient.
De son côté,le Gouvernement espagnol, dans la troisième exception
préliminaire, refuse au Gouvernement belge qualité pour agir, que ce
soit pour protéger la société BarcelonaTraction, qui est de nationalité
canadienne (requêtedu 23 septembre 1958), ou pour protéger des (ac-
tionnaires »belges de ladite société (présenteinstance).
La troisième exception préliminaire soulève à la fois des questions
de droit et des questions de fait. La questionjuridique qui a leplusd'im-
or tanceDour la décisionde la Cour consiste à déterminer si un Etat
a le droit de protéger ses nationaux actionnaires d'une sociétéqui est
ressortissante d'un autre Etat. Plus concrètement, la question peut

s'énoncer commesuit: le Gouvernement belge a-t-il qualité pour pro-
téger des nationaux actionnaires de la sociétécanadienne Barcelona
Traction, en particulier la société Sidro?
Sur le plan de la protection diplomatique, cette troisième exception
préliminaire soulève d'autres questions concernant les personnes pro-
tégées,notamment celles de la nationalité des actionnaires, de leur
identité,et de la distinction entre lesegalownerset les benejîcialowners
des actions (lesquels faut-il considérer comme les véritablesactionnaires
du point de vue de la protection diplomatique?), distinction qui pose,
elle aussi, un problème juridique.
Prenons tout d'abord la question de la protection diplomatique
d'actionnaires d'une sociétéayant une nationalité autre que celle de

1'Etat protecteur. C'est là certainement une question fondamentale
parmi celles que soulève la troisième exception préliminaire, et qui, tions, so that a decision on the former in the negative would make a
decision on the latter unnecessary. Therefore the question of diplomatic
protection of shareholders may be recognized as constituting the core of
the third preliminary objection.
Here, it is not necessary to emphasize the spirit of a universally
recognized rule of customary international law concerning every State's
right of diplomatic protection over its nationals abroad, that is, a right
to require that another State observe a certain standard of decent treat-
ment to aliens in its territory. The spirit of the institution of diplomatic
protection is clearly declared by a Judgment of the Permanent Court of
International Justice:

". ..ir, taking up the case of one of its nationals, by resorting to
diplomaticaction or international judicial proceedings on his behalf,
a State is in reality asserting its own right, the right to ensure in the
person of its nationals respect for the rules of international law.
This right is necessarily limited to intervention on behalf of its own
nationals because, .. .it is the bond of nationality between the
State and the individual which alone confers upon the State the
right of diplomatic protection, and it is as a part of the function of
diplomatic protection that the right to take up a claim and to ensure
respect for the rules of international law must be envisaged."

(Panevezys-Saldutiskis Railway case, P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 76, p.
16.)
Briefly, the idea of diplomatic protection does not seem to be a blind
extension of the sovereign power of a State to the territory of other coun-
tries; the spirit of this institution signifies the collaboration of the pro-
tecting state for the cause of the rule of law and justice.
Now, in the present case, we are confronted with concrete questions of
than that of
whether a national who is a shareholder in a company other
the protecting State, is covered by diplomaticprotection and whether the
interest involved in the shares is susceptible of being protected by the
national State of the shareholders. In other words, can the rule of diplo-
matic protection be extended to a shareholder in a company of a nation-
ality which is not that of the protecting State, and to an interest which is
characterized by many corporative particularities? This is a question of
interpretation of customary international law regarding the diplomatic
protection of the nationals of a State.

To solve these questions, we shall start from the examination of the
nature and characteristics of a shareholder in a corp.oration (joint-stock
company). For that purpose we shall consider the concept of a corpora-
tion, legal relations between a corporation and its shareholders, and more
particularly the legal significanceof thejuridical personality of a corpora-
tion. We can easily understand the importance of the consideration of logiquement, a priorité sur les autres, de telle sorte que s'il lui était
répondu par la négative,il deviendrait inutile d'envisager ces dernières.
On peut donc considérerque la question de la protection diplomatique
des actionnaires est au cŒur même de la troisièmeexception préliminaire.
II n'est pas nécessaire d'insisterici sur l'esprit de la règle de droit
international coutumier universellement reconnue, selon laquelle tout
Etat a un droit de protection diplomatique en faveur de ses ressortissants
à l'étranger; son sens profond est que les Etats sont tenus de traiter
correctement, conformément à certaines normes, les étrangers se trou-

vant sur leur territoire. L'essence de l'institution de la protection diplo-
matique est clairement expriméedans un arrêtde la Cour permanente
de Justice internationale:
((enprenant fait et cause pour l'un de ses ressortissants, en mettant
en mouvement en sa faveur l'action diplomatique ou l'action judi-
ciaire internationale, cet Etat fait valoir son droit propre, le droit

qu'il a de faire respecter en la personne de ses ressortissants ledroit
international. Ce droit ne peut nécessairement êtreexercé qu'en
faveur de son national, parce que ...c'est le lien de nationalité
entre 1'Etat et l'individu qui seul donneà 1'Etat le droit de protec-
tion diplomatique. Or, c'est comme partie de la fonction de protec-
tion diplomatique que doit êtreconsidérél'exercice du droit de
prendre en mains une réclamation et d'assurer le respect du droit
international.» (Chemin de fer Panevezys-Saldutiskis, arrêt,1939,
C.P.J.I. sérieA/B no76, p. 16.)

En résumé,la protection diplomatique ne semble pas procéder de
l'idée d'une extension aveugle de l'autorité souveraine d'un Etat au
territoire d'autres pays; l'esprit de cette institution implique la collabo-
ration de 1'Etatprotecteur dans l'intérêdtu droit et de la justice.
Or, en l'espèce, nous avons à répondre à des questions concrètes,
celles de savoir si un Etat peut exercer sa protection diplomatique en
faveur de ressortissants actionnaires d'une sociétéqui n'a pas sa natio-
nalité et si l'intérêtmatérialisépar les actions peut être protégépar
1'Etat dont les actionnaires sont ressortissants. En d'autres termes, la
règle de la protection diplomatique peut-elle s'étendre à l'actionnaire

d'une sociétéayant une nationalité autre que celle de I'Etat protecteur,
ainsi qu'à un intérêt caractérisé par de nombreuses particularités liées
à la nature des sociétés?Il s'agit là d'une question d'interprétation du
droit international coutumier en matière de protection diplomatique
des nationaux d'un Etat.
Pour répondre à ces questions, nous allons tout d'abord examiner la
nature et les caractéristiques de I'actionnaire d'une sociétéde capitaux
(corporafion) ou, plus exactement, d'une sociétépar actions (joint-stock
company). A cette fin nous allons étudier la notion mêmede sociétéde
capitaux, les relations juridiques entre la sociétéet ses actionnaires, et
plus particulièrement la portéejuridique de la personnalité morale de lathislast issue, if we seethat many questions discussedin the course of the
proceedings onthe preliminary objections and on the merits appear to be
centred round the question of the juridical personality of a corporation,
especially the question of whether in particular matters an interpretation
of the "piercing of theeil of thecorporate personality" is to be admitted
or not.

We shall first make someobservations on the characteristics ofcorpora-
tions.
The corporation, which is a product par exceIIence of the capitalistic
economic system, possesses in many points remarkable characteristics
compared with other forms of commercial entities such as partnership
and limited partnership which are called in continental countries "société
de personnes" or "Peisonalgesellschaft", as distinguished from the cor-

poration, designated as "société de capitaux" or "Kapitalgesellschaft".
As these nomenclatures indicate, the partnership is an association which
presents itself as a combination of individuals who have persona1 con-
fidence in one another in moral as well as in economic aspects and who,
in many cases, as the name "société en nom collectif" indicates,are united
usually on the basis of a family tie, whereas the corporation is nothing
other than an aggregation of strangers, passers-by, who become united
only from an economic motive, namely the desire for possible increased
dividends.

In a partnership the members of a partnership retain their own legal
and economic individuality. In interna1 relations, they are bound by a
contractual nexus (between the members qua individuals and between the
members and the partnership) and in external relations they have an
unlimited liability toward the creditors of the partnership. On the con-
trary, in the case of a corporation, its members, the shareholders, stand

in no legal relationship either to one another or to outsiders, Le., the
creditors of the corporation. The shareholders, different in that from
partners whose entire personality and individuality is absorbed into the
business of the partnership, do not and cannot participate in the activities
of the corporation Save by way of exercising their voting rights in the
general meeting. Even this kind of participation of the shareholders in
the corporate business is reduced to a minimum by the natural tendency
to indifference and "absenteeism" on the part of shareholders. Their only
obligation consists in the payment of a sum of money for the shares
subscribed by them and their only risk is the impossibility of reimburse-
ment of their invested sum in case of liquidation or bankruptcy of the
corporation.
Thus the legal position of shareholders lacks the individuality which is société.L'intérêd te ce dernier problème se conçoit facilement, si l'on se
rappelle que maintes questions évoquéesau cours de la procéduresur les
exceptions préliminaireset le fond paraissent justement êtreaxéessur le
problème de la personnalité morale des sociétés,notamment sur le point
de savoir si, dans certains cas, telle ou telle interprétation concernant la
((levéedu voile de la personnalité morale 1)doit êtreadmise ou non.

Nous formulerons d'abord quelques observations concernant les
caractéristiques de la corporation.
Ce type de société, qui estpar excellence un produit de l'économie
capitaliste, présente sur de nombreux points des caractères remarquables
si on le compare à d'autres formes d'entités commerciales comme la
partnership et la limited partnership, appelées dans les pays d'Europe
continentale sociétéde personnes ou Personalgesellschaft,par opposition
à la sociétéde capitaux ou Kapitalgesellschaft qui correspondent à la
corporation. Comme le révèlecette terminologie même, la société de

personnes est une association d'individus qui ont personnellement con-
fiance les uns dans les autres sur le plan moral comme sur le plan écono-
mique et qui, dans de nombreux cas, ainsi que l'appellation société en
nom collectif l'indique, sont unis par des liens de famille; la sociétéde
capitaux, au contraire, n'est qu'un agrégat de personnes totalement
étrangèresles unes aux autres, réuniesde façon fortuite par un mobile
d'ordre purement économique - le désirde toucher des dividendes plus
élevés.
Dans une société de personnes, lesassociésconservent leur individualité
juridique et économique. Sur le plan interne, ils sont unis par des liens

contractuels (entre les membres de la société d'unepart, et entre la société
et ses membres de l'autre) et, à l'égard des tiers, ilssont totalement
responsables des dettes de la société.En revanche, les membres d'une
sociétéde capitaux - les actionnaires- n'ont de relation juridique ni
entre eux ni avec les tiers que sont les créanciersde la société. la diffé-
rence des membres d'une société de personnes qui s'identifient personnel-
lement et tout entiers à l'activité dela société,les actionnaires d'une
société de capitaux ne participentà son activitéet ne peuvent y participer
que par l'exercice de leur droit de vote à l'assembléegénérale.Et cette
participation, déjàsi faible, est encore diminuéepar la tendance naturelle

des actionnaires à l'indifférenceetà l'absentéisme.Leur seule obligation
est de libérerle montant des actions qu'ils souscrivent, leur seul risque,
de ne pas pouvoir rentrer dans leurs fonds en cas de liquidation ou de
faillite de la société.

Par conséquent, sur le plan juridique, la situation des actionnairesfound in the case of partners. It is characterized by its abstractness and
makes the existence of shareholders something passive.

The typical corporation, considered from the point of view of those

characteristics in which it differs from the partnership, is designated as a
"sociétéanonyme". This term is used in contrast with the "sociétéen
nom collectif". The anonymity relates of course to the corporation itself,
but we may assert that this character is derived from the anonymity of
each shareholder in the corporation. The anonymity can be said to be a
characteristic not only of a bearer share but of a registered share as well.
The anonymity of corporations as well as of shareholders makes pos-
sible and facilitates the establishment among several corporations of
dependent relationships and concentrations of diverse kinds and degrees
such as the cartel, the "Interessengemeinschaft", "concerns", mergers
(fusion), etc. Particularly, it tends to produce at the national and inter-
national levels the phenomenon of the mammoth pyramidal structure in
which innumerable enterprises, crowned by a controlling holding com-
pany at the top, are affiliated with one another in links of parent-and-
child relationships, by means of holding, subsidiary and sub-subsidiary

companies.
The concentration due to the aforesaid anonymity disregards national
frontiers and may cover many countries. In this way international invest-
ments are facilitated. The case of the Barcelona Traction Company offers
an excellent example of the concentration of enterprises and international
investment.
The relationship existing among innumerable companies possessing
separate juridical personality is commonly called a "group".

The anonymity of shareholders manifests itself in the recent tendency
to separate power or management from the ownership by mechanisms
such as life insurance companies, pension trusts, and mutual funds, as
pointed out by Professor Adolf A. Berle Jr. (Power Without Property,
1959, pp. 160 ff.). The separation of nominee and beneficial owner of
shares, one of the issueswith which the third preliminary objection in the
present case is concerned, may be considered an example of the manifesta-

tion of this tendency.
Anonymity of shareholders and separation of control from ownership
in corporative life necessarily exercise a profound influence upon the
character of a corporation as a juridical entity. In contrast with the
partnership, where autonomy among members or contractual freedom
largely prevails and consequently the corporative regulation by the
articles of incorporation is limited to a minimum, matters concerning
corporations are, even in regard to their interna1 relations, minutely
prescribed by jus cogensin Company law and a very narrow sphere is left
to the autonomy of the general meeting as the highest organ of the
corporation. The degree of the rule of law in commercial societies is inn'a pas le mêmecaractère personnel que celle des associésd'une société
de personnes; elle est par nature abstraite, et les limite, en somme, un

rôle passif.
Envisagéedans les caractéristiquesqui la différencientde la sociétéde
personnes, la sociétéde capitaux type est dit«sociétéanonyme »,désigna-
tion qui viseà l'opposer à la (sociétéen nom collectif ))L'anonymat en
question est bien entendu celui de la société elle-même mais l'opeut dire
que ce caractère découle del'anonymat de chaque actionnaire au sein de
la société.Cet anonymat peut êtreconsidérécomme une caractéristique
non seulement des actions au porteur mais aussi des actions nominatives.
L'anonymat des sociétésde capitaux ainsi que des actionnairespermet
et facilite l'établissement,entre plusieurs sociétés,de liens comparables

à des liens de parentéet leur concentration plus ou moins poussée,sous
des formes diverses: cartel, Interessengemeinschaft, concern, fusion, etc.
Cet anonymat peut aboutir en particulier à la formation, sur le plan
national et international, d'une structure pyramidale monumentale,
coifféepar une société holding qui la contrôle entièrement, et regroupant
d'innombrables entreprises rattachées les unes aux autres par des liens
de société mère à sociétéfiliale, au premier ou au deuxièmedegré.

Le phénomènede concentration que favorise l'anonymat dont nous

parlons netient pas compte des frontièreset peut s'étendreà de nombreux
pays. Il facilite ainsi les investissements dans le monde entier. La Barce-
lona Traction constitue un excellent exemple de ce phénomènede con-
centration des entreprises et des investissements internationaux.
On appelle communément 1groupe » l'ensemble des innombrables
sociétésdotées chacune d'une personnalitéjuridique distincte entre les-
auelles se sont établisdes liens.
L'anonymat des actionnaires apparaît dans le fait que, depuis peu, la
gestion et la propriété tendent à se dissocier par l'entréeen jeu de cer-
tains mécanismes telsque ceux des compagnies d'assurance sur la vie,

caisses de retraite etutualfunds, ainsi que l'a fait observer M. Adolf
A. Berle (Power WithoutProperty, 1959, p. 160 et suiv.). La séparation
entre le nominee et lebenejicial owner, qui constitue en l'espècel'un des
problèmes soulevés par la troisième exception préliminaire, témoigne
précisémentde cette tendance.
Inévitablement, l'anonymat des actionnaires et la séparation de la
gestion et de la propriétédans la vie sociale influent profondément sur
la nature mêmede la société entant qu'entité juridique. Dans la société
de Dersonnes. l'autonomie des membres ou la liberté contractuelle est la

noime, de soite que la réglementationde l'activité socialepar les statuts
est réduiteà un minimum. Au contraire, dans la société de capitaux, tout
ce qui concerne la sociétéest, mêmesur le plan des rapports internes,
soumis à une réglementation minutieuse relevant du jus cogensdans le
droit des sociétés,et l'autonomie laissée à l'assembléegénéraleen tant
qu'organe suprêmede la sociétése trouve très étroitementlimitée.Dansinverse proportion to theimportance which law attaches to the individual
member. In the partnership it is minimal; in the corporation maximal.

From what has been stated above, we may conclude that the tie of the
juridical personality is, in the case of a corporation, far strongerhan in
the case of a partnership. In a corporation juridical personality plays the
role of holding together incoherent individuals by a compact legal frame,
while in the case of a partnership, even under some legal systems re-
cognizing its juridical personality, the partners are directly liable to
creditors of the partnership in the event of its insolvency and accordingly
the function played by its juridical personality is extremely limited.

The above-mentioned characteristics of a corporation are very suc-
cinctly indicated by the following description:

"Dans les sociétésde capitaux . . le lien de la sociétéavec la
personne de ses membres est moins marqué; le concept de person-
nalité morale est donc pour elles plus nécessaire. Les associésne
sont pas normalement responsables des dettes de la société;l'actif
social seul en répond. La duréede la sociéténe dépend pas dela vie
des associés,qui ne se connaissent souvent pas, et ont réuni leurs
capitaux, non leurs personnes; les actions, qui représentent les parts
sociales, sont, en principe, librement négociableset ainsi appelées à
changer continuellement de mains." (Professeurs Henri et Léon
Mazeaud et Conseiller Jean Mazeaud, Leçons de droit civil, tome 1,
3' éd.,1963,pp. 602, 603.)

If we recognize these observations as right, the natural conclusion
therefrom would be that the object of diplomatic protection in the case
of a corporation should be the corporation itself and not its shareholders.
From the viewpoint of emphasizing the significance of the juridical
personality of the corporation, it appears that it must be theCompanyas
juridicalperson which is capable of enjoying the protection and not the
shareholders, since they are excluded from the protection by the screen of
juridical personality of theZompany.
The traditional doctrine on this matter has been based on the theory of

the juridical personality of a corporation, which holds that "a corpora-
tion is a juridical person distinct from its members". J. Mervyn Jones
stated:

"Assuming, therefore, that corporations may be nationals, it follows
that only the state of which they are nationals may intervene on
their behalf, and this notwithstanding the fact that most of the mem-
bers may be nationals of another state." ("Claims on behalf of
nationals who are shareholders in foreign companies", British Year
Book of International Law, 1949,p. 227.) les sociétés commerciales, l'emprise dela réglementation est en raison
inverse de l'importance que le droit attribue à chacun de ses membres;
elle est à son niveau minimum dans la sociétéde personnes, à son maxi-
mum dans la sociétéde capitaux.

De cequi précède,on peut conclure que lelien de la personnalitémorale
est, dans la société decapitaux, bien plus fort qu'il ne l'estdans la société
de personnes. Dans la première, en effet, la personnalité morale crée
l'union entre des individus qui n'avaient au préalable aucun lien entre
eux en les assujettissant à un cadre juridique étroit. Dans la seconde -
même sicertains systèmeslui reconnaissent une personnalité morale -
les associés sont directement responsables envers les créanciers de la
sociétéquand celle-ci n'est pas solvable; aussi la personnalitéjuridique

n'yjoue-t-elle qu'un rôle extrêmementlimité.
Le texte ci-aprèsdonne un bref aperçu des caractéristiquesd'une société
de capitaux, telles que nous venons de les rappeler:
(Dans les sociétésde capitaux ..le lien de la société avec la per-

sonne de ses membres est moins marqué; le concept de personnalité
morale est donc pour elles plus nécessaire. Les associés nesont pas
normalement responsables des dettes de la société;l'actif social seul
en répond.La durée dela société ne dépendpas de la viedes associés,
qui ne se connaissent souvent pas, et ont réuni leurs capitaux, non
leurs personnes; les actions, qui représentent les parts sociales, sont,
en principe, librement négociableset ainsi appelées à changer con-
tinuellement de mains. »(Professeurs Henri et LéonMazeaud et con-

seiller Jean Mazeaud, Leçons de droit civil, tome 1, 3' éd., 1963,
p. 602-603.)
Si ces observations nous semblent justes, nous devrions normalement

en conclure que, dans le cas d'une sociétéde capitaux, l'objet de la pro-
tection diplomatique ne peut être quela société elle-même et non ses
actionnaires. En effet, vu l'importance que revêtla personnalité juridique
d'une sociétéde capitaux, il semble que seule la société, entant que per-
sonne morale, soit susceptible de bénéficier de laprotection, et non les
actionnaires, qui en sont écartéspar l'écran de lapersonnalité morale.

La doctrine classique en cette matière est fondéesur la théorie de la

personnalité morale de la société, c'est-à-diresur le principe qui veut
qu'((une sociétésoit une personne morale distincte de ses membres )).
J. Mervyn Jones a écrit:

Si l'on supposedonc que les sociétés peuventavoir une nationalité,
alors seul 1'Etat dont elles sont ressortissantes peut intervenir en
leur nom, et ce bien que la plupart de leurs membres puissent être
ressortissants d'un autre Etat. ))((Claims on behalf of nationals who

are shareholders in foreign companies », British Year Book of Inter-
nationaILaw, 1949,p. 227.) The argument of the Spanish Government which denies the right of
diplomatic protection of shareholders in fûvour of the national State of
the Barcelona Traction Company, namely Canada, is precisely based on

theabove-mentioned theory of ajuridical personality recognized as being
distinct from its members.

The Belgian Government on the contrary, wishes to advocate its
position by arguing from a fundamental theory concerning the juridical
person. It intends to defend its viewpoint on the strength of the doctrine
of fiction, whichdenies the real existence of the juridical person by reduc-
ing it to a simple conglomeration of its constituent members and mini-
mizing the juridical person as being a mere legal technique that makes it
possible for plural individuals to own property or conclude a transaction.
In order to assert its view, the Belgian Government has repeatedly
referred to a figurative concept of "piercing the veil" ofcorporate person-
ality. So far as this slogan is concerned, however, it simply means that
the shareholders must be protected by their national State regardless of
the juridical personality of the corporation. It is a petitio principii and

nothing more.
The Belgian Government, basing itself on the fiction theory, insists that
the real existence of a corporation isits shareholders and that accordingly
the subject to be protected is not limited to the Barcelona Traction
Company, but includes its shareholders who are Belgian nationals.
The argument developed by the Spanish Government to deny the
protection of shareholders is, as indicated above, based on the role at-
tributed to the juridical personality of corporation.
The viewpoint of the Spanish Government is not in itself wrong. As we
have seen, in a corporation the role of the juridical personality is at a
maximum and that of shareholders is reduced to a minimum. Never can
the shareholders come in contact with a third person through the wall of
the corporate personality. This wall seems too solid to be penetrated. It
appears that diplomatic protection cannot reach to shareholders, con-
sequently the Spanish vie~ on this point seems to be well founded.

I,nshort, both Governments, the Belgian and the Spanish as well, ap-
pear to base their respective positions on a theory ofjuridical personality:
either on the theory of fiction or on the realistic theory,her disregarding
or emphasizing the functional importance of juridical personality.

However, we must approach the issue in question from a different
angle. The question should be considered on quite another plane. What
we have seen above and what the Spanish Government has put forward
are arguments concerned with the juridical concept of corporation in the Pour dénier aux actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction le droit de
bénéficier'une protection diplomatique, dont l'exercice serait réservéà
I'Etat national de la société, c'est-à-direau Canada, le Gouvernement
espagnol se fonde précisémentsur la théorie susdite de la personnalité
morale de la société,considéréecomme distincte de la personnalité de
ses membres.
Le Gouvernement belgeinvoque au contraire une théoriefondamentale
concernant la personnalité morale. 11s'appuie sur la thèse de la fiction,

qui consiste à nier l'existence réellede la personne morale, en réduisant
celle-cià une simple juxtaposition des membres qui la composent et en
n'y voyant autre chose qu'une technique juridique grâce à laquelle un
groupement de particuliers peut devenir propriétaire ou effectuer des
transactions.
Pour étayersa thèse, le Gouvernement belge a recouru maintes fois à
une image, celle de la (levéedu voile 1de la personnalité morale. Mais
en soi, cette formule signifie seulement que les actionnaires doivent être
protégéspar 1'Etat dont ils ont la nationalité, sans que l'on aià tenir
compte de la personnalité morale de la sociétéde capitaux. C'est donc
une simple pétition de principe.

Partant de la théorie de la fiction, le Gouvernement belge maintient
qu'une société de capitaux n'a d'existence réellequedans ses actionnaires;
par suite l'objet à protéger n'est pas seulement la société Barcelona
Traction, mais aussi ses actionnaires qui sont ressortissants belges.
Le Gouvernement espagnol s'oppose à la protection des actionnaires
en se fondant, on l'a vu,sur le rôle qu'il convient d'attribuerla person-
nalité morale dela sociétéde capitaux.
En soi, la thèse du Gouvernement espagnol n'est pas fausse. Comme
nous l'avons vu, dans ce type de société,la personnalité juridique joue
un rôle maximum, celui des actionnaires étant, lui, réduit au minimum.
Les actionnaires ne peuvent jamais entrer en contact avec une tierce

personne àtravers le rideau de la personnalité morale, trop épais,semble-
t-il, pour être franchi.11apparaît que la protection diplomatique ne peut
pas atteindre les actionnaires et la thèse espagnole sur ce point paraît
donc bien fondée.
Bref, les Gouvernements de la Belgique et de l'Espagne se fondent
tous deux sur une théorie dela personnalité morale, l'un sur la théorie
de la fiction, l'autre sur la théorie réaliste, consistant, la premièreà
minimiser, la seconde à mettre en relief, l'importance pratique de la
personnalité morale.

II nous faut toutefois aborder la question sous un angle différent.
Elle se pose en effet sur un tout autre plan. Les considérations qui précè-
dent et les arguments invoquéspar le Gouvernement espagnol ont trait
au concept juridique de sociétéen droit interne, en droit privéet plusmeaning of municipal law, private law and particularly commercial law,
and they deal with this concept only.
Law relating to corporations is concerned with matters of private law,
namely private interests, relationships between corporation, shareholders

and third parties. Company law in respect of incorporation, formation,
ultra viresca,pital, its increase and reduction, organs, the rights and duties
of shareholders (particularly limited liability), the transfer of shares,
accounts, the issuing of bonds, dissolution, liquidation, etc., isabove al1
related to interna1 matters of corporations, or business transactions with
outsiders and belongs to the plane of municipal law. The principles
prevailingin these matters are directed, on the onehand, to theprotection
ofthird parties, namely thecreditorsof a company, and on the other hand,
to the protection of the shareholders in the company itself. These prin-
ciples are not in themselves connected in any way with international law.
The protection of shareholders is intended to be guaranteed in corpora-
tion law mainly by provisions concerning the limited liability of share-
holders, the maintenance of enterprises, the principle of publicity,
liability of corporate organs, etc.;t belongs to an entirely different plane
of law the prevailing principle of which is quite extraneous to that of

diplomatic protection.

