Dissenting opinion of Judge Gros (translation)

Document Number
067-19841012-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
067-19841012-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE GROS

[Translation f

1. Becauseof theimportance of theJudgment from the standpoint of its
consequencesfor thelawapplicableto thedelimitation of maritime spaces,
1believe it necessary that 1 should set forth the grounds of my dissent.
2. The Parties have submitted to the Chamber some 7,600 pages of
pleadings and 2,000pages of oral arguments together with 300supporting

maps, sketches or diagrams - more than 12metres of shelvingis taken up
by the volumesdeposited in thelibrarybytheParties ;yetno clearposition
regarding the essential legalproblems arisingin this caseemergesfrom this
mass of material. Thus the problems of the single boundary, of the law
applicable to the present case, of equity, of the exact role of geography,
have been examined in great detail but with a certain lack of precision
and some self-contradictions, accompanied frequently by the use of cate-
gorical formulae or assertions presented as rules or principles of law.
One is reminded of Mr. Justice Holmes' warning about the relativity
of words :

"A word .. .is the skin of a living thought and may Varygreatly in
color and content according to the circumstances and the time in
which it is used." (245 U.S. 418, 425.)

In the course of the present proceedings, the Parties and the Chamber
have each referred tojudicial decisions in support of their legal reasoning,

but frequently ajudicial text has been quoted without anything to indicate
that colour andcontent havein factchanged. The present must howeverbe
seen in its own true colours :thejurisprudence of the subject is no longer
viewedas in 1969and 1977,but has taken a sudden turn of which due note
must be taken, and theJudgment of the Chamber takes itsplace within this
change.
3. International law has been evolving since, in its Judgment of 18
December 1951, the Court first signalled the economic importance of
certain situations in the determination of a maritime boundary, in the
following five lines of a 26-page Judgment :

"Finally, there is one consideration not to be overlooked, the scope
ofwhich extends beyond purely geographical factors : that of certain
economic interests peculiar to a region, the reality and importance of
which are clearly evidenced by a long usage." (I.C.J. Reports 1951,
p. 133.)The opposite viewpoint was stated in the dissenting opinion of Judge Sir
Arnold McNair :

"Norway has sought to justify the Decree of 1935on a variety of
grounds, of which the principal are the following(A, B,C and D) :
(A) That a State has a right to delimit its territorial waters in the
manner required to protect its economic and other social interests.
This is a novelty to me. It revealsone of the fundamental issueswhich
divide the Parties, namely, the difference between the subjective and
the objective views of the delimitation of territorial waters.
In myopinion themanipulation of thelimits of territorial waters for

the purpose of protecting economic and other social interests has no
justification in law ; moreover, the approbation of such a practice
would have a dangerous tendency in that it would encourageStates to
adopt a subjective appreciation of their rights instead of conforming
to a common international standard." (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 169.)

During the Conferences of 1958 and 1960, the idea of a contiguous
fishing zone lyingclose to thecoastline of a State began to take shape, but
in the years which followed it was the continental shelf which came to the
fore. On this, the Court's Judgment of 20 February 1969in the North Sea
Continental Shelfcases (I.C.J. Reports 1969,pp. 4-56,hereinafter referred
to as the 1969Judgment), and the Decision of the Court of Arbitration
between the United Kingdom and France dated 30 June 1977 (Cmnd
7438 ; hereinafter referred to as the 1977 Decision) constituted - the
Decision supporting the Judgment - a body of case-law whose elements
are well known. The Third United Nations Conference, after a decade of
effort, produced the Convention of 10 December 1982 (hereinafter re-
ferred to as the 1982convention), which deals with the delimitation of

maritime spaces in a manner which is not that of the above-mentioned
case-law but, even before its adoption by the States members of the
Conference, attracted the support of the Court in the Judgment of 24
February 1982on the ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/Libyan ArabJarnahiriyu)
(I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 18-94,hereinafter referred to as the 1982Judg-
ment). References will be made to other decisions but the essential texts
are, on theonehand, the Conventions of 1958and 1982and, on the other,
the decisions of 1969,1977and 1982.It is a fact that the 1982Judgment,
whichwasbased on the draft of the 1982Convention,constituted a sudden
change in the case-law,and that the Convention substituted a new régime
for thedelimitation of both thecontinental shelfand the 200-milezone for
that which, in the caseof thecontinental shelf,had emerged from the 1958
Convention, the 1969Judgment and the 1977Decision. Moreover, it is a
fact that the present Judgment essentially chimes with the standpoint
taken by the Court in 1982.The effects of this marked change of stancein
conventional law and jurisprudence form the main reason for my dis-

agreement with the majority of the Chamber regarding the solution to theproblems raised by thepresent case. 1said at the timewhy1considered that
the 1982Judgment had taken a wrong turning (I.C.J. Reports 1982, dis-
senting opinion, pp. 143-156) ; the Court's deviation could have been
mitigated by a decision of the present Chamber in a dispute which had al1
the elements needed to strengthen rather than erode the law on the
delimitation of maritime expanses, but this opportunity has been
missed.
4. 1would like to make one initialcomment on this casewhich has been
presented by the Parties as an important precedent in international law.
This is not so,sincethe Parties themselveshave informed the Chamber of
the precautions they have taken to ensure that, if necessary, they will be
free to negotiate on the boundary laid down by the decision (reply by the
United States toa judge's question :sitting of 9 May 1984) ; moreover, the
Parties had made sure in advance that the future Judgment would relate

solelyto the Gulf of Mainedispute, held to beacaseapart from threeother
maritimeboundary disputes between the twoStates,astranspires from the
minutes of bilateral talksissued by the StateDepartmentin 1975-1976and
communicated to the Chamber on 8 May 1984(Ann. 3, September 1976,
pp. 3-6). Finally, the part played in the oral arguments by the concept of
special circumstances, together with the use made of the principles or
methods relied on, would in themselveshave been sufficient to ensure that
the effectsof the GulfofMaine Judgment wereconfined to theactual object
of the dispute, namely the delimitation of the maritime zones of that
particular area.
5. In the Special Agreement the question is put quite simply : What is
the course of the single maritime boundary that divides the continental
shelfand fisherieszonesof Canada and the United States ofAmerica in the
Gulf of Maine area (preamble and Art. II, para. 1) ?It became apparent
during the argument that this simplicity in fact overlay some serious
problems, which 1shall now consider.
1shall begin with the problem of the single boundary line, which the

President of the Chamber raised in his question to the Parties in the
following terms
"In the event that one particular method, or set of methods, should
appear appropriate for the delimitation of the continental shelf, and
another for that of the exclusive fishery zones, what do the Parties
consider to be the legalgrounds that might be invoked for preferring
one or the other in seeking to determine a singleline ?" (Sitting of 19
April 1984.)

The wording of this question showsthat apoint of lawthat wasessential
to the case had not at that time been resolved by the Parties, namely the
question of the law applicable to the determination of a single boundary
dividing acontinental shelfand fisheryzones,the fundamental question in
the present dispute. To examine the question of the single boundary is to
enquire into the applicable law, no less. As the Judgment Statesin para-
graph 161, the replies of the Parties have done no more than refer the problem back to the Chamber itself. At the Sitting of 10 April 1984the
Agent of Canada treated the singleboundary as a "legal concept", and the
Parties appeared to think that the mere fact of their having asked for a
single boundary in the Special Agreement sufficed to impose it on the
Chamber. However,an agreement between parties to request only one line
for the two areas in question does not, in itself, create a rule of law in the
case to be decided, making it possible to ignore al1thefacts of the case, the
legalelements and al1the circumstances relevant to the situation in hand ;
the Parties are agreed on point A, as being the point of departure of the

line,and on thelocation of its other terminus within a broad triangle - two
indications which, taken together, set a strict limit to thejurisdiction of the
Chamber in determining the course of the boundary - but this does not
turn either point A or the triangle into a legal concept. These elements of
the Special Agreement are minor factual details provided by parties who,
in 15years of negotiations, had not been able to reach agreement on even
one segment of continental shelfboundary or fishing limit. The Partiesdid
not invoke any legal considerations when indicating their agreement on
point A, the triangle and the single-line formula :quite the reverse. It was
precisely such legalities that the President's question called upon them to
explain. The Chamber'sjurisdiction to decide, in law, what the requested

