Dissenting Opinion of Judge Sir Garfield Barwick

Document Number
058-19741220-JUD-01-09-EN
Parent Document Number
058-19741220-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SIR GARFIELD BARWICK

The Court, by its Order of 22 June 1973, separated two questions, that
of itsjurisdiction to hear and determine the Application, and that of the
admissibility of the Application from al1 other questions in the case. It
directed that "the written proceedings shall first be addressed" to those
questions. These were therefore the only questions to which the Parties

were to direct their attention. Each question related to the situation which
obtained at the date the Application was lodged with the Court, namely
9 May 1973.The Applicant in obedience to the Court's Order has confined
its Memorial and its oral argument to those questions. Neither Memorial
nor argument has been directed to any other question.
Having read the Memorial and heard that argument, the Court has

discussed those questions but, whilst the Parties await the Court's
decision upon them, the Court of its own motion and without any notice
to the Parties has decided the question whether the Application has
ceased to have any object by reason of events which have occurred since
the Application was lodged. It has taken cognizance of information as

to events said to have occurred since the close of the oral proceedings
and has treated it as evidence in the proceedings. It has not informed the
Parties of the material which it has thus introduced into evidence. By the
use of it the Court has drawn a conclusion of fact. It has also placed a
particular interpretation upon the Application. 'CIponthis conclusion
of fact and this interpretation of the Application the Court has decided

the question whether the Application has ceased to have any object. That
question, in my opinion, is not embraced within either of the two ques-
tions on which argument has been heard. It is a separate,a different and
a new question. Thus the Parties have had no opportunity of placing before
the Court their submissions as to the proper conclusion to be drawn from
events which have supervened on the lodging of the Application or upon

the proper interpretation of the Application itself in so far as each related
to the question the Court has decided or as to the propriety of deciding
that question in the sense in which the Court has decided it or at al1 at
this stage of the proceedings: for it may have been argued that that
question if it arose was not of an exclusively preliminary character in the
circumstances of this case. The conclusion of fact and the interpretation

of the Application are clearly matters about which opinions differ.
Further, the reasoning of the Judgment involves important considerations
of international law. Therefore, there was ample room for argument and
for the assistance of counsel. In any case the Applicant must have been
entitled to make submissions as to al1the matters involved in the decision
of the Court. However, without notifying the Parties of what it was considering
and without hearing them, the Court, by a Judgment by which it decides
to proceed no furtherin the case, avoids deciding eitherofthe two matters
which it directed to be, and which have been argued.
This, in my opinion, is an unjustifiable course, uncharacteristic of a
court ofjustice. It is a procedure which in my opinion is unjust, failing to
fulfil an essential obligation of the Court's judicial process. As a judge1
can have no part in it, and for that reason, if for no other, I could not
join in the Judgment of the Court. However 1am also unable to join in
that Judgment because 1do not accept its reasoning or that the material
on which the Court has acted warrants the Court's conclusion. With

regret therefore 1 dissent from the Judgment.

It may be thought quite reasonable that if France is willing to give to
Australia such an unqualified and binding promise as Australia finds
satisfactory for its protectionnever again to test nuclear weapons in the
atmosphere of the South Pacific,this case should be compromised and the
Application withdrawn. But that is a matter entirely for the sovereign
States. It is not amatter for this Court. The Rules of Court provide the
means whereby the proceedings can be discontinued at the will of the
Parties (see Arts. 73 and 74 of the Rules of Court). It is no part of the
Court's function to place any pressure on a State to compromise its
claim or itself to effect a com~romise.
It may be that a layman, with no loyalty to the law might quite reason-
ably think that a political decision by France no longer to exercise what it
claims to be itsright of testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, when
formally publicized, might be treated as the end of the matter between
Australia and France. But this is a court of justice, with a loyalty to the
lawand itsadministration. It is unable to take the layman's viewand must

confine itself to legal principles and to their application.

The Court has decided that the Application has become "without
object'' and that therefore the Court is not called upon to give a decision
upon it. The term "without object" in this universe of discourse when
applied to an application or claim, so far as relevant to the circumstances
of this case, 1 understand to imply that no dispute exists between the
Parties which is capable of resolution by the Court by the application
of legal norms available to the Court or that the relief which is sought
is incapable of being granted by the Court or that in the circumstances
which obtain or would obtain at the time the Court iscalled upon to grant
the relief claimed, noorder productive of effectupon the Parties or their
rights could properly be made by the Court in exercising its judicial
function.
To apply the expression "has become without object" to the present
circumstances, means in my opinion, that this Judgment can only be valid
if the dispute between France and Australia as to their respective rights
has been resolved; has ceased to exist or if the Court, in the circumstancesnow prevailing, cannot with propriety, within its judicial function, make
any declaration or Order having effect between the Parties.
It should be observed that 1have described the dispute between France

and Australia as a dispute as to their respective rights. 1shall at a later
stage express my reasons for my opinion that that is the nature of their
dispute. But it is proper to point out immediately that if the Parties were
not in dispute as to their respective rights the Application would have
been "without object" when lodged, and no question of its having no
longer any object could arise. On the other hand if the Parties were in

dispute as to their respective rights, it is that dispute which is relevant in
any consideration of the question whether or not the Application no
longer has any object.
Of course, if the Court lacked jurisdiction or if the Application as
lodged was inadmissible because the Parties were never in dispute as to
their legal rights, the Court would be not required to go any further in the

matter. But the Court has not expressed itself on those matters. The
Judgment is not founded either on a lack of jurisdiction or on the inad-
missibility of the Application when lodged, though it seems to concede
inferentially that the Application was admissible when lodged.

Inorder to make my view in this matter as clear as 1am able, it will be
necessary for me in the first place to discuss the only two questions on

which the Court has heard argument. Thereafter 1 shall express my
reasons for dissenting from the Court's Judgment (see p. 439 of this
opinion). 1shall first state my conclusions and later develop my reasons
for them.
In my opinion, the Court has jurisdiction to hear a dispute between
France and Australia as to their respective rights by virtue of Articles 36

(1) and 37 of the Statute of the Court and Article 17 of the General Act
of Geneva of 26 September 1928. Further, 1 am of opinion that at the
date the Application was lodged with the Court, France and Australia
were, and in my opinion still are, in dispute as to their respective rights in
relation to the consequences in the Australian territory and environment
of the explosion by France in the South Pacific of nuclear devices.

Further, they were, and still are, in difference as to the lawfulness or
unlawfulness according to customary international law of the testing of
nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. Subject to the determination of the
question whether the Applicant has a legal interest to maintain its
Application in respect of this difference, 1am of opinion that the Parties
were, at the date of the Application, and still are, in dispute as to their

respective rights in respect of the testing of nuclear weapons in the
atmos~here.
If it be a separate question in this case,Iam of opinion that the claim
of the Applicant is admissible in respect of al1the bases upon which it is
made, with the exception of the basis relating to the unlawfulness of the
testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. 1am of opinion that thequestion whether the Applicant has a legal interest to maintain its claim
in respect of that basis is not a question of an exclusiv4y preliminary
character, and that it cannot be decided at this stage of the proceedings.

The distinctions implicit in this statement of conclusions will be
developed later in this opinion.
1approach the Court's Judgment therefore with the viewthat the Court
is presently seized of an Application which to the extent indicated is
admissible and which the Court is competent to hear and determine.
1 am of opinion that consistently under Article 38 the Court should have
decided itsjurisdiction and if it be aseparate question the admissibility
of the Application.
1am of opinion that the dispute between the Parties as to their legal
rights was not resolved or caused to disappear by the communiqué
and statements quoted in the Judgment and that the Parties remained at
the date of the Judgment in dispute as to their legal rights. This is so,
in my opinion, even if, contrary to the view1 hold, the communiqué and
statements amounted to an assurance by France that it would not again
test nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. That assurance, if given, did not
concede any rights in Australia in relation to nuclear explosions or the
testing of nuclear weapons: indeed, it impliedly asserted a right in France

to continue such explosions or tests. Such an assurance would of itself
in my opinion be incapable of resolving a dispute as to legal rights.

1 am further of opinion that the Judgment is not supportable on the
material and grounds on which it is based.
1 now proceed to express my reasons for the several conclusions 1 have
expressed.

On 22 June 1973,the Court by a majority indicated by way of interim
measures pending the Court's final decision in the proceedings that:

"The Covernments of Australia and France should each of them
ensure that no action of any kind is taken which might aggravate or

extend the dispute submitted to the Court or prejudice the rights of
the other Party in respect of the carrying out of whatever decision
the Court may render in the case; and, in particular, the French
Covernment should avoid nuclear tests causing the deposit of radio-
active fall-out on Australian territory."
In its Order the Court recited that:

"Whereas on a request for provisional measures the Court need
not, before indicating them, finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdic-
tion on the merits of the case, and yet ought not to indicate such measures unless the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear,

prima facie, to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court
might be founded ..."

After indicating in paragraph 14 of the Order that the Government of
Australia (the Applicant) claimed to found the jurisdiction of the Court
to entertain its Application upon (1) Article 17 of the General Act of
Geneva of 26 September 1928, read with Articles 36 (1) and 37 of the
Statute of the Court, and (2) alternatively, on Article 36 (2) of the Statute
of the Court and the respective declarations of Australia and France
made thereunder, this Court concluded that :

"Whereas the material submitted to the Court leads it to the
conclusion, at the present stage of the proceedings, that the provisions
invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to afford a basis on

which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded; and whereas
the Court will accordingly proceed to examine the Applicant's
request for the indication of interim measures of protection .. ."

In indicating summarily in my declaration of 22 June 1973 my reason
for joining the majority in indicating interim measures, 1said:

"1 have voted for the indication of interim measures and the
Order of the Court as to the further procedure in the case because
the very thorough discussions in which the Court has engaged over
the past weeks and my own researches have convinced me that the
General Act of 1928and the French Government's declaration to the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court with reservations each provide,

prima facie, a basis on which the Court might have jurisdiction to
entertain and decide the claims made by Australia in its Application
of 9 May 1973."

1did so to emphasize the fact that the Court had at that time examined
itsjurisdiction in considerable depth and that it had not acted upon any
presumptions nor upon any merely cursory considerations. Consistently
with the Court's jurisprudence as a result of this examination there
appeared, prima facie, a basis on which the Court's jurisdiction might
be founded.
For my own part 1 felt, at that time, that it was probable that the

General Act of Geneva of 26 September 1928(theGeneral Act) continued
at the date of the Application to be valid as a treaty in force between
Australia and France and that the dispute between those States, as
evidenced in the material lodged with the Application, fell within the
scope of Article 17of the General Act.
Declarations by France and Australia to the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court under Article 36 (2) of the Court's Statute with the respectivereservations, but particularly that of France o20 May 1966,as a source of

the Court's jurisdiction raised other questions which 1had then no need
to resolve but which did not ex facie, in my opinion, necessarily deny the
possibility of that jurisdiction.

In order to resolve as soon as possible the questions of its jurisdiction
and the admissibility of the Application, the Court decided that the writ-
ten proceedings should first be addressed to those questions.

In the reported decisions of the Court, and in the recorded opinions
of individual judges, and in the literature of international law, 1do not
find any definition of admissibility which cqn be universally applied. A

description of admissibility of great width was suggested in the dissenting
opinion of Judge Petrénin this case (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 126); in the
dissenting opinion of Judge Gros, the suggestion was made that the lack
of a justiciable dispute, one which coulé be resolved by the application of
legal norms, made the Application "without object" and thus from the
outset inadmissible. In his declaration made at that time, Judge Jiménez

de Aréchaga pointed to the expressions in paragraph 23 of the Court's
Order as indicating that the existence of a legal interest of the Applicant
in respect of its claims was one aspect of admissibility.
The Applicant confined its Memorial and its oral argument in relation
to the question of admissibility substantially to the question whether it
had a legal interest to maintain its Application. But the Court itself gave
no approval to any such particular view of admissibility. Intervention

by the President during argument indicated that the Court would decide
for itself the ambit of the question of admissibility, that is to say, in par-
ticular that it would not necessarily confine itself to the view seemingly
adopted by counsel. I shall need later to discuss the aspect of admissi-
bility which, if it is a question in this case separate from that of jurisdic-
tion, is appropriate for consideration.

The question may arise at the preliminary stage of a matter whether
the admissibility of an application or reference ought first to be decided
before any question of jurisdiction is determined. Opinion appears to be
divided as to whether or not in any case jurisdiction should first be
established before the admissibility of an application is considered, see
for example on the one hand the views expressed in the separate opinion

of Judge Sir Percy Spender, in the dissenting opinions of President
Klaestad, Judge Armand-Ugon and Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht in the
Interhandel case (Switzerland v. United States of America, I.C.J. Reports
1959, at p. 6) and, on the other hand, the views expressed by Judge Sir
Gerald Fitzmaurice in his separate opinion in the case of the Nortllerrz
Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 15).
There is no universal rule clearly expressed in the decisions of the Court

that the one question in every case should be determined before the other.
147 But granted that there can be cases in which this Court ought to decide
the admissibility of a matter before ascertaining the existence or extent

of its own jurisdiction, 1am of the opinion that in this case the Court's
jurisdiction ought first to be determined. There are two reasons for my
decision in this sense. First, there is said to be a question of admissibility
in this case which, even if it exists as a separate question, seems to me to
be bound up with the question of jurisdiction and which, because of the
suggested source ofjurisdictionin Article 17of the GeneralAct, to mymind

is scarcely capable of discussion in complete isolation from that question.
Second,the Court has already indicated interim measures and emphasized
the need for an early definitive resolution of its jurisdiction to hear the
Application. It would not be judicially proper, in my opinion, now to
avoid a decision as to thejurisdiction of the Court by prior concentration
on the admissibility of the Application, treating the two concepts as

mutually exclusive in relation to the present case.

1should at this stage make some general observations as to the nature
of the examination of jurisdiction and of admissibility which should take
place in pursuance of the Court's Order of 22 June 1973. Though not so
expressly stated in the Court's Order, these questions, as 1 understand
the position, were conceived to be of a preliminary nature, to be argued
and decided as such. They are to be dealt with at thisstage to the extent that
each possesses "an exclusively preliminary character", otherwise their

consideration must be relegated to the hearing of the merits.
In amending its Rules on 10 May 1972 and in including in them
Article 67 (7) as it now appears, the Court provided for the possibility
of a two-stage hearing of a case, in the first stage of which questions of
jurisdiction and admissibility, as well as any other preliminary question,
might be decided, if those questions could be decided as matters of an

exclusively preliminary character. Textually, Article 67 as a whole
depends for its operation upon an objection to the jurisdiction of the
Court or to the admissibility of the Application by a respondent party
in accordance with the Rules of Court. There has been no objection by
the Respondent to the jurisdiction of the Court or to the admissibility
of the Application in this case conformable to Article 67 of the Court's

Rules. Thus, technically it may be said that Article 67 (7) does not control
the proceedings at this stage. But though not formally controlling this
stage of the case, Article 67 (7) and its very presence in the Rules of
Court must have some bearing upon the nature of the examination which
is to be made of these two questions. The Article is emphatic of the
proposition that if such questions as jurisdiction or admissibility are
separated from the hearing of the merits, they may only be decided apart

from the merits if they possess an exclusively preliminary character; thatis to say if they can be decided without trenching on the merits of the
case. The Court's division of this case into stages by itsOrder of 22 June
1973must therefore be accommodated to the spirit of its Rules, so that
only questions rnay be decided at this stage which possess an exclusively
prelirninary character. Jt was apparent from the contents of the Appli-
cant's Memorial and from the course of the oral argument, that the
Applicant understood the decision of each question depended on it being
of such a preliminary kind. There has been no indication of any dissent
from that view.

Article 53 of the Statute of the Court is in the following terms:

"1. Whenever one of the parties does not appear before the Court,
or fails to defend its case, the other party may cal1upon the Court
to decide in favour of its claim.
2. The Court must, before doing so, satisfy itself, not only that it
has jurisdiction in accordance with Articles 36 and 37, but also that
the claim is wellfounded in fact and law."

Action pursuant to the Article may be called for by a party when the
other is in default either of appearance or of defence. When the Court is
required by a party to decide its claim notwithstanding such default of
the other, the Court, before deciding the clairn, must satisfy itself both
of its own jurisdiction and of the validity of the claim both in fact and in
law. Without the inclusion of this Article in the Statute of the Court,
there would surely have been power in the Court, satisfied of its own
jurisdiction and of the validity of the applicant State's claim, to give
judgment for the applicant, notwithstanding the default of appearance
or of defence by the respondent party. The Article is confirmatory of
such a power and its inclusion in the Statute was doubtless prompted by
the circumstance that the litigants before the Court are sovereign States,
and that the presence of the Article would indicateconsent to proceedings
in default.
As expressed, the Article is dealing in my opinion exclusivelywith the

stage of the proceedings at which the merits of the claim are to be consi-
dered and decided. For this reason, and because of the very nature of and
of the occasion for the indication of interirn measures, Article 53, in rny
opinion, can have no bearing on that phase of a case. The Court has so
treated the Article when considering"the indication of interirn rneasures
in the past, as, for example, in paragra~ 15 of its Order indicating
interirn measures in the FisheriesJurisdiction (United Kingdom v.Iceland)
case (I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 15) and in paragraph 13 of the Order of
22 June, made in this case (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 101). The Court
expressed itself in these cases as to the extent to whichitmust besatisfied
in relation to its own jurisdiction in a manner quite inconsistent with the
view that Article 53 controlled the stage of the proceedings in which theindication of interim measures was being considered. These expressions of
the Court were not inconsistent in my opinion with the views expressed
by Sir Hersch Lauterpacht at page 118 of the Reports of the Interhandel
case (I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 105); but the Court has been unwilling to
accept the exacting views ofJudges Winiarski and BadawiPasha, expressed
in the Anglo-lranian Oil Co. case (I.C.J. Reports /95/, pp. 96-98),
views which were endorsed by Judge Padilla Nervo in the Fisheries
Jurisdictioncase (I.C.J. Reports 1972, at p.21).

Allowing the importance of the fundamental consideration that the
Court is a court of limited jurisdiction founded ultimately on the consent

of States, it is essential to observe that Article 41 of theStatute of the
Court gives it express power to indicate interim measures if it considers
that circumstances so require and that, unlike Article 53, Article 41 does
not hedge round that power expressly or, as 1 think, impliedly, with any
considerations ofjurisdiction or of the merits of the case. Paragraph 2 of
Article 41, in opening with the expression "pending the final decision"
makes it apparent to my mind that Article 53 does not refer to or control
consideration of the indication of interim measures. Consequently, 1am
unable, with respect, to agree with those who hold a contrary view. But
although Article 41 does not refer to questions of jurisdiction or the
merits, the Court will consider its jurisdiction to the extent already ex-
pressed before indicating interim measures, and an obvious lack of merit
willno doubt be influential in deciding whether ornot to indicate interim
measures.
The Applicant has not yet called upon the Court to decide its claim.
Indeed, the Court's direction of 22 June separating the two questions of
jurisdiction and admissibility from the merits has precluded any such
stepon the part of the Applicant. Thus Article 53has not been called into

operation at this stage of the proceedings. The Court by its Order has
directed consideration of its jurisdiction at this stage. If the examination
by the Court of that jurisdictionresults in an affirmance of itsjurisdiction,
that conclusion will of course satisfy part of the requirements of Article
53when it iscalled into play. No doubt, having made its Order of 22June,
the Court, quite apart from the provisions of Article 53, could go no
further in the case unless it was either satisfied of itsjurisdiction and of the
admissibility of the Application or concluded that in the circumstances
of the case either of those questions failed to possess an exclusively pre-
liminary character. In that event, that question could be decided at the
stage of the merits, which Article 53 appears to contemplate. Neither
Article 53 nor any other part of the Statute of the Court refers to the
admissibility of the Application.

1 turn then to the question of the Court's jurisdiction to hear and
determine the Application. It was duly filed with the Court on 9 May1973. This is the date by reference to which the questions of jurisdiction
and of admissibility must be determined. The concluding paragraphs of
the Application are as follows:

"Accordingly, the Government of Australia asks the Court to

adjuge and declare that, for the above-mentioned reasons or any of
them or for any other reason that the Court deems to be relevant,
the carrying out of further atmospheric nuclear weapon tests in the
South Pacific Ocean is not consistent with applicable rules of inter-
national law.

And to Order

that the French Republic shall not carry out any further such tests."

It is of importance that 1emphasize at the outset that the Application
seeks both a declaration and an Order. The request for the declaration is
itself, in my opinion, clearly a matter of substantive relief and not merely

a recital or reason put forward for the request for the making of the
Order. Indeed, it is conceivable that in appropriate circumstances the
declaration only should be made. The full significanceof this fundamental
observation as to the nature of the relief sought will be apparent at a later
stage.
The Court duly notified France by telegram of the filing of the Applica-
tion, and a copy of the Application itself was duly transmitted to the

French Government in due time.
Article 38(3) of the Rules of Court requires that when acknowledging
receipt of such a notification from the Court, the party against whom
the Application is made and who is so notified shall, when acknowledging
receipt of the notification, or failing this as soon as possible, inform the
Court of the name of its Agent.

By a letter dated 16 May 1973 France, by its Ambassador to the
Netherlands, acknowledged receipt of the notification of the filing of the
Application, but France did not appoint an Agent. France informed
the Court that in its view, that is to say, in France's view, the Court was
manifestly without jurisdiction to hear and determine the Application,
and that France did not propose to participate in the proceedings before

the Court. It has not done so by any formal act according to the Rules of
Court. France requested that the Application be summarily struck from
the Court's General List, which in June 1973 the Court refused to do,
an attitude confirmed by its final Judgment.
It is fundamental that the Court alone is competent to determine
whether or not it has jurisdiction in any matter. This is provided by
Article 36 (6) of the Statute of the Court. No State can determine that

question. In its Rules, the Court has provided machinery whereby it can
hear and consider the submissions of a State which claims that it has no
jurisdiction in a particular matter (see Art. 67 of the Rules of Court).
France has made no use of this facility. The case has proceeded without

151any objection to jurisdiction duly made according to the Rules of
Court.
Attached to the Ambassador's letter of 16 May 1973 was an annex
comprising some Il pages of foolscap typescript setting out France's
reasons for its conclusion that the Court was manifestly incompetent
to entertain the Application. This document, which has come to be
referred to in the proceedings as "the French Annex", has occupied an

ambiguous position throughout but has come to be treated somewhat in
the light of a submission in a pleading, which,quite clearly, it is not. As
1 am but judge ad hoc, 1 will not express myself as to the desirability or
undesirability of the reception of such a communication as the French
Annex. 1 observe however that a somewhat similar happening occurred
in connection with the Fisheries Jurisdictioncase (I.C.J. Reports 1973,
p. 1),but whether or not the Court allows such "submissions" to be made
outside its Rules, as a regular practice, is a matter with which natural1y
cannot be concerned.

Of course, a court, in the absence of a party, will of its own motion
search most anxiously for reasons which might legitimately have been
put forward by the absent party in opposition to the Application. Conse-
quently, it could not be said to be unreasonable for the Court to view the

contents of the French Annex, if and when received, as indicative of some
of such reasons. Those contents and that of the French White Paper
on Nuclear Tests, published but not communicated to the Court during
the hearing of the case, have infact been fully considered.

1turn now to express my reasons for my conclusion that the General
Act of Geneva of 26 September 1928 was a treaty in force between Aus-
tralia and France at the date of the lodging of the Application, so as
to found the jurisdiction of the Courtunder Article 36(1) to decide a dis-
pute between the Parties as to their respective rights.

The Appiicant seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on two
alternative bases; itdoes not attempt to cumulate these bases, as was
done by Belgium in the case of the Electricity Company of Sofia and
Bulgaria, P.C.I.J.,Series C, 1938,page 64, with respect to the two bases

which it put forward for the jurisdiction of the Court in that case. The
Applicant does not attempt to make one basis assist or complement the
other. It takes them, as iny opinion they are in the Statute of the Court,
as two independent bases of jurisdiction or as may be more colourfully
said, two independent avenues of approach to the Court.The Applicant's
principal relianceis on the jurisdiction conferred on the Court by Article
36 (1) of its Statute, fulfilling that Article's specification of a "matter
specially provided for in treaties and conventions in force", by resort to
the combined operation of Article 17of the General Act, Article 37 of the
Court's Statute, and itsdispute with France.found in the travaux préparatoires it was "a convention in spe" (Records

of Ninth Ordinary Session of the Assembly, Minutes of First Committee,
p. 70). In fact, conformably to this Article, the Act came into force on
16August 1929. Ltwas a great treaty, representing a most significant step
forward in the cause of the pacific settlement of disputes. It had an
initial term of five years, and was automatically renewed each five years
dating from its original entry into force, unless denounced at least six
months before the expiry of the current period of five years (Art. 45 (1)).

Denunciation might be partial and consist of a notification of reser-
vations not previously made (Art. 45 (5)).Denunciation was to be effected
by a written notification to the Secretary-General of the League of Nations
who was to inform al1 accessionaries to the Act (Art. 45 (3)). The Act
covered conciliation of disputes of every kind which it had not been
possible to settle by diplomacy (Chap. 1), the judicial settlement of al1

disputes with respect to legal rights (Chap. II),and arbitrationin a dispute
not being a dispute as to legal rights (Chap. III). Accession could be to the
whole Act or only to parts thereof, for example to Chapters Jand II along
with appropriate portions of the general provisions in Chapter IV or to
Chapter 1 only with the appropriate portions of Chapter IV (Art. 38).
The principle of reciprocity of obligations was introduced by the con-

cluding words of Article 38.

France and Australia acceded to the whole of the General Act on 21
May 1931. Each attached conditions to its accession, and to these condi-
tions 1 shall need later to make a brief reference. As at the date of the

Application neither France nor Australia had denounced the General
Act. France lodged with the Secretary-General of the United Nations on
10 January 1974 a notification designed as a denunciation in conformity
with Article 45 of the General Act, but this notification is of no conse-
quence in connection with the present question. Article 45 (5) of the Act
provides that al1proceedings pending at the expiry of the current period

of the Act are to be duly completed notwithstanding denunciation.
Further, the Court's general jurisprudence would not allow its jurisdic-
tion to be terminated by the denunciation of the Treaty subsequent to the
commencement of the proceedings before the Court (see Nottebohm case
(Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), I.C. J. Reports 1953, p. 110at p. 122).
Article 17 in Chapter II of the General Act provides:

"Al1 disputes with regard to which the parties are in conflict as to
their respective rights shall, subject to any reservations which may
be made under Article 39, be submitted for decision to the Permanent
Court of International Justice, unless the parties agree, in the manner
hereinafter provided, to have resort to an arbitral tribunal.

It is understood that the disputes referred to above include in
particular those mentioned in Article 36 of the Statute of the Per-
manent Court of International Justice."
154 Both France and Australia became Members of the United Nations at
its inception, thus each was bound by the Court's Statute (see Art. 93 of

the Charter). Therefore each was bound by Article 37 of the Statute of the
Court which effectively substituted this Court for the Permanent Court of
lnternational Justice wherever a treaty in force provided for reference
of a matter to the Permanent Court of lnternational Justice. CIearly
Article 17 did provide for the reference to the Court of al1disputes with
regard to which the parties are in conflict as to their respective rights.

Thus the provisions of Article 17 must be read as between France and
Australia as if they referred to the lnternational Court of Justice and not
to the Permanent Court of International Justice.
Whatever doubts might theretofore have been entertained as to the
com~lete efficacv of Article 37 to effect such a substitution of this Court
for he permanent Court of lnternational Justice as between Members of

the United Nations were set at rest by the Judgment of this Court in the
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited case (Belgium v.
Spain, I.C.J. Reports 1964,pp. 39 and 40). So unless the treaty obligations
in Chapter II, which includes Article 17, of the General Act have been
terminated or displaced in accordance with the law of treaties, the consent
of France to the Court's jurisdiction to entertain and resolve a dispute
between France and Australia as to their respective rights, subject to the

effect of any reservations which may have been duly made under Article
39 of the General Act, would appear to be clear.
1 have already mentioned that neither of the Parties had denounced
the Act as of the date of the Application. The argument in the French
Annex, to the contents of which 1will need later to refer, is mainly that
the General Act, by reason of matters to which the Annex calls attention,

had lost its validity, but that if it had not, France's consent to the juris-
diction of the Court, given through Article 17 of the General Act, was
withdrawn or qualified to the extent of the terms of its reservation of
20 May 1966made to its declaration to the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
Court under Article 36 (2) of the Statute of the Court. It is therefore
appropriate at this point to make some reference to the circumstances in

which a treaty may be terminated.
The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties may in general be
considered to reflect customary international law in respect of treaties.
Thus, although France has not ratified this Convention, its provisions
in Part V as to the invalidity, termination or suspension of treaties may
be resorted to in considering the question whether the General Act was
otherwise terminated before the commencement of these proceedings.

Taking seriatim those grounds of termination dealt with in Section 3 of
Part V of the Convention which could possibly be relevant, there has
been no consent by France and Australia to the termination of their
obligations vis-à-vis one another under the General Act. 1 shall later point
out in connection with the suggestion that the General Act lapsed by

"desuetude" that there is no basis whatever in the material before theCourt on which it could be held that the General Act had been terminated

by mutual consent of these Parties as at the date of the Application (Art.
54 of the Convention). No subsequent treaty between France and Austra-
lia relating to the same subject-matter as that of the General Act has
been concluded (Art. 59 of the Convention). Neither of these parties
acceded to the amended General Act of 1949to which 1shall be making
reference in due course. No material breach of the General Act by
Australia has been invoked as a ground for terminating the General Act

as between France and Australia. It will be necessary for me at a later
stage to deal briefly with a suggestion that a purported reservation not
made in due time by Australia in 1939 terminated the General Act as
between France and Australia (Art. 60 of the Convention). There has
been no supervening impossibility of performance of the General Act
resulting from the permanent disappearance of an object indispensable for

the execution of the Act, nor had any such ground of termination been
invoked by France prior to the lodging of the Application (Art. 61 of the
Convention). The effect of the demise of the League of Nations was not
the disappearance of an object indispensable to the execution of the
General Act, as 1shall indicate in a subsequent part of this opinion. There
has been no fundamental change of any circumstances which constituted

an essential basis of the Treaty, and no such change has radically trans-
formed the obligations under the Act (Art. 62 of the Convention). No
obligation of the General Act is in conflict witn any jus cogens (Art. 64
of the Convention). Article 65 of the Vienna Convention indicates that
if any of these grounds of termination are to be relied upon, notification is
necessary. In this case there has been no such notification.

On these considerations it would indeed be difficult not to conclude
that the General Act was a treaty in force between France and Australia
at the date of the Application and that the Parties had consented through
the operation of Article 17of the General Act and Article 37 of the Statute
of theCourt to thejurisdiction of this Court to resolve any dispute between
them as to their respective rights.
But the French Annex confidently asserts the unavailability of the

General Act as a source of this Court's jurisdiction to hear and determine
the Application: it is said that the Act lacks present validity. It will
therefore be necessary for me to examine the arguments put forward in
the French Annex for this conclusion.
However, before turning to do so it is proper to point out that no
jurist and no writer on international law has suggested that the General

Act ceased to be in force at any time anterior to the lodging of the
Application. Indeed, many distinguished writers expressed themselves
to the contrary. Professor O'Connell, in a footnote on page 1071 in the
second volume of the second edition of his work on international law,
says as to the General Act: "It is so connected with the machinery of the
League of Nations that its status is unclear." The Professor was alone in
making this observation: it suffices to say that the Professor's cogentadvocacy on behalf of the Applicant in the present case seems to indicate

that such a note will not appear in any further edition of his work.

No mention or discussion of the General Act in the Judgments of this
Court has cast any doubt on its continued operation. Indeed, Judge
Basdevant in the Certain Norwegian Loans case (France v. Norway, I.C.J.
Reports 1957, at p. 74), refers to the General Act as a treaty or conven-
tion then in force between France and Norway. He points out that the
Act was mentioned in the observations of the French Government and
was explicitly invoked by the Agent of the French Government during
the hearing. The distinguished judge said: "At no time hasany doubt been
raised as to the fact that this Act is binding as between France and
Norway." No judge in that case dissented from that view. Indeed, the
Courtin its Judgment does not say anything which would suggest that the
Court doubted the continued validity of the General Act. In its Judgment
the Court said:

"The French Government also referred .. .to the General Act
of Geneva of September 26th, 1928, to which both France and
Norway are parties, as showing that the two Governments have
agreed to submit their disputes to arbitration or judicial settlement
in certain circumstances which it is unnecessary here to relate."

(Emphasis added.)

France, for evident good reason (i.e., the applicability of Article 31 of the
General Act in that case), did not seek to base the Court's jurisdiction in
that case on the General Act, andas it had not done so the Court did not
seek a basis for its jurisdiction in the General Act. The pertinent passage
in the Judgment of the Court occurs at pages 24 and 25 of the Reports,
where it is said:

"The French Government also referred to the Franco-Norwegian
Arbitration Convention of 1904and to the General Act of Geneva
of September 26th, 1928, to which both France and Norway are
parties, as showing that the two Governments have agreed to submit
their disputes to arbitration or judicial settlement in certain circum-
stances which it is unnecessary here to relate.
These engagements were referred to in the Observations and
Submissions of the French Government on the Preliminary Objec-
tions and subsequently and more explicitly in the oral presentations
of the French Agent. Neither of these references, however, can be
regarded as sufficient to justify the view that the Application of the
French Government was, so far as the question of jurisdiction is
concerned, based upon the Convention or the General Act. If the
French Government had intended to proceed upon that basis it

would expressly have so stated. As already shown, the Application of the French Government
is based clearly and precisely on the Norwegian and French Declara-

tions under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute. In these circum-
stances the Court would not be justified in seeking a basis for its
jurisdiction different from that which the French Government itself
set out in its Application and by reference to which the case has been
presented by both Parties to the Court."

In paragraph 3A of the French Annex it is said that the Court in the
case of Certain Norwegian Loans "had to settle" this point, that is to say
the availability at that time of the General Act as between Norway and
France. It is however quite plain from the Court's Judgment in that case

that it did not have to settle the point but that it accepted that the General
Act was a treaty in force at that time between Norway and France. It is
not, as the French Annex suggests, "difficult to believe that the Court
would have so summarily excluded this ground of its competence if it
had provided a manifest basis for taking jurisdiction". The passage which
1have quoted from the Court's Judgment clearly expresses the reason for

which the Court did not seek to place its jurisdiction upon the General
Act.
The Act was also treated as being in force in the arbitration proceedings
and in the proceedings in this Court in connection with the Temple of
Preali Villeurcase Cambodia v. Thailand(see for example, I.C.J.Reports
1961, at pp. 19 and 23). The availability of the General Act in that case
was disputed by Thailand and the Court found no occasion to pass upon

that matter.
The General Act is included in numerous official and unofficial treaty
lists as a treaty in force, and is spoken of by a number of governments
who are parties to it as remaining in force. In 1964 the Foreign Minister
of France, explaining in a written reply to a Deputy in the National
Assembly why France did not join the European Treaty for the Pacific

Settlement of Disputes, pointed to the existence of, amongst other instru-
ments, the General Act to which France was a Party, though the Minister
mistakenly referred to it as the revised General Act.

However, these matters are really peripheral in the present case. The
central and compelling circumstance is that neither France nor Australia

had denounced the Treaty in accordance with its provisions at the date of
the Application, nor had any other event occurred which according to the
law of treaties had brought the General Act, as between-them to an end.

The various arguments put forward in the French Annex denying the
Court's competence to entertain the Application now need consideration.
It is said that the General Act disappeared with the demise of the League

of Nations because "the Act of Geneva'was an integral part of the League
of Nations system in so far as the pacific settlement of international dis-
putes had necessarily in that system to accompany collective security anddisarmament". If by the expression "an integral part of the League of
Nations system" it is intended to convey that the General Act constitu-
tionally or organically formed part of the Covenant of the League, or of
any of its organs, the statement quite clearly is incorrect. Textually the
General Act is not made to depend upon the Covenant, and the references
to some of the functionaries of the League are not organic in any sense or

respects, but merely provide for the performance of acts of an incidentally
administrative kind. Contemporaneous expressions of those concerned
with the creation of the General Act leave no doubt whatever in my mind
that the General Act was not conceived as, nor intended to be, an integral
or any part of the League's system, whatever might precisely be included

in the use of the word "system" in this connection. See, for example,
Records of the Nin111Ordinary Session of fhe Assernbly, Minutes of the
First Cornmittee (Constitutional and Legal Questions), pages 68-69
(Tenth Meeting) and pages 71 and 74 (Eleventh Meeting). At page 71
the relationship of the Act to the League, or, as it was expressed, "the
constitutional role that that Act was going to fiIunder the League of

Nations" was discussed. It was pointed out by a member of the sub-
committee responsible for the draft that the Act "had been regarded as
being of use in connection with the general work of the League, but it had
no administrative or constitutional relation with it". Alteration to this
draft was made to ensure that the Act was not "an interqal arrangement
within the League". It was said :

"Today the States were not proposing to create an organ of the
League: the League was merely going to give those which desired
them facilities for completing and extending their obligations in
regard to arbitration."

If the expression "an integral part" means that the continued existence
of the League was an express condition of the continued validity of the
Act, again it seems to me it would be plainly incorrect. Nothing in the
text suggests such a situation. The use of the expression "ideological
integration" in the Annex seems to suggest that, because the desire to

maintain peace through the Covenant and through collective security,
disarmament and pacific settlement of international disputes was the
ideological mainspring of the creation of the General Act, al1the mani-
festations of that philosophy, however expressed, must stand or fall
together.

Itis true that the General Act was promoted by the League, that its
preparation in point of time was related to endeavours in the fields of
collective security and disarmament. It is true that it was hoped that the
cause of peace would be advanced by continuing action in each of the
various fields. But in my view, quite clearly the General Act wasconceived
as a mode1 treaty outside the Covenant of the League, available to non-members of the League and, by accession of at least two States, self-

operating.
It is perhaps worth observing at this point that the Statute of the
Permanent Court of International Justice, not an organ of the League, at
that time provided its own system of pacific settlement of legal disputes
by means of the optional compulsory jurisdiction in Article 36 (2) of the
Statute of the Permanent Court. No doubt, like the Covenant itself, the

inception of the General Act owed much to the pervading desire in the
period after the conclusion of World War 1to prevent, if at al1possible,
the repetition of that event. Though conceived at, or about the same
period, and though ail stemmed from the over-riding desire to secure
international peace, these various means, the activities of the Council of
the League, disarmament, collective security and the pacific settlement of

disputes, were in truth separate paths thought to be leading to the same
end, and thus in that sense complementary; but the General Act was not
dependent upon the existence or continuance of any of the others.

Emphasis is laid in the French Annex on the use of the organs of the
League by some of the Articles of the General Act.

It seems to me that what the Court said in the Barcelona Traction,Light
and Power Company, Limited case (Belgium v. Spain) in relation to the
Hispano-Belgian Treaty of 1927,a treaty comparable t~the General Act,
is quite applicable to the relationship of the reference to the functionaries
of the League in the General Act to its validity:

"An obligation of recourse to judicial settlement will, it is true,
normally find its expression in terms of recourse to a particular
forum. But it does not follow that this is the essence of the obliga-
tion. It was this fallacy which underlay the contention advanced

during the hearings, that the alleged lapse of Article 17 (4) was due
to the disappearance of the 'object' of that clause, namely the
Permanent Court. But that Court was never the substantive 'object'
of the clause. The substantive object was compulsory adjudication,
and the Permanent Court was merely a means for achieving that
object. It was not the primary purpose to specify one tribunal rather

than another,but to create an obligation of compulsory adjudication.
Such an obligation naturally entailed that a forum would be indi-
cated; but this was consequential.

If the obligation exists independently of the particular forum (a
fact implicitly recognized in the course of the proceedings, inasmuch
as the alleged extinction was related to Article 17(4) rather than to

Articles 2 or 17 (l)), then if it subsequently happens that the forum
goes out of existence, and no provision is made by the parties, or
otherwise, for remedying the deficiency, it will follow that the clause
containing the obligation will for the time being become (and per- haps remain indefinitely) inoperative, i.e., without possibility of
effective application. But if the obligation remains substantively in
existence, though not functionally capable of being implemented, it
can always be rendered operative once more, if for instancetheparties
agree on another tribunal, or if anotheris supplied by the automatic
operation of some other instrument by which both parties are bound.
The Statute is such an instrument, and its Article 37 has precisely
that effect."I.C.J. Reports 1964, p. 38.)

1make this quotation at length at this time because we are here con-
cerned with the question as to the continued operation of Chapter II of
the General Act. In that chapter the only reference to the League or to
any of its functionaries is the reference to the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice, itself not an organ of the League. But there are refer-
ences in other chapters of the General Act to functionaries of the League.
These, in my opinion, are merrly in respect of incidentally administrative
functions and not in any sense basic to the validity of the General Act
itself. In Chapter 1of the General Act the only references to the League
or its functionaries are to be found in Articles 6 and 9. Reference to the
Acting President of the League in Article 6 isin the alternative. Paragraph
2 of that Articleprovides further means of appointment of commissions.
The place of meeting of commissions was in the hands of the parties, it
not being obligatory or indispensable to sit at the seat of the League.
Thus Articles 6 and 9 did not render Chapter 1 inoperative with the
demise of the League. It should also be observed that though accession
had been to Chapters 1 and II, Article 20 removed disputes as to legal

rights from the operation of Chapter 1.

So far as Chapter IV is concerned, the reference to the Permanent
Court of International Justice in Articles 31,33, 34(b), 37 and 41 would
be taken up as between France and Australia by means of Article 37 of
the Statute of the Court; as far as the Registrar of the Permanent Court
is concerned, by United Nations resolution 24 (1) of 12 February 1946
and the resolution of the League of Nations of 18 April 1946. Articles
43 and 44 of the General Act have been fulfilled and denunciation under
Article 45 could always be effected by a direct communication between
parties or by the use of the Secretary-General of the United Nations
relying on the resolutions to which 1have just referred, as France and the
United Kingdom found no difficulty in doing in their communications
to the Secretary-General in this year.

It can, however, properly be said that for lack of the persorinel of the

League, Chapter ILLof the General Act, relating to arbitration, may not
have been capable of being fully operated after the demise of the League.
161But this inability to operate a part of the General Act did not render even
that part, in my opinion, invalid.
The General Act itself indicates that specific parts or a combination
of its parts of the Act were intended to be severable, and to be capable of

validity and operation independently of other parts, or combinations of
parts. States acceding to the General Act were not required to accede to
the Act was a whole but might accede only to parts thereof (see Art. 38).

I can find no warrant whatever for the view that in acceding to the
General Act the States doing so conditioned their accession on the con-

tinued existence of the League, or of any of its organs or functionaries,
however much for convenience in carrying out their major agreement as
to pacific settlement of disputes it may have been found convenient to
utilize the functionaries or organs of the League for incidental purposes.
ln the language of the Court in theBarcelona Traction, Liglli and Power
Company, Limited case (I.C.J. Reports 1964, p. 38), "the end" sought by

the Parties so far as Chapter II of the General Act was concerned was
"obligatory judicial settlementV-al1 else was but means of effecting that
major purpose.

Chapter LLthus is in no way dependent on the contipued availability

of the Permanent Court of Lnternational Justice or of the Secretary or any
other functionary of the League. As between Members of the United
Nations, the resolutions of the United Nations and the League of Na-
tions, to which 1 have previously referred, render the Secretary-General
of the United Nations available.
1 now turn to the suggestion that in some way the resolution of the

General Assembly of 28 April 1949, 268A (LLL)i,nstructing the Secretary-
General to prepare a revised text of the General Act, including the
amendments indicated in the resolution, and to hold that text open to
accession by States under the title "Revised General Act for the Pacific
Settlement of International Disputes", acknowledged the disappearance
of the General Act as at that date or caused that Act at that time to cease

to be valid.
It is important, 1 think, to indicate what effect in truth the disappear-
ance of the League had on the General Act. Lnthe first place, the General
Act then became a closed treaty in the sense that it had been open for
accession only by Members of the League and by such non-member
States to whom the Council of the League had communicated a copy of

the Act. Accepting the view that a State which had been a Member of the
League would have been able to accede to the General Act after the
demise of the League, nonetheless the General Act could properly then
be called a closed treaty. There were many States who were either then,
or could likely become, Members of the United Nations which could not
qualify for accession to the General Act. In this way it lacked that pos-

sible universality, though not exclusivity, which had been one of its
merits at the time of its creation. Also, some of the 20-odd States whowere parties to the General Act were not members of the United Nations
and thus did not have the benefit of Article 37 of the Court's Statute.
Further, as Lhave already pointed out, Chapter III (Arbitration) was not
capable of being fully operated for want of the functionaries of the
League. Bearing in mind the severability of the parts of the General Act
to which Lhave already referred, the precise terms of Chapters 1, ILand
IV of the General Act and the effect of Article 37 of the Court's Statute,

as its operative extent was fully disclosed by the decision of the Court in
the Barcelona Traction, Liglit and Power Company, Limited case (supra),
the demise of the League thus left the provisions forthe judicial settlement
of legal disputes fully operative between those who had acceded to the
General Act and who were Members of the United Nations, but settle-
ment of disputes by arbitration under its terms may not have been any
longer available to those States.

This state of affairs is adequatelyand properly described in the recitals
to the General Assembly's resolution of 28 April 1949:
"The efficacy of the General Act of 26 September 1928 for the

Pacific Settlement of International Disputes is impaired by the fact
that the organs of the League of Nations and the Permanent Court
of International Justice to which it refers have now disappeared."

This recital treats the settlement by conciliation, legal process and ar-
bitration in the one description without differentiationThe choice of the
word "efficacy" which is in contrast to "validity" and of the word "im-
paired" is accurate in the description of the effect of the demise of the
League of Nations on the General Act. The language of this recital is
closely akin to the language of this Court in the passage from the Bar-

crlona Traction, Ligl~tand Power Company, Limited case (supra) which 1
have quoted earlier in this opinion.
Itwas to enable the substantive provisions of the General Act to be
operated to their full efficacy that the Revised General Act was proposed.
The General Assembly could not have destroyed the General Act: it
had no authority so to do. That was a matter exclusively for the parties
to the treaty. In any case the General Assembly was hardly likely to do

so, there being more than 20 parties to the General Act and no certainty
as to the extent of the accession t,oa new treaty. The problem before the
Assembly, 1 think, was twofold. First of all, it wanted to have a General
Act in the substantive terms of the 1928Act, al1the parts of which would
be capable of being fully operated. Secondly, it wanted to enable an
enlargement of accession to it. It desired to restore its possible universality
whilst not making it an exclusive means of the settlement of disputes

(see Art. 29). The enlargement of the area of accession to a multilateral
treaty has given difficulty; and it has only been found possible to do so
otherwise than by acts of parties in the case of a narrow group of treaties
of a non-polit.ical kind. But by producing a new treaty, with its own
accession clause, the Assembly was able to open a General Act to al1Members of the United Nations or to such other States not members of
the United Nations to whom a copy of the General Act should be com-
municated. Also those who had acceded to the General Act wereenabled,
if they so desired, to widen their obligations by acceding to the Revised
Act and to obtain access to a fully operable provision as to arbitration.
On the other hand, they could be content with the reduced efficacy
(which relates only to Part III) but continuing validity of the Act of 1928.

The Revised Act was a newand independent treaty, though for drafting
purposes it referentially incorporated the provisions of the Act of 1928
with the stated amendments. These amendments included an express

provision forthe substitution of the International Court of Justice forthe
Permanent Court of International Justice. This is indicative of the fact
that there may have been some doubt in the minds of some at the time
as to the full efficacyof Article 37 of the Court's Statute, and that the
Assembly was conscious that al1the signatories to the General Act were
not members of the United Nations, having the benefit of Article 37.

In my view, the resolution of the General Assembly of 28 April 1949
affirms the validity of the General Act of 1928and casts no doubt upon it,
though it recognizes that portion of it may not be fully operable. It
recognized that the General Act of 1928remained available to the parties
to it in so far as it mighttill be operative. These words, of course, when
applied to an analysis of the General Act of 1928,clearly covered Chapter
II as being an area in respect of which the General Act remained fully
operative, in the case of Members of the United Nations, having regard
to Article 37 of the Court's Statute and the resolutions of the League of
Nations and the United Nations in 1946.

The question was raised as to why so few of those who had acceded
to the General Act acceded to the Revised General Act. This consideration
does not, of course, bear on the validity of the General Act: but as a
matter of interest it may well be pursued. Two factors seem to me ade-
quately to explain the circumstances without in any way casting doubt
on the validity of the General Act. As 1 have pointed out, the General
Act of 1928,afterthe demise of the League, became a closed treaty, that is
to Say,each State which had acceded to the Act then knew with certainty
towards whom it was bound. The remote possibility that a former
Member of the League might still accede to the General Act does not
really qualify that statement. To accede to the Revised General Act
opened up thepossibility ofobligations to a vastly increased and increasing
number of States under the new General Act. This featureof a treaty such
as the General Act was observed before in the travaux préparatoires (see
p. 67 of the Minutes to which 1 have already referred).414 NUCLEAR TESTS (DISS.OP. BARWICK)

The second factor was that each Stateparty to the General Act and not

acceding to the new Act was to an extent freed of the demands of the
arbitration procedure. It is one thing to be bound to litigate legal disputes
before the Court: quite another to be bound to arbitrate other disputes
on the relatively loose basis of arbitration under the General Act, aequo
etbono.

The mood of the international community in 1949was vastly different
to the mood of the community in the immediately post-World War 1
period in relation to the pacific settlement of disputes. More hope was
probably seen in the United Nations itself and the existence of the op-
tional clause with its very flexible provisions as to reservations. The latter

was no doubt seen by some as preferable to the more rigid formulae of a
treaty such as the General Act.
1therefore conclude that so far from casting doubt on the continued
validity of the General Act of 1928, the resolution of the General As-
sembly of 28 April 1949confirmed the continuing validity of the General
Act. The resolution did not, as the French Annex asserts, "allow for the

eventuality of the Act's operating if the parties agreed to make use of
it". It did not cal1for a reaffirmation of the treaty. The resolution makes
it quite clear, to my mind, that it made no impact on the General Act of
1928, but by providing a new treaty it did afford a widened opportunity
to a wider group of States to become bound by the same substantive
obligations as formed the core of the General Act of 1928.

Some point is made in the Annex of the Australian reservations to its
accession to the General Act. Of the reservations made by Australia upon
its accession to the General Act the French Annex selects first that reser-
vation which relates to the "non-application or suspension" of Chapter II
of the General Act with respect to any dispute which has been submitted

to, or is under consideration by, the Council of the League of Nations.
It is said that with the disappearance of the Leagiie this reservation intro-
duces such uncertainty intothe extent of Australia's obligations under the
Act as to give an advantage to Australia not enjoyed by other accession-
aries to the Act. But in the first place it seems to me that the disappear-
ance of the possibility that there should be a matter under the considera-

tion of the Council of the League could have no effect, either upon
validity of the Australian accession or upon the extent of the obligations
of any other accessionary. The operation of the reservation is reciprocal
and the disappearance of the Council of the League simply meant that
there could be no case for resort to this reservation. The making of the
reservation rather emphasized the independence of the General Act from

the activities of the League. Only such a reservation would involve the
one in the other: and then only to the extent of the subject-matter of the
reservation.
The other reservation made by Australia upon which the French
Annex fastens is the exclusion of disputants, parties to the General Act,who are not members of the League of Nations. This is said to have

acquired quite an ambiguous value because no country can be said now
to be a Member of the League of Nations, but it is clear from the decision
of this Court in the Sourk West Africa cases (Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962) that the description "Member of the
League of Nations" is adequate to describe a State which has been a
Member of the League. Again the very making of these reservations by
some accessionaries to the General Act emphasizes its independence of
the League of Nations and of its "system". There can be no uncertainty
in the matter because the Court exists and by its decision can remove any
dubiety which might possibly exist, although 1see none.
1find no substance in the suggestion that "unacceptable advantages"
would result for Australia from a continuance in force of the General Act,
and in any case would not be willing to agree that any such result would
affect the validity of the General Act.
It isthen said that Australia had patently violated the General Act
by attempting in 1939to modify its reservations otherwise than in accor-
dance with Article 45. This objection is based on the fact that on 7 Sep-
tember 1939Australia notified the Secretary-General of the League of

Nations that "it will not regard its accession to the General Act as
covering or relating to any dispute arising out of events occurring during
the Dresentcrisis. Please inform al1States Parties to the Act". This noti-
fication could not be immediately operative because it was made at an
inappropriate time; thecurrent period of the duration of the General Act
expired inAugust 1940. Thus theAustralian notification would not operate
instanter. It had effect if at al1only at the end of the five-yearperiod next
occurring after the date of the notification. What was thought to be the
irregularity of giving this notification at the time it was given was ob-
served upon by some States party to the General Act, but none, including
France, made it the occasion to attempt to terminate the Act. However,
nothing turns on the circumstance that there was no immediate operation
of the notification and 1cannot find any relevance to the problem with
which the Court is'now faced of the fact that Australia took the course it
did in 1939.
Itis next said that the conduct of the two States since the demise of the
Leagueis indicative of the lapse of the General Act. Neither have resorted
to it. In the first place it is not shown that any occasion arose, as between

France and Australia, for resort to the provisions of the General Act
until the present dispute arose. Thus it is not the case of States having
reason to resort to the provisions of the treaty and bypassing or ignoring
its provisions by mutual consent or in circumstances from which a
termination by mutual consent could be inferred. A treaty such as the
General Act does not require affirmation or.use to maintain its validity.
It is denunciation which is the operative factor. Also itis not true to Say
that there has been utter silence on the part of States accessionary to the
General Act, in the period since the demise of the League. 1 have already
remarked for instance on the references to the Act bythe representative ofFrance. Nor upon the material produced could it be said that France and
Australia at any time, by inactivity, tacitly agreed to terminate the General

Act as between themselves.

1 turn now to a different matter put forward in the Annex. The French
Annex suggests either that the reservation of 20 May 1966to the decla-
ration by France to the optional compulsory clause (Art. 36(2)) operated
as itself a reservation under the General Act or that though not such a
reservation it superseded and nullified France's obligations under the
General Act. These seem to be propositions alternative to the major
statement in the Annex which was that the General Act because of non-
use and, as it was said, desuetude was precluded from being allowed to
prevail over the expression of France's will in the reservation of 20 May
1966.
1need not Saymore as to the argument as to desuetude than that there
is in my opinion no principle that a treaty may become invalid by "desue-
tude" though it may be that the conduct of the parties in relation to a
treaty, including their inactivity in circumstances where one would expect
activity, may serve to found the conclusion that by the common consent

of the parties the treaty has been brought to an end. But as 1have said
there is nothing whatever in the information before the Court in this case
which in my opinion could found a conclusion that France and Australia
mutually agreed tacitly to abandon the treaty. The French Annex con-
cedes that lapse of time will not itself terminate a treaty, for the Annex
says: "the antiquity of a text was clearly not regarded in itself as an ob-
stacle to itsi.e., the treaty) being relied ..." Also 1have indicated the
extent to which the treaty had in fact been called in aid by other parties
including France and to the fact that there is no evidence of an occasion
when the treaty could have been used between France and Australia and
was not used.
1would now Saysomething as to the effect claimed by France for the
reservation of 20 May 1966.At the outset, it is to my mind clear that the
system of optional declaration to the compulsory jurisdiction of the
Permanent Court of International Justice, and latterly to the jurisdiction
of this Court, was, and was always conceived to be, a completely inde-
pendent system or avenue of approach to the Court for the settlement of
legal disputes to that which may be provided by treaty-bilateral or
multilateral. The jurisdiction under Article 36 (l), which included treaty

obligations to accept the Court's jurisdiction, and that under Article 36
(2) areseparate and independent. The General Act was in fact promoted
by the League of Nations at a time when Article 36 (2) of the Statute of
the Permanent Court was in operation. Thus the system of optional
declaration to the compulsory jurisdiction is regarded as quite separate
from, and independent of, the provisions of the General Act of 1928.

There are notable differences between the two methods of securing
pacific settlement of legal disputes: and it must always be rememberedthat the General Act was not confined to the settlement of legal disputes
by the Court. The General Act had a term or rather, recurrent terms, of
years. Ln default of denunciation the treaty renewed automatically: it
was tacitly renewed. Reservations might only be made on accession. If
further reservations are subsequently notified, they may be treated as a
denunciation or may be accepted by other States parties to the Act. Thus

they become consensually based. Permissible reservations are exhaus-
tively categorized and closely circumscribed in content. Reservations
might be abandoned in whole or in part. The scope of the reservations,
if in dispute, is to be determined by the Court (see Arts. 39, 40 and 41 oi
the General Act).

In high contrast a declaration to Article 36 (2) of the Statute of the
Court (the text and the enurneration of the Article was the same in the
Statute of the Permanent Court of international Justice) need not be
made for any term of years. No limitation is placed by the Statute on the
nature and extent of the reservations which can be made, though the

jurisprudence of the Court woiild seem to require them to be objective
and not subjective in content. Reservations might be made at any time
and be operative immediately even before their notification to States
which had declared to the jurisdiction under the Article (cf. Rigl~t of
Passage overIndian Territory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1957,p. 125). Further, though by declaration to the compiilsory

jurisdiction under the Article, States might be brought into contractual
relationships with each other, such declarations do not create a treaty.
Each declarant State becomes bound to accept the jurisdiction of the
Court if invoked by another declarant State in a matter within the scope
~f Article 36 (2) and not excluded by reservation.

The jurisdiction under Article 36 (2) could only be invoked by a
Member of the United Nations, whereas the General Act had been open
to States which were not members of the League of Nations.

In the light of these notable differences between the two methods of
providing for judicial settlement of international legal disputes, 1can see

many objections to the proposition that a declaration with reservations
to the optional clause could Vary the treaty obligations of States which
were parties to the General Act. Bearing in mind the readiness with which
reservations to the declaration to the compulsory jurisdiction of the
Court under Article 36 (2) could be added, terminated or varied, accep-
tance of the proposition that such a reservation could Vary or bring to

an end the obligations in a treaty would mean that there would be little
value as between Members of the United Nations in a treaty which could
be varied or terminated at the will of one of the parties by the simple
device of adding a destructive reservation .operating instanter to its
declaration to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court. This would be a

168cataclysmic inroad on the accepted view of the law of treaties which does
not permit a unilateral termination or variation of a treaty except in
accordance with its terms. Termination by occurrences which affect the
mutual consent of the parties to the treaty, which include those on which
a treaty is conceived by the mutual will of the parties to have been in-
tended to come to an end, emphasizes the essentially consensual basis of
termination or variation.
Also, when the differences in the provisions of Article 36 and those of
the General Act relating to the making of reservations are closely ob-
served, it will be seen that, whilst given the same description "reserva-
tion", those for which the General Act provides appear to be of a different
order to those which are permissible under the Article. The purpose of
providing for reservations, it seems to me, is different in each case.
Reservations for which a treaty provides are essentially based on
consent either because within the treaty provisions as permissible reser-

vations, as for example, in Article 39 of the General Act or because they
are accepted by the other party to the treaty-see generally Part 2,
section 2, of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. In the case
of the General Act, the reservation falling within one of the classifications
of Article 39, not made on accession, sought to be added by way of partial
denunciation under Article 45 (4), can only be effective with respect to
any accessionary to the General Act, if accepted by that State. It cannot
in any case operate until at least six months from its notjfication (see
Art. 45 (2)).