The Spanish concept of the impenetrability of a company's wall of
juridical personality is based on a principle of private law, and therefore
it cannot be applied to the question of diplomatic protection of share-
holders.
Sincethe matter of diplomaticprotection of shareholders belongs to an
entirely different plane, namely to the field of international law, the
juridical personality created from the necessity of the viewpoint of
private law or commercial law cannot be recognized as an obstacle for
the protection of shareholders on the plane of international law.
For this reason the fact that a corporation has juridical personality
under the law of a State does not necessarilyjustify diplomaticprotection
by that State only.
This conclusion is based on recognition of the relativity of the validity

of eacli legal principle and concept.
Every branch of law, for example, private law, procedural law, ad-
ministrative law, fiscal law, private international law, law concerning
enemy character in wartime, etc., has its own purpose and accordingly,
the sphere which it governs is necessarily limited. Certain legal principles
and concepts may have a relative validity in the specific sphere to which
they belong. Each legal system or institution has its own objective; to
attain this objective, a system of norms, i.e., principles, rules and pro-
visions, is developed. The system is teleologically constructed. The
meaning of the norms and concepts included in it will be relative to the
objective of the system itself and limited by it, although the existence of spécialement en droit commercial, et se rapportent uniquement à ce
concept.
Le droit des sociétés s'occupede questions de droit privé, à savoir

d'intérêtsprivéset des relations entre une société, sesactionnaires et les
tiers. Le droit des sociétéanonymes, qui porte sur des questions comme
la constitution des sociétésl,es actes non conformes aux statuts, le capital
social et son augmentation ou sa réduction, les organes de la société, les
droits et devoirs des actionnaires (et notamment le caractère limitéde
leur responsabilité), la transmission des actions, la comptabilité, les
émissions d'obligations, la dissolution, la liquidation, etc., concerne
essentiellement l'organisation interne des sociétéet leurs opérationscom-
merciales avec des tiers, et relèvede l'ordre juridique interne. Les prin-
cipes qui régissent ces questions visent, d'une part, la protection des
tiers- les créanciers d'une société - et d'autre part, la protection des

actionnaires au sein dela sociétéelle-même. Ensoi, ces principes ne sont
liés enaucune façon au droit international. Dans le droit des sociétés,
la protection des actionnaires est surtout garantie au moyen de disposi-
tions concernant la responsabilitélimitée desactionnaires, la gestion des
entreprises, le principe de publicité, la responsabilité des organes de la
société,etc.; cette protection se situe sur un plan juridique entièrement
différent,dont le principe directeur est toutà fait étrangerà celui de la
protection diplomatique.
L'idée,défendue par le Gouvernement espagnol, suivant laquelle le
rideau de la personnalité morale de la sociétéserait impénétrablerepose
sur un principe de droit privé,et ne saurait donc s'appliquerà la question

de la protection diplomatique des actionnaires.
Celle-ci se pose sur un plan tout à fait différent, celuidu droit inter-
national, de sorte que la personnalité morale, crééepour répondre aux
exigences du droit privéou commercial, ne saurait constituer un obstacle
à la protection des actionnaires en droit international.

Pour cette raison, le fait qu'une sociétéa la personnalité morale en
vertu du droit d'un Etat n'implique pas que la protection diplomatique
ne peut êtreexercéeque par cet Etat.
Cette conclusion repose sur la reconnaissance de ce que chaque prin-
cipe et concept juridique a une validité relative.

Chaque branche du droit - le droit privé,la procédure, le droit ad-
ministratif, le droit fiscal, le droit international privé, le droit sur les
biens à caractère ennemi en temps de guerre, etc. - a ses propres fins
et le domaine qu'elle régit estdonc forcémentlimité.Certains principes
et conceptsjuridiques sont valables seulement dans le domaine spécifique
dont ils relèvent. Chaque système ou institution juridique a son propre
objectif; pour atteindre cet objectif, un ensemble normatif de principes,
règles et dispositions est élaboré.Cet ensemble constitue un édifice
téléologique.Les normes et concepts qu'il fait intervenir n'ont de signi-
fication qu'en fonction de l'objectif du système lui-mêmeet sont limitéscommon principles and concepts underlying diverse systems cannot be
denied. To give an example: we cannot help recognizing the difference
between the legal position of seller and purchaser and that of parties each
playing a specific role with regard to a bill of exchange, although both
cases belong to the law of obligations. We rnay cite another example,
namely the difference between the legalrelationship governing a Company

and its shareholders and that involved in an ordinary commercial trans-
action.

What we want to emphasize is that each branch of law, each system
and institution, each provision belonging to it, possesses a specific
character from the viewpoint of its objective and is susceptible of or
requires a different interpretation. This phenomenon is what a dis-
tinguished commercialist, Rudolf Müller-Erzbach more than 55 years
ago ingeniously pointed out in an article ("Relativitat der Rechtsbegriffe
und ihre Begrenzung durch den Zweck des Gesetzes", Jherings Jahr-
bücher für die Dogmatik des heutigen Romischen und Deutschen Privat-
rechts, Bd. 61, 1912,ss. 343-384).
On the matters we are interested in, a concept such as nationality,

which is concerned with both municipal and international law, rnay have
a different content according to the objective of each branch of law and
its interpretation and application rnay be relative. Even if the nationality
of an individual is established by municipal law, it rnay not necessarily
have validity in international law. It is possible that one rnay not be
entitled to diplomatic protection from one's national State by reason of
lack of effectiveness, as the Nottebohm case indicates (I.C.J. Reports
1955,p. 23).The fact that the effectivenessis questioned, implies that the
concept of nationality rnay Vary in meaning according to whether it is
interpreted by municipal law or by international law.

The viewpoint mentioned above rnay be stressed further with regard to
the question of the nationality of a corporation in relation to itsridical

personality. To begin with, the concept of nationality as applied to a
physical person differsfromthat applied to ajuridical person. In regard to
the latter, the relationship of allegiance originating from the natural tie
between physical persons and their national State rnay be lacking.
Furthermore, the meaning implied in the nationality of corporations rnay
not be identical according to different branches of law, for example, law
concerning the treatment of foreign corporations, conflict of laws,
diplomatic protection of nationals, law on enemy character, etc. (Prof.
Paul Reuter, Droit internationalpublic, 1958,pp. 164, 165.)

Hypothetically, a corporation obtains juridical personality by being
incorporated in a State under the law of that State and acquires the
nationality of that State, but the corporation rnay possess a foreign BARCELONA TRACTIO(N OP. IND.TANAKA) 122

par ce système, encore qu'on ne puisse nier l'existenceà la base de ces
divers systèmes,de principes et de concepts communs. Qu'on nous per-

mette de citer un exemple: on ne saurait nier qu'ily ait une différenceentre
la situation juridique du vendeur et de l'acheteur et celle des parties
transaction ayant pour objet un effet de commerce, bien que les deux
situations relèvent du droit des obligations. Une autre illustration est
fournie par la différenceentre les rapports juridiques d'une sociétéavec
ses actionnaires et les rapports juridiques qui interviennent dans une
opération commerciale ordinaire.
Ce que nous voulons faire ressortir, c'est que chaque branche du droit,
chaque systèmeet institution, et chaque disposition s'y rapportant a un
caractère sui generisdéfinipar ses objectifs et admet ou appelle une inter-
prétation différente. Cephénomènea été trèsbien vu par un éminent
spécialistedu droit commercial, Rudolf Müller-Erzbach, dans un article

écritil y a plus de cinquante-cinq ans («Relativitat der Rechtsbegriffe
und ihre Begrenzung durch den Zweck des Gesetzes », Jherings Jahr-
bücher für die Dogmatik des heutigen Romischen und DeutschenPriilat-
rechts, vol. 61, 1912,p. 343-384).
Pour ce qui est des questions qui nous intéressent, une notion comme
celle de la nationalité, qui toucheà la fois au droit interne et au droit
international, peut avoir un contenu différent selon l'objectif dechacun
de ces droits, et son interprétation et son application peuvent être rela-
tives. Mêmesi la nationalité d'un particulier est établieen droit interne,
elle n'est pasforcémentvalable en droit international.11arrive qu'on ne
puisse pas bénéficierde la protection diplomatique de son Etat national,

faute de rattachement effectif avec cet Etat, ainsi qu'il ressort de l'affaire
Nottebohm (deuxièmephase, arrêtC , .I.J. Recueil 1955, p. 23). Contester
le caractère effectif du lien de nationalité c'est reconnaître implicitement
que le concept de nationalité peut avoir une signification différente
selon que l'on se place au regard du droit interne ou à celui du droit
international.
Ce qui précèdevaut à plus forte raisonà propos de la nationalitéd'une
société,considérée commeun corollaire de sa personnalité juridique.
Le concept même denationalité n'est pas identique selon qu'il s'agit
d'une personne physique ou d'une personne morale. Dans ce dernier cas,
la relation d'allégeance quitire son origine du lien naturel entre les per-

sonnes physiques et leur Etat national peut faire défaut. De plus, la
signification attribuéelanationalité des sociétés n'etas nécessairement
identique dans les différentsdomaines du droit, selon qu'il s'agit, par
exemple, du traitement des sociétésétrangères,du droit international
privé,de la protection diplomatique des nationaux, du droit sur les biens
à caractère ennemi, etc. (Professeur Paul Reuter, Droit international
public, 1958,p. 164-165.)
Une sociétéqui, par hypothèse, acquiert la personnalité morale par le
fait de sa constitution dans un Etat conformément au droit de cet Etat,
en acquiert égalementla nationalité, mais elle peut présenter à d'autres character in other respects: preponderance of foreign participation in the
capital stock, nationality of members of boards of directors, place of
control, place of business activities, etc. In such cases it rnay become
controversial whether the national State of the corporation can claim
diplomatic protection on its behalf solelybecause the corporation has its
nationality; in any event, the national State of the corporation, even if
it is entitled to diplomaticprotection, rnay hesitate to exercise its right.

Tt is not without reason that Rabel renounced his attempt to seek a

uniform content for the concept of nationality of corporations and
declared that each rule should be interpreted separately (Ernst Rabel,
The Conpict of Laws, 1947,Vol. II, p. 21).

We rnay quote an example for the purpose of demonstrating the non-
application of a rule of municipal law to a matter of international law.
The so-called principle of equal treatment of shareholders, we believe,
is considered one of the most fundamental principles governing the law
of corporations. According to this principle, al1shares in a corporation-
or, if several categories of shares exist, al1shares in the same category-
are, from the viewpoint of the rights and duties incorporated in them,
equal (with the exception of quantative differences proportionate to the
degree of participation), and therefore shareholders are to be treated
equally. This principle is perhaps derived from the fact of anonyrnity or
lack of individuality where the position of shareholders is concerned, in

contrast with that of partners; the idea rnay go back to canon Iaw and,
further, to the Aristotelian notion of justitia distributiva.
The principle of equal treatment of shareholders, however important
it rnay be, nevertheless has its limitation. The limitation rnay come from
municipal law, but in any case it comes from outside commercial law.
It rnay take the form of a restriction of the rights of foreign shareholders
in public law. Or it rnay be based on international law where the latter
recognizes the protection of shareholders in a foreign Company who are
nationals of the protecting State. Unequal treatment arising as the result
of a discretionary exercise of diplomatic protection cannot be avoided
when there are shareholders of different nationalities. A situation
wherein some of the shareholders enjoy effective protection and the rest
do not is inevitable. Whether such situation is desirable or not is a dif-
ferent matter.

What we meant above is that a principle such as equal treatment of

shareholders, being of m.unicipa1law character, is not ipsojure applicable
to matters belonging to the plane of international law, including matters
concerning diplomatic protection of shareholders. The shareholders who
have been excluded from diplomatic protection cannot protest against égardsun caractèreétranger: prépondérance dela participation étrangère
dans lecapital social,nationalitédesmembres du conseil d'administration,
lieu d'où s'exerce le contrôle, lieu des activités commerciales,etc. Lors-
qu'il en est ainsi, on peut discuter du point de savoir si 1'Etat national
de la sociétéa le droit d'exercer une protection diplomatique en faveur

de la sociétépour le seul motif que celle-ci possède sa nationalité; tout
au moins, même s'ia l un droit de protection diplomatique, 1'Etatnational
de la sociétépeut hésiter à l'exercer.
Ce n'est pas sans raison que Rabel a renoncé à l'espoir de trouver un
contenu uniforme au concept de la nationalité des sociétéset a déclaré
que chaque règle devait être interprétée séparément (Ernst Rabel,
The Conflict of Laws, 1947,vol. II, p. 21).

Qu'il nous soit permis de citer un exemple en vue de démontrer I'inap-
plicabilitéd'une règlede droit interne sur le plan du droit international.

Le principe dit de l'égalitédes actionnaires est tenu, pensons-nous,
pour l'un des principes fondamentaux régissantle droit des sociétés. Selon
ce principe, il y a égalitéentre toutes les actions d'une société- ou, s'il
existe plusieurs catégories d'actions, entre toutes les actions de la même
catégorie - du point de vue des droits et devoirs qu'elles représentent
(sauf à admettre des différencesquantitatives proportionnelles à l'im-
portance des participations) et, en conséquence, lesactionnaires ont droit
à un traitement égal. Ceprincipe dérivepeut-être del'anonymat ou du
manque d'individualité qui caractérisentle statut d'actionnaire, par op-
position à celui d'associé;l'idéeremonte sans doute au droit canon et,
encore plus loin, à la notion aristotélicienne dejustice distributive.
Quoi qu'il en soit, le principe de l'égalité des actionnaires - malgré

son importance - a ses limites. Celles-ci peuvent tenir au droit interne;
elles sont en tout cas extérieuresau droit commercial. Il peut s'agir par
exemple d'une restriction de droit public imposéeaux droits des action-
naires étrangers. Ou encore, ces limites peuvent être fondéessur le droit
international, lorsque celui-ci admet la protection d'actionnaires d'une
sociétéétrangère quisont ressortissants de 1'Etat protecteur. L'exercice
d'un droit discrétionnaire de protection diplomatique a pour corollaire
inévitable l'inégalitéde traitement des actionnaires quand ces derniers
sont de différentesnationalités. En pareil cas, on ne peut éviterque cer-
tains actionnaires seulement (et non pas tous) bénéficient d'une protection
efficace.Qu'une telle situation soit souhaitable ou non, c'est là une autre
question.

Ce que nous voulons dire, c'est qu'un principe comme celui de l'égalité
des actionnaires, étant de droit interne, n'est pas applicable ipso jure
aux questions qui se posent en droit international, parmi lesquelles figure
la protection diplomatique des actionnaires. Si certains actionnaires
bénéficientde la protection diplomatique de leur Etat national, les autresdiplomatic protection of other shareholders by their respective national
States by referring to the principle of equal treatment of shareholders,
which is valid only in municipal law and not in the matter of international
law to which the rule of diplomatic protection belongs.
What has been said concerning the principle of the equality of share-
holders can be applied mutatis mutandis to the question of the juridical
personality of a corporation. Juridical personality is, as stated above,
conferred on a corporation primarily for the purposes of maintaining the
enterprise, owning property, concluding transactions with outsiders and
limiting or denying the liability of shareholders in regard to creditors

of the company. Accordingly, juridical personality possesses meaning
only as a legal technique to serveand guaranteethe corporate existence in
respect of private and commercial law. Its validity isrelative and therefore
limited.
The Spanish Government conceives the juridical personality of a
corporation as an impenetrable wall lying between corporation and
shareholders as far as di~lomatic ~rotection is concerned. so that it can
prevent protection of the'shareholders and monopolize it in favour of the
corporation itself. In other words, the framework ofjuridical personality
should involve in itself the susceptibility of diplomatic protection of the
company and at the same time the exclusion of shareholders from the
protection. The question of diplomatic protection could not be distin-
guished from the conclusion of ordinary transactions, where the corpora-
tion itself was represented and the shareholders excluded.
Such a construction, however, would fa11into the error of conceiving
the juridical personality of a corporation as an aim in itself, whereas it is

nothing but a means in the interest of its constituent members.
Professor (at that time Judge) Charles De Visscher said:
"L'intérêt de l'individu, l'intérêt de l'homm est toujours le but du
droit et sa fin suprême.IIen est ainsi alors mêmeque la poursuite de
cet intérêts'effectue sous le couvert du régime de la personnalité
civile." ("De la protection diplomatique des actionnaires d'une
sociétécontre 1'Etat sous la législation duquel cette sociétés'est

constituée": Revue de droit international et de législation comparée,
Vol. 61, 1934, p. 639.)

By what is set forth above, we have tried negatively to remove an
important obstacle to the recognition of diplomatic protection in favour
of shareholders. Next, we shall demonstrate positively the necessity and
raison d'être of protection of shareholders and establish the reason why

the shareholders should be protected independently of the company to
which they belong.
We shall solve the question of whether the shareholders' rights and
interests are included in the subject-matter of diplomatic protection ne peuvent protester contre l'exercicede cette protection en invoquant le
principe de l'égalité deactionnaires, lequel n'a de validité qu'en droit
interne et non dans le domaine du droit international dont relèvela r-gle
de la protection diplomatique.
Ce qui a étédit concernant le principe de l'égalité desctionnaires est
applicablemutatis mutandis à la question de la personnalité morale d'une
société.La personnalité morale est conféréeà une société essentiellement
aux fins de la gestion de l'entreprise, de la propriétéde ses biens, de ses

transactions avec les tiers et de la limitation ou de l'exclusion de la
responsabilité des actionnaires à l'égard descréanciers sociaux. En con-
séquence,la personnalité juridique n'a de signification qu'en tant que
techniquejuridique destinée à assurer età garantir l'existencede la société
sur le plan du droit privéet commercial. La validitéde cette notion est
relative et par conséquentlimitée.
Le Gouvernement espagnolconçoit la personnalitémorale d'une société
comme un rideau impénétrabletendu entre la sociétéet les actionnaires
en ce qui concerne la protection diplomatique, rideau qui peut empêcher
la protection des actionnaires et la monopoliser au profit de la société
elle-même.Autrement dit, le cadre de la personnalité morale impliquerait
en soi la possibilitéd'accorder une protection diplomatique à la société
et exclurait en même temps lesactionnaires du bénéficedecetteprotection.

L'exercicede laprotection diplomatique ne se distinguerait pas des trans-
actions ordinaires, dans lesquelles la société elle-même est représentete
dont les actionnaires sont exclus.
Or, une telle interprétation est entachée d'erreur car elle voit dans la
personnalité morale d'une sociétéune fin en soi, alors que ce n'est qu'un
moyen destiné à servir l'intérêtes membres qui la composent.
Comme l'a dit le professeur Charles De Visscher (qui était alorsjuge):

((L'intérêdte l'individu, l'intérêt de l'homme est toujours le but
du droit et sa fin suprême.l en est ainsi alors mêmeque la poursuite
de cet intérêts'effectuesous le couvert du régimede la personnalité
civile. (((De la protection diplomatique des actionnaires d'une
sociétécontre 1'Etat sous la législation duquel cette société s'est
constituéen, Revue de droit internationalet de législation comparée,
vol. 61, 1934,p. 639.)

Le raisonnement qui précèdeavait un objet négatif: éliminerun obs-
tacle important à la reconnaissance de la protection diplomatique en
faveur des actionnaires. Nous allons maintenant démontrer de façon
positive la nécessitéet la raison d'être dela protection des actionnaires
et dégagerla cause pour laquelle les actionnaires doivent êtreprotégés
indépendamment de la sociétédont ils font partie.
Nous avons àrésoudre la question de savoir si les droits et intérdes
actionnaires sont compris dans l'objet de la protection diplomatique en according to the universally recognized customary rule of international
law, the existence of which does not admit of any doubt; we are con-
fronted with the interpretation of this customary rule of international
law, i.e., whether diplomatic protection covers the position, namely
rights and interests, of shareholders in a corporation or not.
Roughly speaking, international law places no qualification on
"property", "rights" and "interests", and consequently it seems that the
position of shareholders can be recognized as involving property, rights
or interests, and is able to be covered by diplomatic protection. Before
we reach a definite conclusion, however, we must examine the nature of
the shareholders' legal position and their rights and interests, because
some aspects of the legal position of shareholders have appeared to be an
obstacle to the recognition of its diplomatic protection and, therefore,
much discussion has taken place belween both Parties concerning this

issue.
Let us examine what are usually indicated as shareholders' rights in
books on corporation law of many countries: the right to dividends, the
right to surplusassets in case of liquidation, the right to vote in general
meetings, the right of minority shareholders to sue for the liability of
directors, the right to transfer shares, the right to request certificates, etc.

Examining these so-called shareholders' rights we can distinguish two
categories of rights: the one includes those rights which are enjoyed by
shareholders themselves, namely the right to dividends, the right to
surplus assets and the right to transfer shares; and the other includes the
right of voting and al1those rights the aim of which constitutesthe com-
mon interest of the corporation itself andnot the individual interest of the
shareholders. Some German scholars of corporation law cal1the rights in
the first category ~igennützige Reclzre (rights for self-interest) and the

rights in the second category gemeinnützige Rechte (rights for common
purpose). The latter category constitutes rights of shareholders sensu
lato; however they are not exercised by them as shareholders but as an
organ composing the general meeting, and therefore this kind of righî
cannot be classified in a category of rights of shareholders in sensu
stricto. Of course a preponderant shareholding in the general meeting
would confer on the shareholder right of control, but this so-called right
cannot be said to be a "right" in the proper sense, but mere "interest".

As to the rights of shareholders to request dividends or surplus assets,
we cannot deny them the nature of a right sensu srricro; nor do we
hesitate to classify shares in the categories of "property", "rights" or
"interests" which may be covered by diplomatic protection.

This conclusion, we consider, cannot be denied on the ground that the
realization of the right to dividends or surplus assets presupposes thevertu de la règle coutumière universellement admise du droit interna-
tional, dont l'existence elle-même nefait aucun doute; il s'agit donc
d'interpréter cetterèglede droit international coutumier en vue de déter-
miner si la protection diplomatique s'applique ou non à la situation,

c'est-à-dire aux droits et intérêtsd , es actionnaires d'une société.
D'une façon générale,on peut dire que le droit international n'assortit
les (biens I),((droits))et ((intérêt )sd'aucune qualification particulière; il
semble par conséquent que la situation des actionnaires puisse être
reconnue comme mettant en jeu des biens, droits ou intérêts,et qu'elle
soit susceptible de faire l'objet d'une protection diplomatique. Toutefois,
avant de tirer une conclusion définitive,il nous faut examiner la nature

de la situation juridique des actionnaires, ainsi que de leurs droits et
intérêts,car certains aspects de cette situation juridique sont apparus
comme faisant obstacle à ce que l'on admette sa protection diplomatique,
ce qui a donnélieu à de nombreuses controverses entre les Parties.
Examinons ce que, dans de nombreux pays, les traités de droit des
sociétésconsidèrent généralementcomme étant les droits des action-
naires: le droit aux dividendes, le droitau reliquat d'actif en cas de liqui-

dation, le droit de vote aux assemblées généralesle , droit des actionnaires
minoritaires d'intenter une action enjustice dans la mesure où la respon-
sabilité desadministrateurs est en cause, le droit de cession des actions,
le droit d'exiger la délivrance destitres, etc.
En considérant ces ((droits )des actionnaires, nous constatons qu'ils se
divisent en deux catégories: d'une part, les droits dont jouissent les
actionnaires eux-mêmes, à savoir le droit aux dividendes, le droit au

reliquat d'actif et le droit de céderles actions et, d'autre part, les droits
qui ont pour objet l'intérêt commun dela société elle-même et non
l'intérêt particulierdes actionnaires, le droit de vote par exemple. Cer-
tains spécialistesallemands du droit des sociétésappellent les droits de
la premièrecatégorie eigennützigeRechte (droits dans l'intérêp tropre) et
les droits de la seconde catégorie gemeinnützige Rechte (droits dans
l'intérêtcommun). Ces derniers constituent les droits des actionnaires

lato sensu;leurs titulaires ne les exercent cependant pas en qualité d'ac-
tionnaires mais en tant qu'élémentsconstitutifs de l'assembléegénérale;
par conséquent, ces droits ne peuvent pas êtreclassésdans la catégorie
des droits des actionnaires stricto sensu.Bien sûr, le fait de détenir une
part prépondérante ducapital social aux assemblées généralec sonférerait
à l'actionnaire le droit de contrôle, mais on ne peut dire qu'il s'agisselà

d'un ((droit )au sens propre: c'est plutôt un simple ((intérê ItI.
Quant aux droits des actionnaires d'exiger les dividendesou le reliquat
d'actif, on ne peut leur dénier la qualification de droits stricto sensu, et
nous n'hésitonspas à classer les actions dans les catégories de ((biens»,
(droits 11ou ((intérêt spouvant faire l'objet d'une protection diploma-
tique.
On ne saurait, à notre avis, réfuter cette conclusion en faisant valoir

que le droit aux dividendes ou au reliquat d'actif nepeut se concrétiser existence of profits or surplus assets on the balance sheet, and is therefore
conditioned by the future financial circumstances of the company. It is
true that the position of shareholders is, in this respect, more uncertain
than the position of creditors and bondholders, but a conditional right
cannot be excluded frorn diplomaticprotection simpiy because it involves
uncertainty; nor can the fact that shareholders do not possess any right as
regards corporate property-its forma1owner being the company itself-
be used to deny diplornatic protection.

In short, whatever construction may be put on the rights of share-
holders each constituent element of a share can be characterized as a
"right" or "interest". Furthermore, we can conceive rights and interests
as a whole, as a conglomeration of diverse rights, duties and interests.
Perhaps we can consider them as Mitgliedschaft or Mitgliedsc/zaftsrecht,

which is nothing else but a kind of legal position possessed by a sharehol-
der. That this legal position can be and will be considered an object of
diplornatic protection, is easily understood by the fact that the legal
position as a whole, being incorporated in the share certificate, becomes
negotiable as a movable and quoted in stock-exchange operations.

In this context, we shall clarify the distinction between protection of
shareholders from the viewpoint of the material content of shares and
protection of shareholders as owners of the share certificates. What we
are concerned with is only the former case in which alleged wrongful
acts vis-à-vis the company are involved and consequently the intrinsic
value of shares is affected, while in the latter case the question of protec-
tion is concerned with an owner or possessor of a particular share
certificate asa titre-valeur as in the case of rei vindicatio, where a share
certificate has been stolen or damaged; the latter case therefore, is not

concerned with the protection of shareholders which is what we are
dealing with here.
In sum, the legal position of shareholders can itself be considered to be
the object of diplomatic protection by their national State. From the
viewpoint of diplomatic protection it does not matter whether this
position can be conceived as "property", "a right" or "interests". Even
if it cannot be recognized as property or a right, it constitutes"interest".

The share can be said to be a new type of property which isa product of
modern capitalism; although, unlike copyright, patents and trademarks,
it has its origin in municipal law, it has acquired a highly international
character owing to its anonymity and transferability. There is no other
movable property comparable with the share which is furnished with the
highest degree of negotiability through the mechanism. of international
exchange markets. que si des bénéfices ou des excédentsapparaissent au bilan; il dépend
donc de la situation financièrefuture de la société.Assurément, la posi-
tion des actionnaires est à cetégardplus incertaine que celledes créanciers
et des obligataires mais on ne peut pas, sous prétexte qu'il implique une
incertitude, exclure un droit éventueldu bénéficede la protection diplo-
matique; le fait que les actionnaires n'ont aucun droit sur les biens
sociaux - leur propriétaire légalétant la sociétéelle-même - n'est pas

non plus une raison suffisante de leur refuser le bénéfice de la protection
diplomatique.
En bref, de quelque façon qu'on interprète les droits des actionnaires,
chaque élément constitutif,c'est-à-dire chaque action, peut être défini
comme un ((droit ))ou un ((intérê t De plus, nous pouvons concevoir
cesdroits et intérêts commeun tout, comme un faisceau de droits, devoirs
et intérêtsdivers, en y voyant, par exemple, une Mitgliedschaft ou un

Mitgliedschaftsrecht ce qui n'est rien d'autre qu'une certaine situation
juridique propre à l'actionnaire. Que cette situation juridique puisse
êtreet soit considéréecomme l'objet d'une protection diplomatique,
c'est là chose facile à comprendre si l'on se rappelle qu'incorporée dans
le titre d'action, l'ensemble de cette situation devient négociable entant
que valeur mobilière cotéedans les transactions boursières.
Dans ce contexte, nous établirons une distinction entre la protection
des actionnaires du point de vuedu contenu réel desactions et la protection

des actionnaires en leur qualité de propriétairesdes titres d'actions. Ce
qui nous intéresse, c'estseulement le premier cas où, la sociétéayant fait
l'objet d'actes qualifiéesde lésions,la valeur intrinsèque des actions est
affectée - alors que dans le second cas, il s'agit de la protection du pro-
priétaire ou du possesseur d'un titre particulier considéréen tant que
titre-valeur, par exemple s'ily a rei vindicatiolorsque le titre a étévolé ou
endommagé; ce dernier cas ne concerne donc pas la protection des

actionnaires dont nous nous occupons ici.