maritime boundary should be was not limited by the Parties' indications.
Its task was to see whether there existed in international law any rule
prescribing or authorizing the use of a singleline for the continental shelf
and the fishery zone, whatever the factual circumstances and the rules of
the applicable law, something that has not been done eitherby the Parties
or by the Judgment.
6. The Judgment's reply is given in paragraphs 192-194 :the delimita-
tion called for is "a delimitation of two distinct elements by means of a
single line. This is an unprecedented aspect of the case which lends it its
special character" - and the paragraphs referred to go on to draw con-
clusions for the criteria to be used to unite continental shelf and fisheries

through the use of a single line. The essence of the matter lies here, and I
shall come back to it ;discussion must be focused upon this reply, sinceit
governs the reasoning of theJudgment regarding the lawapplicable to this
case.The Chamber having been asked fora singleline, this request in itself
- "this fact", says the Chamber - suffices to create a sort of special
circumstance which takes precedence overal1the rest - principles, criteria
and methods - and supersedes the problem of determining whether this
singleline is, or is not, established in accordance with law. It is clear to me
that this reply is no reply : the words "special circumstances" are, indeed,
avoided, but the idea is there for sure and, once again, a change of ter-
minology does not suffice to avoid aproblem. The "special aspect" of the

singlelineisafact, saystheJudgment, and asafact is onlyrelevant ifit has
a justifiable influence upon the legal grounds for the boundary to be
determined, the question remains. In the law of delimitation, heretofore,
relevant facts used to be tangible, because they consisted solely of parti-
cular geographic circumstances. When the notion of "special aspect" is GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP.GROS) 364

extended to the fact that a single line has been requested, the question is
put in another guise,but it remains the same :what arethe legal grounds
permitting this request to be applied to the facts of the case, namely a
certain continental shelf and certain fishery zones ? - since, if there is no
other answer than to transform a request of the Parties into a special
circumstance from which legaldeductions can be made, the applicable law
isconfined toan apriori assessment by the Parties. What is more, even the
Parties themselvesdid not givean answer in this sense to the question put
to them, and they had admitted that here was a real problem which the
Chamber would have to solve.No answer, infact, has yet been givento the
preliminaryquestion oflawasto whether the Chamber may viewthewords
"single maritime boundary" used in the Special Agreement as a circum-
stance of decisive effect on the delimitation in the Gulf of Maine area or

whether, by virtue of any rules of law applicable to the facts, this request,
whichis one fact among othersin the overall case, does not in itself suffice
to determine that there shall be a single-line delimitation - this being a
merehypothesis for solongasithas not been verifiedonlegalgrounds. The
International Court of Justice has said :
"the seisin of the Court is one thing, the administration ofjustice is

another. The latter is governed by the Statute, and by the Rules."
(Nottebohm, Preliminary Objection,Judgment, Z.C.J. Reports 1953,
p. 122.)
7. International law has evolved since the codification conferences of
1930and 1958,down to the Convention of 10December 1982whch has

been presented asacodification. It shouldbe recalled that theConferences
of 1930and 1958had been prepared through studies and reports by the
most eminent experts in international law, the authors of standard works
on the law of the sea. In 1958, the régimeof the continental shelf was
codified in a convention, while the claims of the coastal State to a fishery
zone in modest areas of the high seas were taken into consideration in a
convention of more limited scope which was rapidly overtaken by the
pretensions of certain coastal States. It was not for another 20 or so years
later, though before the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of
the Sea had yielded any result, that the concept of an exclusiveeconomic
zone extending to 200miles and comprising exclusivefishing rights was to
be put into practice - sometimes in regard only to fisheries - whether
unilaterally or by agreement between certain States ; the right of a coastal

State to such a zone is nowadays accepted. During the Third United
Nations Conference, this practice was enshrined in texts which bear the
stamp not of legalresearch but of compromises between interests. Judging
by the accounts given in international law reviews by some of the parti-
cipants, the method of work adopted by the Conference, doing away with
themeetings ofcommittees ofjurists but conveninggroupsso composed as
to reflect the opposinginterests, gaveits proceedings (for which there are
no officia1minutes) a cachet which sets them apart from those of codifi-
cation conferences. Moreover, the 1982Convention has not yet come intoforceand, in addition, theGovernment of the United States,when replying
to a question put by ajudge, adopted a particular position with regard to
theConvention whichcasts doubtupon itsapplicability to the present case
(sitting of 9 May 1984).It remains tobe ascertainedwhether the text of the
Convention of December 1982contains any rules of general international
law which as such were already applicable to the delimitation of the
boundary which the Chamber was asked to determine.
8. There is nothing on delimitation of continental shelf or fishery
boundaries in conventional law, in customary law, or more particularly in
the Convention of 1982,which gives any indication of any obligation to
proceed by means of a single line. The objective sought by States as from
the 1958Conference, and carried to extremes over thepast decade or so,is
plain : the ever-increasing enlargement of the maritime domain of the

coastal State ;first it was the contiguous zone, then the adjacent fishing
zone, at the sametimeas thecontinental shelf,then the exclusiveeconomic
or fishery zone which, in certain declarations by States, has connoted an
intention to widen the territorial sea.Whereas the 1958Convention on the
Continental Shelf contained a rule, the equidistance/special-circum-
stances rule, that rule - though upheld by the case-law from 1969 to
February 1982 - has been eroded by the fact that the Third United
Nations Conference was unable to reach a decision regarding the role of
equidistance and equity other than in texts which do not contain any rule
of delimitation, either for the continental shelf or for the economiczone :
Articles74and 83confine themselvesto sayingthat an agreement based on
international law within the meaning of Article 38 of the Statute of the
Court should make it possible to arrive at an equitable solution. It is dif-
ficult to discern any rule in such a formula : to Saythatdue application of

international law should giverise to an equitable result is a truism. Neces-
sity for an agreement between the States concerned, application of inter-
national law, equity - yes,but by what means ? It was the chairman of the
negotiatinggroup in which the Article 83compromise formula on delimi-
tation was reached who expressed doubt that "the Conference willeverbe
ableto drawup aformulaprovidingaclear and precise answer to theques-
tion of the criteria for delimitation", as President Sir Humphrey Waldock
has recalled (The International Courtand theLaw of the Sea, 1979,p. 12 ;
see also Judge Oda's opinion on the legal value of the 1982Convention,
I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 246,para. 143).Al1the gainsrepresentedbythe legal
edificeof 1958,the 1969Judgment and the 1977Decision, have thus been
destroyed by the effect of those two articles of the 1982 Convention,
which take no account of thatjurisprudence and efface it by the use of an
emptyformula. The Courthad already, in February 1982,revised the 1969
Judgment so far as delimitation of the continental shelf was concerned,

by interpreting customary lawin accordance with the known provisions of
the draft convention produced by the Third United Nations Conference.
9. The Parties in the present case were acquainted with the 1982Con-
vention and the change of course in the case-law ; they were unable to
invokeany legalrulebut could wellhave thought that asinglelinewould be GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP.GROS) 366

a convenient formula and serve their interests at present. The position of
theChamber cannot be the same,solong asit has not been established that
a single line is either prescribed by general international law or legally
demanded by the relevant factors in the present case. The Court in its
Judgment of 24 February 1982decided to set aside any consideration of
equidistance, because the Partieshad not proposed it, but did not maintain
that this would have prevented it from considering that method if it had
thought fit. The Chamber wasin no differentsituation when the timecame
to determine whether adelimitation by a singleline was legallyacceptable
in the circumstances of the present case.
10. Prior to the 1982Convention, delimitation under the 1958Conven-
tion on the Continental Shelf took place according to the "equidistance/