Again, in high contrast, a reservation to a declaration under the op-
tional clause, is a unilateral act, can be made at any time, operate in-
stanter, even before notification to other declarants to the optional clause
and is not lirnited by the Statute as to its subject-matter, for the reason
no doubt that the whole process under the article is voluntary. The State
may abstain altogether or accept the jurisdiction to any extent and for
any time. This "flexibility" of the system of optional cornpulsory juris-
diction may in due course increasingly bring that system into disfavour

as compared with a more certain and secure régime ofa treaty. But be
that as it may, the brief comparison 1have made, which is not intended
to be exhaustive, emphasizes the irrelevance to the treaty of reservations
made to a declaration under the optional clause.

1should also point out that the reservation of 20 May 1966 did not
in any way conform to the requirements of the General Act. It is worth
observing that Article 17 of the General Act requires submission to the
Court of al1disputes subject to any reservalionwhichmay be made under
Article 39. The reservation of 20 May 1966 was not made under that
Article: it was not made at a time when reservations could be made.
It purported to operate immediately. It was not intended to be notified419 NUCLEAR TESTS (DISS.OP. BARWICK)

to members bound by the General Act. 1doubt whether it isa reservation
of a kind within any of the categories listed in Article 39(2) of the General
Act. It clearly could not fa11within paragraphs (a) or (6) of that sub-
clause, and itdoes not seem to me that it could fall within paragraph (c).
Because of the complete independence of the two means of providing for
the resolution of international legal disputes, 1 can see no reason what-
ever on which a reservation to a declaration to the optional compulsory
jurisdiction under Article 36 (2) could be held to operate to Vary the
treaty obligations of such a treaty as the General Act.

Apparently realizing the unacceptable consequences of the proposition
that the obligations of a treaty might be supplanted by a reservation to a
declaration to the optional clause, the French Annex seeks to limit its
proposition to the General Act which, it claims, is:

". ..not a convention containing a clause conferring jurisdiction
on the Court in respect of disputes concerning the application of its
provisions, but a text the exclusive object of which is the peaceful
settlement of disputes, and in particular judicial settlement".

This statement seems to have overlooked the provisions of Article 41 of
the General Act and, in any case, 1 am unable to see any basis upon
which the position as to the effectof a reservation to a declaration to the
optional clause can be limited as proposed.
Itis also said that the declaration to compulsory jurisdiction under
Article 36 (2) was an act in the nature of an agreement relating to the
same matter as that of the General Act. As 1 have already pointed out, a
declaration to compulsoryjurisdiction is not an agreement though it can
raise a consensual bond. In any case, the subject-matter of the General

Act and that of declaration to the optional clause, are not identical.

There is a suggestion in'the French Annex that because States bound
by the General Act who have also declared to the optional compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court from time to time have kept the text of their
respective reservations under the Act and under the optional clause
conformable to each other, a departure from this "parallelism" either
indicates a disuse of the General Act or requires the absence of a com-
parable reservation to the General Act to be notionally supplied. But the
suggested parallelism did not exist in fact, as the Australian Memorial
clearly indicates (see paras. 259-277). Further, therecan be no validity in
the proposition that because France did not make a partial denunciation
of the General Act in the terms of its reservation to its declaration under
the optional clause, it should, by reason of former parallelism, be taken
to have done so.

In sum, 1am unable to accept the proposition that the reservation in the
declaration of 20 May 1966by France had any effect on the obligation
of France under the General Act of 1928. Its consent to the Court'sjurisdiction by accession to the General Act was untouched by the later
expression of its will in relation to the optional clause. The reservation
by France under Article 36 (2) is no more relevant to the jurisdiction of
the Court under Article 36 (1) than was such a reservation in the Appeal
Relating to the Jurisdiction of theICA0 Council, India v. Pakistan (I.C.J.

Reports 1972, p. 46). There an attempt to qualify the jurisdiction derived
from a treaty, by the terms of a reservation to a declaration under the
optional clause, was made. The attempt failed. The Court founded its
jurisdiction exclusively on the treaty provision and regarded the reser-
vation to the declaration of the optional clause as irrelevant. See the
Judgment of the Court, pages 53and 60 of the Reports.

There may well have been an explanation why there was no attempt
either on the part of France or earlier on the part of the UnitedKingdom
to denounce the General Act when contemplating nuclear testing in the
atmosphere of the South Pacific,whilst at the same time making what was
considered an appropriate reservation to the declaration to the optional
clause. I remarked earlier that the General Act had become a closed
treaty. The identity of those to whom France and the United Kingdom
were thereby bound was known. No doubt as of 1966the then attitudes of
those States to nuclear testing in the atmosphere of the South Pacific
were known or at least thought to be known. On the other hand, there

were States declarant to the optional clause from whom opposition to
nuclear testing in the atmosphere at all, and particularly in the Pacific,
might well have been expected. However there is not really any need for
any speculation as to why denunciation was not attempted by France in
1966.It sufficesfrom the point of view of international law that it did not
do so.

Article 36 (1) of the Court's Statute erects the jurisdiction of the Court
in respect ofal1matters specially provided for in treaties and conventions
in force.1 have so far reached the conclusion that the General Act of 1928
was a treaty or convention in force between France and Australia as at
the date of the Application. I have already quoted Article 17of the Gen-
eral Act, in Chapter II, dealing with judicial settlement. The second para-
graph of the Article incorporates the text of Article 36(2) of the Statute
of the Permanent Court of International Justice in so far as it deals with
the subject-matters ofjurisdiction.Thus al1"legal disputes concerning: (a)
the interpretation of a treaty; (6) any question of international law;
(c) the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a

breach of international obligation; .. ." are included in the scope of
Article 17.
The question, then, in respect of Article 36 (1) is: what are the matters
specially provided for in the General Act which are referred to the Court?
They are, in my view, so far as presently relevant, each dispute with
regard to which the parties are in conflict as to their respective rights, andlegal disputes concerning any question of international law or the exis-
tence of any fact, which, if established, would constitute a breach of an
international obligation, subject, in any event, to, and, a1 think, only to,
any reservations which may have been made under Article 39 of the

General Act.

It seems to me that there are two possible views as to the elements of
the Court's jurisdiction derived under Article 36 (1) of the Court's
Statute and drawn through the General Act, Article 17 and Article 37
of the Court's Statute.
On the one hand, it may be said that the jurisdiction is complete if the

General Act is a treaty or convention in force between France and Aus-
tralia at the date of the Application. The subject-matter of the Court's
jurisdiction so established would then be described as matters referred
to the Court by the General Act of 1928, that is to Say,disputes between
States bound by the Act as to their respective legal rights, etc. Such
disputes are in that view treated as the general kind of matters which the
Court has authority to resolve by its judicial processes because of the
continued existence of the General Act. On that view, the question

whether the dispute in fact existing now between France and Australia
at the date of the Application is of that kind, becomes a matter of ad-
missibility.
On the other hand, the view may be taken that the necessary elements
of the Court's jurisdiction are not satisfied merely by the establishment
of the General Act as a treaty or convention in force between France and

Australia, but require the establishment of the existence of a dispute
between them as to their respective rights, etc.: that is to say the matter
referred by the General Act is not a genus of dispute but specific disputes
as to the rights of two States vis-à-vis one another. The States in that view
are taken as consenting to the jurisdiction to hear those particular dis-
putes. To use the language used in the case of Ambatielos (Merits),
Greece v. United Kingdoni (I.C.J. Reports 19.53,p. 29), the dispute must

faIl under "the category of differences" in respect of which there is consent
to the Court's jurisdiction. On this analysis, no separate question of ad-
missibility arises; it is al1one question ofjurisdiction, the existence in fact
and in law of the dispute between the two States as to their respective
rights being a sine qua non of jurisdiction in the Court. It is that dispute
which the Court has jurisdiction to decide.

This is the view of the matter which 1prefer. But the Court's Order of
22 June 1973 was made, apparently, on the assumption that a distinct
question of adrnissibility arose, or at any rate could be said to arise.
Accordingly, notwithstanding the opinion 1 have just expressed, 1 am
prepared for the purposes of this opinion to treat the question whether
the dispute between France and Australia is a dispute as to their res-
pective rights as a question of admissibility. However, 1would emphasizethat, whether regarded as a necessary element of the Court's jurisdiction
or as a matter of admissibility, the question, to my mind, is the same, and
the substantial consequence of an answer to it will be the same whichever

view is taken as between the two views 1have suggested of the necessary
elements of the Court's jurisdiction. That question is whether the Parties
are in dispute as to their respective rights, the word "right" connoting
legal right.

There is therefore, in my opinion, jurisdiction to hear and determine a
dispute between parties bound by the General Act as to their legal rights.
As indicated I shall deal with the question of admissibility as if it were a
separate question.

A distinction has been drawn in thejurisprudence of the Court between
its jurisdiction in a matter and the admissibility of the reference or
application made to it. The Rules of Court maintain the separateness of
the two concepts (see Art. 67) but the Statute of the Court makes no
reference to admissibility. In particular the default provision, Article 53,
does not do so. This might be significant in a case such as the present
where there has been no preliminary objection to admissibility setting out
the grounds upon which it is said the Application is not admissible. The
result of a strict application of Article53 in such a case, if there has been
no special Order such as the Court's Order of 22 June 1973, may be that
any question of admissibility where the respondent does not appear is

caught up in the consideration either ofjurisdiction or of the merits of the
Application. However, the Court being in control of its own procedure
can, as it has done in this case, direct argument on admissibility as a
separate consideration, but no doubt only to the extent to which that
question can properly be said in the circumstances to be of an exclusively
preliminary character.
It may be said that the jurisdiction of the Court relates to the capacity
of the Court to hear and determine matters of a particular nature, e.g.,
those listed in Article 36 (2) of the Statute of the Court, whereas admissi-
bility relates to the competence, receivability, of the reference or appli-
cation itself which is made to the Court.

It might be said that jurisdiction in the present case includes the right
of the Court to enter upon the enquiry whether or not a dispute of the
relevant kind exists and a jurisdiction, if the dispute exists, to grant the
Applicant's claim for its resolution by declaration and Order. If such a
dispute exists, the claim is admissible.
An examination as to admissibility is itself an exercise of jurisdiction
even though a finding as to admissibility may be a foundation for the
exercise of further jurisdiction in resolving the claim. The overlappingnature of the two concepts of jurisdiction and admissibility is apparent,
particularly where, as here, the existence of a relevant dispute rnay be
seen as a prerequisite to the right to adjudicate derived from Article 17of

the General Act.
1observed earlier that there is no universally applicable definition of
the requirements of admissibility. The claim rnay be incompetent, that
is to say inadmissible, because its subject-matter does not fall within the
description of matters which the Court is competent to hear and decide;
or because the relief which the reference or application seeks is not
within the Court's power to consider or to give; or because the applicant
is not an appropriate State to make the reference or application, as it is
said that the applicant lacks standing in the matter; or the applicant rnay
lack any legal interest in the subject-matter of the application or it rnay
have applied too soon or otherwise at the wrong time, or, lastly, al1
preconditions to the making or granting of such a reference or application
rnay not have been performed, e.g., local remedies rnay not have been
exhausted. lndeed it is possible that there rnay arise other circumstances
in which the reference or application rnay be inadmissible or not re-
ceivable. Thus admissibility has various manifestations.
Of course al1 these elements of the competence of the reference or

application will not necessarily be relevant in every case. Which form of
admissibility arises in any given case rnay depend a great deal on the
source of the relevant jurisdiction of the Court on which reliance is
placed and on the terms in which itsjurisdiction is expressed. This, in my
opinion, is the situation in this case.

The Court labours under the disability that it has no formal objection
to admissibility, particularizing the respect in which it is said that the
Application in inadmissible. The Annex to the Ambassador's letter of
16 May 1973 in challenging the existence of jurisdiction in the Court
under Article 36 (1) of the Statute, bases its objection on the lapse or
qualification of the General Act and not on the absence of a dispute
falling within Article 17of the General Act. Further, there was no express
reference to the admissibility of the Application.
It is, however, possible to construct out of the White Book an argu-
ment that the Application was "without object" in the sense that there
were no legal norms by resort to which the dispute in fact existing between

the Parties could be resolved, which is to Say, though it is not expressly
said, that there was no dispute between the Parties as to their respective
rights (see the terms of Art. 17of the General Act). This, it seems to me,
was suggested in the White Book in relation to the claim that the testing
of nuclear weapons had become unlawful by the customary international
law. It was not, and in my opinion could not be, said that there were no
legal norms by reference to which the claim for the infringement of ter-ritorial and decisional sovereignty could be determined-though impor-
tantand difficult legalconsiderations arise in that connection, as was obser-

ved upon in the French Annex by its reference to a threshold of radio-active
intrusion which should not beexceeded. In relation to the claim for breach
of the freedom of the high seas and superincumbent air space, the French
WhitePaper refers to international practice asjustifying what wasproposed
to be done in relation to the area surrounding its atmospheric testing: but
this contention is not related to admissibility.
An element of admissibility is the possession by the applicant State

of a legal interest in the subject-matter of its Application. As it is, in my
opinion, the existence of a dispute as to the respective legal rights of the
Parties which must be the subject-matter of the Application in this case
to satisfy Article17,1 think that upon the establishment of such a dispute
each of the disputants to such a dispute must be held to have a legal
interest in the resolution of the dispute. For my part, the matter of ad-

missibility would end at the point at which it was decided that there was a
dispute between France and Australia as to their respective legal rights,
that is to Say, that a dispute existed as to the right claimed by Australia
as its right or of an obligation of France towards Australia which
Australia claimed to be infringed. There is importance in the presence
of the word rheirin the formula; it is to be a dispute ap theirrespective
rights. That possessive pronoun embraces in my opinion the need for a

legal interest in the subject-matter.

Thus, in my opinion, the question to be resolved at this stage of the
case is whether the Parties were, at the date of the Application, in dispute
as to their respective rights.
That these Parties are in dispute is in my opinion beyond question.

It is clear that there were political or merely diplomatic approaches by
the Applicant for a time; and there are political aspects of the subject-
matter of the correspondence which evidences their dispute. But so to
conclude does not deny that the Parties may be in dispute nonetheless
about their respective rights. That question will be determined by what
in substance they are in difference about.
The source material upon which these questions are to be resolved is

the correspondence between France and Australia set out at Annexes 2
to 14 inclusive of the Application instituting the present proceedings, as
explained and amplikd in the submissions to the Court. The contents of
and the omissions from the French Annex, which raises arguments of law
in opposition to the legal propositions in the Australian Notes, ought also
to be considered in this connection. Nowhere is it suggested in the Annex
that the disptrte between France and Australia is no more than a political

difference, a clash of interest incapable of resolution by judicial process,
perhaps a not unimportant circumstance.

1 have found it important in reading the Notes exchanged between425 NUCLEAR TESTS (DISS. OP. BARWICK)

France and Australia to differentiate the conciliatory language designed
to secure, if possible French abandonment of the proposal, and the
language employed when claiins of right are made. The dispute between
the Governments upto the stage of the change of language might possibly
be characterized as chiefly political, the desired end being sought to be

attained by diplomacy alone, but the language does not certainly remain
so. The changed tone of the Australian Note is visible in the Note of
3 January 1973, where it is said:

"The Australian Government, which has hitherto adopted a
position of considerable restraint in this matter, wishes to make
quite clear its position with respect to proposed atmospheric nuclear
tests to be conducted in the Pacific by the French Government. In

the opinion of the Australian Government, the conducting of such
tests would not only be undesirable but would be unlawful-parti-
cularly in so far as it involves modification of the physical conditions
of and over Australian territory; pollution of the atmosphere and of
the resources of the seas; interference with freedom of navigation

both on the high seas and in the airspace above; and infraction of
legal norms concerning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons."

Having followed this statement with a request that the French Govern-
ment refrain from further testing, the Australian Note proceeds:

"The Australian Government is bound to Say,howgver, that in the
absence of full assurances on this matter, which affects the welfare
and peace of mind not only of Australia but of the whole Pacific

community, the only course open to it will be the pursuit of appro-
priate international legal remedies."

The Applicant thus raised claims of legal right.

In its Note in reply, the French Government first of al1 applied itself

to a justification of its decision to carry out nuclear tests, and then pro-
ceeded :

"Furthermore, the French Government, which has studied with
the closest attention the problems raised in the Australian Note, has
the conviction that its nuclear experiments have not violated any
rule of international law. It hopes to make this plain in connection
with the 'infractions' of this law alleged by the Australian Govern-
ment in its Note above cited.

The first of these are said to concern the pollution and physical
modifications which the experiments in question are supposed to
involve for Australian territory, the sea, the airspace above.
In the first place, the French Government understands that the Australian Government is not submitting that it has suffered
damage, already ascertained, which is attributable to the French
experiments.
If it is not to be inferred fromdamage that has occurred, then the
'infraction' of law might consist in the violation by France of an
international legal norm concerning the threshold of atomic pol-
lution which should not be crossed.
But the French Government finds it hard to see what is the precise
rule on whose existence Australia relies. Perhaps Australia could
enlighten it on this point.
In reality, it seems to the French Government that this complaint
of the violation of international law on account of atomic pollution
amounts to a claim that atmospheric nuclear experiments are auto-
matically unlawful. This, in its view, is not the case. But here again
the French Government would appreciate having its attention drawn
to any points lending colour to the opposite opinion.
Finally, the French Government wishes to answer the assertion

that its experiments would unlawfully hamper the freedom of navi-
gation on the high seas and in the airspace above.
In this respect it will be sufficient for the French Government to
observe that it is nowadays usual for areas of the high seas to be
declared dangerous to navigation on account of explosions taking
place there, including the firing of rockets. So far as nuclear experi-
ments are concerned, the Australian Government willnot be unaware
that it was possible for such a danger-zone encroaching on the high
seas to be lawfully established at the time of previous experiments."

This notedisputes those claims of legal right.

The Australian Note of 13 February 1973 contains the following
passages :
"The Australian Government assures the French Government
that the present situation, caused by an activity which the French
Government has undertaken and continues to undertake and which

the Australian Government and people consider not only illegitimate
but also gravely prejudicial to the future conditions of life of Aus-
tralia and the other peoples of the Pacific..."
and again :

"lt is recalled that, in its Note dat3dJanuary 1973,the Australian
Government stated its opinion that the conducting of atmospheric
nuclear tests in the Pacific by the French Government would not
only be undesirable but would be unlawful. In your Ambassador's
Note dated 7 February 1973it isstated that the French Government,
having studied most carefully the problems raised in the Australian
Note, isconvinced that its nuclear tests have violated no rule ofinter-
national law. The Australian Government regrets that it cannot agree with the point of view of the French Government, being on the
contrary convinced that the conducting of the tests violates rules of
international law. It is clear that in this regard there exists between
our two Governments a substantial legal dispute."

Was this conclusion of the Australian Government thus expressed war-

ranted, and if it was does it satisfy the question as to whether there was a
dispute of the required kind, the Application being in substance for a
settlement of that dispute bymeans of a declaration by the Court that the
rights which wereclaimed do exist and that they have been infringed?
It is quite evident from the correspondence that at the outset the hope
of the Australian Government was that France might be deterred from
making or from continuing its nuclear test experiments in the South
Pacific by the pressure of international opinion and by the importance of
maintaining the undiminished goodwill and the economicCO-operationof
Australia. In the period of this portion of the correspondence, and 1 set
that period as between 6 September 1963 and 29 March 1972, the em-
phasis is upon the implicationsof the partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of
1963, the general international opinion in opposition to nuclear atmos-
pheric tests and the importance of harmonious relations between Aus-
tralia and France as matters of persuasion.

But in January 1973,when it is apparent that none of these endeavours

have been or are likely to be successful, and it is firmly known that a
further series of tests will be undertaken by France in the mid-year, that
is to say, in the winter of the southern hemisphere, the passages occur
which 1 have quoted from the Note of 3 January 1973and the response
of the French Government of 7 February 1973 which respectively raise
and deny the Applicant's claim that its legal rights will be infringed by
further testing of nucleardevices in the South Pacific.

FourBasesof Claim

It is apparent from the passages which 1have quoted that the various
bases of illegality which the Applicant has put before the Court in sup-
port of its present Application were then nominated. They can be ex-
tracted and listed as follows:

(1) unlawfulness in the modification of the physical conditions of the
Australian territory and environment;
(2) unlawfulness in the pollution of the 'Australianatmosphere and of the
resources of its adjacentseas;
(3) unlawfulness in the interference with freedom of navigation on sea
and in air; and
(4) breach of legal norms concerning atmospheric testing of nuclear
weapons.

None of these wereconceded by France and indeed they weredisputed.
178 It might be observed at this point that there is a radical distinction to
be made between the claims that violation of territorial and decisional
sovereignty by the intrusion and deposition of radio-active nuclides and
of pollution of the sea and its resources thereby is unlawful according to

international law, and the claim that the testing of nuclear weapons has
become unlawful according to the customary international law, which is
expressed in the Australian Note of 3January 1973as "legal norms con-
cerning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons".

In the first instance, it is the intrusion of the ionized particles of matter

into the air, sea and land of Australia which is said to be in breach of its
rights sustained by international law. It is not fundamentally significant
in this claim that the atomic explosions from which the ionized particles
have come into the Australian environment were explosions for the
purpose of developing nuclear weapons, though in fact that is what
happened.

But in the second instance the customary law is claimed now to in-
clude a prohibition on the testing of nuclear weapons. The particular
purpose of the detonations by France is thus of the essence of the sug-
gested prohibition. Though, as 1will mention later, the Applicant points
to the resultant fall-out in Australia, these consequences are not of the
essence of the unlawfulness claimed: it is the testing itself which is claimed

to be unlawful.

It might be noticed that the objection to the testing of nuclear weapons
in international discussions is placed on a twofold basis: there is the
danger to the health of this and succeeding generations of the human race
from the dissemination of radio-active fall-out, but there is also the

antipathy of the international community to the enlargement of the
destructive quality of nuclear armaments and to the proliferation of their
possession. Thus, it is not only nuclear explosions as such which are the
suggested objects of the prohibition, but the testing of nuclear weapons
as an adjunct to the increase in the extent of nuclear weaponry.

The order in which these four bases of claim were argued and the
emphasis respectively placed upon them has tended to obscure the
significànce of the Applicant's claim for the infringement of its territorial
and decisional sovereignty. Because of this presentation and its emotional
overtones it might be thought that the last of the above-enumerated bases
of claim which, 1may say, has its own peculiar difficulties,was the heart-

land of the Australian claim. But as 1understand the matter, the contrary
is really the case.1tis the infraction of territorial sovereignty by the in-
trusion and deposition of nuclides which is the major basis of the claim.

A dispute about respective rights may be a dispute between the Parties

as to whether a right exists at all, or it may be a dispute as to the extent
179of an admitted right, or it may be a dispute as to the existence of a
breach of an admitted right, or of course it may combine al1these things,
or some of them, in the one dispute. The claim on the one hand and the
denial on the other that a right exists or as to its extent or as to its breach
constitute, in my opinion, a dispute as to rights. Ifsuch a dispute between

the Parties is as to their respective rights it will in my opinion satisfy the
terms of Article 17 of the General Act which, in my opinion, is the
touchstone of jurisdiction in this case or, if the contrary view of jurisdic-
tion is accepted, the touchstone of admissibility.

If the dispute is not a dispute as to the existence of a Iegal right, it will

not satisfy Article 17 and it may be said to be a dispute "without object"
because, if it is not a dispute as to a legal right, the Court will not be able
to resolve it by the application of legal norms: the dispute will not be
justiciable.

But such a situation does not arise merely because of the novelty of the
claim of right or because the claimed right is not already substantiated by

decisions of the Court, or by the opinions of learned writers, or because
to determine its validity considerable research and consideration must be
undertaken.
In his separate opinion in the case of the Northern Cameroons (supra),
Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice adopted as a definition of a dispute which was
necessary to found the capacity of this Court to make a judicial Order the
definition which was given by Judge Morelli in his dissenting opinion in

the South West Africa case (Jurisdiction, I.C.J. Reports 1962, between
pp. 566 and 588), Sir Gerald, adding an element thereto drawn from the
argument of the Respondent in the case of the Northern Cameroons (see
pp. 109-110 of 1.C.J. Reports 1963).
Sir Gerald thought that there was no dispute in that case (though the
Court, including Judge Morelli, considered there was) because the Court

could not in that case make any effectivejudicial Order about the matter
in respect of which the Parties to the case were in difference. On page 111
of the Reports of the case, Sir Gerald said :

"In short, a decision of the Court neither would, nor could, affect
the legal rights, obligations, interests or relations of the Parties in
any way; and this situation both derives from, and evidences,the
non-existence of any dispute between the Parties to which ajudgment
of the Court could attach itself in any concrete, or even potentially
realizable, form. The conclusion must be that there may be a dis-

agreement, contention or controversy, but that there is not, properly
speaking, and as a matter of law, any dispute.

To state the point in another way, the impossibility for a decision
of the Court in favour of the Applicant State to have any effective
legal application in the present case (and therefore the incompa- tibility with the judicial function of the Court that would be involved
by the Court entertaining the case) is the reverse of a coin, the ob-
verse of which is the absence of any genuine dispute.
Since, with reference to a judicial decision sought as the outcome
of a dispute said to exist between the Parties, the dispute must
essentially relate to what that decision ought to be, it follows that
if the decision (whatever it might be) must plainly be without any
possibility of effective legal application at all, the dispute becomes
void of al1content, and is reduced to an empty shell."

The nub of these remarks was that, because the trusteeship agreement
had come to an end, the Court could not by a decision confer or impose
any right or obligation on either Party in respect of that agreement: and
it was only this interpretation or application of that agreement which the
Application sought. The qualification of a dispute which Sir Gerald
imported into his definition is present, in my opinion, in the very formu-
lation of the nature of the dispute which is relevant under Article 17,
that is to say, a dispute as to the respective rights of the Parties. If the
dispute is of that kind, it seemsto me that the Court must be able both to
resolve it by the application of legal norms because legal rights of the
Parties are in question and to make at least a declaration as to the exis-
tence or non-existence of the disputed right or obligation.

It is essential, in my opinion, to observe that the existence of a dispute
as to legal rights does not depend upon the validity of the disputed claim
that a right exists or that it was of a particular nature or of a particular
extent. In order to establish the existence of a dispute it is not necessary
to show that the claimed right itself exists. Forexample, a party who lost
a contested case in a court of law on the ground that in truth he did not

have the right which he claimed to have had against the other party, was
nonetheless at the outset in dispute with that other party as to their
respective rights, that is to Say,the right on the one hand and the com-
mensurate obligation on the other. The solution of the dispute by the
court did not establish that the parties had not been in dispute as to their
rights, though it did determine that what the plaintiff party claimed to be
his right was not validly so claimed. To determine the validity of the
disputed claim is to determine the merits of the application.
It is conceivable that a person may claim a right which, being denied,
gives the appearance of a dispute, but because the claim is beyond al1
question and on its face baseless, it may possibly be said that truly there
is no dispute because there was in truth quite obviously nothing to
dispute about, or it may be said that the disputed claim is patently absurd
or frivolous. But these things, in my opinion, cannot be said as to any of
the bases of claim which are put forward in the Application and which
were present in the correspondence which antedated it.ConsiderationofBasesof Claim

1turn now to consider whether the several bases of claim which 1have
listed above are claims as to legal rights possessed by Australia, in other
words, whether these bases of claim being disputed are capable of reso-
lution by the application of legal norms and whether the Applicant has a
legal interest to maintain its claim in respect of those rights.

In considering these questions, it must be recalled that if they are to be
decided at this stage, they must be questions of an exclusivelypreliminary
character. If, to resolve either of them, it is necessary to go into the
merits, then that question is not of that character.

It is not disputed in the case that the deposition of radio-active particles
of matter (nuclides) on Australian territory and their intrusion into the
Australian environment of sea and air occurs in a short space of time
after a nuclear explosion takes place in the French Pacific territory of
Mururoa, due to the inherent nature and consequences of such explosions
and the prevailing movements of air in the southern hemisphere. Thus it
may be taken that that deposition and intrusion is caused, and that it is
known that it will be caused, by those explosions.

First and Second Bases

1 can take bases 1 and 2 together. Each relates to the integrity of
territory and the territorial environment. The Applicant's claim is that
the deposition and intrusion of the nuclides is an infringement of its right
to territorial and,as it says, decisional sovereignty. It is part of this claim
that the mere deposition and intrusion of this particular and potentially
harmful physical matter is a breach of Australia's undoubted sovereign
right to territorial integrity, a right clearly protected by international law.

France, for its part, as 1understand the French Annex, asserts that the
right to territorial integrity in relevant respects is only a right not to be
subjected to actual and demonstrable damage by matter intruded into its
territory and environment. Hence the reference to a threshold of nuclear
pollution. Put another way, it is claimed that France's right to do as she
will on her own territory in exercise of her own sovereign rights is only
qualified by the obligation not thereby to cause injury to another State;
that means, as 1 understand the French point of view, not to do actual
damage presently provable to the Australian territory or environment of
air and sea. In such a formulation it would seem that France claims that
although the nuclides were inherently dangerous, their deposition and
intrusion into the Australian territory and environment did not relevantly
cause damage to Australia or people within its territory. Damage in thatview would not have been caused unless some presently demonstrable
injury had been caused to land or persons by the nuclear fall-out.

Such a proposition is understandable, but it is a proposition of law.
It is disputed by Australia and is itself an argument disputing the Aus-
tralian claim as to the state of the relevant law. So far as the question of
French responsibility to Australia may depend upon whether or not

damage has been done by the involuntary reception in Australia of the
radio-active fall-out, it should be said that the question whether damage
has in fact been done has not yet been fully examined. Obviously such a
question forms part of the merits. Again, if there is no actual damage
presently provable, the question remains whether the nuclides would in
future probably or only possibly cause injury to persons within Australian
territory; and in either case, there is a question of whether the degree of

probability or possibility, bearing in mind the nature of the injuries which
the nuclides are capable of causing, is sufficient to satisfy the concept of
damage if the view of the law put forward by the French Annex were
accepted. The resolution of such questions, which in my opinion are legal
questions, partakes of the merits of the case.

The French Wlrite Book appears to me to attribute to the Applicant
and to New Zealand in its case, a proposition that:

". . . they have the right to decline to incur the risks to which
nuclear atmospheric tests would expose them, and which are not
compensated for by advantages considered by them to be adequate,
and that a State disregarding this attitude infringes their sovereignty
and thus violates international law".

1do not apprehend that the Applicant did put forward that view of the
law; and as phrased by the French Wlzite Book, it is a proposition of law.
My understanding of the Applicant's argument was that the Applicant

claimed that in the exercise of its sovereignty over its territory it had to
consider, in this technological age, whether it would allow radio-active
material to be introduced into and used in the country. It claims that it
alone should decide that matter. As some uses of such material can confer
benefit on some persons, it was said that Australia had established for
itself a rule that it would not allow the introduction into, or the use of
radio-active material in Australia unless a benefit, compensating for any

harmful results which could come from such introduction or use, could
be seen. In assessing the benefit and the detriment, account had to be
taken of the level of radio-activity, natural and artificial, which existed
at any time in the environment. It was said, as 1followed the argument,
that the involuntary receipt into the territorv and environment of radio-Annex as claiming, that this difference between France and Australia as
to whether or not there has beenan infringement of Australian sovereignty
is other than a legal dispute, a dispute as to the law and as to the legal
rights of the Parties. It is a dispute which can be resolved according to
legal norms and by judicial process. Clearly the Applicant has a legal
interest to maintain the validity of its claim in this respect.

ThirdBasisof Claim

The third basis of the claim is that Australia's rights of navigation and
fishing on the high seas and of oceanic flight will be infringed by the
action of the French Government not limited to the mere publication of
NOTAMS and AVROMARS in connection with its nuclear tests in the
atmosphere of the South Pacific. Here there is, in my opinion, a claim of
right. The claim also involves an assertion that a situation will exist which
would be a breach of that right. It seemsalso to be claimed that pollution
of the high seas, with resultant effects on fish and fishing, constitutes an
infringement of the Applicant's rights in the sea.
France disputes that what it proposes to do would infringe Australia's
rights in the high seas and super-incumbent air, bearing in mind estab-
lished international practice. Thus the question arises as to the extent of
the right of the unimpeded use of the high seas and super-incumbent air,
and of the nature and effect of international practice in the closure of
areas of danger during the use of the sea and air for the discharge of
weapons or for dangerous experimentation.
Again, in my opinion, there is, in connection with the third basis of

claim, a dispute as to the existence and infringement of rights according
to international law: there is a dispute as to the respective rights of the
Parties. On that footing, the interest of the Applicant to sustain the
Application is, in my opinion, apparent.

FourthBasis of Claim

The claim in relation to the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmos-
phere stands on a quite different footing from the foregoing. It is a claim
that Australia's rights are infringed by the testing of nuclear weapons by
France in the atmosphere of the South Pacific. 1have expressed it in that
fashion, emphasizing that it is Australia's rights which are said to be in-
fringed,though 1am bound to say that the claim is not so expressed in the
Australian Note of 3 January 1973.However, the expression of the rele-
vant claim in paragraph 49 of the Application is susceptible of that inter-
pretatioii. The relevant portion of that paragraph reads:

"The Australian Government contends that the conduct of the
tests as described above has violated and, if the tests are continued, will further violate international law and the Charter of the United
Nations, and, inter aliaAustralia's rights in the following respects:
(i) The right of Australia and its people, in common with other
States and their peoples, to be free from atmospheric nuclear
weapon tests by any country is and will be violated ..."

It is clear enough, in my opinion, that the Applicant has claimed that
international law now prohibits any State from testing nuclear weapons,
at least in the atmosphere. Of course, Australia would have no interest
to complain in this case of any other form of testing, the French tests
being in the atmosphere. The claim is not that the law should be changed
on moral or political grounds, but that the law now is as the Applicant
claims it to be. France denies that there is any such prohibition. It can
readily be said, in my opinion, that this is a dispute asto the present state
of international law. It is not claimed that that law has always been so,
but it is claimed that it has now become so.

Itis said that there has been such a progression of general opinion
amongst the nations, evidenced in treaty, resolution and expression of
international opinion, that the stage has been reached where the pro-

hibition of the testing of nuclear weapons is now part of the customary
international law.
It cannot be doubted that that customary law is subject to growth and
to accretion as international opinion changes and hardens into law. It
should not be doubted that the Court is called upon to play its part in the
discernment of that growth and in the authoritative declaration that in
point of law that growth has taken place to the requisite extent and that
the stretch of customary law has been attained. The Court will, of course,
confine itself to declaring what the law has already become, and in doing
so will not be altering the law or deciding what the law ought to be, as
distinct from declaring what it is.
1 think it must be considered that it is legally possible that at some
stage the testing of nuclear weapons could become, or could have
become, prohibited by the customary international law. Treaties, reso-
lutions, expressions of opinion and international practice, may al1
combine to produce the evidence of that customary law. The time when
such a law emerges will not necessarily be deferred until al1nations have
acceded to a test ban treaty, or until opinion of the nations is universally
held in the same sense. Customary law amongst the nations does not, in

my opinion, depend on universal acceptance. Conventional law limited
to the parties to the convention may become inappropriate circumstances
customary law. On the other hand, it may be that even a widely accepted
test ban treaty does not create or evidence a state of customary interna-
tional law in which the testing of nuclear weapons is unlawful, and that
resolutions of the United Nations and other expressions of international
opinion, however frequent, numerous and emphatic, are insufficient towarrant the view that customary law now embraces a prohibition on the
testing of nuclear weapons.

The question raised by the Applicant's claim in respect of the nuclear
testing of weapons and its denial by France is whether the stage has
already been reached where it can be said as a matter of law that there
is now a legal prohibition against the testing of nuclear weapons, parti-
cularly the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. If 1might res-
pectfully borrow Judge Petrén's phrase used in his dissenting opinion at

an earlier stage in this case, the question which arises is whether:
". .. atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons are, generally speaking,
already governed by norms of international law, or whether they do
not still belong to a highly political domain where the norms con-
cerning their international legality or illegality are still at the ges-

tation stage" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 126),
which is, in my opinion, a description of a question of law.
The difficulties in the way of establishing such a change in the cus-
tomary international laware fairly obvious,and they are very considerable,

but, as 1 have indicated earlier, it is not the validity of the claim that is in
question at this stage. The question is whether a dispute as to the law
exists. However much the mind may be impressed by the difficulties in the
way of accepting the view that customary international law has reached
the point of includinga prohibition against the testing of nuclear weapons,
it cannot, in my opinion, be said that such a claim is absurd or frivolous,
or ex facie so untenable that it could be denied that the claim and its

rejection have given rise to a dispute as to legal rights. There is, in my
opinion, no justification for dismissing this basis of the Applicant's
claim as to the present state of international law out of hand, particularly
at a stage when the Court is limited to dealing with matters of an exclu-
sively preliminary nature. Nor is it the case that the state of the customary
law could not be determined by the application of legal considerations.

There remains, however, another and a difficult question, namely
whether Australia has an interest to maintain an application for a decla-
ration that the customary law has reached the point of including a pro-
hibition against the testing of nuclear weapons.
In expressing its claim, it is noticeable that the Applicant speaks of its

right as being a right along with al1 other States. It does not claim an
individual right exclusive to itself. In its Memorial, it puts the obligation
not to test nuclear weapons as owed by each State to every other State
in the international community; thus it is claimed that each State can .
be held to have a legal interest in the maintenance of a prohibition against
the testing of nuclear weapons. The Applicant, in support of this con-
clusion, relies upon the obiter dictum in the Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Lirnited case (Belgium v. Spain, supra, I.C.J. Reports

1970, at p. 32):437 NUCLEAR TESTS(DISS. OP. BARWICK)

"When a State admits into its territory foreign investments or
foreign nationals, whether natural or juristic persons, it is bound to
extend to them the protection of the lawand assumes obligations con-
cerning the treatment to be afforded them. These obligations, how-
ever, are neither absolute nor unqualified. In particular, an essential
distinction should bedrawn between the obligations ofa Statetowards
the international community as a whole, and those arising vis-à-vis
another State in the field of diplomatic protection. By their very
nature the former are the concern of al1States. In view of the impor-
tance of the rights involved, al1 States can be held to have a legal
interest in their protection: they are obligations erga omnes.

Such obligations derive, for example, in contemporary interna-
tional law, from the outlawing of acts of aggression, and of genocide,
as also from the principles and rules concerning the basic rights of
the human person, including protection from slavery and racial
discrimination. Some of the corresponding rights of protection have

entered into the body of general international law (Reservations to
the Conventionon the Prevention andPunishmentof the Crime of
Genocide, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23); others are
conferred by international instruments of a universal or quasi-
universal character."
The Applicant says that the prohibition it claims now to exist in the
customary international law against the testing of nuclear weapons is of
the same kind as the instances of laws concerning the basic rights of the

human person as are given in paragraph 34 of the Court's Judgment in
the BarcelonaTraction,Light andPower Company,Limitedcase, and that
therefore the obligation to observe the prohibition is erga omnes. The
Applicant says that in consequence the right to observance of the pro-
hibition is a right of each state corresponding to the duty of each state to
observe the prohibition, a duty which the Applicant claims is owed by
each State to each and every other State.
If this submission were accepted, the Applicant would, in my opinion,
have the requisite legal interest, thelocusstandi to maintain this basis of
its claim. The right it claims in its dispute with France would be ifs right:
the obligation it claims France to be under, namely an obligation to
refrain from the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, would be an
obligation owed to Australia. The Parties would be in dispute as to their
respective rights.
But in my opinion the question this submission raises is not a matter
which ought to be decided as a question of an exclusively preliminary
character. Not only are there substantial matters to be considered in
connection with it, but, if a prohibition of the kind suggested by the
Applicant were to be found to be part of the customary international law,

the precise formulation of, and perhaps limitations upon, that pro-hibition may well bear on the question of the rights of individual States

to seek to enforce it. Thus the decision and question of the admissibility
of the Applicant's claim in this respect may trench upon the merits.
There is a further aspect of the possession of the requisite legalnterest
to maintain this basis of the Applicant's claim which has to be considered.
The Applicant claims to have been specially affectedby the breach of the
prohibition against atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. Conformably
with its other bases of claim the Applicant says that there has been
deleterious fall-out on to and into its land and environment from what it
claims to be the unlawful atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. It may
well bethat when the facts are fullyexamined,this basis of a legal interest
to maintain the Application in relation to the testing of nuclear weapons
may be made out, both in point of fact and in point of law, but again the
matter is not, in my opinion, a question of an exclusively preliminary
nature.
In theresult, 1am of opinion that the Applicant's claim is admissible in
relation to the first three of the four bases which1have enumerated at an
earlier part of this opinion. But 1am not able to say affirmatively at this

stage that the Application is admissible, as to the fourth of those bases
of claim. In my opinion, the question whether the Application is in
that respect admissible is not a question of an exclusively preliminary
nature, and for that reason it cannot be decided at this stage of the pro-
ceedings.
1shall add that, if it were thought, contrary to my own opinion, that
the question of admissibility involved to any extent an examination of the
validity of the claims of right which are involved in the dispute between
the Parties, it would be my opinion that the question of admissibility so
viewed could not be decided as a question of an exclusivelypreliminary
character.
To sum up my opinion to this point, 1 am of opinion that at the date
of the lodging of the Application the Court had jurisdiction and that it
still has jurisdiction to hear and determine the dispute between France
and Australia which at that time existed as to the-claim to the unlaw-
fulness, in the respects specified in the first three bases of claim in my
earlier enumeration, of the deposition and intrusion of radio-active par-

ticles of matter on to and into Australian land, air and adjacent seas
resulting from the detonation by France in its territory at Mururoa in the
South Pacific of nuclear devices, and as to the unlawfulness of the pro-
posed French activity in relation to the high seasand the super-incumbent
air space. 1am of opinion that there is a dispute between the Parties as to
a matter of legal right in respect of the testing by France of nuclear
weapons in the atmosphere of the South Pacific. If it should be found
that the Applicant has a legal right to complain of that testing and thus
a legal interest to maintain this Application in respect of such testing, the
Court has jurisdiction, in my opinion, to hear and determine the dispute
between the Parties as to the unlawfulness of the testing by France of
nuclear weapons in the atmosphere of the South Pacific, It will in thatevent, in relation to this basis of clairn also, be a dispute as to their

respective rights within Article 17of the General Act.

In so far as the adrnissibility of the Application rnay be a question
separate frorn that of jurisdiction in this case1 am of opinion that the
Application is admissible in respect of al1the bases of clairn other than
that basis which asserts that the custornary international law now in-
cludes a prohibition against the testing of nuclear weapons. In rny
opinion, it cannot be said, as a rnatter of an exclusively prelirninary
character, that the Application in respect of this basis of clairn is inad-
missible, that is to say, it cannot now beaid that the Applicant certainly
has no legal interest to rnaintain its Application in that respect. In my
opinion, the question of adrnissibility in respect of this basis of clairn
not a question of an exclusively prelirninary character and that it ought
to be decided at a later stage of the proceedings.

Dissentfrom Judgment

1 have already expressed rnyself as to the injustice of the procedure
adopted by the Court. I regret to find rnyself unable to agree with the
substance of the Judgrnent, and rnust comment thereon in expressing rny
reasons for dissenting from it.

Explanationfornot Notifyingand HearingParties

The first matter to which 1direct attention in the Judgrnent is that part
of it which expresses the Court's reason for not having notified the Parties
and for not having heard argument (e.g., seeJudgment, para. 33).
The Judgrnent in this connection begins with the circurnstance that a
communiqué frorn the Office of the President of France dated 8 June
1974,which had been cornmunicated to Australia, was brought to the
attention of the Court by the Applicant in the course of the oral hearing
on the prelirninary questions. The Judgrnent then refers to a nurnber of

staternents which it designates as acts of France and which it says are
"consistent" with the communiqué of 8 June 1974; the Court says it
would be proper to take cognizance of these statements (paras. 3 1 and 32
of the Judgrnent). 1 may rernark in passing that the question is not
whether these staternents were matters which rnight properly be consid-
ered by the Court if appropriate procedures were adopted. The question
is whether this evidentiary matter ought to be acted upon without notice
to the Parties and without hearing thern. The Court in itsJudgrnent says:
"lt would no doubt have been possible for the Court, had it

considered that the interests of justice so required, to have afforded
the Parties the opportunity, e.g., by reopening the oral proceedings, of addressing to the Court comments on the statements made since

the close of those proceedings. Such a course however would have
been fully justified only if the matter dealt with in those statements
had been completely new, had not been raised during the proceed-
ings, or was unknown to the Parties. This is manifestly not the case.
The essentialmaterial which the Court must examine was introduced
into the proceedings by the Applicant itself, by no means inciden-
tally, during the course of the hearings, when it drew the Court's

attention to a statement by the French authorities made prior to
that date, submitted the documents containing it and presented an
interpretation of its character, touching particularly upon the ques-
tion whether it contained a firm assurance. Thus both the statement
and the Australian interpretation of it are before the Courtursuant
to action by the Applicant. Moreover, the Applicant subsequently

publicly expressed its comments (see paragraph 28 above) on state-
ments made by the French authorities since the closure of the oral
proceedings. The Court is therefore in possession not only of the
statements made by French authorities concerning the cessation of
atmospheric nuclear testing, but also of the views of the Applicant
on them. Although as a judicial body the Court is conscious of the

importance of the principle expressed in the maxim audi alteram
partem, it does not consider that this principle precludes the Court
from taking account of statements made subseiluently to the oral
proceedings, and which merely supplement and reinforce matters
already discussed in the course of the proceedings, statements with
which the Applicant must be familiar. Thus the Applicant, having

commented on the statements of the French authorities, both that
made prior to the oral proceedings and those made subsequently,
could reasoriably expect that the Court would deal with the matter
and come to its own conclusion on the meaning and effect of those
statements. The Court, having taken note of the Applicant's com-
ments and feeling no obligation to consult the Parties on the basis

for its decision, finds that the reopening of theoral proceedings would
serve no useful purpose." (Para. 33.)
It is true that the communiqué of 8 June 1974 which issued from the

Office of the President of France was brought to the Court's attention
by the Applicant in the course of the oral hearing. Indeed, 1should have
thought the Applicant would have been bound to do so. But it seems
to me that it was not introduced in relation to some further question
beyond the two questions mentioned in the Order of 22 June 1973. It is
true that a comment was made on the communiqué by the Applicant's
counsel of which the terms are recited in the Judgment. But in my opinion

it cannot truly be said that the reference to the communication was made
to introduce and argue the questions the Court has decided. Counsel for
the Applicant when making his comment thereon, as appears from the
verbatim record of the proceedings, was reviewing developments inrelation to these proceedings since he last addressed the Court, that is to
say, since he did so in connection with the indication of interim measures.
He referred to the failure of France to observe the Court's indication of
interim measures and to certain further resolutions of the General
Assembly and of UNSCEAR. As indicative of what, from the Applicant's
point of view, wascontinued French obduracy, he referred to the commu-
niqué from the President's Office criticizing its factual inaccuracy and
emphasizing that it did not contain any firm indication that atmospheric
testing was to come to an end. He pointed out that a decision to test
underground did not carry any necessary implication that no further
atmospheric testing would take place. He asserted that the Applicant
had had scientific advice that the possibility of further atmospheric
testing taking place after the commencement of underground tests could
not be excluded. He indicated that the communiquéhad not satisfied the
Applicant to the point that the Applicant desired to discontinue the legal

proceedings. On the contrary, he indicated that the Applicant proposed
to pursue its Application, as in fact it did, continuing the argument on
the two questions mentioned in the Order of 22June 1973. 1might inter-
polate that that argument continued without any intervention by the
Court.

But in my opinion this comment of counsel for the qpplicant was inno
sense a discussion of the question as to whether the claim had become
"without object", either because the dispute as to the legal right had been
settled, orbecause no opportunity remained for making a judicial Order
upon the Application. It was not directed to that question at all. Nor was
it directed to the question whether the communiqué was intended to
undertake an international obligation. In no sense did it constitute in my
opinion a submission with respect to those questions or either of them.
In my opinion it cannot be made the basis for the decision without
hearing the Parties. It cannot provide in my opinion any justification for
the course the Court has taken. In my opinion it cannot justly be said,

as it is said in the Judgment, that the Applicant "could reasonably expect
that the Court would .. .come to its own conclusion" from the document
of 8June 1974(seepara. 33), i.e., as to whether or not the Application had
become "without object". Apart from al1 else, the Applicant was not
to know that the Court would receive the further statements and use
them in its decision.
1have said that in my opinion the question whether the Application
has, by reason of the events occurring since the Application was lodged,
become "without object" is not in any sense embraced by or involved in
the questions mentioned in the Order of 22 June 1973.They related, and
in my opinion related exclusively, to the situation which obtained at the
date of the lodging of the Application. They could not conceivably have
related to facts and events subsequent to 22 June 1973. But, of course,
events which occurred subsequent to the lodging of the Application might
provoke further questions which might require to be dealt with in aproper procedural manner and decided by the Court after hearing the

Parties with respect tothem.
If there is a question at this stage of the proceedings whether the
Application has become "without object", either because the dispute
which is before the Court had been resolved, or because the Court cannot
in the present circumstances, within its judicial function, now make an
Order having effect between the Parties, the Court ought, in my opinion,
first to have decided the questions then before it and to have fixed times
for a further hearing of the case at which the question whether the
Application had become "without object" could be examined in a public
hearing at which the Parties could place before the Court any relevant
evidence which they desired the Court to consider, for it cannot be as-
sumed that the material of which the Court has taken cognizance is
necessarily the whole of the relevant material, and at which counsel could
have been heard.
The decision of the questions ofjurisdiction and of admissibility would
in no wise have compromised the consideration and decision on the ques-
tion which the Court has decided. Indeed, as 1 think, to have decided
what was the nature of the Parties' dispute would have greatly clarified
the question whether an admissible dispute had been resolved. Further
the failure to decide these questions really saves no time or effort. As 1
have mentioned, the Memorial and argument of the Applicant have been
presented and the questions have been discussed by the Court.

It is of course for the Court to resolve al1questions which come before
it: the Court is not bound by the viewsof one of the parties. But is this a
sufficient or any reason for not notifying the parties of an additional
question which the Court proposes to consider and for not affording the
parties an opportunity to put before the Court their views as. to
how the Court should decide the question, whether it be one of fact
or one of law? The Court's procedure is built on the basis that the
parties will be heard in connection with matters that are before it for
decision and that the Court will follow what is commonly called the
"adversary procedure" in its consideration of such matters. See, e.g.,
Articles 42, 43, 46, 48 and 54 of the Statute of the Court. The Rules of
Court passim are redolent of that fact. Whilst it is true that it is for the
Court to determine what the fact is and what the law is, there is to my
mind, to say the least, a degree ofjudicial novelty in the proposition that,
in deciding matters of fact, the Courtcan properly spurn the participation
of the parties. Even as to matters of law, a claim to judicial omniscience
which can derive no assistance from the submissions of learned counsel
would be to my mind an unfamiliar, indeed, a quaint but unconvincing
affectation.
1find nothing in the Judgment of the Court which, in my opinion, can
justify the course the Court has taken. It could not properly be said, in my
opinion, consistently with the observance of the Court's judicial function,that the Court could feel no obligation to hear the Parties' oral sub-
missions or that "the reopening of the oral proceedings would serve no
useful purpose" (see para. 33 of the Judgment).

Elements ofJudgment

The Judgment iscompounded of the following elements: first, an inter-
pretativn of the claim in the Application. It is concluded that the true
nature of the claim before the Court is no more than a claim to bring
about the cessation of the testing of nuclear weapons in the South
Pacific; second, a finding that the Applicant, in pursuit of its goal or
objective to bring about that cessation would have been satisfied to
accept what could have been regarded by it as a firm, explicit and binding
undertaking by France no longer to test nuclear weapons in the atmos-

phere of that area. Such an assurance would have been accepted as ful-
filling that purpose or objective; third, a finding that France by the
communiqué of 8 June 1974,when viewed in the light of the later state-
ments which are quoted in the Judgment intentionally gave an assurance,
internationally binding, and presumably therefore binding France to
Australia, that after the conclusion of the 1974 ser!es of tests France
would not again test nuclear weapons in the atmosphere of the South
Pacific; and lastly, a conclusion that the giving of that assurance, though
not found satisfactory and accepted by Australia, ended the dispute
between Australia and France which had been brought before the Court,
so that the Application lodged on 9 May 1973no longer had any object,
had become "without object".

Each of these elements of the Judgment has difficulties for me. The
Judgment says that the "objective" of the Applicant was to obtain the
termination of the atmospheric tests, "the original andultimate objective
of the Applicant was and has remained to obtain a termination of" the
atmospheric nuclear tests (see paras. 26 and 30 of the Judgment). Para-

graph 31of the Judgment refers to "the object of the Applicant's claim"
as being "to prevent further tests".hus the objective or object is at times
said to be that of the Applicant, at other times it is said to be the ob-
jective of the Application or of thelaim.
The Judgment, in seeking what it describes as the true nature of the
claim submitted by the Applicant, ought to have regarded the Appli-
cation, which by the Rules of Court must statethe subject of the dispute,
as the point of reference for the consideration by the Court of the nature
and extent of the dispute before it (see Art. 35 of the Rules of Court).
The Applicant at no stage departed from the Application and the relief
it claimed.
By the Application the Applicant seeks two elements in the Court's
Judgment, that is to Say,a declaration of the illegality of further tests and
an Order terminating such tests. The Applicant's requests are directed
to the future. But the future to which the Application in seeking a

194declaration relates begins as from 9 May 1973,the date of the lodging of
the Application, and not, as from the date of the Judgment or from some
other time in 1974.The Judgment proceeds as 1 think, in direct contra-
diction of the language of the Application and of its clear intent, to
conclude that the request for a declaration in the Application is no more
than a basis for obtaining an Order having the effect of terminating
atmospheric tests. The Judgment further says that a finding that further
tests would not be consistent with international law would only be a
means to an end and not an end in itself (see para. 30 of the Judgment).

The Judgment overlooks the terms of paragraph 19 of the Application
which is in part in the following terms:
"The Australian Government will seek a declaration that the
holding of further atmospheric tests by the French Government in
the Pacific Ocean is not in accordance with international law and
involves an infringement of the rights of Australia. The Australian
Government will also request that, unless the French Government
should give the Court an undertaking that the French Government
will treat a declaration by the Court in the sense just stated as a

sufficientground for discontinuing further atmospheric testing, the
Court should make an order calling upon the French Republic to
refrain from any further atmospheric tests."

1might interpolate here the observation that it just could not be said,
in my opinion, that a declaration, made now, that the tests carried out in
1973 and 1974 (which as of 9 May 1973, were "future tests") were
unlawful, would do no more than provide a reason for an injunction to

restrain the tests which might be carried out in 1975.In my opinion the
obvious incorrectness of such a statement isillustrative of the fact that the
request in the Application for a declaration was itself a request for sub-
stantive relief. Apart from a claim for compensatory relief in relation to
them-a matter to which 1 later refer-a declaration of unlawfulness is
al1 that could be done as to those tests. Obviously there could be no
order for an injunction.
In concluding that the nature of the Application was no more than
that of a claim for the cessation of the nuclear tests, two related steps are
taken, the validity of neither of which 1am able to accept. First of all, the
purpose with which the litigation was commenced, the goal or objective
sought thereby to be attained, is identified in the Judgment with the na-
ture of the claim made in the Application and the relief sought in the
proceedings. But it seems to me that they are not the same. They are
quite different things. To confuse them must lead to an erroneous con-
clusion as in my opinion has happened.

Undoubtedly, the purpose of the Applicant in commencing the liti-

gation was to prevent further atomic detonations in the course of testing
nuclear weapons in the atmosphere of the South Pacific as from the dateof the lodgment of its Application. Apparently it desired to do so for two
avowed reasons, first to prevent harmful fall-out entering the Australian
environment and, secondly, to prevent the proliferation of nuclear
armament. 1 have already called attention to the different bases of the
Applicant's claim which reflect those different reasons. Diplomatic
approaches having failed, the means of achieving that purpose was the
creation of a dispute as to the legal rights of the Parties and the commen-
cement of a suit in this Court founded on that dispute in which relief of
two specific kinds was claimed, the principal of which in reality, in my

opinion, is the declaration as to the matter of right. The injunctive relief
was in truth consequential. The attitude of the Applicant expressed in
paragraph 19 of its Application is consistent with the practice of inter-
national tribunals which deal with States and of municipal tribunals when
dealing with governments. It is generally considered sufficient to declare
the law expecting that States and governments will respect the Court's
declaration and act accordingly. That 1understand has been the practice
of this Court and of its predecessor.Thus the request for a declaration of
unlawfulness in international law is, in my opinion, not merely the pri-
mary but the principal claim of the Application. It is appropriate to the
resolution of a dispute as to legal rights.

The second step taken by the Judgment not unrelated to the first is to
identify the word "object" or "objective" in the sense of a goal to be
attained or a purpose to be pursued, with the word "object" in the ex-
pression of art "without object" as used in the jurisprudence of this

Court. This in my opinion is to confuse two quite disparate concepts.
The one relates to motivation and the other to the substantive legal
content of an Application. Motivation, unless the claim or dispute in-
volved some matter of good faith, would in my opinion be of no concern
to the Court when resolving a dispute as to legal right.

It is implicit in the Judgment, in my opinion, that the Parties at the
date of the lodgment of the Application were in dispute and presumably
in dispute as to their legal rights. But the Judgment does not condescend
to an express examination of the nature of the dispute between the Parties
which it decides has been resolved and has ceased to exist. 1 have ex-
pressed my views of that dispute in an earlier part of this opinion. If the
Court had corne to the same conclusion as 1have, it would in my opinion
have been immediately apparent that the goal or objective of the Appli-
cant in commencing the litigation could not be identified with its claim
to the resolution of the dispute as to the respective legal rights of the
Parties. It would further have been apparent, in my opinion, that for a

court called upon to decide whether such a dispute persisted, the motives,
purposes or objective of the Applicant in launching the litigation were
irrelevant. It would also have been seen that a voluntary promise given
196without admission and whilst maintaining the right todo so, not to test
atmospherically in the future could not resolve a dispute as to whether it
had been or would be unlawful to do so. 1add "had been" because of the
1973 series of tests which had taken place before the issue of the commu-
niquéof 8 June 1974.
If, on the other hand, the Court on such an examination of the nature

of the dispute, had decided that the dispute between the Parties was not a
dispute as to their respective legal rights, the Court would have decided
either that it had no jurisdiction to hear and determine the Application
or that the Application was inadmissible. In that event no question of the
dispute having been resolved would have emerged.
Although the matter receives no express discussion, and although I
think it is implicit in the Judgment that the Parties were relevantly in

dispute when the Application was lodged, the Judgment, it seems to me,
treats the Parties as having then been in dispute as to whether or not
France should cease tests in the Pacific. But if the Parties had only been in
dispute as to whether or not France should do so or should give an
assurance that it would do so, the dispute would not have beenjusticiable;
in which case, no question as to the Application having become without

object would arise. Whether the Application when lodged was or was not
justiciable was in iny opinion part of the questions to which the Order of
22 June 1973was directed and 1have so treated the matter in what 1have
so far written. It seems to me that in that connection some have thought
that the dispute between France and Australia was no more than a dis-
pute as to whether France ought or ought not in comity to cease to test in

theatmosphere ofthe South Pacific. If that were thedisputethe Court could
have had no function in its resolution: it could properly have been regarded
as an exclusively political dispute. The Application could properly have
been said to be "without object" when lodged. Ihave found myself and 1
find myself still unable to accept that view. The dispute which is brought
before the Court by the Application is claimed to be, and as 1have said
in my opinion it is, a dispute as to the legal rights of the Parties. The

question between them which the Application brings for resolution by
the Court in my opinion is not whether France of its own volition willnot,
but whether lawfully it cannot, continue to do as it has done theretofore
at Mururoa with the stated consequences for Australia. The importance
of the Court first deciding whether or not the dispute between the Parties
wasa disputeasto their respective rights is thus quite apparent. But inany

case it seems to me that the Applicant's purpose in commencing the
litigation is irrelevant to the question whether the claim which is made is
one the Court can entertain and decide according to legal norms, and the
relief which is sought is relief which the Court judicially can grant.