En somme, la situation juridique des actionnaires peut êtreconsidérée
comme constituant elle-mêmel'objet d'une protection diplomatique de la
part de 1'Etatnational desdits actionnaires. Peu importe, du point de vue
de la protection diplomatique, que cette situation soit conçue comme un
((bien )),un (droit » ou un cintérê t. Mêmes'il n'est pas possible de

l'assimiler à un bien ou à un droit, il est certain qu'elle constitue un
((intérêt1).
On peut voir en l'action un type de bien nouveau qui est un produit
du capitalisme moderne; encore que, contrairement au droit d'auteur,
aux brevets et aux marques de fabrique, l'action ait son origine dans le
droit interne, elle a acquis un caractère des plus international du fait
qu'elle est anonyme et cessible. Aucun autre bien mobilier n'est compa-

rable à l'action, qui est dotée du plus haut degréde négociabilitégrâce
au mécanisme desbourses internationales de valeurs. Parallel with the development of international investment, the necessity
of its protection becomes acute. It will be recognized that absence of a
uniform law relative to companies and the highly imperfect state of private
international law on this matter increasingly require diplomatic protec-
tion of shareholders in a way that supplements the measures provided by
municipal law .
Briefly, we should approach the customary rule of diplomatic protec-
tion from a teleological angle, namely from the spirit and purpose of
diplomaticprotection,without being bound by municipal law and private
law concepts, recognizing its relative validity according to different
fieldsand institutions. The concept ofjuridical personality mainly governs
private law relationships. It cannot be made an obstacle to diplomatic
protection of shareholders. Concerning diplomatic protection, inter-
national law looks into the substance of matters instead of the legal

form or technique; it pays more consideration to ascertaining where real
interest exists, disregarding legal concepts. International law in this
respect is realistic and therefore flexible.

Judge Wellington Koo in his separate opinion appended to the 1964
Judgment concerning the third preliminary objection in the present case
says :

"International law, being primarily based upon the general
principles of law and justice, is unfettered by technicalities and
formalistic considerations which are often given importance in
municipal law .. .It is the reality which counts more than the ap-
pearance. It is the equitable interest which matters rather than the
legal interest. In other words it is the substance which carried weight
on the international plane rather than the form." (Barcelona Trac-
tion, Liglzt and Power Company, Limited, Prelirninary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1964,pp. 62 and 63.)

Even if the existence of an interest (in a broad sense) in diplomatic
protection is recognized, however, the State concerned would have the
discretion to exercise the power of diplomatic protection on certain mat-
ters. Here, we must distinguish two questions: the one is whether diplo-
matic protection is, from the viewpoint of the nature of the object of
protection, legally possible or not; the other is whether, in a specific
case, intervention for the purpose of diplomatic protection by a State on
behalf of its national, is appropriate or not. The former question is of a
legal nature, to be distinguished from the latter which constitutes nothing
else but the political evaluation of the fact from various aspects (above all,
economic considerations). The two questions should not be confused. A mesure que les investissements internationaux se développent, la
nécessité d'assurerleur protection se fait sentir de façon aiguë. On
admettra que l'absence d'un droit des sociétésuniforme et l'extrême
imperfection du droit international privéen la matière rendent de plus
en plus nécessaireuneprotection diplomatique desactionnaires qui vienne
com~léterles mesures rév vueD s ar le droit interne.
Il faut donc, en résumé, considérelra règlecoutumièrede la protection

diplomatique d'un point de vue téléologique, c'est-à-diredu point de
vue de l'esprit et du but de la protection diplomatique, sans nous en tenir
à des concepts de droit interne et de droit privé,dont la validitépeut
êtreconsidéréecomme relative ouisLuAelle déoenddes domaines et des
institutions. La notion de personnalité morale régitsurtout les rapports
de droit privé.On ne saurait y voir un obstacle à la protection diploma-
tique des actionnaires. Pour ce qui est de la protection diplomatique, le
droit international considèrela substance des chosesplutôt que lesformes
juridiques ou techniques; il accorde surtout de l'importance aux intérêts
véritables,plutôt qu'aux concepts juridiques. A cet égard,le droit inter-

national est réalisteet, par conséquent, souple.
Dans son opinion individuelle jointe à l'arrêtde 1964et à propos de
la troisième exception préliminaire soulevéedans la présente affaire,
M. Wellington Koo s'exprime en ces termes:

«Le droit international, qui se fonde avant tout sur les principes
générauxde droit et de justice, n'est pas liépar des considérations
de pure technique et des considérations formalistes auxquelles le
droit interne accorde souvent de l'importance ...La réalitécompte
plus que l'apparence. C'est l'intérêatu regard de l'equityquiimporte
et non l'intérêatu regard de la law. En d'autres termes, c'est lefond

qui importe sur le plan international et non la forme. » (Barcelona
Traction,Light andPower Company,Limited,exceptionspréliminaires,
arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil1964,p. 62-63.)

Cependant, mêmesi l'on admet qu'un intérê(tau sens large) à la pro-
tection diplomatique existe, 1'Etata le pouvoir discrétionnaire d'exercer
ou de ne pas exercer cette protection dans certaines circonstances. Il faut
ici distinguer entre deux questions: l'une est de savoir si la protection

diplomatique est juridiquement possible ou non - du point de vue de la
nature de l'objet protégé - l'autre consisteà déterminersi, dans un cas
donné,l'intervention d'un Etat au nom d'un ressortissant, à des fins de
protection diplomatique, est opportune ou non. Le premier problème
est juridique et se distingue du second, qui n'est autre que celui d'une
évaluation politique des faits dans tous leurs aspects (compte tenu essen-
tiellement de considérations d'ordre économique).L'un ne doit pas être
confondu avec l'autre. These two questions arise fromthe existence of the two kinds of interest
pertaining to the diplomaticprotection of shareholders:one isthe original

interest of shareholders which requires the protection of their national
State, the other is the interest which the national State of the share-
holders possesses and which may become a deciding factor in the exercise
of a discretionary power of intervention. These two interests must not be
confused either.
In this respect, we shall consider the meaning of the percentage of
participation of shareholders to be protected in the capital stock of a
company. This matter has been repeatedly discussed between the Parties
in the present case relative to the preponderance of percentage of Sidro's
participation in the capital stock of Barcelona Traction. It has been
claimed that this preponderance constitutes an essential condition for the
existence or exercise of the right of diplomatic protection of shareholders.
But we consider that the preponderance of percentage does not appear to
constitute a condition of diplomatic protection. It seems that the percen-
tage itself possesses no relevance to the legal possibility of diplomatic
protection. Even the holding of one share would jusify-theoretically-

the right of diplomatic protection. Whether this right will be exercised or
not, is aatter belonging to the discretion of the national State. What is
essentialis the existence of an interest worthy of protection by the share-
holders' national State. In this sense the total value of the shares to be
protected should be considered objectively without regard to the per-
centage which it occupies in the total capital stock. A holding of 25 per
cent. in a big company may be sufficient for the exercise of diplomatic
protection; contrariwise, a 99 per cent. holding in an insignificant com-
pany may be excluded from the consideration of diplomatic protection.
Of course other factors may come into consideration. This is a matter of
political expediency, belonging to the discretion of the protecting State,
which presupposes the possibility of protection, and not a matter of law
which is concerned with the legal possibility of protection.
We presume that the discussion concerning the percentage of the
participation of Sidro in the capital stock of Barcelona Traction is

motivated by the idea of protection of the Barcelona Traction Company
itself, on which viewpoint the Belgian Application of 1958stood. Con-
troversy around the percentage of participation, so far as the third
preliminary objection is concerned, may be understood as a residuum
of the viewpoint of protection of the company represented by the initial
Application; therefore, it seems that it is not relevant to the question
with which we are dealing now.
The question of whether a State is entitled to exercise a right of dip-
lomatic protection of a foreign corporation is entirely another matter.
It seems that it must be decided in the negative sense, by reason of the
fact that the corporation itself does not possess the nationality of the
protecting State. However, some State practice recognizes the protec-
tion of a foreign corporation, if substantial interest in the corporation Ces deux problèmes tiennent à l'existence de deux sortes d'intérêtsen
matière de protection diplomatique des actionnaires: l'intérêt originaire
des actionnaires qui nécessiteleur protection par 1'Etat dont ils sont
ressortissants, et celui de'Etatdes actionnaires qui peut devenir un fac-
teur déterminant dans l'exercice d'un pouvoir d'intervention discrétion-
naire. Là encore il faut se garder de confondre ces deux intérêts.

Examinons sous cet angle la portéequ'il convient d'attribuer au pour-

centage de participation des actionnairesà protégerdans le capital social.
Cet aspect de la question a fait l'objet d'échangesrépétéesntre les Parties,
à propos de la participation prépondérantede la Sidro, en pourcentage,
dans le capital de la Barcelona Traction. On a soutenu qu'une telle pré-
pondérance constitue une condition essentielle de l'existenceou de l'exer-
cice du droit de protection diplomatique des actionnaires. Nous ne
croyons cependant pas qu'il en soit ainsi. Le pourcentage semble être
en soi un élémentdénué depertinence du point de vue de la possibilité
juridique d'une protection diplomatique. La possession d'une seuleaction
justifierait en théorie l'existence d'un droit de protection. Que ce droit
soit exercé ounon relèvedu pouvoir de décisiondiscrétionnaire de 1'Etat
intéressé. L'essentiel estde savoir s'il existe un intérêt valantla peine
d'être protégé par 1'Etat des actionnaires. Dans cette perspective, la
valeur totale des actions à protéger doit êtreconsidérée objectivement,

sans égardau pourcentage de capital représentépar ces titres. Une parti-
cipation de 25 pour cent dans une grosse sociétépeut suffire à justifier
l'exercicede la protection diplomatique; au contraire, un portefeuille de
99 pour cent des actions d'une affaire insignifiantepeut ne pas êtrepris
en considération. D'autres élémentspeuvent, bien entendu, entrer en jeu.
Il y a là un problème politique relevant du pouvoir discrétionnaire de
1'Etat protecteur, et qui présuppose la possibilité d'une protection, et
non pas une question de droit visant justement à déterminersi cette possi-
bilitéjuridique existe.
Il nous paraît que le débatsur le pourcentage de la participation de la
Sidro dans le capital de la Barcelona Traction se rattache à l'idéede
protection de la société BarcelonaTraction elle-même quiétait à la base

de la requêtebelge de 1958. La controverse relative à ce pourcentage,
pour ce qui concerne la troisième exception préliminaire, peut s'inter-
prétercomme une sorte de vestige de cette idéede protection de la société
qui inspirait la requête initiale;elle paraît donc se situer en dehors du
sujet qui nous occupe à présent.

La question de savoir si un Etat est fondé à exercer un droit de pro-
tection diplomatique en faveur d'une sociétéétrangèreest entièrement
différente.Elle semble devoir êtrerésoluepar la négative,pour la raison
que la société elle-mêm nee possèdepas la nationalitéde 1'Etatqui exerce
la protection. La pratique de certains Etats admet cependant la possibi-
lité deprotégerune sociétéétrangère,si les ressortissants de 1'Etatinter- is owned by its nationals (see Edwin M. Borchard, The Diplornatic
Protection of Citizens Abroad, 1915, p. 622). This is not the case which
we are now considering. Here we are concerned with the issue of the
protection of shareholders and not the company itself. But much progress
has been made such that through protection of a foreign company the
protection of shareholders is attained. It is quite natural that, so long
as the standpoint of protection of a company itself is defended, the
percentage of the participation of the protected shareholders does corne
into consideration. However, since we refuse to recognize an obstacle
to diplomatic protection in the juridical personality of a company and
attribute to shareholders an independent status which may be an object
of diplomatic protection, the fact of Sidro's holding a certain fairly

large percentage of the Barcelona Traction Company must be deemed
to be one of the factors to be taken into consideration in exercising
diplomatic protection but not one legally required as a condition for
the right of protection.

It is true that the internationally wrongful acts allegedly committed
by the Spanish administrative or judicial State organs, such as refusal
of the transfer of foreign currency, the bankruptcy judgment of 12
February 1948, etc., are directed to the Barcelona Traction Company,
which possesses Canadian nationality. Accordingly, the Spanish Govern-
ment argues that only Canada, the national State of the company, is
entitled to exercise its diplomatic protection. This argument is based
on the municipal law concept of the corporation on which we made
observations above and according to which only the corporate personality

prevails regarding external matters. According to this concept, since
only the company could be the victim of a wrongful act, the damage
suffered by the shareholders should be indemnified through the company
indirectly. In short, only the national State of the company would be
entitled to exercise diplomatic protection and not the national State of
the shareholders.
It islso true that the national State of a company is entitled to take
measures of diplomatic protection on behalf of the company, assuming
that the bond of nationality is effective, and that the national State is
materially interested in the protection of the company. But there are
many cases where the nationality of the company is not effective, where
the bond between the national State of thecompany and the shareholders
is lacking and, accordingly, the national State is not inclined to exercise
the right of protection. There may exist another circumstance for the
national State of the company, such as the fact that between this State
and the State responsible for the wrongful acts a nexus of compulsory
jurisdiction islacking; or the former State, for some political or other

reasons may not wish to pursue diplomatic protection against the lattervenant y possèdent un intérêt (substantiel))(voir Edwin M. Borchard,
TheDiplomatie Protection of CitizensAbroad, 1915,p. 622). Ce n'est pas
le cas dans l'affaire que nous examinons à présent, qui se rapporte à la
protection des actionnaires et non pas de la société elle-même D.e tels
progrès ont cependant étéréalisésque, par la protection d'une société

étrangère,on aboutit àprotégerles actionnaires. Il est naturel que, tant
que l'on se place du point de vue de la protection de la société même, le
pourcentage de participation des actionnaires protégéssoit pris en con-
sidération. Mais puisque nous refusons d'admettre que la personnalité
morale de la société puissefaire obstacle à la protection diplomatique
et que nous attribuons aux actionnaires un statut indépendant pouvant
être l'objetd'une telleprotection, le fait que la Sidro détientun certain
pourcentage, assez élevéd , u capital de la Barcelona Traction, doit être
considéré commel'un des facteurs à faire entrer en ligne de compte aux
fins de l'exercicede la protection diplomatique mais non comme l'un de
ceux qui sont juridiquement requis pour que le droit de protection existe.

Il est vrai que les actes internationalement illicites qu'auraient commis
les organes administratifs ou judiciaires espagnols, tels que le refus
d'autoriser les transferts de devises, le jugement de faillite du 12 février
1948, etc., sont des actes dirigéscontre la société BarcelonaTraction,
laquelle est de nationalité canadienne. C'est pourquoi le Gouvernement
espagnol soutient que seul le Canada, Etat national de la société, est
habilité à exercer une protection diplomatique. L'argument s'inspire de
la conception de la sociétéde capitaux en droit interne, sur laquelle nous

avons formulé des observations ci-dessus et suivant laquelle seule la
personne morale compte dans les rapports avec les tiers. Selon cette
conception, puisque seule la société peut êtrevictime d'un acte illicite, le
dommage subi par les actionnaires devrait donner lieu à indemnisation
indirectement, par le truchement de la société. En somme, seul1'Etat
national de la sociétéserait habilità exercer sa protection diplomatique
et non 1'Etatnational des actionnaires.
Il est tout aussi vrai que 1'Etat national d'une société esthabilité à
prendre des mesures de protection diplomatique en faveur de celle-ci, à
condition que le lien de nationalité soit effectif, c'est-à-dire que l'Etat
national ait réellementintérê t protégerla société. Maisil y a de nom-

breux cas où la nationalité dela société n'est pasffective,où le lien entre
1'Etatnational de la sociétéet les actionnaires fait défaut et où, par suite,
1'Etatnational de la société n'est guère enclinexercer son droit de pro-
tection.Il se peut aussi que 1'Etatnational de la sociétése trouve placé
dans des circonstances particulières: par exemple, quand cet Etat et
l'Etat responsable des actes illicites ne sont pas liéspar une clause de
juridiction obligatoire; ou bien quand le premier Etat, pour des raisons
politiques ou autres, ne tient pasà exercer sa protection diplomatique à State; or diplomatic protection by the former State might not bring a
satisfactory result, etc. Under these circumstances there remains no
other remedy than that the national State of the shareholders should
take the initiative for the purpose of the protection of its nationals. A
vacuum with respect to protection should not be tolerated: otherwise
shareholders would be left in an entirely helpless condition and the result
would be injustice and inequity which would be harmful for the healthy
development of international investment.
As one of the objections raised to the above-mentioned argument
in favour of diplomatic protection of a national State of shareholders,
we may point out the difficulty which would be produced by the zumu-
lative existence or competitive concurrence of rights of several States
concerning the same object of diplomatic protection. It follows that
inthe case of multinational composition of capital, more thanone national

State of shareholders might intervene on the condition that the juris-
dictional basis exists, either by the way of intervention as provided for
in Articles62and 63 of the Statute or by special agreement or application
(Article40 of the Statute). Each of those entitled to diplomatic protection
would be able to exerciseits right of protection accordingto its discretion
without prejudicing the rights of protection of other States concerned.

Such competitive existence of rights of diplomatic protection of
diverse States appears an extraordinary phenomenon, but we consider
that the same kind of legal phenomenon can be found in contractual or
delictual matters where the same contract or wrongful act gives rise to
a claim for compensation by diverse persons concerned. In such a case,
concurrent plural claims may serve a common purpose; if one of them
were exercised and satisfied, the remaining rights would be extinguished,
having attained their purpose.
Accordingly, in the present case, there does not exist any contradic-

tion between, on the one hand, the right of diplomatic protection of the
Barcelona Traction Company by its national State, namely Canada and,
on the other hand, the right of diplomatic protection of its shareholders
by their national State, namely Belgium. The existence of the former
right does not exclude either the existence of the latter right or its exercise.

Since the two rights of diplomatic protection-that of Canda and
that of Belgium-CO-exist in parallel but independently, it is not a
necessity forBelgium'sright of diplomatic protection that Canada should
finally waive its right of protection in regard to the Barcelona Traction
Company. Such a fact is not relevant to the existence of the right of
diplomatic protection of Belgium in favour of its shareholders.

We cannot deny the possibility of a cumulative existence of rights
of diplomatic protection in the case of a Company just as a natural
person may have dual nationality. If a claim of one State is realized, I%AKCELONATRACTION (OP. INL>. TANAKA) 130

l'encontre du deuxièmeEtat. ou encore quand I'exercicede la protection
diplomatique par le premier Etat risque de ne pas aboutir, etc. En de
telles circonstances.iln'y a plus qu'un seul recours: c'est que I'Etat
national des actionnaires prenne l'initiative dela protection de ses ressor-
tissants. On ne doit pas tolérer une absence totale de protection, car les
actionnaires se trouveraient alors sans aucun recours, ce qui serait une

source d'injustice et d'inéquitéet nuirait au développement satisfaisant
des investissements internationaux.
Parmi les objections élevéesà l'encontre de la thèse ci-dessus,qui teàd
admettre l'exercice de la protection diplomatique par 1'Etat dont les
actionnaires sont ressortissants, il y a lieu de signaler la difficultétenant
au fait que plusieurs Etats peuvent avoir simultanément ou concurrem-
ment le droit d'exercer une protection diplomatique à l'égarddu même
objet. Ainsi, dans les cas où le capital d'une société estd'originepluri-
nationale, plus d'un Etat pourrait intervenir en faveur de ses ressortis-
tissants actionnaire- sous réserveque la relationjuridictionnelle néces-

saire existe soit de la manière prévueaux articles 62 et 63 du Statut
de la Cour, soit par voie de compromis ou de requête(art. 40 du Statut).
Chacun des Etats habilitésà exercer une protection diplomatiquepourrait
l'exercer à sa discrétion, sans préjudice desdroits de protection d'autres
Etats intéressés.
Cette pluralité de droits de protection diplomatique appartenant à
plusieurs Etats apparaît comme un phénomèneextraordinaire mais, à
notre avis, c'est un phénomène juridique apparenté à celui que l'on re-
trouve en matière contractuelle ou délictuelle, où un mêmecontrat ou
un mêmeacte illicite peut autoriser une action en réparation de la part
de plusieurs personnes. En pareil cas, des actions multiples et simultanées

peuvent avoir un mêmeobjet; si l'une est exercée avec succès, lesautres
s'éteignent,l'objet étant atteint.
En l'espèce,il n'existe donc aucune contradiction entre, d'une part, le
droit de protection diplomatique en faveur de la société Barcelona
Traction appartenant à 1'Etat dont elle a la nationalité, c'est-à-dire le
Canada, et,d7autre part, le droit de protection diplomatique en faveur
des actionnaires de la sociétéappartenant à 1'Etatdont ces actionnaires
ont la nationalité, c'est-à-dire la Belgique. L'existence du premier droit
n'exclut ni l'existence niI'exercicedu second.
Comme ces deux droits de protection diplomatique - celui du Canada

et celui de la Belgique- coexistentparallèlement mais indépendamment
l'un de l'autre, il n'est nullement nécessaire, pour que le droit de la
Belgique naisse, que le Canada renonce définitivement à son droit de
protection en faveur de la société BarcelonaTraction. Ce que fait le
Canada à cet égardn'a aucun effet sur l'existence du droit de protection
diplomatique de la Belgique à l'égard desactionnaires belges.
De mêmequ'une personne physique peut avoir la double nationalité,
on ne saurait nier la possibilitéd'une pluralité de droits de protection
diplomatique dans le cas d'une société.Si la demande d'un des Etats the claim of the other State will be extinguished to this extent by losing
its object. Accordingly, the defendant State cannot be compelled to
pay the damage twice over.
Of course, we recognize that the fear of complication which would
be caused by plural or multiple interventions of several governments
has some justification. But if we deny them, the legitimate interests
of shareholders rnight be left without protection by their national States.
These phenomena would represent some of the defects inherent in the
present institution of diplomatic protection, which might be related to
the non-acceptability of individuals to international tribunals. Practically
complication and confusion might be avoided to a considerable degree
by negotiations and "solutions inspired by goodwill and common
sense ..."(Reparationfor Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United
Nations, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports I949, p. 186) between the
States concerned. Or it would be a task of international legislativepolicy
to provide means to guarantee the protection of private investments and
to find appropriate solutions in order to overcome the difficulties arising
from the multiple intervention of several governments. We should not
refuse the necessary remedies to protect legitimate shareholders by

conjecturing extreme cases.

It is true that there is norule of international law which allows two
kinds of diplomatic protection to a company and its shareholders re-
spectively, but thereis no rule of international law either which prohibits
double protection. It seems that a lacuna of law exists here; it must be
filled by an interpretation which emanates from the spirit of the institu-
tion of diplomatic protection itself.

From what is stated above, we can conclude that whether Canada
is entitled to diplomatic protection of the Barcelona Traction Company
as its national State or whether the Canadian Government once wanted
to intervene in the dispute but finally gave up the original intention, is
not legally relevant to solve the question of the right of diplornatic
protection of shareholders by their national State. This right exists
independently of the right of the national State of the company. The
history of the comparatively short-livedCanadian intervention (1948-1952
or 1955),however,would prove the raisond'être of the right of diplornatic
protection of shareholders by their national State.

The above-mentioned protection of the shareholders themselves is
based on the concept which characterizes relationships between the
company and its members, namely the shareholders. Although an inde-aboutit, la demande de l'autre Etat s'éteint, parce qu'elleperd son objet.
Par conséquent,1'Etat défendeurne peut pas êtretenu de réparer deux
fois le dommage.
Bien entendu, on est dans une certaine mesure justifié à craindre les
complications qu'engendreraient des interventions multiples de la part

de plusieurs gouvernements. Mais si nous refusons ces interventions,
les intérêtslégitimesd'actionnaires risquent de se trouver démunis de
toute protection de la part des Etats dont ces actionnaires sont ressortis-
sants.-Il y alà un phénomène qui peuts'expliquer par certains défauts
inhérents à l'institution de la protection diplomatique telle qu'elle existe
actuellement, défauts liéspeut-être à l'impossibilitépour les particuliers
de saisir les tribunaux internationaux. Dans la pratique, on pourrait
éviterbeaucoup de complications et de confusion grâce àdes négociations
et à des ccsolutionsinspiréespar la bonne volonté et le bon sens ...))
(Réparationdes dommages subisau service des Nations Unies,avis con-
sultatif,C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 186) que mettraient au point les Etats

intéressés.Ou bien il faudrait, dans le cadre d'une politique législative
internationale, prévoir des moyensdegarantir laprotection desinvestisse-
ments privéset trouver des solutions permettant d'obvier aux difficultés
liéesà l'intervention multiple de plusieurs gouvernements. Mais nous ne
devons pas interdire les recoufs indispensables à la protection des
actionnaires de bonne foi en tirant argument de situations extrêmes.
Sans doute n'existe-t-ilpas de règlede droit international qui autorise
deux sortes de protection diplomatique, l'une en faveur d'une société et
l'autre en faveur de ses actionnaires, mais il n'y en a pas non plus qui
interdise la double protection. Le droit présentant ici, semble-t-il, une

lacune, il fautla combler par le moyen d'une interprétation qui s'inspire
de l'esprit de l'institution de la protection diplomatique elle-même.

Ce qui précèdenous permet de conclure que le point de savoir si le
Canda est habilité à exercer une protection diplomatique au profit de la
société BarcelonaTraction en sa qualité d'Etat national de la société,
ou encore si le Gouvernement canadien a voulu à un moment donné
intervenir dans le différend maisy a finalement renoncé,estjuridiquement
sans pertinence quand il s'agit de résoudre le problème du droit des

actionnaires à la protection diplomatique de leur Etat national. Ce droit
existe indépendamment du droit qui appartient à 1'Etat national de la
sociétéD. u reste, l'histoire de l'intervention canadienne, qui fut relative-
ment brève (1948-1952 ou 1955), mettrait en évidencela raison d'être
du droit des actionnaires à la protection diplomatique de 1'Etatdont ils
sont ressortissants.
Cette protection des actionnaires eux-mêmesse justifie par la façon
dont sont conçues les relations entre une sociétéet ses membres, les
actionnaires. Bien que la sociétésoit dotée d'une personnalité morale 137 HAKCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. TANAKA)

pendent juridical personality is conferred on a cornpany, this personality
does not present itself as an end, but simply as a rneans to achieve an
economic purpose, namely a maximum degree of peciiniary interest by
a limited sum of investrnent
A company in the sociological sense belongs to the category of the
"Gesellschaft", and presents itself as a pure means to achieve the eco-
nomic purpose of its members, namely the shareholders; the shareholders
constitute the substance of its existence; they are the sovereign of the
company like the citizens in a democratic State. Who require, in the
material sense, diplomatic protection in the case of a company? No-one
other than the shareholders in the company, although in some cases
the company itself, may appear as a formal protégé onthe scene, having
its cause espoused by its national State. Therefore in a company. the
shareholders, as being its real substance, and the subject of interests,
must be considered as the object of diplomatic protection; not the
company itself which has nothing but a fictive existence and can only

play the role of a technique for the purpose of protection of the share-
holders who are the real owners of the corporate property and enterprise.
From what has been said above, we can conclude that there exists
between acompany and its shareholders a relationship of cornrnunity of
destiny which has been repeatedly emphasized, particularly in the oral
arguments by the Belgian Government, in order to justify its right of
diplomatic protection on behalf of its shareholders in the present case.
The alleged internationally wrongful acts, it is true, are directed against
the company itself and not against the shareholders, but only in a
forma1 sense; in reality both are inseparably connected to each other
in such a way that prejudicial acts committed against a company neces-
sarily produce an effect detrimental to its shareholders by reduction of
the sum of dividends or surplus assets. In a cornpany. we can recognize
the existence of unity between company and shareholders in the sense
that profit and loss are in the final instance attributed to the shareholders

-of course under the condition that the liability of each shareholder is
limited to the sum of shares which he has subscribed.
Therefore, the alleged internationally wrongful acts directed against a
company can be conceived as directed against its shareholders themselves.
because both can be considered, in substance, i.e., economically,identical.