special-circumstances rule" (Art. 6 of the 1958Convention on the Conti-
nental Shelf ;cf. Art. 12of that on the Territorial Seaand the Contiguous
Zone).At the time, this seemed toindicatethat an identicalprinciplecould
provide the basis for any boundary delimiting the various areas of mari-
timejurisdiction - then of modest extent. A new question arose with the
introduction of the exclusive fishing or economic zone : where lie the
natural identity between the continental shelf and the zone and the rela-
tionship of dependence between a State and waters stretching for 200
miles ?In 1973,Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice observed in this connection
that "there must come a point at which claims to territorial waters would
verge on the absurd" as soon as those waters ceased to retain any sort of
physical bond with the lands "to which they were supposed to be ...
appurtenant" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 72, para. 8). It is these pretensions,
judged inordinate by most distant-water fishing States and the jurists of
previous codificationsbefore theThird United Nations Conference on the
:the ambition is to wrest from
Lawof the Sea,which now come to the fore
the sea the greatest possible expanse with a view to its immediate or
eventual exploitation and, above all, the exclusion of others. It is the
seizureof vast areas, thecontinental shelfand the 200-milezone,whichhas
become the aim, with repercussions on a law of delimitation whch the
1958and 1960Conferences had dealt with at a time when the boundary
problemappliedto a territorialseaof3or6 miles,ora fishingzoneofup to 12
miles,with the ensuring of opposability to third States asthemainconcern.
In the context of a 200-mileclaim, the question of delimitation takes on a
different complexion, since it is inseparable from the immensity of the
maritime spaces involved, and States will no longer agree clear rules,
because of their determination to appropriate as much asthey possibly can
by everyconceivable means of delimitation. That is what lies enshrined in
the two articles of the 1982Convention (Arts. 73 and 84),which open the
wayto arbitrariness bydefining nothng, and it is likewisethe reasoning of
theChamber's Judgment, founded asit is,likethe 1982Judgment, on those

same articles and, like the articles themse!ves, on an apriori denial of the
equidistance method and on the concurrent use of various criteria, meth-
ods and arguments solely interconnected by the idea of arriving at an
equitable result. The Chamber thus followed the Parties in adopting,through thepropounding of a "fundamental norm", the unusable formula
ofthe 1982Convention (paras. 7and 8 above)and decided to apply it to the
case. The terms in which the Chamber has formulated this rule in para-
graph 112of theJudgment are merely the veilfor twowords that sum itup
just as well as two subparagraphs : agreement + equity.
11. The 1982 Convention replaced the continental shelf concept as
codified by the 1958Convention with the one notion of a distance of 200
miles,whether or not thecoastal Statehas that natural prolongation of its
land territory which the 1969Judgment analysed (paras. 47-48 and 95 ;
1977Decision, paras. 191and 194 ;cf. 1982Convention, Art. 76,para. 1).
Hence certain States now are credited with a mythcal, non-existent con-
tinental shelf, whereas others which do have such a natural physical pro-
longation see no account taken of it - that is, if one holds that the 1982
Convention whch isnot yetinforce has indeed, on thispoint, modified the
1958Convention, which the Judgment does not Say.Not having to judge

anythingother than the subject of the present dispute, 1would Saythat the
question does not arise between the Parties, who are bound by the 1958
Convention on the Continental Shelf. The United States has not main-
tained that the 1958Convention has lapsed, but that it is not "determi-
native" for the delimitation of a single line ;the Anglo-French Court of
Arbitration had formally rejected the contention, put forward at that time
by the French Government, that the 1958 Convention had lapsed. The
Parties agree that the continental shelf of the Gulf of Maine area is one
continuous, unbroken shelf. The present case therefore features both a
recognized physical continental shelf and a continental shelf convention
which is in force but is not being applied between the Parties.
12. As to the 200-milefishery zone claimed by either Party, it must be
pointed out that thearguments before the Chamber wereoften widened to
covertheconcept of an economiczone. This wasnot what wascalled for in
the SpecialAgreement,whichspeaksonly of fisheryzones, and theUnited
States decision to claim an exclusiveeconomic zone, taken in 1983while

the case was pending, cannot have any effect on the boundary decision.
Admittedly, Article III, paragraph 1,of the SpecialAgreement does pro-
vide that the maritime boundary decided by the Chamber shall apply to
any claim or exerciseof sovereignrights orjurisdiction over the waters or
sea-bed and subsoil.But the Chamber isjudging what has been submitted
to it, i.e., a continental shelf and fisheries boundary (Special Agreement,
Art. II,para. 1).The fisheryzones of the two Statesconnoteexploitation of
the fishing resources of the volume of water within the 200-mile limit.
Whereas the continental shelf presents a problem of sea-bed and subsoil
resources (1969 Judgment, para. 96 infine), the delimitation of fisheries
involves division of the water column. A single boundary will establish a
unity between the sea-bed and the exploitation of the subsoil on the one
hand, and the water column with its resources on the other ;it cannot be
assumed that this unity ispre-existent. The twoelementshave alwaysbeen
treated separately. In 1958there was one convention on the continental

shelf and another on fishing, whle back in 1945the United States madetwoproclamations on the same day, one on the continental shelf,the other
on fishing in certain inshore areas of the high seas. Of the Parties, one,the
United States, has argued that the continental shelf has as it were been
incorporated into the 200-milezone, and the other, Canada, that there is a
rule of lawrequiring a singleboundary. But neither of them has explained

how the water column can have absorbed, or effaced, a real, continuous
continental shelf, by some phenomenon whereby the specific identity of
the subsoil and sea-bed is suppressed simply through the presence in the
column of fisheries.
13. The Chamber has decided, in paragraphs 192, 193 and 194, the
forma1 preclusion of any criterion "which can now be seen as inappro-
priate to the delimitation of one or other of the two objects" that it is
requested to delimit ; this means "a delimitation of two distinct elements
by means of a single line" (para. 192) ;the very fact that the delimitation
has a twofold object constitutes a special aspect of the case. "It follows
that . ..it isnecessary ...to rule out theapplication of anycriterion found
tobe typically and exclusivelybound up with theparticular characteristics
of one alone of the two natural realities that have to be delimited in
conjunction" (para. 193).Here paragraph 194must be quoted :

"In reality, a delimitation by a singleline, such as that which has to
be carried out in the present case, i.e., a delimitation which has to
apply at one and the same time to the continental shelf and to the
superjacent water column, can only be carried out by the application
of a criterion, or combination of criteria, which does not giveprefer-
ential treatment to oneof thesetwoobjectsto the detriment of the other,
and at the same time issuchas to be equallysuitableto the division of
either of them. In that regard, moreover, it can be foreseen that with
the gradua1 adoption by the majority of maritime States of an ex-
clusive economic zone and, consequently, an increasingly general
demand for single delimitation, so as to avoid as far as possible the
disadvantages inherent in a plurality of separate delimitations, pre-
ference willhenceforth inevitably be given to criteria that, because of
their moreneutral character, are best suitedfor usein amulti-purpose

delimitation." (Emphasis added.)
14. It seems to me difficult to consider that the Chamber has thus
replied to the question which its President had put to the Parties. One
cannot simultaneously recognize the existence of two different realities
and decide to ignore the difference in determining the boundary except on
the supposition that words can be used to suppress a problem rather than
dzal with it. Even had it been possible, in the case of an unreal continental
shelf area, but only givenpresent possibilities of exploitation, to maintain

that this false continental shelfwas not to be distinguished from the water
column, it is out of the question to do so after having recognized the
existence in the Gulf of Maine of a real, continuous continental shelf,
which has already been explored. In the second place, after having dis-
carded the continental shelf, to strike an equal balance according to thelogic of the Judgment, one must also exclude the fisheries ; it is a sea
deprived of al1meaning, an empty sea,which is to be divided - which was
not among the Parties' themes. Finally, 1 find it hard to grasp what a
criterion can be that does not givepreferentialtreatmentto one objecttothe