The confusion of motivation with the substance of the Application
permeates the Judgment in the discussion of the nature of the claim the Application makes. The Judgment refers to statements of counsel in the
course of the oral hearing and proceeds in paragraph 27:
"It isclear from thesestatements that if the French Government had

given what could have been construed by Australia as 'a firm,
explicit and binding undertaking to refrain from further atmospheric
tests', the applicant Government would have regarded its objective
as having been achieved."
In this passage there is again implicit an identification of the Applicant's
ultimate purpose in bringing the proceedings with the claim which it
makes in the Application before the Court. If it were to be assumed that
the Applicant would in fact have treated such an undertaking as the

Court describes as sufficient for itspurposes in commencing the litiga-
tion, the Applicant, in my opinion, could not have regarded that under-
taking as having resolved the matter of right which in my opinion was the
basis of its claim in the Application before the Court. It could not have
regarded its dispute as to legal rights as having been resolved. The assur-
ance which the Court finds to have been given was in no sense an ad-
mission of illegality of the French testing and of its consequences. France
throughout continued to maintain that its nuclear tests "do not contra-
vene any subsisting provision of international law" (French White Book).
Al1the Applicant could have done would have been to accept the assur-
ance as in the nature of a settlement of the litigation and thereupon to
have withdrawn the Application in accordance with the Rules of Court.
It would not do so in my opinion, because the dispute asto the respective
rights of the Parties had been resolved, nor because its claim in the
Application "had been met", but because as a compromise the Applicant
had been prepared to accept the assurance as sufficientfor its purposes.

The question whether a litigant will accept less than that which it has

claimed in the Court as a satisfaction of itspurpose in commencing a liti-
gation is essentially a matter for the litigant. It is not a matter, in my
opinion, which can be controlled by the Court directly or indirectly.
Indeed, it is not a matter into which the Court, if it confines itself to its
judicial function, ought to enter at all. Even if it be right that the Appli-
cant would have accepted what the Applicant regarded as a firm, explicit
and binding undertaking to refrain from further atmospheric tests, the
Court is not warranted in deciding what the Applicant ought to accept
in lieu of its claim to the Court's Judgment. So to do is in effect to com-
promise the claim, not to resolve the dispute as to a matter of right.
There is in any case, to my mind, obvious incongruity in regarding a
voluntary assurance of future conduct which makes no admission of any
legal right as the resolution of a dispute asto the existence of the legal
right which, if upheld, would preclude that conduct.

The departure from the language of the Application and the identifi-
cation of the claim which it makes with the object, objective or goal of theApplicant in making the Application thus provided, in my opinion, an
erroneous base upon which to build the Judgment.
Further, the Judgment, it seems to me, overlooks the fact that in al1

the references to assurances in thecorrespondence and in theoral hearings
the Applicant referred to an assurance with the nature and terms of which
it was satisfied. These references cannot be read in my opinion as indi-
cating such an assurance as might be regarded as sufficient for Australia's
purposes by any other judgment than its own.
The Judgment proceeds to hold that France by the communiqué of

8 June 1974,as confirmed by the subsequent Presidential and Ministerial
statements to the press, did give to the international community and thus
to Australia an undertaking, binding internationally, not on any occasion
subsequent to the conclusion of the 1974 series of tests to test nuclear
weapons in the atmosphere of the South Pacific.

My first observation is that this is a conclusion of fact. It is not in my
opinion a conclusion of law. The inferences to be drawn from the issuing
and the terms of the communiqué of 8 June 1974 are, in my opinion,
inferences of fact, including the critical fact of the intention of France in
the matter. So also, in my opinion, is the meaning to be given to the
various statements which are set out in the Judgment. A decision as to
those inferences and those meanings is not in my opinion an exercise in

legal interpretation; it is an exercise in fact-finding.

But whether the conclusion be one of fact or one of law, my comments
as to the judicial impropriety of deciding the matter without notice to the
Parties of the questions to be considered, and without affording them an
opportunity to make their submissions, are equally applicable.

This is a very important conclusion purporting to impose on France
an internationally binding obligation of a far-reaching kind. Nothing is
found as to the duration of the obligation although nothing said in the
Judgment would suggest that it is of a temporary nature. Thereare appa-
rently no qualifications of it related to changes in circumstances or to the
varying needs of French security. Apparently it is restricted to the South

Pacific area, a limitation implied from the fact that the source of the
obligation is the communiqué of 8 June 1974issued in the context of the
imminence of the 1974series of tests.

The purpose and intention of issuing the communiqué and subse-
quently making the various statements is to my mind far from clear. The
Judgment finds an intention to enter into a binding legal obligation after

giving the warning that statements limiting a State's freedom of action
should receive a restrictive interpretation. The Judgment apparently
finds the clear intention in the language used. 1regret to say that 1am
unable to do so. There seems to be nothing, either in the language used
or in the circumstances of its employment, which in my opinion would
warrant, and certainly nothing to compel, the conclusion that those

199making the statements were intending to enter into a solemn and far-
reaching international obligation rather than to announce the current
intention of the French Government. 1 would have thought myself that
the more natural conclusion to draw from the various statements was
that they were statements of policy and not intended as undertaking to
the international community such a far-reaching obligation. The Judg-
ment does not seem to my mind to offer any reason why these statements
should be regarded as expressing an intention to accept an internationally
binding undertaking rather than an intention to make statements of
current government policy and intention.

Further,it seemsto me strange to Saythe least that the French Govern-
ment at a time when it had not completed its 1974series of tests and did
not know that the weather conditions of the winter in the southern
hemisphere would permit them to be carried out, should pre-empt itself
from testing again in the atmosphere, even if the 1974 series should,
apart from the effects of weather, prove inadequate for the purposes
which prompted France to undertake them. A conclusion that France
has made such an undertaking without any reservation of any kind, such,
for example, as is found in the Moscow Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon
Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, to which
France is not aParty, is quite remarkable and difficult to accept.

It is noticeable that the communiqué itself as sent to Australia makes
no express reference to atmospheric testing. The message sent by the
French Embassy in Wellington to the Government of New Zealand with
respect to the communiqué, drew a conclusion not expressed in the

communiqué itself. Somewhat guardedly the Embassy added the words
"in the normal course of events" which tended to weaken the inference
which apparently the Embassy had drawn from the terrns of the commu-
niqué.
In this connection it may be observed that both the Government of
Australia and the Government of New Zealand in responding to the
communiquéof 8 June 1974,virtually challenged France to give to them
an express undertaking that no further tests would be carried out in the
South Pacific. There has been ample opportunity for France to have
unequivocally made such a statement: but no such express statement has
been communicated to either Applicant. Without entering further into
detailed criticism of the finding of fact of which personally 1 am not
convinced, it is enough to Saythat there is, in my opinion, much room for
grave doubt as to the correctness of the conclusion which the Court has
drawn. That circumstance underlines the essential need to have heard
argument before decision.
There is a further substantialmatter to be mentioned in this connec-
tion. The Court has purported to decide that France has assumed an
international obligation of which Australia has the benefit. It is this450 NUCLEAR TESTS(DISS. OP. BARWICK)

circumstance which the Judgment holds has resolved the dispute between
France and Australia and caused it to cease to exist. But the Court has
not decided its jurisdiction as between these Parties. France has stead-
fastly maintained that the Court has no jurisdiction. The Court's finding
that France has entered into an international obligation is intended to be

a finding binding both Parties to the litigation, France as well as Australia.
But 1am at a loss to understand how France can be bound by the finding
if the Court has not declared itsjurisdiction in the matter.
The Judgment seems to cal1in aid what it calls an inherent jurisdiction
to provide for the orderly settlement of al1 matters in dispute, to ensure
the observance of the inherent limitations on the exercise of the judicial

functionbf the Courtand to maintain itsjudicial character. 1do not wish
to enter into a discussion of this very broadly stated and, as 1think, far-
reaching claim to jurisdiction. Let it be supposed that the so-called
inherent or incidentaljurisdiction as some writers cal1it would enable the
Court to decide that it had no jurisdiction or that an application was not
admissible where this could be done without deciding matters of fact;

where the matter could be decided upon the face of an admitted or un-
contested document. In such a case the Court may be able to find a lack of
jurisdiction or of admissibility. But that is not the position here. The
Judgment does not merely deny the Applicant a hearing of the Appli-
cation because of the disappearance of the Applicant's case. The Court

purports to decide a matter of fact whereby to bind France to an inter-
national obligation. Assuming without deciding that the claim to juris-
diction made in paragraph 23 of the Judgment is properly made, that
jurisdiction could not extend in my opinion to give the Court authority to
bind France, which has stoutly and consistently denied that it has con-
sented to the jurisdiction.

It may well be that even if the Court decided that it has jurisdiction
under Article 36 (1) and the General Act to settle a dispute between
Australia and France as to their respective rights in relation to nuclear
testing, the consent of France given through Article 17 may not extend
to include or involve a consent by France to the determination by the

Court that France had accepted a binding obligation to the international
community not to test in the atmosphere again, a fact not involved in
settling the dispute as to their respective rights. But 1 have no need to
examine that question forthe Court has not even decided that it has juris-
diction to settle the dispute between the Parties. 1 am unable to accept
that France is bound by the Court's finding of fact that it has accepted

an internationally binding obligation not again to test in the atmosphere
of the South Pacific. This is an additional reason why the dispute between
Australia and France should not be regarded as resolved.

For al1 these reasons, 1 am unable to accept the conclusion that, byreason of the communiqué of 8 June 1974and the statements recited in
the Judgment, the dispute between Australia and France has been re-
solved and has ceased to exist.

CouldtheCourtProperly MakeanOrder?

1 would now consider the other reason for which a case may become
"without object", namely that in the existing circumstances no judicial
Order capable of effect between the Parties could be made.

Since the Application was lodged, France has conducted two series of
atmospheric nuclear tests in the South Pacific Ocean, one in 1973 and
another in 1974.It has done so in direct breach of this Court's indication
of interim measures. It would seem to be incontestable that as a result

thereof radio-active matter, "fall-out", has entered the Australian terri-
tory and environment. From the information conveyed by the Applicant
to the Court during the hearings, it seems that the Applicant has moni-
tored its land and atmosphere following upon such nuclear tests in order
to determine whether they were followed by fall-out and in order to
determine the precise extent of such fall-out. 1 have already indicated
that these were future tests within the meaning of the Application.

Australia has not yet been required to make its final submissions in
this case. These two seriesof tests and their consequences wereclearly not
events for which the Applicant had to make provision in its Application.
It seems to me, therefore, that in the situation that now obtains nothing
said in or omitted from the Application or in itspresentation to the Court
could preclude the Applicant from asking in its final submissions for
some relief appropriate to the fact that these nuclear tests, carried out in
breach of the Court's indication of interim measures, caused harm to

Australia and its population and indeed involved the expenditure of
money; for though perhaps a minor matter, it can scarcely be doubted
that the monitoring to determine fall-out, if any, and its extent has in-
volved considerable expenditure, expenditure that would appear to me to
be causally related to the explosions carried out by France during the
1973and 1974series of tests.

It is observable that the request in the Application is not for a decla-
ration that tests which have already been carried out prior to 9 May 1973
were unlawful, though of course in the nature of things a declaration
that further tests after 9 May 1973would be unlawful would carry in this
case the conclusion that those which had already taken place were also
unlawful. In the presentation of its case the Applicant said that "at the
present time" it did not seek any compensatory Order in the nature of
damages. In truth such a claim for damages made in the Applicationwould not easily have been seen to be consistent with the nature of the

claims actually made in the Application. They, as 1 have pointed out,
are for a declaration of right and an Order to prevent any tests occurring
after 9 May 1973; hence the request for the indication of interim measures
made immediately upon the lodging of the Application. Any claim to be
paid damages if made in the Application itself would in the circumstances
necessarily have been a claim in respect of past tests carried out by France,

which were not directly embraced in the claim made in the Application.
Further, a claim for damages could scarcely relate to tests which might
yet, as of 9 May 1973, be carried out by France. If the Applicant were to
succeed there would be none, for the Applicant seeks to restrain them as
from the date of the lodgment of the Application. Further, the case was
not one in which the Applicant could ask for conipensation asa substitute
for an injunction, that is to Say on the assumption that the Applicant

succeeded in obtaining a declaration and failed to get an Order for in-
junction.

A claim, therefore, by the Applicant in its final submissions for relief
appropriate to the events of 1973 and 1974 would not be inconsistent
with what has been said so far. Indeed, such a claim would be related to

the dispute on which the Application was founded. Assuming the Appli-
cant to be right in its contentions, the tests of 1973 and 1974 and their
consequences in Australia constitute a breach of Australia's rights. Thus,
as 1 said earlier, it could not properly be said that a declaration made
now in conformity with the Application, would be doing no more than
affording a reason for an Order of injunction. A claim for relief related

to what has occurred since the Application was lodged and to the conse-
quences of the tests of 1973 and 1974 would not transform the dispute
which existed at the date of the lodgment of the Application into another
dispute different in character:nor would it be a profound transformation
of the character of the case by amendment, to use the expression of the
Court in the SociétéCommerciale de Belgique case (P.C.I.J., Series AIB,
No. 78, at p. 173). Rather it would attract the observations of the Court

in that case to the effect that the liberty accorded to the parties to amend
their submissions upto the end of the oral proceedings must be construed
reasonably but without infringing the terms of the Statute or the Rules of
Court (op. cit.).

This ability of the Applicant to include in its final submissions to the
Court a claim for relief of the kind 1 have suggested indicates that a
declaration by the Court in terms of the Application, but made more
specific by a reference to those nuclear tests which took place in 1973and
1974 and their consequences, is capable of affecting the legal interests or
relationship of the Parties. It could not properly, in my opinion, be said
that to make such a declaration would be an exercise outside the judicial

function or that it would be purposeless. It would be dealing with a matterof substance. The Court, in my opinion, could also make an Order for
some form of compensatory relief if such an Order were sought. Indeed,
if the Applicant succeeded on the merits of its claim, some Order with

respect to the conduct and consequences of the tests of 1973 and 1974
might well be expected.
In any case, and quite apart from any question of any additional claim
for relief contained in the Applicant's final submission, should the Appli-
cant succeed on the merits of its Application in respect of any of the first
three bases of its claim, a declaration by the Court in relation to that basis

or those bases of claim, with possibly a specific reference to the results in
Australia of the carrying out by France of the 1973 and 1974 series of
tests, would, in my opinion, be properly made within the scope of the
Court's judicial function. Quite apart from any damage caused by the
1973-1974 series of tests, such a declaration could found subsequent
claims by Australia upon France in respect of past testing by France of

nuclear weapons in the South Pacific.

It was said by the Court in the case of thNorthernCameroons(supra) :

"The function of the Court is to state the law, but it may pro-
nounce judgment only in connection with concrete cases where
there exists at the time of the adjudication an actual controversy
involving a conflict of legal interests between the parties. The Court's
judgment must have some practical consequence in the sense that it
can affect existing legal rights or obligations of the parties, thus
removing uncertainty from their legal relations." (I.C.J. Reports

1963, pp. 33-34.)
The Court also said :

"Moreover the Court observes that if in a declaratory judgment it
extounds a rule of customary law or interprets a treaty which
remains in force, itsjudgment has a continuing applicability."

Success of the Applicant in respect of one or more of the first three

bases of its claim would establish that it had been in dispute with France
as to their respective legal rights, that its claims of right to which the
Court's declaration related was or were valid, and that France had been
in breach of that right or those rights. To declare this situation, the
Judgment, in my opinion, would satisfy what the Court said in the quo-
tations 1have made. The judgment would be statingthe law in connection
with a concrete case, where the Parties remained in dispute as to their

respective legal rights. The Court's declaration would affect their existing
legal rights and obligations. In addition, the Court would be expounding
a rule of customary law in relation to the territorial sovereignty of the
Applicant as a State in the international cornmunity.

A judgment affirming the Court's jurisdiction would involve a decisionthat the General Act remained in force and a decision that the Parties
were in dispute as to their respective rights within the meaning of Article
17of the General Act. Thus an interpretation would be placed on Article
17.Therefore a declaration could properly be made and would have legal
effect.

If the Applicant were also to succeed upon the fourth basis of its claim,
again the Court would be stating the law in a concrete case where the
Parties remained in dispute, and it would be expounding a rule of cus-
tomary law, and the other comments 1have made would be applicable.

These results would follow, in my opinion, even if the Court, in its

discretion, refrained from making any immediate Order of injunction.
It might do so because it was satisfied that France would not again
explode nuclear devices or test weapons in the atmosphere of the South
Pacific, either because the Court was satisfied that France had already
resolved not to do so, or because the Court was satisfied that France
would respect the declaration of right which the Court had made in the

matter. But the Court, if it saw fit, could in my opinion, with legal
propriety, make an Order for injunction nonetheless. It is a matter of
discretion for a court whether or not to make an order of injunction
where it is satisfied that without the making of the order the conduct
sought to be restrained will not occur.
Lastly, for the course the Judgment takes there is no precedent. The

case of the Nortllern Cameroons (supra), in my opinion, cannot be called
in aid to justify the Judgment. In that case, what the Applicant claimed
in its Application, the Court at the time of giving Judgment held that it
could not do. The Court was asked to declare the breach of a trusteeship
agreement which had ceased to be operative within a day or so of the
lodging of the Application. The Court held that a declaration of its breach

during the period of its operation could have no effect whatever between
the Parties, there being no claim for compensation for the breach.

Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, in his separate opinion, expressed the
view that from the outset of the case there was no justiciable dispute.
Sir Gerald held that from the terms of the Application it was clear that

the Court was not able to make an Order in the case affecting the legal
relations of the Parties; therefore, in conformity with the definition he
adopted in the case, there was no relevant dispute. He expressed himself
at page 111 of his opinion (I.C.J.Reports 1963) in terms which 1 have
already quoted.
The contrast between the situation of the present case and that of the

case of the Norfhern Carneroons is apparent. Even for those who accept
the validity of the Court's decision in the case of thNorfhern Cameroons,
that case affords, in my opinion, no support for the present Judgment.

In my opinion, there is no discretion in this Court to refuse to decide a
dispute submitted to it which it has jurisdiction to decide. Article 38 ofits Statute seerns to lay upon this Court a duty to decide. The case of
NorthernCameroonsat best covers a very narrow fieldin which no Order

at al1can properly be made by the Court.
Of course, if the dispute upon which it is sought to found jurisdiction
has been resolved, no Order settling it can be made. Thus, the Judgment
in this case can only be justified if the dispute between the Parties asto
their legal rights has been resolved and ceased to exist.

However, for al1the reasons 1 have expressed, 1 can find no ground
upon which it can properly be held that the dispute between the Parties
as to their respective rights has been resolved orlias ceased to exist, or
that the Court could not, in the circumstances of the case, properly make
ajudicial Order having effectbetween the Parties. The Application, in my
opinion, has not become "without object".

(Signed) G. E. BARWICK.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SIR GARFIELD BARWICK

The Court, by its Order of 22 June 1973, separated two questions, that
of itsjurisdiction to hear and determine the Application, and that of the
admissibility of the Application from al1 other questions in the case. It
directed that "the written proceedings shall first be addressed" to those
questions. These were therefore the only questions to which the Parties

were to direct their attention. Each question related to the situation which
obtained at the date the Application was lodged with the Court, namely
9 May 1973.The Applicant in obedience to the Court's Order has confined
its Memorial and its oral argument to those questions. Neither Memorial
nor argument has been directed to any other question.
Having read the Memorial and heard that argument, the Court has

discussed those questions but, whilst the Parties await the Court's
decision upon them, the Court of its own motion and without any notice
to the Parties has decided the question whether the Application has
ceased to have any object by reason of events which have occurred since
the Application was lodged. It has taken cognizance of information as

to events said to have occurred since the close of the oral proceedings
and has treated it as evidence in the proceedings. It has not informed the
Parties of the material which it has thus introduced into evidence. By the
use of it the Court has drawn a conclusion of fact. It has also placed a
particular interpretation upon the Application. 'CIponthis conclusion
of fact and this interpretation of the Application the Court has decided

the question whether the Application has ceased to have any object. That
question, in my opinion, is not embraced within either of the two ques-
tions on which argument has been heard. It is a separate,a different and
a new question. Thus the Parties have had no opportunity of placing before
the Court their submissions as to the proper conclusion to be drawn from
events which have supervened on the lodging of the Application or upon

the proper interpretation of the Application itself in so far as each related
to the question the Court has decided or as to the propriety of deciding
that question in the sense in which the Court has decided it or at al1 at
this stage of the proceedings: for it may have been argued that that
question if it arose was not of an exclusively preliminary character in the
circumstances of this case. The conclusion of fact and the interpretation

of the Application are clearly matters about which opinions differ.
Further, the reasoning of the Judgment involves important considerations
of international law. Therefore, there was ample room for argument and
for the assistance of counsel. In any case the Applicant must have been
entitled to make submissions as to al1the matters involved in the decision
of the Court. OPINION DISSIDENTE DE SIR GARFIELD BARWICK

[Traduction]
Par son ordonnaince du 22 juin 1973, la Cour a séparé deux questions,
celle de sa compétence pour connaître de la requêteet celle de la recevabi-

lite de cette dernière, de toutes les autres qui se posent en I'espèce.Elle a
décidéque ((les piécesécrites [porteraient] d'abord ))sur ces questions.
Elles seules devaient donc retenir l'attention des Parties. Chacune d'elles
devait être appréciéepar rapport à la situation qui existait à la date où la
requête a étéprésentée à la Cour, c'est-à-dire le 9 mai 1973. Se confor-
mant à l'ordonnance de la Cour, le demandeur a consacré son mémoire

et ses plaidoiries exclusivement à ces questions. Ni le mémoire ni les
plaidoiries n'ont traité d'autre chose.
Ayant lu le ménioire et entendu ces plaidoiries, la Cour a examiné
lesdites questions rnais, alors que les Parties attendent une décision à
leur sujet, la Cour, de sa propre initiative et sans en informer les Parties, a
statué que la requ&te était devenue sans objet en raison d'événements

postérieurs au dépôtde la requête.Elle a pris en considération des indica-
tions relatives à des faits qui se seraient produits depuis la clôture de la
procédure orale et elle les a traitées comme des élémentsde preuve en
l'espèce, et celasans en aviser les Parties. Elle a tiré deces indications une
conclusion de fait. Elle a aussi donné de la requêteune interprétation

particulière. C'est en partant de cette conclusion et de cette interprétation
que la Cour a appréciési la requêteétait devenue sans objet, point qui,
à mon avis, ne se rattache à aucune des deux questions sur lesquelles les
plaidoiries ont portk.Ils'agit d'un problème tout àfait différentet nouveau.
Les Parties n'ont donc pas eu la possibilitéde développer devant la Cour
leurs argumentssur les conclusions àtirer des événementssurvenusdepuis

le dépôtde la requêteou sur la bonne interprétation de la requêteelle-
même, soitpour traiter la question que la Cour a tranchée soit pour se
demander s'il convenait de la trancher comme la Cour l'a fait ou de la
trancher à ce stade de l'instance: on aurait pu en effet soutenir que cette
question, si elle se posait, n'avait pas un caractère exclusivement préli-

minaire dans les cir~ronstancesde I'espèce.La conclusion de fait et I'inter-
prétation de la requête peuventde toute évidenceprêterà discussion. De
plus, les motifs de l'arrêt fontintervenir d'importantes considérations de
droit international. IIaurait donc été hautement indiquéd'entendre les
arguments des conseils et d'obtenir leur assistance. De toute manière le
demandeur aurait dû pouvoir s'exprimer sur toutes les questions que

soulevait la décision de la Cour. However, without notifying the Parties of what it was considering
and without hearing them, the Court, by a Judgment by which it decides
to proceed no furtherin the case, avoids deciding eitherofthe two matters
which it directed to be, and which have been argued.
This, in my opinion, is an unjustifiable course, uncharacteristic of a
court ofjustice. It is a procedure which in my opinion is unjust, failing to
fulfil an essential obligation of the Court's judicial process. As a judge1
can have no part in it, and for that reason, if for no other, I could not
join in the Judgment of the Court. However 1am also unable to join in
that Judgment because 1do not accept its reasoning or that the material
on which the Court has acted warrants the Court's conclusion. With

regret therefore 1 dissent from the Judgment.

It may be thought quite reasonable that if France is willing to give to
Australia such an unqualified and binding promise as Australia finds
satisfactory for its protectionnever again to test nuclear weapons in the
atmosphere of the South Pacific,this case should be compromised and the
Application withdrawn. But that is a matter entirely for the sovereign
States. It is not amatter for this Court. The Rules of Court provide the
means whereby the proceedings can be discontinued at the will of the
Parties (see Arts. 73 and 74 of the Rules of Court). It is no part of the
Court's function to place any pressure on a State to compromise its
claim or itself to effect a com~romise.
It may be that a layman, with no loyalty to the law might quite reason-
ably think that a political decision by France no longer to exercise what it
claims to be itsright of testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, when
formally publicized, might be treated as the end of the matter between
Australia and France. But this is a court of justice, with a loyalty to the
lawand itsadministration. It is unable to take the layman's viewand must

confine itself to legal principles and to their application.

The Court has decided that the Application has become "without
object'' and that therefore the Court is not called upon to give a decision
upon it. The term "without object" in this universe of discourse when
applied to an application or claim, so far as relevant to the circumstances
of this case, 1 understand to imply that no dispute exists between the
Parties which is capable of resolution by the Court by the application
of legal norms available to the Court or that the relief which is sought
is incapable of being granted by the Court or that in the circumstances
which obtain or would obtain at the time the Court iscalled upon to grant
the relief claimed, noorder productive of effectupon the Parties or their
rights could properly be made by the Court in exercising its judicial
function.
To apply the expression "has become without object" to the present
circumstances, means in my opinion, that this Judgment can only be valid
if the dispute between France and Australia as to their respective rights
has been resolved; has ceased to exist or if the Court, in the circumstances Au lieu de cela, sans informer les Parties de l'objet de son examen et
sans les entendre, I,aCour, par un arrêt dans lequel elle décide de ne pas

poursuivre l'affaire, évitede statuer sur les deux questions dont elle était
saisie et qui avaient étédébattues.
Cette manière d'agir est à mon sens injustifiable et contraire à ce qu'on
peut attendre d'un tribunal. La procédure suivie est selon moi injuste
parce qu'elle ne respecte pas une obligation essentielle qui s'impose à la

Cour dans son activitéjuridictionnelle. En tant que juge, je ne saurais la
cautionner et, pour cette raison déjà,je ne puis m'associer à l'arrêtde la
Cour. II m'est en outre impossible d'y souscrire parce que je ne puis en
accepter les motifs et parce qu'à mon avis les élémentssur lesquels repose
la décision nejustilïent pas la conclusion à laquelle la Cour a abouti. Je
regrette donc de devoir exprimer mon dissentiment.

Il paraît parfaitement raisonnable de penser que, si la France était
disposéeà s'engager à l'égardde l'Australie par la promesse sans réserve
de ne plus effectuer d'essais nucléaires atmosphériques dans le Pacifique
Sud et si l'Australie s'estimait de ce fait suffisamment protégée,il serait
opportun d'arriver à un compromis et de retirer la requête.Mais c'est là
une décision qui ne relève que des Etats souverains. Elle n'est pas du

ressort de la Cour. Le Règlement de la Cour fournit les moyens de mettre
fin à l'instance si le:;parties en décidentainsi (voir art. 73 et 7411n'entre
pas dans les attributions de la Cour de forcer un Etat à accepter un
compromis ni d'imposer elle-mêmeun compromis.
Il se peut qu'un profane, qui n'est pas tenu par le droit, soit raisonna-

blement fondé à estimer qu'une décision politique prise par la France,
de ne plus exercer ce qu'elle prétend être sondroit d'effectuer des essais
nucléairesdans I'atinosphère, puisse être considérée lorsqu'elle est rendue
publique comme mettant fin au litige entre l'Australie et la France. Mais
la Cour est un organe judiciaire chargé de dire le droit et de l'administrer.
Elle ne saurait adopter le point de vue du non-initié et doit s'en tenir aux

principesjuridiques et à leur application.
La Cour a décidkque la requêteétait devenue ((sans objet ))et qu'elle
n'appelait en conséquence aucune décision de sa part. Dans le domaine
qui nous intéresse ilesmots ((sans objet n,appliqués à une requêteou à
une demande, impliquent à mon sens, dans les circonstances de l'espèce,

soit qu'il n'existeentre les Patries aucun différendsusceptibled'êtrerésolu
par la Cour en application des normes juridiques auxquelles elle peut
faire appel, soit que la Cour ne puisse accorder la satisfaction demandée,
soit que, dans les conditions qui existent ou qui existeraient au moment
où la Cour est appr:léeà accorder cette satisfaction, la Cour, dans I'exer-
cice de sa fonction judiciaire, ne puisse rendre une décision produisant

effet pour les Parties ou pour leurs droits.

Employer l'expression (test devenue sans objet » dans les circonstances
actuelles revient à dire selon moi que l'arrêtne peut se justifier que si le
différendentre la F:ranceet l'Australie au sujet de leurs droits réciproques
a été résolua , cesséd'exister, ou si la Cour, dans les circonstances de

143now prevailing, cannot with propriety, within its judicial function, make
any declaration or Order having effect between the Parties.
It should be observed that 1have described the dispute between France

and Australia as a dispute as to their respective rights. 1shall at a later
stage express my reasons for my opinion that that is the nature of their
dispute. But it is proper to point out immediately that if the Parties were
not in dispute as to their respective rights the Application would have
been "without object" when lodged, and no question of its having no
longer any object could arise. On the other hand if the Parties were in

dispute as to their respective rights, it is that dispute which is relevant in
any consideration of the question whether or not the Application no
longer has any object.
Of course, if the Court lacked jurisdiction or if the Application as
lodged was inadmissible because the Parties were never in dispute as to
their legal rights, the Court would be not required to go any further in the

matter. But the Court has not expressed itself on those matters. The
Judgment is not founded either on a lack of jurisdiction or on the inad-
missibility of the Application when lodged, though it seems to concede
inferentially that the Application was admissible when lodged.

Inorder to make my view in this matter as clear as 1am able, it will be
necessary for me in the first place to discuss the only two questions on

which the Court has heard argument. Thereafter 1 shall express my
reasons for dissenting from the Court's Judgment (see p. 439 of this
opinion). 1shall first state my conclusions and later develop my reasons
for them.
In my opinion, the Court has jurisdiction to hear a dispute between
France and Australia as to their respective rights by virtue of Articles 36

(1) and 37 of the Statute of the Court and Article 17 of the General Act
of Geneva of 26 September 1928. Further, 1 am of opinion that at the
date the Application was lodged with the Court, France and Australia
were, and in my opinion still are, in dispute as to their respective rights in
relation to the consequences in the Australian territory and environment
of the explosion by France in the South Pacific of nuclear devices.

Further, they were, and still are, in difference as to the lawfulness or
unlawfulness according to customary international law of the testing of
nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. Subject to the determination of the
question whether the Applicant has a legal interest to maintain its
Application in respect of this difference, 1am of opinion that the Parties
were, at the date of the Application, and still are, in dispute as to their

respective rights in respect of the testing of nuclear weapons in the
atmos~here.
If it be a separate question in this case,Iam of opinion that the claim
of the Applicant is admissible in respect of al1the bases upon which it is
made, with the exception of the basis relating to the unlawfulness of the
testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. 1am of opinion that thel'espèce,n'est pas à même,dans l'exercicede safonction judiciaire, de faire
une déclaration ou cieprononcer une injonction ayant effetentre lesParties.
On notera que j',ai dit du différend qui oppose la France à l'Australie
que c'était undifférendportant sur leurs droits réciproques. J'expliquerai
par la suite les raisons pour lesquelles j'estime que telle est la nature de
leur différend. Mais il convient de faire observer dès maintenant que si le

différendopposant les Parties ne portait pas sur leurs droits réciproques,
la requêteaurait été((sans objet 1)au moment de son dépôt et que la
question de savoir si elle edésormüis sans objet n'aurait pas pu se poser.
En revanche s'il existait entre les Parties un différend portant sur leurs
droits réciproques, c'est par rapport à ce différendqu'il faut déterminer si
la requête estdésormais sans objet.

Il va de soi que, :sila Cour n'étaitpas compétente ou si la requêteétait
irrecevable parce qu'il n'y a jamaiseu entre les Parties de différend au
sujet de leurs droits juridiquement protégés, la Cour ne devrait pas
poursuivre l'instance. Mais la Cour ne s'est pas prononcée sur ces ques-
tions. L'arrêtn'est fondé ni sur un défaut de juridiction ni sur l'irrece-
vabilitéde la requêteà la date à laquelle elle a étéprésentée,encore qu'il

semble en résulter implicitement que la requêteétait recevable à la date
de son dépôt.
Pour m'expliquer aussi clairement que possible à ce sujet, il me faudra
tout d'abord examiner les deux seules questions au sujet desquelles des
arguments ont été présentés à la Cour. J'indiquerai ensuite les raisons
pour lesquelles je ne puis souscrire à l'arrêt (voir p. 439 ci-après). Je

présenterai d'abord mes conclusions et je développerai ensuite les motifs
sur lesquels elles reposent.
A mon avis, la Cour est compétente pour connaître d'un différendau
sujet duquel la France et l'Australie se contestent réciproquement un
droit en vertu de l'article6, paragraphe 1,et de l'article 37 du Statut de la

Cour et de l'article17 de l'Acte généralde Genèvedu 26 septembre 1928.
J'estime en outre qu'i la date où la requête a été déposé ileexistait, et il
existe encore selon moi, uri différendentre la France et l'Australie au sujet
de leurs droits réciproques et des conséquences pour le territoire et
l'environnement de l'Australie des explosions d'engins nucléaires
auxquelles la France a procédédans le Pacifique Sud.

En outre les Parties s'opposaient et continuent de s'opposer sur le point
de savoir si, d'aprts le droit international, les essais d'armes nucléaires
dans l'atmosphère sont licites ou non. Sous réserve d'un plus ample
examen de I'intérktjuridique du demandeur par rapport à ce dernier
différend,je suis d'avis que les Parties, à la date de la requêteet à l'heure
actuelle, se contestent réciproquement un droit au sujet des essais d'armes

nucléaires en atmosphère.

S'il faut y voir une question à part en la présente espèce, j'estime que
la demande du requérant est recevable pour tous les chefs qu'elle com-
porte à I'exceptioil de celui qui a trait à I'illicéitédes essais d'armes
nucléaires dans l'atmosphère. A mon sens, la question de savoir si lequestion whether the Applicant has a legal interest to maintain its claim
in respect of that basis is not a question of an exclusiv4y preliminary
character, and that it cannot be decided at this stage of the proceedings.

The distinctions implicit in this statement of conclusions will be
developed later in this opinion.
1approach the Court's Judgment therefore with the viewthat the Court
is presently seized of an Application which to the extent indicated is
admissible and which the Court is competent to hear and determine.
1 am of opinion that consistently under Article 38 the Court should have
decided itsjurisdiction and if it be aseparate question the admissibility
of the Application.
1am of opinion that the dispute between the Parties as to their legal
rights was not resolved or caused to disappear by the communiqué
and statements quoted in the Judgment and that the Parties remained at
the date of the Judgment in dispute as to their legal rights. This is so,
in my opinion, even if, contrary to the view1 hold, the communiqué and
statements amounted to an assurance by France that it would not again
test nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. That assurance, if given, did not
concede any rights in Australia in relation to nuclear explosions or the
testing of nuclear weapons: indeed, it impliedly asserted a right in France

to continue such explosions or tests. Such an assurance would of itself
in my opinion be incapable of resolving a dispute as to legal rights.

1 am further of opinion that the Judgment is not supportable on the
material and grounds on which it is based.
1 now proceed to express my reasons for the several conclusions 1 have
expressed.

On 22 June 1973,the Court by a majority indicated by way of interim
measures pending the Court's final decision in the proceedings that:

"The Covernments of Australia and France should each of them
ensure that no action of any kind is taken which might aggravate or

extend the dispute submitted to the Court or prejudice the rights of
the other Party in respect of the carrying out of whatever decision
the Court may render in the case; and, in particular, the French
Covernment should avoid nuclear tests causing the deposit of radio-
active fall-out on Australian territory."
In its Order the Court recited that:

"Whereas on a request for provisional measures the Court need
not, before indicating them, finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdic-
tion on the merits of the case, and yet ought not to indicate suchrequérant a un intérêjturidique à faire valoir cette dernière reclamation
n'a pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaireet ne peut être tranchéeà
ce stade de l'instance.
Les distinctions qui ressortent implicitement des conclusions ainsi
exposéesseront préciséesdans la suite de la présenteopinion.

Mon attitude à l'égardde l'arrêtde la Cour est donc que celle-ci est
actuellement saisie d'une requête quiest recevable dans les limites que
j'ai indiquéesetdont la Cour est compétentepour connaître. Il me paraît
que, conformément à l'article 38 du Statut, la Cour aurait dû trancher la
question de sa compétenceet, s'ils'agitd'une question distincte, cellede la
recevabilitéde la requête.
J'estime que le différendentre les Parties au sujet de leurs droits juri-
diquement protégéisn'a pas étérésolu et n'a pas non plus disparu en
raison du commuiiiqué et des déclarations cités dans l'arrêtet qu'il
existait toujoursà la date de la requêteun différendopposant les Parties

au suiet de ces droits. Il en va ainsi. selon moi. mêmesi. contrairemenà
l'opinion que j'ai ex.primée,le communiquéet lesdéclarationsen question
constituent de la part de la France une assurance selon laquelle elle ne
procéderaplus àdes essais nucléairesdans l'atmosphère. Cette assurance,
pour autant qu'elle ait étdonnée,ne confère à l'Australie aucun droit au
sujet des explosioris nucléaires et des essaisd'armes nucléaires: en fait
elleconfirmeimplicitement ledroit de la France de continuer à procéder à
ces explosions ou à ces essais. A mon avis, une assurance semblable ne
saurait, en elle-même,résoudre un différend portant sur des droits
juridiquement protégés.

J'estime en outre: que I'arrêtne peut se fonder sur les élémentset sur
les motifs quiy figurent.
J'exposerai mairitenant les raisons pour lesquelles j'ai abouti à ces
différentesconclusions.

INI)ICATIO DEN MESURES CONSERVATOIRES

Le 22juin 1973, à la majoritédes voix, la Cour a indiqué, en attendant
son arrêtdéfinitifdiansI'instance, des mesuresconservatoires tendantà ce
que:

((Le Gouvernement australien et le Gouvernement français
veillent l'un et l'autreévitertout acte qui risquerait d'aggraver ou
d'étendrele différenddont laCour est saisie ou de porter atteinte au
droit de l'autre Partià obtenir l'exécutionde tout arrêtque la Cour
pourrait rendre en l'affaire; et en particulier le Gouvernement
français s'abstienne de procéder à des essais nucléairesprovoquant
le dépôtde retombées radioactives sur le territoire australien.)

L'un des considérants de l'ordonnance est ainsi rédigé:
(Considéraintque, lorsqu'elle est saisie d'une demande en indica-

tion de mesures conservatoires, la Cour n'a pas besoin, avant d'indi-
quer ces mesures, de s'assurer de façon concluante de sa compétence measures unless the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear,

prima facie, to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court
might be founded ..."

After indicating in paragraph 14 of the Order that the Government of
Australia (the Applicant) claimed to found the jurisdiction of the Court
to entertain its Application upon (1) Article 17 of the General Act of
Geneva of 26 September 1928, read with Articles 36 (1) and 37 of the
Statute of the Court, and (2) alternatively, on Article 36 (2) of the Statute
of the Court and the respective declarations of Australia and France
made thereunder, this Court concluded that :

"Whereas the material submitted to the Court leads it to the
conclusion, at the present stage of the proceedings, that the provisions
invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to afford a basis on

which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded; and whereas
the Court will accordingly proceed to examine the Applicant's
request for the indication of interim measures of protection .. ."

In indicating summarily in my declaration of 22 June 1973 my reason
for joining the majority in indicating interim measures, 1said:

"1 have voted for the indication of interim measures and the
Order of the Court as to the further procedure in the case because
the very thorough discussions in which the Court has engaged over
the past weeks and my own researches have convinced me that the
General Act of 1928and the French Government's declaration to the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court with reservations each provide,

prima facie, a basis on which the Court might have jurisdiction to
entertain and decide the claims made by Australia in its Application
of 9 May 1973."

1did so to emphasize the fact that the Court had at that time examined
itsjurisdiction in considerable depth and that it had not acted upon any
presumptions nor upon any merely cursory considerations. Consistently
with the Court's jurisprudence as a result of this examination there
appeared, prima facie, a basis on which the Court's jurisdiction might
be founded.
For my own part 1 felt, at that time, that it was probable that the

General Act of Geneva of 26 September 1928(theGeneral Act) continued
at the date of the Application to be valid as a treaty in force between
Australia and France and that the dispute between those States, as
evidenced in the material lodged with the Application, fell within the
scope of Article 17of the General Act.
Declarations by France and Australia to the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court under Article 36 (2) of the Court's Statute with the respective quant au fond de l'affaire, mais qu'elle ne doit cependant pas indi-
quer de telles mesures si les dispositions invoquées par le demandeur
ne se présentent pas comme constituant, prima facie, une base sur
laquelle la compétence de la Cour pourrait être fondée ..))

Après avoir indiqué:au paragraphe 14de l'ordonnance que le Gouverne-
ment australien (le demandeur) fondait la compétence de la Cour pour

connaître desa requête1) sur l'article 17de l'Acte généralde Genève du
26 septembre 1928, rapproché de l'article 36, paragraphe 1, et de I'ar-
ticle 37 du Statut de la Cour, et 2) subsidiairement, sur l'article 36' para-
graphe 2, du Statut de la Cour et les déclarations déposéesen vertu de cet
article par I'Australie et la France, la Cour a conclu:

((Considérarit que les élémentssoumis à la Cour l'amènent à
conclure, au stade actuel de la procédure, que les dispositions

invoquéespar le demandeur se présentent comme constituant, prima
facie, une base sur laquelle la compétence de la Cour pourrait être
fondée; et qu'en conséquence la Cour se propose d'examiner la de-
mande en indication de mesures conservatoires présentéepar le
demandeur ...))

Exposant sommairement dans ma déclaration du 22 juin 1973 les
raisons pour lesquellesj'ai voté avecla majoritéen faveur de l'indication

de mesures conservatoires, j'ai écrit:
((J'ai votéen faveur de I'indication de mesures conservatoires et

de l'ordonnance de la Cour sur la suite de la procédure, convaincu
par les discussions très approfondies auxquelles la Cour a procédé
ces dernières semaines et par mes propres recherches que l'Acte
généralde 1928et ladéclaration du Gouvernement français acceptant,

avec réserve, Icajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour constituent l'un
et l'autre, prima,facie, une base possible de compétence de la Cour
pour connaître des demandes formulées par I'Australie dans sa
requêtedu 9 mai 1973et se prononcer à leur sujet. ))

J'entendais ainsi souligner que la Cour avait à l'époque examiné la
question de sa compétence d'une manière très approfondie et qu'elle
n'avait pas pris sa décision sur la base de simples présomptions ou de

considérations sup~erficielles.Conformément à la jurisprudence de la
Cour, cet examen a.vait permis de dire qu'il semblait exister, prima facie,
une base sur laquelle la conlpétence de la Cour pourrait être fondée.
Pour ma part j'estimais probable, à l'époque,qu'à la date de la requête
l'Acte généralde Genèvedu 26 septembre 1928(L'Actegénéral)conservait

sa validité en tant que traité en vigueur entre I'Australie et la France et
que le différend entre ces Etats, comme en témoignaient les documents
déposésen même tempsque la requête,relevait de l'article 17 de l'Acte
général.
La prise en considération comme base juridictionnelle des déclarations

par lesquelles la France et I'Australie ont acceptélajuridiction obligatoirereservations, but particularly that of France o20 May 1966,as a source of

the Court's jurisdiction raised other questions which 1had then no need
to resolve but which did not ex facie, in my opinion, necessarily deny the
possibility of that jurisdiction.

In order to resolve as soon as possible the questions of its jurisdiction
and the admissibility of the Application, the Court decided that the writ-
ten proceedings should first be addressed to those questions.

In the reported decisions of the Court, and in the recorded opinions
of individual judges, and in the literature of international law, 1do not
find any definition of admissibility which cqn be universally applied. A

description of admissibility of great width was suggested in the dissenting
opinion of Judge Petrénin this case (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 126); in the
dissenting opinion of Judge Gros, the suggestion was made that the lack
of a justiciable dispute, one which coulé be resolved by the application of
legal norms, made the Application "without object" and thus from the
outset inadmissible. In his declaration made at that time, Judge Jiménez

de Aréchaga pointed to the expressions in paragraph 23 of the Court's
Order as indicating that the existence of a legal interest of the Applicant
in respect of its claims was one aspect of admissibility.
The Applicant confined its Memorial and its oral argument in relation
to the question of admissibility substantially to the question whether it
had a legal interest to maintain its Application. But the Court itself gave
no approval to any such particular view of admissibility. Intervention

by the President during argument indicated that the Court would decide
for itself the ambit of the question of admissibility, that is to say, in par-
ticular that it would not necessarily confine itself to the view seemingly
adopted by counsel. I shall need later to discuss the aspect of admissi-
bility which, if it is a question in this case separate from that of jurisdic-
tion, is appropriate for consideration.

The question may arise at the preliminary stage of a matter whether
the admissibility of an application or reference ought first to be decided
before any question of jurisdiction is determined. Opinion appears to be
divided as to whether or not in any case jurisdiction should first be
established before the admissibility of an application is considered, see
for example on the one hand the views expressed in the separate opinion

of Judge Sir Percy Spender, in the dissenting opinions of President
Klaestad, Judge Armand-Ugon and Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht in the
Interhandel case (Switzerland v. United States of America, I.C.J. Reports
1959, at p. 6) and, on the other hand, the views expressed by Judge Sir
Gerald Fitzmaurice in his separate opinion in the case of the Nortllerrz
Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 15).
There is no universal rule clearly expressed in the decisions of the Court

that the one question in every case should be determined before the other.
147 ESSAIS NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.BARWICK) 396

de la Cour en vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut avec certaines
réserves,notamment celle de la France en date du 20 mai 1966, soulève
d'autres questions siur lesquelles je n'avais pas alors à me prononcer
mais qui n'excluaient pas nécessairement à première vue, selon moi, la
possibilité que la Cour soit compétente sur cett~ base.

Afin de régleraussi rapidement que possible la question de la compé-
tence de la Cour et celle de la recevabilité de la requête,la Cour a décidé
que les piècesécritesporteraient d'abord sur ces questions.

FAUT-IL TRANC.HER D'ABORD LA QIJESTION DE LA COMPÉTENCE

OU CELLE DE LA RECEVABILITÉ?

Je n'ai pas découvert dans les décisions adoptées par la Cour, dans les
opinions des juges, rii dans les ouvrages de droit international de défini-
tion de la recevabilitti qui soit universellement applicable. Dans l'opinion
dissidente qu'il a émiseen la présenteespèce(C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 126),

M. Petrén a donné une définition très large de la recevabilité et, dans
la sienne, M. Gros a fait valoir que l'absence d'un différend justiciable,
c'est-à-dire d'un difirend que la Cour puisse résoudre en appliquant
des normes juridiques, rend la requête (sans objet ))et donc irrecevable
ab initio. Dans-la déclaration qu'il a faite à l'époque, M. Jiménez de

Aréchaga a considéré qu'auparagraphe 23 de son ordonnance la Cour
a entendu indiquer que l'existence d'un intérêt juridiquedu demandeur à
soutenir ses prétentions constituait un aspect de la recevabilité.
Dans le mémoire t:t dans les plaidoiries qu'il a consacrés à la question
de la recevabilité, le demandeur s'est borné en substance à examiner la

question de savoir s'il avait un intérêt juridiqueà présenter sa requête.
Mais la Cour elle-mgme n'a fait sienne aucune conception particulière de
la recevabilité. Le l'résident a souligné au cours des audiences que la
Cour déciderait elle-mêmede la portée de la question de la .recevabilité,
et qu'en particulier i:lle ne s'en tiendrait pas forcément à la conception

que semblaient avoiir adoptée les conseils. Je reviendrai plus tard sur la
question de la recevabilité, sujet qui appelle un examen dans la mesure
ou, dans la présente affaire, il se distingue de la compétence.
Au stade préliminiaire d'une affaire, ilpeut y avoir à déterminer s'il
convient de se prononcer sur la recevabilité d'une requête avant de

statuer sur tout problème de compétence. 11semble que les opinions
soient partagées quaint à savoir si, dans un cas concret, yla lieu d'établir
la compétence avant de passer à la recevabilitéde la requête, témoind'une
part les vues exprimcies dans l'opinion i~dividuelle de sir Percy Spender
et dans les opinions dissidentes du Président (M. Klaestad), de M. Ar-
mand-Ugon et de sir Hersch Lauterpacht en l'affaire de l'lnterhandel

(C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 6), et d'autre part les thèses de sir Gerald Fitz-
maurice dans son opinion individuelle en l'affaire du Cameroun septen-
trional (C.1.J. Recueil 1963, p. 15). On ne discerne aucune règle univer-
selle nettement consacrée par la Cour et qui voudrait que dans une affaire
quelconque l'une der;deux questions soit résolueavant l'autre. But granted that there can be cases in which this Court ought to decide
the admissibility of a matter before ascertaining the existence or extent

of its own jurisdiction, 1am of the opinion that in this case the Court's
jurisdiction ought first to be determined. There are two reasons for my
decision in this sense. First, there is said to be a question of admissibility
in this case which, even if it exists as a separate question, seems to me to
be bound up with the question of jurisdiction and which, because of the
suggested source ofjurisdictionin Article 17of the GeneralAct, to mymind

is scarcely capable of discussion in complete isolation from that question.
Second,the Court has already indicated interim measures and emphasized
the need for an early definitive resolution of its jurisdiction to hear the
Application. It would not be judicially proper, in my opinion, now to
avoid a decision as to thejurisdiction of the Court by prior concentration
on the admissibility of the Application, treating the two concepts as

mutually exclusive in relation to the present case.

1should at this stage make some general observations as to the nature
of the examination of jurisdiction and of admissibility which should take
place in pursuance of the Court's Order of 22 June 1973. Though not so
expressly stated in the Court's Order, these questions, as 1 understand
the position, were conceived to be of a preliminary nature, to be argued
and decided as such. They are to be dealt with at thisstage to the extent that
each possesses "an exclusively preliminary character", otherwise their

consideration must be relegated to the hearing of the merits.
In amending its Rules on 10 May 1972 and in including in them
Article 67 (7) as it now appears, the Court provided for the possibility
of a two-stage hearing of a case, in the first stage of which questions of
jurisdiction and admissibility, as well as any other preliminary question,
might be decided, if those questions could be decided as matters of an

exclusively preliminary character. Textually, Article 67 as a whole
depends for its operation upon an objection to the jurisdiction of the
Court or to the admissibility of the Application by a respondent party
in accordance with the Rules of Court. There has been no objection by
the Respondent to the jurisdiction of the Court or to the admissibility
of the Application in this case conformable to Article 67 of the Court's

Rules. Thus, technically it may be said that Article 67 (7) does not control
the proceedings at this stage. But though not formally controlling this
stage of the case, Article 67 (7) and its very presence in the Rules of
Court must have some bearing upon the nature of the examination which
is to be made of these two questions. The Article is emphatic of the
proposition that if such questions as jurisdiction or admissibility are
separated from the hearing of the merits, they may only be decided apart

from the merits if they possess an exclusively preliminary character; that Mais en admettant mêmeque dans certains cas la Cour doive se pro-
noncer sur la recevabilité d'une affaire avant de s'assurer de sa propre
compétence ou de !,'étenduede celle-ci, j'estime qu'en l'occurrence la
Cour devait tout d'abord établir sa juridiction. J'aboutisà cette conclu-
sion pour deux raisons. Premièrement, il y a, a-t-on dit, une question de
recevabilitéà réglerdans la présente instance qui, mêmesi elle existe en
tant que question distincte, me paraît liéeau problème de la compétence
et qui, étant donné la source de juridiction invoquée - l'article 17de
l'Acte général - se prêteraitdifficilemenà un examen tout à fait séparé.
Deuxièmement, la Cour a déjà indiquédes mesures conservatoires et
souligné la nécessitiid'aboutir rapidement à une décision définitiveau
sujet de sa compétence pour connaître de la requête. Amon avis, il ne
serait pasjudiciairernent approprié d'éludermaintenant une décisionsur

la compétence de la Cour en s'attachant à examiner préalablement la
recevabilité de la requête, ce qui impliquerait que les deux notions
s'excluent mutuellen~enten l'espèce.

Je dois présenter ici quelques observations généralesau sujet du carac-
tèrequ'aurait dû revêtirun examen de la compétenceet de la recevabilité
effectuéen vertu de ;l'ordonnance du 22juin 1973.Bien que l'ordonnance
ne le dise pasexpres:sément,il m'a paru que ces questions ont étéconçues
comme étant préliminaires et devant êtreplaidéeset tranchées comme
telles.II ne convient de les traiter au présentstade de l'instance que dans
Iamesure où chacune d'ellesa ((uncaractèreexclusivement préliminaire));

si ce n'estpas le casleurexamen doit êtrerenvoyéau stade du fond.
Dans le Règlemeritamendéle 10mai 1972,où figure le texte actuel de
I'article 67, paragraphe 7, la Cour a prévuqu'une affaire pourrait être
examinéeen deux temps etque lesquestions de compétenceet de recevabi-
lité,et toute autre question préjudicielle,pourraient être résoluesdans
une première phase s'il étaitpossible de les considérercomme ayant un
caractère exclusivenient préliminaire. L'article 67, d'après son texte, ne
peut s'appliquer qulr si une partie défenderesse élève régulièrement une
exception contre la compétencede la Cour ou contre la recevabilitéde la
requête. En I'espèci:, ledéfendeur n'a présenté aucuneexception d'in-
compétenceou d'irrecevabilitédans les conditions prévues à I'article 67.
On peut donc dire que, techniquement, I'article 67, paragraphe 7, ne
régitpas la procédure dans la présente phase. Toutefois, mêmes'il n'est

pas applicable à ce stade, par sa simple présencedans le Règlement, ce
paragraphe ne peut manquer d'influer sur l'examen desdeux questions.
11en ressort en effet très nettement que lorsque des questions comme
celles de la compétenceou de la recevabilitésont détachéesdu fond, elles
ne peuvent être tranchées indépendamment decelui-ci que si elles ont un
caractère exclusivement préliminaire, autrement dit, si on peut statuer à
leur sujet sans se prononcer sur le fond. La division de l'affaireen phases,

148is to say if they can be decided without trenching on the merits of the
case. The Court's division of this case into stages by itsOrder of 22 June
1973must therefore be accommodated to the spirit of its Rules, so that
only questions rnay be decided at this stage which possess an exclusively
prelirninary character. Jt was apparent from the contents of the Appli-
cant's Memorial and from the course of the oral argument, that the
Applicant understood the decision of each question depended on it being
of such a preliminary kind. There has been no indication of any dissent
from that view.

Article 53 of the Statute of the Court is in the following terms:

"1. Whenever one of the parties does not appear before the Court,
or fails to defend its case, the other party may cal1upon the Court
to decide in favour of its claim.
2. The Court must, before doing so, satisfy itself, not only that it
has jurisdiction in accordance with Articles 36 and 37, but also that
the claim is wellfounded in fact and law."

Action pursuant to the Article may be called for by a party when the
other is in default either of appearance or of defence. When the Court is
required by a party to decide its claim notwithstanding such default of
the other, the Court, before deciding the clairn, must satisfy itself both
of its own jurisdiction and of the validity of the claim both in fact and in
law. Without the inclusion of this Article in the Statute of the Court,
there would surely have been power in the Court, satisfied of its own
jurisdiction and of the validity of the applicant State's claim, to give
judgment for the applicant, notwithstanding the default of appearance
or of defence by the respondent party. The Article is confirmatory of
such a power and its inclusion in the Statute was doubtless prompted by
the circumstance that the litigants before the Court are sovereign States,
and that the presence of the Article would indicateconsent to proceedings
in default.
As expressed, the Article is dealing in my opinion exclusivelywith the

stage of the proceedings at which the merits of the claim are to be consi-
dered and decided. For this reason, and because of the very nature of and
of the occasion for the indication of interirn measures, Article 53, in rny
opinion, can have no bearing on that phase of a case. The Court has so
treated the Article when considering"the indication of interirn rneasures
in the past, as, for example, in paragra~ 15 of its Order indicating
interirn measures in the FisheriesJurisdiction (United Kingdom v.Iceland)
case (I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 15) and in paragraph 13 of the Order of
22 June, made in this case (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 101). The Court
expressed itself in these cases as to the extent to whichitmust besatisfied
in relation to its own jurisdiction in a manner quite inconsistent with the
view that Article 53 controlled the stage of the proceedings in which the ESSAISNUCLÉAIRES(OP. DISS. BARWICK) 398

décidéepar I'ordorinance de la Cour du 22 juin 1973, doit donc .être
adaptée à l'esprit du Règlement, de sorte que les seules questions qui
puissent êtrerésoluespour le moment sont cellesqui revêtent uncaractère
exclusivement préliminaire. La teneur du mémoireet le déroulement des
plaidoiries montrent que le demandeur a compris qu'il ne serait statué
sur chaque question que si elle avait ce caractère. Aucun dissentiment ne
s'est manifesté à cet égard.

L'article 53du St.atutdispose

((1. Lorsqu'une des parties ne se présente pas, ou s'abstient de
faire valoir ses imoyens,l'autre partie peut demanderà la Cour de lui
adjuger ses conclusions.
2. La Cour, avant d'y faire droit, doit s'assurer non seulement
qu'elle acompc-tenceaux termes des articles 36 et 37, mais que les
conclusions sont fondéesen fait et en droit. ))

Une partie peut demander l'application de ces dispositions quand son
adversaire fait défaut faute de comparaître ou de conclure. Lorsqu'elle
est priéepar une partie de se prononcer sur sa demande malgréle défaut
de l'autre, la Cour, avant de statuer, doit s'assurer de sa compétenceet
du bien-fondédelademande en fait et en droit. Si I'article ne figurait pas
dans le Statut, il'e,stpas douteux que, une fois convaincuede sa propre
compétence et du bien-fondé des conclusions de 1'Etat demandeur, la
Cour serait habilitée à donner gain de cause à celui-ci, malgréle défaut
faute de comparaîtri: ou de conclure de la partie défenderesse. L'article

confirme ce pouvoir et son inclusion dans le Statut s'explique sans doute
par le fait que les parties devant la Cour sonî des Etats souverains et
qu'il permet de présumer le consentement àla procédurepar défaut.