Accordingly, one cannot deny to the national State of shareholders
the right of diplomatic protection of its nationals on the ground that
another State may possess or exercise the same right on behalf of the
company itself. Consequently, in the present case, the recognition of
the right of diplomatic protection of Canada, which is the national
State of the Barcelona Traction Company, does not exclude the same
right of Belgium, the national State of the shareholders of that company
on their behalf; hence Belgium may be entitled to exercise its original indépendante, cette personnalité se présente non pas comme une fin en
soi, mais simplement comme un moyen d'atteindre un objectif économi-
que, qui est de s'assurer par un investissement limité le rendement
financier le plus élevé possible.
Au sens sociologique, une sociétéentre dans la catégorie dela Gesell-
schaft et n'est riend'autre que le moyen d'atteindre l'objectif économique
visépar ses membres, c'est-à-direpar lesactionnaires; cesderniers sont la
substancede son existence; ilssont lessouverains de la sociétéexactement
comme le sont les citoyens dans un Etat démocratique. Concrètement,
qui, dans le cas de la société,a besoin de la protection diplomatique?
Personne d'autre que les actionnaires, même si,dans certains cas, c'est
la société elle-mêmqeui apparaît formellement comme la protégéedont
1'Etat national épouse la cause. Par suite ce que l'on doit considérer
comme l'objet de la protection diplomatique, ce sont les actionnaires,

qui sont la véritable substânce de la sociétéet les titulaires d'intérêts;
ce n'est pas la société elle-même q,ui n'a qu'une existence fictive et ne
constitue qu'un moyen technique de protéger les actionnaires, lesquels
sont les propriétaires réelset du patrimoine social et de l'entreprise.
De ce qui précèdeon peut déduire que la relation existant entre la
sociétéet ses actionnaires est celle d'une communauté de destin, et c'est
là ce que le Gouvernement belge n'a cesséde faire valoir, en particulier
dans ses plaidoiries, pour justifier en l'espèceson droit d'exercer une
protection diplomatique au profit de ses nationaux actionnaires. Certes
les actes internationalement illicites dont il est fait état sont des actes
dirigéscontre la société elle-mêmeet non contre les actionnaires; mais
cela n'est vrai qu'en un sens purement formel; en réalité, société et
actionnaires sont indissolublemen; liés d'unemanière telle que des actes
dommageables commis contrela société portent nécessairement préjudice
aux actionnaires en réduisantlesdividendes ou le reliquat d'actif. L'union
entre la sociétéet ses actionnaires se manifeste en ceci: ce sont les action-

naires, en définitive,qui perçoivent les bénéficeset supportent les pertes,
étantbien entendu que chacun d'eux n'estresponsable qu'à concurrence
du montant des actions qu'il a souscrites.
En conséquence, lesactes internationalement illicites qui sont allégués,
quoique dirigéscontre une société, peuventêtreconsidéréscomme dirigés
contre ses actionnaires eux-mêmescar, pour l'essentiel, c'est-à-dire du
point de vue économique, on peut estimer qu'il y a identité entre la
sociétéet ses actionnaires.
II est donc impossible de dénier à 1'Etat national des actionnaires un
droit de protection diplomatique en faveur de ses ressortissants pour le
motif que l'autre Etat posséderait ou exercerait le mêmedroit au profit
de la société elle-même. C'es ptourquoi, en la présente instance, le fait
de reconnaître un droit de protection diplomatique au Canada, Etat
national de la société BarcelonaTraction, n'exclut pasle droit de protec-
tion de la Belgique, Etat national des actionnaires, en faveur de ceux-ci:

la Belgique peut ainsi être fondée à exercer le droit originaire qui luiright of protection of her shareholders independently of the protection
of the company itself by Canada. Therefore, the Belgian Government
cannot be regarded as substituting the Canadian claim to the protection
of the company.
It might be said in passing that by this assertion we do not go so
far as to maintain that the interest of the company coincides perfectly
with the totality of the shareholders' interests. We must recognize that
originally a company is no more than a means for its shareholders to
achieve their lucrative purpose; but so long as the company continues
as a going concern it would enjoy in some measure an independent
existence free from the arbitrary decision of the shareholders. So long
as a company exists for a considerable space of time and fulfils its
corporate purpose it acquires an objective existence (the idea of so-
called "Unternehmen an sich" of Walther Rathenau) which, owing to
its important social role the shareholders would not dare dissolve arbi-
trarily, even if it were legally possible, by the prescribed majority vote.

We know that many contemporary big and influential corporations are
entending their activities to fields of an educational, scientific and phil-
anthropic nature and are contributing to the solution of social and
cultural problems for the welfare of humanity (A. A. Berle, The 20th
Century Capitalist Revolution, 1954, pp. 164, 188). Accordingly, even
in the case of a corporation created for the egoistic purposes of share-
holders, there may exist a common interest of the company distinct
from the individual interest of the shareholders, and therefore we can-
not deny the possibility of conflict between these two interests.
However, the possibility of common interest does not preclude the
fact that between the company and the shareholders a relationship of
community normally exists and wrongful acts done to and damage
inflicted on the former can be considered also as being directed against
the latter.
We recognize that an adequate connection of cause and effect may
exist between the wrongful acts done to the company and the damage

inflictedon the shareholders, but we can explain thisfact, as is mentioned
above, by the existence of a community of destiny or a substantial
economic identity between them.

From what has been stated above, weconsider that wecan demonstrate
the raison d'êtreof the right of diplomatic protection by a State of its
nationals who are shareholders in a company of a nationality other than
that of the protecting State.
The Parties have argued by quoting international arbitral precedents,
the practice of States and the writings of authoritative publicists to
defend their standpoints. Although cases concerning the protection of
shareholders exactly analogous to the present case cannot be found,appartient de protéger ses ressortissants actionnaires, indépendamment
de la protection que le Canada accorderait à la société. Onne peut donc
pas considérerque le Gouvernement belge se substitue au Canada pour
protégerla société.
Soit dit en passant, nous ne prétendons pas pour autant que l'intérêt
de la sociétécoïncide parfaitementavec la totalitédes intérêts deaction-
naires. Nous sommes obligésd'admettre qu'initialement la société n'est
rien de plus qu'un moyen pour ses actionnaires d'atteindre leur objectif
lucratif; mais, tant que la société esten activité, ellemène dans une
certaine mesure une existence indépendante à l'abri de toute décision
arbitraire des actionnaires. Dès lors qu'une sociétédemeure en vie assez

longtemps et remplit la fonction qu'elle s'est assignée, elleacquiert une
existence objective (c'est l'idéede l'unternehmen an sich de Walther
Rathenau), à laquelle, du fait de l'importance de son rôle social, les
actionnaires n'oseraient pas mettre arbitrairement fin, mêmesi cela était
juridiquement possible à la suite d'un vote à une majorité qualifiée.
On sait qu'à l'heure actuelle bon nombre de grosses sociétés influentes
étendent leurs activitésaux domaines de l'enseignement, de la science,
de la philanthropie, et contribuent ainsiésoudreau profit de l'humanité
tout entière les problèmes sociaux et culturels (cf. A. Berle, The 20th
Century Capitalist Revolution, 1954,p. 164, 188).Par suite, mêmelorsqu'il
s'agit d'une sociétéde capitaux crééeinitialement aux fins égoïstes des
actionnaires, la société a parfoisun intérêtglobal distinct de l'intérêt
individuel des actionnaires, et nous ne pouvons donc exclure la possibilité

que ces deux intérêtsentrent en conflit.
Pourtant, l'existence éventuellede cet intérêtglobal n'empêchepas
qu'il y ait normalement une relation de communauté d'intérêtentre la
sociétéet ses actionnaires. et l'onDeut considérer aue les actes illicites
commis contre la sociétéet qui lui causent un dommage sont également
dirigéscontre les actionnaires.
Nous pouvons admettre l'existence d'une relation suffisante de cause
à effet entre les actes illicites commis contre la sociétéet le dommage subi
par les actionnaires, ce qui s'explique, comme nous l'avons dit plus haut,
par l'existence d'une communauté de destin ou d'une quasi-identitésur
le plan économique entre la sociétéet ses actionnaires.

Les considérations qui précèdent nous semblentdémontrer la raison
d'être dudroit qu'a un Etat d'accorder une protection diplomatique
à ses ressortissants actionnaires d'une sociétéayant la nationalité d'un
autre Etat.
Les Parties ont invoqué 5 l'appui de leurs thèses desprécédents tirés de
sentences arbitrales internationales, la pratique des Etats et les écrits
de publicistes éminents. Encore qu'on ne trouve pas, en matière de
protection des actionnaires, de cas exactement identiques à l'affaire quiinternational practice and doctrine do not seem to deny the protection
of shareholders by their national State to which the company itself does
not belong.
The Spanish Government admits the protection of shareholders by
their national State (1) where, following the general tendency of inter-

national practice and doctrine, the company possesses the nationality
of the State responsible for the damage, and (2) where the foreign
company has been dissolved or is practically defunct. In these cases there
exists the circumstance that the protection of the shareholders by the
national State of the company cannot be expected, either factually or
legally. This is why in these cases the protection of shareholders directly
by their national State is justified. The question is whether these two
instances are to be considered as a manifestation of a more general
principle in favour of the protection of shareholders or as an exception
to the main principle which does not admit their protection.
The principle of customary international law concerning diplomatic
protection by the State of its nationals, however general and vague it may
be, does not prohibit the rights or the legal position of shareholders being
included in "property, rights and interests" as an object of protection.
This conclusion can be justified as a correct interpretation of customary
international law concerning diplomatic protection, particularly taking
into account the above-mentioned necessityof international investment in

the past as well as in the future. The nature of thenterest of shareholders
is to be interpreted as a legitimate one worthy of protection by their
national State.
Next, customary international law does not prohibit protection of
shareholders by their national State even when the national State of the
company possesses the right of protection in respect of the latter.
The SpanishGovernment denies the right of protection of shareholders
by their national State. It admits diplomatic protection of shareholders
only in the two above-mentioned exceptional cases. Protection of share-
holders from this viewpoint is considered only as a substitute for the
protection of thecompany itself which has becorne irnpracticable through
the circumstances indicated above. From our viewpoint, the protection
of the shareholders possesses a meaning independently of the protection
of the company itself. Accordingly, it can exist regardless of circum-
stances which might rnake the exercise of the right of protection of a
company and the intervention of its national government impossible or
difficult. Theredoes not appear to exist in international law any restric-

tion to the effectthat the protection of shareholders in a foreign company
by their national State rnust belimited to the above-mentioned two cases.
The national State of shareholders, in the present case Belgiurn, is
entitled to protect thern just asin the cases where a company possesses
the nationality of the responsible State, or a cornpany has been dissolved
or is practically defunct.
In short, the contention of the Spanish Governrnent is based on the nous occupe, la pratique et la doctrine internationales ne semblent pas
proscrire la protection desactionnaires par 1'Etatdont ceux-ci-mais non
la société elle-même - sont ressortissants.
Le Gouvernement espagnol admet la protection des actionnaires par
leur Etat national: 1) lorsque la société possède la nationalité de 1'Etat
responsable du dommage causé,conformément à la tendance générale
de la pratique et de la doctrine internationales, et 2) lorsque la société
étrangèrea été dissouteou est pratiquement défunte. Dans ces deux cas,

on se trouve devant une situation où il est impossible, en fait comme en
droit, de compter que 1'Etat national de la sociétéprotégera les action-
naires. C'estce quijustifie qu'en pareil cas1'Etatnational des actionnaires
protège directement ceux-ci. La question se pose de savoir si ces deux
exemples peuvent êtreconsidéréscomme illustrant un principe général
de protection des actionnaires, ou s'ils constituent des exceptions au
principe de base, lequel n'admettrait pas cette protection.
Le principe de droit international coutumier concernant la protection
diplomatique exercéepar un Etat en faveur de sesressortissants, sigénéral
et si vague soit-il, n'empêchepas d'inclure les droits ou la situation juri-

dique des actionnaires parmi les (biens, droits et intérêt )faisant l'objet
d'une protection. On peut justifier cette conclusion en y voyant une inter-
prétationexacte du droit international coutumier en matière de protection
diplomatique, surtout si l'on tient compte de la nécessité,rappeléeplus
haut, des investissements internationaux aussi bien dans le passéquepour
l'avenir. On doit considérer que l'intérêtdes actionnaires a la nature
d'un intérêltégitimeméritant d'êtreprotégépar leur Etat national.
Par ailleurs, le droit internationalcoutumier n'interdit pas la protection
des actionnaires par leur Etat national mêmelorsque 1'Etat national de
la société possède le droit de protéger celle-ci.
Le Gouvernement espagnol nie que 1'Etat national des actionnaires

ait un droit de protection diplomatique en leur faveur. Il n'admet la
protection diplomatique des actionnaires que dans les deux casexception-
nels mentionnés plus haut. Dans cette conception, la protection des
actionnaires est considéréeuniquement comme un pis-aller, à défaut
d'une protection de la société elle-mêmr eendue impossible par les
circonstances précitées.Dans la nôtre. la protection des actionnaires est
une notion indépendante de la protection de la société elle-mêmeP.ar
conséquent, elle peut exister en dehors de toute circonstance qui entra-
verait ou paralyserait l'exercice du droit de protection de la sociétéet
l'intervention de son gouvernement national. En droit international,
aucune restriction ne semble limiter aux deux cas indiquésla protection

des actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangèrepar leur Etat national. L'Etat
national des actionnaires -en l'occurrence la Belgique-a le droit de les
protéger dela mêmefaçon que si la société possédailta nationalité de
I'Etat responsable du préjudiceou que si la sociétéavait étédissoute ou
était pratiquement défunte.
Bref. la thèse du Gouvernement espagnol est fondée sur la notion de municipal law concept of corporate personality and that of shareholders
which is its corollary. The two protections, we consider-protection of

the company and that of the shareholders-may CO-existand on equal
terms; the latter is not supplementary to the former.

For the foregoing reasons, we conclude that Belgium has an indepen-
dent right to protect the Belgian shareholders in Barcelona Traction in
conformity with the interpretation of customary international law con-
cerning the diplomatic protection of nationals.

So far we have been concerned with the question of the legal, that is to
Say, the theoretical basis for thejus standiof the Belgian Government:
the question whether a State has a right to protect its nationals who are
shareholders in a company of a nationality other than that of the pro-
tecting state. This question having been answered in the affirmative, we

must now consider some questions from the viewpoint of the identifica-
tion of individual shareholders with reference to the present case.
These questions are concerned of course with the existence of share-
holders who are entitled to receive diplomatic protection by their home
State. Not al1so-called "shareholders", but only those who are qualified
from the functional and temporal viewpoint to receive protection. (It
goes without saying that proof of their status as shareholders must be
furnished as a matter of principle either by the register in the case of
registered shares or by possession in the case of bearer shares.)

From the viewpoint of functional differentiation a question arises when
shares are owned by two persons: the one, a nominee, whose name is
entered in the share register and who exercises rights as alter egoof the
real owner; the other, the beneficial owner, who enjoys rights as the real
or economic owner of the shares. By what criterion shall it be decided

which of those two is entitled as shareholder to be the object of pro-
tection: the nominee or the beneficial owner?

In the present case, the register of the shareholders of the Barcelona
Traction Company kept by the National Trust Company of Toronto
gives successively as from 7 November 1939 the names of the Charles
Gordon Company, a partnership of New Jersey and Newman & Com-
pany, a partnership of New York-the two are of American nationality-
and does not give the name of Sidro which is of Belgian nationality. It is
contended by the Belgian Government that a contractual nominee-
beneficial-owner relationskip exists between the two American partner-
ships and Sidro. The purpose of the establishment of such a relationshippersonnalité morale de la société telle qu'elle existeen droit interne, et

sur la notion d'actionnaire qui en découle. Nous estimons pour notre
part que les deux types de protection, la protection de la sociétéet celle
des actionnaires, peuvent coexister sur un pied d'égalité, la seconde
n'étant pas le complément de la première.
Pour les raisons qui précèdent, nous concluons que la Belgique a,
de façon indépendante, le droit de protéger les actionnaires belges de la

Barcelona Traction, conformément à l'interprétation qu'il convient de
donner du droit international coutumier en matière de protection diplo-
matique des nationaux.

Nous avons étudié jusqu'ici la question du fondement juridique,
c'est-à-dire théorique, de la qualité pour agir du Gouvernement belge,
qui consiste à déterminer si un Etat a ou non le droit de protéger ses
ressortissants, actionnaires d'une sociétéd'une autre nationalité que la
sienne. Ayant répondu à cette question par l'affirmative, nous devons

maintenant envisager certaines autres questions du point de vue de
l'identification des actionnaires visésdans la présente espèce.
Il s'agit évidemment de savoir s'il existe des actionnaires fondés à
bénéficierd'une protection diplomatique de la part de 1'Etat dont ils
sont ressortissants. Seules donc nous intéressent, parmi les personnes
dites ((actionnaires)), celles qui remplissent les conditions voulues, du

point de vue fonctionnel et du point de vue temporel, pour bénéficier
de la protection. (II va sans dire que la preuve de leur qualité d'action-
naires doit résulter en principe de l'inscription au registre, s'il s'agit
d'actions nominatives, ou de la possession des titres, s'il s'agit d'actions
au porteur.)
Du point de vue de la différenciation fonctionnelle, un problème se

pose lorsque les actions appartiennent à deux personnes, l'une étant un
nominee, dont le nom est inscrit sur le registre des titres et qui exerce
certains droits en tant qu'alter ego du propriétaire véritable, l'autre
étant le benejcial owner, qui a la propriétéréelle, ou économique, des
actions et possède de ce fait des droits. Quel critère choisir pour déter-
miner qui, du nominee ou du benejcial oi.r5nere ,st l'actionnaire appelé

à bénéficier dela protection?
En l'espèce,le registre des actionnaires de la sociétéBarcelona Traction
tenu par la ~ational Trust Company de Toronto indique successivement,
à partir du 7 novembre 1939, les noms de deux sociétésde personnes,
Charles Gordon & Company du New Jersey et Newman & Company
de New York, toutes deux de nationalité américaine; on n'y trouve

pas le nom de la Sidro, qui est de nationalité belge. Le Gouvernement
belge soutient qu'il existe, entre les deux sociétésaméricaines et la Sidro,
une relation contractuelle de nominee à benejcial ocrlner.L'établissement
d'une telle relation s'expliquerait par la nécessité,pour la Belgique136 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. TANAKA)

seems to have been a wartime necessity of German-occupied Belgium to
protect Sidro's participation in the capital and management of Barcelona
Traction against an enemy power. Under such relationships a question
arises: which of the nationalities-American or Belgian-prevails, in
deciding the national character of Sidro's shares?

The Spanish Government denies the effect of the Belgian nationality
of Sidro by regarding the nominees, who are of American nationality, as
the true shareholders. We consider that the beneficial ownership, and,
accordingly, in the present case, Sidro's position asbeneficialowner,must
be the criterion for deciding this question. The reason therefor is as

follows: diplomatic protection depends upon where the real interest
resides; it is not concerned with a legal mechanism of private law such as
corporate personality, nominee relationship, etc. As we have seen in
another context, just as therule of diplomatic protection should disregard
the legal veil of the corporate personality of the company in favour of its
real substance, namely the shareholders, so it should disregard the legal
veil of the nominee in favour of the beneficial owner. The existence of a
nominee relationship does not exerciseany influenceupon the diplomatic
protection of shareholders. Sidro loses neither its shareholding in the
Barcelona Traction Company nor its Belgian nationality. It is quite
unthinkable that the conclusion of the norninee contract which was
motivated by a wartime necessity could exercise any influence upon the
status of Sidro as a shareholder of the Barcelona Traction Company.
In short, the fact that the two above-mentioned partnerships are of

American nationality has no relevance for the purpose of establishing
the jus standi of the Belgian Government. What is relevant for the jus
standi of Belgiumis the fact that Sidro is the beneficial, that is to say, the
real owner of Barcelona Traction's shares in respect of which the
American partnerships are nominees.

Next, we shall consider the question of the existence of a bond of
nationality between the shareholders and the protecting State as a con-
dition of protection in the present case.
The object of the Belgian Government's Application of 14June 1962is
reparation for the darnage allegedly caused to a certain number of its
nationals in their capacity as shareholders of the Barcelona Traction,

Light and Power Company. In the shareholders are included both natural
and juridical persons.
The contention of the Belgian Government concerning its jus sfundi is
based on the preponderance of the Belgian interest in the Barcelona
Traction Company. The preponderance of the Belgian interest is evident,
the Belgian Government argues, from the fact that the majority of the
shareholders in that company are of Belgian. nationality and that itoccupéepar l'Allemagne pendant la guerre, de protégercontre l'ennemi
la participation de la Sidro au capital età la gestion de la Barcelona
Traction. L'existence de cette relation conduit à se poser la question
suivante: laquelle des deux nationalités, la nationalité américaineou la
nationalité belge, l'emporte-t-elleorsqu'il s'agit de déterminer quelle
est la nationalité des actions de la Sidro?
Le Gouvernement espagnol refuse tout effet à la nationalité belge de
la Sidro parce qu'il considère les nominees, lesquels sont de nationalité
américaine, comme les véritables actionnaires. A notre avis, c'est le
benejcial ownershipet donc, en l'espèce,la situation de la Sidro, benejcial
owner, qu'il faut retenir comme critère. La raison en est la suivante:
la protection diplomatique s'exerce au bénéficede qui détient l'intérêt

véritable; elle n'a pas tenir compte de mécanismesjuridiques de droit
privé telsquela personnalité morale,la relationominee-benejcial owner,
etc. Comme nous l'avons vu dans un autre contexte, la règlede la protec-
tion diplomatique doit faire abstraction du voile juridique de la person-
nalitémorale de la sociétéau profit de sa substance réelle,à savoir les
actionnaires; de même elledoit faire abstraction du voile juridique du
nomineeau profit du benejîcialowner.L'existenced'une relation nominee-
benejcial ownerne doit avoir aucune influence sur la protection diploma-
tique des actionnaires. La Sidro ne perd ni sa participation dans la
Barcelona Traction ni sa nationalité belge. Il est impensable que la
conclusion d'un contrat de nominee, qui répondait à une nécessité
imposée par la guerre, puisse modifier en quoi que ce soit le statut

d'actionnaire de la Barcelona Traction qu'avait la Sidro.
Bref, la nationalité américainedes deux sociétéssusnomméesn'affecte
en rien la qualitépour agir du Gouvernement belge. Seul est pertinent,
à cet égard, le fait que la Sidro est le benejîcial owner, c'est-à-dire le
propriétaire véritable, des actions de la Barcelona Traction dont les
sociétésaméricainessont nominees.

Nous en venons à la question de l'existence d'un lien de nationalité
entre les actionnaires et1'Etat protecteur en tant que condition même
de la protection dans la présenteaffaire.

Par sa requêtedu 14 juin 1962, le Gouvernement belge demande
réparation du préjudice qui aurait été causé à un certain nombre de
ses ressortissants en leur qualité d'actionnaires dela Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company. Parmi ces actionnaires figurent à la fois des
personnes physiques et des personnes morales.
Le Gouvernement belge soutient qu'il a qualité pour agir du fait de
la prépondérancedes intérêts belges dans la Barcelona Traction. D'après
lui cette prépondérancedes intérêtsbelges est mise en évidencepar le fait
que la majorité des actionnaires de la sociétésont de nationalité belge
et que leur participation représentait8 pour cent du capital-actions deamounted to 88 per cent. of Barcelona Traction's capital stock.The inost
important shareholder in the Barcelona Traction Company, according to

the Belgian Government, is admitted to be Sidro, S.A. (SociétéInter-
nationale d'Energie Hydro-Electrique), whose holding is said to amount
to 75 per cent. of the shares of the Belgian holding.
The preponderance of the Belgian participation in Barcelona Traction
at the time of its adjudication in bankruptcy is indicated by the Belgian
Government (Memorial, paragraphs 1-10) by the following figures:
Registered shares issued ............ 1,080,446
Bearer shares issued ............. 718,408

Total shares issued .............. 1,798,854

Shares owned by Belgian nationals (minimum) . . 1,607,845

Shares not owned by Belgian nationals (maximum) 191,009

Belgian participation in the capital of Barcelona Traction at the date
of the adjudication in bankruptcy of that Company therefore amounted
to not lessthan 89.3 per cent. of the capital issued.
Of this figure of 89.3 per cent., 75.75 per cent. belonged to Sidro, so
that 13.55per cent. at least of the capital of Barcelona Traction belonged
to other Belgian nationals.
The figures given above come from three main sources of information,
namely :

1. Information derived from the register of Barcelona Traction
registered shares.
A statement drawn up by the National Trust Company of
Toronto, which keepsthe register ofthe shares of Barcelona Traction,
gives the following figures:

Total issued shares .............. 1,798,854
Registered shares ............... 1,080,446
Registered sharesowned by Sidro ........ 1,012,688
Registered shares owned by shareholders other than ,
Sidro ................... 67,758

The total number of registered shares in Belgian hands was
1,013,108 in which 420 shares belonging to Belgian shareholders
other than Sidro are included.
The shares mentioned above as belonging to the Sidro Company
had been entered in the list cf registered shares since 7 November
1939in the name of Charles Gordon & Company as nominee.la Barcelona Traction. Toujours d'aprèsle Gouvernement belge, I'action-
naire le plus important de la sociétBarcelona Traction est la Sidro, S.A.
(Sociétéinternationale d'énergiehydro-électrique), qui détiendrait àelle
seule 75 pour cent des actions belges.