detrimentof theother and at the same time issuitabletoboth ;these words
cal1for explanations which arenot provided by the Judgment and cannot
be for others to provide. If they are to be taken in their proper sense, the
criterionmust do no harm either toone object (continental shelf)orto the
other (water), soit must be acriterion devoid of effect :one which, toavoid
givingpreferential treatment, exerts no action. But, in that case, how is it
suitable ? The only conclusion to be drawn is that the President's question
remains unresolved, not onlyin regard to the dispute here decided but for
anyStatescontemplating a singleboundary.It stillremains tobe explained
how two States bound by Article 6 of the 1958Convention on the Con-
tinental Shelf become released from it because it does not apply to a
superjacentzone ofwater ;beforeanyquestion of a singleboundary arose,
the continental shelf was already covered by the high seas, which were
subject to a different régime.The result of refusing to balance up the
equities of the two elements, the continental shelf and the water column, is
that the water has obliterated al1consideration of the other element with-

out any opportunity being allowed of appreciating how the latter would
have prejudiced the former. To say that the two elements are apriori in
opposition isnot found sufficient, and the maxim becomes :only the water
counts. This is surprising, because no equitable criterion is revealed for
dividing the water without first ensuring that no harm is done to the
continental shelf, which means that the latter element will always be the
loser. The obligation to apply the 1958Convention in force between the
Parties as regards the "object" continental shelf cannot be escaped on the
pretext that it would be detrimental to the "object" water or not "be
suitable" ;in the present case it is necessary to begin with the treaty
applicable in regard to the continental shelf and to see which element is
favoured or disfavoured.
15. Bynot carrying out an examination of the proper factors for deter-
mining the course of a boundary equitable for both elements, the conti-
nental shelf and the fisheries, the Chamber has failed to assessthe equities

in its treatment of the facts. Perhaps there is still time to challenge the
unwarranted confusion of the elements to be delirnited and to prevent the
idea from taking root that, in contemporary positive law,only one delimi-
tation rule stillexists:upto 200milesfrom eachState, itsjurisdiction over
the waters of the sea and everything which they contain or cover is total,
and oneneed onlydivideup thewater between theStatesconcerned for the
rest to follow of its own accord. For such a ruling to be a rule, somebetter
groundsmust be foundfor it than what existsat present, which isconfined
to a bare assertion in the absence of such an examination as a court must
normally carry out in order to apply the law to the facts. What weight do
use of the subsoil and use of the water carry in the determination of the
boundary :the same weight, different weights or no weight at al1 ? Even ifit were none at all, as the Chamber holds - subject to the small role
conceded inextremis to chechng thatthe line does not harm thebalance of
interests (paras. 238-239) -, it would be useful to know the reason for this
total negition.
16. A singleboundary notjustified by legalreasoning can be neither the
"reasonable" solution called for by the 1969 Judgment, paragraph 90
infine, nor the equitable result in terms of the fundamental norm pro-

pounded by the Parties and taken up by the Chamber (Judgment, para.
112).The existence of some bilateral agreements that have fixed a single
boundary for a continental shelf and for a 200-mile zone does not prove
anything, the fact of States' signing agreementsthat fix a singleboundary
being in itself irrelevant in the absence of any indication how the line in
question satisfies al1the equitable considerations, in relation to the con-
tinental shelf,fishing, etc., when it was perhaps out of a sense of compro-
mise, neglect of some factor, or merely for the sake of convenience that
such agreements were concluded. Even if one were to cite an agreement
providing for a singlecontinental shelf/zone boundary and formally spe-
cifying in the text that the line had been modified in a particular segment
for a reason connected either with the continental shelf or with the zone,
one would still need to know by what reasoning the parties arrived at that
solution ;sometimes an agreement includes concessions which are not
motivated by reliance on international law. Two States may negotiate a

single boundary which suits them without going into the question of
whether the result is equitable ; a court must establish a line which is
equitable for both parties, after having examined and solved the different
problems to whch the continental shelf and thezone giverise. In the early
stages of the present dispute, between 1964 and January 1976, the two
States only discussed a delimitation line for the continental shelf, as the
Judgment recalls in paragraphs 64-68 ;the discussion was still centred on
this topic in 1976.Thiswasrevealedby the StateDepartmentin arecord of
the negotiations issued in January 1976which showed that at the time the
United States Government was considering a continental shelf boundary
only, while noting the danger of prejudicing the potential boundary of its
economic zone in the Gulf of Maine, which therefore implied two distinct
boundaries (Ann. 2,January 1976,p. 2,para.II, and pp. 5-6,paras. IVand
V).It wasperhaps theextension of thedispute tofishing that prompted the
United States theory of a natural boundary along the Northeast Channel

separating fishery zones, whch constituted another admission of the spe-
cial character of each of the two elements to be delimited. There accord-
ingly existed - at least from 1964to 1976 - grounds for differentiating
between a continental shelf boundary and a fishery zones boundary, and
the Parties' request for a single line in the Special Agreement, concluded
after lengthy negotiations the content of whch the Parties have not
revealed, does not suffice to make the single line a determinative special
aspect.
17. The finding that the single boundary is merely an indication of
delimitation procedure, and accordingly does not bind the Chamber if thelaw applicable to the relevant circumstances of the case does not allowthe
application of suchprocedure, has not been contradicted by theJudgment.
The relevance of a circumstance or special aspect - the choice of words is
optional - can be explained and demonstrated, and only by thorough
enquiryconcerning thecontinental shelfand the fishery zonein the Gulf of
Maine area would it have been possible to gauge the truth of the matter.

Either such analysis of the two categories of maritime domain concerned
would have shown that their delimitation involves the same problems or
that the content of each is - in accordance with the interna1 logic of the
present Judgment - quite irrelevant, in both of which eventualities one
may reasonably devisea singleboundary, or elseit would have brought to
light the existence of some differences between the respective lines that
would be reasonable on the one hand for the sea-bed and subsoil and, on
the other, for the waters above them. Considering that the two States still
have difficulty in delimiting their territorial waters and that they nego-
tiated between 1964 and 1976 (cf. para. 16, above) with respect to a
continental shelf boundary only, it is difficult to accept the theory which
has been argued of the single boundary as a rule of contemporary inter-
national law in process of formation, if not already accomplished, or the
thesis of the singlelineasa special circumstance. To bolster its decision on
this point the Chamber, inparagraph 194of theJudgment, anticipates the

possibility of an exclusive economic zone, accepted by maritime States,
covering al1forms ofjurisdiction, something which, it must be said, will
closely resemble a 200-mile territorial sea. Here again, Judge Sir Arnold
McNair had already declared that a claim to exclusivejurisdiction over
extensive areas was equivalent in substance, even if that substance was
functional and divisible,to the legal situation which obtainsin thezone of
sovereignty over territorial waters (I.C.J. Reports 1951, pp. 159-169).
Having changed the lawon such areas, States cannot retain those features
which once gave point to the work done in studying the special fishery
interest and economic dependence of certain sectors of a population. The
entire bases of reasoning have been altered ; the coastal State wanted
exclusivejurisdiction over the sea-bed and subsoil, then over the water
column, and it hasobtained what it wanted ;but the resources are not the
legal cause of the exclusive zone, they have been removed outside the

problem : the existence of minera1 or living resources is not taken into
account. A continental shelf without resources and an almost empty sea
offer no obstacle to the appropriation of the continental shelf and of a
fisheryzone.The notion ofeconomicdependence can no longerbeinvoked
as a determining factor, in the meaning given by the Court to those two
words in the 1951Judgment quoted above. In paragraphs 237-240, the
Chamber briefly examines the possible effects of the sharing of resources
resulting from the line,which seems to contradict their exclusion from the
examination of the principle of the single boundary. By obliterating any
distinction between the continental shelf and the water, a step is taken
towards unification of the rights enjoyed as well as that of the maritime
spaces placed under the sovereignty of the coastal State. 18. The problem of the unity of the zones is not a new one ; it was
broached in three opinions, appended to the Judgment of 24 February
1982,which S find it appropriate to recall :