Compte tenu de !sarédaction, I'article s'applique exclusivement selon
moi àla phase de la procédureoù la demande est examinéeet tranchée au
fond. Aussi, et étant donnéla nature mêmede ces mesures et les circons-
tances dans lesquelles elles sont indiquées, I'article 53 ne joue à mon
avis aucun rôle au stade des mesures conservatoires. C'est d'ailleurs ainsi
que la Cour a traitéI'article lorsqu'elle a, dans le passé, examinéI'indica-
tion de mesures conservatoires; je renvoie notamment au paragraphe 15

de l'ordonnance rendue dans l'affaire de la Compétenceen matière de
pêcheries (Royaume-Uni c. Islande), mesures conservatoii.es (C.I.J.
Recueil 1972, p. 15)et au paragraphe 13de l'ordonnance du 22juin 1973
en la présente affaire(C.I.J. Recueil 1973,p. 101).A ces deux occasions,
les observations de la Cour au sujet du point jusqu'où elledoit aller pour
s'assurer de sa propre compétence démentent absolument l'idéequeindication of interim measures was being considered. These expressions of
the Court were not inconsistent in my opinion with the views expressed
by Sir Hersch Lauterpacht at page 118 of the Reports of the Interhandel
case (I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 105); but the Court has been unwilling to
accept the exacting views ofJudges Winiarski and BadawiPasha, expressed
in the Anglo-lranian Oil Co. case (I.C.J. Reports /95/, pp. 96-98),
views which were endorsed by Judge Padilla Nervo in the Fisheries
Jurisdictioncase (I.C.J. Reports 1972, at p.21).

Allowing the importance of the fundamental consideration that the
Court is a court of limited jurisdiction founded ultimately on the consent

of States, it is essential to observe that Article 41 of theStatute of the
Court gives it express power to indicate interim measures if it considers
that circumstances so require and that, unlike Article 53, Article 41 does
not hedge round that power expressly or, as 1 think, impliedly, with any
considerations ofjurisdiction or of the merits of the case. Paragraph 2 of
Article 41, in opening with the expression "pending the final decision"
makes it apparent to my mind that Article 53 does not refer to or control
consideration of the indication of interim measures. Consequently, 1am
unable, with respect, to agree with those who hold a contrary view. But
although Article 41 does not refer to questions of jurisdiction or the
merits, the Court will consider its jurisdiction to the extent already ex-
pressed before indicating interim measures, and an obvious lack of merit
willno doubt be influential in deciding whether ornot to indicate interim
measures.
The Applicant has not yet called upon the Court to decide its claim.
Indeed, the Court's direction of 22 June separating the two questions of
jurisdiction and admissibility from the merits has precluded any such
stepon the part of the Applicant. Thus Article 53has not been called into

operation at this stage of the proceedings. The Court by its Order has
directed consideration of its jurisdiction at this stage. If the examination
by the Court of that jurisdictionresults in an affirmance of itsjurisdiction,
that conclusion will of course satisfy part of the requirements of Article
53when it iscalled into play. No doubt, having made its Order of 22June,
the Court, quite apart from the provisions of Article 53, could go no
further in the case unless it was either satisfied of itsjurisdiction and of the
admissibility of the Application or concluded that in the circumstances
of the case either of those questions failed to possess an exclusively pre-
liminary character. In that event, that question could be decided at the
stage of the merits, which Article 53 appears to contemplate. Neither
Article 53 nor any other part of the Statute of the Court refers to the
admissibility of the Application.

1 turn then to the question of the Court's jurisdiction to hear and
determine the Application. It was duly filed with the Court on 9 MayI'article 53 régissait: laphase de I'examen des mesures conservatoires.
Ces observations deila Cour ne contredisent pas non plus à mon avis les
thèses expriméespar sir Hersch Lauterpacht dans I'affairede I'lnterhandel,
mesures conservatoir,es(C.I.J. Recueil 1957,p. 118); en revanche, la Cour
ne s'est pas montréedisposée à faire sienne l'interprétationplus restrictive
donnéepar M. Winiarski et BadawiPacha dans I'affairede I'Anglo-Iranian
Oil Co. (C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 96-98) et reprise par M. Padilla Nervo
dans I'affairedela Compétenceenmatière depêcherie(sC.I.J. Recueil 1972,

p. 21).
Sans perdre de vue cette considération fondamentale que la Cour n'a
qu'une compétencelimitée quidépenden dernière analyse du consente-
ment des Etats, il est essentiel de rappeler que I'article 41 du Statut de
la Cour l'habilite expressément à indiquer des mesures conservatoires
si elle estime que les circonstances l'exigent et, à la différencede I'ar-
ticle 53, l'article 41 ne restreint pas ce pouvoir expressémentou, dirai-je,
implicitement, par des considérations relatives à la compétence ou au
fond de I'affaire.Le.spremiers mots du paragraphe 2 de I'article 41: ((En
attendant l'arrêtdéfinitin,apportent àmon avis la preuve que I'article 53
ne vise pas l'indication de mesures conservatoires et n'en conditionne pas
I'examen.Je dois donc dire, respectueusement, que je ne saurais souscrire
à la thèse contrairi:. Mais bien que l'article 41 ne vise pas les questions
de compétence ou de fond, la Cour examinera sa compétencedans les
limites déjàévoquéesavant d'indiquer des mesures conservatoires, et un

mal-fondé manifeste au fond influera certainement sur sa décision de
prescrire ou de ne pas prescrire de semblables mesures.
Ledemandeur n'a pas encorepriéla Cour de luiadjuger sesconclusions.
Je dirai mêmequ'il en a été empêchpé ar l'ordonnance du 22juin séparant
du fond les deux aspects de la compétence et de la recevabilité. L'ar-
ticle 53 n'entre donc pas en jeu au présentstade de l'instance. Par son
ordonnance, la Cour a décidéde faire porter I'examensursa compétence.
Si par la suite laCour confirme qu'elle estcompétente, cette conclusion
satisfera bien entendu pour une part aux prescriptions de I'article 53 au
moment où celui-ci devra s'appliquer. A la vérité,après avoir rendu son
ordonnance du 22juin, et abstraction faite des dispositions de l'article 53,
la Cour ne pouvait pas pousser plus loin son examen de I'affaire à moins
soit de s'êtreassurée desa compétenceet de la recevabilitéde la requête,
soit d'avoir conclu que dans les circonstances de l'espèce l'uneou l'autre

de ces questions n'avait pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaire.
Dans cette dernière hypothèse, ladite question pouvait êtretranchée au
stade du fond, et c'est ce que I'article 53 paraît envisager. Ni I'article 53
ni aucune autre disposition du Statut ne traite de la recevabilité de la
requête.

J'en viens à la question de la compétencede la Cour pour connaître
de la requête, laquelle a étdûment déposéele 9 mai 1973.C'est donc à1973. This is the date by reference to which the questions of jurisdiction
and of admissibility must be determined. The concluding paragraphs of
the Application are as follows:

"Accordingly, the Government of Australia asks the Court to

adjuge and declare that, for the above-mentioned reasons or any of
them or for any other reason that the Court deems to be relevant,
the carrying out of further atmospheric nuclear weapon tests in the
South Pacific Ocean is not consistent with applicable rules of inter-
national law.

And to Order

that the French Republic shall not carry out any further such tests."

It is of importance that 1emphasize at the outset that the Application
seeks both a declaration and an Order. The request for the declaration is
itself, in my opinion, clearly a matter of substantive relief and not merely

a recital or reason put forward for the request for the making of the
Order. Indeed, it is conceivable that in appropriate circumstances the
declaration only should be made. The full significanceof this fundamental
observation as to the nature of the relief sought will be apparent at a later
stage.
The Court duly notified France by telegram of the filing of the Applica-
tion, and a copy of the Application itself was duly transmitted to the

French Government in due time.
Article 38(3) of the Rules of Court requires that when acknowledging
receipt of such a notification from the Court, the party against whom
the Application is made and who is so notified shall, when acknowledging
receipt of the notification, or failing this as soon as possible, inform the
Court of the name of its Agent.

By a letter dated 16 May 1973 France, by its Ambassador to the
Netherlands, acknowledged receipt of the notification of the filing of the
Application, but France did not appoint an Agent. France informed
the Court that in its view, that is to say, in France's view, the Court was
manifestly without jurisdiction to hear and determine the Application,
and that France did not propose to participate in the proceedings before

the Court. It has not done so by any formal act according to the Rules of
Court. France requested that the Application be summarily struck from
the Court's General List, which in June 1973 the Court refused to do,
an attitude confirmed by its final Judgment.
It is fundamental that the Court alone is competent to determine
whether or not it has jurisdiction in any matter. This is provided by
Article 36 (6) of the Statute of the Court. No State can determine that

question. In its Rules, the Court has provided machinery whereby it can
hear and consider the submissions of a State which claims that it has no
jurisdiction in a particular matter (see Art. 67 of the Rules of Court).
France has made no use of this facility. The case has proceeded without

151cette date qu'il convient de se placer pour apprécier les questions de
compétenceet de recevabilité.La requête concluten ces termes:

«En conséquence, le Gouvernement australien prie la Cour dire
et juger que, pour l'un quelconque ou l'ensemble des motifs exposés

ci-dessus ou pour tout autre motif jugé pertinent par la Cour, la
poursuite des essais atmosphériques d'armes nucléairesdans l'océan
Pacifique Sud ri'estpascompatible avec lesrèglesapplicables du droit
international et
Ordonner

à la République française de ne plus faire de tels essais))

Il importe de souligner d'embléeque la requêtevise à obtenir à la fois
une déclaration et une injonction. Selon moi la demande de déclarationa
manifestement pour objet d'obtenir des mesures correctives au fond et ne
constitue pas simplement un considérant ou un motif invoqué pour
justifierI'injonctiori sollicitée.On pourraità vrai dire concevoir que,

si les circonstances s'y prêtaient,la déclaration suffise. L'importance de
cette observation fondamentale par rapport à la nature de ladécision
sollicitéeapparaîtra pleinement par la suite.
La Cour a dûment notifié à la France, par télégramme,le dépôtde la
requête.Une copie de cette dernière a étédûment transmise en temps
voulu au Gouvernement français.
L'article 38, paragraphe 3, du Règlement prévoit qu'en accusant
réception d'unetelle notification de la Cour la partie contre laquelle la
requêteest présentéeet qui est ainsi aviséedoit, au moment de l'accuséde
réception, ou sinon le plus tôt possible, faire connaître la Cour le nom
de son agent.
Par lettre en date du 16mai 1973,la France, par l'intermédiaire deson

ambassadeur aux Pays-Bas, a accusé réceptionde la notification du dépôt
de la requête,mais elle n'a pas désignéd'agent. La France a fait connaître
à la Cour qu'à son avis, c'est-à-direàl'avisde la France, la Cour n'avait
manifestement pas compétencepour se prononcer sur la requêteet que
la France n'avait pas l'intention de participer l'instance. Effectivement,
elle n'y a pas pris part en accomplissant l'un des actes formellement
prévuspar leRèglement. LaFrance a demandéquelaCour raye purement
et simplement i'affiîiredu rôle, ce qui fut refuséen juin 1973- attitude
confirméepar la dkcision finale rendue en l'espèce.
Un point fondamental est que la Cour seule est habilitée à déterminer
si elle est ou non compétente pour connaître d'une matière quelconque.
Cela résultede l'article 36, paragraphe 6,de son Statut. Aucun Etat ne
peut trancher cette: question. Dans son Règlement (art. 67), la Cour a

défini laprocédure qui lui permet d'examiner les conclusions d'un Etat
qui conteste sa compétencedans un cas particulier. La France ne s'est
pas prévalue de ce:sdispositions. L'affaire s'est poursuivie sans qu'une
151any objection to jurisdiction duly made according to the Rules of
Court.
Attached to the Ambassador's letter of 16 May 1973 was an annex
comprising some Il pages of foolscap typescript setting out France's
reasons for its conclusion that the Court was manifestly incompetent
to entertain the Application. This document, which has come to be
referred to in the proceedings as "the French Annex", has occupied an

ambiguous position throughout but has come to be treated somewhat in
the light of a submission in a pleading, which,quite clearly, it is not. As
1 am but judge ad hoc, 1 will not express myself as to the desirability or
undesirability of the reception of such a communication as the French
Annex. 1 observe however that a somewhat similar happening occurred
in connection with the Fisheries Jurisdictioncase (I.C.J. Reports 1973,
p. 1),but whether or not the Court allows such "submissions" to be made
outside its Rules, as a regular practice, is a matter with which natural1y
cannot be concerned.

Of course, a court, in the absence of a party, will of its own motion
search most anxiously for reasons which might legitimately have been
put forward by the absent party in opposition to the Application. Conse-
quently, it could not be said to be unreasonable for the Court to view the

contents of the French Annex, if and when received, as indicative of some
of such reasons. Those contents and that of the French White Paper
on Nuclear Tests, published but not communicated to the Court during
the hearing of the case, have infact been fully considered.

1turn now to express my reasons for my conclusion that the General
Act of Geneva of 26 September 1928 was a treaty in force between Aus-
tralia and France at the date of the lodging of the Application, so as
to found the jurisdiction of the Courtunder Article 36(1) to decide a dis-
pute between the Parties as to their respective rights.

The Appiicant seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on two
alternative bases; itdoes not attempt to cumulate these bases, as was
done by Belgium in the case of the Electricity Company of Sofia and
Bulgaria, P.C.I.J.,Series C, 1938,page 64, with respect to the two bases

which it put forward for the jurisdiction of the Court in that case. The
Applicant does not attempt to make one basis assist or complement the
other. It takes them, as iny opinion they are in the Statute of the Court,
as two independent bases of jurisdiction or as may be more colourfully
said, two independent avenues of approach to the Court.The Applicant's
principal relianceis on the jurisdiction conferred on the Court by Article
36 (1) of its Statute, fulfilling that Article's specification of a "matter
specially provided for in treaties and conventions in force", by resort to
the combined operation of Article 17of the General Act, Article 37 of the
Court's Statute, and itsdispute with France.exception d'incompétence ait étédûment présentéede la manière envi-
sagéepar le Règlement.
La lettre de l'anibassadeur du 16 mai 1973 était accompagnée d'une
annexe comptant quelque onze pages de texte dactylographié sur papier
grand format, où é:taientexposésles motifs que la France avait de con-
clure à l'incompétencemanifeste de la Cour pour connaître de la requête.
Ce document, qui a étédénommédans la suite de la procédurel'((annexe

française ))a joué tout au long de l'instance un rôle assez ambigu mais
pour finir on en est venu à le traiter comme une conclusion présentée
dans une piècede procédure,ce qu'il n'est évidemmentpas. Etant simple-
ment juge ad hoc,je m'abstiendrai de me prononcer sur l'opportunité ou
l'inopportunité d'a.dmettre une communication telle que I'annexe fran-
çaise. Je note cependant qu'une situation assez semblable s'est présentée
dans l'affaire de la Compétenceen matière de pêcherie(sC.I.J. Recueil
1973, p. l), mais la question de savoir si la Cour permet, à titre de pra-
tique régulière,que des «conclusions ))de ce genre soient soumises en
dehors du cadre di1Règlement neme concerne naturellement pas.
Bien entendu, einl'absence de l'une des parties, tout tribunal aura à
cŒur de rechercher, de sa propre initiative, les motifs qu'aurait pu
légitimement invoquer contre la requêtela partie qui ne s'est pas pré-

sentée.On ne saurait donc dire que la Cour ait eu tort de considérer la
teneur de l'annexe française, au moment où elle l'a reçue, comme four-
nissant une indication de certains de ces motifs. En fait le contenu de
l'annexe et celui d.u Livre blanc français sur les expériences nucléaires,
qui a été publiém , ais non communiqué à la Cour, durant l'instance, ont
étépris pleinement.en considération.
J'en arrive aux raisons qui m'amènent à conclure que l'Acte général
de Genèvedu 26septembre 1928étaitun traitéenvigueur entre l'Australie
et la France à la datedu dépôtde la requête,ce qui établitla compétence
de la Cour en vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 1, pour statuer sur un
différend à propos duquel les Parties se contestent réciproquement un
droit.

Le demandeur cherche à fonder la compétence de la Cour sur deux
bases alternativest:t n'essaiepas de lescumuler comme l'a fait la Belgique
en l'affaire de laCompagnied'électricité dS eofia et de Bulgarie(C.P.J.I.
sérieC, 1938,p. 64,)pour lesdeux fondements de lajuridiction de la Cour
qu'elle invoquait en l'espèce. Ledemandeur n'essaie pas d'utiliser l'une
des bases de compétencepour renforcer ou compléter l'autre.II lesprend,
ainsi que le fait le Statut de la Cour selon moi, comme deux sources de
juridiction indépendantes ou, pourrait-on dire d'une façon plus imagée,
deux voies d'accèsindépendantes à la Cour. Le demandeur se prévauten
principe de la compétenceconférée à la Courpar l'article 36,paragraphe 1,
du Statut et, pour justifier qu'il s'agit bien,conformément aux termes de
cet article, d'un ((cas spécialement prévudans lestraitésetconventions en

vigueur)) il fait état de l'application combinée de l'article 17 de l'Acte
généralet de I'article 37 du Statut de la Cour, ainsi que de son différend
avec la France. L'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour est invoqué comme

autre source de compétence, la France et l'Australie ayant, conformément
à cet article, déclaré qu'ellesacceptaient la juridiction obligatoire de la
Cour, chacune avec.des réserves,en particulier, dans le cas de la France,
celle du 20 mai 1966.
Etant parvenu à la ferme conclusion que la Cour est compétente en
l'espèce en vertu d.e l'article 36, paragraphe 1, du Statut, et les deux

sources de compétence invoquées étant placées sur le même pied en
l'occurrence, il me ;paraît superflu de prendre position sur l'autre base de
la juridiction: l'article 36, paragraphe 2, qui, dans ces conditions, cesse à
mon avis d'être pertinente. J'aurai cependant à évoquer la thèse suivant
laquelle une déclaration d'acceptation de la clause- facultative de I'ar-
ticle 36, paragraph~c 2, est inconciliable avec le maintien en vigueur des
obligations prévuespar l'Acte généralet en fait s'y substitue. J'examinerai

aussi la seconde thèse, qui voudrait que la réservedont la France a assorti
le 20 mai 1966 sa déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire
vaille aussi, dans la limite définie par ses propres termes, pour les obli-
gations en vertu di: l'Acte général,à supposer que ces dernières existent.
Je crois cependant pouvoir dire ici que je ne serais pas disposé a accepter
en totalité les thèses du demandeur sur le sens et la portée de la réserve

apportée par la France, le 20 mai 1966, à sa déclaration d'acceptation de
la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour.
C'est un lieu commun de dire que la compétence de la Cour dépend
fondamentalement du consentement des Etats mais que ce consentement
peut être donné à titre généraldans un traité, aussi bien que sur une
base ad hoc. Qu'elle soit donnée dans un traité multilatéral ou dans une
clause compromissc~ired'un traitébilatéral l'acceptation de la compétence

ne peut être révoqiléeou modifiéeque dans les conditions prévues dans
l'instrument ou elle figure, aussi longtemps que celui-ci reste en vigueur
conformément au droit des traités. Le consentement ainsi donné subsiste
conformément aux termes convenus et n'a besoin d'êtreréaffirméà aucun
moment pour conserver son efficacité.Quand un instrument stipule les
conditions dans lesquelles les obligations qu'il prévoit peuvent prendre

fin ou êtremodifiées, on ne peut y mettre fin ou les modifier que de la
manière prescrite tant que le traitédemeure en vigueur. Ainsi, le consente-
ment donné en souscrivant au traiténe peut êtreretiréou transformé par
l'action unilatérale de I'une ou l'autre des parties, si ce n'est conformé-
ment aux termes di1traitélui-même. Destraités peuvent pourtant prendre
valablement fin par l'effet de l'une des circonstances envisagéesdans la
Convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités: impossibilité d'exécution

ultérieure, changement fondamental des circonstances ou conclusion d'un
traité postérieur entre les mêmesparties, aussi bien que par consentement
mutuel ou confornnément à leurs stipulations.
IIsemble que l'Acte généralappartienne à la catégorie des traités
multilatéraux mais, que l'adhésion créait des obligations bilatérales. En
vertu de son article 44 l'Acte devait entrer en vigueur le quatre-vingt-
dixièmejour suivant l'adhésion d'au moins deux Etats. Jusque-la, et pourfound in the travaux préparatoires it was "a convention in spe" (Records

of Ninth Ordinary Session of the Assembly, Minutes of First Committee,
p. 70). In fact, conformably to this Article, the Act came into force on
16August 1929. Ltwas a great treaty, representing a most significant step
forward in the cause of the pacific settlement of disputes. It had an
initial term of five years, and was automatically renewed each five years
dating from its original entry into force, unless denounced at least six
months before the expiry of the current period of five years (Art. 45 (1)).

Denunciation might be partial and consist of a notification of reser-
vations not previously made (Art. 45 (5)).Denunciation was to be effected
by a written notification to the Secretary-General of the League of Nations
who was to inform al1 accessionaries to the Act (Art. 45 (3)). The Act
covered conciliation of disputes of every kind which it had not been
possible to settle by diplomacy (Chap. 1), the judicial settlement of al1

disputes with respect to legal rights (Chap. II),and arbitrationin a dispute
not being a dispute as to legal rights (Chap. III). Accession could be to the
whole Act or only to parts thereof, for example to Chapters Jand II along
with appropriate portions of the general provisions in Chapter IV or to
Chapter 1 only with the appropriate portions of Chapter IV (Art. 38).
The principle of reciprocity of obligations was introduced by the con-

cluding words of Article 38.

France and Australia acceded to the whole of the General Act on 21
May 1931. Each attached conditions to its accession, and to these condi-
tions 1 shall need later to make a brief reference. As at the date of the

Application neither France nor Australia had denounced the General
Act. France lodged with the Secretary-General of the United Nations on
10 January 1974 a notification designed as a denunciation in conformity
with Article 45 of the General Act, but this notification is of no conse-
quence in connection with the present question. Article 45 (5) of the Act
provides that al1proceedings pending at the expiry of the current period

of the Act are to be duly completed notwithstanding denunciation.
Further, the Court's general jurisprudence would not allow its jurisdic-
tion to be terminated by the denunciation of the Treaty subsequent to the
commencement of the proceedings before the Court (see Nottebohm case
(Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), I.C. J. Reports 1953, p. 110at p. 122).
Article 17 in Chapter II of the General Act provides:

"Al1 disputes with regard to which the parties are in conflict as to
their respective rights shall, subject to any reservations which may
be made under Article 39, be submitted for decision to the Permanent
Court of International Justice, unless the parties agree, in the manner
hereinafter provided, to have resort to an arbitral tribunal.

It is understood that the disputes referred to above include in
particular those mentioned in Article 36 of the Statute of the Per-
manent Court of International Justice."
154 ESSAIS NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS. BARWICK) 403

reprendre une expression utilisée au cours des travaux préparatoires, il
constituait cune convention in spe ))(Documents oficiels de la neurième
sessionordinaire de ['Assemblée,procès-iverbauxde la Première Commis-
sion, p. 70). En fait, conformément à I'article susvisé,l'Acte est entré en

vigueur le 16août 1929. C'étaitun instrument remarquable, représentant
un très grand pas en avant pour la cause du règlement pacifique des
différends. Sa durée:initialeétaitde cinq ans, et il étaitrenouveléautoma-
tiquement tous les cinq ans à partir de sa première entréeen vigueur s'il
n'avait été dénoncis iix mois au moins avant l'expiration de la période
quinquennale en clours (art. 45, par. 1). La dénonciation pouvait être

partielle et consiste:r en la notification de réserves qui n'avaient pas été
faites antérieurement (art. 45, par. 5). La dénonciation devait prendre la
forme d'une notification écriteadresséeau Secrétaire généralde la SdN,
qui devait aviser tous les Etats ayant adhéré à I'Acte (art. 45, par. 3).
L'Acte prévoyait la conciliation des différends de toute nature qui

n'avaient pu êtrerégléspar la voie diplomatique (chapitre premier), le
règlement judiciaire de tous lesdifférendsportant sur des droits juridique-
ment protégés(chap.'Il) et l'arbitrage lorsque le litige ne concernait pas de
tels droits (chap. 111). Les adhésions pouvaient porter sur l'Acte tout
entier ou sur certaines de ses parties, par exemple sur les chapitres pre-
mier et II, complétéspar lesélémentsappropriés des dispositions générales

du chapitre IV, ou bien sur le chapitre premier seulement avec les élé-
ments nécessairesdu chapitre IV (art. 38). Les derniers mots de I'article 38
introduisaient le principe de la réciprocitédes obligations.
La France et l'Australie ont adhéréà l'Acte généraldans sa totalité le
21 mai 1931. Dan:$ chaque cas l'adhésion s'accompagnait de certaines

conditions, sur lescluellesj'aurai à revenir brièvement par la suite. A la
datede la requête :nila France ni l'Australie n'avaient dénoncé I'Acte
général.Le 10janvier 1974, la France a adresséau Secrétairegénéraldes
Nations Unies une notification représentant une dénonciationconforme à
l'article 45 de l'Acte général,mais qui est sans pertinence pour la présente

affaire. IIest prévuia I'article 45, paragraphe 5, de l'Acte que toutes les
procédures engagéesau moment de l'expiration du termede I'Actegénéral
continueront jusqu'a leur achèvement normal. De plus, la jurisprudence
de la Cour exclut que la dénonciation d'un traité puisse mettre fin a sa
juridiction après l'ouverture d'une instance devant la Cour (voir l'affaire
Nottebohm, C. IJ. .Recueil1953,p. 122).

L'article 17 figurant au chapitre IIde l'Acte généraldispose:
((Tous différends au sujet desquels les parties se contesteraient
réciproquement un droit seront, sauf les réserveséventuellesprévuesà

I'article 39, soumis pour jugement à la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale., à moins que les parties ne tombent d'accord, dans
les termes prévus ci-après, pour recourir à un tribunal arbitral. II
est entendu que les différends ci-dessus viséscomprennent notam-
ment ceux que mentionne I'article 36 du Statut de la Cour perma-

nente de Justice internationale. ))
154 Both France and Australia became Members of the United Nations at
its inception, thus each was bound by the Court's Statute (see Art. 93 of

the Charter). Therefore each was bound by Article 37 of the Statute of the
Court which effectively substituted this Court for the Permanent Court of
lnternational Justice wherever a treaty in force provided for reference
of a matter to the Permanent Court of lnternational Justice. CIearly
Article 17 did provide for the reference to the Court of al1disputes with
regard to which the parties are in conflict as to their respective rights.

Thus the provisions of Article 17 must be read as between France and
Australia as if they referred to the lnternational Court of Justice and not
to the Permanent Court of International Justice.
Whatever doubts might theretofore have been entertained as to the
com~lete efficacv of Article 37 to effect such a substitution of this Court
for he permanent Court of lnternational Justice as between Members of

the United Nations were set at rest by the Judgment of this Court in the
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited case (Belgium v.
Spain, I.C.J. Reports 1964,pp. 39 and 40). So unless the treaty obligations
in Chapter II, which includes Article 17, of the General Act have been
terminated or displaced in accordance with the law of treaties, the consent
of France to the Court's jurisdiction to entertain and resolve a dispute
between France and Australia as to their respective rights, subject to the

effect of any reservations which may have been duly made under Article
39 of the General Act, would appear to be clear.
1 have already mentioned that neither of the Parties had denounced
the Act as of the date of the Application. The argument in the French
Annex, to the contents of which 1will need later to refer, is mainly that
the General Act, by reason of matters to which the Annex calls attention,

had lost its validity, but that if it had not, France's consent to the juris-
diction of the Court, given through Article 17 of the General Act, was
withdrawn or qualified to the extent of the terms of its reservation of
20 May 1966made to its declaration to the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
Court under Article 36 (2) of the Statute of the Court. It is therefore
appropriate at this point to make some reference to the circumstances in

which a treaty may be terminated.
The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties may in general be
considered to reflect customary international law in respect of treaties.
Thus, although France has not ratified this Convention, its provisions
in Part V as to the invalidity, termination or suspension of treaties may
be resorted to in considering the question whether the General Act was
otherwise terminated before the commencement of these proceedings.

Taking seriatim those grounds of termination dealt with in Section 3 of
Part V of the Convention which could possibly be relevant, there has
been no consent by France and Australia to the termination of their
obligations vis-à-vis one another under the General Act. 1 shall later point
out in connection with the suggestion that the General Act lapsed by

"desuetude" that there is no basis whatever in the material before the ESSAISNUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS. BARWICK) 404

La France et l'Australie sont devenues Membres de l'organisation des
Nations Unies dès sa création, et du mêmecoup parties au Statut de
la Cour (voir art. 93 de la Charte). Chacune est donc liéepar I'article 37
du Statut qui a pour effet de remplacer la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale par la Cour actuelle lorsqu'un traité ou une convention

en vigueur prévoit le renvoi à la première nommée. II est clair que I'ar-
ticle 17 de l'Acte général prévoilte renvoi à la Cour de tous lesdifférends
au sujet desquels les parties se contesteraient réciproquement un droit.
Ainsi, pour ce qui concerne la France et l'Australie, on peut considérer
que les dispositions de I'article 17visent la Cour internationale de Justice
et non pas la Cour permanente de Justice internationale.

Quels que soient les doutes que l'on ait pu éprouver antérieurement au
sujet de l'efficacitétotale de I'article 37 pour substituer la Cour actuelle à
la Cour permanente de Justice internationale entre Membres des Nations
Unies, ces doutes ont été dissipép sar l'arrêt dela Cour en l'affaire de la
Barcelona Traction (C.I.J. Recueil 1964,p. 39et 40). Ainsi, à moins que les
obligations contractuelles du chapitre II de l'Acte général, quicomprend

I'article 17, n'aient. pris fin ou n'aient été remplacéesconformément au
droit des traités,ilparaît évident que la France avait consenti à la com-
pétence de la Cour pour connaître d'un différend opposant la France et
l'Australie au sujet de leurs droits respectifs, compte étant tenu des
réserves qui pouvaient avoir été valablement formulées en vertu de
l'article 39 de l'Acte général.

J'ai déjàdit qu'aucune des Parties n'avait dénoncél'Acte à la datede la
requête. ~'ar~umentation de l'annexe française, sur laquelle j'aurai à
revenir, est essentiellement que, pour des raisons indiquées dans l'an-
nexe, l'Acte généra.a ] perdu sa validité mais que, mêmesi ce n'est pas le
cas, le consentement de la France à la compétence de la Cour, résultant
de I'article 17 de l'Acte général, aété retiréou redéfini conformément

aux termes de sa ré,servedu 20 mai 1966à sa déclaration d'acceptation de
la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour en vertu de I'article 36, paragraphe 2,
du Statut. Il convient donc d'évoquer brièvement ici les conditions dans
lesquelles il peut êtremis fin à un traité.

La Convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités peut êtreconsidéréeen

généralcomme calnsacrant le droit international coutumier relatif aux
traités. Aussi, bien que la France n'ait pas ratifié cette convention, les
dispositions de sa partie V concernant la nullité, l'extinction et la suspen-
sion de l'application des traités peuvent êtremises en Œuvre pour déter-
miner si l'Acte générala pris fin autrement que par dénonciation avant le
commencement de la présente instance.

Si l'on prend successivement les motifs d'extinction énumérésdans la
section 3 de la partie V de la convention qui pourraient éventuellement
s'appliquer, on voit que ni la France ni l'Australie n'ont consenti à
l'extinction de leurs obligations réciproques en vertu de l'Acte général.
Je soulignerai plus loin, à propos de la thèse selon laquelle l'Acte général
serait tombé en désuétude, que rien, dans les éléments soumisà la Cour,Court on which it could be held that the General Act had been terminated

by mutual consent of these Parties as at the date of the Application (Art.
54 of the Convention). No subsequent treaty between France and Austra-
lia relating to the same subject-matter as that of the General Act has
been concluded (Art. 59 of the Convention). Neither of these parties
acceded to the amended General Act of 1949to which 1shall be making
reference in due course. No material breach of the General Act by
Australia has been invoked as a ground for terminating the General Act

as between France and Australia. It will be necessary for me at a later
stage to deal briefly with a suggestion that a purported reservation not
made in due time by Australia in 1939 terminated the General Act as
between France and Australia (Art. 60 of the Convention). There has
been no supervening impossibility of performance of the General Act
resulting from the permanent disappearance of an object indispensable for

the execution of the Act, nor had any such ground of termination been
invoked by France prior to the lodging of the Application (Art. 61 of the
Convention). The effect of the demise of the League of Nations was not
the disappearance of an object indispensable to the execution of the
General Act, as 1shall indicate in a subsequent part of this opinion. There
has been no fundamental change of any circumstances which constituted

an essential basis of the Treaty, and no such change has radically trans-
formed the obligations under the Act (Art. 62 of the Convention). No
obligation of the General Act is in conflict witn any jus cogens (Art. 64
of the Convention). Article 65 of the Vienna Convention indicates that
if any of these grounds of termination are to be relied upon, notification is
necessary. In this case there has been no such notification.

On these considerations it would indeed be difficult not to conclude
that the General Act was a treaty in force between France and Australia
at the date of the Application and that the Parties had consented through
the operation of Article 17of the General Act and Article 37 of the Statute
of theCourt to thejurisdiction of this Court to resolve any dispute between
them as to their respective rights.
But the French Annex confidently asserts the unavailability of the

General Act as a source of this Court's jurisdiction to hear and determine
the Application: it is said that the Act lacks present validity. It will
therefore be necessary for me to examine the arguments put forward in
the French Annex for this conclusion.
However, before turning to do so it is proper to point out that no
jurist and no writer on international law has suggested that the General

Act ceased to be in force at any time anterior to the lodging of the
Application. Indeed, many distinguished writers expressed themselves
to the contrary. Professor O'Connell, in a footnote on page 1071 in the
second volume of the second edition of his work on international law,
says as to the General Act: "It is so connected with the machinery of the
League of Nations that its status is unclear." The Professor was alone in
making this observation: it suffices to say that the Professor's cogent I3SSAISNUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS. BARWICK) 405

ne permet de dire que l'Acte généralavait pris fin, d'entente entre les
deux Parties, à la date de la requête(art. 54 de la convention). Aucun
traité postérieur portant sur la même matièreque I'Acte généraln'a été
conclu entre la France et l'Australie (art. 59 de la convention). Ni l'une
ni l'autre n'ont adhéréà l'Acte généralreviséde 1949dont je reparlerai le

moment venu. Aucune violation substantielle de l'Acte général,que
l'Australie aurait commise, n'a été invoquéecomme motifpour mettre
fin à l'Acte généralentre la France et I'Australie. Je reviendrai brièvement
sur la thèse qui voudrait qu'une réserve présentéepar l'Australie en 1939
en dehors des délais normaux ait entraîné l'extinction de l'Acte général
entre la France et I'Australie (art.60 de la convention). II n'est survenu

aucune situation rendant l'exécution impossible, due à la disparition
définitived'un objet indispensable à l'exécutionde l'Acte, et la France n'a
jamais invoqué un tel motif d'extinction avant le dépôt de la requête
(art. 61 de la convention). L'effondrement de la Sociétédes Nations n'a
pas entraînéla disparition d'un objet indispensable à I'exécutionde l'Acte
général,et je le démontrerai ultérieurement. IIn'y a pas eu de changement

fondamental des ciirconstances qui constituaient une base essentielle du
consentement des Parties à êtreliéespar le traité et aucun changement de
cette nature n'a transformé radicalement la portée des obligations sous-
crites en vertu de l'Acte (art. 62 de la convention). Aucune obligation
prévue par l'Acte généralne contrevient au jus cogens (art. 64 de la con-

vention). Enfin il ressort de l'artic65 de la convention de Vienne qu'une
notification s'impose si l'on invoque l'un de ces motifs d'extinction. En
l'espèce, aucune notification n'a étéfaite.

Dans ces conditions, il serait véritablement difficile de ne pas conclure
que l'Acte général'itait un traité en vigueur entre la France et I'Australie

à la date de la requête etque, par lejeu de l'article 17de l'Acte généralet
de l'article 37 du Statut, les Parties ont consenti à la compétence de la
Cour pour résoudre entre elles les différends au sujet desquels elles se
contesteraient réciproquement un droit.
L'annexe française n'en affirme pas moins hardiment que l'Acte
généralne peut être invoquécomme source de la compétence de la Cour

pour connaître de la requête:selon elle l'Acte serait à présent dépourvu
de validité. J'aurai donc à examiner les arguments à l'appui de cette
conclusion qui figurent dans l'annexe française.
Avant d'en venir la, cependant, il convient de souligner qu'aucun
juriste, aucun spécialiste du droit international, n'a émis l'idée que
l'Acte généralavait cessé d'êtreen vigueur à un moment quelconque

antérieurement au dépôt de la requête. En fait, nombre d'éminents
auteurs ont exprimél'avis contraire.Toutefois, dans une note en bas de la
page 1071du secorid volume de la deuxième éditionde son traitéde droit
international, M. O'Connel1 écrit,à propos de I'Actegénéral: (<IIest liéà
tel point auxrouagesde la Société desNations que sasituation est indécise.1)
M. O'Connell a étéle seul à formuler cette observation et il suffira deadvocacy on behalf of the Applicant in the present case seems to indicate

that such a note will not appear in any further edition of his work.

No mention or discussion of the General Act in the Judgments of this
Court has cast any doubt on its continued operation. Indeed, Judge
Basdevant in the Certain Norwegian Loans case (France v. Norway, I.C.J.
Reports 1957, at p. 74), refers to the General Act as a treaty or conven-
tion then in force between France and Norway. He points out that the
Act was mentioned in the observations of the French Government and
was explicitly invoked by the Agent of the French Government during
the hearing. The distinguished judge said: "At no time hasany doubt been
raised as to the fact that this Act is binding as between France and
Norway." No judge in that case dissented from that view. Indeed, the
Courtin its Judgment does not say anything which would suggest that the
Court doubted the continued validity of the General Act. In its Judgment
the Court said:

"The French Government also referred .. .to the General Act
of Geneva of September 26th, 1928, to which both France and
Norway are parties, as showing that the two Governments have
agreed to submit their disputes to arbitration or judicial settlement
in certain circumstances which it is unnecessary here to relate."

(Emphasis added.)

France, for evident good reason (i.e., the applicability of Article 31 of the
General Act in that case), did not seek to base the Court's jurisdiction in
that case on the General Act, andas it had not done so the Court did not
seek a basis for its jurisdiction in the General Act. The pertinent passage
in the Judgment of the Court occurs at pages 24 and 25 of the Reports,
where it is said:

"The French Government also referred to the Franco-Norwegian
Arbitration Convention of 1904and to the General Act of Geneva
of September 26th, 1928, to which both France and Norway are
parties, as showing that the two Governments have agreed to submit
their disputes to arbitration or judicial settlement in certain circum-
stances which it is unnecessary here to relate.
These engagements were referred to in the Observations and
Submissions of the French Government on the Preliminary Objec-
tions and subsequently and more explicitly in the oral presentations
of the French Agent. Neither of these references, however, can be
regarded as sufficient to justify the view that the Application of the
French Government was, so far as the question of jurisdiction is
concerned, based upon the Convention or the General Act. If the
French Government had intended to proceed upon that basis it

would expressly have so stated.souligner que l'argumentation très serrée qu'il a présentéeau nom du
demandeur dans la présente instance paraît exclure qu'une note semblable
continue àfigurer dans les éditionsultérieuresde son ouvrage.
Dans les arrêts de la Cour on ne trouve aucune mention, aucune
analyse de l'Acte généralqui laisse planer le moindre doute sur son

maintien en vigueur. En fait, dans l'affaire relative à Certains emprunts
norvégiens(C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 74), M. Basdevant mentionne l'Acte
généralcomme étant un traité ou convention alors en vigueur entre la
France et la Norvège. II souligne que l'Acte a étévisédans les observa-
tions du Gouvernement français et expressémentinvoquépar l'agent de ce

gouvernement au cours des plaidoiries. L'éminent juge déclare: ((A
aucun moment il n'a étémis en doute que cet Acte fît droit entre la
France et la Norvège )) (foc. cit.). Aucun autre juge n'a contesté cette
manière de voir et, à la vérité,la Cour, dans son arrêt,n'a rien dit qui
permit de conclure: qu'elle doutait du maintien en vigueur de l'Acte

général.Dans son a.rrêt,elle s'est exprimée ainsi:

c(Le Gouvernement français a mentionné également ...l'Acte
généralde Genève du 26 septembre 1928 [auquel] la France et la
Norvège ont adhéréen vue de montrer que les deux gouvernements
sont convenus de soumettre leurs différends à l'arbitrage ou au
règlement judiciaire dans certaines conditions qu'il n'est pas néces-

saire de rapporter ici.)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 24.) (Les italiques
sont de nous.)

Non sans raison (vu par exemple I'applicabilité de l'article 31 de l'Acte
généralen l'occurrence) la France n'a pas essayéde fonder la compétence
de la Cour sur l'Acte généraldans cette affaire, de sorte que la Cour n'a

pas recherché non plus si l'Acte générallui donnait compétence. Le
passage pertinent de l'arrêtde la Cour figure aux pages 24 et 25 du
Recueil, où l'on peut lire :

ccLe Gouvernement français a mentionné également la Conven-
tion franco-norvégienne d'arbitrage de 1904 et l'Acte généralde
Genève du 26 septembre 1928 auxquels la France et la Norvège ont

adhéréen vue idemontrer que les deux gouvernements sont convenus
de soumettre 11:ursdifférendsà l'arbitrage ou au règlement judiciaire
dans certaines conditions qu'il n'est pas nécessairede rapporter ici.
Ces engagements ont étémentionnés dans les Observations et
conclusions dii Gouvernement français sur les exceptions prélimi-

naires puis, d'iine manière plus explicite, dans la plaidoirie de l'agent
français. Ni l'une ni l'autre de ces deux mentions ne saurait toutefois
êtreconsidérélecomme suffisante pour établir que la requête du
Gouvernement français se fondait, pour autant qu'il s'zlgît de la
question de compétence, sur la convention ou l'Acte général.Si le
Gouvernement françaisavait voulu procéder sur cette base, il l'aurait

expressément déclaré. As already shown, the Application of the French Government
is based clearly and precisely on the Norwegian and French Declara-

tions under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute. In these circum-
stances the Court would not be justified in seeking a basis for its
jurisdiction different from that which the French Government itself
set out in its Application and by reference to which the case has been
presented by both Parties to the Court."

In paragraph 3A of the French Annex it is said that the Court in the
case of Certain Norwegian Loans "had to settle" this point, that is to say
the availability at that time of the General Act as between Norway and
France. It is however quite plain from the Court's Judgment in that case

that it did not have to settle the point but that it accepted that the General
Act was a treaty in force at that time between Norway and France. It is
not, as the French Annex suggests, "difficult to believe that the Court
would have so summarily excluded this ground of its competence if it
had provided a manifest basis for taking jurisdiction". The passage which
1have quoted from the Court's Judgment clearly expresses the reason for

which the Court did not seek to place its jurisdiction upon the General
Act.
The Act was also treated as being in force in the arbitration proceedings
and in the proceedings in this Court in connection with the Temple of
Preali Villeurcase Cambodia v. Thailand(see for example, I.C.J.Reports
1961, at pp. 19 and 23). The availability of the General Act in that case
was disputed by Thailand and the Court found no occasion to pass upon

that matter.
The General Act is included in numerous official and unofficial treaty
lists as a treaty in force, and is spoken of by a number of governments
who are parties to it as remaining in force. In 1964 the Foreign Minister
of France, explaining in a written reply to a Deputy in the National
Assembly why France did not join the European Treaty for the Pacific

Settlement of Disputes, pointed to the existence of, amongst other instru-
ments, the General Act to which France was a Party, though the Minister
mistakenly referred to it as the revised General Act.

However, these matters are really peripheral in the present case. The
central and compelling circumstance is that neither France nor Australia

had denounced the Treaty in accordance with its provisions at the date of
the Application, nor had any other event occurred which according to the
law of treaties had brought the General Act, as between-them to an end.

The various arguments put forward in the French Annex denying the
Court's competence to entertain the Application now need consideration.
It is said that the General Act disappeared with the demise of the League

of Nations because "the Act of Geneva'was an integral part of the League
of Nations system in so far as the pacific settlement of international dis-
putes had necessarily in that system to accompany collective security and ESSAISNUCLÉAIRES(OP. DISS. BARWICK) 407

Ainsi qu'on l'a déjàmontré, la requêtedu Gouvernement français
se fonde clairement et précisémentsur les déclarations de la Norvège
et de la France aux termes de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut.

Dans ces conditions, la Cour ne saurait rechercher, pour établir sa
compétence, un fondement autre que celui que le Gouvernement
français a lui-mêmeénoncédans sa requêteet sur lequel l'affaire a
été plaidée devantla Cour par les deux Parties. ))

Au paragraphe 3A. de l'annexe française il est dit que la Cour avait
((l'occasion de trancher ))ce point à propos de l'affaire de Certains
emprunts norvégiens, c'est-à-dire de se prononcer sur l'applicabilité, à
cette époque, de l'Acte généralentre la Norvège et la France. II ressort

toutefois très c1aire:ment de I'arrêtde la Cour en l'espèce que la Cour
n'avait pas à trancher ce point mais qu'elle a néanmoins admis que l'Acte
généralétaitun traité en vigueur à l'époqueentre la Norvège et la France.
II n'est pas, contraiirement à ce qu'affirme l'annexe française, ((difficilede
croire que la Cour aurait écartéaussi sommairement ce fondement de sa

compétence s'il avait fourni à celle-ci une base manifeste)). Le passage de
l'arrêtque je viens de citer explique très clairement pourquoi la Cour n'a
pas cherchéà fonder sa juridiction sur l'Acte général.
L'Acte a étéaussi1considéré commeétant en vigueur dans la procédure
arbitrale et au cour:; de l'instance devant la Cour en l'affaire du Temple de

Préal1 Villéar,exceptions préliminaires, arrêt(voir par exemple C.I.J.
Recueil 1961, p. 19 et 23). La possibilité d'invoquer l'Acte généralen
l'espècea été contestéepar la Thaïlande mais la Cour n'a pas eu I'occa-
sion de se prononcer sur la question.
L'Acte général figurecomme traité en vigueur dans de nombreuses
listes officielles et non officielles de traités et un certain nombre de gou-

vernements, parties à cet Acte, en font état comme d'un instrument en
vigueur. En 1964, le ministre des affaires étrangères de France, expli-
quant dans une réponse écrite à un députéà l'Assembléenationale pour-
quoi la France n'avait pas adhéré à la Convention européenne pour
le règlement pacifique des différends, a mentionné l'existence, entre

autres instruments, de l'Acte généralauquel la France étaitpartie, bien
que ce ministre l'ait par erreur qualifiéd'Acte généralrevisé.
LIreste que ces questions n'ont, en réalité,qu'un intérêt marginalen
l'espèce. L'élémentfondamental et déterminant est qu'à la date de la
requêteni la France ni l'Australie n'avaient dénoncéle traité conformé-

ment à ses disp3sitions et qu'il ne s'étaitproduit aucun autre événement
qui, conformément au droit des traités, aurait mis fin à l'Acte général
&tre les parties.
LIconvient maintenant d'examiner les divers arguments présentésdans
l'annexe française en vue de dénier à la Cour compétence pour connaître

de la requête. IIest dit que l'Acte générala disparu avec la Société des
Nations parce que ((l'Acte de Genève était une partie intégrante du
système de la Socié:té des Nations dans la mesure où le règlement paci-
fique des différends internationaux devait nécessairement, dans cedisarmament". If by the expression "an integral part of the League of
Nations system" it is intended to convey that the General Act constitu-
tionally or organically formed part of the Covenant of the League, or of
any of its organs, the statement quite clearly is incorrect. Textually the
General Act is not made to depend upon the Covenant, and the references
to some of the functionaries of the League are not organic in any sense or

respects, but merely provide for the performance of acts of an incidentally
administrative kind. Contemporaneous expressions of those concerned
with the creation of the General Act leave no doubt whatever in my mind
that the General Act was not conceived as, nor intended to be, an integral
or any part of the League's system, whatever might precisely be included

in the use of the word "system" in this connection. See, for example,
Records of the Nin111Ordinary Session of fhe Assernbly, Minutes of the
First Cornmittee (Constitutional and Legal Questions), pages 68-69
(Tenth Meeting) and pages 71 and 74 (Eleventh Meeting). At page 71
the relationship of the Act to the League, or, as it was expressed, "the
constitutional role that that Act was going to fiIunder the League of

Nations" was discussed. It was pointed out by a member of the sub-
committee responsible for the draft that the Act "had been regarded as
being of use in connection with the general work of the League, but it had
no administrative or constitutional relation with it". Alteration to this
draft was made to ensure that the Act was not "an interqal arrangement
within the League". It was said :

"Today the States were not proposing to create an organ of the
League: the League was merely going to give those which desired
them facilities for completing and extending their obligations in
regard to arbitration."

If the expression "an integral part" means that the continued existence
of the League was an express condition of the continued validity of the
Act, again it seems to me it would be plainly incorrect. Nothing in the
text suggests such a situation. The use of the expression "ideological
integration" in the Annex seems to suggest that, because the desire to

maintain peace through the Covenant and through collective security,
disarmament and pacific settlement of international disputes was the
ideological mainspring of the creation of the General Act, al1the mani-
festations of that philosophy, however expressed, must stand or fall
together.

Itis true that the General Act was promoted by the League, that its
preparation in point of time was related to endeavours in the fields of
collective security and disarmament. It is true that it was hoped that the
cause of peace would be advanced by continuing action in each of the
various fields. But in my view, quite clearly the General Act wasconceived
as a mode1 treaty outside the Covenant of the League, available to non-système, accompagner la sécurité collectiveet le désarmement >).Si
l'expression ((partie intégrante du système de la Société desNations))
devait signifier que l'Acte étaitconstitutionnellement ou organiquement
un élémentdu Pacte ou de l'un des organes de la SdN, il est bien évident

que cette affirmation est inexacte. Le texte de I'Actegénéraln'indique
pas que celui-ci soit tributaire du Pacte et la mention de certains fonc-
tionnaires de la Sociétén'a aucun caractère organique et ne fait qu'évo-
quer incidemment l'accomplissement de certains actes administratifs.
Les expressions utilisées à l'époquepar ceux qui ont concouru à I'élabo-
ration de l'Acte généralconfirment d'après moi que l'Acte généraln'a
éténi conçu, ni voulu, comme une partie intégrante ou comme une partie
quelconque du ((système » de la SdN, quel que soit le sens précisdu mot
((système ))dans ce:contexte. Voir, par exemple: Actes de la neuvième

session ordinaire de l'Assemblée, procès-verbaux de la Première Com-
mission (questionsjuridictionnelles etjuridiques), 10eséance, pages68-69,
et 1le séance,pages 71 et 74. Le débat, rapporté à la page 71, porte sur
le lien qui existeentre l'Acte et la Sociétédes Nations ou, comme ilest
dit, sur le ((rôle qiie cet Acte constitutionnel allait jouer au sein de la
Sociétédes Nations)). Certains membres de la sous-commission, res-
ponsables du projet, ont fait observer que l'Acte avait été((jugéutile
pour l'Œuvre générald ee la SdN, mais qu'il [n'avait]aucun rapport ad-
ministratif ou constitutionnel avec elle)). Le projet a étémodifiépour
faire ressortir que l'Acte n'était pas((un élément interneau sein de la

Société des Nations ».On a dit:

((Aujourd'hui, les Etats n'entendent pas créer un organe de la
Société desNations. Celle-ci va simplement donner à ceux qui le
désirent des facilités de compléter et d'étendre leurs engagements
concernant l'arbitrage. ))

Si l'expression ((une partie intégrante)) signifie que l'existence de la
Sociétédes Nations était une condition expresse du maintien en vigueur
de l'Acte, là encore à mon avis il s'agit d'une assertion manifestement

erronée et que rieri dans le texte ne vient justifier. L'expressioncinté-
gration idéologique ))que l'on trouve aussi dans l'annexe semble laisser
supposer que, parci: que le désirde maintenir la paix grâce au Pacte et à
l'aide de la sécurité collective, u désarmementet du règlement politique
des différendsinternationaux était idéologiquement à l'origine de l'Acte
général,toutes les manifestations de cette philosophie, quelle que soit la
forme sous laquelle:elles s'exprimaient, devaient nécessairement survivre
ou disparaître ensemble.
II est vrai quel'Acte générala été établi sousles auspices de la SdN
et que son élaborat.iona étéliée à l'époqueaux efforts déployésdans le

domaine de la sécuritécollective ou du désarmement. 11est exact qu'on
espérait promouvoir la cause de la paix par une action persistante dans
chacun de ces domaines. Mais il n'en est pas moins évident,selon moi,
que l'Acte avait étticonçu comme un traité-modèle extérieurau Pacte,members of the League and, by accession of at least two States, self-

operating.
It is perhaps worth observing at this point that the Statute of the
Permanent Court of International Justice, not an organ of the League, at
that time provided its own system of pacific settlement of legal disputes
by means of the optional compulsory jurisdiction in Article 36 (2) of the
Statute of the Permanent Court. No doubt, like the Covenant itself, the

inception of the General Act owed much to the pervading desire in the
period after the conclusion of World War 1to prevent, if at al1possible,
the repetition of that event. Though conceived at, or about the same
period, and though ail stemmed from the over-riding desire to secure
international peace, these various means, the activities of the Council of
the League, disarmament, collective security and the pacific settlement of

disputes, were in truth separate paths thought to be leading to the same
end, and thus in that sense complementary; but the General Act was not
dependent upon the existence or continuance of any of the others.

Emphasis is laid in the French Annex on the use of the organs of the
League by some of the Articles of the General Act.

It seems to me that what the Court said in the Barcelona Traction,Light
and Power Company, Limited case (Belgium v. Spain) in relation to the
Hispano-Belgian Treaty of 1927,a treaty comparable t~the General Act,
is quite applicable to the relationship of the reference to the functionaries
of the League in the General Act to its validity:

"An obligation of recourse to judicial settlement will, it is true,
normally find its expression in terms of recourse to a particular
forum. But it does not follow that this is the essence of the obliga-
tion. It was this fallacy which underlay the contention advanced

during the hearings, that the alleged lapse of Article 17 (4) was due
to the disappearance of the 'object' of that clause, namely the
Permanent Court. But that Court was never the substantive 'object'
of the clause. The substantive object was compulsory adjudication,
and the Permanent Court was merely a means for achieving that
object. It was not the primary purpose to specify one tribunal rather

than another,but to create an obligation of compulsory adjudication.
Such an obligation naturally entailed that a forum would be indi-
cated; but this was consequential.

If the obligation exists independently of the particular forum (a
fact implicitly recognized in the course of the proceedings, inasmuch
as the alleged extinction was related to Article 17(4) rather than to

Articles 2 or 17 (l)), then if it subsequently happens that the forum
goes out of existence, and no provision is made by the parties, or
otherwise, for remedying the deficiency, it will follow that the clause
containing the obligation will for the time being become (and per-ouvert aux Etats non membres de la SdN et que l'adhésiond'au moins
deux Etats suffisait iifairejouer.
Il convient peut-être de relever ici qu'à l'époquele Statut de la Cour
permanente de Justice internationale, qui n'était pas un organe de la
SdN, prévoyait son propre système de règlement pacifique des différends

juridiques, par le jeu de la clause facultative d'acceptation de la juri-
diction obligatoire figurant à l'articl36, paragraphe 2. 11ne fait aucun
doute que I'élaboratiionde l'Acte général,comme celle du Pacte lui-même,
devait beaucoup au désir très répandu dans la période qui a suivi la
première guerre mondiale de prévenir, s'il était possible, le retour d'une
pareille calamité. Bien que ces moyens - les activités du Conseil de la

SdN, le désarmement, la sécuritécollective et le règlement pacifique des
différends - aient été conçusà peu près à la mêmeépoque et qu'ils
procèdent tous d'un désirfondamental de préserver la paixinternationale,
il s'agissait en réalitéde voies séparées, considéréecsertes comme menant
au mêmebut et ainsi, dans un certain sens, complémentaires, mais l'Acte
généralne dépenda.it pas de l'existence ou de la survivance de l'un

quelconque des autres moyens.
L'annexe française insiste sur les renvois aux organes de la SdN qui
figurent dans certains articles de l'Acte général.
Ce que la Cour a dit dans l'affaire de la BarceIonaTraction à propos du
traité hispano-belge de 1927, traité comparable à l'Acte général,me
parait toutà fait applicable au rapport qui existe entre les mentions des
fonctionnaires de la SdN dans l'Acte généralet la validitéde cet Acte:

((11est vrai qu'une obligation de recourir au règlement judiciaire

est normalement exprimée sous la forme du recours à un tribunal
donné. Mais il ne s'ensuit pas que ce soit là l'essence de l'obligation.
C'est cette erreur qu'inspire la thèse soutenue au cours de la procé-
dure orale selon laquelle la prétendue caducité de l'article 17 (4)
était due à la d:isparition de l'objet de cette clause, à savoir la Cour
permanente. Mais la Cour permanente n'ajamais étél'objet véritable

de la clause. L'objet véritable en était le règlement judiciaire obli-
gatoireet la Cour permanente étaitsimplement un moyen d'atteindre
cet objet. Le but premier de la clause n'était pas de désigner tel
tribunal plutôt que tel autre, mais de créerune obligation de règle-
ment judiciaire. Cette obligation impliquait naturellement la dési-
gnation d'une jiuridiction, mais il ne s'agissait là que d'une consé-
quence.

Si l'obligation existe indépendamment d'un tribunal donné, ce qui
a été implicitement reconnu au coursde la procédure dans la mesure
où la prétendue:extinction a été invoquéepar rapport à l'article 17
(4) plus que par rapport à l'article2 ou à l'article17 (1) et s'il arrive
ensuite que ce tribunal disparaisse et qu'aucune disposition ne soit
adoptée par les parties, ou prise de toute autre manière, pour

remédier à cette lacune, il en résulte que la clause contenant l'obli- haps remain indefinitely) inoperative, i.e., without possibility of
effective application. But if the obligation remains substantively in
existence, though not functionally capable of being implemented, it
can always be rendered operative once more, if for instancetheparties
agree on another tribunal, or if anotheris supplied by the automatic
operation of some other instrument by which both parties are bound.
The Statute is such an instrument, and its Article 37 has precisely
that effect."I.C.J. Reports 1964, p. 38.)