Pour démontrer la prépondérancede la participation belge dans la
Barcelona Traction au moment du jugement de faillite, le Gouvernement
belge avance (mémoire,par. 1-10)les chiffres ci-après:

Actions nominatives émises. .......... 1080 446
Actions au porteur émises ........... 718 408

Total des actions émises ............ 1798854
Actions appartenant à des ressortissants belges (mi-
nimum) .................. l 607 845

Actions n'appartenant pas àdesressortissants belges
(maximum) ................. 191009
La participation belge dans le capital de la Barcelona Traction à la
date de la mise en faillite de cette sociétéatteignait donc un pourcentage
non inférieur à 89,3 pour cent du capital social émis.
Dans ce chiffre minimum de 89,3 pour cent, la Sidro intervenait pour

75,75 pour cent, si bien que 13,55 pour cent au moins du capital de la
Barcelona Traction appartenaient à d'autres ressortissants belges.
Les chiffres qui précèdent proviennent de trois sources principales
d'information :
1. Donnéestiréesdu registre des actions nominatives de la Barce-
lona Traction.
11résulted'un relevéétabli par la National Trust Company de
Toronto, qui tenait le registre d'actions dela Barcelona Traction, ce
qui suit:

Total des actions émises .......... 1798854
Actions nominatives ............ 1080 446

Actions nominatives appartenant à la Sidro . . 1012 688
Actions nominatives appartenant à des action-
naires autres que la Sidro. ........ 67 758

Total .... 1080446
Le total des actions nominatives de propriété belge était de
1013 108, dont 420 actions appartenant à des actionnaires belges
autres que la Sidro.
Les actions mentionnéesci-dessus comme appartenant àla société
Sidro étaient inscrites au registre des actions nominatives depuis
le 7 novembre 1939sous le nom de Charles Gordon & Company,

nominee pour lesdites actions. 2. Information derived from the accounts of Sidro.
The above information is confirmed and supplemented by the
accounts of Sidro, for the certificate drawn up by the firm cf
chartered accountants, Deloitte, Plender, Giffiths & Co., dated
6 May 1959 shows that, as at 12 February 1948, Sidro owned
1,012,688 Barcelona Traction registered shares and 349,905 bearer
shares,i.e., in al11,362,593shares out of a total of 1,798,854shares
issued, which represented 75.75 per cent. of the capital of thecom-

Pa3. Facts derived from the information gathered by the Institut
belgo-luxembourgeois du change (Belgo-Luxembourg Exchange
Institute).

At the time of adjudication in bankruptcy of Barcelona Traction,
this company had issued 1,798,854shares, of which at least 1,607,845
were owned by Belgian nationals; that is to say, 1,362,593shares
owned by Sidro (1,012,688 registered and 349,905 bearer shares),
and at least 245,252shares (420 registered and 244,832bearer shares)
owned by other Belgian nationals.
Belgian participation amounted therefore toat least 89.3per cent.
of the capital of the company.

Next, we shall see Belgian interests in Barcelona Traction at the time
of the institution of international proceedings (14June 1962)(Memorial,
paras. 11-19).This is shown by the following figures:
Registered shares issued ............ 1,472,310
Bearersharesissued .............. 326,544

Total shares issued .............. 1,798,854

Shares owned by Belgian nationals ....... 1,588,130

Shares not owned by Belgian nationals ..... 210,724
Proof of the preponderance of Belgian participation at that date will
be given with the help of information furnished by:

1. The register of registered shares of Barcelona Traction.
The statement drawn up by the National Trust Company of
Toronto gives the following facts:

Total issued shares .............. 1,798,854
Registered shares ............... 1,472,310

Registered shares owned by Sidro ....... 1,354,514
Registered shares owned by shareholders other than
Sidro ................... 117,796

Total .... 1,472,310 2. Donnéestiréesde la comptabilité de la Sidro.
Les indications ci-dessus sont confirmées et complétéespar la
comptabilité dela Sidro. Il résulteen effet du certificat établipar la
firme de chartered accountantsDeloitte, Plender, Griffiths & Co.,
en date du 6 mai 1959, qu'au 12 février 1948 la Sidro possédait
1012 688 actions de la Barcelona Traction sous forme nominative
et 349 905 actions au porteur, soit au total 1362 593 actions sur
un total de 1798 854 actions émises, cequi représentait 75,75 pour
cent du capital social.
3. Données résultant des renseignements recueillis par l'Institut
belgo-luxembourgeois du change.

A l'époquede la déclaration de faillite de la Barcelona Traction,

cette sociétéavait émis1798 854 actions dont au moins 1 607 845
appartenaient à des ressortissants belges: 1362 593 à la Sidro (soit
1 012 688 actions nominatives et 349905 actions au porteur) et au
moins 245 252 actions (420 nominatives et 244 832 au porteur) à
d'autres ressortissants belges.
La participation belge était donc d'au moins 89,3 pour cent du
capital social.

Voyons ensuite quels étaient les intérêtsbelges dans la Barcelona
Traction au moment de l'introduction de l'instance internationale (14juin
1962)(mémoire,par. 11-19).Nous avons à ce sujet les chiffres ci-après:

Actions nominatives émises ........... 1472 310
Actions au porteur émises ........... 326 544

Total des actions émises ............ 1798 854
Actions appartenant à des ressortissants belges. . 1588 130

Actions n'appartenant pas à desressortissants belges 210 724

La preuve de la prépondérancebelge à cette date est faità l'aide des
données fournies notamment par:

1. Le registre des actions nominatives de la Barcelona Traction.
Un relevé dressépar la National Trust Company de Toronto fait
apparaître ce qui suit:

Total des actions émises .......... 1798 854
Actions nominatives ............ 1472 310

Actions nominatives appartenant à la Sidro. . 1354 514
Actions nominatives appartenant à des action-
naires autres que la Sidro. ........ 117796

Total .... 1472310

139 The total number of registered shares in Belgian hands was there-

fore 1,356,902 in which 2,388 shares belonging to Belgian share-
holders other than Sidro are included.
As to the registered shares owned by Sidro, the nominee this time
was the firm of Newman & Co., New York, which had succeeded
Charles Gordon & Co.
2. Information derived from the accounts of Sidro.
A certificate drawn up by the firm of Deloitte, Plender, Griffiths
& Co., dated 23 August 1962, shows that on 14 June 1962 Sidro
owned 1,354,514 Barcelona Traction registered shares, and 31,228
bearer shares, that is to Say, a total of 1,385,742 shares out of
1,798,854shares issued, which represented 77 per cent. of the total
capital of Barcelona Traction.
3. Information concerning bearer shares owned by Belgian
nationals.
As at 1 April 1962 there were in circulation 326,554 Barcelona
Traction bearer shares of which 31,228shares were owned by Sidro.

When the proceedings were instituted the number of Barcelona
Traction shares in circulation was 1,798,854 of which at least
1,588,130 were owned by Belgian nationals. Of these 1,385,742
shares were owned by Sidro (1,354,514 registered and 31,228 bearer
shares) and at least 202,388 (2,388 registered and 200,000 bearer
shares) were owned by other Belgian nationals.

From the facts given above, it can be concluded that more than
88 per cent. of the Barcelona Traction shares were in Belgian hands
both at the time of the adjudication in bankruptcy of that company
and at the time the present proceedings were instituted.
This Belgian participation is made up as follows: 10 to 15 percent.
of the capital of Barcelona Traction is owned by the general public
in Belgium, whilst 75 to 77 per cent. of the capital is owned by Sidro,
a company under Belgian law.

The foregoing is the demonstration on the part of the Belgian Govern-
ment concerning the preponderance of the Belgian participation in the
capital of Barcelona Traction.
Are the figures of 88 per cent. of the Belgian participation and 75 per
cent. of Sidro's participation at acritical date in Barcelona Traction
correct? Itdepends on the reliability of information furnished by the
National Trust Company of Toronto, the firm of chartered accountants,
Deloitte, Plender, Griffith& Company, and the Institut belgo-luxem-
bourgeois du change.
Itis argued that these three main sources being on the Belgianside, one
cannot therefore expect unprejudiced information from them. But it is
also not just to deny absolutely their evidential value in such circum-
stances. Each case should be valued according to its own merits. Le total des actions nominatives de propriétébelge était donc de
1356902, dont 2388 appartenant à des actionnaires belges autres
que la Sidro.
Quant aux actions nominatives appartenant à la Sidro, on notera
que lenomineeétaitcette fois la firme Newman& Co., de New York,
qui avait succédéàla firme Charles Gordon & Co.

2. Donnéestiréesde la comptabilitéde la Sidro.
Il ressort d'un certificat établi par la firme Deloitte, Plender,
Griffith& Co., en date du 23 août 1962,qu'au 14juin 1962la Sidro
possédait1 354 514actions Barcelona Traction sousforme nomina-
tive, et 31228 actions au porteur, soit au total l 385 742actions sur
1798854 actions émises,ce qui représentait77 pour cent du capital
total de la Barcelona Traction.
3. Donnéesconcernant les actions au porteur aux mains du public
belge.
Au 1" avril 1962, il yavait en circulation 326 554 actions au
porteur de la Barcelona Traction, dont la Sidro possédait31 228.
A l'époquede l'introduction de l'instance, lenombre des actions

de la Barcelona Traction en circulation était de 1798854, dont au
moins 1 588 130appartenaient àdesressortissants belges, 1385 74à
la Sidro (1 354 514 nominatives et 31 228 au porteur) et au moins
202 388 (2388 nominatives et 200000 au porteur) à d'autres ressor-
tissants belges.

Des élémentsqui précèdenton peut conclure que plus de 88 pour cent
des actions de la Barcelona Traction se trouvaient en mains belges, tant
au moment de la mise en faillite de cette sociétéqu'à celui dentroduc-
tion de l'instance.
Cette participation belge est détenueà concurrence de 10 à 15 pour
cent du capital de la Barcelona Traction par le public belge en généralet
à concurrence de 75à 77 pour cent du capital par la sociétéSidro, qui est

de statut belge.
C'est ainsi que le Gouvernement belge fait la démonstration de la
prépondérancede la participation belge dans le capital de la Barcelona
Traction.
Les chiffres de 88 pour cent pour la participation belge totale dans la
Barcelona Traction, et de75 pour cent pour celle de la Sidrà,une date
critique, sont-ils exacts?Cela dépenddu créditque:onpeut accorder aux
renseignements fournis par la National Trust Company de Toronto, par
la firme d'experts comptables Deloitte,Plender, Griffiths& Company
et par l'Institut belgo-luxembourgeois du change.
TIa été soutenu que, commecestrois principales sources d'information
se situent du côtébelge, on ne saurait en attendre des indications impar-
tiales. Mais il n'est pas juste de leur refuser pour cette raison toute force

probante. Chaque cas doit êtreapprécié selonles circonstances qui lui
sont propres. Particularly, the matter in question is that of degree. The figure for
Belgian participation may not be correct to the last digit. It may be 90 or
80 per cent. instead of 88 per cent. But one cannot deny the evidential
value of a statement simply because it may involve some minor incor-
rectness or mistake. Whether the percentage is 80 or 10 per cent. the
question of thejus standi of the Belgian Government is entirely the same.

Next, we are confronted with the question as to whether Sidro can be
said to have Belgian character. It is quite a different question from that

of whether the 75 per cent. participation of Sidro in the Barcelona
Traction's capitalstock reallyexisted. It isconcerned withtheconstitution
of Sidro as a corporate body which may include natural and juridical
persons as its constituent elements. In the case where a shareholder of
Sidro is a company, the Belgian character of Sidro might depend on the
nationality of individual shareholders of that company. If a shareholder
of this latter company is a company the same process should be repeated,
and would go on ad infinitum. Under such circumstances the national
character of Sidro could only be decided by the nationality of ultimate
individual shareholders who were natural persons.

The Spanish Government denies the Belgian character of Sidro by
contending that Sofina, the principal shareholder of Sidro, is very limited
in its Belgian holding. However, to establish the Belgian character of
Sidro, which is required for its protection, we need not go to such ex-

cessivelengths of logical formalism.
The fact that Sidro is of Belgian nationalityan be recognized without
the slightest doubt. This company was formed under Belgian law and it
has its seat (siège social) in Belgian territory, namely in Brussels. Its
Belgian nationality has never been denied by the Spanish Government.
Sidro, accordingly, is entitled to receive diplomatic protection from the
Belgian Government, being qualifiedtherefor by the facts of its formation
and seat. These facts are sufficient to justify the connecting link between
Sidro and Belgium. Just as the Barcelona Traction Company can enjoy
the diplomatic protection of the Canadian Governnient by reason of
similar factors, so Sidro is entitled to receive diplomatic protection from
the BelgiariGovernment by reason of its Belgian nationality.
It is possible that Sidro may be susceptible of two protections which
are compatible with each other: on the one hand, it might be protected
indirectly by the Canadian Government as a shareholder of a Canadian
company, Barcelona Traction, on the other hand, it might be protected

directly by the Belgian Government owing to its Belgian nationality. In
this latter respect Sidro isubject to Belgian protection as a shareholder
of Barcelona Traction, by virtue of having Belgian nationality and as a
company as such. Il s'agitlà, en particulier, d'une question de degré. Lepourcentage de
la participation belge n'estpeut-êtrepas exact à l'unité près.Le chiffre
est peut-être de90 ou de 80 pour cent au lieu de 88 pour cent. Mais on
ne peut pas contester la force probante d'une affirmation parce qu'elle
comporte une inexactitude ou une erreur mineure. La question de la
qualitépour agir du Gouvernement belge continue de se poser dans les
mêmes termes,que la participation soit de 80 ou de 10pour cent.

Nous devons ensuite nous demander si l'on peut dire que la Sidro
possède lecaractère belge. C'est là un problème tout différentde celui
de savoir si la Sidro possédaitvraiment 75 pour cent du capital-actions
delaBarcelona Traction. Ce qui importe ici, c'estla structure de la Sidro,
en tant que personne morale pouvant compter parmi ses éléments cons-
titutifs des personnes physiqueset morales. Si un des actionnaires de la
Sidro est une société, lecaractère belge de la Sidro peut dépendrede la
nationalité des personnes physiques actionnaires de ladite société. Il
en va de mêmesi un actionnaire de cette dernière sociétéest lui-même
une sociétée,t ainsi de suitàl'infini.Dans cesconditions, on ne pourrait

établirle caractère national de la Sidro qu'en fonction de la nationalité
des personnes physiques qui sont les actionnaires individuels apparais-
sant en dernier lieu.
Le Gouvernement espagnol nie le caractère belge de la Sidro, car
il soutient que la participation belge dans la Sofina, principal actionnaire
de la Sidro, est très limitée. Toutefois,pour établirle caractère belge
grâce auquel la Sidro pourrait êtreprotégéei,l n'est nullement nécessaire
de pousser à ce point une logique purement formelle.
On peut admettre sans la moindre hésitation que la Sidro possède
la nationalitébelge. Cette sociétéa étéconstituéeselon le droit belge et
son siègesocial se trouve en territoire belge, Bruxelles. Le Gouverne-
ment espagnol n'a jamais contesté sanationalitébelge. La Sidro est donc

habilitée à bénéficierde la protection diplomatique du Gouvernement
belge; sa constitution et son siègelui confèrent ce droit. Ces faits suffi-
sent à justifier le lien qui existe entre la Sidro et la Belgique. De même
que la Barcelona Traction Company peut bénéficier dela protection
diplomatique du Gouvernement canadien en raison de facteurs sembla-
bles, la Sidro peut recevoir la protection diplomatique du Gouvernement
belgeen vertu de sa nationalitébelge.II se peut que la Sidro soiàmême
de bénéficierde deux protections, compatibles l'une avec l'autre: elle
pourrait, d'une part, êtreprotégée indirectementpar le Gouvernement
canadien, en tant qu'actionnaire d'une sociétécanadienne, la Barcelona
Traction, et d'autre part, êtreprotégée directemenpt ar le Gouvernement
belge en raison de sa nationalité belge. Sous ce dernier aspect, la Sidro

peut faire l'objet d'une protection belge en tant qu'actionnaire de la
Barcelona Traction, du fait de sa nationalitébelge et en tant que société. In this context we must add a few words concerning a Judgment of
the International Court of Justice in the Nottebohm case (SecondPhase,
I.C.J. Reports 1955, pp. 16, 17, 25, 26). This Judgment denied the ex-
tension of the right of diplomatic protection of Liechtenstein to Mr.
Nottebohm vis-à-vis Guatemala on the ground that his nationality of
Liechtenstein lacked effectiveness. That Judgment was concerned with
the effectiveness of nationality of a natural person and not that of a
Company. That Judgment is not germane to the present case, however,
because here the nationality of Sidro is undoubtedly established.
In short, thejus standi of the Belgian Government can be founded on
the Belgian nationality of Sidro, even if the Belgian nationality of the
majority of the shareholders ultimately cannot be proved.
The percentage of Sidro and other Belgian holdings in the whole
capital stock of the Barcelona Traction Company has no particular

relevance for the question of the jus standi of the Belgian Government,
but it would become an important factor for the assessment of damage
allegedly incurred by Belgian shareholders.
The question of continuity of nationality, that is, identification of
shareholders from the temporal viewpoint, can be decided in the affir-
mative. Sidro's continued existence since 1923,covering the two critical
dates, is sufficient to prove this continuity.

As to the question of bearer shares, this does not seem relevant to a
decision concerningjus standi and continuity.
For the above-mentioned rea.sons the third preliminary objection
raised by the Spanish Government should be rejected.
We shall proceed to examine the fourth preliminary objection raised
by the Spanish Government against the Belgian Application.

III

In the fourîh preliminary objection the Spanish Government holds
that the Belgian Application of 14 June 1962 is inadmissible by reason
of the non-exhaustion of local remedies by the Barcelona Traction Com-
pany and those concerned, as required by international law.
The Spanish Government invokes not only the rule of customary
international law on local remedies, but Article 3 to the Treaty of Con-

ciliation, Judicial Settlement and Arbitration of 19 July 1927, which
provides as follows :
"In the case of a dispute the occasion of which, according to the
municipal law of one of the Parties, falls within the competence
of the national courts,such Party may require that the dispute shall
not be submitted to the procedure laid down in the present Treaty
until a judgment with final effect has been pronounced within a 11convient ici de dire quelques mots de l'arrêt rendupar la Cour in-
ternationale de Justice dans l'affaire Nottebohm (deuxièmephase, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1955,p. 16, 17,25, 26). Par cet arrêt,M. Nottebohm s'est
vu refuser le bénéficede la protection diplomatique du Liechtenstein
vis-à-visdu Guatemala, pour le motif que sa nationalité liechtensteinoise
n'étaitpas effective.Mais cet arrêtportajtsur le caractèreeffectifou non
de la nationalité d'une personne physique, et non d'une société.En
outre, cet arrêtest sans pertinence en l'espèce,car la nationalité de la

Sidro est établiesans conteste.
En résumél,a qualitépour àgir du Gouvernement belgepeut êtrefondée
sur la nationalitébelge de la Sidro, mêmesi l'on ne peut pas démontrer
jusqu'au bout la nationalitébelge de la majoritédes actionnaires.
Le pourcentage des actions de la Barcelona Traction détenu par la
Sidro et par d'autres actionnaires belges n'a aucune incidence parti-
culière sur la question de la qualité pour agir du Gouvernement belge,
mais il jouerait un rôle primordial s'il s'agissait d'évaluer le préjudice
causé éventuellementaux actionnaires belges.
On peut résoudre affirmativement le problème de la continuité de
la nationalité, c'est-à-dire celui de l'identification des actionnaires du
point de vue temporel. Cette continuité est établie àsuffisancepar l'exis-

tence ininterrompue de la Sidro depuis 1923, et notamment aux deux
dates critiques.
Quant à la question desactions au porteur, elle nesemblepaspertinente
quand il s'agitde seprononcer sur la qualitépour agir et sur la continuité.
Pour les motifs indiquésci-dessus, il y a lieu de rejeter la troisième
exception préliminaire soulevéepar le Gouvernement espagnol.
Nous allons maintenant examiner la quatrième exception préliminaire
soulevéepar le Gouvernement espagnol contre la requêtebelge.

III

Dans la quatrième exception préliminaire, leGouvernement espagnol
soutient que la requêtebelge du 14juin 1962est irrecevable, la Barcelona
Traction et les autres personnes intéressées n'ayant pas épuisé lrescours
internes comme le droit international le prescrit.
Le Gouvernement espagnol invoque non seulement la règle de droit
international coutumier ayant trait à l'épuisement desrecours internes,
mais aussi l'article 3 du traité de conciliation, de règlement judiciaire

et d'arbitrage du 19juillet 1927,qui est ainsi conçu:
((S'il s'agit d'une contestation dont l'objet, d'après la législation
intérieure del'une des Parties, relèvede la compétence destribunaux
nationaux, cette Partie pourra s'opposer à ce qu'elle soit soumiseà
la procédure prévue par le présent traité avant qu'un jugement
définitifait étérendu, dans un délairaisonnable, par l'autorité ju- reasonable time by the competent judicial authority." [English
text from League of Nations Treaty Series, Vol. LXXX, pp. 28 ff.
Note by the Registry.]
That the local remedies rule constitutes "a well-established rule of
customary international law" and that "the rule has been generally
observed in cases in which a State has adopted the cause of its national
whose rights are claimed to have been disregarded in another State in
violation of international law", is clearly declared by the International

Court of Justice (Interhandel, Judgment, Z.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 27).
The International Court of Justice continues :
"Before resort may be had to an international court in such a
situation, it has been considered necessary that the State where
the violation occurred should have an opportunity to redress it
by its own means, within the framework of its own domestic legal
system." (Zbid.,p. 27.)
The provision of Article 3 of the said Treaty is nothing else but the

recapitulation of this already existing rule, the spirit and principle of
which are found amplified in the Court's decision and implemented in
conventions providing for the compulsory jurisdiction of international
tribunals.
Before examining the well-foundedness or otherwise of the fourth
preliminary objection, we must consider the relationship between two
concepts, namely exhaustion of local remedies in detail and denial of
justice, which is regarded as the main or central issue arising from the
alleged internationally wrongful acts imputed by the Belgian Govern-
ment to the Spanish authorities.
We cannot understand the position of the Court, which ordered the
joinder of the fourth preliminary objection to the merits, without con-
sidering the relationship of the exhaustion of local remedies to denial
of Justice.
The Court decided as follows:

"As regards the fourth Preliminary Objection, the foregoing
considerations apply a fortiori for the purpose of requiring it to
be joined to the merits; for this is not a case where the allegation
of failure to exhaust local remedies stands out as a clear-cut issue
of a preliminary character that can be determined on its own. It is
inextricably interwoven with the issues of denial of justice which
constitute the major part of the merits. The objection of the Re-
spondent that local remedieswere not exhausted is met al1along the
line by the Applicant's contention that it was, inter alia, precisely
in the attempt to exhaust local remedies that the alleged denials of
justice were suffered."BarcelonaTraction,Light andPower Company
Limited, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, Z.C.J. Reports 1964,
p. 46.) diciaire compétente. ))[Sociétédes Nations, Recueil des traités,vol.
LXXX, p. 18et suiv. Note du Greffe.]

Que la règle de l'épuisement desrecours internes soit ((une règle
bien établie du droit international coutumier » et que cette règle ait
((étégénéralementobservéedans les cas où un Etat prend fait et cause
pour son ressortissant dont les droits auraient étélésésdans un autre
Etat en violation du droit international ))la Cour internationale de Jus-
tice l'a énoncé nettement(Interhandel, arrêt,C.Z.J.Recueil 1959, p. 27).

La Cour a dit encore à ce propos:
((Avant de recourir à la juridiction internationale, il a étéconsidéré
en pareil cas nécessaireque 1'Etatoù la lésiona étécommise puisse
y remédierpar ses propres moyens, dans le cadre de son ordre juri-
dique interne. )(Ibid., p. 27.)

La disposition de l'article3 du traité de1927ne fait qu'exprimer cette
règlequi existait déjà,et dont l'esprit et le principe sont explicitésdans
la décisionde la Cour et consacrésdans des conventions prévoyant la
juridiction obligatoire de tribunaux internationaux.

Avant de considérersi la quatrième exception préliminaireest ou non
fondée,il nous faut examiner la relation qui existe entre deux notions:
l'épuisementradical des recours internes et le dénide justice (car c'est
un dénide justice qui est considéré comme l'élémep nrtincipal, central,
du problème posépar les actes internationalement illicites que le Gou-
vernement belge impute aux autoritésespagnoles).
On ne saurait en effet comprendre la position de la Cour, qui a joint
la quatrième exception préliminaireau fond, sans étudier ce lien entre

l'épuisement desrecours internes et le dénide justice.

La Cour a statuéen cestermes:
((En ce qui concerne la quatrième exception préliminaire, les
considérations qui précèdents'appliquent à fortiori pour justifier
une jonction au fond; en effet, la présente affaire n'estpas de celles

où l'allégation touchant le non-épuisement desrecours internes
soulèvesans le moindre doute des problèmes de caractère prélimi-
naire pouvant êtreréglésindépendamment. Cette allégation est
inextricablement liéeaux questions de dénidejustice qui constituent
la plus grande partie du fond. L'exception du défendeur d'après
laquelle les recours internes n'auraient pas étéépuisés seheurte
constamment à la thèse du demandeur d'après laquelle c'est no-
tamment en essayant d'épuiser lesrecours internes que l'on aurait

subi les dénisde justice allégués. ))(Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited, exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.Z.J.
Recueil 1964, p. 46.) Therefore, before deciding whether the fourth preliminary objection
isto be upheld or not, we shall make some observations on the compli-
cated relationship existing between the exhaustion of local remedies and
the denial of justice.
There can be no doubt that the local remedies rule possesses a proce-
dura1 character in that itrequires the person who isto be protected by his
government to exhaust local remedies which are available to him in the
State concerned, before his government espouses the claim before an
international tribunal.
What is the raison d'êtreof this rule?
In the first place, the consecutive existence of two procedures-mu-
nicipal and international-would guarantee and promote the justness
of a decision. (It goes without saying that the procedure of an inter-
national tribunal is not comparable to that of, for instance, the Cour
de Cassation.)

Secondly, so long as local remedies are not exhausted, and some
other remedies remain, the condition is not fulfilled. The exhaustion
means the existence of a "judgment with final effect" or analogous
circumstances. In such situation recourse to international remedies will
be justified.
Thirdly, this procedural rule appears to express a higher conception
of equilibrium or harmony between national and international require-
ments in the world community. The intention of this rule is explained as
follows by Professor Charles De Visscher: "Il s'agit donc ici avant tout
d'une règle de procédure propre a réaliser uncertain équilibre entre la
souveraineté de 1'Etat recherché et, d'autre part, les exigences supé-
rieures du droit international ..." ("Le déni dejustice en droit interna-
tional", 52 Académiede droit international, Recueil des cours, 1935, II,
p. 423), or, as Judge Cordova said:

"The main reason for its existence lies in the indispensable necessity
to harmonize the international and the national jurisdictions-
assuring in this way the respect due to the sovereign jurisdiction
of States-by which nationals and foreigners have to abide and to
the diplomatic protection of the Governments to which only foreign-
ers are entitled" (separate opinion, Iriterlzandel,Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1959, p. 45).

The procedural requirement of the exhaustion of local remedies
presupposes the existence of a high degree of confidence by the claimant
in the judicial system and in its application, and this constitutes one
of the fundamental conditions to be fulfilled in the matter of the exhaus-
tion of remedies in the State concerned. Par conséquent, avant de décider s'ilconvient ou non de retenir la
quatrième exception préliminaire, nous formulerons quelques observa-
tions sur le lien complexe qui existe entre l'épuisement desrecours inter-

nes et le déni dejustice.
Il ne fait pas de doute que la règle desrecours internes a le caractère
d'une règle de procédure en ce sens qu'elle oblige la personne qui doit
être protégép ear son gouvernement à épuiser lesrecours internes dont
elle dispose dans 1'Etatconsidéréavant que son gouvernement n'endosse
sa réclamation devant un tribunal international.
Quelle est la raison d'être de cetterègle?

Premièrement, le déroulement consécutifde deux procédures - l'une
interne, l'autre internationale - est propre à favoriser et à garantir la
justesse de la décision(étant bien entendu que la procédure devant un
tribunal international n'est pas du tout comparable à la procédure de la
cour de cassation, par exemple).
En second lieu, tant que les recours internes ne sont pas épuiséset
que certains restent encore ouverts, la condition requise n'est pas remplie.