(a) Judge Oda devoted a section of his dissentingopinion to the "Relation
between the Continental Shelf and the Exclusive Economic Zone"
(paras. 126-131)and Chapter VIS(paras. 146-177)to the "Principles
and Rules for the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf/Exclusive
Economic Zone". 1note that the question of the single boundary is
raised in paragraph 126and thatJudgeOda seemsto conclude that an
"alignment" is possible of the régimeof the zone on that of the

continental shelf (para. 130, beginning and end). But his position is
more reserved in paragraphs 143-145,which contain a detailed criti-
cismof the negative aspects of the wording of the 1982Convention on
the law of delimitation (I.C.J. Reports 1982,pp. 246-247, para. 143in
fine, para. 144, para. 145, last sentence). Judge Oda's conclusions
continue to be reserved in paragraph 146(subparas. (4) and (5)) and,
while his analysis of the two zones in question is thorough, he seems
rather toindicate waysof approaching theproblem than to comedown
firmly in favour of a single line.
(b) The dissentingopinion of Judge Evensen alsodeals with the exclusive
economic zone, in particular in paragraphs 7, 8, 9 and 10,where he

raises the ~no~ ~m of different delimitation lines and refers to the
replies given by Tunisia and Libya ; he points out that, in the case in
question, he has doubts as to whether "a practical method for the
delimitation of the areas concerned should be based solely or mainly
on continental shelfconsiderations" owing to the "practical impact of
the concept of natural prolongation through the development of that
of the 200mileeconomic zone" (p. 10).In paragraph 15and alsoin his
"Conclusions" (p. 319) Judge Evensen reverts to the idea of a single
line, on the grounds of the "obvious advisability" of this solution.
(I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 269-288, 296-297and 319-323.)

(c) Judge Jiménezde Aréchagadeals in one page with the question of the
exclusiveeconomic zone (paras. 54-56)and he considers that "at least
in the large majority of normal cases, the delimitation of the exclusive
economic zone and that of the continental shelf would have to coin-
cide.The reason isthatboth of thesedelimitations are governed by the
same rules" (para. 56, dealing with Articles 74 and 83 of the 1982
Convention). (I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 115-116.)

19. The foregoing observations were drafted in connection with a dis-

pute on the continental shelf at a time when the question of the singleline
did not arise, but by threejudges commenting on the work of the Third
Conference on the Lawof the Sea ;they are reflected in paragraph 194of
the Judgment, whch predicts that in future the singleline willbe generally
adopted (para. 17,above). This does not bring the problem concerned anycloser to solution, if only because, the 1982Convention not being in force,
one has to decide whether the merging of the continental shelf up to the

200-milelimitwith thezoneisalreadya rule ofcustomary law.This point is
not self-evident for, if that were the case, there would no longer be any
possibility of drawing a boundary confined to the continental shelf, and
whether that is so could be deduced from an examination of current
practice (the reverse is suggested by the fact that several current disputes
concern the continental shelf alone). The Chamber could not adopt a
position involving the mutual neutralization of the relevant criteria of the
continental shelf and of the water without examining them, unless it first
settled this problem of the recognition in customary law of the merging of
al1jurisdictions over the maritime spaces in the 200-milezone, quite aside
from the texts of the 1982Convention.Acourt appliesestablished lawand
not a possible future law.The question is whether it may, at will,delimit a
continental shelf and the supejacent waters taking them separately, in
turn, oras fused with one another, and that question isone which it cannot
decide in the abstract, with the sole explanation that a single boundary is
the solution ofthe future and, furthermore, one advisable or convenient ; it

still has to be one reasonable and reasoned. What had to bejudged was
whether a single boundary would in the present casebe an equitable line
and on what grounds.This isa question to which theCourt referred in the
1982Judgment, in a sentence at the end of paragraph 107 :

"As to the presence of oil wellsin an area to be delimited, it may,
depending on the facts, be an element to be taken into account in the
process ofweighingal1relevant factorsto achievean equitable result."
(I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 77-78.)

It would seem, then, that thepresence of resourcesin acontinental shelfisa
relevant factor.
20. If it wereto become apparentfrom an examination of the respective
problems of the continental shelfand the exclusivefishery zonein the Gulf
of Maine area that, when law is applied to the facts, there are no factors

complicating the drawing of a single boundary, this solution would cer-
tainly be "simpler" for the Chamber and the Parties, but that is not the
point ;simplicity comes near to facility, and facility is no criterion for
delimiting boundaries ;it isal1too oftena means of postponing difficulties
to a later period. If it were apparent that the unification of two different
lineswhichmight bejustified by thefacts, one forthecontinental shelf and
theotherfor theeconomic zone, wasinequitable for one of them in relation
to the other, it is hard to see what application of equity might justify a
singleline which would be partially inequitable because it would produce
extraordinary, unnatural or unreasonable results, either on thecontinental
shelf side or on the side of the zone. Everything therefore depended on
analysis of thefacts, especiallyasithad been submitted in connection with
Georges Bank that any oil extraction might ruin its fisheries and causepollution throughout the Gulf, entailing heavy responsibilities, and as the

Parties' positions seemed to rule out agreement on eitherjoint manage-
ment of the fisheries or joint exploitation of deposits divided by the
delimitation. The judicial task is however not limited by the Parties'
presentation of their opinions on al1thesepoints (cf. 1969Judgment, para.
97,on theunity of any deposits, "a factual element whichit isreasonable to
take into consideration in the course of the negotiations for a delimita-
tion", and the separate opinion ofJudge Jessup (pp. 66ff.and 81-84),who,
going well beyond paragraph 240 of the present Judgment, hoped to
contribute to "further understanding of the principles of equity which ...
are 'part of the international law which [the Court] must apply' " (p.
84)).
21. Although "continental shelf" has become a term which no longer
applies to a physical content, Article 56 of the 1982Convention, which
defines the exclusiveeconomic zone and the rights,jurisdiction and duties
attributed to States, ends with the followingwords :"The rights set out in
this article with respect to the sea-bed and subsoil shall be exercised in

accordance with Part VI". This Part VI is headed Continental Shelf and
contains ten articles including Article 76 on the "Definition of the Con-
tinental Shelf", Article 77 on the "Rights of the Coastal state over the
Continental Shelf", Article 78 on the "Legal Status of the Superjacent
Waters and Air Space . . .not to mention Article 83on the "Delimitation
of the Continental Shelf .. ."identical with Article 74 on the Zone. What
is left of the legal unity of maritime spaces and of the idea that the
continental shelf should be merged with the zone, if the last paragraph of
Article 56definingthezone refers back to Part VI foranother definition of
the continental shelf element not contained in Article 77, and why should
there be two articles on a delimitation defined in one and the same way ?
The construction of the Treaty with a Part V (Exclusive Economic Zone)
and a Part VI(ContinentalShelfl only makes senseif the twoareas differ in
certain ways, to such an extent that it was necessary to devote to them two
parts of a convention on the law of the sea. Exegeteswho want to fuse the
rulesofdelimitation have therefore tojustify theradical uselessnessof Part

VI,in what purports to be a text of "codification". Comparison of Articles
55-62 and 73-74 (Zone) with Articles 76, 77, 78, 81 and 83 (Continental
Shelf) seems to leave only this alternative : either two legal régimes,or
chaos.

22. Prior to the 1982Convention, international law, according to the
1969Judgment and the 1977Decision, had developed afewfirmprecepts :
equidistance plus the special circumstances of the area to be delimited,
with in the forefront the configuration of the coasts, their special aspects,
and nature to be respected asthe "given fact". The solution to the present
dispute could have been deduced from the very terms of paragraph 99 of
the 1969Judgment :

"In view of the particular geographical situation of the Parties' GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP.GROS) 375

coastlines upon that sea, the methods chosen by them for the purpose
of fixing the delimitation of their respective areas may happen in

certain localitiesto lead toan overlapping of the areas appertaining to
them. TheCourt considers that such a situation must be accepted asa
givenfact and resolvedeither by an agreed, or failing that by an equal
divison of the overlapping areas, or by agreements forjoint exploi-
tation, the latter solution appearing particularly appropriate when it
is a question of preserving the unity of a deposit."