1make this quotation at length at this time because we are here con-
cerned with the question as to the continued operation of Chapter II of
the General Act. In that chapter the only reference to the League or to
any of its functionaries is the reference to the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice, itself not an organ of the League. But there are refer-
ences in other chapters of the General Act to functionaries of the League.
These, in my opinion, are merrly in respect of incidentally administrative
functions and not in any sense basic to the validity of the General Act
itself. In Chapter 1of the General Act the only references to the League
or its functionaries are to be found in Articles 6 and 9. Reference to the
Acting President of the League in Article 6 isin the alternative. Paragraph
2 of that Articleprovides further means of appointment of commissions.
The place of meeting of commissions was in the hands of the parties, it
not being obligatory or indispensable to sit at the seat of the League.
Thus Articles 6 and 9 did not render Chapter 1 inoperative with the
demise of the League. It should also be observed that though accession
had been to Chapters 1 and II, Article 20 removed disputes as to legal

rights from the operation of Chapter 1.

So far as Chapter IV is concerned, the reference to the Permanent
Court of International Justice in Articles 31,33, 34(b), 37 and 41 would
be taken up as between France and Australia by means of Article 37 of
the Statute of the Court; as far as the Registrar of the Permanent Court
is concerned, by United Nations resolution 24 (1) of 12 February 1946
and the resolution of the League of Nations of 18 April 1946. Articles
43 and 44 of the General Act have been fulfilled and denunciation under
Article 45 could always be effected by a direct communication between
parties or by the use of the Secretary-General of the United Nations
relying on the resolutions to which 1have just referred, as France and the
United Kingdom found no difficulty in doing in their communications
to the Secretary-General in this year.

It can, however, properly be said that for lack of the persorinel of the

League, Chapter ILLof the General Act, relating to arbitration, may not
have been capable of being fully operated after the demise of the League.
161 gation devient inapplicable à l'époque considéréeet peut-être
indéfiniment, c'est-à-dire qu'elle est dépourvue de toute possibilité
d'application effective. Mais si cette obligation survit en substance,
bien qu'elle ne puisse être exécutéefonctionnellement, elle peut
toujours redevenir applicable si, par exemple, les parties conviennent

d'un autre tribunal ou si un autre tribunal est fourni par le jeu
automatique d'un autre instrument liant les deux parties. Le Statut
est un instrument de ce genre et son article 37 a précisémentun tel
effet.))(C.I.J.Recueil 1964, p. 38.)

Je cite ici tout ce passage parce que, selon moi, le problème qui nous
occupe est celui du maintien en vigueur du chapitre 11de l'Acte général.
La seule référenceà la Société desNations ou à l'un quelconque de ses
organes ou fonctionnaires que I'on trouve dans ce chapitre est la mention
qui y est faite de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, qui n'était
pas elle-mêmeun organe de la SdN. 11est toutefois fait mention aussi de

fonctionnaires de la SdN dans d'autres chapitres de I'Acte général. Maisà
mon avis c'est simplement à propos de fonctions administratives acces-
soires et en aucune façon de questions qui seraient fondamentales pour la
validité de I'Acte général lui-même.Les articles 6 et 9 sont les seuls
articles du chapitre premier où ilsoit question de la SdN ou de ses fonc-
tionnaires. La référenceau président en exercice du Conseil de la Société
des Nations que I'on trouve à l'article 6 constitue seulement une variante.

Le paragraphe 2 du mêmearticle prévoitd'autres moyens de nomination
des commissaires. Le lieu de réunion des commissions dépendait des
parties; il n'étaitni obligatoire ni indispensable que ce soit le Siègede la
SdN. Ainsi ce n'est pas à cause des articles 6 et 9 que le chapitre premier
aurait pu devenir inopérant après la disparition de la SdN. II convient
également de noter que pour les Etats qui adhéraient aux chapitres pre-

mier et 11, l'article20 empêchait l'application du chapitre premier aux
différendsportant sur des droits juridiquement protégés.
Pour ce qui est du chapitre 1V de l'Acte général,le renvoi à la Cour
permanente de Justice internationale qui figure aux articles 31, 33, 34 b),
37 et 41 ne poserait pas de difficultéentre la France et l'Australie grâce à
l'article 37 du Statut de la Cour; en ce qui concerne la mention du Greffier

de la Cour permanente, la question est régléepar la résolution 24 (1)des
Nations Unies en date du 12 février 1946 et par la résolution de la
Société desNations en date du 18 avril 1946. Les articles 43 et 44 de
l'Acte généralont 6:téappliqués et la dénonciation en vertu de l'article 45
peut toujours s'effectuer par une communication directe entre les parties
ou par l'inter~entio~ndu Secrétaire généralde l'organisation des Nations
Unies, agissant en vertu des résolutions que je viens de mentionner. La

France et le Roya~ime-Uni n'ont d'ailleurs éprouvéaucune difficulté à
dénoncer l'Acte en adressant cette année des communications à cette fin
au Secrétaire génér,al.
II est cependant juste de dire que, sans le personnel de la SdN, il n'était
peut-être paspossible de donner pleinement effet au chapitre IIIrelatif au
règlement arbitral après la disparition de la SdN. Cependant cette im-But this inability to operate a part of the General Act did not render even
that part, in my opinion, invalid.
The General Act itself indicates that specific parts or a combination
of its parts of the Act were intended to be severable, and to be capable of

validity and operation independently of other parts, or combinations of
parts. States acceding to the General Act were not required to accede to
the Act was a whole but might accede only to parts thereof (see Art. 38).

I can find no warrant whatever for the view that in acceding to the
General Act the States doing so conditioned their accession on the con-

tinued existence of the League, or of any of its organs or functionaries,
however much for convenience in carrying out their major agreement as
to pacific settlement of disputes it may have been found convenient to
utilize the functionaries or organs of the League for incidental purposes.
ln the language of the Court in theBarcelona Traction, Liglli and Power
Company, Limited case (I.C.J. Reports 1964, p. 38), "the end" sought by

the Parties so far as Chapter II of the General Act was concerned was
"obligatory judicial settlementV-al1 else was but means of effecting that
major purpose.

Chapter LLthus is in no way dependent on the contipued availability

of the Permanent Court of Lnternational Justice or of the Secretary or any
other functionary of the League. As between Members of the United
Nations, the resolutions of the United Nations and the League of Na-
tions, to which 1 have previously referred, render the Secretary-General
of the United Nations available.
1 now turn to the suggestion that in some way the resolution of the

General Assembly of 28 April 1949, 268A (LLL)i,nstructing the Secretary-
General to prepare a revised text of the General Act, including the
amendments indicated in the resolution, and to hold that text open to
accession by States under the title "Revised General Act for the Pacific
Settlement of International Disputes", acknowledged the disappearance
of the General Act as at that date or caused that Act at that time to cease

to be valid.
It is important, 1 think, to indicate what effect in truth the disappear-
ance of the League had on the General Act. Lnthe first place, the General
Act then became a closed treaty in the sense that it had been open for
accession only by Members of the League and by such non-member
States to whom the Council of the League had communicated a copy of

the Act. Accepting the view that a State which had been a Member of the
League would have been able to accede to the General Act after the
demise of the League, nonetheless the General Act could properly then
be called a closed treaty. There were many States who were either then,
or could likely become, Members of the United Nations which could not
qualify for accession to the General Act. In this way it lacked that pos-

sible universality, though not exclusivity, which had been one of its
merits at the time of its creation. Also, some of the 20-odd States whopossiblité d'appliquer un chapitre de l'Acte généraln'avait pas pour
conséquence, à mon avis, de priver mêmece chapitre de sa validité.
D'après l'Acte général lui-mêmec ,ertains éléments ou combinaisons

d'éléments de l'Acte étaient conçus pour pouvoir être disjoints, et
pouvaient conserver leur validité et s'appliquer indépendamment des
autres élémentsou combinaisons d'éléments.Les Etats adhérant à l'Acte
généraln'avaient pas à souscrire à l'Acte dans sa totalité; ils pouvaient se
contenter d'adhérer à certaines de ses parties (voir art. 38).
Rien ne justifie itmon sens l'idéequ'en adhérant à l'Acte généralles

Etats subordonnaient leur consentement au maintien en existence de la
SdN, ou de l'un quelconque de ses organes ou fonctionnaires, bien que,
pour donner suite ;il'accord principal concernant le règlement pacifique
des différends, on ait pu juger commode d'utiliser les fonctionnaires ou
les organes de la SdlNà des fins secondaires.

Pour reprendre les termes utilisés par la Cour dans l'affaire de la
Barcelona Traction, Liglit and Power Company, Limited, exceptions pré-
liminaires, arrêt(C.I.J., Recueil 1964, p. 38) ((la fin)) recherchée par les
Parties en ce qui concerne le chapitre 11de I'Acte généralétait le ((règle-
ment judiciaire obl.igatoire »; tout le reste n'étaitque moyens d'atteindre

cet objectif principal.
Le chapitre Il ne dépend donc aucunement de la possibilité depouvoir
continuer à s'adresijer à la Cour permanente de Justice internationale ou
au Secrétaire généralou à tout autre fonctionnaire de la SdN. Entre les
Membres de l'organisation des Nations Unies, les résolutions de I'ONU

et de la SdN que j'rii précédemmentévoquéespermettent d'avoir recours
au Secrétairegénéralde I'ONU.
J'en viens maintenant à la thèse qui voudrait qu'en quelque manière la
résolution de l'Assemblée généraledu 28 avril 1949 (résolution 268A
(III)), par laquelle le Secrétaire généralétait chargé d'établir un .texte
reviséde l'Acte généralen tenant compte des amendements spécifiés dans

la- résolution et de le tenir ouvert à l'adhésion desEtats sous le titre
((Acte général revisépour le règlement pacifique des différends inter-
nationaux)), consacrait la disparition de l'Acte généralà cette date ou
mettait fin à sa validitéà partir de ce moment.
Il me paraît important de dire quel a étél'effet réelde la disparition de

la SdN sur I'Acte général.En premier lieu, l'Acte généralétait alors
devenu un traitéferméen ce sens qu'il a été désormaisréservéà l'adhésion
des Membres de la SdN et des Etats Membres auxquels le Conseil de la
SdN avait commuriiqué une copie de l'Acte. Mêmesi l'on admet qu'un
Etat qui avait fait partie de la SdN aurait pu adhérer à l'Acte généralaprès

la disparition de cette organisation, I'Acte généralpouvait néanmoins
êtreconsidéré comme un traité fermé. De nombreux Etats qui étaient
alors ou pouvaient vraisemblablement devenir membres de I'Organi-
sation des Nations Unies n'étaient .pas en mesure d'adhérer à I'Acte
général. De ce point de vue, la possibilité d'atteindre à l'universalité
- mais non à l'exclusivité - qui avait étél'un de ses avantages à l'époque

de son adoption n'existait plus désormais. En outre certains des quelquewere parties to the General Act were not members of the United Nations
and thus did not have the benefit of Article 37 of the Court's Statute.
Further, as Lhave already pointed out, Chapter III (Arbitration) was not
capable of being fully operated for want of the functionaries of the
League. Bearing in mind the severability of the parts of the General Act
to which Lhave already referred, the precise terms of Chapters 1, ILand
IV of the General Act and the effect of Article 37 of the Court's Statute,

as its operative extent was fully disclosed by the decision of the Court in
the Barcelona Traction, Liglit and Power Company, Limited case (supra),
the demise of the League thus left the provisions forthe judicial settlement
of legal disputes fully operative between those who had acceded to the
General Act and who were Members of the United Nations, but settle-
ment of disputes by arbitration under its terms may not have been any
longer available to those States.

This state of affairs is adequatelyand properly described in the recitals
to the General Assembly's resolution of 28 April 1949:
"The efficacy of the General Act of 26 September 1928 for the

Pacific Settlement of International Disputes is impaired by the fact
that the organs of the League of Nations and the Permanent Court
of International Justice to which it refers have now disappeared."

This recital treats the settlement by conciliation, legal process and ar-
bitration in the one description without differentiationThe choice of the
word "efficacy" which is in contrast to "validity" and of the word "im-
paired" is accurate in the description of the effect of the demise of the
League of Nations on the General Act. The language of this recital is
closely akin to the language of this Court in the passage from the Bar-

crlona Traction, Ligl~tand Power Company, Limited case (supra) which 1
have quoted earlier in this opinion.
Itwas to enable the substantive provisions of the General Act to be
operated to their full efficacy that the Revised General Act was proposed.
The General Assembly could not have destroyed the General Act: it
had no authority so to do. That was a matter exclusively for the parties
to the treaty. In any case the General Assembly was hardly likely to do

so, there being more than 20 parties to the General Act and no certainty
as to the extent of the accession t,oa new treaty. The problem before the
Assembly, 1 think, was twofold. First of all, it wanted to have a General
Act in the substantive terms of the 1928Act, al1the parts of which would
be capable of being fully operated. Secondly, it wanted to enable an
enlargement of accession to it. It desired to restore its possible universality
whilst not making it an exclusive means of the settlement of disputes

(see Art. 29). The enlargement of the area of accession to a multilateral
treaty has given difficulty; and it has only been found possible to do so
otherwise than by acts of parties in the case of a narrow group of treaties
of a non-polit.ical kind. But by producing a new treaty, with its own
accession clause, the Assembly was able to open a General Act to al1vingt Etats parties à l'Acte n'étaient pas membres del'organisation des
Nations Unies et ne pouvaient donc pas se prévaloir de l'article 37 du
Statut de la Cour. Enfin, comme je l'ai déjà souligné, le chapitre III
(relatif au règlement arbitral) ne pouvait pas jouer pleinement sans le
concours des fonctionnaires de la SdN. Compte tenu de la séparabilité,
que j'ai déjà évoquéed ,es diverses parties de l'Acte général,des termes
précisde ses chapitres premier, II et IV et de l'effet de l'article 37 du
Statut de la Cour, parfaitement précisépar la décision de la Cour en
l'affaire de la Barcelona Traction (supra), l'effondrement de la SdN
n'empêchait pasles dispositions concernant le règlement judiciaire des

différends juridique:^ de jouer pleinement entre les Etats qui avaient
adhéré à l'Acte généralet qui étaient Membres de l'organisation des
Nations Unies, mais ces Etats n'avaient peut-êtreplus la possibilité de
réglerleurs différendspar l'arbitrage en vertu de ses dispositions.
Cette situation est décrite avec précisionet exactitude dans le consi-
dérant suivant de la résolution del'Assemblée généraldeu 28 avril 1949:
ctL'efficacitéde l'Acte généralpour le règlement pacifique des

différendsinternationaux, du 26 septembre 1928,setrouve diminuée
du fait que les organes de la Sociétédes Nations et la Cour perma-
nente de Justice internationale, auxquels il se réfère,ont aujourd'hui
disparu.))
II n'est fait aucune différenceentre le règlement par le moyen de la con-
ciliation, du recoursà la justice internationale et de l'arbitrage. Le mot

((efficacité, qui s'oppose à tvaliditén,et le qualificatif tdiminuée»
dépeignent defaçon,préciseles conséquences de la disparition de la SdN
pour l'Acte général.Les termes de ce considérant sont très voisins de
ceux qui ont étéemployéspar la Cour dans le passage de [:arrêten l'af-
faire de laBarcelona Traction que j'ai cité précédemmen dtans la présente
o~inion.
C'est pour donner aux dispositions de fond de l'Actegénéral leur pleine
efficacité que l'on a proposé la rédaction d'un Acte général revisé.
L'Assembléegénéralen'aurait pas pu faire disparaître l'Acte général:
elle n'avait pasle pouvoir de le faire.Is'agissait là d'une question réser-
véeexclusivement aux parties au traité. IIyavait d'ailleurs peu de chances
que l'Assemblée générale agisse ainsi, puisque l'Acte généralcomptait
plus de vingt parties et qu'on n'avait aucune idéede l'accueil que ren-

contrerait un nouveau traité. Le problème qui se posait à l'Assemblée
était donc double à mon avis. Tout d'abord, l'Assembléesouhaitait
disposer d'un acte généralcomprenant des dispositions sensiblement
analogues àcellesde l'Acte de 1928,dont tous lesélémentspuissent jouer
sans obstacle. En second lieu, elle souhaitait que des adhésions plus
nombreuses soient possibles. Elle désirait lui rendre son universalité
éventuelle,tout en riefaisant pas de cet instrument un moyen exclusif de
règlement des différends(voir art. 29). L'élargissement des possibilités
d'adhésion à un traité multilatéral avait posé des difficultés;et la seule
voie qui s'ouvrait, en dehors des initiatives des parties, n'intéressaitqu'unMembers of the United Nations or to such other States not members of
the United Nations to whom a copy of the General Act should be com-
municated. Also those who had acceded to the General Act wereenabled,
if they so desired, to widen their obligations by acceding to the Revised
Act and to obtain access to a fully operable provision as to arbitration.
On the other hand, they could be content with the reduced efficacy
(which relates only to Part III) but continuing validity of the Act of 1928.

The Revised Act was a newand independent treaty, though for drafting
purposes it referentially incorporated the provisions of the Act of 1928
with the stated amendments. These amendments included an express

provision forthe substitution of the International Court of Justice forthe
Permanent Court of International Justice. This is indicative of the fact
that there may have been some doubt in the minds of some at the time
as to the full efficacyof Article 37 of the Court's Statute, and that the
Assembly was conscious that al1the signatories to the General Act were
not members of the United Nations, having the benefit of Article 37.

In my view, the resolution of the General Assembly of 28 April 1949
affirms the validity of the General Act of 1928and casts no doubt upon it,
though it recognizes that portion of it may not be fully operable. It
recognized that the General Act of 1928remained available to the parties
to it in so far as it mighttill be operative. These words, of course, when
applied to an analysis of the General Act of 1928,clearly covered Chapter
II as being an area in respect of which the General Act remained fully
operative, in the case of Members of the United Nations, having regard
to Article 37 of the Court's Statute and the resolutions of the League of
Nations and the United Nations in 1946.

The question was raised as to why so few of those who had acceded
to the General Act acceded to the Revised General Act. This consideration
does not, of course, bear on the validity of the General Act: but as a
matter of interest it may well be pursued. Two factors seem to me ade-
quately to explain the circumstances without in any way casting doubt
on the validity of the General Act. As 1 have pointed out, the General
Act of 1928,afterthe demise of the League, became a closed treaty, that is
to Say,each State which had acceded to the Act then knew with certainty
towards whom it was bound. The remote possibility that a former
Member of the League might still accede to the General Act does not
really qualify that statement. To accede to the Revised General Act
opened up thepossibility ofobligations to a vastly increased and increasing
number of States under the new General Act. This featureof a treaty such
as the General Act was observed before in the travaux préparatoires (see
p. 67 of the Minutes to which 1 have already referred). ESSAIS NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.BARWICK) 413

groupe restreint de traitésà caractère non politique. En mettant au point
un nouveau traité, comportant sa propre clause d'adhésion, l'Assemblée
était en mesure d'ouvrir I'Acte général à tous les Membres des Nations
Unies ou aux autres Etats non membres des Nations Unies à qui une
copie de I'Acte généralserai'tcommuniquée. En outre, ceux qui avaient

adhéréà I'Acte général pouvaient, s'ils le désiraient, élargirleurs obliga-
tions en adhérant à l'Acte revisé, cequi leur permettait de se prévaloir
d'une disposition relative à l'arbitrage qui soit pleinement applicable.
Dans le cas où ils n'adhéreraient pas à I'Acte revisé, ils pouvaient se
contenter de l'Acte de 1928 dont l'efficacité (limitéeau chapitre 111)se
trouvait diminuée niais qui conservait néanmoins sa validité.

L'Acte reviséétait un traité nouveau et indépendant, bien que sa
rédaction reprenne les dispositions de l'Acte de 1928 avec les amende-
ments qui avaient étéspécifiés. Cesamendements comprenaient une dis-
position expresse prévoyant le remplacement de la Cour permanente de
Justice internationale par la Cour internationale de Justice. Cela montre

que certains éprouvaient peut-être desdoutes à l'époque au sujet de la
pleine efficacitéde l'article 37 du Statut de la Cour, et que l'Assemblée
avait conscience de ce que tous les signataires de l'Acte généraln'ttaient
pas membres de ['Organisation des Nations Unies et qu'ils ne pouvaient
donc se prévaloir de l'article 37.
A mon avis la résolution de l'Assemblée généraledu 28 avril 1949

confirme la validitéde I'Acte généralde 1928et ne laisse subsister aucun
doute à ce sujet, bien qu'elle reconnaisse que certaines parties du traité
ne sont peut-être pas pleinement applicables. Elle admet que les parties à
l'Acte généralde 1928pouvaient encore s'en prévaloirdans lamesure où
il pourrait encorejouer. Si, compte tenu de ces termes, on analyse l'Acte
généralde 1928 ilest manifeste que le chapitre 11était l'un des domaines

où l'Acte général pouvaitencore pleinement jouer à l'égarddes Membres
des Nations Unies étant donné l'article 37 du Statut de la Cour et les
résolutions de la Société desNations et de l'organisation des Nations
Unies de 1946.
Pourquoi, a-t-on demandé, les Etats qui avaient adhéré à l'Acte
général ont-ilsétési peu nombreux à adhérer à I'Acte général revisé?

Bien entendu, la question n'affecte en rien la validité de l'Acte général,
mais il est intéressant de s'y arrêter. Deux facteurs me semblent fournir
une explication adéquate sans jeter le moindre doute sur Eavalidité de
I'Acte général.Comme je l'ai souligné, après la disparition de la SdN
l'Acte généralde 1928 était devenu un traité fermé; en d'autres termes,
chaque Etat qui y avait adhéré savait alors avec précision à l'égard de

qui ilétait lié. La possibilité assez éloignéeu'un ancien Membre de la
SdN puisse encore adhérer à I'Acte général ne change pas vraiment cette
situation. L'adhésion à I'Acte général revisé permettait d'assumer des
obligations à l'égard d'un nombre beaucoup plus grand et d''ailleurs
croissant d'Etats, ainsi qu'on l'a soulignédurant les travaux préparatoires
(voir p. 67 des procès-verbaux auxquels je me suis référé précédemment).414 NUCLEAR TESTS (DISS.OP. BARWICK)

The second factor was that each Stateparty to the General Act and not

acceding to the new Act was to an extent freed of the demands of the
arbitration procedure. It is one thing to be bound to litigate legal disputes
before the Court: quite another to be bound to arbitrate other disputes
on the relatively loose basis of arbitration under the General Act, aequo
etbono.

The mood of the international community in 1949was vastly different
to the mood of the community in the immediately post-World War 1
period in relation to the pacific settlement of disputes. More hope was
probably seen in the United Nations itself and the existence of the op-
tional clause with its very flexible provisions as to reservations. The latter

was no doubt seen by some as preferable to the more rigid formulae of a
treaty such as the General Act.
1therefore conclude that so far from casting doubt on the continued
validity of the General Act of 1928, the resolution of the General As-
sembly of 28 April 1949confirmed the continuing validity of the General
Act. The resolution did not, as the French Annex asserts, "allow for the

eventuality of the Act's operating if the parties agreed to make use of
it". It did not cal1for a reaffirmation of the treaty. The resolution makes
it quite clear, to my mind, that it made no impact on the General Act of
1928, but by providing a new treaty it did afford a widened opportunity
to a wider group of States to become bound by the same substantive
obligations as formed the core of the General Act of 1928.

Some point is made in the Annex of the Australian reservations to its
accession to the General Act. Of the reservations made by Australia upon
its accession to the General Act the French Annex selects first that reser-
vation which relates to the "non-application or suspension" of Chapter II
of the General Act with respect to any dispute which has been submitted

to, or is under consideration by, the Council of the League of Nations.
It is said that with the disappearance of the Leagiie this reservation intro-
duces such uncertainty intothe extent of Australia's obligations under the
Act as to give an advantage to Australia not enjoyed by other accession-
aries to the Act. But in the first place it seems to me that the disappear-
ance of the possibility that there should be a matter under the considera-

tion of the Council of the League could have no effect, either upon
validity of the Australian accession or upon the extent of the obligations
of any other accessionary. The operation of the reservation is reciprocal
and the disappearance of the Council of the League simply meant that
there could be no case for resort to this reservation. The making of the
reservation rather emphasized the independence of the General Act from

the activities of the League. Only such a reservation would involve the
one in the other: and then only to the extent of the subject-matter of the
reservation.
The other reservation made by Australia upon which the French
Annex fastens is the exclusion of disputants, parties to the General Act, Le deuxième facteur est le ~uivant: tout Etat partie à l'Acte général
mais qui n'avait pas adhéré à l'Acte revisé était, dans une certaine
mesure, libéré desastreintes de la procédure d'arbitrage. Etre tenu de
soumettre des différendsjuridiques à la Cour est une chose; c'en est une
autre, toute différente, que de devoir soumettre à l'arbitrage d'autres
litiges sur la base relativement floue,x aequo et bono, qui était celle de
l'arbitrage dans le systèmede l'Acte général.
En 1949, l'étatd'esprit de la communauté internationale n'étaitplus
du tout le mêmequ'immédiatement après la première guerre mondiale,
en ce qui concerne le règlement pacifique des différends.On misait

probablement plus sur les Nations Unies elles-mêmeset sur la clause
facultative, avec les dispositions très souples qu'elle comportait en ce qui
concerne les réserves.Certains y voyaient sans aucun doute un avantage
par rapport aux formules plus rigides d'un traité comme l'Acte général.
Je conclus donc que, loin de rendre douteux le maintien en vigueur de
l'Acte généralde 1928, la résolution de l'Assembléegénéraledu 28 avril
1949 l'a confirmé.Contrairement à ce qu'affirme l'annexe française, ce
n'était pasen vertu de la résolution((que l'Acte pourrait éventuellement
jouer si les parties entendaient s'en prévaloir)). La résolution de 1949
n'appelait pas une nouvelle confirmation du traité. D'aprèsmoi, il ressort
tout à fait clairement de la résolutionelle-même qu'elleétait sanseffet sur
l'Acte généralde 1928,mais qu'en prévoyant l'élaboration d'un nouveau
traitéelle offrait des Etats plus nombreux une possibilité plus générale
de se lier par les obligations de fond qui constituaient l'essencedeActe

de 1928.
L'annexe contient également certaines observations au sujet des ré-
serves dont l'Australie avait accompagné son adhésion à l'Acte général.
Parmi ces réserves, l'annexefrançaise retient tout d'abord celle qui a
trait à la ((non-application ou suspension)) du chapitre LI de l'Acte
généralpour tout différendsoumis au Conseil de la Société desNations
ou en cours d'examen devant ce dernier. Elle affirme qu'une.fois la SdN
disparue cette réserveintroduit une telle incertitude en ce qui concerne
l'étenduedes obligations de l'Australie en vertu de l'Acte que l'Australie
bénéficieraitainsicl'unavantage que n'auraient pas les autres adhérents.
Or, en premier lieu,il me semble que s'il-n'estplus possible qu'une ques-
tion soit en instance devant le Conseil de la SdN cela ne saurait avoir
aucun effet sur la validitéde l'adhésionaustralienne ni sur l'étenduedes
obligations de tout autre adhérent.Lejeu des réserves estréciproqueet la

seule conséquence de la disparition du Conseil de la SdN est que la
réserven'aurait jamais l'occasion d'être appliquéeL. e fait de formiiler la
réservesoulignait plutôt l'indépendance de l'Acte généralpar rapport à
la.SdN, puisque ce n'est que par lejeu de cette réservequ'on pouvait se
soumettre à l'intervention de cette dernière: et cela uniquement dans les
limites fixéespar la réserve.

L'autre réserveaustralienne à laquelle 1'annexe.française fait un sort
concerne l'exclusion de différends avecles partiesà I:Acte généralqui newho are not members of the League of Nations. This is said to have

acquired quite an ambiguous value because no country can be said now
to be a Member of the League of Nations, but it is clear from the decision
of this Court in the Sourk West Africa cases (Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962) that the description "Member of the
League of Nations" is adequate to describe a State which has been a
Member of the League. Again the very making of these reservations by
some accessionaries to the General Act emphasizes its independence of
the League of Nations and of its "system". There can be no uncertainty
in the matter because the Court exists and by its decision can remove any
dubiety which might possibly exist, although 1see none.
1find no substance in the suggestion that "unacceptable advantages"
would result for Australia from a continuance in force of the General Act,
and in any case would not be willing to agree that any such result would
affect the validity of the General Act.
It isthen said that Australia had patently violated the General Act
by attempting in 1939to modify its reservations otherwise than in accor-
dance with Article 45. This objection is based on the fact that on 7 Sep-
tember 1939Australia notified the Secretary-General of the League of

Nations that "it will not regard its accession to the General Act as
covering or relating to any dispute arising out of events occurring during
the Dresentcrisis. Please inform al1States Parties to the Act". This noti-
fication could not be immediately operative because it was made at an
inappropriate time; thecurrent period of the duration of the General Act
expired inAugust 1940. Thus theAustralian notification would not operate
instanter. It had effect if at al1only at the end of the five-yearperiod next
occurring after the date of the notification. What was thought to be the
irregularity of giving this notification at the time it was given was ob-
served upon by some States party to the General Act, but none, including
France, made it the occasion to attempt to terminate the Act. However,
nothing turns on the circumstance that there was no immediate operation
of the notification and 1cannot find any relevance to the problem with
which the Court is'now faced of the fact that Australia took the course it
did in 1939.
Itis next said that the conduct of the two States since the demise of the
Leagueis indicative of the lapse of the General Act. Neither have resorted
to it. In the first place it is not shown that any occasion arose, as between

France and Australia, for resort to the provisions of the General Act
until the present dispute arose. Thus it is not the case of States having
reason to resort to the provisions of the treaty and bypassing or ignoring
its provisions by mutual consent or in circumstances from which a
termination by mutual consent could be inferred. A treaty such as the
General Act does not require affirmation or.use to maintain its validity.
It is denunciation which is the operative factor. Also itis not true to Say
that there has been utter silence on the part of States accessionary to the
General Act, in the period since the demise of the League. 1 have already
remarked for instance on the references to the Act bythe representative ofsont pas membres de la Sociétédes Nations. Cette réserve,nous dit-on, a
pris unevaleur fort ambiguë parce qu'aucun pays ne peut être dit ((Mem-
bre de laSdN ))à présent, maisla décisionde la Cour dans les affaires du
Sud-Ouest africain, exceptions préliminaires, arrêt(C.I.J. Recueil 1962)
établit nettement que les termes ((Membre de la Société desNations))

peuvent s'appliquer à un Etat qui a été membrede la SdN. Là encore, le
fait mêmeque certains adhérents aient formulé ces réserves à l'Acte
général souligne1"indépendancede cet instrument par rapport à la
Société des Nations età son ((système N.Aucune incertitude n'est possible
vu que la Cour existe et que, par sa décision,elle seraitêmede dissiper
tout doute éventuel, bienque je n'en aperçoive pour ma part aucun.
Je ne vois pas en quoi le maintien en vigueur de l'Acte généralentraî-
nerait un ((avantage inacceptable)pour l'Australie, et de toute façonje ne
serais pas disposé Badmettre que la validitéde l'Acte générals'en trou-
verait aucunement affectée.
On affirme ensuite que l'Australie a violéde manière flagrante l'Acte

généralen essayant, en 1939,de modifier ses réservesen dehors de l'appli-
cation de l'article.Cette objection repose sur le fait que, le 7 septembre
1939, l'Australie a aviséle Secrétaire générad le la Société desNations
qu'elle((ne considérerapas son adhésion à l'Acte généralcomme s'appli-
quant ou se rattachant à tout différend occasionnépar les événements
venant à se produire dans la crise actuellD.Cette notification ne pouvait
pas avoir effet immédiatement parce qu'elle n'était pasfaite en temps
opportun: la période de validité en cours venait à expiration en août
1940. La notification australienne n'avait donc pas effet sur-le-champ.
Elle ne pouvait à la rigueur en avoir qu'au terme de la période quin-

quennale suivant la date de la notification. Certains Etats partàl'Acte
généralont formulé des observations à l'époque au sujet de ce qu'ils
considéraient comme une irrégularité,mais aucun d'entre eux, pas même
la France, n'a saisicette occasion pour chercher dénoncerl'Acte.Toute-
fois, l'absence d'effet immédiat de la notification est sans conséquence,
et que l'Australie ait agi ainsi en 1939 me paraît sans pertinence par
rapport au problème qui se pose actuellement à la Cour.

L'annexe française affirme d'autre part que la conduite des deux Etats
depuis l'effondrement du système de la SdN confirme la caducité de

l'Acte général.Ni la France ni l'Australie n'ont eu recours à cet instru-
ment. Mais, en premier lieu, il n'est pas établi que jusqu'à la date du
présent différend l'occasionse soit jamais présentée,entre la France et
l'Australie, de recourir aux dispositions del'Acte général.Ce n'est donc
pas comme si des Etats ayant des raisons d'invoquer les dispositions du
traité les avaient tiludéesou ignorées de commun accord ou dans des
circonstances permettant de conclure que le traitéavait pris fin par con-
sentement mutuel. Un traitécomme l'Acte généraln'a pas besoin d'être
confirmé ou appliqué pour conserver sa validité. C'est la dénonciation
qui est l'élémentdkcisif. En plus il n'est pas vrai que les Etats qui avaient
adhéré à l'Acte généralaient observé un silencetotal depuis I'effondre-France. Nor upon the material produced could it be said that France and
Australia at any time, by inactivity, tacitly agreed to terminate the General

Act as between themselves.

1 turn now to a different matter put forward in the Annex. The French
Annex suggests either that the reservation of 20 May 1966to the decla-
ration by France to the optional compulsory clause (Art. 36(2)) operated
as itself a reservation under the General Act or that though not such a
reservation it superseded and nullified France's obligations under the
General Act. These seem to be propositions alternative to the major
statement in the Annex which was that the General Act because of non-
use and, as it was said, desuetude was precluded from being allowed to
prevail over the expression of France's will in the reservation of 20 May
1966.
1need not Saymore as to the argument as to desuetude than that there
is in my opinion no principle that a treaty may become invalid by "desue-
tude" though it may be that the conduct of the parties in relation to a
treaty, including their inactivity in circumstances where one would expect
activity, may serve to found the conclusion that by the common consent

of the parties the treaty has been brought to an end. But as 1have said
there is nothing whatever in the information before the Court in this case
which in my opinion could found a conclusion that France and Australia
mutually agreed tacitly to abandon the treaty. The French Annex con-
cedes that lapse of time will not itself terminate a treaty, for the Annex
says: "the antiquity of a text was clearly not regarded in itself as an ob-
stacle to itsi.e., the treaty) being relied ..." Also 1have indicated the
extent to which the treaty had in fact been called in aid by other parties
including France and to the fact that there is no evidence of an occasion
when the treaty could have been used between France and Australia and
was not used.
1would now Saysomething as to the effect claimed by France for the
reservation of 20 May 1966.At the outset, it is to my mind clear that the
system of optional declaration to the compulsory jurisdiction of the
Permanent Court of International Justice, and latterly to the jurisdiction
of this Court, was, and was always conceived to be, a completely inde-
pendent system or avenue of approach to the Court for the settlement of
legal disputes to that which may be provided by treaty-bilateral or
multilateral. The jurisdiction under Article 36 (l), which included treaty

obligations to accept the Court's jurisdiction, and that under Article 36
(2) areseparate and independent. The General Act was in fact promoted
by the League of Nations at a time when Article 36 (2) of the Statute of
the Permanent Court was in operation. Thus the system of optional
declaration to the compulsory jurisdiction is regarded as quite separate
from, and independent of, the provisions of the General Act of 1928.

There are notable differences between the two methods of securing
pacific settlement of legal disputes: and it must always be rememberedment de la SdN. J'ai déjà rappelélespropos du représentant de la France.
Les élémentsprésentésen l'espècene permettent aucunement de dire que,
par leur inactivité, la France etAustralie soient tacitement convenues à
un moment quelconque de mettre fin à l'Acte généralentre elles.
J'en viens maintenant à un autre sujet évoquédans I'annexe française.
On y laisse entendre soit que la réservedu 20 mai 1966 à la déclaration
française d'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire au titre de la clause
facultative (art. 36, par. 2) a en elle-mêmel'effet d'une réserve l'Acte
général, soitque, n'ayant pas cet effet, elle n'en a pas moins remplacéet
annuléles obligations souscrites par la France en vertu de'Acte général.
Il semble que ce soit là d'autres façons de présenter la thèse principale

développéedans I'annexe qui est que, en raison de son non-usage et,
comme on l'a dit, de sa désuétude,l'Acte général nepouvait prévaloirsur
la volontéfrançaise:expriméepar la réservedu 20 mai 1966.
Pour ce qui est de l'argument de désuétude,je dirai simplement qu'à
mon avis aucun principe ne prévoitqu'un traitépeut perdre sa validitépar
((désuétude)),bien que le comportement des parties par rapport à un
traité, ycompris leur inactivité dans des cas où l'on s'attendraià des
actes positifs, puisse éventuellementjustifier la conclusion que le traitéa
pris fin par le consentement mutuel des parties. Mais, comme je l'ai déjà
dit, dans le dossier dont la Cour dispose en l'espèce,on ne trouve aucun
élémentqui, à mon sens, autoriseà conclure que la France et l'Australie
se sont tacitement mises d'accord pour renoncer au traité. L'annexe
française concède qu'en lui-mêmele passage du temps ne met pas fin à
un traitécar on ypeut lire: ((l'anciennetéd'un texte n'étaitvisiblement pas
considérée,en elle-.mêmec ,omme un obstacle à son invocation...». J'ai

également rappelédans quelle mesure le traité avait en fait été invoqué
par d'autres parties, y compris la France, et j'ai dit qu'on ne discerne
aucune occasion oii le traité aurait pu êtreappliqué entre la France et
l'Australie et ne'a pas été.
Je voudrais dire un mot de l'effet que la France prétendattacher à la
réservedu 20 mai 1966.Pour commencer, il ne fait aucun doutedans mon
esprit que le systèmede la déclaration d'acceptation de la clause facul-
tative du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, et
depuis de la présente Cour, a toujours étéconsidérécomme une voie
d'accès àla Cour, en vue du règlementde différendsjuridiques, complète-
ment indépendante de celle que peut ouvrir un traité bilatéral ou multi-
latéral. Lajuridiction en vertu du paragraphe1de l'article 36, qui vise les
obligations conventionnelles d'accepter la compétence de la Cour, et
celle qui découle du paragraphe 2 de l'article 36 sont distinctes et auto-

nomes. En fait, la SdN a entrepris de promouvoir l'Acte général à un
moment où l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour permanente
étaiten vigueur. On voit donc que le systèmede l'acceptation de la clause
facultative est considérécomme tout à fait distinct et indépendant des
dispositions del'Acte généralde 1928.
II existe desdiffkrencesnotables entre les deux méthodes de règlement
pacifique des différendsjuridiques: et il ne faut pas perdre de vue que
167that the General Act was not confined to the settlement of legal disputes
by the Court. The General Act had a term or rather, recurrent terms, of
years. Ln default of denunciation the treaty renewed automatically: it
was tacitly renewed. Reservations might only be made on accession. If
further reservations are subsequently notified, they may be treated as a
denunciation or may be accepted by other States parties to the Act. Thus

they become consensually based. Permissible reservations are exhaus-
tively categorized and closely circumscribed in content. Reservations
might be abandoned in whole or in part. The scope of the reservations,
if in dispute, is to be determined by the Court (see Arts. 39, 40 and 41 oi
the General Act).

In high contrast a declaration to Article 36 (2) of the Statute of the
Court (the text and the enurneration of the Article was the same in the
Statute of the Permanent Court of international Justice) need not be
made for any term of years. No limitation is placed by the Statute on the
nature and extent of the reservations which can be made, though the

jurisprudence of the Court woiild seem to require them to be objective
and not subjective in content. Reservations might be made at any time
and be operative immediately even before their notification to States
which had declared to the jurisdiction under the Article (cf. Rigl~t of
Passage overIndian Territory, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1957,p. 125). Further, though by declaration to the compiilsory

jurisdiction under the Article, States might be brought into contractual
relationships with each other, such declarations do not create a treaty.
Each declarant State becomes bound to accept the jurisdiction of the
Court if invoked by another declarant State in a matter within the scope
~f Article 36 (2) and not excluded by reservation.

The jurisdiction under Article 36 (2) could only be invoked by a
Member of the United Nations, whereas the General Act had been open
to States which were not members of the League of Nations.

In the light of these notable differences between the two methods of
providing for judicial settlement of international legal disputes, 1can see

many objections to the proposition that a declaration with reservations
to the optional clause could Vary the treaty obligations of States which
were parties to the General Act. Bearing in mind the readiness with which
reservations to the declaration to the compulsory jurisdiction of the
Court under Article 36 (2) could be added, terminated or varied, accep-
tance of the proposition that such a reservation could Vary or bring to

an end the obligations in a treaty would mean that there would be little
value as between Members of the United Nations in a treaty which could
be varied or terminated at the will of one of the parties by the simple
device of adding a destructive reservation .operating instanter to its
declaration to the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court. This would be a

168l'Acte généralne concernait pas seulement le règlement de ces différends

par la Cour. Les obligations de l'Acte généralétaient souscrites pour un
terme ou plutôt pour des termes renouvelables exprimés en années.
Faute de dénonciation le traité était prorogé automatiquement: ilétait
tacitement reconduit. Les réserves ne pouvaient êtreformulées qu'au
moment de l'adhésion. Si des réserves supplémentaires étaient notifiées
par la suite, elles pouvaient êtreconsidéréescomme des dénonciations ou
acceptées par les autres Etats parties à I'Acte. Elles étaient alors fondées

sur le consentement mutuel. esréserves autorisées étaient exhaustive-
ment énuméréeset s'inscrivaient dans certaines limites précises. Elles
pouvaient êtreabandonnées en tout ou en partie. En cas de litige, c'était
à la Cour qu'il appartenait de déterminer la portée des réserves (voir
art. 39, 40 et 41 de l'Acte général).
Par un contraste marqué, une déclaration au titre de I'article 36, para-
graphe 2,du Statut de la Cour (le texte de I'article et l'énumération quiy

figure sont les mêmesque dans le Statutde la Cour permanente) n'a pas à
êtrefaite pour un nombre d'années déterminé.Le Statut n'assigne aucune
limite à la nature et à l'étendue des réservesqui peuvent être formulées,
bien que la jurisprudence de la Cour paraisse exiger qu'elles soient objec-
tives et non pas subjectives dans leur teneur. Des réserves peuvent être
faites à tout moment et entrer en vigueur immédiatement avantsmême
d'êtrenotifiées auxEtats qui ont acceptélajuridiction de la Cour en vertu

de I'article (voir l'affaire dDroit de passageen territoire indien, excrp-
tionspréliminaires,arrêt, C.I.J.Recueil 1957, p. 125).En outre, bien que,
en déclarant qu'ils acceptent la juridiction obligatoire conformément à
l'article, des Etats puissent nouer une relation consensuelle, ces déclara-
tions ne donnent pas naissance à un traité. Tout Etat déclarant est tenu
par là mêmed'accepter la compétence de la Cour si elle est invoquée par
un autre Etat déclarant dans une affaire relevant de I'article 36, para-

graphe 2,et qui n',apas étéexclue par une réserve.
La compétence en vertu de I'article 36, paragraphe 2, ne peut être
invoquée que par un Membre des Nations Unies, alors que l'Acte
généralétaitouvert aux Etats qui n'étaient pas membres de la Société des
Nations.
Compte tenu de ces différencesnotables entre les deux méthodes visant
à assurer le règlement judiciaire des différendsjuridiques internationaux,

l'idéequ'une déclaration d'acceptation de la clause facultative, accom-
pagnée de réserve:;,puisse modifier les obligations contractuelles d'Etats
parties à I'Acte généralme semble se heurter à de nombreuses objections.
Vu la soudaineté avec laquelle on peut ajouter, retirer ou modifier des
réserves à la déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire en
vertu de I'articl36, paragraphe 2, dire que cette réserve peut modifier les
obligations conventionnelles ou y mettre fin reviendrait à dire qu'entre
Membres des Nations Unies il serait impossible d'attacher beaucoup de

prix à un traité qui pourrait êtremodifiéou dénoncéau gréde l'une des
parties par la simple méthode consistant à ajouter une réservedestructrice
et immédiatement applicable à sa déclaration d'acceptation de la juri-cataclysmic inroad on the accepted view of the law of treaties which does
not permit a unilateral termination or variation of a treaty except in
accordance with its terms. Termination by occurrences which affect the
mutual consent of the parties to the treaty, which include those on which
a treaty is conceived by the mutual will of the parties to have been in-
tended to come to an end, emphasizes the essentially consensual basis of
termination or variation.
Also, when the differences in the provisions of Article 36 and those of
the General Act relating to the making of reservations are closely ob-
served, it will be seen that, whilst given the same description "reserva-
tion", those for which the General Act provides appear to be of a different
order to those which are permissible under the Article. The purpose of
providing for reservations, it seems to me, is different in each case.
Reservations for which a treaty provides are essentially based on
consent either because within the treaty provisions as permissible reser-

vations, as for example, in Article 39 of the General Act or because they
are accepted by the other party to the treaty-see generally Part 2,
section 2, of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. In the case
of the General Act, the reservation falling within one of the classifications
of Article 39, not made on accession, sought to be added by way of partial
denunciation under Article 45 (4), can only be effective with respect to
any accessionary to the General Act, if accepted by that State. It cannot
in any case operate until at least six months from its notjfication (see
Art. 45 (2)).

Again, in high contrast, a reservation to a declaration under the op-
tional clause, is a unilateral act, can be made at any time, operate in-
stanter, even before notification to other declarants to the optional clause
and is not lirnited by the Statute as to its subject-matter, for the reason
no doubt that the whole process under the article is voluntary. The State
may abstain altogether or accept the jurisdiction to any extent and for
any time. This "flexibility" of the system of optional cornpulsory juris-
diction may in due course increasingly bring that system into disfavour

as compared with a more certain and secure régime ofa treaty. But be
that as it may, the brief comparison 1have made, which is not intended
to be exhaustive, emphasizes the irrelevance to the treaty of reservations
made to a declaration under the optional clause.

1should also point out that the reservation of 20 May 1966 did not
in any way conform to the requirements of the General Act. It is worth
observing that Article 17 of the General Act requires submission to the
Court of al1disputes subject to any reservalionwhichmay be made under
Article 39. The reservation of 20 May 1966 was not made under that
Article: it was not made at a time when reservations could be made.
It purported to operate immediately. It was not intended to be notifieddiction obligatoire de la Cour. Ce serait un bouleversement complet des
idéesconsacréespar le droit des traités, qui ne permet ni de dénoncer ni
de modifier unilatéralement un traité autrement que de la manière qui y
est prévue.L'abrogation du fait d'événementsqui affectent le consente-
ment mutuel des parties, y compris ceux où les parties considèrent que
leur volonté commune a étéde mettre fin au traité, souligne le caractère
essentiellement consensuel de l'extinction ou de l'amendement.
En outre, si on examine de prèsles différencesentre les dispositions de
l'article 36 et celle:;de'Acte généralau sujet des réserves,on constate

que, si lemêmeterme de ((réserve )est employé,les réservesque prévoit
l'Acte généralne paraissent pas êtredu mêmeordre que cellesqu'autorise
l'article 36. 11me semble que dans l'un et l'autre cas l'objet recherchéen
autorisant lesréservesn'est pas le même.
Les réserves à un traité sont essentiellement fondéessur le consente-
ment, soit parce qu'elles figurent dans lesdispositions du traitéau nombre
des réservesautorisées, comme par exemple dans l'article 39 de l'Acte
général, soit parcequ'elles sont acceptéespar l'autre partie au traité -
voir d'une façon générale lapartie II, section 2, de la Convention de
Vienne sur le droit des traités.Dans le cas de l'Acte général,une réserve,
entrant dans l'une descatégoriesénumérées à l'article 39, qui n'a pas été
faite au moment de I'adhésjonet que l'on cherche àintroduire par voie de

dénonciation partielle en vertu de l'article 45, paragraphe 4, ne peut
avoir effetà l'égardde tout Etat ayant adhéré à l'Acte généralque si elle
est acceptéepar cet Etat. Elle ne sera en tout cas applicable qu'à l'expi-
ration d'un délai minimum de six mois à dater de sa notification (voir
art.45, par. 2).
En net contraste encore une fois, une réserveau titre de la clause facul-
tative est un acte unilatéral;elle peut être faità tout moment, entrer en
vigueur immédiatement avant mêmed'êtrenotifiéeauxautres Etats ayant
accepté la juridiction obligatoire et, aux termes du Statut, porter sur
n'importe quel sujet, sans doute parce qu'on est ici dans le cadre d'une
option entièrement volontaire. L'Etat peut s'abstenir totalement d'accep-
ter lajuridictionoii ne l'accepter que dans la mesure ou pour le délaiqui

lui convient. Cette: ccsouplesse»du systèmede la juridiction obligatoire
peut àlalonguefaire peser un discréditgrandissant sur ce systèmesi on le
compare au régime:plus préciset plus sûr des traités.Quoi qu'il en soit,
la brèvecomparaison que je viens de faire et qui ne prétend pas épuiser
le sujet souligne le:manque de pertinence, par rapport à un traité, des
réserves accompagnant une déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction
obligatoire.
Je dois aussi faire observer que la réservedu 20 mai 1966ne satisfait en
aucune façon aux c:onditionsposéespar l'Acte général.Il y a lieu de noter
que l'article 17 de l'Acte général oblige à soumettre à la Cour tous les
différends, sauf ceux qu'excluraient les réserves éventuellep srévues à
l'article 39.La réservedu 20 mai 1966 n'a pas été faiteau titre de cet
article; elle n'a pas étéformulée à un moment où une réserveaurait pu

êtrefaite. Elle étaitcensées'appliquer immédiatement. On n'envisageait419 NUCLEAR TESTS (DISS.OP. BARWICK)

to members bound by the General Act. 1doubt whether it isa reservation
of a kind within any of the categories listed in Article 39(2) of the General
Act. It clearly could not fa11within paragraphs (a) or (6) of that sub-
clause, and itdoes not seem to me that it could fall within paragraph (c).
Because of the complete independence of the two means of providing for
the resolution of international legal disputes, 1 can see no reason what-
ever on which a reservation to a declaration to the optional compulsory
jurisdiction under Article 36 (2) could be held to operate to Vary the
treaty obligations of such a treaty as the General Act.

Apparently realizing the unacceptable consequences of the proposition
that the obligations of a treaty might be supplanted by a reservation to a
declaration to the optional clause, the French Annex seeks to limit its
proposition to the General Act which, it claims, is:

". ..not a convention containing a clause conferring jurisdiction
on the Court in respect of disputes concerning the application of its
provisions, but a text the exclusive object of which is the peaceful
settlement of disputes, and in particular judicial settlement".

This statement seems to have overlooked the provisions of Article 41 of
the General Act and, in any case, 1 am unable to see any basis upon
which the position as to the effectof a reservation to a declaration to the
optional clause can be limited as proposed.
Itis also said that the declaration to compulsory jurisdiction under
Article 36 (2) was an act in the nature of an agreement relating to the
same matter as that of the General Act. As 1 have already pointed out, a
declaration to compulsoryjurisdiction is not an agreement though it can
raise a consensual bond. In any case, the subject-matter of the General

Act and that of declaration to the optional clause, are not identical.

There is a suggestion in'the French Annex that because States bound
by the General Act who have also declared to the optional compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court from time to time have kept the text of their
respective reservations under the Act and under the optional clause
conformable to each other, a departure from this "parallelism" either
indicates a disuse of the General Act or requires the absence of a com-
parable reservation to the General Act to be notionally supplied. But the
suggested parallelism did not exist in fact, as the Australian Memorial
clearly indicates (see paras. 259-277). Further, therecan be no validity in
the proposition that because France did not make a partial denunciation
of the General Act in the terms of its reservation to its declaration under
the optional clause, it should, by reason of former parallelism, be taken
to have done so.

In sum, 1am unable to accept the proposition that the reservation in the
declaration of 20 May 1966by France had any effect on the obligation
of France under the General Act of 1928. Its consent to the Court'spas de la notifier aux parties à l'Acte général.Je doute que cette réserve

particulière entre dans l'une quelconque des catégories énumérées à
l'article 39, paragraphe 2, de l'Acte général. LI est clair qu'elle n'aurait
pas pu relever des alinéas a) ou 6) de ce paragraphe et il ne semble pas
non plus que l'alinéac) s'y applique. Etant donné l'indépendance com-
plète des deux méthodes de règlement des différends juridiques inter-
nationaux, je ne vois aucune raison pour qu'une réserveaccompagnant

une déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire en vertu de
l'article 36, paragraphe 2, puisse avoir l'effet de modifier les obligations
conventionnelles souscrites en vertu d'un traité comme l'Acte général.
II semble que la France, se rendant compte des conséquences inaccep-
tables de la théorie selon laquelle les obligations d'un traité pourraient
êtreannulées par ilne réserve en vertu de la clause facultative, cherche
dans son annexe à en limiter l'application à l'Acte généralqui est d'après

elle:
((non pas ...une convention comportant, pour les litiges relatifs à
l'application de ces dispositions, une clause conférant compétence à

la Cour, mais ...un texte dont l'objet exclusif est le règlement paci-
fique des différendset notamment [leur] règlement judiciaire n.

Cette déclaration ne semble pas tenir compte des dispositions de I'ar-
ticle 41 de l'Acte généraletje ne vois, en tout cas, aucun élémentpermet-
tant d'attribuer cette application limitéeà une réserveà une déclaration
d'acceptation de la clause facultative.
II est dit également que la déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction
obligatoire au titre de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, est un acte ayant la
nature d'un accord portant sur le mêmeobjet que l'Acte général.Comme

je l'ai déjàdit, une déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire
n'est pas un accord, bien qu'elle puisse créer des liens consensuels. De
toute façon l'objet de l'Acte généralet celui de la déclaration d'accepta-
tion de la clause facultative ne sont pas identiques.
A en croire l'annexe française, du fait que les Etats liés par l'Acte
généralqui ont aussi accepté la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour ont de

temps àautre maintenu la correspondance entre les textes de leurs réserves
respectives en vertu de l'Acte et en vertu de la clause facultative, la rup-
ture de ce ccparalltlisme ))indiquerait soit que l'Acte général esttombé
dans le non-usage, soit qu'une réservecomparable doit êtreréputéeavoir
été formulée à l'égardde l'Acte général. Maisen fait ce prétendu paral-
lélisme n'existe pas ainsi que le démontre le mémoire australien (voir
par. 259-277). De plus, il est impossible d'admettre que la France, qui n'a

formulé aucune dénonciation partielle de l'Acte généraldans sa réserveà
sa déclaration d'acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire, devrait, en raison
du parallélisme susmentionné, être considérée commel'ayant fait.

En somme, je ne peux pas souscrire à l'idéeque la déclaration française
du 20 mai 1966 ait eu un effet quelconque sur les obligations de la

France en vertu de l'Acte généralde 1928. Le consentement à la compé-jurisdiction by accession to the General Act was untouched by the later
expression of its will in relation to the optional clause. The reservation
by France under Article 36 (2) is no more relevant to the jurisdiction of
the Court under Article 36 (1) than was such a reservation in the Appeal
Relating to the Jurisdiction of theICA0 Council, India v. Pakistan (I.C.J.

Reports 1972, p. 46). There an attempt to qualify the jurisdiction derived
from a treaty, by the terms of a reservation to a declaration under the
optional clause, was made. The attempt failed. The Court founded its
jurisdiction exclusively on the treaty provision and regarded the reser-
vation to the declaration of the optional clause as irrelevant. See the
Judgment of the Court, pages 53and 60 of the Reports.

There may well have been an explanation why there was no attempt
either on the part of France or earlier on the part of the UnitedKingdom
to denounce the General Act when contemplating nuclear testing in the
atmosphere of the South Pacific,whilst at the same time making what was
considered an appropriate reservation to the declaration to the optional
clause. I remarked earlier that the General Act had become a closed
treaty. The identity of those to whom France and the United Kingdom
were thereby bound was known. No doubt as of 1966the then attitudes of
those States to nuclear testing in the atmosphere of the South Pacific
were known or at least thought to be known. On the other hand, there

were States declarant to the optional clause from whom opposition to
nuclear testing in the atmosphere at all, and particularly in the Pacific,
might well have been expected. However there is not really any need for
any speculation as to why denunciation was not attempted by France in
1966.It sufficesfrom the point of view of international law that it did not
do so.

Article 36 (1) of the Court's Statute erects the jurisdiction of the Court
in respect ofal1matters specially provided for in treaties and conventions
in force.1 have so far reached the conclusion that the General Act of 1928
was a treaty or convention in force between France and Australia as at
the date of the Application. I have already quoted Article 17of the Gen-
eral Act, in Chapter II, dealing with judicial settlement. The second para-
graph of the Article incorporates the text of Article 36(2) of the Statute
of the Permanent Court of International Justice in so far as it deals with
the subject-matters ofjurisdiction.Thus al1"legal disputes concerning: (a)
the interpretation of a treaty; (6) any question of international law;
(c) the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a

breach of international obligation; .. ." are included in the scope of
Article 17.
The question, then, in respect of Article 36 (1) is: what are the matters
specially provided for in the General Act which are referred to the Court?
They are, in my view, so far as presently relevant, each dispute with
regard to which the parties are in conflict as to their respective rights, and ESSAISNUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS. BARWICK) 420

tence de la Cour donnépar la France en adhérant à l'Acte généraln'est pas

affectépar la volonté qu'elle a exprimée par la suite au sujet de la clause
facultative. La réserve française au titre de I'article 36, paragraphe 2,
n'est pas plus pertinente en ce qui concerne la compétence de la Cour
aux termes de I'article 36, paragraphe 1, que ne l'était une réserve sem-
blable dans l'affaire de l'Appel concernant la compétencedu Conseil de
I'OACI (C.I.J. Recueil 1972, p. 46).Là aussi on avait essayéde rejeter la
compétence tirée d'untraité en invoquant une réserveformulée en vertu

de la clause facull.ative. Cette tentative a échoué. La Cour a fondé sa
juridiction exclusivement sur le traité et considéréque la réserveen vertu
de la clause facultative étaitsans pertinence. Voir l'arrêtde la Cour, ibid.,
pages 53 et 60 du Recueil.
II y a sans doute des raisons pour lesquelles ni la France ni auparavant
le Royaume-Uni ri'ont essayéde dénoncer l'Acte généralà un moment

où ils envisageaient de procéder à des essais nucléaires en atmosphère
dans le Pacifique Sud, alors même qu'ilsprenaient soin de formuler ce qui
leur paraissait être une réserveappropriée dans leurs déclarations d'ac-
ceptation de la clause facultative. J'ai déjà fait observer que l'Acte
généralétait devenu un traité fermé. L'identité des Etats auxquels la
France et le Royaume-Uni étaient liéspar l'Acte était donc connue. 11
est certain qu'en 1966 l'attitude adoptée alors par ces Etats à l'égard des

essais nucléaires en atmosphère dans le Pacifique Sud était connue ou
du moins supposée êtreconnue. En revanche, il y avait des Etats qui
avaient fait des déclarations en vertu de la clause facultative et dont on
pouvait appréhender l'opposition aux essais nucléaires dans I'atmo-
sphère, d'une façon généraleet dans le Pacifique en particulier. Toutefois,
il est en réalitésans intérêt d'échafauderdes hypothèses sur les raisons

pour lesquelles la France n'a pas essayéde dénoncer l'Acte généralen
1966. Du point de vue du droit international, il suffit qu'elle ne l'ait pas
fait.
L'article 36, paragraphe 1, du Statut de la Cour prévoit que la Cour
est compétente dans tous les cas spécialement prévus dans les traités et
conventions en vigueur. Je suis parvenu à la conclusion que l'Acte général

de 1928étaitun traité ou convention en vigueur entre la France et 1'Aus-
tralie à la date de la requête australienne. J'ai déjàcité I'article17de l'Acte
général,qui fait partie du chapitre II relatif au règlement judiciaire. La
deuxième phrase de cet article revient à intégrerà I'article 17 la partie de
I'article 36, parag,raphe 2, du Statut de la Cour permanente où sont
énumérésles cas dans lesquels la Cour est compétente. Ainsi, tous les
ccdifférends d'ordre juridique ayant pour objet: a) l'interprétation d'un

traité; 6) tout point de droit international; c) la réalitéde tout fait qui,
s'il était établi, constituerait la violation d'un engagement interna-
tional; ...» rentrent dans le champ d'application de I'article 17.
La question qui se pose par conséquent à propos de I'article 36, para-
graphe 1, est la suivante: quels sont les cas de renvoi à la Cour spéciale-
ment prévus dans l'Acte général?Ce sont, d'après moi, et pour autant

que ce soit pertinent en l'espèce, tous les différends au sujet desquels leslegal disputes concerning any question of international law or the exis-
tence of any fact, which, if established, would constitute a breach of an
international obligation, subject, in any event, to, and, a1 think, only to,
any reservations which may have been made under Article 39 of the

General Act.