Pour que les recours internes soient épuisés,il faut qu'un [(jugement
définitif» ait étérendu ou qu'il existe d'autres circonstances du même
ordre. Alors seulement il est légitimed'utiliser lesrecours internationaux.
En troisième lieu, cette règle de procédure apparaît comme l'expres-
sion d'une conception plus élevéed'équilibre ou d'harmonie, dans la
communauté mondiale, entre les exigences nationales et les exigences
internationales. Le professeur Charles De Visscher explique ainsi le

but de la règle: NI1s'agit donc ici avant tout d'une règle de procédure
propre à réaliser un certain équilibre entre la souveraineté de 1'Etat
recherché et, d'autre part, les exigences supérieures du droit interna-
tional ..))((Le dénidejustice en droit international ))Recueil des cours
de l'Académiede droit international deLa Haye, tome 52, 1935,vol. II,
p. 423); ou encore, comme l'a dit M. Cordova:

((La principale raison de son existence est la nécessitéabsolue d'har-
moniser les juridictions internationale et nationale - assurant
ainsi le respect dû à la juridiction souveraine des Etats - auxquelles
doivent se soumettre les ressortissants et les étrangers et dans la
protection diplomatique des gouvernements à laquelle seuls ont

droit les étrangers )) (Opinion individuelle, Interhandel, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 45).

La règlede procédure de l'épuisement desrecours internes présuppose
chez le demandeur une confiance profonde dans le systèmejudiciaire et
dans son fonctionnement, cette confiance étant une des conditions fon-
damentales de l'épuisementdes recours dans 1'Etat intéressé. Next, we shall consider the concept of denial of justice.
Although the exhaustion of local remedies belongs to the plane of
procedural law, denial of justice belongs to the plane of substantive
law. In the present case, the latter constitutes the fundamental concept

applied to al1the allegedly internationally wrongful acts imputed by the
Belgian Government to the Spanish authorities. The former, on the
contrary, is nothing other than a condition for the obtaining of repara-
tion for the damage suffered by the Barcelona Traction Company'~
shareholders through denial ofjustice.
We shall examine, in the first place, the concept of denial of justice,
and next the logical relationship between this latter and the local remedies
rule.
The term "denial ofjustice7'in its loose sense means any international
delinquency towards an alien for which a State is liable to make repara-
tion. Itdenotes in its ordinary meaning an injury involving the responsi-
bility of the State committed by a court of justice. As far as acts of a
court which would involve the State in responsibility are concerned, a
very narrow interpretation practically does not admit the existence of a
denial where decisions of any kind given by a court are involved, but
seeks to limit the application of this institution to the case of the denial

to foreigners of access to the courts. This view would virtually mean by
denial the exclusion of foreigners from al1 actions instituted in courts
of law; therefore this concept cannot be accepted. Another more mod-
erate and generally approved view which can be considered as acceptable
is thatdenial ofjustice occurs in the case of such acts as-
"corruption, threats, unwarrantable delay, flagrant abuse ofjudicial
procedure, a judgment dictated by the executive, or so manifestly
unjust that no court which was both competent and honest could

have given it, ... But no merely erroneous or even unjust judgment
of a court will constitute a denial of justice,...". (Brierly-Waldock,
The Law of Nations, 6th ed., 1963,p. 287; see also Sir Gerald Fitz-
maurice, "The meaning of the term 'denial of justice' ", British
Year Book of InternationalLaw, 1932,p. 93.)

Now we shali consider the logical relationship between the two con-
cepts: exhaustion of local remedies and denial of justice, and proceed
to examine the admissibility of the fourth preliminary objection.
As we have seen above. the exhaustion of local remedies is a condition
of a procedural nature, which is imposed on an individual whose interests
his national State wants to protect by international proceedings. But to
be able to fulfil this condition there must exist in the State concerned a
judicial situation such as to make the realization of exhaustion possible.
Consequently, we must recognize that some cases constitute exceptions Nous en venons maintenant à la notion de dénide justice.
Si l'épuisementdes recours internes relève, en droit, du domaine de
la procédure, le dénide justice est une question de fond. En l'espèce,
il s'agit d'unenotion fondamentale appliquée à tous les actes prétendu-

ment illicitessur le plan international que le Gouvernement belge attribue
aux autorités espagnoles. L'épuisement des recours internes, au con-
traire, n'est que la conditionà remplir pour obtenir réparation du pré-
judice que les actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction auraient subi du
fait d'un dénidejustice.
J'examinerai d'abord la notion de déni de justice, puis la relation
logique qui existe entre le dénide justice et la règlede l'épuisement des
recours internes.
Au sens large, l'expression «dénide justice » désignetoute infraction
internationale commise au détriment d'un étrangeret dont il peut être

demandé réparation à un Etat. Elle évoque,au sens courant, l'idéed'un
dommage causépar un tribunal et engageant la responsabilité de 1'Etat.
S'agissant des actes d'un tribunal qui engagent la responsabilité de
l'Etat, une interprétation très étroite refuse pratiquement d'admettre
l'existence d'un dénide justice lorsqu'une décisionjudiciaireest rendue,
quelle qu'elle soit, et cherche restreindre l'application de cette institu-
tion au cas où des étrangers se voient refuser l'accèsaux tribunaux.
Cette thèse, qui revient virtuellementà ne voir de dénide justice que là
où toute action en justice est interdite à un étranger, ne saurait être
acceptée. Selon une autre conception plus modéréeet généralement
admise, et àlaquelle on peut souscrire, ily a dénidejustice en cas de:

«corruption, menaces, délais injustifiée,bus de procédure flagrant,
jugement dictépar le pouvoir exécutifou si manifestement injuste
qu'aucun tribunal à la fois compétentet probe n'eût pu le rendre ...
Mais un jugement simplement erroné, voire injuste, rendu par un
tribunal ne saurait constituer un déni de justice...» (Brierly-Wal-

dock, The Law of Nations, 6' éd., 1963, p. 287; voir également
sir Gerald Fitzmaurice,«The meaning of the term (denial ofjustice»,
British Year Book of InternationalLaw, 1932,p. 93.)

Nous étudierons à présentla relation logique entre les deux notions
de l'épuisementdes recours internes et du dénidejustice, pour examiner
ensuite la recevabilitéde la quatrième exception préliminaire.
Comme nous l'avons vu, l'épuisementdes recours internes a le ca-
ractère d'une condition préalable de procédure, que doit remplir la
personne dont 1'Etatnational veut protégerles intérêts au moyen d'une
instance internationale. Mais pour que cette condition puisse être
remplie, il faut que la situation judiciaire dans 1'Etat intéressésoit de
nature à permettre l'épuisement des recours.Nous devons par suitein regard to the application of the local remedies rule. Instances of such
cases are given in the following passage:

"La réclamation internationale n'est pas subordonnée à I'épuise-
ment préalable des recours quand ceux-ci sont absents, inadéquats
ou a priori inefficaces.Il en est ainsi quand l'organisation judiciaire
de 1'Etat ne fournit aucune voie légalement organisée, quand les
voies légalesn'ouvrent auxintéressésaucune perspective raisonnable
de succès, ou enfin quand, au cours mêmede la procédure, le
plaideur étranger est victime de lenteurs ou d'obstructions équiva-
lant à un refus de statuer et qui l'autorisentà abandonner une voie
qui se révèlesans issue." (Charles De Visscher, op. cit., pp. 423-424.)

Under these circumstances respect for and confidence in the sovereign
jurisdiction of States which, as indicated above, constitute the raison
d'être of the local remedies rule, do not exist. The rule does not seem to
require from those concerned a clearly futile and pointless activity, or a
repetition of what has been done in vain.

It is said that "a claimant cannot be required to exhaust justice in a
State when there is no justice to exhaust" (Charles De Visscher, op. cit.,
p. 424); and again "A claimant in a foreign State is not required to
exhaust justice in such State when there is no justice to exhaust". (State-
ment by Mr. Fish, Secretary of State, quoted in Moore, International
Law Digest, Vol. VI, 1906,p. 677.)If astate of denial ofjustice prevails in

the country concerned, there can be no possibility of exhausting local
remedies. In the above-mentioned extreme cases, it is impossible for the
interested parties to comply with the condition concerning the exhaustion
of local remedies; accordingly this condition must be dispensed with
for them.
We must limit the application of the local remedies rule to cases and
circumstances where its fulfilment is possible. Thus it may be said that
this rule is not of an absolute character in its application.
In the light of theabove considerations, we shall examine whether the
exhaustion of local remedies can be required from the Belgian Govern-
ment and whether in the case of an affirmative answerithas been observed
or not.
Itis clear that the claim put forward by the Belgian Government is
based onthe alleged internationally wrongful acts imputed to the Spanish

Government and that these acts are characterized globally as a denial
of justice.
According to the Belgian Application (paragraph 43) they-
"relate to a whole series of positive measures, acts or omissions
which are often contradictory, which overlap and are interrelated,
and of which the unlawful character from the point of view of the
law of nations is seen particularly in the final result to which they
have led".reconnaître certaines exceptionsàl'application dela règlede l'épuisement
des recours internes. Par exemple:

(La réclamation internationale n'est pas subordonnée à l'épui-
sement préalabledes recours quand ceux-cisont absents, inadéquats
ou à priori inefficaces.Il en est ainsi quand l'organisation judiciaire
de 1'Etat ne fournit aucune voie légalement organisée,quand les
voies légales n'ouvrent aux intéressaucune perspective raisonnable
de succès, ou enfin,quand au cours mêmede la procédure,le plai-
deur étrangerest victime de lenteurs ou d'obstructions équivalant à
un refus de statuer et qui l'autoriseàtabandonner une voie qui se
révèlesans issue.»(Charles De Visscher, op. cit., p. 423-424.)

Dans ces conditions, le respect de la juridiction souveraine des Etats
et la confiance en celle-ci qui, comme nous l'avons dit, constituent la
raison d'êtrede la règlede l'épuisement desrecours internes, n'existent
pas. La règle n'impose pas, semble-t-il,aux intéressés d'engager une
action manifestement illusoire et dépourvue de portée,ni de tenter à
nouveau une action qui s'est déjàrévélév eaine.
Comme on l'a dit, «le réclamantne peut êtretenu d'épuiserla justice

dans un Etat où il n'y a pas de justiceà épuiser »(Charles De Visscher,
op. cit., p. 424); et encore, «Un réclamant n'est pas tenu d'épuiserla
justice dans un Etat étranger où il n'y a pas de justiàeépuiser »(décla-
ration du secrétaire d'Etat, M. Fish, citée dans Moore, International
Law Digest, vol. VI, 1906, p. 677).Si le dénide justice est la règledans
le pays considéré,il n'est pas possible d'épuiser lesrecours internes.
Dans les cas extrêmesque je viens de mentionner, la condition de l'épui-
sement préalable des recours internes est impossible à remplir pour les
intéressés,qui doivent par conséquenten êtredispensés.

Nous devons limiter l'application dela règlede l'épuisement desrecours

internes aux cas et aux situations où il est possible de la respecter. On
peut donc dire que, dansla pratique, cette règle n'estpas absolue.
Compte tenu de ce qui précède, voyons sila règlede l'épuisement des
recours internes peut être opposée au Gouvernement belge et, dans
l'affirmative, si cette obligation a étérespectéeou non.

Il est clair que le Gouvernement belge fonde sa réclamation sur des
actes internationalement illicites qu'aurait commis le Gouvernement
espagnol, ces actes étantglobalement qualifiésde dénide justice.

Selon la requêtebelge (par.43), ils constituent en effet

«un ensemble de mesures positives, d'actes ou d'omissions souvent
contradictoires, qui s'enchevêtrentet s'intègrent les uns dans les
autres, et dont le caractère illicite au regard du droit des gens se
manifeste de manière particulièrement évidente dans le résultat final
auquel ils ont abouti». The Belgian Government classifies these measures, acts and omissions
into administrative measures manifestly arbitrary or discriminatory, and
conduct on the part of the courts revealing a lack of impartiality, con-
tempt for the principle of the equality of parties before the court, and
other defects amounting to a denial of justice from the point of view of
international law. As to the conduct of the courts, the Belgian Govern-
ment contends that a large number of decisions of the Spanish courts
are vitiated by gross and manifest error in the application of Spanish
law, arbitrariness or discrimination in international law, denials of
justice lato sensu. Furthermore, the Belgian Government contends
that in the course of the bankruptcy proceedings the rights of the
defence were seriously disregarded (denials of justice stricto sensu).
(Final submissions of the Government of Belgium filed on 14 July

1969.)
In sum, the claim of the Belgian Government is based on the alleged
denials of justice, sensu stricto asell as sensu lato, committed by the
Spanish authorities in regard to the Barcelona Traction Company and
others concerned. In the circumstances of the present case, however,
we cannot recognize that so serious a situation of denial of justice has
in general prevailed that the interested party should be exempted from
the obligation to exhaust local remedies. But concerning this particular
case it is conceivable that, from the Applicant's viewpoint, the conten-
tion of the alleged denial of justice would imply the uselessness of the
exhaustion of local remedies.
If the facts of collusion and connivance of the Spanish courts or
judges with theMarchgroup really existed in dealingwith the proceedings
of the Barcelona Traction bankruptcy case, as contended by the Belgian
Government in the written and oral pleadings, we can conclude with
reason that, under such circumstances, to expect a successful outcome
of the exhaustion of local remedies by those concerned would be simple

nonsense.
The two concepts-exhaustion of local remedies and a denial of
justice-are in contradiction so far as the latters meant in sensu stricto.
The former is based on a positive viewpoint, namely the expectation of
the realization of a certain result by the courts; the latter on a negative
viewpoint, namely its renouncement.

Hypothetically, if a denial of justice really existed, there would be
justification for believing that the local remediesle would have become
useless to that extent, as in the case of lack of an appropriate legal and
judicial system and organization.
Briefly, in the concept of a denial of justice there seems to be inherent
the contradiction of denying the possibility of the fulfilment of the ex-
haustion of local remedies. It seems that, in a case where the "original
wrong" consists in a denial of justice, the fulfilment of the exhaustion Le Gouvernement belge classe ces mesures, actes et omissions en
mesures administratives manifestement arbitraires ou discriminatoires,
et en décisionsde justice révélantun manque d'impartialité, un mépris
du principe de l'égalité departies devant lejuge et d'autres vices consti-
tutifs de dénide justice au sens du droit international. Pour ce qui est
du comportement des instances judiciaires, le Gouvernement belge
soutient qu'un grand nombre de décisionsdes tribunaux espagnols sont

entachées d'erreur grossière et manifeste dans l'application du droit
espagnol, d'arbitraire ou de discrimination, constituant au regard du
droit international des dénis dejusticetosensu.Par ailleurs, leGouverne-
ment belge soutient également qu'au cours de la procédure de faillite,
les droits de la défense furent gravement méconnus (dénis de justice
stricto sensu).(Conclusions finales déposéespar le Gouvernement belge
le 14juillet 1969.)
Le Gouvernement belge fonde donc sa réclamation sur des dénisde
justice, au sens strict comme au sens large, dont les autorités espagnoles
se seraient rendues coupables à l'endroit de la Barcelona Traction et

d'autres personnes intéressées.Dans les circonstances de l'espèce,toute-
fois, nous ne pouvons pas dire qu'il ait existéune situation de dénide
justice si grave que la partie intéressée doêtredispenséede l'obligation
d'épuiser lesrecours internes. Mais il est concevable que, dans ce cas
particulier, le déni dejustice allégimplique, du point de vue du deman-
deur, l'inutilitéd'épuiser lesrecours internes.

S'il y a vraiment eu collusion et connivence entre les tribunaux ou
juges espagnols et le groupe March à l'occasion de la procédure de
faillite de la Barcelona Traction, comme le Gouvernement belge le
soutient dans ses écritureset plaidoiries, nous sommes fondés àconclure

qu'en pareilles circonstances, il serait absurde pour les intéressés,de
compter aboutir à un résultatquelconque en épuisantles recours internes.

Il y a contradiction entre ces deux notions - épuisementdes recours
internes et déni dejustice- du moins si l'on pense à un déni dejustice
stricto sensu. L'idéede l'épuisement desrecours internes relève d'une
optique positive,à savoir que I'on compte aboutir par le truchement des
tribunaux à un certain résultat; l'idéede dénide justice relève au con-
traire d'une optique négative, savoir que l'on doit renoncer à attendre
quoi que ce soit des procéduresjudiciaires.
Dans l'hypothèse où il y a véritablement dénide justice, on est fondé
à considérer que la règle de l'épuisement desrecours internes devient

inutile, comme c'est le cas lorsqu'un système juridique et judiciaire
approprié fait défaut.
Il semble donc que l'idée même de déni de justice contienne en soi
cet élémentde contradiction qu'est l'empêchementd'observer la règle
de l'épuisement desrecours internes. Là où la ((faute initial» consiste
en un dénide justice, on ne peut pas exiger l'application de la règledeof local remedies cannot be expected, unlike the case of other interna-
tionally wrongful acts (for instance, murder, confiscation of property,
etc.) where independent fulfilment of the exhaustion rule can be required.

If there is an element in the denial of justice which makes the ful-
filment of the exhaustion rule impossible, then the Belgian Government
would be dispensed to that extent from the observance of this rule.
Despite the contentions by the Belgian Government concerning alleged
facts of a denial of justice in the bankruptcy proceedings against the
Barcelona Traction Company, the Belgian Government does not insist
that "there is no justice to exhaust" in Spain and that Belgium should
exceptionally be exempt from the obligation to exhaust local remedies.
The Belgian Government does not contend that the Spanish judiciary as

a whole is paralyzed and corrupt or that the fulfilment of the exhaustion
rule is impossible; its complaints are concerned only with some of the
judges and courts.

Now let us seewhether the obligation of exhaustion of local remedies
was fulfilled by the Barcelona Traction Company and those concerned.

First, we must consider what kind of remedies should be exercised
and to what degree these remedies have been pursued. Owing to the
highly complicated structure and proceedings of this dispute, it is ex-
tremely difficult to answer these questions. Everything depends on the
circumstances ofthe caseand the issuesand, in particular, on theeffective-
ness of the available remedies (such as revision by the supreme court).
Sometimes, complication arises from a difference of interpretation of
law between the Parties. For instance, the Spanish Government insists

that, as a result of the Barcelona Traction Company's failure to observe
the time-limit of eight days for a plea of opposition to the Reus judg-
ment of 12February 1948,the case became res judicata and, consequent-
ly, al1actions of the Barcelona Traction Company and its subsidiaries
should be nul1 and void. The Belgian Government, on the contrary,
basing itself on the nullity of the publication in Spain of the judgrnent,
argues that the time-limit of eight days did not begin to run and there-
fore it did not expire. If the former argument is right, the Barcelona
Traction Company and its subsidiaries would lose the means of redress
by becoming unable to exhaust local remedies, the result of which would
be highly inequitable.

We are led to the conclusion that in the matter of the exhaustion of
local remediesthe samespirit of flexibilityshould existwhich, as indicated
in another context, prevails in matters of diplomaticprotection ingeneral.
If weinterpreted the provision of Article 3 of the Treaty of Conciliation,l'épuisementdes recours internes, contrairement à ce qui se passe dans
le cas d'autres actes internationalement illicites (meurtre, confiscation
de biens, etc.) où l'on peut exiger que soit remplie, indépendamment de
toute autre condition, l'obligation d'épuiser lsecours internes.
Dans la mesure où le dénide justice comporterait un élémentrendant
impossible l'application de la règlede l'épuisementdes recours internes,
le Gouvernement belge en serait dispensé. Mais,s'il allègue, à propos
de la procédure defaillite de la Barcelona Traction, des faits qui selon
lui relèventdu déni dejustice, le Gouvernement belge ne soutient nulle-
ment qu'«il n'y a pas de justice épuiser» en Espagne et que la Belgique

devrait à titre exceptionnel êtreexemptéede l'obligation d'épuiser les
recours internes. Le Gouvernement belge ne prétend pasque l'appareil
judiciaire espagnol est dans son ensemble paralyséet corrompu ni qu'il
soit impossible d'appliquer la règlede l'épuisement desrecours internes;
ses griefs ne visent que quelques-uns des magistrats et des tribunaux.

Voyons à présent si la Barcelona Traction et les autres personnes
intéresséesse sont ou non acquittées de l'obligation d'épuiserles recours
internes.
Nous devons d'abord déterminer quel genre de recours il convenait

d'exercer etjusqu'où l'on est allédans cette voie. Ce sont des questions
auxquelles il est très difficile de répondre vu l'extrêmecomplexitédu
différendquant au fond et à la procédure.Laréponse dépenddescircons-
tances de l'affaire et des différents points litigieux, notamment de
l'efficacitédes recours disponibles (par exemple le recours en revision
devant la Cour suprême).Certaines complications sont duesaux différen-
ces d'interprétation qui séparent les Parties sur des points de droit.
Par exemple, le Gouvernement espagnol soutient que, la Barcelona
Traction n'ayant pas fait opposition au jugement de Reus du 12 février
1948dans le délai prescrit dehuit jours, celui-ci a acquis l'autoritéde la
chosejugéeet que, par suite, tous les actes de procédure de la Barcelona
Traction et des sociétés auxiliairesdoivent êtretenus pour nuls et non
avenus. Le Gouvernement belge soutient au contraire que, la publication

du jugement en Espagne étantentachée de nullité,le délaide huit jours
n'a pas commencé à courir et n'est donc pas venu à expiration. Si le
premier raisonnement est juste, la Barcelona Traction et ses filiales
auraient perdu tout moyen d'obtenir réparation, parce qu'elles se
trouveraient dans l'impossibilité d'épuiser lersecours internes, ce qui
aboutiraità un résultathautement inéquitable.
Nous sommes donc amenés à conclure qu'en cequi concerne l'épuise-
ment des recours internes, on doit faire preuve de cette même souplesse
qui, on l'a vu dans un autre contexte, caractérisela protection diplomati-
que en général.Si nous devions interprétertro,pstrictement la disposition Judicial Settlement and Arbitration of 1927and the customary interna-
tional rule on the matter of local remedies too strictly, possible minor
errors in the technical sense would cause those concerned to be deprived
of the benefit of diplomatic protection, particularly in such an affair as
the Barcelona Traction case the complexity and extensiveness of which,
from the substantive and procedural viewpoints, appear to be extremely
rare in the annals of judicial history.

The guiding principle for resolving thequestionsconcerning exhaustion
of local remedies should be the spirit of diplomatic protection according
to which, in addition to a juristic, technical construction, praciical
considerations led by common sense should prevail. The decision as to
whether legal measures offer any reasonable perspective of success or not,
should be flexible in accordance with the spirit of diplomatic protection.
Even if, for instance, institutionally an administrative or judicial remedy

exists whereby an appeal may be made to higher authority, this remedy
may be ignored without being detrimental to the right of diplomatic
protection, ifuch an appeal would be ineffectivefromthe point of viewof
common sense.

From what has been said above, "exhaustion" can be seen to be a
matter of degree. Minor omissions should not be imputed to the negli-
gence of those concerned. It is sufficient that the main means of redress
be taken into consideration. The rule of exhaustion does not demand
from those concerned what is impossible or ineffective but only what is
required by common sense, namely "the diligence of a bonus pater-
familias".

Next, let us enumerate some of the main measures alleged to have been

taken by the Barcelona Traction Company and those concerned (ac-
cording to the final submissions filed on 14July 1969by the Government
of Belgium, Section VII).
(1) Concerning the Reus court's lack of jurisdiction to declare the
bankruptcy of Barcelona Traction :

opposition proceeding of 18June 1948;
application of 5 July 1948(for a declaration of nullity); its pleading
of 3 September 1948;
a forma1motion of National Trust in itsapplication of 27 November
1948 ;
Barcelona Traction Company entered an appearance (23 April 1949)
in the proceedings concerning the Boter declinatoria; its forma1
adherence to that declinatoria (1 1April 1953).de l'article 3 du traité de conciliation, de règlementjudiciaire et d'arbi-
trage de 1927,ainsi que la règle dedroit international coutumier relative

à l'épuisement desrecours internes, ilsuffirait de quelques erreurs tech-
niques mineures pour priver totalement les intéressésdu bénéficede la
protection diplomatique, surtout dans une affaire comme celle de la
Barcelona Traction dont les complexités et les ramifications, tant du
point de vue du fond que du point de vue de la procédure,atteignent un
degrérarement constatédans les annales judiciaires.
Pour résoudrelesquestions relativesà l'épuisement desrecours internes,
il convient donc de s'inspirer essentiellement de l'esprit de la protection
diplomatique, c'est-à-dire de tenir compte, non seulement d'éléments
juridiques et techniques mais, avant tout, de considérations pratiques
inspiréespar le bon sens. C'est avec souplesse, conformément à l'esprit
même de laprotection diplomatique, qu'il faudra décider si les voies

de droit offrent ou non des perspectives raisonnables de succès.Mêmesi,
par exemple, les institutions en place offrent un recours administratif
ou judiciaire permettant d'en appeler à une instance supérieure, on doit
pouvoir s'abstenir d'enfaire usage sans que cela porte atteinte au droit
de protection diplomatique, dès lors que le bon sens fait apparaître
l'inutilité d'untel recours.
En conséquence, 1'(( puisement» des recours internes est une question
de degré. Des omissions mineures ne doivent pas êtreimputées à la
négligence des intéressés. Il suffit que soient pris en considération les
recours principaux. La règlede l'épuisement desrecours internes n'exige
pas des intéressés l'impossibleou l'inutile maisseulement ce que requiert
le sens commun, c'est-à-dire ((ladiligence d'un bon pèrede famille ».

Je rappellerai à présent certaines des mesures principales qui, d'après
les conclusions finales déposéespar le Gouvernement de la Belgique
le 14juillet 1969(section VII), ont étéprises par la Barcelona Traction et
les autres personnes intéressées.

1) Quant au défaut de juridiction du tribunal de Reus pour déclarerla
faillite de la Barcelona Traction:
écrit d'opposition du 18juin 1949;

demande de nullitédu 5 juillet 1948; écritdu 3 septembre 1948;

déclinatoire formel de la National Trust dans sa demande du
27 novembre 1948;
comparution de la Barcelona Traction à la procédure relative au
déclinatoireBoter(23avril 1949);adhésion formelledela Barcelona
Traction audit déclinatoire(1 l avril 1953). (2)Concerningthe bankruptcy judgment and the related decisions:

application of 16 February 1948on the part of the subsidiary com-
panies, Ebro and Barcelonesa to have the bankruptcy judgment set
aside;
the bankrupt Companyitself entered opposition to the judgment by a
procedural document of 18 June 1948, confirmed on 3 September
1948 ;
incidental application for a declaration of nullity submitted by the
Barcelona Traction Company (5 July 1948).
(3) Concerning the blocking of the remedies:

numerous proceedings taken by the Barcelona Traction Company,
beginning with the incidental application for a declaration of nullity
(5 July 1948).
(4) Concerning the failure t6 observe the no-action clause:
clause referred to by National Trust in its application for admission
to the proceedings (27 November 1948).