Although the Chamber's Judgment alludes to these indications, it in fact

retains of them nothing more than the idea of equal division, and this it
modifies completely by supplemeting it with criteria, methods and cor-
rections which howeverviewed areextraneous to the 1969text or the 1977
Decision. It is up to those who support the current legal vacuum to
demonstrate that the 1958 Convention has in fact become obsolete and
that the 1982Convention, which the United States did not sign and which
is not in force, has nonetheless uncovered a customary rule on this point
which runs counter toboth the 1958Convention and the 1969-1977 case-
lawbyassuming that afusion has taken place between thecontinental shelf
and the 200-mile zone and that a single boundary is called for, without
further enquiry.
23. The argument that the continental shelf is now fused with the zone
and that the 1958Convention on the Continental Shelfis obsolete was put
forward by the French Government in 1977where the 1958Convention
wasconcerned, and wasrejected by theCourt of Arbitration (cf. Decision,

paras. 45,46,47,48 and 205)after its having indicated that "it should take
due account of the evolution of the law of the sea in so far as this may be
relevant in the context of the present case" (para. 48 infine), which was no
acquiescence but simply a polite way of setting on one side a draft codi-
fication. The InternationalCourt itself, in itsJudgment on FisheriesJuris-
diction,had decided that, asacourt oflaw,it could notrenderjudgment sub
specielegisferendae (I.C.J.Reports1974,para. 53).The task at present is to
discover in the evolution of the law of the sea some precise element of at
least equal relevance to the 1958Convention, which the United States held
applicable to the continental shelf between 1969and 1976,if not longer,
judging by the partial documentation furnished to the Chamber (para. 16
above) ;to grasp the causes of this treaty's dereliction,it would have been
necessary to find other grounds than a mere statementthat it is no longer
determinative becauseitcannot applyto water. On 16July 1970the United
States issued a declaration regarding Canada's having on 6 February of

that year acceded to the 1958Convention with a reservation that gave rise
to an objection on the part of the United States (United Nations, Multi-
lateral Treaties 1975,p. 455). No indication has been given of any legal
grounds for the termination of the 1958Convention since then. As for the
legalposition adopted by the Government of the United States regarding
the 1982Convention and its role,inits replyto aquestion put by ajudge at thesitting of9May 1984,it allowssuchadegreeof freedomin the positions
to be adopted in each specific case,at the discretion of that Government,
that the problem of the application of the contents of that instrument by
the United States will invariably remain a matter for its own exclusive
appreciation. Finally it should be recalled that there is a uniform conti-
nental shelf in the Gulf of Maine and that it extends even beyond the
200-milelimit, the delimitation of its final part between the 200-mileline
and the outer edge of the slope remaining to be undertaken by the two
States at some subsequent stage (SpecialAgreement, Art. VII). It scarcely
makes sense to eliminate the continental shelf within the Gulf by assimi-
lating it to the water column, when the final part of it will remain to be

delimited and willbe treated as a specificarea ofshelf asfrom the 200-mile
line where the water will cease to be a factor.
24. The position taken with regard to the single boundary by the last
part of the Judgment, where, in verifying its conclusions, the Chamber
considers as factors the whole range of economic resources abundantly
invoked by the Parties, with a viewto demonstrating that they ought to be
satisfied with the result, calls for thesame remarks as Judge Sir Robert
Jennings made on another case in his dissenting opinion on Italy's appli-
cation for permission to intervene :

"[this] is to assume that the correct location of a continental shelf
boundary isdetermined by acourt of law byestablishing some sort of
compromise between different claims. Such an assumption is surely
contraryto principle. Continental shelfboundariesare established by
the applicable law, taking account of al1the relevant circumstances.
The actual extent of the claims of the parties is not a relevant cir-
cumstance. Continental shelf rights in fact belong whether they are
claimed or not. Claims are, therefore, irrelevant except in so far as
they can bejustified before the Court by reference to the applicable
law." (ContinentalShelf (LibyanArab Jamahiriyal Malta),Application
for Permission fo Intemene, I.C.J. Reporrs 1984, p. 155,para. 22.)

As the Chamber's reasoningis notjustified by reference to the applicable
law, the single line remains a method adopted by the Chamber in accor-
dance with alineofreasoning that it hasbased, likethe Court in 1982,upon
judicial freedom of appraisal. Whether, in the present case, the single line
provides an equitable result is a question still unresolved, and what para-
graphs 238-241express is merely the hope that the Parties will accept the
considerations put fonvard by the Chamber in regard toits decision. This
shows how far removed is a compromise solution from a judgment based
on the legal prescriptions to which the Parties must bow.
25. Thus whilethe crucialquestion in thepresent casehas been posed. it
has not been answered.The Chamber has not discovered the legalgrounds
that could be relied upon to support a method of continental shelfdelimi-
tation, rather than one of delimiting waters. for the determination of its single line. The explanation involving criteria of more neutral character
cannot be the answer, since it cancels out the question;it means clairning
that thejudge mayeliminate anycriterion peculiar to onezoneor theother,
whichisto relegateeachzone to total isolation, and the verypossibility of a
delimitation common to both is thus denied. This avoidance of a question

central to the whole debate - indeed, the debate itself - was perhaps
unnecessary within the interna1 logic of the present Judgment. Having
followed the Court in the change ofjurisprudence that occurred in 1982,
asindicated at the beginning of this opinion, the Chamber has merely
effected an equal division of water, and this fact in itself is sufficient
admission that there are no legal grounds to be relied upon as regards
either of the two zones whose fusion has thus been noted if not decided.
The question put by the President of the Chamber will nevertheless con-
tinue to face treaty negotiators seeking to establish a single boundary,
unlessit discourages them from adopting this procedure whenever a real
continental shelf is involved.
26. To my mind, the conclusion to be drawn from examination of the
problem of the single boundary qua decisive factor in a new law of
delimitation is that, in the present state of international law according to
the Court's jurisprudence in the 1982Judgment based on the convention

text of that year, anything may henceforth be deemed relevant for the
purpose of reaching an equitable result if the States concerned agree to
hold it so or the judge is convinced of its relevance. 1 find this closer to
subjectivism than to the application of law to the facts with a view to the
delimitation of maritime areas. Over and above the question of the single
boundary, therefore, it is the entire problem of the law applicable from
now on to any maritime delimitation, be it of the continental shelf or the
zone, which has tobe faced. The key to the Chamber's legal reasoning lies
in the approach it adopted in setting out to establish the single boundary,
starting from the unprecedented and decisivenature of thefact of having
been asked for one, and, as al1of that reasoning is based on equitable
considerations, it is necessary to enquire what kind of equity is
involved.

27. In redefining the law of maritime delimitation on the basis of
Articles 74 and 83 of the 1982Convention the Chamber has exposed the
disservice rendered international law by the Third United Nations Con-
ference ; 1have summed up this formulation in two words :agreement +
equity. As the concept of agreement has nothing to do with the work of
judges, only equity remains. But if there is any legalconcept to whicheach
attaches his ownmeaning,it isequity.There is,1feel,no need forme to Say
more than what is essential to the present case in a surely never-ending
debate. What is the equity referred to in any remnant of the law of
maritime delimitation that may survive in 1984 ? 28. The Chamber's Judgment follows the line of thought of the Court's,
thus confirming that there has been a break in the case-law in relation to
the 1969 Judgment and the 1977 Decision. In a dissenting opinion
appended to theJudgment of 1982 1 have already expressed myreaction as
to the nub of theproblem raised by this newviewof equity, and it seemsto
me uselessto repeat it here ; wish to incorporate into thepresent opinion

the full text of paragraphs 9, 10, 11,12(first 11lines), 13, 14(first 25lines),
16,17and 18of the 1982opinion ;it isthus unnecessary to introduce many
quotations here, and 1 shalljust give one, which is important :
"While the Court is entitled to change its conception of equity in
comparison with the 1969Judgment, the use of a fewquotationsfrom
that Judgment does not sufficeto prove that no suchchange has taken
place." (1.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 151,para. 16.)