It seems to me that there are two possible views as to the elements of
the Court's jurisdiction derived under Article 36 (1) of the Court's
Statute and drawn through the General Act, Article 17 and Article 37
of the Court's Statute.
On the one hand, it may be said that the jurisdiction is complete if the

General Act is a treaty or convention in force between France and Aus-
tralia at the date of the Application. The subject-matter of the Court's
jurisdiction so established would then be described as matters referred
to the Court by the General Act of 1928, that is to Say,disputes between
States bound by the Act as to their respective legal rights, etc. Such
disputes are in that view treated as the general kind of matters which the
Court has authority to resolve by its judicial processes because of the
continued existence of the General Act. On that view, the question

whether the dispute in fact existing now between France and Australia
at the date of the Application is of that kind, becomes a matter of ad-
missibility.
On the other hand, the view may be taken that the necessary elements
of the Court's jurisdiction are not satisfied merely by the establishment
of the General Act as a treaty or convention in force between France and

Australia, but require the establishment of the existence of a dispute
between them as to their respective rights, etc.: that is to say the matter
referred by the General Act is not a genus of dispute but specific disputes
as to the rights of two States vis-à-vis one another. The States in that view
are taken as consenting to the jurisdiction to hear those particular dis-
putes. To use the language used in the case of Ambatielos (Merits),
Greece v. United Kingdoni (I.C.J. Reports 19.53,p. 29), the dispute must

faIl under "the category of differences" in respect of which there is consent
to the Court's jurisdiction. On this analysis, no separate question of ad-
missibility arises; it is al1one question ofjurisdiction, the existence in fact
and in law of the dispute between the two States as to their respective
rights being a sine qua non of jurisdiction in the Court. It is that dispute
which the Court has jurisdiction to decide.

This is the view of the matter which 1prefer. But the Court's Order of
22 June 1973 was made, apparently, on the assumption that a distinct
question of adrnissibility arose, or at any rate could be said to arise.
Accordingly, notwithstanding the opinion 1 have just expressed, 1 am
prepared for the purposes of this opinion to treat the question whether
the dispute between France and Australia is a dispute as to their res-
pective rights as a question of admissibility. However, 1would emphasizeparties se contestent réciproquement un droit et les différends d'ordre
juridique ayant pour objet tout point de droit international ou la réalité
de tout fait qui, s'il étaitétabli, constituerait la violation d'un engagement
international, sans préjudice en tout cas (et à mon avis exclusivement) de
toute réservequi ailrait pu êtreformulée en vertu de l'article 39 de l'Acte

général.
11me semble qu'il n'y a que deux façons possibles de considérer les
éléments de la juridiction de la Cour empruntés à l'article 36, para-
graphe 1,du Statut et repris dans I'Actegénéralde 1928,en particulier par
lejeu de son article 17et de l'article 37 du Statut.
D'une part, on peut dire que la compétence est parfaite si I'Acte général

de 1928 est un traité ou convention en vigueur entre la France et I'Aus-
tralie à la date de la requête.L'objet de la compétence ainsi établie serait
alors un des cas pour lesquels l'Acte généralde 1928prévoit le renvoi a la
Cour, c'est-à-dire un différend au sujet duquel des Etats liéspar I'Acte
se contesteraient réciproquement un droit, etc. Dans cette optique ces

différends seraient sur le mêmepied que la catégorie généraled'affaires
que la Cour est habilitée à résoudre judiciairement, en raison du maintien
en vigueur de l'Acte général.Si I'on accepte cette manière de voir, la
question de savoir si le différend qui, en fait, oppose la France et I'Aus-
tralie à la date delarequête rentredans cette catégorie est une question de

recevabilité.
En revanche, on peut considérer que les élémentsnécessaires de la
compétence de la Cour ne sont pas réunissi I'on se borne à démontrer que
l'Acte généralde 1928 est un traité ou convention en vigueur entre la
France et l'Australie, et qu'il faut en outre établir qu'il existe entre elles
un différendau sujet duquel elles se contestent réciproquement un droit,

etc. En d'autres termes, ce qu'envisage l'Acte généralce n'est pas une
catégorie de différends mais un différenddéterminéconcernant les droits
de deux Etats l'un par rapport à l'autre. Dans cette conception, les Etats
sont considéréscomme n'ayant consenti à la compétence que pour ce
différend particulir:r. Pour reprendre les termes employés [par les juges

dissidents] dans l'affaireAmbatielos (fond) (C.I.J. Recueil 1953, p. 29),
ces différends cocistituent (tla catégorie de ceux )) pour' lesquels on a
consenti à la juridiction de la Cour. Selon cette analyse, ilne se pose
aucune question de.recevabilité distincte; il n'y a qu'un seul et unique
problème de compétence, l'existence en fait et en droit du différendentre

les deux Etats au sujet de leurs droits respectifs constituant une condition
sinequa non de la juridiction de la Cour. C'est ce différendque la Cour a
compétence pour trancher.
C'est à cette thèse que va ma préférence.Toutefois, l'ordonnance de la
Cour du 22 juin 1973 me semble partir du postulat qu'une question de
recevabilité distincte se pose ou, tout au moins, qu'on pourrait soutenir

qu'elle se pose. C'est pourquoi, malgré ce que je viens de dire, je suis
prêt, dans le cadre de la présente opinion, à examiner la question de
savoir si le différend entre la France et l'Australie était un différend au
sujet duquel les pa.rties se contestent réciproquement un droit comme s'il

172that, whether regarded as a necessary element of the Court's jurisdiction
or as a matter of admissibility, the question, to my mind, is the same, and
the substantial consequence of an answer to it will be the same whichever

view is taken as between the two views 1have suggested of the necessary
elements of the Court's jurisdiction. That question is whether the Parties
are in dispute as to their respective rights, the word "right" connoting
legal right.

There is therefore, in my opinion, jurisdiction to hear and determine a
dispute between parties bound by the General Act as to their legal rights.
As indicated I shall deal with the question of admissibility as if it were a
separate question.

A distinction has been drawn in thejurisprudence of the Court between
its jurisdiction in a matter and the admissibility of the reference or
application made to it. The Rules of Court maintain the separateness of
the two concepts (see Art. 67) but the Statute of the Court makes no
reference to admissibility. In particular the default provision, Article 53,
does not do so. This might be significant in a case such as the present
where there has been no preliminary objection to admissibility setting out
the grounds upon which it is said the Application is not admissible. The
result of a strict application of Article53 in such a case, if there has been
no special Order such as the Court's Order of 22 June 1973, may be that
any question of admissibility where the respondent does not appear is

caught up in the consideration either ofjurisdiction or of the merits of the
Application. However, the Court being in control of its own procedure
can, as it has done in this case, direct argument on admissibility as a
separate consideration, but no doubt only to the extent to which that
question can properly be said in the circumstances to be of an exclusively
preliminary character.
It may be said that the jurisdiction of the Court relates to the capacity
of the Court to hear and determine matters of a particular nature, e.g.,
those listed in Article 36 (2) of the Statute of the Court, whereas admissi-
bility relates to the competence, receivability, of the reference or appli-
cation itself which is made to the Court.

It might be said that jurisdiction in the present case includes the right
of the Court to enter upon the enquiry whether or not a dispute of the
relevant kind exists and a jurisdiction, if the dispute exists, to grant the
Applicant's claim for its resolution by declaration and Order. If such a
dispute exists, the claim is admissible.
An examination as to admissibility is itself an exercise of jurisdiction
even though a finding as to admissibility may be a foundation for the
exercise of further jurisdiction in resolving the claim. The overlappings'agissait d'une qpestion de recevabilité. Je soulignerai cependant que,
quelle que soit la façon dont on la considère, comme élémentnécessaire
de la juridiction de la Cour ou comme un problème de recevabilité, la

question est selon moi la même,et la conséquenceau fond de la réponse
qui lui sera donnéesera la même,que I'on parte de l'une ou l'autre des
deux conceptions que j'ai mentionnées au sujet des élémentsnécessaires
de la juridiction de la Cour.II s'agit de savoir si les Parties se contestent
réciproquement un droit, au sensjuridique.
Selon moi, la Cour a donc compttence pour connaitre d'un différend
au sujet duquel les parties liéespar l'Acte général secontestent réci-
proquement des droits au sens juridique. Comme je l'ai déjà dit, je
traiterai la question de la recevabilitécomme s'il s'agissait d'une question
à part.

Une distinction est faite dans la jurisprudence de la Cour entre sa
compétence dans un cas d'espèce et la recevabilité de l'acte par lequel
l'instance a étéintroduite. Le Règlement maintient cette distinction entre
les deux notions (voir art. 67) mais le Statut de la Cour ne dit rien de la

recevabilité.Il n'eri est pas question en particulier dans la disposition
relative au défaut:1"article53.Cela mérite peut-être d'êtrrelevédans une
instance comme celle-ci où il n'y a pas eu d'exceptions préliminaires
d'irrecevabilité spécifianltes motifs pour lesquels la requêtene serait pas
recevable. En pareil cas, et s'il n'yavait pas eu d'ordonnance spéciale
comme celle du 22juin 1973, l'application stricte de l'article 53 pourrait
avoir ce résultat qu'en l'absencedu défendeur toute question de receva-
bilitéqui se posemit serait traitée soit avec la compétence soit avec le
fond. Quoi qu'il en soit, la Cour étant maîtresse de sa procédure peut,
comme elle l'a fait en l'espèce,demander que la question de la receva-
bilitésoit débattue à part mais, sans aucun doute, dans la stricte mesure
où I'onest fondé à affirmer en l'occurrence que la recevabilité présente un
caractère exclusivernent préliminaire.
On peut dire qw: la compétence de la Cour concerne son aptitude à
connaître des questrionsd'une certaine nature, par exemple, celles qu'énu-
mère l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour, alors que la rece-
vabilitéconsiste à :jedemander si l'acte introductif d'instance lui-même

remplit les conditions prescrites, sur le plan de la juridiction ou sur celui
de la saisine.
Dans la présenteespèce, lacompétencecomprendrait le droit, pour la
Cour, de déterminer si un différenddu type voulu existe et, dans I'affir-
mative, de faire droit à la demande du requérant visant à obtenir une
déclaration et une injonction. Si un tel différend existe, lademande est
recevable. Examiner la recevabilité c'estdéjà exercer une compétence,
bien que la décisiori prisà ce sujet puisse elle-même servirde fondement
à l'exercice d'une nouvelle compétence pour statuer sur la demande. Il
est évident que les notions de compétence et de recevabilité se chevau-nature of the two concepts of jurisdiction and admissibility is apparent,
particularly where, as here, the existence of a relevant dispute rnay be
seen as a prerequisite to the right to adjudicate derived from Article 17of

the General Act.
1observed earlier that there is no universally applicable definition of
the requirements of admissibility. The claim rnay be incompetent, that
is to say inadmissible, because its subject-matter does not fall within the
description of matters which the Court is competent to hear and decide;
or because the relief which the reference or application seeks is not
within the Court's power to consider or to give; or because the applicant
is not an appropriate State to make the reference or application, as it is
said that the applicant lacks standing in the matter; or the applicant rnay
lack any legal interest in the subject-matter of the application or it rnay
have applied too soon or otherwise at the wrong time, or, lastly, al1
preconditions to the making or granting of such a reference or application
rnay not have been performed, e.g., local remedies rnay not have been
exhausted. lndeed it is possible that there rnay arise other circumstances
in which the reference or application rnay be inadmissible or not re-
ceivable. Thus admissibility has various manifestations.
Of course al1 these elements of the competence of the reference or

application will not necessarily be relevant in every case. Which form of
admissibility arises in any given case rnay depend a great deal on the
source of the relevant jurisdiction of the Court on which reliance is
placed and on the terms in which itsjurisdiction is expressed. This, in my
opinion, is the situation in this case.

The Court labours under the disability that it has no formal objection
to admissibility, particularizing the respect in which it is said that the
Application in inadmissible. The Annex to the Ambassador's letter of
16 May 1973 in challenging the existence of jurisdiction in the Court
under Article 36 (1) of the Statute, bases its objection on the lapse or
qualification of the General Act and not on the absence of a dispute
falling within Article 17of the General Act. Further, there was no express
reference to the admissibility of the Application.
It is, however, possible to construct out of the White Book an argu-
ment that the Application was "without object" in the sense that there
were no legal norms by resort to which the dispute in fact existing between

the Parties could be resolved, which is to Say, though it is not expressly
said, that there was no dispute between the Parties as to their respective
rights (see the terms of Art. 17of the General Act). This, it seems to me,
was suggested in the White Book in relation to the claim that the testing
of nuclear weapons had become unlawful by the customary international
law. It was not, and in my opinion could not be, said that there were no
legal norms by reference to which the claim for the infringement of ter- ESSAIS NUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS. BARWICK) 423

chent, notamment dans les cas comme celui qui nous occupe, où I'exis-
tence d'un différendqui réponde aux conditions voulues peut êtreconsi-
déréecomme une condition nécessairedu droit de statuer découlant de
l'article 17de l'Acte général.

J'ai dit plus haut qu'il n'y a pas de définition universellement applicable
des conditions de la recevabilité. La demande peut n'être pas recevable
parce que son objet n'est pas de ceux sur lesquels la Cour puisse statuer;
ou parce que la Cour n'a pas le pouvoir d'envisager ni d'accorder la
mesure sollicitée;011encore parce que 1'Etatrequérant n'est pas habilitéà
introduire l'instance, n'ayant pas qualité pour agir en l'espèce; ou parce

que le demandeur peut n'avoir aucun intérêt juridique par rapport à
l'objet de la requête,ou bien il peut avoir agi trop tôt ou au mauvais
moment; enfin toutes les conditions qui doivent précéderla présentation
de I'acte introductilr d'instance ou la saisine n'ont peut-êtrepas étéres-
pectées, par exemple si tous les recours internes n'ont pas étéépuisés.

Bien entendu, il peut y avoir encore d'autres cas dans lesquels l'acte
introductif d'instance est irrecevable. L'irrecevabilité se manifeste ainsi
sous diverses formes.

Certes, tous ces éléments relatifsà la recevabilité ou à la validité de

l'acte introductif d'instance ne valent pas nécessairement dans tous les
cas. Quel est le problème particulier de recevabilité qui se pose dans une
espècedonnée? Cela dépenddans une large mesure de la source invoquée
pour fonder la compétence de la Cour et des termes dans lesquels cette
compétence est exprimée. Telle est à mon avis la situation en I'espèce.

LESPARTIES SE CONTESTENT-ELLES RÉCIPROQUEMENT
UN DROIT?

La Cour est gênéepar le fait qu'elle n'est en présence d'aucune ex-
ception formelle d'irrecevabilité, précisant de quel point de vue la requête

peut êtreconsidéréecomme irrecevable. L'annexe à la lettre de I'ambassa-
deur du 16 mai 1973 contestait la compétence de la Cour au titre de
l'article6, paragraphe 1, du Statut, en prenant argument de la caducité
de l'Acte généralou des réservesdont il avait fait l'objet et non de I'inexis-
tence d'un différendvisépar l'article 17 de l'Acte. Au surplus, iln'était

pas fait expressément référence à la recevabilité de la requête.
On peut toutefois interpréter le Livreblanc comme aboutissant à sou-
tenir que la requêteest csans objet ))en ce sens qu'aucune norme juri-
dique ne permet de résoudre le différendopposant en fait les Parties; en
d'autres termes, et bien que ce ne soit pas dit expressément, les Parties ne
se contesteraient pas réciproquement un droit (voir art. 17 de l'Acte

général).C'est ce qui me parait se dégager du Livr elanc à propos de
l'argument selon lequel les essais d'armes nucléairessont devenus illicites
d'après le droit international coutumier. IIn'a pas étédit, et à mon avis
on ne peut pas dire, qu'il n'existe pas de norme juridique permettant de
décidersi la souveraineté d'un Etat sur son territoire et son pouvoir de

174ritorial and decisional sovereignty could be determined-though impor-
tantand difficult legalconsiderations arise in that connection, as was obser-

ved upon in the French Annex by its reference to a threshold of radio-active
intrusion which should not beexceeded. In relation to the claim for breach
of the freedom of the high seas and superincumbent air space, the French
WhitePaper refers to international practice asjustifying what wasproposed
to be done in relation to the area surrounding its atmospheric testing: but
this contention is not related to admissibility.
An element of admissibility is the possession by the applicant State

of a legal interest in the subject-matter of its Application. As it is, in my
opinion, the existence of a dispute as to the respective legal rights of the
Parties which must be the subject-matter of the Application in this case
to satisfy Article17,1 think that upon the establishment of such a dispute
each of the disputants to such a dispute must be held to have a legal
interest in the resolution of the dispute. For my part, the matter of ad-

missibility would end at the point at which it was decided that there was a
dispute between France and Australia as to their respective legal rights,
that is to Say, that a dispute existed as to the right claimed by Australia
as its right or of an obligation of France towards Australia which
Australia claimed to be infringed. There is importance in the presence
of the word rheirin the formula; it is to be a dispute ap theirrespective
rights. That possessive pronoun embraces in my opinion the need for a

legal interest in the subject-matter.

Thus, in my opinion, the question to be resolved at this stage of the
case is whether the Parties were, at the date of the Application, in dispute
as to their respective rights.
That these Parties are in dispute is in my opinion beyond question.

It is clear that there were political or merely diplomatic approaches by
the Applicant for a time; and there are political aspects of the subject-
matter of the correspondence which evidences their dispute. But so to
conclude does not deny that the Parties may be in dispute nonetheless
about their respective rights. That question will be determined by what
in substance they are in difference about.
The source material upon which these questions are to be resolved is

the correspondence between France and Australia set out at Annexes 2
to 14 inclusive of the Application instituting the present proceedings, as
explained and amplikd in the submissions to the Court. The contents of
and the omissions from the French Annex, which raises arguments of law
in opposition to the legal propositions in the Australian Notes, ought also
to be considered in this connection. Nowhere is it suggested in the Annex
that the disptrte between France and Australia is no more than a political

difference, a clash of interest incapable of resolution by judicial process,
perhaps a not unimportant circumstance.

1 have found it important in reading the Notes exchanged betweendécision ont étéviolés, bien que des considérations juridiques impor-
tantes et difficiles interviennent à cet égard, comme en témoignece que
contient I'annexe française au sujet du seuil de contamination radioactive
qui ne doit pas être franchi. En ce qui concerne la violation de la liberté
de la haute mer et de l'espace aériensurjacent, le Livre blanc français in-
voque la pratique internationale pour justifier les mesures envisagées

dans la zone entourant son site d'expérimentations en atmosphère, mais
cet argument ne concerne pas la recevabilité.
un-des éléments dela recevabilité est l'intérêjturidique que possède
1'Etat demandeur en ce qui concerne I'objet de sa requête.Selon moi, c'est
l'existence d'un différendau sujet duquel les parties se contestent réci-
proquement un droit au sens juridique qui doit constituer l'objet de la

requêteen l'espècepour répondre aux condtitions de l'article 17;je crois
qu'une fois prouvée l'existence du différend on peut considérer que cha-
cune des parties à ce différend possèdeforcément un intérêtjuridiqueà ce
qu'il soit réglé.Pour moi, la question de la recevabilité est résolue à
partir du moment où l'on décideque la France et l'Australie se contestent
réciproquement un droit au sens juridique; en d'autres termes, qu'il existe

un différend au sujet du droit que l'Australie revendique ou de I'obli-
gation de la France envers l'Australie qui, d'après l'Australie, aurait été
violée.Dans le texte anglais de l'article 17 l'emploi du mot their est im-
portant; il-doit s'agir nécessairement d'un différend au sujet duquel
chacune des parties conteste le droit de l'autre. L'adjectif possessif fait
ressortir à mon avis la nécessitéde posséder un intérêt juridiquequant à
l'objet du différend.

Ainsi, ilme parait que la question à trancher à ce stade de l'affaire est
de savoir si les Parties, à la date de la requête, s'opposaient dans un diffé-
rend au sujet duque:l elles se contestaient réciproquement un droit.
II ne fait pas de doute selon moi qu'un différend oppose les Parties.
11est évident que le:demandeur s'est contenté pendant un certain temps
de démarches poliitiques ou purement diplomatiques et que les sujets

traités dans la correspondance où se précisele différend comportent des
aspects politiques. .Mais cela ne veut pas dire que les Parties ne se con-
testent pas réciproquement un droit. Ce qui compte à cet égard, c'est ce
qui les opose au forid.
Les élémentssur lesquels on peut se fonder pour se faire une opinion à
ce sujet sont fournis par la correspondance entre la France et l'Australie,

reproduiteaux annexes 2 à 14 incluse de la requête introductive d'instance,
et expliquée et développéedans l'argumentation soumise à la Cour. La
teneur de I'aiinexe française (ainsi d'ailleurs que ses omissions), où l'on
trouve des arguments de droit opposés aux theses juridiques des notes
australiennes, est également à prendre en considération à cet égard. 11
n'est dit nulle part dans l'annexe que le différend entre la France et
l'Australie n'est qu'une divergence politique, une opposition d'intérêts

ne se prêtantpas au règlement judiciaire, et c'est là un fait qui n'est peut-
êtrepas dépourvu d'importance en lui-meme.
En examinant les notes échangéesentre la France et l'Australie, j'ai425 NUCLEAR TESTS (DISS. OP. BARWICK)

France and Australia to differentiate the conciliatory language designed
to secure, if possible French abandonment of the proposal, and the
language employed when claiins of right are made. The dispute between
the Governments upto the stage of the change of language might possibly
be characterized as chiefly political, the desired end being sought to be

attained by diplomacy alone, but the language does not certainly remain
so. The changed tone of the Australian Note is visible in the Note of
3 January 1973, where it is said:

"The Australian Government, which has hitherto adopted a
position of considerable restraint in this matter, wishes to make
quite clear its position with respect to proposed atmospheric nuclear
tests to be conducted in the Pacific by the French Government. In

the opinion of the Australian Government, the conducting of such
tests would not only be undesirable but would be unlawful-parti-
cularly in so far as it involves modification of the physical conditions
of and over Australian territory; pollution of the atmosphere and of
the resources of the seas; interference with freedom of navigation

both on the high seas and in the airspace above; and infraction of
legal norms concerning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons."

Having followed this statement with a request that the French Govern-
ment refrain from further testing, the Australian Note proceeds:

"The Australian Government is bound to Say,howgver, that in the
absence of full assurances on this matter, which affects the welfare
and peace of mind not only of Australia but of the whole Pacific

community, the only course open to it will be the pursuit of appro-
priate international legal remedies."

The Applicant thus raised claims of legal right.

In its Note in reply, the French Government first of al1 applied itself

to a justification of its decision to carry out nuclear tests, and then pro-
ceeded :

"Furthermore, the French Government, which has studied with
the closest attention the problems raised in the Australian Note, has
the conviction that its nuclear experiments have not violated any
rule of international law. It hopes to make this plain in connection
with the 'infractions' of this law alleged by the Australian Govern-
ment in its Note above cited.

The first of these are said to concern the pollution and physical
modifications which the experiments in question are supposed to
involve for Australian territory, the sea, the airspace above.
In the first place, the French Government understands that theestimé qu'il importait de noter la différence entre le langage conciliant
employé pour essayer d'obtenir que la France renonce à ses plans et les
termes utilisés quand des droits sont invoqués. Jusqu'à ce que le ton
change, le litige entre les gouvernements pourrait à la rigueur être

considéré comme principalement politique, car on cherchait à atteindre le
but souhaitépar le seul moyen de la diplomatie, mais iln'en a évidemment
plus étéde mêmepar la suite. Le ton nouveau des notes australiennes est
frappant dans la note du 3janvier 1973, où l'on peut lire:

«Le Gouvernement australien, qui a jusqu'ici fait preuve d'une
très grande retenue en la matière, tient à ne laisser aucun doute sur
sa position à l"égarddes essais nucléaires en atmosphère auxquels

le Gouvernemi:nt français envisage de procéder dans le Pacifique.
La poursuite de ces essais serait non seulement indésirable, mais
contraire au droit, d'autant qu'elle implique une modification des
conditions physiques sur le territoire australien et au-dessus de ce
territoire, la pollution de l'atmosphère et des ressources de la mer,
l'ingérencedans la libertéde navigation tant en haute mer que dans

l'espace aérien surjacent et une infraction aux normes juridiques
régissant les essais d'armes nucléaires dans I'atmosphère. ))

Après quoi, ayant demandé au Gouvernement français de s'abstenir de
tous nouveaux essais nucléaires, la note australienne poursuit en ces
termes :

((Cependant, le Gouvernement australien se voit obligé de dire
qu'à défaut d'assurances pleines et entières dans ce domaine, qui
affecte la prospérité et la tranquillité d'esprit non seulement de

l'Australie, mais de la communauté du Pacifique tout entière, il
n'aura d'autre recours que de mettre en Œuvre les voies de droit
international alppropriées.))

La revendication di1demandeur portait donc sur un droit juridiquement
protégé.
Dans la note envoyée à l'Australie en réponse, le Gouvernement
français s'est efforcii tout d'abord de justifier sa décision d'effectuer des

essais nucléaires et ilajoute:

((Par ailleurs, le Gouvernement français, qui a étudiéavec la plus
grande attention les problèmes soulevéspar la note australienne, est
convaincu que ses expériences nucléairesn'ont violéaucune règledu
droit international. C'est ce qu'il souhaite faire ressortir à propos des
ccinfractions)) iice droit alléguéespar le Gouvernement australien

dans sa note citéeen référence.
Les premières se rapporteraient à la pollution et aux modifications
physiques que ces expériences entraîneraient pour le territoire
australien, la nier, l'espace aériensurjacent.
Tout d'abord, le Gouvernement français croit comprendre que le Australian Government is not submitting that it has suffered
damage, already ascertained, which is attributable to the French
experiments.
If it is not to be inferred fromdamage that has occurred, then the
'infraction' of law might consist in the violation by France of an
international legal norm concerning the threshold of atomic pol-
lution which should not be crossed.
But the French Government finds it hard to see what is the precise
rule on whose existence Australia relies. Perhaps Australia could
enlighten it on this point.
In reality, it seems to the French Government that this complaint
of the violation of international law on account of atomic pollution
amounts to a claim that atmospheric nuclear experiments are auto-
matically unlawful. This, in its view, is not the case. But here again
the French Government would appreciate having its attention drawn
to any points lending colour to the opposite opinion.
Finally, the French Government wishes to answer the assertion

that its experiments would unlawfully hamper the freedom of navi-
gation on the high seas and in the airspace above.
In this respect it will be sufficient for the French Government to
observe that it is nowadays usual for areas of the high seas to be
declared dangerous to navigation on account of explosions taking
place there, including the firing of rockets. So far as nuclear experi-
ments are concerned, the Australian Government willnot be unaware
that it was possible for such a danger-zone encroaching on the high
seas to be lawfully established at the time of previous experiments."

This notedisputes those claims of legal right.

The Australian Note of 13 February 1973 contains the following
passages :
"The Australian Government assures the French Government
that the present situation, caused by an activity which the French
Government has undertaken and continues to undertake and which

the Australian Government and people consider not only illegitimate
but also gravely prejudicial to the future conditions of life of Aus-
tralia and the other peoples of the Pacific..."
and again :

"lt is recalled that, in its Note dat3dJanuary 1973,the Australian
Government stated its opinion that the conducting of atmospheric
nuclear tests in the Pacific by the French Government would not
only be undesirable but would be unlawful. In your Ambassador's
Note dated 7 February 1973it isstated that the French Government,
having studied most carefully the problems raised in the Australian
Note, isconvinced that its nuclear tests have violated no rule ofinter-
national law. The Australian Government regrets that it cannot agree Gouvernement australien ne prétend pas faire état de dommages
déjà constatés, qui seraientdus aux expériences françaises.

Si elle ne se fonde pas sur des dommages actuels, I'uinfraction ))
au droit pourrait alors venir d'une violation par la France d'une
norme juridique internationale portant sur le seuil de pollution
atomique qui ne devrait pas êtredépassé.
Mais le Gouvernement français voit mal quelle est la règle précise
dont l'existence serait invoquée par l'Australie. Celle-ci pourrait
peut-être 1'écla:iresrur ce point.
En vérité,il semble bien au Gouvernement français que ce grief de
violation du droit international du fait de la pollution atomique
revient à soutenir que les expériences nucléaires enatmosphère sont

automatiquement illicites. De son point de vue il n'en est pas ainsi.
Mais, ici encore, le Gouvernement français apprécierait les préci-
sions qui pourraient lui êtreapportées à l'appui dr l'opinion inverse.
Enfin, le Gouvernement français entend répondre à l'affirmation
selon laquelle sesexpériencesrestreindraient d'une manière illégalela
libertéde navigation en haute mer et dans l'espace aérien surjacent.
A cet égardil lui suffira d'observer qu'il estcourant que des zones
de haute mer soient déclaréesdangereuses à la navigation en raison
de tirs qui s'y déroulent, y compris des tirs de fusées. S'agissant
d'expériences nucléaires,le Gouvernement australien n'ignore pas

qu'une telle zone dangereuse empiétant sur la haute mer a pu être
licitement établie lorsd'expériencesantérieures.))

Cette note conteste le bien-fondédes revendications portant sur un droit

juridiquement protkgé.
Dans la note australienne du 13 février 1973, on trouve les passages
suivants :
((Le Gouvernement australien assure le Gouvernement français
que la situation actuelle, causéepar une activitéquece gouvernement

a entreprise et poursuivie et que le Gouvernement australien consi-
dère non seulement comme illégitime mais aussicomme gravement
préjudiciable aux conditions de vie futures de ce pays et des autres
peuples du Pacifique ...))

et:
((11convient de rappeler que, dans sa note du 3 janvier 1973, le
Gouvernement australien émettait l'avis que la poursuite d'essais
nucléaires en atmosphère par le Gouvernement français dans le
Pacifique serait non seulement indésirable mais contraire au droit.

Dans la note de votre ambassadeur du 7 février1973, il est dit que le
Gouvernement français, qui a étudiéavec la plus grande attention
les problèmessoulevéspar la note australienne, est convaincu que ces
expériences nucléairesn'ont violéaucune règledu droit international. with the point of view of the French Government, being on the
contrary convinced that the conducting of the tests violates rules of
international law. It is clear that in this regard there exists between
our two Governments a substantial legal dispute."

Was this conclusion of the Australian Government thus expressed war-

ranted, and if it was does it satisfy the question as to whether there was a
dispute of the required kind, the Application being in substance for a
settlement of that dispute bymeans of a declaration by the Court that the
rights which wereclaimed do exist and that they have been infringed?
It is quite evident from the correspondence that at the outset the hope
of the Australian Government was that France might be deterred from
making or from continuing its nuclear test experiments in the South
Pacific by the pressure of international opinion and by the importance of
maintaining the undiminished goodwill and the economicCO-operationof
Australia. In the period of this portion of the correspondence, and 1 set
that period as between 6 September 1963 and 29 March 1972, the em-
phasis is upon the implicationsof the partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of
1963, the general international opinion in opposition to nuclear atmos-
pheric tests and the importance of harmonious relations between Aus-
tralia and France as matters of persuasion.

But in January 1973,when it is apparent that none of these endeavours

have been or are likely to be successful, and it is firmly known that a
further series of tests will be undertaken by France in the mid-year, that
is to say, in the winter of the southern hemisphere, the passages occur
which 1 have quoted from the Note of 3 January 1973and the response
of the French Government of 7 February 1973 which respectively raise
and deny the Applicant's claim that its legal rights will be infringed by
further testing of nucleardevices in the South Pacific.

FourBasesof Claim

It is apparent from the passages which 1have quoted that the various
bases of illegality which the Applicant has put before the Court in sup-
port of its present Application were then nominated. They can be ex-
tracted and listed as follows:

(1) unlawfulness in the modification of the physical conditions of the
Australian territory and environment;
(2) unlawfulness in the pollution of the 'Australianatmosphere and of the
resources of its adjacentseas;
(3) unlawfulness in the interference with freedom of navigation on sea
and in air; and
(4) breach of legal norms concerning atmospheric testing of nuclear
weapons.

None of these wereconceded by France and indeed they weredisputed.
178 Le Gouvernement australien regrette de ne pouvoir partager le
point de vue du Gouvernement français, car il est au contraire
convaincu que la poursuite des essais viole des règlesdu droit inter-
national. II est clair qu'à cet égardil existe entre nos deux gouverne-
ments un différendjuridique important.))

La conclusion ainsi exprimée par le Gouvernement australien était-elle
fondée et, dans l'affirmative, permet-elle de résoudre la question de la
recevabilité de la requête, quivise en substance à obtenir, en guise de
règlement du différend, unedéclaration selon quoi les droits revendiqués
existent effectivement et ont étviolésou enfreints?
La correspondance fait ressortir nettement qu'au départ le Gouverne-
ment australien espérait que la France pourrait êtredecouragée deréaliser
ou de poursuivre ses expériences nucléairesdans le Pacifique Sud, étant
donnéla pression de l'opinion internationaleet l'importance qu'il y avait
à ne pas s'aliéner labonne volonté et la coopération économique de
l'Australie. Dans la périodesur laquelle porte cette partie de la corres-
pondance, que je place entre le 6 septembre 1963et le 29 mars 1972,on
s'efforcede persuader en insistant surtout sur les conséquencesdu Traité

d'interdiction partielle des essais nucléairesde 1963,sur le fait que l'opi-
nion publique internationale est généralement opposéeaux essais nu-
cléairesdans l'atmosphère, et sur l'importance de relations harmonieuses
entre l'Australie et la France.
Mais en janvier 1973, quand il apparaît que tous ces efforts ont été
et seront probablement vains et quand on acquiert la certitude que la
France procédera à une nouvelle série d'essais versle milieu de l'année,
c'est-à-dire pendant l'hiver austral, nous en arrivons aux passages quej'ai
citésde la note du 3janvier 1973,où le requérant fait valoir que sesdroits
seront violéspar de nouveaux essais d'engins nucléairesdans le Paci-
fique Sud et à la rCponse du Gouvernement français du 7 février 1973
contestant ces droits.

Lesquatrebasesde lademande

II ressort des passages citésde la note du 3janvier 1973que les divers
faits illicites dont: Gouvernement australien a fait état dans sa requête
ont étéalors précistjs.On peut les reprendre et les énumérercomme suit.
Sont illicite:
1) la modification des conditions physiques du territoire australien et de

son environnement ;
2) la pollution de I'atmosphèrede l'Australie et de sesressources marines
adjacentes ;
3) les entraves apportées à la liberté de navigation maritime et aérienne
et
4) la violation de normes juridiques concernant les essais d'armes
nucléairesdans l'atmosphère.
La France n'a rienadmis et en fait elleconteste ces affirmations.

178 It might be observed at this point that there is a radical distinction to
be made between the claims that violation of territorial and decisional
sovereignty by the intrusion and deposition of radio-active nuclides and
of pollution of the sea and its resources thereby is unlawful according to

international law, and the claim that the testing of nuclear weapons has
become unlawful according to the customary international law, which is
expressed in the Australian Note of 3January 1973as "legal norms con-
cerning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons".

In the first instance, it is the intrusion of the ionized particles of matter

into the air, sea and land of Australia which is said to be in breach of its
rights sustained by international law. It is not fundamentally significant
in this claim that the atomic explosions from which the ionized particles
have come into the Australian environment were explosions for the
purpose of developing nuclear weapons, though in fact that is what
happened.

But in the second instance the customary law is claimed now to in-
clude a prohibition on the testing of nuclear weapons. The particular
purpose of the detonations by France is thus of the essence of the sug-
gested prohibition. Though, as 1will mention later, the Applicant points
to the resultant fall-out in Australia, these consequences are not of the
essence of the unlawfulness claimed: it is the testing itself which is claimed

to be unlawful.

It might be noticed that the objection to the testing of nuclear weapons
in international discussions is placed on a twofold basis: there is the
danger to the health of this and succeeding generations of the human race
from the dissemination of radio-active fall-out, but there is also the

antipathy of the international community to the enlargement of the
destructive quality of nuclear armaments and to the proliferation of their
possession. Thus, it is not only nuclear explosions as such which are the
suggested objects of the prohibition, but the testing of nuclear weapons
as an adjunct to the increase in the extent of nuclear weaponry.

The order in which these four bases of claim were argued and the
emphasis respectively placed upon them has tended to obscure the
significànce of the Applicant's claim for the infringement of its territorial
and decisional sovereignty. Because of this presentation and its emotional
overtones it might be thought that the last of the above-enumerated bases
of claim which, 1may say, has its own peculiar difficulties,was the heart-

land of the Australian claim. But as 1understand the matter, the contrary
is really the case.1tis the infraction of territorial sovereignty by the in-
trusion and deposition of nuclides which is the major basis of the claim.

A dispute about respective rights may be a dispute between the Parties

as to whether a right exists at all, or it may be a dispute as to the extent
179 On notera qu'il existeune différenceradicale entre, d'une part, l'idée
que la violation de la souveraineté d'unEtat en ce qui concerne son terri-
toire et son pouvoir de décision à la suite de l'intrusion et du dépôtde
radioélémentset de la pollution de la mer et de ses ressources sont illicites
en droit international et, d'autre part, la thèse suivant laquelle les essais
d'armes nucléaires sont devenus illicites d'après le droit international
coutumier ou, selon la note australienne du 3 janvier 1973, d'après les
(tnormes juridiques régissant les essaisd'armes nucléairesdans l'atmo-
sphère ».
En ce qui concerne la première idée, c'estl'intrusion des particules
radioactives dans l'air, dans les eaux et sur les terres de l'Australie qui,

affirme-t-on, viole les droits reconnus par la communauté internationale.
Il n'est pas d'une importance fondamentale à cet égardque lesexplosions
atomiques qui ont produit les particules disperséesdans l'environnement
australien aient eu pour objet de mettre au point des armes nucléaires, bien
que ce soit en fait le cas.
Mais, en ce qui concerne la deuxième thèsementionnée, on soutient
maintenant que le droit coutumier comporte une prohibition des essais
d'armes nucléaires. L'objet même desexplosions auxquelles a fait pro-
céderla France constituerait donc l'élément essentied le la prohibition en
question. Certes, comme je l'indiquerai plus tard, le demandeur insiste
surtout sur les retombéesque ces explosions ont provoquéesen Australie,
mais ces conséquerices ne sont pas la raison essentielle de I'illicéité
alléguée:ce sont les essaiseux-mêmesqui sont considérés comme illicites.
On observera que les objections élevéescontre les essais d'armes nu-

cléairesdans les débats internationaux reposent sur deux bases: il y a le
danger pour la santéde la présente génération et des générations futures,
résultant de la dispersion des retombées radioactives, mais il y a aussi
l'hostilitéde la communautéinternationale à ce que lepouvoir destructeur
des armes nucléaires se répande davantage et à ce que des Etats plus
nombreux en disposent. Ce ne sont donc pas seulement sur les,explosions
nucléaires entant que telles que porte la prohibition, mais aussi sur l'ex-
périmentation d'arrnes nucléaires qui provoque un accroissement des
stocks d'armements nucléaires.
L'ordre dans lequel le demandeur a présentéles quatre bases de sa
réclamation et l'étendue qu'ila donnée à chacune d'ellesont contribué à
masquer l'importance qu'il accorde dans son argumentation à la vio-
lation de sa compétence territoriale et de son pouvoir souverain de dé-
cision. En raison dr: cette présentation et de ses implications émotion-

nelles, on est peut-êtreenclin à penser que la dernière des bases que je
viens de mentionner, qui, je peux le dire, soulève des difficultésparticu-
lières, est au centre de la demande australienne. Mais comme je com-
prends la question, c'est l'inversequi est vrai. C'est l'atteintà la sou-
veraineté territoriale en raison de l'intrusion et du dépôtde radioéléments
qui constitute la base essentielle de la demande australienne.
Un différendau sujet duquel les parties se contestent réciproquement
un droit peut porter sur l'existence mêmede ce droit ou bien sur l'étendue

179of an admitted right, or it may be a dispute as to the existence of a
breach of an admitted right, or of course it may combine al1these things,
or some of them, in the one dispute. The claim on the one hand and the
denial on the other that a right exists or as to its extent or as to its breach
constitute, in my opinion, a dispute as to rights. Ifsuch a dispute between

the Parties is as to their respective rights it will in my opinion satisfy the
terms of Article 17 of the General Act which, in my opinion, is the
touchstone of jurisdiction in this case or, if the contrary view of jurisdic-
tion is accepted, the touchstone of admissibility.

If the dispute is not a dispute as to the existence of a Iegal right, it will

not satisfy Article 17 and it may be said to be a dispute "without object"
because, if it is not a dispute as to a legal right, the Court will not be able
to resolve it by the application of legal norms: the dispute will not be
justiciable.

But such a situation does not arise merely because of the novelty of the
claim of right or because the claimed right is not already substantiated by

decisions of the Court, or by the opinions of learned writers, or because
to determine its validity considerable research and consideration must be
undertaken.
In his separate opinion in the case of the Northern Cameroons (supra),
Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice adopted as a definition of a dispute which was
necessary to found the capacity of this Court to make a judicial Order the
definition which was given by Judge Morelli in his dissenting opinion in

the South West Africa case (Jurisdiction, I.C.J. Reports 1962, between
pp. 566 and 588), Sir Gerald, adding an element thereto drawn from the
argument of the Respondent in the case of the Northern Cameroons (see
pp. 109-110 of 1.C.J. Reports 1963).
Sir Gerald thought that there was no dispute in that case (though the
Court, including Judge Morelli, considered there was) because the Court

could not in that case make any effectivejudicial Order about the matter
in respect of which the Parties to the case were in difference. On page 111
of the Reports of the case, Sir Gerald said :

"In short, a decision of the Court neither would, nor could, affect
the legal rights, obligations, interests or relations of the Parties in
any way; and this situation both derives from, and evidences,the
non-existence of any dispute between the Parties to which ajudgment
of the Court could attach itself in any concrete, or even potentially
realizable, form. The conclusion must be that there may be a dis-

agreement, contention or controversy, but that there is not, properly
speaking, and as a matter of law, any dispute.

To state the point in another way, the impossibility for a decision
of the Court in favour of the Applicant State to have any effective
legal application in the present case (and therefore the incompa- ESSAISNUCLÉAIRES(OP. DISS. BARWICK) 429

d'un droit déjàreconnu; ce peut êtreaussi un différendsur le point de
savoir si un droit reconnu a étéviolé,ou encore, bien entendu, tous ces
aspects ou certains d'entre eux peuvent se combiner en un différend
unique. Les prétentions et dénégationsrelatives à l'existence d'un droit
ou les controverses :surson étendue ou sur sa violation constituent, selon
moi, un différendjuridique. Si lesparties secontestent réciproquement un
droit, le différendrépondra, à mon avis, aux conditions de l'article 17de
l'Acte généralqui est la pierre de touche de la compétenceen l'espèceou,
si l'onadmet la conception contraire de la compétence,la pierre de touche
de la recevabilité.
Si le différend ne porte pas sur l'existence d'un droit juridiquement
protégé, il ne réporidpas aux conditions de l'article 17 et peut êtredit

((sans objet)) pour la raison que, s'il ne s'agit pas d'un différend sur
l'existence d'un droit au sens strict, la Cour ne sera pas en mesure de le
résoudre par l'application de normesjuridiques: le différend nesera pas
justiciable.
Mais il ne suffit pas pour cela que la demande ou le droit invoqué
aient un caractère inéditou qu'il s'agissed'un droit qui n'apasencore été
confirmépar des décisionsde la Cour ou par l'opinion d'éminentsauteurs,
ou qui nécessitede:; recherches et un examen prolongé pour que sa va-
lidité soit établie.
Dans son opinion individuelle en l'affaire du Cameroun septentrional,
sir Gerald Fitzmaurice a adoptécomme définitiondu différendsans lequel
la Cour n'est pas habilitée à se prononcer celle que M. Morelli avait
donnée dans son opinion dissidente en l'affaire du Sud-Ouest africain,
exceptions préliminh!ires,arrêt(C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 566 à 588), en y
ajoutant un é1ément.itré de l'argumentation du défendeur dans l'affaire

du Cameroun septentrional(voir C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 109-110).

Sir Gerald était d'avis qu'il n'yavait pas de différend en l'espèce,
contrairement à la Cour et à M. Morelli, parce que selon lui la Cour
n'était pasen mesure de prendre une décisionpouvant produire des effets
au sujet de la question qui opposait les Parties. A la page1Il du Recueil,
sir Gerald s'exprime:en ces termes:

((Bref une décisionde la Cour n'aurait ni ne pourrait avoir aucun
effet sur les droits, obligations, intérêtsou rapports juridiques des
Parties; cette situation découle - et témoigne - du fait qu'il
n'existe pas entre les Parties un différendauquel pourrait se rap-
porter un arrêtde la Cour sous une forme concrète ou même éven-
tuellement susceptible de réalisation. On doit en conclure qu'il
peut y avoir diosaccord, opposition de thèses ou controverse, mais
qu'il n'y a, à proprement parler, sur le terrain du droit, aucun
différend.
Autrement dit, le fait qu'une décision de la Cour en faveur de
1'Etat demandeur ne pourrait en l'espèceavoir aucune application
juridique effective (et par conséquent qu'il serait incompatible avec tibility with the judicial function of the Court that would be involved
by the Court entertaining the case) is the reverse of a coin, the ob-
verse of which is the absence of any genuine dispute.
Since, with reference to a judicial decision sought as the outcome
of a dispute said to exist between the Parties, the dispute must
essentially relate to what that decision ought to be, it follows that
if the decision (whatever it might be) must plainly be without any
possibility of effective legal application at all, the dispute becomes
void of al1content, and is reduced to an empty shell."

The nub of these remarks was that, because the trusteeship agreement
had come to an end, the Court could not by a decision confer or impose
any right or obligation on either Party in respect of that agreement: and
it was only this interpretation or application of that agreement which the
Application sought. The qualification of a dispute which Sir Gerald
imported into his definition is present, in my opinion, in the very formu-
lation of the nature of the dispute which is relevant under Article 17,
that is to say, a dispute as to the respective rights of the Parties. If the
dispute is of that kind, it seemsto me that the Court must be able both to
resolve it by the application of legal norms because legal rights of the
Parties are in question and to make at least a declaration as to the exis-
tence or non-existence of the disputed right or obligation.

It is essential, in my opinion, to observe that the existence of a dispute
as to legal rights does not depend upon the validity of the disputed claim
that a right exists or that it was of a particular nature or of a particular
extent. In order to establish the existence of a dispute it is not necessary
to show that the claimed right itself exists. Forexample, a party who lost
a contested case in a court of law on the ground that in truth he did not

have the right which he claimed to have had against the other party, was
nonetheless at the outset in dispute with that other party as to their
respective rights, that is to Say,the right on the one hand and the com-
mensurate obligation on the other. The solution of the dispute by the
court did not establish that the parties had not been in dispute as to their
rights, though it did determine that what the plaintiff party claimed to be
his right was not validly so claimed. To determine the validity of the
disputed claim is to determine the merits of the application.
It is conceivable that a person may claim a right which, being denied,
gives the appearance of a dispute, but because the claim is beyond al1
question and on its face baseless, it may possibly be said that truly there
is no dispute because there was in truth quite obviously nothing to
dispute about, or it may be said that the disputed claim is patently absurd
or frivolous. But these things, in my opinion, cannot be said as to any of
the bases of claim which are put forward in the Application and which
were present in the correspondence which antedated it. ESSAIS NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.BARWICK) 430

sa fonction judiciaire que la Cour connaisse de l'affaire) est le revers
d'une médailledont l'avers est l'absence d'un véritabledifférend.

Puisque, s'agissant d'une décisionjudiciaire visant à trancher un
prétendu différend entre les Parties, le différend doit se rattacher
essentiellement à ce que doit être la décision, il s'ensuit que, si la
décision (quelle qu'elle puisse être)doit être manifestement insus-
ceptible d'application juridique réelle,le différendse trouve dépourvu

de tout contenu et n'est plus qu'une enveloppe vide. ))
Ces observations revenaient en somme à dire que, l'accord de tutelle

ayant pris fin, aucurie décisionde la Cour ne pouvait conférer ni imposer
de droit ou d'obligation à l'une ou l'autre des Parties en ce qui concernait
cet accord. Or le demandeur sollicitait précisément une telleinterprétation
ou application de l'accord. Les élémentsconstitutifs d'un différend au
sens de la définition de sir Gerald ressortent, selon moi, de la manière
mêmedont l'article 17envisage la nature du différendconsidéré, quidoit

êtreun différendau sujet duquel les Parties se contestent réciproquement
un droit. Si le différend présente ce caractère, ilme semble que la Cour
doit pouvoir d'une part le résoudre par l'application de normesjuridiques,
parce que des droits juridiquement protégés desParties sont en jeu, et
d'autre part adopter à tout le moins une déclaration sur I'existence ou

l'inexistence du droit ou de l'obligation contestée.
Je crois essentiel de souligner ici que I'existence d'un différendsur des
droits au sens juridique ne dépend pas du bien-fondé de la prétention
contestée, laquelle voudrait qu'un droit existe et soit de telle nature ou de
telle étendue. Pour établir I'existence d'un différend,point n'est besoin de

démontrer que le droit invoquéexiste. Par exemple, la partie qui perd son
procès devant un tribunal au motif qu'elle ne possédait pas le droit
qu'elle prétendait fa.irevaloir contre l'autre partie n'en était pas moins au
début en litige avec cette autre partie au sujet de leurs droits réciproques,
c'est-à-dire du droiit existant d'un côtéet de l'obligation correspondante
de l'autre. Le règlernent du différendpar le tribunal n'a pas établi que les

parties ne se contestaient pas réciproquement un droit, bien qu'il en
ressorte que le droit invoqué par le plaignant était mal fondé. Se pro-
noncer sur la validitéde prétentions contestées,c'est statuer sur la requête
au fond.
On peut concevoir qu'une personne invoque un droit et que, celui-ci

étant contesté, on se trouve apparemment en présence d'un différend,
mais que, la prétention apparaissant sans doute possible et dès l'abord
sans fondement, on soit justifié à dire qu'en véritéil n'y avait pas de
différend parce qu',il n'y avait manifestement rien sur quoi on puisse
s'opposer, ou encore que la prétention contestée était de toute évidence
absurde ou frivole. Mais à mon avis on ne saurait rien affirmer de sem-

blable au sujet des bases des demandes présentéesdans la requêteet que
l'on retrouve dans lacorrespondance qui a précédé cette dernière.ConsiderationofBasesof Claim

1turn now to consider whether the several bases of claim which 1have
listed above are claims as to legal rights possessed by Australia, in other
words, whether these bases of claim being disputed are capable of reso-
lution by the application of legal norms and whether the Applicant has a
legal interest to maintain its claim in respect of those rights.

In considering these questions, it must be recalled that if they are to be
decided at this stage, they must be questions of an exclusivelypreliminary
character. If, to resolve either of them, it is necessary to go into the
merits, then that question is not of that character.

It is not disputed in the case that the deposition of radio-active particles
of matter (nuclides) on Australian territory and their intrusion into the
Australian environment of sea and air occurs in a short space of time
after a nuclear explosion takes place in the French Pacific territory of
Mururoa, due to the inherent nature and consequences of such explosions
and the prevailing movements of air in the southern hemisphere. Thus it
may be taken that that deposition and intrusion is caused, and that it is
known that it will be caused, by those explosions.

First and Second Bases

1 can take bases 1 and 2 together. Each relates to the integrity of
territory and the territorial environment. The Applicant's claim is that
the deposition and intrusion of the nuclides is an infringement of its right
to territorial and,as it says, decisional sovereignty. It is part of this claim
that the mere deposition and intrusion of this particular and potentially
harmful physical matter is a breach of Australia's undoubted sovereign
right to territorial integrity, a right clearly protected by international law.

France, for its part, as 1understand the French Annex, asserts that the
right to territorial integrity in relevant respects is only a right not to be
subjected to actual and demonstrable damage by matter intruded into its
territory and environment. Hence the reference to a threshold of nuclear
pollution. Put another way, it is claimed that France's right to do as she
will on her own territory in exercise of her own sovereign rights is only
qualified by the obligation not thereby to cause injury to another State;
that means, as 1 understand the French point of view, not to do actual
damage presently provable to the Australian territory or environment of
air and sea. In such a formulation it would seem that France claims that
although the nuclides were inherently dangerous, their deposition and
intrusion into the Australian territory and environment did not relevantly
cause damage to Australia or people within its territory. Damage in thatExamen des bases de la demande

J'en viensmaintenant à la question de savoir si les différentes basesde
la demande que j'ai énumérées pluh saut correspondent àdes prétentions
relativesà des droits juridiquement protégésque posséderait l'Australie;
en d'autres termes, ces chefs de demande étantcontestés,est-il possible de
trouver une solution en appliquant des normesjuridiques et le demandeur
a-t-il un intérêt juridique faire valoir ses droits?
Lorsqu'on examine ces questions, il convient de ne pas oublier que,

pour qu'on puisse les trancher dès maintenant, elles doivent présenterun
caractère exclusivement préliminaire. Si,pour résoudre l'un quelconque
des points évoqués,il est indispensable d'aborder le fond, c'est que ces
points n'ont pas un caractère préliminaire.
Il n'est pas contestéen l'espèceque le dépôtde particules radioactives
(radioéléments) surle territoire australien et leur intrusion dans l'espace
aérienet maritime de l'Australie se produit peu de temps après qu'une
explosion nucléairea lieu dans le territoire français de Mururoa dans le
Pacifique Sud, en raison de la nature mêmede telles explosions, des
conséquences inhérentes à celles-ci et des déplacements d'air qui se
produisent dans l'hémisphère Sud. On peut donc admettre que ces
dépôtset cette intrusion sont causés,et que I'on sait qu'ils seront causés,
par cesexplosions.

Première et deuxièmebases

J'examinerai ensemble les premier et deuxième motifs. Chacun d'eux
concerne l'intégritédu territoire et son environnement. Le demandeur
soutient que le dépôt et l'intrusion de radioélémentsconstituent une
violation de sa souveraineté sur son territoire et, comme il le dit, de son
pouvoir souverain de décision. Sa revendication porte notamment sur le
fait que le dépôt et I'intrusion des particules en question, qui peuvent
présenter un danger physique, est une violation du droit souverain et
indiscutable de l'Australie à son intégritéterritoriale, droit qui est de
toute évidence protégé par le droit international.
La France soutient pour sa part - c'est du moins ainsi que je com-
prends l'annexe française - que le droitàl'intégritéterritoriale, dans ses

aspects pertinents, n'est qu'un droità ne pas subir un dommage réelet
démontrable à la suite de l'intrusion de matières dans le territoire et le
milieu ambiant. D'où la référence à un seuil de pollution nucléaire.
Autrement dit, la France aurait le droit d'agir comme ellel'entend surson
propre territoire dans l'exercice de ses propres droits souverains et sa
seule obligation serait de ne pas causer de ce fait un préjudiceun autre
Etat, en d'autres termes, et sije comprends bien le point de vue français,
de ne pas causer un dommage réel,pouvant êtreprouvédèsmaintenant,
au territoire ou au milieu terrestre et maritime de l'Australie. Si I'on
retient cette formulation, la France paraîtrait ainsi prétendre que, bien
que les radioéléments soientintrinsèquement dangereux, leur dépôt et

182view would not have been caused unless some presently demonstrable
injury had been caused to land or persons by the nuclear fall-out.

Such a proposition is understandable, but it is a proposition of law.
It is disputed by Australia and is itself an argument disputing the Aus-
tralian claim as to the state of the relevant law. So far as the question of
French responsibility to Australia may depend upon whether or not

damage has been done by the involuntary reception in Australia of the
radio-active fall-out, it should be said that the question whether damage
has in fact been done has not yet been fully examined. Obviously such a
question forms part of the merits. Again, if there is no actual damage
presently provable, the question remains whether the nuclides would in
future probably or only possibly cause injury to persons within Australian
territory; and in either case, there is a question of whether the degree of

probability or possibility, bearing in mind the nature of the injuries which
the nuclides are capable of causing, is sufficient to satisfy the concept of
damage if the view of the law put forward by the French Annex were
accepted. The resolution of such questions, which in my opinion are legal
questions, partakes of the merits of the case.

The French Wlrite Book appears to me to attribute to the Applicant
and to New Zealand in its case, a proposition that:

". . . they have the right to decline to incur the risks to which
nuclear atmospheric tests would expose them, and which are not
compensated for by advantages considered by them to be adequate,
and that a State disregarding this attitude infringes their sovereignty
and thus violates international law".

1do not apprehend that the Applicant did put forward that view of the
law; and as phrased by the French Wlzite Book, it is a proposition of law.
My understanding of the Applicant's argument was that the Applicant

claimed that in the exercise of its sovereignty over its territory it had to
consider, in this technological age, whether it would allow radio-active
material to be introduced into and used in the country. It claims that it
alone should decide that matter. As some uses of such material can confer
benefit on some persons, it was said that Australia had established for
itself a rule that it would not allow the introduction into, or the use of
radio-active material in Australia unless a benefit, compensating for any

harmful results which could come from such introduction or use, could
be seen. In assessing the benefit and the detriment, account had to be
taken of the level of radio-activity, natural and artificial, which existed
at any time in the environment. It was said, as 1followed the argument,
that the involuntary receipt into the territorv and environment of radio-leur intrusion sur le territoire et dans I'environnement australien ne
causent pas de dommage appréciable à l'Australie ou à ses habitants à
l'intérieur du territoire australien. D'après la France, il ne saurait y
avoir de préjudice que dans la mesure où les biens ou les personnes
auraient subi un dommage actuellement démontrable du fait des retom-
bées nucléaires.