(5) Concerning the conditions of sale:
the conditions of sale were attacked by Barcelona Traction in an ap-
plication to setaside and on appeal, in an application of 27 December
1951for a declaration of nullity containing a forma1prayer that the
order approving the conditions of sale be declared nul1and void, and
in an application of 28 May 1955;

the same challenge was expressedby Sidro in its action of 7 February
1953and by other Belgian shareholders of the Barcelona Traction
Company in their application of 26 May 1955.
These facts which have not been contested by the Spanish Government
and whose existencemay be considered as being ofjudicial notice, prove
that the case was effectivelypursued before the Spanish courts or judges
and that local remedies were exhausted as a condition for diplomatic
protection by the Belgian Government.
Whether local remedies have been exhausted or not must be decided
from a consideration of whether the most fundamental spirit of this
institution has been observed or not. Now, this spirit, as is indicated
above, constitutes a means of ensuring the respect and confidence due to

the sovereign jurisdiction of a State. The important point is that this
spirit has been respected.
The aim of the rule of exhaustion of local remedies is a practical one
and its application should therefore be elastic. Each situation, being
different, requires different treatment. We must beware of the danger to
which this rule is exposed because of its procedural and technical nature,
lest it make necessary diplomatic protection futile by an excessive
raising of the objection of non-exhaustion.

Moreover, the fact that in this case, which was pending for more than2) Quant au jugement de faillite et aux décisionsconnexes:

recours en rétractation du 16 février1948 de la part des sociétés
auxiliaires Ebro et Barcelonesa;

la société faillie elle-mêaefait opposition au jugement de faillite
(par un acte du 18juin 1948,confirméle 3 septembre 1948);

demande incidente de nullité présentéepar la Barcelona Traction
(5juillet 1948).

3) Quant au blocage des recours:
nombreux recours de la part de la Barcelona Traction, commencer
par l'incident de nullitéintroduit le 5juillet 1948.

4) Quant à l'inobservation de la no-actionclause:

clause viséeexpressémentpar la National Trust dans sa demande
d'admission à la procédure(27 novembre 1948).
5) Quant au cahier des charges:

le cahier des charges a étéattaqué par la Barcelona Traction dans
un recours en rétractation et en appel, ainsi que dans la demande
de nullité du 27 décembre 1951 contenant une pétition formelle
de déclaration de nullitéde l'ordonnance qui approuvait ledit cahier
descharges et dans une demandedu 28 mai 1955;la mêmecontesta-
tion a été formuléepar la Sidro dans son action du 7 février 1953
et par d'autres actionnaires belges de la Barcelona Traction dans
leur demande du 26 mai 1955.
Les faits ci-dessus, que le Gouvernement espagnol n'a pas contestés

et qui peuvent être tenus pourétablis,prouvent que l'affairea étéeffec-
tivement portée devant les tribunaux ou les juges espagnols et que les
recours internes ont bien étépuisésc,ondition préalableà l'exercicede la
protection diplomatique par le Gouvernement belge.
Pour décider s'il y a eu épuisement des recours internes ou non, il
faut examiner si la règlea étérespectéeou non dans son esprit même.
Or, dans son esprit, la règle, comme nous l'avons dit plus haut, vise
à assurer le respect et la confiance dusà la juridiction souveraine des
Etats. L'important est que la règleait étérespectéedans cet esprit.

La règlede l'épuisement desrecours internes a un but pratique, et il
faut donc l'appliquer avec souplesse. Chaque situation est différente
et appelle un traitement différent.La règle présented'ailleurs un écueil

dont nous devons nous garder: c'est une règlede procédure, unerègle
technique, qui risque de rendre vaine l'indispensable protection diplo-
matique si l'on s'en autorise pour soulever abusivement une exception
de non-épuisementdes recours internes.
TI faut en outre relever qu'en la présente affaire, restée pendante 14 years, from 12 February 1948 (date of the bankruptcy judgrnent
against the Bjrcelona Traction Company by the Reus judge) to 14June
1962(date of the Application by the Belgian Governrnent), 2,736 orders
and 494 judgments by lower courts and 37 by higher courts had been
delivered, accordingto the Spanish Government. Even if these figuresare

not correct in everydetail, wecan none the lessrecognize from thern as a
whole the fact that the condition of exhaustion of local rernedies was
indeed satisfied by the Barcelona Traction Company or its subsidiary
cornpanies. Accordingly, the argument contrary thereto by the Spanish
Government is unfounded.
Therefore, the fourth preliminary objection raised by the Spanish
Government must be rejected.

The third and fourth preliminary objections having been decided in
favour of Belgium, wemust now consider a basic question on the merits,
namely whether Spain is responsible for internationally wrongful acts
allegedlycommitted by Spain which constitute "a denial ofjustice".
First it must be made clear that the charge of a denial of justice
imputed to Spain by the Belgian Government does not denote a very

narrow interpretation, namely the denial to foreigners of access to the
courts. What the Belgian Government contends is not only not limited to
a denial in such a forma1sense, but includes a denial ofjustice in a wider
material sense,in which, generallyspeaking,gross injustice, irregularities,
partiality, flagrant abuse ofjudicial powers, unwarranted delay, etc., are
included, as we indicated in another context.
The judgment of the Reus judge of 12 February 1948 declaring the
bankiuptcy of Barcelona Traction, its consequences and the successive
acts of the Spanish courts constitute the main complaints of the Belgian
Government. But the complaints include acts not only of a judicial
nature but also of an administrative nature, since it is alleged that some
acts and omissions of the Spanish administrative authorities, particularly
of the Institute of Foreign Exchange, had caused the adjudication in
bankruptcy of the Barcelona Traction Company.

From the lengthy arguments in the written and oral proceedings, we
can guess the existence of antagonism between the two economic and
financial groups: the one, the Mr. Juan March group and the other, the
Barcelona Traction group. Whilethe BelgianGovernment emphasizesthe

financial and political ambition and the collusion with the Spanish
administrative and juridical authorities ofthe former group, the Spanish
Government contends that there was abuse of the pyramidal structure of
the latter group and stresses the tax evasion and financial irregularities BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND.TANAKA) 150

pendant plus de quatorze ans (depuis le 12février1948,date dujugement
de faillite rendu contre la Barcelona Traction par lejuge de Reus,jusqu'au
14juin 1962,date de la requêtedu Gouvernement belge), 2736 ordon-
nances et 494 jugements ont été, d'aprèsle Gouvernement espagnol,
rendus par les tribunaux de première instance et 37 par les juridictions
supérieures.Quand bien même ces chiffren se seraient pas rigoureusement

exacts dans le détail, nous pouvons en déduire que, dans l'ensemble,
la Barcelona Traction ou ses sociétés auxiliairesont bien rempli I'obliga-
tion d'épuiser lesrecours internes. La thèse contraire que soutient le
Gouvernement espagnol n'est donc pas fondée.
En conséquence, ilconvient de rejeter la quatrième exception prélimi-
naire soulevéepar le Gouvernement espagnol.

Les troisièmeet quatrième exceptionspréliminairesayant ététranchées
en faveur de la Belgique, il convient maintenant d'examiner, quant au
fond, une question essentielle: l'Espagne est-elle responsable des actes
illicites qui lui sont .attribuéset qui constitueraient déni dejustice ))?
Il y a lieu, tout d'abord, de préciserque le dénide justice imputé à
l'Espagne par le Gouvernement belge ne doit pas s'entendre au sens
strict, c'est-à-dire comme le refus d'accorder à des étrangers l'accès
aux tribunaux. Le grief du Gouvernement belge ne vise pas seulement
le dénide justice formel mais aussi le dénisubstantiel, de portée plus
large, qui comprend d'une manièregénéralec ,omme nous l'avons indiqué

dans un autre contexte, l'injustice manifeste, lesirrégularités,la partialité,
l'abus flagrant de juridiction, les délais injustif,tc.
Le jugement prononçant la faillite de la Barcelona Traction rendu
par le juge de Reus le 12 février 1948, ses conséquences et les actes
successifs des tribunaux espagnols constituent l'essentiel des griefs du
Gouvernement belge. Cependant ces griefs portent non seulement sur
ces actes de caractère judiciaire mais aussi sur d'autres de caractère
administratif, puisqu'il est affirméque certains actes ou omissions des
autorités administratives espagnoles, en particulier de l'Institut de la
monnaie étrangère,sont à l'origine de la mise en faillite de la Barcelona
Traction.

La longue argumentation développéede part et d'autre dans la procé-
dure écriteet orale laisse deviner l'antagonisme qui existait entre les
deux groupes économiqueset financiers, celuide M. Juan March et celui
de la Barcelona Traction. SileGouvernement belge souligne lesambitions
financièreset politiques du premier groupe et sa collusion avec lesauto-
rités administrativeset judiciaires espagnoles, leGouvernement espagnol
dénonceles abus résultant de la structure pyramidale du second et insiste
sur l'évasion fiscaleet sur les irrégularitésfinancièresdont ce groupe secommitted by that group, such as the creation of fictitious debts and the
sacrifice of creditors by means of auto-contracts between Barcelona
Traction and its subsidiaries.
The Spanish Government contends that the Barcelona Traction Com-
pany had been constantly in a state of "latent bankruptcy" owing to its
financial methods detrimental to creditors and bondholders; the Belgian
Government on the contrary insists that the financial situation ofBarce-
lona Traction had been normal or evenprosperous exceptin the period of
the Spanish Civil War and the Second World War.
The Belgian Government also contends that individual judicial and
administrative measures which constitute separate subjects of complaint,
were combined into an integral whole to bring about the "hispaniciza-
tion" of a prosperous foreign enterprise. According to the Belgian
Government, the adjudication in bankruptcy of Barcelona Traction is
nothing other than the result of the machinations of Juan March in
collusion with Spanish judicial and administrative authorities. This is the

reason why the Belgian Government, alongside of individual complaints,
advanced an overall complaint which unites and integrates numerous
separate complaints.
The main complaintsput forward by the BelgianGovernment focus on
the irregularities allegedly committed by the Spanish courts in the
bankruptcy judgment and the judicial acts following this judgment.
These allegedirregularities are included in the concept of denial ofjustice
Zato sensuT .he usurpation of jurisdiction may come within denial of
justice in thii sense.
The usurpation of jurisdiction by the Spanish courts is alleged on the
ground that Barcelona Traction was a company under Canadian law
with its company seat in Canada, having neither company seat nor com-
mercial establishment in Spain, nor possessing any property or carrying
on any business there.
Also, disregard for the territorial limits of acts of sovereigntyispointed
out in the measures of enforcement taken in respect of property situated
outside Spanishterritory, without the concurrence of foreign authorities.
Furthermore, irregularities aresaid to have been committed byconferring

upon the bankruptcy authorities, through the device of "mediate and
constructive civil possession"-not physical possession-the power of
exercising in Spain the rights which attached to the shares located in
Canada of several subsidiary and sub-subsidiary companies and on
which, with the approval of the Spanish judicial authorities, they relied
for the purpose of replacing the directors of those companies, modifying
their articles of association, etc.
It is to be noted that Canada did not protest against the Spanish
Government's usurpation of Canadian jurisdiction which was alleged by
the Belgian Government.
As denials ofjustice latosenstuhe Belgian Government complains that
a large number of decisions made by the Spanish courts are vitiated by serait rendu coupable, en créant par exemple des dettes fictives au
détriment des créanciers par la conclusion d'autocontrats entre la
Barcelona Traction et ses filiales.
Le Gouvernement espagnol prétendque la Barcelona Traction n'avait
cesséd'êtredans un étatde faillite latente )dû àdes pratiques financières
contraires aux intérêtsdes créancierset des obligataires; le Gouvernement
belge affirme en revanche que la situation financière de la Barcelona

Traction avait toujours été normale, voire prospère, sauf pendant la
guerre civile espagnole et la seconde guerre mondiale.
Le Gouvernement belge soutient aussi que l'on a conjuguédifférentes
mesures judiciaires et administratives, dont chacune fait l'objet d'un
grief distinct, en vue de réaliser 17hispanisation » d'une entreprise
étrangère prospère.Selon le Gouvernement belge, la mise en faillite
de la Barcelona Traction n'est rien d'autre que le résultat des machina-
tions de Juan March agissant de concert avec les autoritésjudiciaires
et administratives espagnoles. C'est pour cette raison que, parallèlement
à des griefs particuliers, le Gouvernement belge a formuléun grief global
qui réuniten un tout de nombreux griefs distincts.

Les principaux griefs du Gouvernement belge gravitent autour des
irrégularités quiauraient étécommises par les tribunaux espagnols à
l'occasion du jugement de faillite et des actes judiciaires qui l'ont suivi.
Les irrégularités alléguée se rattachent au déni de justice Zato sensu.
L'usurpation de compétencepeut aussi êtreconsidérée comme relevant
du dénide justice entendu en ce sens.
L'allégation d'usurpation de compétencepar les tribunaux espagnols
se fonde sur le fait que la Barcelona Traction était une sociétéde droit
canadien dont le siègesocial se trouvait au Canada et qui n'avait ni
siègesocial ni établissement commercialen Espagne, où elle ne possédait
aucun bien et n'exerçait aucune activité.

On invoque aussi le non-respect des limites territoriales des actes de
souveraineté à propos des mesures d'exécutionqui ont été prises àl'égard
de biens situéshors du territoire espagnol sans l'assentiment desautorités
étrangères.On relèveen outre les irrégularitésrésultant de ce que, par
l'artifice de l«possession médiateet civilissime »- sanspossessioncon-
crète- lesorganesde la faillite se sont vu conférer lepouvoir d'exercer
en Espagnelesdroits attachés aux actions,situéesau Canada, de plusieurs
filiales et sous-filiales, droits dont ils se réclamèrentavec l'approbation
des autorités judiciaires espagnoles pour remplacer les administrateurs
de ces sociétésp, our modifier leurs statuts, etc.

Il y a lieu de noter que le Canada n'a élevéaucune protestation auprès
du Gouvernement espagnol au sujet de l'usurpation de la compétence
canadienne alléguéepar le Gouvernement belge.
Le Gouvernement belge considère, en y voyant des dénisde justice
lato sensu, qu'un grand nombre de décisions destribunaux espagnolsgross and manifest error in the application of Spanish law, by arbitrari-
ness or discrimination, in particular:

(1) flagrant breach of the provisions of Spanish law which do not permit
that a foreign debtor should be adjudged bankrupt if that debtor
does not have his domicile, or at least an establishment, in Spanish

territory;
(2) adjudication in bankruptcy when the company was not in a state of
insolvency,was not in a state of final, general and complete cessation
of payment either, and had not ceased its payments in Spain;

(3) the judgment of 12 February 1948failed to order the publication of
the bankruptcy by announcement in the place of domicile of the bank-
rupt, which constitutes a flagrant breach of Article 1044 (5) of the
1829Commercial Code ;
(4) the decisions failing to respect the separate estates of Barcelona
Traction's subsidiaries and sub-subsidiaries, in that they extended to
their property the attachment arising out of the bankruptcy of the
parent company, and thus disregarded their distinct juridical per-
sonalities;
(5) the judicial decisions which conferred on the bankruptcy authorities
the fictitious possession (termed"mediate and constructive civil pos-

session") of securities of certain subsidiary and sub-subsidiary
companies have no legal basis in Spanish bankruptcy law and were
purely arbitrary.
(Final Submissions filed on 14July 1969 bythe Agent of the Belgian
Government, Section III.)
There are other items which are concerned with the alleged violation of
the provisions on bankruptcy and which include among others: the
bestowal on the commissioner of power to proceed to the dismissal,

removal or appointment of members of the staff, employees and manage-
ment, of the companies al1 of whose shares belonged to Barcelona
Traction or one ofits subsidiaries;ignoringthe separate legalpersonalities
of the subsidiary and sub-subsidiary companies in the matter of the
attachment of their property in Spain; irregularities concerning the
convening of the general meeting of creditors of 19 September 1949;
violation of the provisions concerning the sale of the property of the
bankrupt company; authorization of the sale based on the allegedly
perishable nature of the property to be sold; in violation of the legal
provisions the commissioner fixed an exaggeratedly low upset price on
the basis of an expert's opinion submitted by one side only; numerous
irregularities in the General Conditions of Sale.
Next, the Belgian Government alleges that various denials of justice
stricto sensu (Final Submissions, Section IV) were committed by the
Reus court in the course of the bankrup'tcy proceedings, the Spanishsont entachéesd'erreur grossièreet manifeste dans l'application du droit
espagnol, ainsi que d'arbitraire et de discrimination. 11fait notamment
valoir:
1) la violation flagrante des dispositions du droit espagnol, qui ne

permettent pas de déclareren faillite un débiteur étrangers'il n'apas
son domicile ou tout au moins un établissementen territoire espagnol;

2) la déclaration de faillite intervenue alors que la sociétén'étaitpas en
étatd'insolvabilité,n'était pas non plus enétatde cessation de paie-
ments définitif, généraelt complet, et n'avait pas suspendu ses paie-
ments en Espagne;
3) que le jugement du 12 février1948a omis d'ordonner la publication
de la faillite par annonce dans la localitédu domicile du failli, ce qui
constitue une violation flagrante de l'article 10445) du code de com-
merce de 1829;

4) les décisionsqui refusèrent de respecter le patrimoine distinct des
sociétésfiliales et sous-filiales de la Barcelona Traction, en étendant
à leurs biens la saisie résultant de la faillite de la société mèret en
méconnaissant ainsileur personnalitéjuridique propre;

5) que les décisionsjudiciairesqui ont conféréaux organes de la faillite
la possession fictive (sous la qualification de ((possession médiate et
civilissime)))des titres de certaines sociétésfiliales et sous-filiales ne
reposent sur aucune base légaledans le droit espagnol de la faillite
et sont purement arbitraires.
(Conclusions finales déposéesle 14 juillet 1969 par l'agent du

Gouvernement belge, section III.)
D'autres allégations ont trait à la violation des dispositions sur la
faillite et concernent notamment: l'octroi au commissaire du pouvoir de
procéder àla révocation, àla destitution ouà la nomination des membres
du personnel, employéset gérants des sociétésdont toutes les actions

appartenaient àla Barcelona Traction ou à l'une de sesfiliales; la mécon-
naissance de la personnalité juridique distincte des sociétésfiliales et
sous-filialesrelativement àla saisie de leurs biens en Espagne; les irrégu-
larités concernant la convocation de l'assemblée générald ees créanciers
du 19 septembre 1949; la violation des dispositions concernant la vente
des biens de la sociétéfaillie; l'autorisation de vente fondée surle carac-
tère prétendument périssable des biens à vendre; la fixation par le com-
missaire, en violation des dispositions légales, d'un prix minimumexces-
sivement bas fondé surune expertise unilatérale; les nombreuses irrégu-
laritésdu cahier des charges.

Le Gouvernement belge soutient ensuite que divers dénis dejustice
stricto sensu(conclusions finales,section IV)ont étécommispar letribunal
de Reus au cours de la procédure de faillite, les tribunaux espagnols courts disregarding the rights of the defence; in particular: insertion by
the Reus court in itsjudgrnent on an exparte petition of provisions which
wentfar beyond findingthepurported insolvencyof or a generalcessation
of payments by the bankrupt company (particularly in respect of the at-
tachment ofthe property ofthe subsidiarycompanies without their having

been sumrnonsed and without their having been adjudicated bankrupt) ;
the applications for relief presented by subsidiary companies directly
affected by the judgment of 12 February 1948were rejected as inadmis-
sible on the grounds of lack ofjus standi; it was impossible to develop or
argue the complaints against the General Conditions of Sale because the
order which had approved the General Conditions of Sale was regarded
as a matter of mere routine.
The Belgian Government considers that "many years elapsed after the
bankruptcy judgment and even after the ruinous sale of the property of
the Barcelona Traction group without either the bankrupt company or
those CO-interestedwith it having had an opportunity to be heard on the
numerous complaints put forward against the bankruptcy judgment and
related decisions in the opposition of 18June 1948and in various other
applications for relief". It continues that "those delayswerecaiisedbythe
motion to declinejurisdiction fraudulently lodged by a confederate of the
petitioners in bankruptcy and by incidental proceedings instituted by
other men of straw of the March group .. .".Furthermore, it concludes:

"that both general international law and the Spanish-Belgian Treaty of
1927regard such delays as equivalent to the denial of a hearing".

From what we have seen above, we can recognize that the alleged
ground for complaint on the merits consists essentially of a denial of
justice for which the Belgian Government blamed the Spanish State. It is
one of the casesin which a State may incur responsibility through the act
or omission of any of its organs (legislative,administrative, or judicial).
But whether a State incurs responsibility or not depends on the concrete
circumstances of each case; in particular, the characteristics of the three
kinds of State activities-legislative, administrative and judicial-must
be taken into consideration. Mechanical, uniform treatment must be
avoided.
The case before the Court is concerned mainly with the acts and
omissions of somejudicial organs, particularly of the Spanish judges and

courts, which, the Belgian Government alleges, constitute denials of
justice.
Whether the above-mentioned acts and omissionsallegedlyconstituting
denials ofjustice would entai1international responsibilitiesas constituting
infringements of international law, must of course be decided from the
nature of each act and omission in question; but we must consider also ayant méconnu lesdroits de la défense;il fait valoir notamment: que le
tribunal de Reusa inséré dansson jugement, prononcé sursimplerequête,
des dispositions qui dépassaientde loin la constatation de la prétendue
insolvabilité ou cessation généralede paiements de la société faillie
(particulièrement à l'égard des sociétés auxiliaires d,ont les biens furent

saisis sans qu'elles eussentétéassignéeset sans qu'ellesfussent déclarées
en faillite); que les recours introduits par les sociétés auxiliaires directe-
ment atteintes par le jugement du 12 février1948ont étérejetés comme
non recevables pour défautde qualité; que les griefs contre le cahier des
charges ne purent êtreni développésni débattus,parce que l'ordonnance
qui avait approuvé celui-ci fut considérée commede simple routine.

Le Gouvernement belge considère «que de nombreuses années s'écou-
lèrent aprèsle jugement de faillite et mêmeaprès la vente ruineuse des
avoirs du groupe de la Barcelona Traction, sans que ni la société faillie

ni ses coïntéressésaient eu la possibilitéde se faire entendre sur les nom-
breux griefs formuléscontre le jugement de faillite et les décisions con-
nexes dans l'opposition du 18juin 1948et dans divers autres recours )).
11ajoute que «ces retards furent causéspar le déclinatoiredejuridiction
frauduleusement introduit par un comparse des requérants à la faillite
et par des incidents émanant d'autres hommes de paille du groupe
March ..». En conclusion, il déclare que tant le droit international
généralque le traité hispano-belge de 1927assimilent de tels retards à
un refus d'audience )).

Ce qui précèdenous permet de constater que, sur le fond, la demande
est motivée essentiellementpar le dénide justice que le Gouvernement
belge reproche à 1'Etatespagnol. C'est l'undes cas où la responsabilité
d'un Etat peut êtreengagéepar un acte ou par une omission d'un de ses
organes (législatif,administratif oujudiciaire). Mais la question de savoir
si la responsabilité d'un Etat est effectivement engagée dépend des cir-

constances concrètes de chaque espèce; il faut notamment prendre en
considératim ce qui caractérise les trois sortes d'activitésétatiques -
législative,administrative et judiciaire- en évitantdetraiter la question
de façon mécaniqueet uniforme.
L'affaire soumise à la Cour concerne principalement les actes et omis-
sions de certains organes judiciaires - et plus spécialement des jugeset
des tribunaux espagnols - qui, selon le Gouvernement belge, constitue-
raient des dénisde justice.
Quant à savoir si les actes et omissions, déjàmentionnés,que l'on pré-
sente comme des dénisde justice, entraînent une responsabilité inter-

nationale en tant qu'infractions au droit international, cela dépendbien
entendu de la nature de chaque acte ou omission; mais nous devons à ce the characteristics of the judicial function of a State as a whole and the
judiciary in relation to the executive in particular.

One of the most important political and legal characteristics of a
modern State is the principle ofjudicial independence. The independence
of the judiciary in aformal sense means the guarantee of the position of
judges, and in a material sense it means that judges are not bound except
by their conscience.
Although judges possess the status of civil servants, they do not belong
to the ordinary hierarchy of government officials with superior-subordi-
nate relationships. They are not submitted to ordinary disciplinary rules,
but to rules suigeneris.
As to the institutional independence of courts as a whole, differences
exist among various countries. In the first category of countries a system
isadopted whereby the highest court or the lower courts, or both, have
conferred upon them the power of judicial review, namely the power to
pass judgment on the constitutionality of laws, ordinances and official
acts. In these countries, as a corollary of this system, the independence of
courts and judges vis-à-vis the government is outstanding. But in other

countries where the whole body of courts and judges is under the author-
ity of the Minister of Justice who is a member of the Cabinet, this does
not seem to create much difference, so far as judicial independence is
concerned, from the former group of countries. What is required from
judges byjudicial ethics does not differ in the two systems.

The judicial independence of courts and judges must be safeguarded
not only from other branches of the government, that is to say, the
political and administrative power, but also from any other external
power, for instance, political parties, trade unions, mass media and
public opinion. Furthermore, independence must be defended as against
various courts and as between judges. Courts of higher instance and
judges of these courts do not function as superiors exercising the power of
supervision and control in the ordinary sense of the term vis-à-vis courts
of lower instance and their judges.

This is a particularity which distinguishes the judiciary from other
branches of government. Thisdistinction, weconsider, seemsto bederived,
on the one hand, from consideration of the social significance of the
judiciary for the settlement of conflicts of vital interest as an impartial
third party and, on the other hand, from the extremely scientific and
technical nature of judicial questions, the solution of which requires the
most highly conscientious activities of specially educated and trained
experts. The independence of the judiciary, therefore, despite the exis-
tence of differences in degree between various legal systems, may be
considered as a universally recognized principle in most of the municipal
and international legal systems of the world. It may be admitted to be a propos examiner aussi les caractéristiques de la fonction judiciaire de
1'Etat considéréedans son ensemble, et plus spécialement les rapports
entre le pouvoir judiciaire et le pouvoir exécutif.
Une des caractéristiques politiques et juridiques les plus importantes
d'un Etat moderne est le principe de l'indépendance judiciaire.L'indé-
pendance du pouvoir judiciaire veut dire, au sens formel, que le statut
desjuges est garanti et, concrètement, que lesjuges ne sont liésque par
leur conscience.
Bien qu'ils possèdentle statut de fonctionnaires, lesjuges n'appartien-

nent pas àla hiérarchieordinaire des agents de l'administration, caracté-
riséepar des rapports de subordonnés à supérieurs.Ilsne sont pas soumis
aux règlesordinaires de discipline, maisà des règlessui generis.
Quant à l'indépendance institutionnelle destribunaux en général,elle
présente desdifférences selon les pays.Dans une premièrecatégorie de
pays, on a adopté un systèmequi confère au tribunal suprême ou aux
tribunaux inférieurs,ou à toutes cesjuridictions, un pouvoir de contrôle
judiciaire, c'est-à-dire lepouvoir de statuer sur la constitutionnalité des
lois, ordonnances et actes officiels.Ce systèmea pour corollaire une in-
dépendance remarquable des tribunaux et des juges à l'égarddu gouver-
nement. Mais dans d'autres pays, où l'ensemble des tribunaux et des
juges relèventde l'autoritédu ministre de la justice, qui est membre du

gouvernement, il ne semble pas que la différencesoitgrande, pour ce qui
est de l'indépendancejudiciaire, par rapport au premier groupe de pays.
Dans les deux systèmes, l'éthiquejudiciaire exige la mêmechose des
magistrats.
L'indépendancejudiciaire des tribunaux et desjuges ne doit pas seule-
ment êtreprotégée à l'égard desautres branches du gouvernement, c'est-
à-dire du pouvoir politique et administratif, mais aussiàl'égardde tous
les autres pouvoirs extérieurs: partis politiques, syndicats, moyens d'in-
formation de masse et opinion publique. En outre, cette indépendance
doit êtredéfendue contre les divers tribunaux et entre les juges. Les
tribunaux d'un degréplus élevé et les juges quiy siègentn'ont pas une
supériorité hiérarchique qui leurpermettrait d'exercer un pouvoir de
surveillance ou de contrôle, au sens ordinaire, à l'égard destribunaux

inférieurset de leurs juges.
Il s'agit là d'une particularité qui distingue le pouvoir judiciaire des
autres branches du gouvernement. Cette distinction nous parait résulter,
d'une part, de la signification qui s'attache sur le plan socialfonction
du pouvoir judiciaire, chargéen tant que tierce partie impartiale de ré-
soudre des conflits d'intérêt vital,'autre part, de la nature hautement
scientifique et technique des questions judiciaires dont la solution exige
le recours à des spécialistesd'une conscience scrupuleuse. Aussi, l'indé-
pendance du pouvoir judiciaire, malgrécertaines différencesde degré,
peut-elle être considérée commu en ~rinci~euniversellement admis dans
la plupart des systèmesjuridiques du monde, tant sur le plan interne que
sur le plan international. On peut donc la ranger parmi les ((principes "general principle of law recognized by civilized nations" (Article 38,
paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute).
The above-mentioned principle ofjudicial independence has important
repercussions in dealing with the question of the responsibility of States
for acts of their organs internally as well as internationally.