29. The decisive reason for my not having accepted the conception of
today'sJudgment, in which the Chamber enlarges upon that of the Court
in 1982,continues to reside in the fact that equity does not consist in a
successivesearch for equality, proportionality, result ; each of these con-
siderations isawayof applyingequity,it isa choice made inthe manner of
applying the law, and not an accumulation of equities which there is
nothing to forbid supplementing with such others as one may glimpse in

that frame of mind. One must not narrow down the lawof delimitation to
two words, agreement plus equity, only to equate that equity withjudicial
discretion.
30. The Chamber hasapplied the second subparagraph of the versionof
a "fundamental norm" which it gives in paragraph 112 : the equitable
character of the criteria, the capability of the methods to ensure an equi-
table result. Faced with a geographical situation as simple as nature can
produce, Le.,one devoid of any particular geographical featuresleading to
distortions, within the precise meaning of al1 those words in the 1977
Decision (paras. 238-245and 248-252),the Chamber has decided to take
no account of the resources of the continental shelf and fishery zones
concerned, savein a brief examination of the equity of its line at the very
end ofitsreasoning(paras. 237-238),and has divided avolumeofwater the
content of whichisindifferent fromthe viewpoint of the result. To that end
it has performed a highly developed legal analysis based (paras. 95-114,
155-163and 190-230)on the quest for an equitable result, in the 1982

versionenshrinedby the Judgment and Convention of that year, and, with
the aid of critena whichit declares equitable and various methods deemed
apt for the purpose, has gone in search of a line equitable in itself.
31. To follow the interna1 logic of the Chamber's reasoning, one must
take into consideration paragraphs 79-96,which expound the doctrine on
which it bases the Judgment, and paragraphs 191-206 concerning the
methods, with paragraphs 235-241 offering a verification of the applica-
tion of those two elements of the reasoning from the viewpoint of the
equitable result. Paragraph 191defines the fundamental rule according to
the Chamber in a new version of the articles on delimitation in the 1982 GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP. GROS) 379

Convention, whileparagraph 241givesan assurance that the overallresulr
is indeed equitable. The chain is thus complete, and it is worth drawing
attention to the new construction in its essential elementsbecause, if it is
taken together with the previous Judgment, that of 1982,thejurisprudence

of the Court appears fixed for the time being. Thus there can be no
appraisal of the Gu[fof Maine Judgment in relation to the attainments of
1969and 1977,which have been categorically repudiated, and it would be
no use seeking to counter the decisions of the Court in 1982, and the
Chamber in 1984,by arguments with which they have deliberately parted
Company.The study carried out in paragraphs 79-96 concludes with the
finding that, if Article 6 of the 1958 Convention is taken together with
customary law,the lawon delimitation can besummarized asfollows :any
delimitation must beeffectedbyconsent between States,aprinciple which,
"going alittle far in interpreting" the 1958Convention, can conceivably be
supplemented, according to the Chamber, by an implicit rule that any
agreement or other, equivalent solution must involve the application of
equitable principles (Judgment, para. 89).These principles are not, we are
told, principles of lawliketheprinciple of agreement and theaforesaid im-
plicit rule (para. 90).The Judgment concludes these passages on the lawof
delimitation by recalling certain dicta from the 1982 Judgment and
describing the relevant provisions of the 1982Convention. To my mind
this new doctrine is noadvance upon paragraph 71 of the 1982Judgment
(last eightines),whichhas been answered by paragraph 19of adissenting

opinion (I.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 153).That much is apparent, when the
Judgment applies its doctrine to the case in hand, in the use of criteria,
methods and corrections each and everyone of whch isbased on anotion
of equity reached by the successiveand always subjective reactions of the
iudge.
c. Admittedly, the application of the combined methods, with succes-
sivecorrections, isaccompanied byreferences to thejustificationsfor each
adjustment made to a theoretical line arrived at via the method, that of
equal division, which is the first to be employed yet is presumed to be
inequitable, since it is constantly corrected. The end having first been
established,the means follow.This isapparent evenat thebeginning of the
Judgment in thedescription of the facts,whichinany delimitation decision
is a textbook exercisegenerally restricted to the geographical description
of the situation;not soin thepresent instance, where the Chamber already
interprets the geographical facts so as to prepare the treatment it will be
giving them in its use of methods and in its corrections of a line which is
justified not by its own merits resulting from theemployment of factors of
equitydefined and balanced within an overall examination of the relevant
circumstances, but at the whim of the successive evaluations of ajudge

unfettered either by law or by the geographical facts of the case. The idea
that the Gulf is a rectangle has no other utility than to prepare the dis-
covery that an angle in the north of the Gulf will enable a bisector to be
drawn ; the choice of someimaginary lines to composecertain sidesof the
mythical rectangleending in an area outside the Chamber's competence ispresented asastriking likenessof nature. The Gulf isnot arectangle in any
exact description of the facts in this case, since, like any gulf, it has only

three sides,but it ismade out to be one simplybecause that enables it to be
givenafourth sideat itsentrance whichwillprove an indispensablelinefor
justifying the direction of the final segment of the boundary, in that a
perpendicular can be drawn between this unreal closing line of the Gulf
and the Coastof the United States, this being as foreign to the geographical
situation as the description of a rectangular gulf, and the whole being
reminiscent of the smoothing-out techniqueproposed by the French Gov-
ernment in 1977and unequivocally rejected by the Decision (paras. 230
and 246).By such means is a gulf of somewhat oval shape pressed into the
service of a series of deductions based on a rectangle whose imaginary
character isconceded by theChamber itself.TheJudgment of 1982availed
itself of a similar procedure (cf. dissenting opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982,
pp. 154and 155,paras. 18, 19and 21 ; cf. Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice's
warning against the arbitrary drawing of lines in maritime delimitation,
FisheriesJurisdiction, I.C.J. Reports1973,p. 29, separate opinion, n. 11).

This succession of deductions stimulated by lines made up with a definite
end in view is a factor in the reasoning p-.sued by the Chamber in its
search for an equitable result.
33. One general observation is called for on the subject of geographical
facts and the uses to which they areput. When it is said, asit sometimes is,
that geography isneutral, thisimplies that thingsare what they are, and the
formula confirms the dictum that "There can never be any question of
completely refashioning nature" (1969Judgment, para. 91).Geography is
impartial rather than neutral, in the sense that it is decisive in a delimi-
tation and, in itself,givesno preference to oneStaterather than another. A
judge may not, therefore, iodify the geographical situation by any rep-
resentation, be it a line, rectangle or angle, which is his own vision of the
facts and alters those facts. When such technical procedures are utilized,
they may serve to prepare the application of a method but they are not an
interpretation of the geographical situation as nature fashioned it. In the
caseof acontinuous continental shelfbetween two States,as in thepresent

instance, the delirnitation may be effected in the disputed area by equal
division, as the Court said in 1969in a passage of its Judgment (para. 99)
cited by the present decision ; but if one adds to the continental shelf the
waters above it after having declared that, sinceneither element yieldsany
criterion equally applicable to the other, neither provides the key to the
delimitation,any newinterpretation of thegeographical factswhichupsets
the equality accepted as governing the delirnitation becomes unjustifiable.
But this is precisely what is visible in the successive approaches to the
problem in the present Judgment, whether it be the rectangular Gulf, the
coasts represented by other lines than those of the national limits of the
territorial waters, the artificial closingline of the Gulf andits direction,the
distortion attributed to SableIsland but not Nantucket, the refusa1to take
the Parties' coasts into consideration for the segment of the boundary
outside the Gulf, or interpretations of the geography of the Gulf which GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP.GROS) 381