Cette thèse peut se comprendre, mais c'est une thèsejuridique. Elle
est combattue par l'Australie et constitue elle-même unargument destiné
àréfuterla position australienne quant à l'étatdu droit applicable. Dans
la mesure où la responsabilitéde la France à l'égardde l'Australie peut
êtrefonctiondu dornmage qu'aurait éventuellementcauséen Australie la
réception involontaire de retombées radioactives, il convient de faire
observer que la question de savoir s'ily a eu en réalitédommage n'a pas
jusqu'ici fait l'objet:d'un examen approfondi. Il est évident que cette
question fait partie du fond. De même,si l'on ne peut établir d'ores et
déjàun dommage effectif,il reste àsavoir si, dans l'avenir, il est probable
ou simplement possible que les radioéléments causentdes lésions phy-
siques aux personnes vivant en territoire australien; de toute façon, il

s'agirait dedéterminersi ledegréde probabilité ou de possibilité,compte
tenu de la nature cles lésionsque les radioéléments peuvent causer,est
tel qu'on puisse coriclure à un préjudice, à supposer que l'on accepte les
thèses juridiques avancées dans l'annexe française. La réponse à ces
questions, qui sont selon moi des questions juridiques, relève également
du fond.
Le Livre blanc français me parait attribuer au demandeur, ainsi qu'à
la Nouvelle-Zélande, l'idéeque :

((ellesont le droit de refuser les risques que leur feraient courir des
expériences nucléairesdans l'atmosphère qui ne seraient pas com;
penséspar des avantages jugéspar elles suffisants, et qu'en passant
outre à leur refus. un Etat porterait atteinte à leur souveraineté et
violerait ainsi le droit international.

Je ne vois pas que le demandeur ait avancé cettethèsejuridique - et,
telle que le Livre blanc français la présente, il s'agit bien d'une thèse
juridique. Je comprends ainsi l'argument du demandeur : celui-ci affirme
que dans l'exercicede sa souverainetésur son territoire il lui faut examiner
en notre ère technique, s'ilentend permettre l'introduction et l'utilisation
dans le pays de rriatières radioactives. C'està lui qu'il appartient de
décider. Divers emplois de ces matières pouvant êtrebénéfiquespour
certaines personnes, l'Australie s'est donné pour règle - a-t-on dit- de
n'autoriser I'introcluction ou l'utilisation de matières radioactives en
Australie que si 1'01y trouvait un avantage compensant leseffetsnuisibles

qui pourraient en résulter par ailleurs. Pour peser les avantages et les
risques il faut tenir compte du niveau de radioactivité naturelle et arti-
ficielle qui existe tout moment dans I'environnement. L'argument m'a
paru signifier que la réception involontaire sur le territoire et dans le
milieu ambiant de matières radioactives enfreint la souveraineté del'Australie et sa capacité à déciderpar elle-mêmedu niveau de radio-
activitéqu'elle autoriserait dans le territoire placésous sa souverainetéet
que, l'introduction ne dépendant pas de sa volonté, elle n'a pas eu la
possibilité d'examiner si elle comporte des avantages compensatoires.
C'est en cela qu'il y a infraction à ce que le demandeur a appelé son
pouvoir souverain de décision.Si toutefois je me trompe dans mon inter-
prétation de la position australienne à cet égard, et si la thèse française
estjuste, les Parties sont en opposition au sujet d'un autre aspect du droit

international intéressant leurs relations mutuelles.

11existe donc selon moi un différendentre la France et l'Australie au
sujet de l'étatdu droit international régissantleurs droits et leurs obliga-
tions en ce qui concerne les conséquences,pour le territoire et I'environ-
nement australiens, d'explosions nucléaires effectuéesen territoire
français. Pour emprunter au droit interne, je dirai qu'un aspect du
différend - mais pas le seul - est de savoir si l'existenced'un préjudice
certainet démontrable est une condition essentielle par rapport au droit à
l'intégritéterritoriale ou si l'intrusion de radioélémentsdans I'environ-
nement constitue en elle-même uneviolation de ce droit.
Pour déterminer si un préjudice est essentielpar rapport au droit à
l'intégrité territoriale,s'agissant de l'intrusion de certaines matières phy-
siques dans le territoire, on peut avoir se poser la trèsvaste question de

la classification des,substances qu'un Etat ne saurait introduire impuné-
ment dans le territoire et dans l'environnement d'un autre. Y a-t-il par
ailleurs des limites ou des atténuations au droit à I'intégritédu territoire
et de l'environnement tenant à la nature même de l'activitégénératrice de
la substance qui se déposeou pénètredans leterritoireet I'environnement
de I'Etat? Dans certains cas sans doute l'utilisation qu'un Etat fait de son
territoire est de nature telle que les conséquencespour un autre Etat, son
territoire et son environnement doivent être acceptéespar celui-ci. II se
peut fort bien qu'on ait à distinguer entre les dépôts et intrusions licites
devant être supporitéset lesautres. En revanche, il n'estpas exclu qu'étant
donné la nature particulière des radioélements et le fait que l'activité
qui provoque leur dispersion est inutile et sans profit pour la communauté
internationale, la seule question consisterait déterminersi l'intrusion de
tels radioélémentsest illicite.

A mon sens, il importe de nejamais perdre de vue que nous traitons ici
de l'émissionet du dépôt de substances radioactives qui sont en elles-
mêmesdangereuses. Lesavis peuvent différersur l'importance du danger,
mais on ne saurait contester que ces substances sont intrinsèquement
nuisibles et que leurs effets nuisibles ne peuvent être ni prévenus, ni
mêmedéterminésavec quelque degréde certitude. Sij'évoque cesques-
tions, c'est pour donner une idéede l'ampleur des considérations juri-
diques que soulèveledifférendentre les Parties au sujet de la souveraineté
territoriale.
D'après moi, on ne peut prétendre, et il ne me sembled'ailleurs pas queAnnex as claiming, that this difference between France and Australia as
to whether or not there has beenan infringement of Australian sovereignty
is other than a legal dispute, a dispute as to the law and as to the legal
rights of the Parties. It is a dispute which can be resolved according to
legal norms and by judicial process. Clearly the Applicant has a legal
interest to maintain the validity of its claim in this respect.

ThirdBasisof Claim

The third basis of the claim is that Australia's rights of navigation and
fishing on the high seas and of oceanic flight will be infringed by the
action of the French Government not limited to the mere publication of
NOTAMS and AVROMARS in connection with its nuclear tests in the
atmosphere of the South Pacific. Here there is, in my opinion, a claim of
right. The claim also involves an assertion that a situation will exist which
would be a breach of that right. It seemsalso to be claimed that pollution
of the high seas, with resultant effects on fish and fishing, constitutes an
infringement of the Applicant's rights in the sea.
France disputes that what it proposes to do would infringe Australia's
rights in the high seas and super-incumbent air, bearing in mind estab-
lished international practice. Thus the question arises as to the extent of
the right of the unimpeded use of the high seas and super-incumbent air,
and of the nature and effect of international practice in the closure of
areas of danger during the use of the sea and air for the discharge of
weapons or for dangerous experimentation.
Again, in my opinion, there is, in connection with the third basis of

claim, a dispute as to the existence and infringement of rights according
to international law: there is a dispute as to the respective rights of the
Parties. On that footing, the interest of the Applicant to sustain the
Application is, in my opinion, apparent.

FourthBasis of Claim

The claim in relation to the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmos-
phere stands on a quite different footing from the foregoing. It is a claim
that Australia's rights are infringed by the testing of nuclear weapons by
France in the atmosphere of the South Pacific. 1have expressed it in that
fashion, emphasizing that it is Australia's rights which are said to be in-
fringed,though 1am bound to say that the claim is not so expressed in the
Australian Note of 3 January 1973.However, the expression of the rele-
vant claim in paragraph 49 of the Application is susceptible of that inter-
pretatioii. The relevant portion of that paragraph reads:

"The Australian Government contends that the conduct of the
tests as described above has violated and, if the tests are continued,l'annexe française prétende, que cette divergence entre la France et
l'Australie quant à savoir s'il y a eu ou non violation de la souveraineté
australienne soit autre chose qu'un différendjuridique, un différendsur le
droit et sur les droits juridiquement protégés des Parties, qui peut donc
êtrerésolupar application de normesjuridiques et par la voiejuridiction-
nelle. Detoute évidence,le demandeur a un intérêjturidique à insister sur
la validité deses prétentions dans ce domaine.

La troisièmebase de la demande

La troisième base de la thèseaustralienne est que son droitde naviguer
et de pêcher enhaute mer, et de survoler les océans, sera violépar les
actes du Gouvernement français, qui ne consistent pas simplement à
publier des NOTAMS et des AVROMARS à l'occasion des essais nu-
cléaires effectuésn atmosphère dans le Pacifique Sud. Ici aussi, selon moi,
l'Australie revendique un droit. Elle affirme d'autre part qu'une certaine
situation entraînera la violation de ce droit. Elle semble également
soutenir que la pollution de la haute mer, avec les effets qui en découlent
pour la pêcheet lepoisson, constitue une atteinteà sesdroits maritimes.
La France conteste que ces actesconstituent une violation des droits de
l'Australie sur la haute mer et l'espace aérien surjacent au regard de la
pratique internationale établie.Sont donc en cause l'étenduedu droit à la
libre utilisation de la haute mer et de l'air surjacent, et la nature et les

effets de la pratique internationale en matière de création de zones
dangereuses, lorsque lesespaces maritimes et aérienssont utiliséspour les
besoins d'une telle expérimentationcomportant des risques.
Je crois donc poiuvoir dire que cette troisième basede réclamation fait
apparaître aussi unidifférendau sujet de l'existence et de la violation de
droits consacréspar le droit international :autrement dit un différendau
sujet duquel les parties se contestent réciproquement un droit,Dans cette
perspective, I'intéritu demandeur àprésenter sarequêteest à mon sens
évident.

La quatrièmebase ,dela demande

La thèse relative aux essais d'armes nucléairesdans l'atmosphère se
présente tout autrement à mon avis. Selon cette thèse, les droits de
l'Australie sontenfreints par les essais d'armes nucléairesen atmosphère

auxquels se livre la.France dans le Pacifique Sud.J'adopte cette formule,
qui souligne que ce sont les droits de l'Australie qui seraient enfreints,
encore que je doive reconnaître que ce n'est pas ainsi que la demande est
présentéedans la note australienne du 3janvier 1973.Toutefois, le texte
du paragraphe 49 de la requêtese prête à cette interprétation. Dans la
partie qui nous importe ici, ce paragraphe se lit ain:i
((Le Gouvernement australien soutient que les essais qui ont été
réaliséscomme il a étédit plus haut ont violéet, s'ils sepoursuivent, will further violate international law and the Charter of the United
Nations, and, inter aliaAustralia's rights in the following respects:
(i) The right of Australia and its people, in common with other
States and their peoples, to be free from atmospheric nuclear
weapon tests by any country is and will be violated ..."

It is clear enough, in my opinion, that the Applicant has claimed that
international law now prohibits any State from testing nuclear weapons,
at least in the atmosphere. Of course, Australia would have no interest
to complain in this case of any other form of testing, the French tests
being in the atmosphere. The claim is not that the law should be changed
on moral or political grounds, but that the law now is as the Applicant
claims it to be. France denies that there is any such prohibition. It can
readily be said, in my opinion, that this is a dispute asto the present state
of international law. It is not claimed that that law has always been so,
but it is claimed that it has now become so.

Itis said that there has been such a progression of general opinion
amongst the nations, evidenced in treaty, resolution and expression of
international opinion, that the stage has been reached where the pro-

hibition of the testing of nuclear weapons is now part of the customary
international law.
It cannot be doubted that that customary law is subject to growth and
to accretion as international opinion changes and hardens into law. It
should not be doubted that the Court is called upon to play its part in the
discernment of that growth and in the authoritative declaration that in
point of law that growth has taken place to the requisite extent and that
the stretch of customary law has been attained. The Court will, of course,
confine itself to declaring what the law has already become, and in doing
so will not be altering the law or deciding what the law ought to be, as
distinct from declaring what it is.
1 think it must be considered that it is legally possible that at some
stage the testing of nuclear weapons could become, or could have
become, prohibited by the customary international law. Treaties, reso-
lutions, expressions of opinion and international practice, may al1
combine to produce the evidence of that customary law. The time when
such a law emerges will not necessarily be deferred until al1nations have
acceded to a test ban treaty, or until opinion of the nations is universally
held in the same sense. Customary law amongst the nations does not, in

my opinion, depend on universal acceptance. Conventional law limited
to the parties to the convention may become inappropriate circumstances
customary law. On the other hand, it may be that even a widely accepted
test ban treaty does not create or evidence a state of customary interna-
tional law in which the testing of nuclear weapons is unlawful, and that
resolutions of the United Nations and other expressions of international
opinion, however frequent, numerous and emphatic, are insufficient to violeront encore ledroit internationaletla Charte des Nations Unies,
en particulier lesdroits de l'Australie, sur lespoints suivants:

i) le droit de l'.Australieet de ses habitants, ainsi que celui d'autres
Etats et de leurs habitants, à ne pas être exposés aux essais
d'armes nucléaires effectuésdans l'atmosphère par un pays quel-
conque, est et sera violé.)
Il apparaît assez clairement,à mon avis, que la thèsedu demandeur est
que le droit international interditmaintenant à tout Etat de procéder à
des essais nucléaires, du moins dans l'atmosphère. En effet, l'Australie
n'aurait en l'espèce aucun intérêt à se plaindre de toute autre forme

d'essais, ceuxde la France étanteffectuésdans I'atmosphère. Le deman-
deur ne prétendpas qu'il faillechanger ledroitpour des motifs moraux ou
politiques mais il assure que le droit est maintenant tel qu'il le dit. La
France nie l'existencede l'interdiction. On est donc fondé,me semble-t-il,
à affirmer qu'il s'agit d'un différendportant sur l'état actueldu droit
international. Le demandeur ne prétend pas que le droit a toujours été
tel; il soutient qu'il l'est désormais.
Le demandeur déclare que I'opinion générale desnations a évolué,
ainsi qu'il ressort des traités,des résolutions et des prises de positions,
tel point que la prohibition des essais d'armes nucléairesfait désormais
partie du droit international coutumier.

Il n'est pas douteux que le droit coutumier subit un processus de

croissance et d'apports successifsà mesure que I'opinion internationale
évolueet se cristallise en normes juridiques. II parait certain que la Cour
a un rôle à jouer, qui consiste à constater cette croissance età déclarer
avec toute son autoritéqu'en droit elle revêtl'ampleur requise et qu'il a
déjàen fait consécration par le droit coutumier. La Cour se bornera bien
entendu à direà quel stade le droit est déjà parvenu et ce faisant elle ne
modifiera pas le droit et ne décidera pas non plus qu'il devrait être
différentde ce qu'il est.
Je crois qu'il faut considérercomme une possibilitéjuridique qu'à un
certain moment le droit international coutumier interdise, ou ait déjà
interdit, les essais d'armes nucléaires. Les traités, résolutions,prises de
positions et la pratique internationale peuvent se conjuguer pour faire

naitre ce droit coiltumier. Le moment de son émergence ne sera pas
forcément retardéjusqu'à ce que tous les Etats aient adhéré à un traité
d'interdiction des essais ou jusqu'à ce que I'opinion des nations soit
devenue unanime. Le droit coutumier ne dépend pas à mon avis d'une
adhésion universelle. Le droit conventionnel, dont l'application est
limitéeaux parties à la convention, peut se transformer dans certains cas
appropriés en droit coutumier. En revanche, ilse peut que même un
traitéd'interdiction des essais largement accepténe crée pasou n'établisse
pas un étatdu droit internationalcoutumier dans lequel lesessais d'armes
nucléaires seraient illicites et que les résolutions des Nations Unies et
autres expressions de I'opinion internationale, quelque fréquentes, nom-warrant the view that customary law now embraces a prohibition on the
testing of nuclear weapons.

The question raised by the Applicant's claim in respect of the nuclear
testing of weapons and its denial by France is whether the stage has
already been reached where it can be said as a matter of law that there
is now a legal prohibition against the testing of nuclear weapons, parti-
cularly the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. If 1might res-
pectfully borrow Judge Petrén's phrase used in his dissenting opinion at

an earlier stage in this case, the question which arises is whether:
". .. atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons are, generally speaking,
already governed by norms of international law, or whether they do
not still belong to a highly political domain where the norms con-
cerning their international legality or illegality are still at the ges-

tation stage" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 126),
which is, in my opinion, a description of a question of law.
The difficulties in the way of establishing such a change in the cus-
tomary international laware fairly obvious,and they are very considerable,

but, as 1 have indicated earlier, it is not the validity of the claim that is in
question at this stage. The question is whether a dispute as to the law
exists. However much the mind may be impressed by the difficulties in the
way of accepting the view that customary international law has reached
the point of includinga prohibition against the testing of nuclear weapons,
it cannot, in my opinion, be said that such a claim is absurd or frivolous,
or ex facie so untenable that it could be denied that the claim and its

rejection have given rise to a dispute as to legal rights. There is, in my
opinion, no justification for dismissing this basis of the Applicant's
claim as to the present state of international law out of hand, particularly
at a stage when the Court is limited to dealing with matters of an exclu-
sively preliminary nature. Nor is it the case that the state of the customary
law could not be determined by the application of legal considerations.

There remains, however, another and a difficult question, namely
whether Australia has an interest to maintain an application for a decla-
ration that the customary law has reached the point of including a pro-
hibition against the testing of nuclear weapons.
In expressing its claim, it is noticeable that the Applicant speaks of its

right as being a right along with al1 other States. It does not claim an
individual right exclusive to itself. In its Memorial, it puts the obligation
not to test nuclear weapons as owed by each State to every other State
in the international community; thus it is claimed that each State can .
be held to have a legal interest in the maintenance of a prohibition against
the testing of nuclear weapons. The Applicant, in support of this con-
clusion, relies upon the obiter dictum in the Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Lirnited case (Belgium v. Spain, supra, I.C.J. Reports

1970, at p. 32): ESSAISNUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS. BARWICK) 436

breuses et vigoureuses qu'elles puissent être, soient insuffisantes pour
justifier la thèse que le droit coutumier interdit dès maintenant les essais
d'armes nucléaires.
La questionque soulèvent lesaffirmations dudemandeurconcernant les

essais d'armes nucléaireset les dénégationsde la France est celle de savoir
si I'on en est au point où I'on peut dire que, sur le plan juridique, il existe
d'ores et déjàune prohibition des essais d'armes nucléaires,en particulier
dans l'atmosphère. Si je puis respectueusement emprunter les termes
employés par M. I'etrén dans son opinion dissidente lors d'une étape
antérieure de l'affaire,ils'agit d'établir:

((si, d'une manière générale, les essais atmosphériques d'armes
nucléaires sont déjàrégispar des normes de droit international, ou
s'ils n'appartiennent pas à un domaine hautement politique où les
normes concernant leur légalitéou illégalitéinternationale sont

encore en gestation)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 126),
ce qui évoque selori moi une question de droit.
Les difficultésque soulève la constatation d'un tel changement dans le
droit coutumier de:s nations sont bien évidentes, et elles sont considé-

rables. Mais, comriie je l'ai déjà dit, ce n'est pas la validité de la thèse
avancéequi est en cause à ce stade. Le problème est de savoir s'ilexiste un
différend portant sur le droit. Aussi conscient soit-on des difficultésque
vient soulever l'affirmation suivant laquelle le droit international cou-
tumier est déjà parvenu au point où la prohibition des essais nucléaires est

admise, je ne crois pas que I'on puisse la considérer comme absurde ou
frivole, ou tellement insoutenable dès l'abord qu'on soit fondéà affirmer
que cette thèse et la thèse inverse ne constituent pas un différend sur des
droits au sensjuridique. A mon sens, il serait injustifiéde rejeter d'emblée
cette base de I'arg~imentation du demandeur concernant l'étatactuel du
droit international,en particulier à un stade où la Cour ne peut se pencher
que sur des questions de caractère exclusivement préliminaire. On ne peut

pas dire non plus qu'il soit impossible de déterminer l'étatdu droit cou-
tumier en faisant appel à des considérations juridiques.
II reste cependarit une question dificile, celle de savoir si l'Australia
intérêtà vouloir faire déclarer que le droit coutumier comporte déjà une
prohibition des essais d'armes nucléaires.

On remarquera que, dans sa demande, l'Australie présente ce droit
comme un droit qu'elle possède en commun avec tous les autres Etats.
Elle ne prétend paisqu'il s'agisse d'un droit individuel dont elle aurait la
jouissance exclusive. Dans son mémoire, elle décrit l'obligation de ne pas

effectuer d'essais nucléairescomme une obliga"ion de tout Etat envers tout
autre Etat de la communauté internationale; elle soutient donc que tout
Etat peut être considéré commeayant un intérêt juridique à ce que la
prohibition des essais d'armes nucléairessoit appliquée.A l'appui de cette
conclusion, le dernandeur invoque l'obiter dictum dans l'affaire de la
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, deuxième phase,

arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1970, page 32 :437 NUCLEAR TESTS(DISS. OP. BARWICK)

"When a State admits into its territory foreign investments or
foreign nationals, whether natural or juristic persons, it is bound to
extend to them the protection of the lawand assumes obligations con-
cerning the treatment to be afforded them. These obligations, how-
ever, are neither absolute nor unqualified. In particular, an essential
distinction should bedrawn between the obligations ofa Statetowards
the international community as a whole, and those arising vis-à-vis
another State in the field of diplomatic protection. By their very
nature the former are the concern of al1States. In view of the impor-
tance of the rights involved, al1 States can be held to have a legal
interest in their protection: they are obligations erga omnes.

Such obligations derive, for example, in contemporary interna-
tional law, from the outlawing of acts of aggression, and of genocide,
as also from the principles and rules concerning the basic rights of
the human person, including protection from slavery and racial
discrimination. Some of the corresponding rights of protection have

entered into the body of general international law (Reservations to
the Conventionon the Prevention andPunishmentof the Crime of
Genocide, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23); others are
conferred by international instruments of a universal or quasi-
universal character."
The Applicant says that the prohibition it claims now to exist in the
customary international law against the testing of nuclear weapons is of
the same kind as the instances of laws concerning the basic rights of the

human person as are given in paragraph 34 of the Court's Judgment in
the BarcelonaTraction,Light andPower Company,Limitedcase, and that
therefore the obligation to observe the prohibition is erga omnes. The
Applicant says that in consequence the right to observance of the pro-
hibition is a right of each state corresponding to the duty of each state to
observe the prohibition, a duty which the Applicant claims is owed by
each State to each and every other State.
If this submission were accepted, the Applicant would, in my opinion,
have the requisite legal interest, thelocusstandi to maintain this basis of
its claim. The right it claims in its dispute with France would be ifs right:
the obligation it claims France to be under, namely an obligation to
refrain from the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, would be an
obligation owed to Australia. The Parties would be in dispute as to their
respective rights.
But in my opinion the question this submission raises is not a matter
which ought to be decided as a question of an exclusively preliminary
character. Not only are there substantial matters to be considered in
connection with it, but, if a prohibition of the kind suggested by the
Applicant were to be found to be part of the customary international law,

the precise formulation of, and perhaps limitations upon, that pro- ((Dèslors qu'un Etat admet sur son territoire des investissements
étrangers ou des ressortissants étrangers, personnes physiques ou
morales, il est tenu de leur accorder la protection de la loi et assume
certaines obligations quantà leur traitement. Ces obligations ne sont
toutefois ni absolues ni sans réserve. Unedistinction essentielle doit
en particulier être établieentre les obligations des Etats envers la

communauté internationale dans son ensemble et celles qui naissent
vis-à-vis d'un autre Etat dans le cadre de la protection diplomatique.
Par leur naturi: même,les premières concernent tous les Etats. Vu
l'importance des droits en cause, tous les Etats peuvent être consi-
déréscomme ,ayant un intérêt juridique à ce que ces droits soient
protégés; les obligations dont il s'agit sont des obligations erga
omnes.
Ces obligations découlent par exemple, dans le droit international
contemporain, de la mise hors la loi des actes d'agression et du
génocidemais aussi des principes et des règlesconcernant les droits
fondamentaux de la personne humaine, y compris la protection
contre la pratique de l'esclavageet la discrimination raciale. Certains

droits de protection correspondants se sont intégrésau droit interna-
tional général (Réserves à la Convention pour la prévention et la
répression ducrime de génocide,avis consultatif;C.I.J. Recueil 1951,
p. 23); d'autreissont conféréspar des instruments internationaux de
caractère universel ou quasi universel.))
Le demandeur soutient que l'interdiction des essais d'armes nucléaires

qu'imposerait maintenant selon lui le droit international coutumier est de
mêmenature que les exemples relatifs aux droits fondamentaux de la
personne humaine donnés au paragraphe 34 de l'arrêtde la Cour en
l'affaire de la Barcelona Traction, et que l'obligation de respecter la
prohibition est doric une obligation erga omnes. Il affirme qu'en consé-
quence le droit à ce que la prohibition soit observée est un droit que
possède chaque Etat et qui a pour contrepartie l'obligation de chaque
Etat de respecter la prohibition, obligation qui, d'après le demandeur, est
due par chaque Etat à tous les autres.
Si I'on admet cette thèse, le demandeur posséderait, d'après moi, l'in-
térêtjuridiquerequis, la qualitépour faire valoir cette base de sa demande.

Le droit qu'il prétend posséderen ce qui concerne son différend avecla
France serait son droit: l'obligation qui incombe selon luià la France, à
savoir une obligation de s'abstenir de procéder à des essais d'armes nu-
cléairesdans l'atmosphère, serait une obligation envers l'Australie. Les
Parties se contesteraient réciproquement un droit.
Mais à mon avis la question que cette argumentation soulève nedevrait
pasêtretranchéecomme une question de caractère exclusivement prélimi-
naire. D'une part divers problèmes importants sont en jeu mais, en outre,
si I'onconcluait qu'une prohibition comme celle qu'évoquele demandeur
fait partie du droit international coutumier, il se pourrait bien que la
formulation précisee:t peut-êtreleslimites decette prohibition influent surhibition may well bear on the question of the rights of individual States

to seek to enforce it. Thus the decision and question of the admissibility
of the Applicant's claim in this respect may trench upon the merits.
There is a further aspect of the possession of the requisite legalnterest
to maintain this basis of the Applicant's claim which has to be considered.
The Applicant claims to have been specially affectedby the breach of the
prohibition against atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. Conformably
with its other bases of claim the Applicant says that there has been
deleterious fall-out on to and into its land and environment from what it
claims to be the unlawful atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. It may
well bethat when the facts are fullyexamined,this basis of a legal interest
to maintain the Application in relation to the testing of nuclear weapons
may be made out, both in point of fact and in point of law, but again the
matter is not, in my opinion, a question of an exclusively preliminary
nature.
In theresult, 1am of opinion that the Applicant's claim is admissible in
relation to the first three of the four bases which1have enumerated at an
earlier part of this opinion. But 1am not able to say affirmatively at this

stage that the Application is admissible, as to the fourth of those bases
of claim. In my opinion, the question whether the Application is in
that respect admissible is not a question of an exclusively preliminary
nature, and for that reason it cannot be decided at this stage of the pro-
ceedings.
1shall add that, if it were thought, contrary to my own opinion, that
the question of admissibility involved to any extent an examination of the
validity of the claims of right which are involved in the dispute between
the Parties, it would be my opinion that the question of admissibility so
viewed could not be decided as a question of an exclusivelypreliminary
character.
To sum up my opinion to this point, 1 am of opinion that at the date
of the lodging of the Application the Court had jurisdiction and that it
still has jurisdiction to hear and determine the dispute between France
and Australia which at that time existed as to the-claim to the unlaw-
fulness, in the respects specified in the first three bases of claim in my
earlier enumeration, of the deposition and intrusion of radio-active par-

ticles of matter on to and into Australian land, air and adjacent seas
resulting from the detonation by France in its territory at Mururoa in the
South Pacific of nuclear devices, and as to the unlawfulness of the pro-
posed French activity in relation to the high seasand the super-incumbent
air space. 1am of opinion that there is a dispute between the Parties as to
a matter of legal right in respect of the testing by France of nuclear
weapons in the atmosphere of the South Pacific. If it should be found
that the Applicant has a legal right to complain of that testing and thus
a legal interest to maintain this Application in respect of such testing, the
Court has jurisdiction, in my opinion, to hear and determine the dispute
between the Parties as to the unlawfulness of the testing by France of
nuclear weapons in the atmosphere of the South Pacific, It will in thatla question du droit des divers Etats à en obtenir le respect. De ce point
de vue une décision sur la recevabilité de cette demande du requérant
risquerait d'empiéter sur le fond.
L'intérêjturidique que doit posséder le requérant pour soutenir cette
base de sa demande comporte aussi un autre aspect. Le demandeur
prétend que la violation de l'interdiction des essais atmosphériques lui a

causé un préjudice particulier. Conformément aux autres bases de sa
demande il affirme que des retombées nocives se sont produites sur son
territoire et dans son environnement à la suite de ce qu'il considère comme
I'expérimentation illicite d'armes nucléaires dans I'atmosphère. II est
possible que, lorsqu'on examinera les faits en détail, ce fondement d'un
intérêt juridiqueà l'égardde la requête,relativement aux essais d'armes
nucléaires, puisse êtreétablien fait et en droit mais, selon moi, il ne s'agit

pas là non plus d'une question exclusivement préliminaire.

Tout compte fait, j'estime que la demande du requérant est recevable
en ce qui concerne les trois premières des quatre bases que j'ai énumérées
plus haut. Mais je ne suis pas en mesure de dire avec certitude, à ce stade,
que la requête est recevable en ce qui concerne le quatrième chef de

demande. A mon avis, savoir si la requêteest à cet égard recevable n'est
pas une question de caractère exclusivement préliminaire, et c'est pour
cette raison qu'elle ne peut être tranchée ce stade de la procédure.

J'ajoute que si I'on concluait, contrairement à mon opinion, que la
question de la recevabilitéappelle dans une certaine mesure un examen de
la validité des prétemtionsconcernant le droit en cause dans le différend

entre les Parties, je serais d'avis que la question de la recevabilité, ainsi
comprise, ne saurait être tranchée comme une question de caractère
exclusivement préliminaire.
Pour résumer mon opinion sur ce point, je pense qu'à la date du dépôt
de la requêtela Cour avait compétence et qu'elle a toujours compétence
pour se prononcer. sur'le différend entre la France et l'Australie qui

existait à cette époque au sujet du caractère illicite, aux points de vue
spécifiésdans les trois premières bases de la demande que j'ai énumérées
précédemment,du dépôt et de l'intrusion de substances radioactives sur le
sol, l'espace aérien de l'Australie et les eaux adjacentes à la suite de la
mise à feu d'engins nucléaires par la France, dans son territoire de
Mururoa situédans le Pacifique Sud, et en ce qui concerne le caractère

illicite des mesures que la France envisage de prendre en haute mer et
dans l'espace aérien surjacent. Je suis d'avis que les Parties se contestent
réciproquement un droit au sens juridique au sujet de I'expérimentation
par la France d'armes nucléaires dans l'atmosphère du Pacifique Sud. Si
I'on devait conclure que le demandeur possède un droit juridiquement
protégé dese plaindre des essais et par conséquent un intérêt juridique à
présenter sa requête y relative, la .Cour a compétence, selon moi, pour se

prononcer sur le différendentre les Parties au sujet du caractère illicite de
I'expérimentation par la France d'armes nucléaires dans I'atmospère du

189event, in relation to this basis of clairn also, be a dispute as to their

respective rights within Article 17of the General Act.

In so far as the adrnissibility of the Application rnay be a question
separate frorn that of jurisdiction in this case1 am of opinion that the
Application is admissible in respect of al1the bases of clairn other than
that basis which asserts that the custornary international law now in-
cludes a prohibition against the testing of nuclear weapons. In rny
opinion, it cannot be said, as a rnatter of an exclusively prelirninary
character, that the Application in respect of this basis of clairn is inad-
missible, that is to say, it cannot now beaid that the Applicant certainly
has no legal interest to rnaintain its Application in that respect. In my
opinion, the question of adrnissibility in respect of this basis of clairn
not a question of an exclusively prelirninary character and that it ought
to be decided at a later stage of the proceedings.

Dissentfrom Judgment

1 have already expressed rnyself as to the injustice of the procedure
adopted by the Court. I regret to find rnyself unable to agree with the
substance of the Judgrnent, and rnust comment thereon in expressing rny
reasons for dissenting from it.

Explanationfornot Notifyingand HearingParties

The first matter to which 1direct attention in the Judgrnent is that part
of it which expresses the Court's reason for not having notified the Parties
and for not having heard argument (e.g., seeJudgment, para. 33).
The Judgrnent in this connection begins with the circurnstance that a
communiqué frorn the Office of the President of France dated 8 June
1974,which had been cornmunicated to Australia, was brought to the
attention of the Court by the Applicant in the course of the oral hearing
on the prelirninary questions. The Judgrnent then refers to a nurnber of

staternents which it designates as acts of France and which it says are
"consistent" with the communiqué of 8 June 1974; the Court says it
would be proper to take cognizance of these statements (paras. 3 1 and 32
of the Judgrnent). 1 may rernark in passing that the question is not
whether these staternents were matters which rnight properly be consid-
ered by the Court if appropriate procedures were adopted. The question
is whether this evidentiary matter ought to be acted upon without notice
to the Parties and without hearing thern. The Court in itsJudgrnent says:
"lt would no doubt have been possible for the Court, had it

considered that the interests of justice so required, to have afforded
the Parties the opportunity, e.g., by reopening the oral proceedings,Pacifique Sud. Il s'agira dans ce cas, en ce qui concerne également cette
base de la demande australienne, d'un différendau sujet duquel lesparties
se contestent réciproquement un droit comme le prévoit l'article 17de
l'Acte général.
Dans la mesure où la recevabilitéde la requêtepeut êtreconsidérée
comme une question distincte de celle de la compétence en l'espèce,
j'estime que la requêteest recevable en ce qui concerne toutes les bases
de la demande à l'exception de celle où le demandeur soutient que le droit

international coutumier comporte maintenant une interdiction des essais
d'armes nucléaires. Selon moi, on ne peut dire, à titre exclusivement
préliminaire, que la requêteprésentéede ce chef soit irrecevable; en
d'autres termes, on ne peut dire d'ores et déjà que le demandeur ne
possède certainement pas d'intérêjturidique à présenter cette demande
particulière. A mon avis, la question de la recevabilitéen ce qui concerne
cette base de la demande n'a pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaire
et devrait être tranchéeà un stade ultérieur dela procédure.

Dissentiment sur l'arrêt

J'ai déjàdit que je considère la procédureadoptéepar la Cour comme
injuste. Je regrette de ne pouvoir souscrire au fond de l'arrêt,queje com-

menterai donc en indiquant les motifs de mon dissentiment.

Raisonspour lesquelles la Cour n'a pas aviséni entendu lesParties

J'examinerai tout d'abord la partie de l'arrêt dans laquelle la Cour
explique pourquoi elle n'a pas avisé lesParties et ne les a pas entendues
(voir, par exemple, par.33 de l'arrêt).
La Cour commence par indiquer que pendant les audiences sur les
questions préliminaires le demandeur a appelé son attention sur un
communiqué de la présidence de la République française en date du
8juin 1974qui lui avait ététransmis.Puis ellefait étatd'un certain nombre
de déclarationsqu'elleconsidère comme des actes de la France allant tous
((dans le mêmeseris)) que le communiqué du 8 juin 1974 et dit qu'il

convient de tenir compte de ces déclarations (par. 31 et 32 de l'arrêt).Je
ferai observer en passant que la question n'est pas de savoir si la Cour
était fondée à prendre ces déclarations en considération moyennant
l'adoption de procédures appropriées, mais si elle pouvait les utiliser
comme moyens de preuve sans en avoir d'abord aviséles Parties ni les
avoir entendues. Dans son arrêtla Cour déclare:

((Si la Cour avait estiméque l'intérêtde la justice l'exigeait, elle
eurait certes pu donner aux Parties la possibilité de lui présenter
leurs observations sur les déclarations postérieures la cldture de la of addressing to the Court comments on the statements made since

the close of those proceedings. Such a course however would have
been fully justified only if the matter dealt with in those statements
had been completely new, had not been raised during the proceed-
ings, or was unknown to the Parties. This is manifestly not the case.
The essentialmaterial which the Court must examine was introduced
into the proceedings by the Applicant itself, by no means inciden-
tally, during the course of the hearings, when it drew the Court's

attention to a statement by the French authorities made prior to
that date, submitted the documents containing it and presented an
interpretation of its character, touching particularly upon the ques-
tion whether it contained a firm assurance. Thus both the statement
and the Australian interpretation of it are before the Courtursuant
to action by the Applicant. Moreover, the Applicant subsequently

publicly expressed its comments (see paragraph 28 above) on state-
ments made by the French authorities since the closure of the oral
proceedings. The Court is therefore in possession not only of the
statements made by French authorities concerning the cessation of
atmospheric nuclear testing, but also of the views of the Applicant
on them. Although as a judicial body the Court is conscious of the

importance of the principle expressed in the maxim audi alteram
partem, it does not consider that this principle precludes the Court
from taking account of statements made subseiluently to the oral
proceedings, and which merely supplement and reinforce matters
already discussed in the course of the proceedings, statements with
which the Applicant must be familiar. Thus the Applicant, having

commented on the statements of the French authorities, both that
made prior to the oral proceedings and those made subsequently,
could reasoriably expect that the Court would deal with the matter
and come to its own conclusion on the meaning and effect of those
statements. The Court, having taken note of the Applicant's com-
ments and feeling no obligation to consult the Parties on the basis

for its decision, finds that the reopening of theoral proceedings would
serve no useful purpose." (Para. 33.)
It is true that the communiqué of 8 June 1974 which issued from the

Office of the President of France was brought to the Court's attention
by the Applicant in the course of the oral hearing. Indeed, 1should have
thought the Applicant would have been bound to do so. But it seems
to me that it was not introduced in relation to some further question
beyond the two questions mentioned in the Order of 22 June 1973. It is
true that a comment was made on the communiqué by the Applicant's
counsel of which the terms are recited in the Judgment. But in my opinion

it cannot truly be said that the reference to the communication was made
to introduce and argue the questions the Court has decided. Counsel for
the Applicant when making his comment thereon, as appears from the
verbatim record of the proceedings, was reviewing developments in procédure orale, par exemple en rouvrant celle-ci. Cette façon de

procédern'aurait cependant étépleinement justifiéeque si le sujet de
ces déclarations avait été entièrement nouveau,n'avait pas été
évoquéen cours d'instance, ou était inconnu des Parties. Mani-
festement, tel n'est pas le cas. Les élémentsessentiels que la Cour
doit examiner ont étéintroduits dans la procédurepar le demandeur
lui-mêmependant les audiences, et d'une façon qui n'était pas
seulement incidente, quand il a appelé I'attention dela Cour sur une
déclarationantérieuredes autoritésfrançaises, produit lesdocuments
où elle figurait et présentéune interprétation de son caractère, en
particulier sur le point de savoir si elle renfermait une assurance
ferme. C'est donc à l'initiative du demandeur que la déclaration et
l'interprétation qu'en donne l'Australie se trouvent soumises à la

Cour. De plus, le demandeur a publiquement formulédes observa-
tions par la suite (paragraphe8ci-dessus) sur des déclarations faites
par les autoritésfrançaises après la clôture de la procédure orale. La
Cour est donc en possession non seulement des déclarations des
autoritésfrançaises concernant la cessation des essais nucléairesdans
l'atmosphère, mais aussi des vues expriméespar le demandeur à leur
sujet. Bien que la Cour, en tant qu'organe judiciaire, ait coscience de
l'importance di1principe que traduit la maxime audi alteram partem,
elle ne pense pas que ce principe l'empêchede prendre en considéra-
tion des déclarations postérieures à la procédure orale et qui se
bornent à compléteret à renforcer des points déjà discutéspendant
cette procédure- déclarationsque ledemandeur ne peut pas ignorer.

C'est pourquoi le demandeur, ayant présentédes observations sur
les déclaration:;faites par les autorités françaises aussi bien avant
qu'après la procédure orale, il pouvait raisonnablement escompter
que la Cour traite de ce sujet et aboutisse ses propres conclusions
sur le sens et les effets de ces déclarations. La Cour, ayant pris note
des observations du demandeur et ne s'estimant pas tenue de con-
sulter les Parties sur la base de sa décision,considèrequ'il neservirait
àrien de rouvrir la procédureorale.))(Par. 33.)

Il est exact que le demandeur a, pendant la procédure orale, porté à
l'attention de la Cour le communiqué du 8 juin 1974 émanant de la
présidence de la République française. Je ne vois guère comment il
pouvait faire autrement. Mais il ne me paraît pas avoir fait état de ce
communiqué à propos d'une question autre que les deux qui sont visées
dans l'ordonnance du 22juin 1973.11est exact aussi qu'un des conseils du
demandeur a présentéau sujet du communiquédes observations dont les
termes sont citésdans l'arrêt. Mais,selon moi, on ne saurait vraiment
prétendre que cette référenceau communiqué avait pour objet d'amener

et de développerla question sur laquelle la Cour s'est prononcée.Comme
le montrent les comptes rendus d'audiences, lorsqu'il a formulé ces
observations, le conseil passait en revue les faits nouveaux relatifs àrelation to these proceedings since he last addressed the Court, that is to
say, since he did so in connection with the indication of interim measures.
He referred to the failure of France to observe the Court's indication of
interim measures and to certain further resolutions of the General
Assembly and of UNSCEAR. As indicative of what, from the Applicant's
point of view, wascontinued French obduracy, he referred to the commu-
niqué from the President's Office criticizing its factual inaccuracy and
emphasizing that it did not contain any firm indication that atmospheric
testing was to come to an end. He pointed out that a decision to test
underground did not carry any necessary implication that no further
atmospheric testing would take place. He asserted that the Applicant
had had scientific advice that the possibility of further atmospheric
testing taking place after the commencement of underground tests could
not be excluded. He indicated that the communiquéhad not satisfied the
Applicant to the point that the Applicant desired to discontinue the legal

proceedings. On the contrary, he indicated that the Applicant proposed
to pursue its Application, as in fact it did, continuing the argument on
the two questions mentioned in the Order of 22June 1973. 1might inter-
polate that that argument continued without any intervention by the
Court.

But in my opinion this comment of counsel for the qpplicant was inno
sense a discussion of the question as to whether the claim had become
"without object", either because the dispute as to the legal right had been
settled, orbecause no opportunity remained for making a judicial Order
upon the Application. It was not directed to that question at all. Nor was
it directed to the question whether the communiqué was intended to
undertake an international obligation. In no sense did it constitute in my
opinion a submission with respect to those questions or either of them.
In my opinion it cannot be made the basis for the decision without
hearing the Parties. It cannot provide in my opinion any justification for
the course the Court has taken. In my opinion it cannot justly be said,

as it is said in the Judgment, that the Applicant "could reasonably expect
that the Court would .. .come to its own conclusion" from the document
of 8June 1974(seepara. 33), i.e., as to whether or not the Application had
become "without object". Apart from al1 else, the Applicant was not
to know that the Court would receive the further statements and use
them in its decision.
1have said that in my opinion the question whether the Application
has, by reason of the events occurring since the Application was lodged,
become "without object" is not in any sense embraced by or involved in
the questions mentioned in the Order of 22 June 1973.They related, and
in my opinion related exclusively, to the situation which obtained at the
date of the lodging of the Application. They could not conceivably have
related to facts and events subsequent to 22 June 1973. But, of course,
events which occurred subsequent to the lodging of the Application might
provoke further questions which might require to be dealt with in al'affaire survenus depuis son dernier exposédevant la Cour, c'est-à-dire
depuis son intervention pendant la phase des mesures conservatoires. Il
a déclaré quela France n'avait pas respecté les mesures conservatoires

indiquées par la Cour ni certaines nouvelles résolutions de l'Assemblée
générale etdu Comité scientifique des Nations Unies pour l'étude des
effets des rayonnements ionisants. Pour montrer que la France, aux yeux
du demandeur, persistait dans son intransigeance, le conseil a évoquéle
communiqué de la présidencede la République, en contestant son exacti-
tude quant aux faits et en soulignant qu'il ne contenait aucune indication

ferme que les essais en atmosphère allaient prendre fin. Il a fait valoir
qu'une décisionde passer aux essais souterrains ne voulait pas nécessaire-
ment dire qu'il n'y aurait plus d'essais dans l'atmosphère. II a affirméque,
selon les avis scientifiques reçus par le demandeur, la possibilité d'une
reprise des essais en atmosphère après le début des essais souterrains ne
pouvait êtreexclue. Le communiqué, a dit le conseil, n'avait pas apporté

au demandeur de satisfaction qui lui permette de se désisterde son action.
11a indiqué qu'au contraire le demandeur souhaitait poursuivre l'instance
- comme il l'a d'ailleurs fait - et il a continué à plaider sur les deux
questions mentionnées dans I'ordonnance du 22 juin 1973. Je ferai
remarquer à ce propos que le conseil a poursuivi sa plaidoirie sans que la
Cour intervienne.

Selon moi le conseil ne se proposait nullement, en formulant les obser-
vations en question, de discuter du point de savoir si la demande était
devenue ((sans objet » soit parce que le différendjuridique était résolu,
soit parce qu'il n'étaitplus possible de rendre une injonctionjudiciaire sur
la requête. Ses observations ne concernaient absolument pas cette
question, non plus que celle de savoir si l'auteur du communiqué enten-

dait assumer une obligation internationale. Elles ne consituaient pas une
conclusion sur l'une ou l'autre de ces questions et ne pouvaient à mon
avis servir de base à la décision de la Cour sans que les Parties aient été
entendues. Elles ne justifient donc en rien la façon de faire de la Cour.
Selon moi, on n'est pas fondé à dire, comme le fait l'arrêt,que le deman-
deur ((pouvait raisonnablement escompter que la Cour ...aboutisse à

ses propres conclusions» sur le document du 8 juin 1974 (voir par. 33),
c'est-à-dire sur le point de savoir si la requêteest ou non devenue ((sans
objet )).Indépendamment de toute autre considération, le demandeur ne
devait pas savoir que la Cour prendrait en considération les déclarations
ultérieures et s'en servirait pour rendre sa décision.
J'ai déjà dit qu'à mon avis la question de savoir si, en raison des

événementsqui se sont produits depuis que la requête a étédéposée,
celle-ci est devenue ccsans objet )) n'est en aucune manière comprise,
directement ou indirectement, dans celles que mentionne I'ordonnance
du 22 juin 1973et qui visent exclusivement à mon avis la situation existant
à la date du dépôt de la requête.11serait inconcevable que ces questions

pussent se rapporter à des faits ou des événementspostérieurs au 22 juin
1973. Mais des événementssurvenant après le dépôt de la requêtepou-
vaient bien entendu soulever des questions nouvelles que la Cour aurait

192proper procedural manner and decided by the Court after hearing the

Parties with respect tothem.
If there is a question at this stage of the proceedings whether the
Application has become "without object", either because the dispute
which is before the Court had been resolved, or because the Court cannot
in the present circumstances, within its judicial function, now make an
Order having effect between the Parties, the Court ought, in my opinion,
first to have decided the questions then before it and to have fixed times
for a further hearing of the case at which the question whether the
Application had become "without object" could be examined in a public
hearing at which the Parties could place before the Court any relevant
evidence which they desired the Court to consider, for it cannot be as-
sumed that the material of which the Court has taken cognizance is
necessarily the whole of the relevant material, and at which counsel could
have been heard.
The decision of the questions ofjurisdiction and of admissibility would
in no wise have compromised the consideration and decision on the ques-
tion which the Court has decided. Indeed, as 1 think, to have decided
what was the nature of the Parties' dispute would have greatly clarified
the question whether an admissible dispute had been resolved. Further
the failure to decide these questions really saves no time or effort. As 1
have mentioned, the Memorial and argument of the Applicant have been
presented and the questions have been discussed by the Court.

It is of course for the Court to resolve al1questions which come before
it: the Court is not bound by the viewsof one of the parties. But is this a
sufficient or any reason for not notifying the parties of an additional
question which the Court proposes to consider and for not affording the
parties an opportunity to put before the Court their views as. to
how the Court should decide the question, whether it be one of fact
or one of law? The Court's procedure is built on the basis that the
parties will be heard in connection with matters that are before it for
decision and that the Court will follow what is commonly called the
"adversary procedure" in its consideration of such matters. See, e.g.,
Articles 42, 43, 46, 48 and 54 of the Statute of the Court. The Rules of
Court passim are redolent of that fact. Whilst it is true that it is for the
Court to determine what the fact is and what the law is, there is to my
mind, to say the least, a degree ofjudicial novelty in the proposition that,
in deciding matters of fact, the Courtcan properly spurn the participation
of the parties. Even as to matters of law, a claim to judicial omniscience
which can derive no assistance from the submissions of learned counsel
would be to my mind an unfamiliar, indeed, a quaint but unconvincing
affectation.
1find nothing in the Judgment of the Court which, in my opinion, can
justify the course the Court has taken. It could not properly be said, in my
opinion, consistently with the observance of the Court's judicial function,éventuellement à examiner selon la procédure appropriée et à trancher
après audition des Parties.

A supposer qu'à ce stade de l'instance il yeût lieu de se demander si la
requête n'étaitpas devenue ((sans objet )),soit que le différend porté
devant la Cour fût résolu, soit qu'en raison des circonstances la Cour ne
pût plus désormais, dans le cadre de sa fonction judiciaire, rendre une
une injonction produisant des effets entre les Parties, la Cour aurait dû,

à mon avis, se prononcer d'abord sur les questions dont elle étaitsaisie et
fixer ensuite la date de nouvelles audiences pour examiner si la requête
n'était pasdevenue ((sans objet D. Lors de ces audiences publiques, les
Parties auraient eu la possibilité de soumettre à la Cour toutes les preuves
pertinentes qu'elles auraient souhaité la voir prendre en considération
- car on ne saurait présumer que les élémentsdont la Cour a tenu

compte soient nécessairement les seuls qui intéressaient la question - et
la Cour aurait pu entendre les conseils.
Le fait pour la Cour de se prononcer sur les questions de la compétence
et de la recevabilité n'aurait certainement pas compromis l'examen de la
question qu'elle vient de trancher ni sa décision à cet égard. Je pense

mêmequ'en statuant sur la nature du différendentre les Parties, elle aurait
sensiblement clarifie la question de savoir si un différend recevable était
ou non résolu. Au silrplus, le fait que la Cour ne se soit pas prononcée sur
ces questions n'a représenté en réalité ni une économie de temps ni une
économie d'efforts. Comme je l'ai dit plus haut, le demandeur a présenté
son mémoire et ses plaidoiries et les questions ont été examinées par la

Cour.
C'est bien entendu à la Cour de trancher toute question qui lui est
soumise: la Cour n'est pas liéepar les vues de l'une des parties. Mais
est-ce là une raison :suffisante,ou tout simplement une raison, pour ne pas
aviser les parties qu'il se pose une question nouvelle que la Cour se

propose d'examiner, et pour ne pas donner aux parties la possibilité de
lui présenter leurs observations sur la décisionqu'à leur avis cette question
appelle, qu'il s'agissed'une question de fait ou de droit? La procédure de
la Cour repose essentiellement sur le principe que celle-ci entend les
parties sur les questi.ons dont elleest saisie et que ces questions font l'objet
de ce qu'on appelle communément un débat contradictoire. Voir par

exemple les articles 42,43,46,48 et 54 du Statut de la Cour. Le Règlement
de la Cour (passivi) illustre abondamment ce fait. Certes il appartient à
la Cour d'apprécier les éléments de faitet de droit, mais dire que pour se
prononcer sur des questions de fait la Cour est fondéeà écarter la partici-
pation des parties constitue pour le moins, selon moi, une innovation en

matière judiciaire. Même sur les points de droit, la prétention à une
omniscience judiciaire qui rendrait superflues les conclusions d'éminents
conseils me paraît nouvelle et à vrai dire bizarre et peu convaincante.

Je ne trouve rien dans l'arrêt dela Cour qui, à mon avis, puissejustifier
la procédure suivie. Selon moi, il est incompatible avec les principes

fondamentaux qui régissent l'exercicede la fonction judiciaire de la Cour
193that the Court could feel no obligation to hear the Parties' oral sub-
missions or that "the reopening of the oral proceedings would serve no
useful purpose" (see para. 33 of the Judgment).

Elements ofJudgment

The Judgment iscompounded of the following elements: first, an inter-
pretativn of the claim in the Application. It is concluded that the true
nature of the claim before the Court is no more than a claim to bring
about the cessation of the testing of nuclear weapons in the South
Pacific; second, a finding that the Applicant, in pursuit of its goal or
objective to bring about that cessation would have been satisfied to
accept what could have been regarded by it as a firm, explicit and binding
undertaking by France no longer to test nuclear weapons in the atmos-

phere of that area. Such an assurance would have been accepted as ful-
filling that purpose or objective; third, a finding that France by the
communiqué of 8 June 1974,when viewed in the light of the later state-
ments which are quoted in the Judgment intentionally gave an assurance,
internationally binding, and presumably therefore binding France to
Australia, that after the conclusion of the 1974 ser!es of tests France
would not again test nuclear weapons in the atmosphere of the South
Pacific; and lastly, a conclusion that the giving of that assurance, though
not found satisfactory and accepted by Australia, ended the dispute
between Australia and France which had been brought before the Court,
so that the Application lodged on 9 May 1973no longer had any object,
had become "without object".

Each of these elements of the Judgment has difficulties for me. The
Judgment says that the "objective" of the Applicant was to obtain the
termination of the atmospheric tests, "the original andultimate objective
of the Applicant was and has remained to obtain a termination of" the
atmospheric nuclear tests (see paras. 26 and 30 of the Judgment). Para-

graph 31of the Judgment refers to "the object of the Applicant's claim"
as being "to prevent further tests".hus the objective or object is at times
said to be that of the Applicant, at other times it is said to be the ob-
jective of the Application or of thelaim.
The Judgment, in seeking what it describes as the true nature of the
claim submitted by the Applicant, ought to have regarded the Appli-
cation, which by the Rules of Court must statethe subject of the dispute,
as the point of reference for the consideration by the Court of the nature
and extent of the dispute before it (see Art. 35 of the Rules of Court).
The Applicant at no stage departed from the Application and the relief
it claimed.
By the Application the Applicant seeks two elements in the Court's
Judgment, that is to Say,a declaration of the illegality of further tests and
an Order terminating such tests. The Applicant's requests are directed
to the future. But the future to which the Application in seeking a

194 de dire que l'audition des parties dans les circonstances de l'espèce
((ne serviraià rien1)(voir par. 33de I'arrêt).

Elémentsde I'arrêt

L'arrêt comporteplusieurs éléments dont le premier est une interpréta-
tion de la demande formulée dans la requête. LaCour conclut que, si
l'on considère sa véritablenature, cette demande ne visait à rien d'autre
qu'à faire cesser les essais d'armes nucléairesdans le Pacifique Sud. Le
deuxième élémentde I'arrêt est la conclusionque le demandeur, pour
atteindre son but ou son objectif - la cessation des essais- se serait
contenté dece qui aurait été pourlui une assurance ferme, explicite et de

caractère obligatoiredonnéepar la France de ne plus procéder à des essais
d'armes nucléairesen atmosphèredans cette région.Le demandeur aurait
accepté une telleassurance en considérant qu'elle répondait à son but ou
objectif. Un troisième élément est la conclusion suivant laquelle la France,
par son communiquédu 8juin 1974interprété à la lumière desdéclara-
tions ultérieures citéesdans l'arrêt, adélibérémend tonnéune assurance,
ayant un caractère obligatoire sur le plan international et pouvant donc
êtreprésuméela lier vis-à-vis de I'Autralie, comme quoi après la fin de la
série d'expériencesde 1974 la France ne procéderait plus à des essais
d'armes nucléaires en atmosphère dans le Pacifique Sud. Le dernier

élément enfin est la conclusionque cette assurance, qui n'a pourtant pas
été jugéesatisfaisante ni acceptéepar l'Australie, a mis fin au différend
entre l'Australie et la France porté devantla Cour, de sorte que la requête
déposéele 9 mai 1973n'a plus aucun objet, est désormais((sans objet )).
Chacun de ces éléments de I'arrêt me paraît discutable. Dans son arrêt,
la Cour dit que 1'(objectif »du demandeur étaitd'obtenir la cessation des
essaisen atmosphère: ((ledemandeur a eu pour objectif initial et conserve
pour objectif ultime la cessation de ces essais» (par. 26 et 30 de l'arrêt).
Le paragraphe 31 indique que l'((objet de la demande ))est d'«empêcher
de nouveaux essais o. Ainsi il est dit tantôt que cet objectif ou objet est

celui que visait le demandeur, tantôt que c'était l'objectifde la requêteou
de la demande.

En cherchant à déterminerce que l'arrêtappelle la véritablenature de
la demande, c'estsur-larequête,quidoit d'après le Règlementde la Cour
indiquer l'objet du différend, que la Cour aurait dû se fonder pour
examiner la nature et l'étenduedu différendportédevant elle (art. 35 du
Règlement).A aucun moment, le demandeur ne s'estécartéde la requête
ni des conclusions qu'il y énonce.

Dans sa requêteYedemandeur prie la Cour, premièrement, de déclarer

illiciteslesnouveaux essaisqui seraientfaits et, deuxièmement,d'ordonner
la cessation des essais. Ces demandes concernent l'avenir. Mais l'avenir
pour lequel unedéclarationd'illicéité estainsdiemandéecommencele9maideclaration relates begins as from 9 May 1973,the date of the lodging of
the Application, and not, as from the date of the Judgment or from some
other time in 1974.The Judgment proceeds as 1 think, in direct contra-
diction of the language of the Application and of its clear intent, to
conclude that the request for a declaration in the Application is no more
than a basis for obtaining an Order having the effect of terminating
atmospheric tests. The Judgment further says that a finding that further
tests would not be consistent with international law would only be a
means to an end and not an end in itself (see para. 30 of the Judgment).

The Judgment overlooks the terms of paragraph 19 of the Application
which is in part in the following terms:
"The Australian Government will seek a declaration that the
holding of further atmospheric tests by the French Government in
the Pacific Ocean is not in accordance with international law and
involves an infringement of the rights of Australia. The Australian
Government will also request that, unless the French Government
should give the Court an undertaking that the French Government
will treat a declaration by the Court in the sense just stated as a

sufficientground for discontinuing further atmospheric testing, the
Court should make an order calling upon the French Republic to
refrain from any further atmospheric tests."

1might interpolate here the observation that it just could not be said,
in my opinion, that a declaration, made now, that the tests carried out in
1973 and 1974 (which as of 9 May 1973, were "future tests") were
unlawful, would do no more than provide a reason for an injunction to

restrain the tests which might be carried out in 1975.In my opinion the
obvious incorrectness of such a statement isillustrative of the fact that the
request in the Application for a declaration was itself a request for sub-
stantive relief. Apart from a claim for compensatory relief in relation to
them-a matter to which 1 later refer-a declaration of unlawfulness is
al1 that could be done as to those tests. Obviously there could be no
order for an injunction.
In concluding that the nature of the Application was no more than
that of a claim for the cessation of the nuclear tests, two related steps are
taken, the validity of neither of which 1am able to accept. First of all, the
purpose with which the litigation was commenced, the goal or objective
sought thereby to be attained, is identified in the Judgment with the na-
ture of the claim made in the Application and the relief sought in the
proceedings. But it seems to me that they are not the same. They are
quite different things. To confuse them must lead to an erroneous con-
clusion as in my opinion has happened.