In the field of municipal law, wehave, in the matter of responsibility of
States for acts of their judiciary, the following information furnished by
the Max-Planck Institute in Hafung des Staates für rechtswidriges
Verhalten seiner Organe, 1967. So far as the judiciary is concerned, it
concludes :

"In the overwhelming majority of the legal systems investigated,
the State is not liable for the conduct of its judicial organs." (Op.
cit., p. 773.)

In addition, it must be pointed out that those countries exceptionally
recognizing State responsibility limit its application to criminal matters
under specificcircumstances (in particular, the compensation of innocent
persons who have been held in custody).
As to the international sphere, an analogous principle exists. Unlike
internationally injurious acts committed by administrative officiais, a
State is, in principle, not responsible forthose acts committed byjudicial
functionaries (mainlyjudges) in their officia1capacity. The reason for this
is found in the fact that in modern civilized countries they are almost
entirely independent of their government.

We shall take into account the above-mentioned characteristics of the
judiciary to resolve the question of whether the Spanish State incurs
responsibility by reason of alleged internationally wrongful acts and
omissions of the Spanish courts and judges, because their activities

constitute the main grounds for the complaints which are presented as
charges of denials of justice.
The question may be whether the acts and omissions mentioned here
(in the final submissions) really constitute an international wrong for
which the Spanish State is responsible for reparation in respect of the
damage.
If judicial organs function quite independently of the government, it
may be impossible for a State to incur responsibility by reason of any
judicial act or omission on the municipal as well as on the international
plane. But, in the case of some serious mistakes injudicial actions,a State
is made responsible, by special legislativemeasures, for the reparation of
damage; grave irregularities committed by the municipal judiciary may
involve a State's responsibility on the plane of international law.

In short, on the one hand, a State by reason of the independence of the générauxde droit reconnus par les nations civilisées» (art. 38, par. 1c)
du Statut de la Cour).
Le principe susmentionnéde l'indépendance judiciairea d'importantes

répercussionssur la question de la responsabilité desEtats à raison des
actes accomplis par leurs organes, en droit interne comme en droit
international.
Dans le domaine du droit interne, en ce qui a traità la responsabilité
des Etats pour les actes du pouvoir judiciaire, l'Institut Max Planck
arriveà la conclusion suivante (Haftung des Staates für rechtswidriges
VerhaItenseiner Organe, 1967) :

((Dans la très vaste majorité des systèmes juridiques étudiés,
1'Etatn'estpas responsable à raison du comportement de ses organes
judiciaires. (Op. cit., p. 773.)

Il faut d'autre part noter que les pays reconnaissantà titre exceptionnel,
la responsabilitéde 17Etat,limitent celle-ci aux matières criminellesetà
des cas déterminés(en particulier celui des dommages dus aux personnes
reconnues innocentes après avoir étéemprisonnées).
Un principe analogue existe dans le domaine international. Contraire-
ment à ce qui est la règlepour les actes dommageables de caractère inter-
national commis par des autorités administratives, un Etat n'est pas en
principe responsable des actes accomplis par les fonctionnaires de l'ordre
judiciaire (principalement les juges) dans l'exercice de leurs fonctions
officielles.Cela s'expliquepar lefait que, dans les pays civilisésmodernes,
les magistrats sont presque complètement indépendantsde leur gouver-

nement.
Nous aurons à tenir compte de ces caractéristiques du pouvoir judi-
ciaire pour déterminersi la responsabilitéde 1'Etatespagnol est engagée
par des actes et des omissions prétendumentillicites des tribunaux et des
juges espagnols, dont l'activitéconstitue le fondement essentiel du grief
de dénide justice qui a étéformulé.

II s'agit en l'occurrence d'établirsi les actes et omissions incriminés
(dans les conclusions finales) constituent véritablement unefaute inter-
nationale dont 1'Etatespagnol est responsable et qu'il doit réparer.

Si les organes judiciaires sont entièrement indépendants du gouver-
nement, il semblerait que la responsabilitéde 1'Etat ne puisse êtremise
en cause à raison d'aucun acte ou d'omission du pouvoir judiciaire, ni
sur le plan interne ni sur le plan international. Toutefois, lorsqu'une faute
grave est commise dans une action judiciaire, la responsabilitéde 1'Etat
peut résulterde dispositions législatives spécialsrévoyantla réparation
du dommage; de graves irrégularités commisespar les tribunaux natio-
naux peuvent engager la responsabilité d'unEtat sur le plan international.
Bref, on peut dire que si, en raison de l'indépendance dupouvoirjudiciary, in principle, is immune from responsibility concerning the
activities ofjudicial organs; this immunity, on the other hand, is not of an
absolute nature. In certain cases the State is responsible for the acts and
omissions of judicial organs, namely in cases where grave circumstances
exist. That is the reason why denial ofjustice is discussed by writers as a
matter involving a State's responsibility.
The concept of a denial of justice, understood in the proper sense, is
that of an injury committed by a court of justice involving the respon-
sibility of the State. difference of views-narrower and broader inter-
pretations-exists concerning acts of this kind, as we have seen in other
contexts. The view which we consider as acceptable is the broader one,
which covers cases of denial of justice, such as "corruption, threats, un-
warrantable delay, flagrant abuse of judicial procedure, a judgment
dictated bythe executive,or so manifestly unjust that no court which was

both competent and honest could have given it". But from the latter
viewpoint, as a principle, no erroneous or even unjust judgment of a
court will constitute a denial of justice.
Justification forthis interpretation can be found in the independence
of the judiciary (Oppenheim-Lauterpacht, International Law, Vol. 1,
8th ed., 1955,p. 360). Brierly-Waldock says:
"It will be observed that even on the wider interpretation of the
term 'denial of justice' which is here adopted, the misconduct must

be extremely gross. The justification of this strictness is that the
independence of courts is an accepted canon of decent government,
and the law therefore does not lightly hold a state responsible for
their faults. It follows that an allegation of a denial of justice is a
serious step which States ... are reluctant to take-when a claim can
be based on other grounds." (Op. ci?.p. 287.)

Next, we shall consider the content and character of a denial ofjustice
allegedly committed by the Spanish judicial authorities.
It is to be noted that the various complaints raised by the Belgian
Government are mainly concerned with the interpretation of municipal
law, namely provisions of the Spanish commercial code and civil pro-
cedure code in the matter of bankruptcy, and provisions of Spanish
private international law on thejurisdiction of Spanish Courts concerning
bankruptcy. Questions relating to these matters are of an extremely
complicated and technical nature: they are highly controversial and it is
not easy to decide which solution is right and which wrong. Even if one
correct solution could be reached, and if other contrary solutions could
be decided to be wrong, we cannot assert that incorrect decisions con-
stitute in themselves a denial ofjustice and involve international respon-
sibility.
For instance, the attachment of the property of the subsidiary com-judiciaire, un Etat est en principe affranchi de toute responsabilité
quant aux actes de ses organes judiciaires, cette immunité n'a pas un

caractère absolu. Dans certains cas graves 1'Etat est responsable des
actes et omissions des organes judiciaires. C'est pour cette raison que la
doctrine cite le dénide justice parmi les motifs permettant de mettre en
cause la responsabilitéde 1'Etat.
Au sens propre, la notion de dénide justice s'applique à un préjudice
causépar un tribunal et engageant la responsabilité de 1'Etat. Comme
nous l'avons vu par ailleurs, les opinions diffèrent à cet égardet l'on
aboutit à deux interprétations, l'une étroiteet l'autre plus large. C'est
cette dernière qui, selon nous, peut êtreacceptée; elle admet de nom-
breuses formes de dénide justice dans les cas de ((corruption, menaces,
délais injustifiés,bus de procédure flagrant,jugement dictépar le pou-
voir exécutif ou si manifestement injuste qu'aucun tribunal à la fois
compétent et probe n'eût pu le rendre ». Mais de ce point de vue, un
jugement erronéou injuste ne suffitpas, en principe,à constituer un déni

de justice.
Cette interprétation trouve sa justification dans l'indépendance du
pouvoir judiciaire (Oppenheim-Lauterpacht, International Law, vol. 1,
8' éd.,1955,p. 360). Brierly-Waldock s'exprime ainsi:
«On remarquera que même selonl'interprétation large de l'expres-
sion ((dénidejustice»que nous adoptons, la fautedoit êtreflagrante.

Si on se montre aussi strict, c'est parce que l'indépendance des
tribunaux est un principe de gouvernement indiscuté, et ce n'est
donc pas à la légèreque la loi tiendra I'Etat pour responsable de
leurs fautes. Il s'ensuit qu'une allégationde dénide justice est une
chose sérieuse que les Etats ...répugnent à invoquer lorsqu'une
demande peut être autrementfondée. » (Op. cit.p,. 287.)

Nous examinerons maintenant le contenu et le caractère du dénide
justice qui aurait été commispar les autoritésjudiciaires espagnoles.
On notera que les divers griefs formuléspar le Gouvernement belge
visent principalement l'interprétation dela loi interne, c'est-à-dire des
dispositions du codede commerce et du codedeprocédurecivileespagnols
ainsi que celles du droit international privé espagnol concernant la
compétence destribunaux espagnols en matière de faillite. Il s'agit de
questions extrêmement compliquéeset techniques; elles soulèvent de
vives controverses et il est malaiséde dire si telle solution est juste ou
fausse. Mêmesi l'on pouvait déterminer quelle est la solution correcte
et déclarer inexactes les solutions contraires, on ne saurait en conclure
que des décisionserronées constituent en soi un dénidejustice entraînant

une responsabilité internationale.

C'est ainsi que la saisie des biens des sociétésfiliales ordonnée par le panies by the Reusjudge in disregard of theirjuridical personalities and
relying on the doctrine of "piercing the veil", even if it might be deemed
illegal, could not be recognized as a denial ofjustice. As a legal question,
this issue involves an element similar to the question of whether the
Belgian Government can base itsjus standfi or the purpose of the diplo-
matic protection of Belgian shareholders on the doctrine of "piercing
the veil". The controversies concerning the alleged failure to order the
publication of the bankruptcy in the place of domicile of the bankrupt
and the validity of decisions failing to respect the separate estates of
Barcelona Traction's subsidiary and sub-subsidiary companies or con-

ferring on the bankruptcy authorities the fictitious possession (termed
"mediate and constructive civil possession") of securities of certain
subsidiary and sub-subsidiarycompanies,should be considered in them-
selves irrelevant to the question of the existenceof a denial ofjustice also.
These questions which are concerned with the interpretation of the
positive law of a State and which are of a technical nature, cannot in
themselves involve an important element which constitutes a denial of
justice. Questions of the kind mentioned above may constitute at least
"erroneous or unjust judgment" but cannot come within the scope of
a charge of denial ofjustice.
The same can be said concerningthe validity of the bankruptcy judg-
ment from the viewpoint of the existence or non-existence of a cessation
of payments or a state of insolvency. Even if any error in fact-finding or
in the interpretation and application of provisions concerningbankruptcy
exists, it would not constitute in itself a denial of justice.

The question of valuation of the property of the Barcelona Traction

Company as a going concern is a very complicated matter; various
methods are conceivable, diverse proposals have been made and experts'
opinions are divided. It is difficult toonclude that one method is abso-
lutely right and the other wrong and, therefore, that a judge by adopting
one alternative instead of the other would commit a denial ofjustice.
Arguments developed on the question as to whether the rights in-
corporated in negotiable securities may be exercised without possession
of the securities, in other words on the question of the temporal separa-
bility or non-separability of right and instrumentasregardstheshare may
be considered to have no relevance to the question of a denial ofjustice.
The innumerable controversies concerning the details of the bank-
ruptcy proceedings may aIso be considered as possessing no relevance
from this point of view.
In short, since these issues are of a technical nature, the possible error
committed by judges in their decisions cannot involve the responsibility
of a State. That the above-mentioned doctrine precludes such an error
from being a constituent element in a denial ofjustice as aninternationally

wrongful act is not difficultto understand from the other viewpointsalso.
The reason for this is that these issues are of a municipal law nature andjuge de Reus, sans qu'il soit tenu compte de leur personnalité juridique,
et sur la base de la doctrine de la ((levéedu voile)),ne pourrait, fût-elle
jugéeillégale,êtreconsidéréecomme un déni dejustice. Juridiquement,
cette question se rapproche, par l'un de ses élémentsd , e celle de savoir
si le Gouvernement belge peut fonder sa qualitépour agir, aux fins de la
protection des actionnaires belges, sur la doctrine de la levéedu voile B.
Doivent aussi êtreconsidérées comme étrangèresau problèmede I'exis-
tence d'un dénidejustice les controverses portant sur le prétendudéfaut
de publication de la faillite au lieu du domicile du failli, sur la validité
des décisionsqui méconnaissentla distinction entre les patrimoines de la

Barcelona Traction et de ses sociétés filialee st sous-filiales,et sur le fait
d'avoir conféré aux organes dela faillitela possession fictive(dite((posses-
sion médiateet civilissime »)des titres de certaines filialeset sous-filiales.

Ces questions, qui intéressent l'interprétation du droit positif d'un
Etat et qui sont de nature technique, n'ont pas en elles-mêmes une im-
portance suffisantepour permettre de conclure à un dénidejustice. Des
faits de ce genre peuvent tout au plus constituer les élémentsd'un ((juge-
ment erronéou injuste )maisdemeurenten dehorsdu champ d'application
du dénidejustice.

On peut en dire autant de la validitédu jugement de faillite considérée
du point de vue de l'existenceou de la non-existence d'une cessationde
paiements ou d'un état d'insolvabilité. Mêms ei une erreur avait été
commise dans l'établissementdes faits ou dans l'interprétation et l'ap-
plication des dispositions relatives à la faillite, cela ne constituerait pas
en soi un dénide justice.
La question de l'évaluationdu patrimoine de la Barcelona Traction
en tant qu'entreprise en activité est d'unegrande complexité; on peut
concevoir différentes méthodes, diversep sropositions ont étéfaites et les
experts sont partagés. On peut difficilement conclure qu'une méthode

est absolument juste et que l'autre est erronée,et qu'en adoptant l'une
plutôt que l'autre, lejuge commet un dénide justice.
Les arguments mis en avant en vue de déterminer siles droits repré-
sentéspar des titres négociablespeuvent êtreexercéssans la possession
de ces titres, autrement dit ceux qui portent sur le caractèreindissociable
ou non du droit etdu titre dans le temps, peuvent êtreconsidérés comme
dépourvus de pertinence du point de vue du dénide justice. Du même
point de vue, on peut aussi considérercomme sans pertinence les contro-
verses sans nombre touchant les détailsde la procédurede faillite.

En résumé,ces problèmes étant de nature technique, l'erreur que les
juges peuvent avoir commise nesaurait engagerla responsabilitéde l'Etat.
Mêmesi l'on se place dans une optique différente,il n'est pas difficile
de comprendre pourquoi la doctrine ci-dessus rappelée exclut pareille
erreur en tant qu'élémentconstitutif d'un dénide justice illicite sur le
plan international. 11en est ainsi parce que ces questions relèvent du therefore their interpretation does not belong to the realm of international
law. If an international tribunal were to take upthese issuesand examine
the regularity of the decisions of municipal courts, the international
tribunal would turn out to be a "cour de cassation", the highest court in
the municipal law system. An international tribunal, on the contrary,
belongs to quite a different order; it is called upon to deal with inter-
national affairs, not municipal affairs. Now, as we have seen above, the
actions and omissions complained of by the Belgian Government, so far

as they are concerned with incorrectness of interpretation and application
of municipal law, cannot constitute a denial ofjustice. This means that in
itself the incorrectness of a judgment of a municipal court does not have
an international character.
A judgment of a municipal court which gives rise to the responsibility
of a State by a denial of justice does have an international character
when, for instance, a court, having occasion to apply some rule of inter-
national law, gives an incorrect interpretation of that law or applies a
rule of domestic law which is itselfcontrary to international law (Brierly-
Waldock, op. cit., p. 287). Apart from such exceptionally serious cases,
erroneous and unjust decisions of a court, in general, must be excluded
from the concept of a denial ofjustice.

Now, excluding allegedlyerroneous or unjust decisions of the Spanish
judiciary as constituent elements of a denial of justice, it remains to ex-
amine whether behind the alleged errors and irregularities of the Spanish

judiciary some grave circumstances do not exist which may justify the
charge of a denial of justice. Conspicuous examples thereof would be
"corruption, threats, unwarrantable delay, flagrant abuse of judicial
procedure, a judgment dictated by the executive, or so manifestly unjust
that no court which was both competent and honest could have givenit",
which were quoted above. We may sumup these circumstances under the
single head of "bad faith".
Two questions arise. Does the Belgian Government contend that there
existed such circumstances as bad faith in order to justify its complaints
based on a denial ofjustice? If this question isansweredinthe affirmative,
has the existence of aggravating facts been sufficientlyproved?
Here wemust beaware that weare confronted with questions belonging
to a dimension entirely different to the one which we have dealt with
above: it is not a municipal or legal-technical, but an international and
moral dimension. An ethical valuation of the conduct of national judicial
organs has been introduced. It is not the correctness or incorrectness of
the interpretation or application of the positive law of a country which is
in question, but the conduct ofjudicial organs as a whole which must be

evaluated from supra-positive, transnational viewpoints(Philip C. Jessup,
Transnational Law, 1956). We would Say that we should consider the droit interne et qu'en conséquenceleur interprétation est étrangèreau
domaine du droit international. Si un tribunal international devait con-
naître de ces questions et vérifierla régularité desdécisionsdes tribunaux
nationaux, il agirait comme une ((cour de cassation»,le tribunal le plus
élevédu systèmejuridique national. Or un tribunal international ap-
partientà un ordre entièrement différent; sa fonctionest de traiter des
affaires internationales, non des affaires internes. Comme nous venons
de le voir, les actes et omissions dont se plaint le Gouvernement belge,

dans la mesure où ils impliquent une interprétation et une application
inexactes du droit interne, ne peuvent constituer un dénidejustice. Cela
veut dire qu'en soi l'inexactitude du jugement rendu par un tribunal
national n'a pas un caractèreinternational.
Il en va autrement quand lejugement d'un tribunal national engage la
responsabilitéde I7Etatdu fait d'un dénidejustice, par exemplelorsqu'un
tribunal appelé à appliquer une règle de droit international en donne
une interprétation inexacte ou applique une règlede droit interne qui est
elle-mêmecontraire au droit international (Brierly-Waldock, op. cit.,
p. 287). Abstraction faite de cas d'une gravitéaussi exceptionnelle, les

décisionserronées ouinjustes d'un tribunal doivent en généralêtreex-
clues du champ d'application du dénidejustice.

Ayant ainsi écartéles décisionsprétendumentinjustes ou erronées des
tribunaux espagnols comme n'étantpas un élémenc tonstitutif du dénide
justice, il reste déterminersi les erreurs et irrégularités imputéeàs ces
tribunaux ne recouvrent pas des faits suffisamment graves pour justifier
l'accusation de dénide justice. On a précédemment cité des exemples
frappants de faits semblables - cas de (corruption, menaces, délaisin-

justifiés,abus de procédure flagrant,jugement dictépar le pouvoir exécu-
tif ou si manifestement injuste qu'aucun tribunal à la fois compétentet
probe n'eût pu le rendre ».Ils peuvent se résumeren une formule: ((la
mauvaise foi ».
Deux questions se posent ici. A l'appui de son grief de dénidejustice,
le Gouvernement belge allègue-t-il l'existencede circonstances relevant
de la mauvaise foi?En cas de réponse affirmative àcette question, l'exis-
tence de ces circonstances aggravantes a-t-elle étésuffisamment prouvée?
Il faut bien voir que nous sommes ici en présencede questions d'une
tout autre dimension que celles que nous venons d'examiner: nous ne
nous plaçons plus à l'échellenationale dujuridique et du technique, mais

à l'échelleinternationale et morale. Les considérations de technique
judiciaire sont remplacéespar une appréciation du comportement des
organesjudiciaires nationaux sur le plan moral. Ce n'est plus l'exactitude
ou l'inexactitude de l'interprétation et de l'application du droit positif
d'un pays qui est en cause, mais c'est le comportement des organes judi-
ciaires en généraqlui doit êtreapprécié d'unpoint de vue qui transcendematter from the viewpoint of natural law which is supra-national and

universal. An ethical valuation such as a condemnation for bad faith,
abuse of powers or rights, etc., would become a connectinglink between
municipal and international law and the twojurisdictions-municipal and
international-in respect of a denial of justice, and would cause the
alleged acts to involve responsibility on the plane of international law.

It is true that the Belgian Government maintains the existence of bad
faith in actions and omissions of.the Spanish judiciary. However, most
of its arguments concentrate on pointing out the simple irregularities
in each measure. As stated above, this does not differ very much from
controversies concerning the interpretation and application of Spanish
bankruptcy law-matters which in themselvescannot justify the existence
of bad faith on the part of the Spanishjudiciary.

Althoughthe BelgianGovernment insists on the existence of bad faith
on the part of the Spanishjudiciary and puts forward someevidence con-
cerning the persona1relationship of Mr. Juan March and his group with
some governmental personalities, the use of henchmen in instituting and
promoting bankruptcy proceedings, etc., we remain unconvinced of the
existence of bad faith on the part of Spanish administrative and judicial
authorities. What the Belgian Government alleges for the purpose of
evidencingthe bad faith of the Spanishjudges concerned does not go very
much beyond surrounding circumstances; it does not rely on objective
facts constituting collusion, corruption, flagrant abuse of judicial pro-
cedure by the Spanishjudiciary, etc. If corruption of a judge were con-
sidered to have been committed, the Barcelona Traction Company and
its group should have had recourse to the measure of revision and, if it
was upheld, the fact of proving a denial of justice in the present case
could have been established.
Despite this, the Belgian Government did not choose this measure.

Instead of producing concrete objective facts to evidence the bad faith
of the Spanish authorities, the Belgian Government put forward an
"overall complaint" consisting of an agglomeration of circumstances
which do not appear to be relevant to the issue.The relyingupon such an
"overall complaint" would mean in itself a weakness in the standpoint of
the Belgian side, and it would have no reinforcing or supplementing effect
on the cause of the latter.
We consider that aggravating facts, namely those of bad faith, have
not been sufficientlyproved.
It is not an easymatter to prove the existence of bad faith, because it is
concerned with a matter belonging to the inner psychological process,
particularly in a case concerning adecision by a State organ.
Bad faith cannot be presumed.le droit positif, c'est-à-dire transnational (Philip C. Jessup, Transnational
Law, 1956).Disons que la question doitêtreenvisagéesur le plan du droit
naturel, qui est supranational et universel. Ainsi, une appréciation morale
telle qu'une condamnation pour mauvaise foi, abus de pouvoirs ou de
droits, etc., deviendrait le trait d'union entre le droit interne et le droit
international et entre les deux ordres de juridiction - interne et inter-

national - dans le domaine du dénide justice; elle permettrait, sur le
plan du droit international, de faire jouer la responsabilité de1'Etatdans
le cas des actes allégués.
Le Gouvernement belge affirme bien que les actes et omissions des
tribunaux espagnols sont entachés demauvaise foi, mais la plupart de ses
arguments consistent surtout à signaler, à propos de chaque mesure, les
simples irrégularitésqui ont étécommises. Comme on l'a déjàfait re-
marquer, on en reste à peu près aux controverses sur l'interprétation et
l'application de la législation espagnolesur la faillite, questions qui ne

permettent pas en elles-mêmesd'établirqu'il y a eu mauvaise foi de la
part des tribunaux espagnols.
Bien que le Gouvernement belge insiste sur la mauvaise foi des tri-
bunaux espagnols en avançant certaines preuves concernant par exemple
les relations personnelles de M. Juan March et de son groupe avec des
personnalités gouvernementales, ainsique le recours à des hommes de
paille pour engager et poursuivre la procédure de faillite, la conviction
que les autorités administrativesetjudiciaires espagnoles ont agi de mau-
vaise foi ne s'impose pas à notre esprit. Pour établir cette mzuvaise foi

desjuges espagnols, le Gouvernement belge ne s'appuie guèreque sur de
simples présomptions; il ne rapporte aucun fait concret constitutif de
collusion, corruption, abus flagrant de la procédurejudiciaire par les
tribunaux espagnols, etc. S'ils estimaient qu'ily avait eu corruption d'un
juge, il appartenait à la Barcelona Traction et à son groupe de recourir
à la procédure de revision qui, en cas de succès,aurait permis d'établir
le dénidejustice dans la présenteaffaire.

Or, le Gouvernement belge ne s'estpas engagédans cette voie. Au lieu

d'invoquer des faits concrets établissant la mauvaise foi des autorités
espagnoles, le Gouvernement belge a formulé un ((grief global))ras-
semblant divers élémentsqui ne semblent pas pertinents. Le fait de se
fonder sur ce ((griefglobal ))est en soi révélateurd'une faiblesse de la
position belge, qu'il nepeut en rien renforcer ou consolider.

Nous considérons que l'existence de circonstances aggravantes, telles
que la mauvaise foi, n'est pas suffisamment établie.
Prouver l'existence de la mauvaise foi n'est pas facile, surtout quand

il s'agit d'une décision d'unorgane étatique, car cette preuve concerne
un processus psychologique secret. La mauvaise foi ne se présumepas.
Accuser un Etat de dénide justice est chose extrêmementgrave. Ce It is an extremely serious matter to make a charge of a denial ofjustice

vis-à-vis a State. It involves not only the imputation of a lower inter-
national standard to the judiciary of the State concerned but a moral
condemnation of that judiciary. As a result, the allegation of a denial of
justice is considered to be a grave charge which States are not inclined to
make if some other formulation is possible.
In short, for the reasons indicated above, the Belgian allegation that
Spain violated an international obligation and incurred responsibility
vis-à-vis Belgium is without foundation. Therefore, the Belgian Govern-
ment's claims must be dismissed.

(Signed) Kotaro TANAKA.n'est pas seulement attribuàrson pouvoir judiciaire un niveau inférieur,
sur le plan international; cela suppose aussi une condamnation morale
de cepouvoirjudiciaire. C'estpourquoi l'allégationde dénide justice est
considérée commeune accusation sérieuse à laquelle les Etats ne sont
pas enclinsà recourir si le grief peut êtreautrement formulé.

En résumé,pour les raisons ci-dessus indiquées, l'allégation belge
selon laquelle l'Espagne aurait manquéà une obligation internationale
et engagésa responsabilité à l'égardde la Belgique n'est pas fondée.
En conséquence,la demande du Gouvernement belge doit être rejetée.

(SignéK )otaro TANAKA.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Tanaka

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