Undoubtedly, the purpose of the Applicant in commencing the liti-

gation was to prevent further atomic detonations in the course of testing
nuclear weapons in the atmosphere of the South Pacific as from the date 1973,date du dépôtde la requête,et non à la date de l'arrêtouà quelque
autre date en 1974. L'arrêt contredit à mon sens de façon flagrante les
termes de la requêteet l'intention quiy est clairement expriméeIorsqu'il
conclut que la déclaration demandéedans la requêten'est autre chose que
la base nécessaire à l'obtention d'une injonction de mettre fin aux essais
en atmosphère. Il est dit en outre dans l'arrêtque la constatation que de
nouveaux essais seraient contraires au droit international ne serait qu'un

moyen utiliséen vue d'une fin et non une fin en soi (par. 30). L'arrêt ne
tient pas compte du paragraphe 19de la requêteou l'on peut lire notam-
ment:

((LeGouvernement australien demandera àla Cour de dire que les

nouvelles expériences dans l'atmosphère auxquelles le Gouverne-
ment français pourrait procéder dans l'océan Pacifiquene sont pas
conformes au droit international et violent les droits de l'Australie.
Le Gouvernement australien demandera aussi que, au cas où le
Gouvernement français ne donnerait pas à la Cour l'assurance qu'il
considérera toute déclaration qu'elle pourrait fairà l'effetindiqué
ci-dessus comme une raison suffisante de mettre un terme àsesessais
dans l'atmosphère, la Cour rende une ordonnance enjoignant à la
République française de s'abstenir de tout nouvel essai en atmo-
sphère.))

Je ferai remarquer à ce propos qu'on ne saurait dire selon moi &'une
déclaration qui constaterait à l'heure actuelle le caractère illicite des
essais effectués en1973et 1974(essais qui à la date du 9 mai 1973étaient
encore ((futurs») ne serait rien d'autre qu'un motif d'ordonner de s'abste-
nir de nouveaux essais en 1975.L'inexactitude évidente d'une telleinter-
prétation illustre mon sens le fait que la demande de déclarationformu-
léedans la requêteconstituait en elle-mêmeune demande de mesure sur
le fond. En dehors d'une demande de réparation - question sur laquelle

je reviendrai- une déclaration d'illicéité est la seule mesuqui pouvait
êtreprise à propos de ces essais. Il est évidentqu'en l'occurrenceaucune
injonction n'était possible.
La conclusion que la requête n'avait d'autrenature que celle d'une
demande tendant à.la cessation des essais nucléaires procède de deux
raisonnements liésentre eux, dont je ne peux accepter le bien-fondé.
Tout d'abord, la Cour, dans son arrêt,assimile l'intention dans laquelle
le litige a étéporté devant elle, le but ou l'objectif qu'on s'efforçait ainsi
d'atteindre,à la nature de la demande formulée dans la requêteet à la
satisfaction que l'on cherchaità obtenir. Or il me semble que ces deux
choses ne sont pas indentiques. Elles sont mêmetout à fait différentes.
Les confondre mène nécessairement à une conclusion erronée, comme à

mon sens cela s'estproduit.
11n'est pas douteux que le demandeur, en introduisant l'instance, se
proposait d'empêcher que des essais d'armes nucléaires enatmosphère ne
donnent lieu à de nouvelles explosions atomiques dans le Pacifique Sud à
195of the lodgment of its Application. Apparently it desired to do so for two
avowed reasons, first to prevent harmful fall-out entering the Australian
environment and, secondly, to prevent the proliferation of nuclear
armament. 1 have already called attention to the different bases of the
Applicant's claim which reflect those different reasons. Diplomatic
approaches having failed, the means of achieving that purpose was the
creation of a dispute as to the legal rights of the Parties and the commen-
cement of a suit in this Court founded on that dispute in which relief of
two specific kinds was claimed, the principal of which in reality, in my

opinion, is the declaration as to the matter of right. The injunctive relief
was in truth consequential. The attitude of the Applicant expressed in
paragraph 19 of its Application is consistent with the practice of inter-
national tribunals which deal with States and of municipal tribunals when
dealing with governments. It is generally considered sufficient to declare
the law expecting that States and governments will respect the Court's
declaration and act accordingly. That 1understand has been the practice
of this Court and of its predecessor.Thus the request for a declaration of
unlawfulness in international law is, in my opinion, not merely the pri-
mary but the principal claim of the Application. It is appropriate to the
resolution of a dispute as to legal rights.

The second step taken by the Judgment not unrelated to the first is to
identify the word "object" or "objective" in the sense of a goal to be
attained or a purpose to be pursued, with the word "object" in the ex-
pression of art "without object" as used in the jurisprudence of this

Court. This in my opinion is to confuse two quite disparate concepts.
The one relates to motivation and the other to the substantive legal
content of an Application. Motivation, unless the claim or dispute in-
volved some matter of good faith, would in my opinion be of no concern
to the Court when resolving a dispute as to legal right.

It is implicit in the Judgment, in my opinion, that the Parties at the
date of the lodgment of the Application were in dispute and presumably
in dispute as to their legal rights. But the Judgment does not condescend
to an express examination of the nature of the dispute between the Parties
which it decides has been resolved and has ceased to exist. 1 have ex-
pressed my views of that dispute in an earlier part of this opinion. If the
Court had corne to the same conclusion as 1have, it would in my opinion
have been immediately apparent that the goal or objective of the Appli-
cant in commencing the litigation could not be identified with its claim
to the resolution of the dispute as to the respective legal rights of the
Parties. It would further have been apparent, in my opinion, that for a

court called upon to decide whether such a dispute persisted, the motives,
purposes or objective of the Applicant in launching the litigation were
irrelevant. It would also have been seen that a voluntary promise given
196partir de la date du dépôt de la requête.Apparemment, les deux raisons
déclaréespour lesquelles il souhaitait aboutir à ce résultat étaient,
premièrement, d'empêcherque des retombéesnocives ne pénètrentdans
l'environnement australien et, deuxièmement, d'empêcher la prolifération

des armes nucléaires.J'ai déjà indiquéles différentesbases de la demande
qui correspondent à cesdeux raisons distinctes. Lesdémarchesdiplomati-
ques ayant échoué,le moyen de parvenir à ce but était de créer undiffé-
rend concernant les droits juridiques des Parties et de porter ce différend
devant la Cour en introduisant une instance dans laquelle deux satisfac-
tions distinctesétaieritdemandées,dont la principale était enréalité selon
moi la déclaration sur le point de droit, la demande d'injonction n'en
étant que la conséquence. L'attitude exprimée par le demandeur au
paragraphe 19 de sa.requête est conforme à la pratique des tribunaux

internationaux aui ont affaire à des Etats età celle des tribunaux intern--
dans leurs rapports ,avecles gouvernements. On estime en généralqu'il
suffità ces tribunaux de dire le droit, en comptant que les Etats et les
gouvernements respecteront le jugement déclaratoire ainsi rendu et
agiront en conséquence.J'ai bien l'impression que telle a toujours été la
pratique de la Gour actuelle et de sa devancière. Aussi lademande visant
à ce que les essais so:ientdéclarésillicites au regard du droit international
est-elleà mon sens non seulement le premier mais aussi le principal objet
de la requête.Elle t.end au règlement d'un différend sur des droits de
nature jiridique.

Le second raisonnement dont procède l'arrêtet qui n'est pas sans rap-
port avec le premier consiste à identifier le terme ((obje)ou ((objectif n,
au sens d'un but à atteindre ou d'une fin qu'on poursuit, avec le mot
((objet )au sensqu'ila dans l'expressionjuridique ((sans objet ))employée
dans la jurisprudence de la Cour. C'est là à mon avis confondre deux
notions tout à fait distinctes. L'une concerne le mobile, l'autre le contenu
juridique, le fond, d'une requête.Abstraction faite des cas où la demande
ou le différendfait intervenir la notion de bonne foi, le mobile ne présente
selon moi aucun intérêtpour la Cour lorsqu'elle estappelée à trancher un
différendjuridique portant sur un droit.

A mon avis, il ressort implicitement de l'arrêtqu'à la date du dépôtde
la requêteil existait entre les Parties un différendet que celui-ci, selon
toute vraisemblance, portait sur leurs drcits respectifs. Mais la Cour ne
condescend par à traiter expressément, dans son arrêt,de la nature du
différendentre les Parties, qu'elle considère comme résoluet ayant cessé
d'exister. J'aidéjàdonnémon avis plus haut sur ce différend.Si la Cour
avait abouti à la mêmeconclusion que moi,je pense qu'il aurait sautéaux
yeux que le but ou l',objectifpoursuivi par le demandeur en introduisant
l'instance ne pouvait être ramené à sa demande de règlementdu différend
relatif auxdroits respectifszs Parties. Je pense qu'on aurait vu également
que les mobiles, les buts ou les objectifs pour lesquels le demandeur a

engagéla procéduresont sans pertinence pour le tribunal appelé à déter-
miner si le différend existetoujours. II serait de mêmeapparu que le fait
de promettre spontanément, et sans admettre quoi que ce soit, de ne paswithout admission and whilst maintaining the right todo so, not to test
atmospherically in the future could not resolve a dispute as to whether it
had been or would be unlawful to do so. 1add "had been" because of the
1973 series of tests which had taken place before the issue of the commu-
niquéof 8 June 1974.
If, on the other hand, the Court on such an examination of the nature

of the dispute, had decided that the dispute between the Parties was not a
dispute as to their respective legal rights, the Court would have decided
either that it had no jurisdiction to hear and determine the Application
or that the Application was inadmissible. In that event no question of the
dispute having been resolved would have emerged.
Although the matter receives no express discussion, and although I
think it is implicit in the Judgment that the Parties were relevantly in

dispute when the Application was lodged, the Judgment, it seems to me,
treats the Parties as having then been in dispute as to whether or not
France should cease tests in the Pacific. But if the Parties had only been in
dispute as to whether or not France should do so or should give an
assurance that it would do so, the dispute would not have beenjusticiable;
in which case, no question as to the Application having become without

object would arise. Whether the Application when lodged was or was not
justiciable was in iny opinion part of the questions to which the Order of
22 June 1973was directed and 1have so treated the matter in what 1have
so far written. It seems to me that in that connection some have thought
that the dispute between France and Australia was no more than a dis-
pute as to whether France ought or ought not in comity to cease to test in

theatmosphere ofthe South Pacific. If that were thedisputethe Court could
have had no function in its resolution: it could properly have been regarded
as an exclusively political dispute. The Application could properly have
been said to be "without object" when lodged. Ihave found myself and 1
find myself still unable to accept that view. The dispute which is brought
before the Court by the Application is claimed to be, and as 1have said
in my opinion it is, a dispute as to the legal rights of the Parties. The

question between them which the Application brings for resolution by
the Court in my opinion is not whether France of its own volition willnot,
but whether lawfully it cannot, continue to do as it has done theretofore
at Mururoa with the stated consequences for Australia. The importance
of the Court first deciding whether or not the dispute between the Parties
wasa disputeasto their respective rights is thus quite apparent. But inany

case it seems to me that the Applicant's purpose in commencing the
litigation is irrelevant to the question whether the claim which is made is
one the Court can entertain and decide according to legal norms, and the
relief which is sought is relief which the Court judicially can grant.

The confusion of motivation with the substance of the Application
permeates the Judgment in the discussion of the nature of the claim theprocéder dans l'avenir à des essais atmosphériques, tout en s'estimant en
droit de le faire, ne saurait résoudre un différend touchant le point de
savoir si ces essais étaient ou seraient illicites. J'ajoute ((étaien))car la
séried'essais de 1973avait déjà eu lieu lorsque le communiqué du 8juin

1974a été publié.
En revanche, si la Cour, en examinant ainsi la nature du différend,
avait déclaréque celui-ci ne portait pas sur les droits respectifs des
Parties, elle aurait décidé soit qu'elle n'étaitpas compétente pour con-
naître de la requête,soit que celle-ci était irrecevable au moment de son
dépôt. Dans ce cas la question de savoir si le différendétait résolu ne se

serait pas posée.
Bien que l'arrêtrie traite pas expressément de la question et admette
implicitement, selon moi, que les Parties étaient bien en litige lorsque la
requête aétédéposée,la Cour paraît considérer que le différendentre les
Parties portait sur la question de savoir si la France devait ou non mettre

fin à ses essais dans le Pacifique. Mais si le différend entre les Parties
n'avait porté que sur ce point ou sur celui de savoir si la France devait
donner une assurance en ce sens, le différendn'aurait pas étéjusticiable,
auquel cas il n'aurait pu être question de se demander si la requêteétait
devenuesans objet. Idepoint de savoir si, au moment où elle a étédéposée,

la requêteétait ou non justiciable faisait à mon avis partie des questions
viséespar l'ordonnance du 22 juin 1973 et c'est le point de vue que j'ai
toujours adoptéen cette affaire. Il me semble que pour certains le différend
entre la France et l'Australie ne portait que sur la question de savoir si la
France devait ou non, par courtoisie, cesser ses essais en atmosphère dans
le Pacifique Sud. Si tel était le différend, laCour n'aurait pu jouer aucun

rôle dans son règlement: on eût étéfondéà le considérer comme un dif-
férend exclusivemerit politique. On aurait aussi été fondéà dire que la
requêteétait ccsans objet>)lorsqu'elle a été déposée Il. m'est, aujourd'hui
comme alors, impossible de souscrire à cette opinion. Le différend qui a
été portédevant la Cour par la requêtedu demandeur a été présenté par

celui-ci comme un différend juridique relatif aux droits des. Parties, ce
qu'il est en effet selon moi, ainsi que je l'ai dit. Le différend entre les
Parties dont la.Cour a étésaisie par la requêtene porte pas à mon avis
sur la question de savoir si la France, de son plein gré, s'abstiendra de
continuer à agir coimme elle l'a fait jusqu'à présent à Mururoa avec les

conséquences que l'on sait pour l'Australie, mais sur celle de savoir si
elle peut licitement ne pas s'en abstenir. Il apparaît alors nettement
qu'il importe que la Cour détermine d'abord si le différend entre les
Parties concernait ou non leurs droits respectifs.11 me semble en tout cas
que le but que visait le demandeur en introduisant l'instance n'a aucun
rapport avec la question de savoir si la demande qu'il a présentéeest de

celles dont la Cour peut connaître et sur lcsquelles elle peut statuer selon
des normes juridiques et si les mesures sollicitées sont de celles que la
Cour peut accorder dans l'exercice de sa fonction judiciaire.
La confusion faite entre les mobiles du demandeur et le contenu de la
requêtesereflètedaris l'arrêtàpropos de la nature de la demande formulée Application makes. The Judgment refers to statements of counsel in the
course of the oral hearing and proceeds in paragraph 27:
"It isclear from thesestatements that if the French Government had

given what could have been construed by Australia as 'a firm,
explicit and binding undertaking to refrain from further atmospheric
tests', the applicant Government would have regarded its objective
as having been achieved."
In this passage there is again implicit an identification of the Applicant's
ultimate purpose in bringing the proceedings with the claim which it
makes in the Application before the Court. If it were to be assumed that
the Applicant would in fact have treated such an undertaking as the

Court describes as sufficient for itspurposes in commencing the litiga-
tion, the Applicant, in my opinion, could not have regarded that under-
taking as having resolved the matter of right which in my opinion was the
basis of its claim in the Application before the Court. It could not have
regarded its dispute as to legal rights as having been resolved. The assur-
ance which the Court finds to have been given was in no sense an ad-
mission of illegality of the French testing and of its consequences. France
throughout continued to maintain that its nuclear tests "do not contra-
vene any subsisting provision of international law" (French White Book).
Al1the Applicant could have done would have been to accept the assur-
ance as in the nature of a settlement of the litigation and thereupon to
have withdrawn the Application in accordance with the Rules of Court.
It would not do so in my opinion, because the dispute asto the respective
rights of the Parties had been resolved, nor because its claim in the
Application "had been met", but because as a compromise the Applicant
had been prepared to accept the assurance as sufficientfor its purposes.

The question whether a litigant will accept less than that which it has

claimed in the Court as a satisfaction of itspurpose in commencing a liti-
gation is essentially a matter for the litigant. It is not a matter, in my
opinion, which can be controlled by the Court directly or indirectly.
Indeed, it is not a matter into which the Court, if it confines itself to its
judicial function, ought to enter at all. Even if it be right that the Appli-
cant would have accepted what the Applicant regarded as a firm, explicit
and binding undertaking to refrain from further atmospheric tests, the
Court is not warranted in deciding what the Applicant ought to accept
in lieu of its claim to the Court's Judgment. So to do is in effect to com-
promise the claim, not to resolve the dispute as to a matter of right.
There is in any case, to my mind, obvious incongruity in regarding a
voluntary assurance of future conduct which makes no admission of any
legal right as the resolution of a dispute asto the existence of the legal
right which, if upheld, would preclude that conduct.

The departure from the language of the Application and the identifi-
cation of the claim which it makes with the object, objective or goal of thedans celle-ci. L'arrêtse réfèreaux déclarations faites par les conseils
pendant la procédure orale etindique au paragraphe 27:

((11ressort de ces déclarations que, si le Gouvernement français
avait pris ce que l'Australie aurait pu interpréter comme ((un
engagement ferme, explicite et de caractère obligatoire de s'abstenir
de procéder à clenouveaux essais dans l'atmosphère» le Gouverne-
ment demandeur aurait considéréqu'il avait atteint son objectif.)

Dans le passage précité,la Cour identifieà nouveau implicitement le but
ultime que le demandeur cherchait à atteindre en intoduisant I'instance
avec la demande qu'il a formulée dans la requêtesoumise à la Cour.
Mêmesi I'on admet que le demandeur aurait bien considéréun engage-
ment tel que celui que décritla Cour comme répondant de façon suffisante
au but qu'il poursuivait en introduisant I'instance, il n'aurait pu selon
moi estimer que cet engagement résolvait laquestion de droit qui,à mon
sens, était la base de sa requête.Il n'aurait pu considérer ledifférendsur
ses droits juridiques comme résolu. L'assurancequi selon la Cour a été
donnéene constitue nullement une reconnaissance du caractère illicite des
expériences françaises et de leurs conséquences. LaFrance a maintenu

tout au long que ses essais nucléaires ((ne contreviennent ...à aucune
disposition du droit international en vigueur(Livr blancfrançais). Tout
ce que le demandeur aurait pu faire, c'est accepter de reconnaître à
l'assurance donnée la nature d'une transaction mettant fin au litige et
retirer sa requête conformémentau Règlementde la Cour. A mon avis il
ne l'aurait pas fait parce que le différend sur les droits respectifs des
Parties aurait étérégléni parce que la demande formuléedans sa requête
aurait été satisfaite, mais parce qu'à titrede compromis, il eût été disposé
à admettre que l'assurance en question répondait de façon suffisante au
but qu'il poursuivait.
Il appartient essentiellementà la partie intéressée de décidesri elle est
disposée à se satisfaire de moins que ce qu'elle demandait lorsqu'elle a

introduit I'instance. A mos sens, cette question ne dépend pas dela Cour,
ni directement ni indirectement. En fait, il s'agit d'une question que la
Cour, si elle se limiteà l'exercice de sa fonction judiciaire, ne devrait
mêmepas aborder. Mêmesi I'on admet que le demandeur aurait accepté
une assurance considéréepar lui comme un engagement ferme, explicite
et de caractère obligatoire de s'abstenir de procéderde nouveaux essais
en atmosphère, la Cour n'est pasfondée à dire dans son arrêtce que le
requérantdevait accepter à la place de la décisionjudiciairedemandée.En
agissant ainsi, la Cour compromet la cause du demandeur, elle ne règle
pas le différenden droit. 11me paraît en tout cas incongru de considérer
qu'une assurance donnée spontanément par un Etat sur son comporte-
ment futur sans qu'il reconnaissequ'un droit quelconque lui est opposable

puisse résoudreun différendportant sur l'existenced'un droit qui, si cette
existence étaitconfirmée,interdirait ce comportement.
En s'écartant des termes de la requêteet en assimilant la demande
formulée dans la requête à l'objet,à l'objectif ou au but que visait le
198Applicant in making the Application thus provided, in my opinion, an
erroneous base upon which to build the Judgment.
Further, the Judgment, it seems to me, overlooks the fact that in al1

the references to assurances in thecorrespondence and in theoral hearings
the Applicant referred to an assurance with the nature and terms of which
it was satisfied. These references cannot be read in my opinion as indi-
cating such an assurance as might be regarded as sufficient for Australia's
purposes by any other judgment than its own.
The Judgment proceeds to hold that France by the communiqué of

8 June 1974,as confirmed by the subsequent Presidential and Ministerial
statements to the press, did give to the international community and thus
to Australia an undertaking, binding internationally, not on any occasion
subsequent to the conclusion of the 1974 series of tests to test nuclear
weapons in the atmosphere of the South Pacific.

My first observation is that this is a conclusion of fact. It is not in my
opinion a conclusion of law. The inferences to be drawn from the issuing
and the terms of the communiqué of 8 June 1974 are, in my opinion,
inferences of fact, including the critical fact of the intention of France in
the matter. So also, in my opinion, is the meaning to be given to the
various statements which are set out in the Judgment. A decision as to
those inferences and those meanings is not in my opinion an exercise in

legal interpretation; it is an exercise in fact-finding.

But whether the conclusion be one of fact or one of law, my comments
as to the judicial impropriety of deciding the matter without notice to the
Parties of the questions to be considered, and without affording them an
opportunity to make their submissions, are equally applicable.

This is a very important conclusion purporting to impose on France
an internationally binding obligation of a far-reaching kind. Nothing is
found as to the duration of the obligation although nothing said in the
Judgment would suggest that it is of a temporary nature. Thereare appa-
rently no qualifications of it related to changes in circumstances or to the
varying needs of French security. Apparently it is restricted to the South

Pacific area, a limitation implied from the fact that the source of the
obligation is the communiqué of 8 June 1974issued in the context of the
imminence of the 1974series of tests.

The purpose and intention of issuing the communiqué and subse-
quently making the various statements is to my mind far from clear. The
Judgment finds an intention to enter into a binding legal obligation after

giving the warning that statements limiting a State's freedom of action
should receive a restrictive interpretation. The Judgment apparently
finds the clear intention in the language used. 1regret to say that 1am
unable to do so. There seems to be nothing, either in the language used
or in the circumstances of its employment, which in my opinion would
warrant, and certainly nothing to compel, the conclusion that those

199demandeur en la présentant, la Cour, à mon sens, a fait reposer l'arrêtsur
une base erronée.
Au surplus, il me semble que l'arrêtne tient pas compte du fait que
chaque fois que le demandeur a parlé d'assurances dans sa correspon-

dance et dans ses plaidoiries, il visait une assurance dont la nature et les
termes lui donneraient satisfaction. A mon sens il ne pouvait s'agir d'une
assurance qui serait jugée par d'autres que l'Australie elle-mêmecomme
répondant suffisamment à son but.
Dans son arrêt,la Cour estime que par le communiqué du 8 juin 1974,
confirmé par les déclarations faites ensuite devant la presse par le prési-

dent de la République et certains ministres, la France a pris envers la
communauté internationale et donc envers l'Australie un engagement, la
liant sur le plan international, de ne plus procéder après la fin de la série
d'essais de 1974 à des essais d'armes nucléaires en atmosphère dans le
Pacifique Sud.
Je ferai tout d'abcordobserver que cette conclusion porte sur un point

de fait et non, selon moi, sur un point de droit. Je pense qu'on ne peut
tirer de lapublicaticln du communiqué du 8juin 1974et de ses termes que
des conséquences relatives aux faits, notamment au fait décisifde I'inten-
tion de la France en la matière. La même observation vaut, à mon avis,
pour ce qui est de la signification à attribuer aux diverses déclarations
mentionnées dans 'l'arrêt.Se prononcer sur ces conséquences et sur ces

significations, ce n'est pas selon moi procéder à une interprétation
juridique mais analyser des faits.
Mais que la Cour ait jugéen fait ou en droit, je reste convaincu, comme
je l'ai déjà dit, qu'elle n'a pas suivi une procédure judiciaire régulièreen
statuant sans informer les Parties des questions qu'elle allait examiner ni
leur donner la possibilitéde présenter leurs propres conclusions.

La conclusion de la Cour qui tend à imposer à la France une obligation
de grande portée la. liant sur le plan international est d'une importance
considérable. La durée de l'obligation n'est pas précisée,encore que
l'arrêtne donne nulle part à entendre qu'il s'agisse d'une obligation de
caractère temporaire. Cette obligation n'est apparemment assortie
d'aucune réserveconcernant un éventuelchangement de circonstances ou

une évolution des besoins de sécuritéde la France. On peut penser qu'elle
se limite à la région du Pacifique Sud, cela ressortant implicitement du
fait que la source de l'obligation est le communiqué du 8juin 1974publié
peu avant le débutde la série d'essaisde 1974.
Le but et l'intention du communiqué et des diverses déclarations faites
par la suite sont selon moi loin d'êtreclairs. La Cour considère, dans son

arrct, que la France a eu l'intention de prendre un engagement de carac-
tère obligatoire, mais commence par rappeler que lesdéclarations limitant
la liberté d'action d'un Etat doivent faire l'objet d'une interprétation
restrictive.Elle semble déduire cette intention claire de la France des
termes de ses déclarations. Je regrette de devoir dire que je n'aboutis pas
à la même conclusion. II me semble que ni les termes utilisésdans les

déclarations ni le:<circonstances dans lesquelles elles ont été faitesmaking the statements were intending to enter into a solemn and far-
reaching international obligation rather than to announce the current
intention of the French Government. 1 would have thought myself that
the more natural conclusion to draw from the various statements was
that they were statements of policy and not intended as undertaking to
the international community such a far-reaching obligation. The Judg-
ment does not seem to my mind to offer any reason why these statements
should be regarded as expressing an intention to accept an internationally
binding undertaking rather than an intention to make statements of
current government policy and intention.

Further,it seemsto me strange to Saythe least that the French Govern-
ment at a time when it had not completed its 1974series of tests and did
not know that the weather conditions of the winter in the southern
hemisphere would permit them to be carried out, should pre-empt itself
from testing again in the atmosphere, even if the 1974 series should,
apart from the effects of weather, prove inadequate for the purposes
which prompted France to undertake them. A conclusion that France
has made such an undertaking without any reservation of any kind, such,
for example, as is found in the Moscow Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon
Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, to which
France is not aParty, is quite remarkable and difficult to accept.

It is noticeable that the communiqué itself as sent to Australia makes
no express reference to atmospheric testing. The message sent by the
French Embassy in Wellington to the Government of New Zealand with
respect to the communiqué, drew a conclusion not expressed in the

communiqué itself. Somewhat guardedly the Embassy added the words
"in the normal course of events" which tended to weaken the inference
which apparently the Embassy had drawn from the terrns of the commu-
niqué.
In this connection it may be observed that both the Government of
Australia and the Government of New Zealand in responding to the
communiquéof 8 June 1974,virtually challenged France to give to them
an express undertaking that no further tests would be carried out in the
South Pacific. There has been ample opportunity for France to have
unequivocally made such a statement: but no such express statement has
been communicated to either Applicant. Without entering further into
detailed criticism of the finding of fact of which personally 1 am not
convinced, it is enough to Saythat there is, in my opinion, much room for
grave doubt as to the correctness of the conclusion which the Court has
drawn. That circumstance underlines the essential need to have heard
argument before decision.
There is a further substantialmatter to be mentioned in this connec-
tion. The Court has purported to decide that France has assumed an
international obligation of which Australia has the benefit. It is thisn'autorisent, niàplus forte raison n'obligentà conclure que les auteurs
de cesdéclarationsentendaient prendre un engagement solennel de grande
portée sur le plan international, et non pas simplement faire connaître
l'intention qui était alors celle du Gouvernement français. J'aurais quant
à moi pensé qu'ilétaitplus naturel de voir dans ces diverses déclarations
des déclarations de politique générale,dont les auteurs n'entendaient pas
prendre envers la communauté internationale un engagement de portée
aussi étendue àla date considérée.L'arrêtn'explique pas,me semble-t-il,
pour quels motifs on doit considérer que ces déclarations expriment de
la part de laFrance: l'intention d'assumer un engagement la liant sur le

plan international plutôt que celle d'exposer la politique et lesobjectifs du
Gouvernement français.
De plus, il me paraît pour le moins étrange que le Gouvernement
français,à un mornent où il n'avait pas encore mené à bien sa série
d'essais de 1974 et ne savait pas si les conditions météorologiques de
l'hiver austral allaient lui permettre de le faire, ait pu se priver de la pos-
sibilitéde procéderà de nouveaux essais en atmosphère mêmepour le cas
où la sériede 1974,abstraction faite des conditions météorologiques,ne
répondrait pas aux buts qu'il recherchait en faisant de tels essais. La con-
clusion selonlaquel.lela France aurait pris un tel engagement sans faire
de réservedu genre de celles qui figurent par exemple dans le Traité de
Moscou interdisant les essais d'armes nucléairesdans l'atmosphère, dans

l'espace extra-atmosphérique et sous l'eau, auquel la France n'est pas
partie, me parait vraiment singulièreet diffiàiadmettre.
11est ànoter que le texte du communiqué quia étéadressé à l'Australie
ne mentionne pas expressément les essais en atmosphère. Le message
envoyé au Gouvernement néo-zélandaispar I'ambassade de France à
Wellington au sujet.de ce communiqué tire une conclusion qui n'est pas
exprimée dans le communiqué lui-même. Prudemment, I'ambassade
ajoute le mot ((normalement », qui tend à affaiblir la conclusion que
I'ambassade paraît tirer des termes du communiqué.

A cet égard,on peut faire observer qu'en répondantau communiquédu
8 juin 1974, le Gouvernement australien comme le Gouvernement néo-
zélandaisont pratiquement mis la France au défide prendre àleur égard

l'engagement exprèsde ne plus procéder à des essais dans le Pacifique
Sud. Les occasions n'ont pas manqué à la France de faire une déclaration
sans équivoqueen ce sens: mais aucune déclaration expresse de ce genre
n'a étécommuniquée à l'un ou l'autre desdemandeurs. Sans vouloir me
lancer à nouveau dans la critique détaillée d'uneinterprétation des faits
qui ne me convainc pas personnellement, ilme suffitde dire qu'à mon avis
le bien-fondé de la conclusion à laquelle la Cour a abouti me semble
sérieusementcontestable. Cela montre bien qu'il était absolument néces-
saire que la Cour entende les Parties avant d'aboutirsa décision.
LIconvient de mentionner à ce propos un autre point important. La
Cour considérant clans son arrêtque la France a assumé une obligation
internationale au profit de l'Australie, elle déduit de cette circonstance

200450 NUCLEAR TESTS(DISS. OP. BARWICK)

circumstance which the Judgment holds has resolved the dispute between
France and Australia and caused it to cease to exist. But the Court has
not decided its jurisdiction as between these Parties. France has stead-
fastly maintained that the Court has no jurisdiction. The Court's finding
that France has entered into an international obligation is intended to be

a finding binding both Parties to the litigation, France as well as Australia.
But 1am at a loss to understand how France can be bound by the finding
if the Court has not declared itsjurisdiction in the matter.
The Judgment seems to cal1in aid what it calls an inherent jurisdiction
to provide for the orderly settlement of al1 matters in dispute, to ensure
the observance of the inherent limitations on the exercise of the judicial

functionbf the Courtand to maintain itsjudicial character. 1do not wish
to enter into a discussion of this very broadly stated and, as 1think, far-
reaching claim to jurisdiction. Let it be supposed that the so-called
inherent or incidentaljurisdiction as some writers cal1it would enable the
Court to decide that it had no jurisdiction or that an application was not
admissible where this could be done without deciding matters of fact;

where the matter could be decided upon the face of an admitted or un-
contested document. In such a case the Court may be able to find a lack of
jurisdiction or of admissibility. But that is not the position here. The
Judgment does not merely deny the Applicant a hearing of the Appli-
cation because of the disappearance of the Applicant's case. The Court

purports to decide a matter of fact whereby to bind France to an inter-
national obligation. Assuming without deciding that the claim to juris-
diction made in paragraph 23 of the Judgment is properly made, that
jurisdiction could not extend in my opinion to give the Court authority to
bind France, which has stoutly and consistently denied that it has con-
sented to the jurisdiction.

It may well be that even if the Court decided that it has jurisdiction
under Article 36 (1) and the General Act to settle a dispute between
Australia and France as to their respective rights in relation to nuclear
testing, the consent of France given through Article 17 may not extend
to include or involve a consent by France to the determination by the

Court that France had accepted a binding obligation to the international
community not to test in the atmosphere again, a fact not involved in
settling the dispute as to their respective rights. But 1 have no need to
examine that question forthe Court has not even decided that it has juris-
diction to settle the dispute between the Parties. 1 am unable to accept
that France is bound by the Court's finding of fact that it has accepted

an internationally binding obligation not again to test in the atmosphere
of the South Pacific. This is an additional reason why the dispute between
Australia and France should not be regarded as resolved.

For al1 these reasons, 1 am unable to accept the conclusion that, byque le différend opposant la France à l'Australie est résolu et a cessé
d'exister. Mais la Cour ne s'estpas prononcéesur sa compétence à l'égard
des Parties. La France a constamment soutenu que la Cour n'étaitpas
compétente. En concluant que la France avait pris un engagement inter-
national, la Cour entendait que sa conclusion lie les Partiesà l'instance,
aussi bien la France que l'Australie. Or je vois mal comment la France
peut être liee par cette conclusion si la Cour ne s'est pas déclaréecompé-

tente pour connaître de l'affaire.
La Cour paraît invoquer dans son arrêtce qu'elle appelle un pouvoir
inhérant l'autorisant à prendre les mesures voulues pour assurer le
règlement régulier de tous les points en litige ainsi que le respect des
limitations inhérentes à l'exercice de sa fonction judiciaire et pour con-
server son caractère judiciaire. Je n'ai pas l'intention d'examiner cette
thèse, très générale eqtui selon moi va trèsloin, sur ce pouvoir qu'aurait
la Cour. Admettons que ce prétendu pouvoir inhérent ou accessoire,
comme certains auteurs l'ont appelé, autorisela Cour à se déclarer incom-
pétente ou à déclarer une requêteirrecevable lorsqu'elle peut aboutir à
une telle conclusiori sans avoir à se prononcer sur des points de fait,
c'est-à-dire lorsque1.aquestion peut être tranchésur la foi d'un document

dont la validité estreconnue ou incontestée;en pareil cas, la Cour pourra
conclure à son incompétence ou à l'irrecevabilitéde la demande. Mais
telle n'est pas la situation en'espèce.Dans son arrêt,la Cour ne refuse
pas simplement de connaître de la requêtedu demandeur parce que le
grief qui motivait sa demande a disparu. La Cour tranche une question de
fait en faisant assumer à la France une obligation internationale. A sup-
poser - simple hypothèse - que le pouvoir qu'invoque la Cour au
paragraphe 23 de I'a.rrêetxiste, ce pouvoir ne saurait selon moi l'autoriser
à lier la France, qui a vigoureusement etconstamment contestéqu'elleeût
consenti à lajuridiction.
II est possible que, mêmesi la Cour se déclarait compétenteen vertu de
l'article6, paragraphe 1,de son Statut et de l'Acte généralpour trancher
un différendentre l'Australie et la France concernant leurs droits respec-

tifs relativement aux essais nucléaires,l'acceptation par la France de la
juridiction de la Cour en vertu de l'article 17de'Acte général nesignifie-
rait ou n'impliquerait pas nécessairementque cet Etat accepte la décision
de la Cour selon laquelle il s'estengagé vis-à-visde la communauté inter-
nationale à ne plus procéder à des essais en atmosphère; c'est là un point
de fait qui n'a pas intervenir dans lerèglementdu différendsur lesdroits
respectifs des Parties. Mais point n'est besoinquej'examine cette question
car la Cour ne s'est pas même déclaréceompétente pour statuer sur le
différendentre les Parties. Je ne saurais admettre que la France soit liée
par la conclusion de faità laquelle a abouti la Cour,àsavoir que cet Etat
a assumél'obligation - qui le lie sur le plan internation-l de ne plus
procéder à des essais en atmosphère dans le Pacifique Sud. C'est là une

raison supplémentaire pour ne pas considérer comme résolule différend
entre l'Australie et la France.
Pour toutes ces raisons, je ne peux approuver la conclusion selonreason of the communiqué of 8 June 1974and the statements recited in
the Judgment, the dispute between Australia and France has been re-
solved and has ceased to exist.

CouldtheCourtProperly MakeanOrder?

1 would now consider the other reason for which a case may become
"without object", namely that in the existing circumstances no judicial
Order capable of effect between the Parties could be made.

Since the Application was lodged, France has conducted two series of
atmospheric nuclear tests in the South Pacific Ocean, one in 1973 and
another in 1974.It has done so in direct breach of this Court's indication
of interim measures. It would seem to be incontestable that as a result

thereof radio-active matter, "fall-out", has entered the Australian terri-
tory and environment. From the information conveyed by the Applicant
to the Court during the hearings, it seems that the Applicant has moni-
tored its land and atmosphere following upon such nuclear tests in order
to determine whether they were followed by fall-out and in order to
determine the precise extent of such fall-out. 1 have already indicated
that these were future tests within the meaning of the Application.

Australia has not yet been required to make its final submissions in
this case. These two seriesof tests and their consequences wereclearly not
events for which the Applicant had to make provision in its Application.
It seems to me, therefore, that in the situation that now obtains nothing
said in or omitted from the Application or in itspresentation to the Court
could preclude the Applicant from asking in its final submissions for
some relief appropriate to the fact that these nuclear tests, carried out in
breach of the Court's indication of interim measures, caused harm to

Australia and its population and indeed involved the expenditure of
money; for though perhaps a minor matter, it can scarcely be doubted
that the monitoring to determine fall-out, if any, and its extent has in-
volved considerable expenditure, expenditure that would appear to me to
be causally related to the explosions carried out by France during the
1973and 1974series of tests.

It is observable that the request in the Application is not for a decla-
ration that tests which have already been carried out prior to 9 May 1973
were unlawful, though of course in the nature of things a declaration
that further tests after 9 May 1973would be unlawful would carry in this
case the conclusion that those which had already taken place were also
unlawful. In the presentation of its case the Applicant said that "at the
present time" it did not seek any compensatory Order in the nature of
damages. In truth such a claim for damages made in the Applicationlaquelle, en raison du communiqué du 8 juin 1974 et des déclarations
citéesdans l'arrêt,le différendentre l'Australie et la France est résoluet
a cessé d'exister.

La Courpouvait-elle valablementrendreunedécision?

J'examinerai maintenant l'autre motif pour lequel une affaire peut
devenir ccsans objet »,à savoir lorsque les circonstances de l'espècefont
qu'aucune décision susceptible d'avoir des effetsentre les parties ne peut
êtrerendue.
Depuis le dépôtde la requête,la France a fait procéder à deux séries
d'essais nucléaires enatmosphère dans l'océan PacifiqueSud, l'une en
1973et l'autre en 1974. Elle a agi ainsi en violation directe des mesures
conservatoires indiquées par la Cour. Il me paraît incontestable qu'à la
suite de ces essais, des substances radioactives (des ctretombées ») ont
pénétré sur le territoire et dans l'environnement de l'Australie. D'après
les renseignements que le demandeur a portés à la connaissance de la
Cour pendant les audiences, il semble que le demandeur ait effectuédes

contrôles sur son territoire et dans son atmosphèreà la suite de ces essais
nucléaires afinde déterminer s'ils avaient provoqué des retombées et
d'essayer de connaître avec précisionl'importance de ces retombées. J'ai
déjàdit que les essais en question étaient des essais futurs au sens de la
requête.
L'Australie n'a pas encore étinvitéeà présenterses conclusions finales
dans cette affaire. Ces deux séries d'essaiset leurs conséquences n'étaient
manifestement Dasdes événementsdont le demandeur dût tenir comDte
dans sa requête.Il me semble donc que dans la situation actuelle rien de
ce qui a été ditou omis dans la requêteelle-mêmeou dans lesexposéspar
lesquels elle a étéprésentée la Cour ne saurait empêcherle requérant de
demander dans ses conclusions finales une certaine ré~aration comDte

tenu du fait que ces essais nucléaires, effectuésen violation des mesures
conservatoires indiquées par la Cour, ont causéun préjudice à l'Australie
et à sa population et lui ont mêmeoccasionnédes dépenses;car, même
s'ils'agitlà d'une question mineure, il n'est guèredouteux que la mise en
place d'un systèmede contrôle en vue de déterminerl'existenceéventuelle
de retombéeset leur importance a provoquédes dépenses considérables,
dépensesqui sont directement liéesselon moi aux explosions auxquelles
la France a fait procéder dans le cadre des séries d'essaisde 1973et de
1974.
11està noter que la requêtene vise pasà faire déclarerillicitesles essais
antérieursau 9 mai 1973,encore que le fait de déclarer que de nouveaux
essais effectuésaprès le 9 mai 1973 seraient illicites dût nécessairement

amener à conclure, en l'espèce,que ceux qui avaient eu lieu avant cette
date l'étaient égalementP . endant la procédure, le demandeur a dit qu'il
ne cherchait pas ((pour le moment 1)à obtenir de la Cour une décision
ordonnant réparation du préjudice subi, sous la forme de dommages-
intérêtsE. n véritéon aurait difficilementpu considérerune telle demandewould not easily have been seen to be consistent with the nature of the

claims actually made in the Application. They, as 1 have pointed out,
are for a declaration of right and an Order to prevent any tests occurring
after 9 May 1973; hence the request for the indication of interim measures
made immediately upon the lodging of the Application. Any claim to be
paid damages if made in the Application itself would in the circumstances
necessarily have been a claim in respect of past tests carried out by France,

which were not directly embraced in the claim made in the Application.
Further, a claim for damages could scarcely relate to tests which might
yet, as of 9 May 1973, be carried out by France. If the Applicant were to
succeed there would be none, for the Applicant seeks to restrain them as
from the date of the lodgment of the Application. Further, the case was
not one in which the Applicant could ask for conipensation asa substitute
for an injunction, that is to Say on the assumption that the Applicant

succeeded in obtaining a declaration and failed to get an Order for in-
junction.

A claim, therefore, by the Applicant in its final submissions for relief
appropriate to the events of 1973 and 1974 would not be inconsistent
with what has been said so far. Indeed, such a claim would be related to

the dispute on which the Application was founded. Assuming the Appli-
cant to be right in its contentions, the tests of 1973 and 1974 and their
consequences in Australia constitute a breach of Australia's rights. Thus,
as 1 said earlier, it could not properly be said that a declaration made
now in conformity with the Application, would be doing no more than
affording a reason for an Order of injunction. A claim for relief related

to what has occurred since the Application was lodged and to the conse-
quences of the tests of 1973 and 1974 would not transform the dispute
which existed at the date of the lodgment of the Application into another
dispute different in character:nor would it be a profound transformation
of the character of the case by amendment, to use the expression of the
Court in the SociétéCommerciale de Belgique case (P.C.I.J., Series AIB,
No. 78, at p. 173). Rather it would attract the observations of the Court

in that case to the effect that the liberty accorded to the parties to amend
their submissions upto the end of the oral proceedings must be construed
reasonably but without infringing the terms of the Statute or the Rules of
Court (op. cit.).

This ability of the Applicant to include in its final submissions to the
Court a claim for relief of the kind 1 have suggested indicates that a
declaration by the Court in terms of the Application, but made more
specific by a reference to those nuclear tests which took place in 1973and
1974 and their consequences, is capable of affecting the legal interests or
relationship of the Parties. It could not properly, in my opinion, be said
that to make such a declaration would be an exercise outside the judicial

function or that it would be purposeless. It would be dealing with a matterde dommages-intérêts,si elle avait figurédans la requête,comme com-
patible avec la nature des demandes qui y sont effectivement formulées.
Comme je l'ai déjàfait observer, ces demandes visent à obtenir la déclara-
tion d'un droit et l'injonction de ne pas procéder à de nouveaux essais
après le 9 mai 1973; d'où la demande en-indication de mesures conser-
vatoires présentéep.arl'Australie juste après le dépôtde sa requête.Toute

demande de dommages-intérêts quiaurait figuré dans la requête elle-
mêmeaurait nécess.airementporté, étant donné les circonstances, sur les
essais effectués antlirieurement par la France, essais qui n'étaient pas
directement viséspar la requête.La demande de réparation aurait diffici-
lement pu porter sur des essais qui, à la date du 9 mai 1973,restaient une
simple éventualité. Si le requérant obtenait gain de cause ces essais
n'auraient pas lieu, puisqu'il demandait précisémentàla Cour d'ordonner

la cessation des essais à partir de la date du dépôtde la requête.De plus,
la présente instance n'était pasde celles où le requérant pouvait demander
une réparation pécuniaire a titre subsidiaire, pour le cas où il obtiendrait
de la Cour une déclaration mais non une injonction.
Dès lors une demande de réparation que formulerait le requérant dans
ses conclusions finales pour les essais de 1973et de 1974ne serait pas en

contradiction avec ce qui a étédit jusqu'ici. En réalité,une telle demande
serait bien en rapport avec le différendqui a servi de base à !a requête.Si
l'on suppose fondées les thèses du demandeur, les essais de 1973 et de
1974 et leurs conséquences pour l'Australie constituent une atteinte aux
droits de celle-ci. Aussi, comme je l'ai dit précédemment,n'est-on pas
fondé à dire qu'une déclaration actuelle de la Cour allant dans le sens de

la requêtene ferait rien d'autre qu'offrir la base nécessaire au prononcé
d'une injonction. Une demande de réparation portant sur les événements
survenusdepuis le dépôtde la requête etsur les conséquencesdes essais de
1973et de 1974ne transformerait pas le différendqui existait à la date du
dépôt de la requêteen un autre différend dont le caractère ne serait pas
le même:elle ne tr,ansformerait pas non plus profondément le caractère

de l'affaire par voie de modifications apportées aux conclusions, pour
reprendre l'expression utilisée par la Cour dans l'affaire de la Société
commerciale de Belgique (C.P.J.I.sérieAIB no 78, p. 173). Au contraire,
elle répondrait à l'observation faite par la Cour en cette affaire, selon
laquelle la facultélaisséeaux Parties de modifier leursconclusions jusqu'à
la fin de la procédure orale doit être comprise d'une manière raisonnable
et sans porter atteinte aux dispositions du Statut ou du Règlement de la

Cour (op. rit.).
Cette facultédu demandeur de faire figurer dans ses conclusions finales
une demande de rrSparation du genre de celle que j'ai indiquée montre
qu'une déclaration de la Cour conforme à la requête, maisrendue plus
précise par une référenceaux essais nucléaires de 1973 et de 1974 et à
leursconséquences. pourrait avoirdes effets sur lesintérêts ou les relations

juridiques des Parties.A mon avis, on ne saurait dire qu'une telle déclara-
rion de la Cour sortirait du cadre de sa fonction judiciaire ou serait sans
utilité. Elle porterait sur une question de fond. La Cour pourrait aussiof substance. The Court, in my opinion, could also make an Order for
some form of compensatory relief if such an Order were sought. Indeed,
if the Applicant succeeded on the merits of its claim, some Order with

respect to the conduct and consequences of the tests of 1973 and 1974
might well be expected.
In any case, and quite apart from any question of any additional claim
for relief contained in the Applicant's final submission, should the Appli-
cant succeed on the merits of its Application in respect of any of the first
three bases of its claim, a declaration by the Court in relation to that basis

or those bases of claim, with possibly a specific reference to the results in
Australia of the carrying out by France of the 1973 and 1974 series of
tests, would, in my opinion, be properly made within the scope of the
Court's judicial function. Quite apart from any damage caused by the
1973-1974 series of tests, such a declaration could found subsequent
claims by Australia upon France in respect of past testing by France of

nuclear weapons in the South Pacific.

It was said by the Court in the case of thNorthernCameroons(supra) :

"The function of the Court is to state the law, but it may pro-
nounce judgment only in connection with concrete cases where
there exists at the time of the adjudication an actual controversy
involving a conflict of legal interests between the parties. The Court's
judgment must have some practical consequence in the sense that it
can affect existing legal rights or obligations of the parties, thus
removing uncertainty from their legal relations." (I.C.J. Reports

1963, pp. 33-34.)
The Court also said :

"Moreover the Court observes that if in a declaratory judgment it
extounds a rule of customary law or interprets a treaty which
remains in force, itsjudgment has a continuing applicability."

Success of the Applicant in respect of one or more of the first three

bases of its claim would establish that it had been in dispute with France
as to their respective legal rights, that its claims of right to which the
Court's declaration related was or were valid, and that France had been
in breach of that right or those rights. To declare this situation, the
Judgment, in my opinion, would satisfy what the Court said in the quo-
tations 1have made. The judgment would be statingthe law in connection
with a concrete case, where the Parties remained in dispute as to their

respective legal rights. The Court's declaration would affect their existing
legal rights and obligations. In addition, the Court would be expounding
a rule of customary law in relation to the territorial sovereignty of the
Applicant as a State in the international cornmunity.

A judgment affirming the Court's jurisdiction would involve a decisionselon moi ordonner une réparation sous une forme ou une autre si elle

était saisie d'une demande en ce sens. En fait, si le demandeur obtenait
gain de cause sui- le fond, on pourrait fort bien attendre de la Cour
qu'elle ordonne quelque mesure corrective concernant les essais effectués
en 1973et en 1974et leurs conséquences.
Quoi qu'il en soit, et indépendamment de toute demande nouvelle de

réparation qui figurerait dans les conclusions finales du demandeur, si
celui-ci réussissait à faire admettre la légitimitédu fond de sa requêtesur
une ou plusieurs des trois premières bases invoquées, la Cour serait
fondée à faire dan:; le cadre de sa fonction judiciaire, relativement à cette
base ou ces bases de la demande, une déclaration comportant éventuelle-
ment une référence préciseaux conséquences ayant résulté enAustralie

des séries d'essaisirffectuéespar la France en 1973et 1974. Mis à part le
problème du préjudice éventuellement causé par ces séries d'essais de
1973 et de 1974, une telle déclaration pourrait servir à fonder une action
ultérieure de l'Australie contre la France, relativement aux essais d'armes
niicléaireseffectuésantérieurement dans le Pacifique Sud.
Dans l'affaire di1 Canreroun septentrional (supra) la Cour a déclaré:

«La fonction de la Cour est de dire le droit, mais elle ne peut
rendre des arrêts qu'à l'occasion de cas concrets dans lesquels il

existe, au moment du jugement, un litige réelimpliquant un conflit
d'intérêts juridiquesentre les parties. L'arrêt de la Cour doit avoir
des conséquerices pratiques en ce sens qu'il doit pouvoir affecter les
droits ou obligations juridiques existants des parties, dissipant ainsi
toute incertitude dans leurs relationsjuridiques. »(C. I.J.Recueil 1963,
p. 33-34.)

La Cour a aussi dticlaré:

((Au surplus, la Cour observe que, si, dans un jugement déclara-
toire, elle définit une règle dedroit international coutumier ou inter-
prète un traité restant en vigueur, l'arrêt qu'elle rend demeure
applicable dans l'avenir. ))

Si le demandeur réussissait à faire admettre le bien-fondé d'une ou
plusieurs des trois premières bases de sa demande, ilserait établi qu'il

existait entre l'Australie et la France un différend dans lequel elles se
contestaient réciproquement un droit, que l'Australie revendiquait
valablement le droit ou les droits visésdans la déclaration de la Cour et
que la France y a porté atteinte. En déclarant dans son arrêtque telle est
la situation, j'estirne que la Cour irait dans le sens des passages que j'ai
cités.Dans cet arrêt,la Cour dirait le droit à l'occasion d'un cas concret,

dans lequel les Parties demeurent en litige quant à leurs droits respectifs.
La déclaration de la Cour affecterait les droits et obligations juridiques
existants des Parties. En outre, la Cour définirait une règlede droit inter-
national coutumier concernant la souveraineté territoriale du demandeur
en tant qu'Etat membre de la communauté internationale.

En rendant un arrêtpar lequel elle se déclarerait compétente, la Courthat the General Act remained in force and a decision that the Parties
were in dispute as to their respective rights within the meaning of Article
17of the General Act. Thus an interpretation would be placed on Article
17.Therefore a declaration could properly be made and would have legal
effect.

If the Applicant were also to succeed upon the fourth basis of its claim,
again the Court would be stating the law in a concrete case where the
Parties remained in dispute, and it would be expounding a rule of cus-
tomary law, and the other comments 1have made would be applicable.

These results would follow, in my opinion, even if the Court, in its

discretion, refrained from making any immediate Order of injunction.
It might do so because it was satisfied that France would not again
explode nuclear devices or test weapons in the atmosphere of the South
Pacific, either because the Court was satisfied that France had already
resolved not to do so, or because the Court was satisfied that France
would respect the declaration of right which the Court had made in the

matter. But the Court, if it saw fit, could in my opinion, with legal
propriety, make an Order for injunction nonetheless. It is a matter of
discretion for a court whether or not to make an order of injunction
where it is satisfied that without the making of the order the conduct
sought to be restrained will not occur.
Lastly, for the course the Judgment takes there is no precedent. The

case of the Nortllern Cameroons (supra), in my opinion, cannot be called
in aid to justify the Judgment. In that case, what the Applicant claimed
in its Application, the Court at the time of giving Judgment held that it
could not do. The Court was asked to declare the breach of a trusteeship
agreement which had ceased to be operative within a day or so of the
lodging of the Application. The Court held that a declaration of its breach

during the period of its operation could have no effect whatever between
the Parties, there being no claim for compensation for the breach.

Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, in his separate opinion, expressed the
view that from the outset of the case there was no justiciable dispute.
Sir Gerald held that from the terms of the Application it was clear that

the Court was not able to make an Order in the case affecting the legal
relations of the Parties; therefore, in conformity with the definition he
adopted in the case, there was no relevant dispute. He expressed himself
at page 111 of his opinion (I.C.J.Reports 1963) in terms which 1 have
already quoted.
The contrast between the situation of the present case and that of the

case of the Norfhern Carneroons is apparent. Even for those who accept
the validity of the Court's decision in the case of thNorfhern Cameroons,
that case affords, in my opinion, no support for the present Judgment.

In my opinion, there is no discretion in this Court to refuse to decide a
dispute submitted to it which it has jurisdiction to decide. Article 38 ofdéciderait implicitement que l'Acte genéral est toujours en vigueur et
qu'il existe entre les Parties un différend dans lequel elles se contestent
réciproquement un droit au sens de l'article 17de l'Acte général. Ainsila
Cour donnerait une interprétation de l'article 17. Dès lors la Cour pour-
rait valablement faire une déclaration qui produirait des effets juridiques.
Si la Cour admettait aussi le bien-fondéde la quatrième base de l'argu-

mentation du demandeur, elle dirait là encore le droit à l'occasion d'un
cas concret dans lequel les parties restent en litige et elle définirait une
règle de droit international coutumier, et les autres observations que je
viens de faire seraient applicables.
Je pense qu'on aboutirait à ces résultats mêmesi la Cour, dans I'exer-

cice de son pouvoir d'appréciation, s'abstenait de prononcer immédiate-
ment une injonction. La Cour pourrait agir ainsi parce qu'elle aurait la
certitude que la France ne ferait plus exploser d'engins nucléaires ni ne
procéderait plus àdes essais d'armes dans l'atmosphère du Pacifique Sud,
certitude fondée sur la conviction que la France soit serait déjà décidéeà
ne plus le faire, soit respecterait la déclaration de droit faite par la Cour

en la matière. Mais si elle le jugeait utile, je pense que la Cour serait
néanmoins fondée en droit à prononcer une injonction. Un tribunal est
seul juge de l'opportunité d'ordonner de ne pas faire quelque chose
lorsqu'il a la certitude que même en l'absence d'une telle injonction
l'action viséen'aura pas lieu.
Enfin, la voie que la Cour a suivie pour aboutir à son arrêtne s'appuie

sur aucun précédent.A mon sens l'affaire du Cameroun septentrional
(supra) ne saurait être invoquéepour justifier l'arrêt.Dans cette affaire,
la Cour a dit au rnoment où elle a rendu son arrêtqu'elle ne pouvait
accorder au requérant ce qu'il demandait dans sa requête.La Cour était
priée de déclarer qu'il y avait eu violation d'un accord de tutelle qui
avait cesséd'êtreen vigueur un jour ou deux après le dépôt de la requête.

La Cour a jugéqu'une déclaration énonçant que cet accord avait étéviolé
pendant la périodeoù ilétaiten vigueur ne pouvait avoir aucun effet entre
les Parties puisque aucune réparation n'étaitdemandée.
Dans son opinion individuelle, sir Gerald Fitzmaurice a émis l'avis
que dès le début de l'instance il n'existait pas de différend justiciable. Sir
Gerald a soutenu qu'il ressortait clairement des termes de la requêteque

la Cour n'étaitpas en mesure de rendre en l'espèce une décisionaffectant
les rapports juridiques des Parties; dèslors, selon la définition qu'il avait
adoptée en l'affaire, il n'existait pas véritablement de différend. Sir
Gerald s'est exprimédans son opinion (C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. Il 1) dans
les termes que j'ai déjàcités.
La différenceentre la situation existant dans la présente espèceet celle

de l'affaire du Cameroun sepfentrional est évidente. Même ceux qui
admettent le bien-fondé de la décision rendue par la Cour dans l'affaire
du Cameroun septentrional ne sauraient trouver selon moi dans cette
affaire une justification du présentarrêt.
A mon avis, il n'est pas loisible à la Cour de refuser de trancher un
différendqui lui a étésoumis lorsqu'elle a compétence pour en connaître.

205its Statute seerns to lay upon this Court a duty to decide. The case of
NorthernCameroonsat best covers a very narrow fieldin which no Order

at al1can properly be made by the Court.
Of course, if the dispute upon which it is sought to found jurisdiction
has been resolved, no Order settling it can be made. Thus, the Judgment
in this case can only be justified if the dispute between the Parties asto
their legal rights has been resolved and ceased to exist.

However, for al1the reasons 1 have expressed, 1 can find no ground
upon which it can properly be held that the dispute between the Parties
as to their respective rights has been resolved orlias ceased to exist, or
that the Court could not, in the circumstances of the case, properly make
ajudicial Order having effectbetween the Parties. The Application, in my
opinion, has not become "without object".

(Signed) G. E. BARWICK.L'article 38de son Statut parait lui faire obligation de se prononcer. L'af-
fairedu Camerounseptentrionaln'intéressetoutau plus qu'un domaine très
restreint dans lequel la Cour ne peut valablement rendre aucune décision.
Bien entendu, si le différendpour lequel on cherche à établirla compé-
tence de la Cour se trouve résolu, il ne peut plus faire l'objet d'aucun
règlementjudiciaire. L'arrêt renduen la présente espèce nesaurait donc
sejustifier que si le différendjuridique entre les Parties concernant leurs
droits respectifs est résoluet a cesséd'exister.

Mais pour tous les motifs quej'ai exposés, rien ne permetde dire que le
différenddans lequel les Parties se contestaient réciproquement un droit
est résoluou a cesséd'exister, ni que la Cour ne pouvait pas, dans les
circonstances de I'espèce,rendre valablement une décision ayant effet
entre les Parties. mon avis, la requêten'est pas devenue csans objet ».

(Signé)G. E. BARWICK.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Sir Garfield Barwick

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