distort that search for theequal division of disputed maritime areas which
theChamber holds to be thebasicequitablecriterionforthe purposes of its
task.
34. Since the Chamber's basic criterion is the equal division recom-
mended as long ago as 1969,it must be pointed out that the Judgment of
that year did not refer in this connection to the whole of the continental
shelf but only to the areas of overlap between the Parties' zones incertain
sectors (para. 99);the Decision of 1977was no lessprecise in limiting the
result of the division to those marginal areas where the Parties'continental
shelvesconverged (para. 78). This aspect of the matter is ignored by the
Chamber's Judgment, though it has repercussions on the use of propor-
tionality applied to al1the coasts of the Parties in relation to the whole of
the continental shelf areas and fishery zones, as well as on the actual
manner of determining the boundary. In a territorial dispute, it isonly the
land actually disputed that is measured up, and everything recognized as

incontestably belonging to one party is left out of the operation ;nobody
thinks to object against one party that it already has more land than the
other. During the oral proceedings, the methodology of hydrographic
surveyswas invoked in relation to areas the greater part of which werenot
in dispute, instead of merely areas of overlapping "in certain localities"
(1969 Judgment, para. 99), and the Chamber has followed suit.
35. Overlapping is not aphenomenon exclusiveto the continental shelf
and the 200-milezone ;once two States have adjacent coasts, the salients
thereon may begin to produce difficulty in the territorial waters and
contiguous zone,givingriseto mutual encroachments. The present dispute
concerns a specific overlap as apparent in the facts, and the precondition
for employing the method of equal division envisaged in the Judgment is
that thisarea of overlappingbe defined by the Chamber, not in accordance
with the Parties' claimsbut on objectivebases.This has not been done. The
fact isthat, in what may be called thearea of the real dispute, i.e.,solelythe

area whereoverlappings occur between the effectsof the relevant coasts of
the two States, the geographical situation presents an equality between
those States which does not cal1for any correction based on arguments
from equity ; it is a situation of equality in the same plane, within the
meaning of the Court's 1969Judgment, if nice calculations (an expression
used by the 1977Decision, in particular at paras. 27 and 250)based on al1
the coasts and sea areas of the Parties within and without the Gulf be
eschewedand attention focused on thiszoneofactual overlaps, whichdoes
not extend beyond an initial segment of line as from point A, in the part
where the two States have adjacent coasts. When the facts of geography
indicate and permit of a division producing equality, there can be no
question of elaborating an equity to improve upon equality, and the line
drawn has simply to ensure that equality. Adrnittedly, to enunciate the
principle of dividing overlaps is simply to pose the true problem, not to
solveit. Butitisthroughnarrowingthedisputed areadowntowhatit really
is that the solution becomes visible. 36. The application of equal division in the case is sufficient to rule out
the argument based on the idea of total proportionality held to be an

indispensable condition for an equitable maritime delimitation. In the
present instance, this pretension to improve upon equality involves the
importation of geographical circumstances that are extraneous to or
remote from the precise object of the dispute. The present case is one in
which a limited overlap, due to coasts adjacent to the point of departure of
the line requested of the Chamber, couldbe resolved simply by dividing it
equally with the aid of any appropriate method, and equidistance in the
first place.A dispute limited in spaceand size,magnified by the Partiesfor
their ownreasons, could havebeen giventhe right solution by the Chamber
once it had adopted the principle of equal division. Instead, the Chamber
has needlessly elaborated supplementary arguments from equity which
traverse the whole Judgment in a series of doctrinal considerations, cri-
teria, methods and corrections ; this edificeis,to my mind, contrary to the
applicable international law. Once the Chamber decided to apply equal
division, that decision was final ;unless deviations come to light, in the

shape ofpreviously unnoticed inequities, there isnothing elseleft to decide
(cf. dissenting opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982, para. 13), and there is no
visible evidence of particular geographic circumstances producing any
such effects.
37. When States claimed and obtained exclusivejurisdiction over an
expanseof water up to the 200-milelimit, theywereable to assumethat this
aquatic zone had effaced the continental shelves where they exist physi-
cally,orat least that the water takes priority over the sea-bed and subsoil ;
they chose the vague notion of the equity of the result with the wording of
the 1982Convention, a new equity conducive to compromisesolutionsfor
negotiators and ex aequoet bon0decisionsforjudges. Solong asequity was
conceived as the application of a rule of law prescribing recourse to
equitable principles, it wasdistinguishable from arbitrariness and ex aequo
et bono.As each contentious case has its own characteristics, thejudge's
work was performed within the bounds of the application of legal rules
to the facts ; even if Article 6 of the 1958 Convention left room for an

assessment of the effect of special circumstances, that assessment re-
mained under control. By introducing disorder into the conception of
equitable principles, and freedomfor thejudge to pick and choose relevant
circumstances and criteria, the Court, in the Judgment of February 1982,
and the States participating in the Third United Nations Conference, by
the Convention of December 1982,have given equity in maritime delimi-
tation this doubtful content of indeterminate criteria, methods and cor-
rections which are now wholly result-oriented. A decision not subject to
any verification of its soundness on a basis of law may be expedient, but it
isneverajudicial act. Equity discoveredbyan exerciseofdiscretion isnot a
form of application of law.
38. Admittedly, the Judgment of the Chamber has criticized the Parties'
attempt to catalogue equitable principles and present them as settled,
generally applicable principles of positive international law. But the argu-valence between claims reduced to their true value. Such research implies
recourse to points of reference, sometimes called parameters, without
which thejudge would exceed his role. By accepting that the continental

shelf is no longer a real area of the sea-bed and subsoil, but that to a
distance of 200miles it is deprived of its natural specificity, the Chamber
has been solely dividing water. The destruction of the concept of natural
prolongation means that there is no longer anything left to measure, and
the link between the land and the subsoil and even the water column has
lostal1significance.Equity byequivalencebetween twomaritime elements
can,in the newlegalvacuum, beeffected byequal division,but that isasfar
as the search for an elusive equity can be taken. The 1969 Judgment
confined equality exclusivelyto the divisionof overlapsof hted extent -
nothing more than that ;whereas, from the outset of its reasoning right up
to its conclusion, the present Judgment addsto ths the continua1 deploy-
ment of a concept of equity in proportionality and a concept of equity in
the result. Proportionality and the equitable result are set up as general
principles, and therefore as rules for any delimitation, and one cannot see
why that should not be extended to the domain of international respon-

sibility, where the notion of a true measure of compensation has always
existed.It isa decisionwhichhas seriousconsequences and itisal1themore
regrettable in that, in this case, it is unjustified.
40. The Permanent Court of International Justice and the International
Court of Justice never directly decided a case on the basis of equity up to
the Judgment of 1969,and it would seem that this was due to prudence on
thepart ofjudges whowerewell awareof the difficultiesin thisconnection.
Itwasonlybybrief allusionsthat thetwo Courts showedtheir awarenessof
the existence of the problern, and their wisdom becomes al1 the more
apparent today when one contemplates the pass to which we have come.
The Court in 1969evinced the same caution but, called upon as it was to
givefairly preciseindicationsso that anegotiation whichhad failed should,
followingitsjudgment, succeed, it had, to accomplish the task defined by
the SpecialAgreement, to develop aconcept of equity, which it setforth in
12paragraphs ;thiswasunusual, as theCourt normallydeterminesthe law

without elaborating the theory, but this waswhat had been asked ofit.The
following year, in the Barcelona Traction,Light and Power Company,
Limited case (Z.C.J.Reports1970,paras. 92-102),the Court again took the
traditional prudent approach and, following several considerations rela-
ting to the case,ruled out the application of equity, though saying that, "as
inal1other fieldsofinternational law,it isnecessarythat the lawbe applied
reasonably" (para. 93), which does not go very far, and more or less
amounts to the assimilation of the equitable to the reasonable, the word
used in the 1969Judgment. The 1974Judgment on Fisheries Jurisdiction
had to examinetheproblem of the distribution of resources between States
concerned and mentioned theproblem of equity when the Court repeated
after the 1969Judgment :

"It is not a matter of finding simply an equitable solution, but an equitable solution derived from the applicable law" (I.C.J. Reports
1974,p. 33, para. 78, and p. 202, para. 69).

The Court then considered an equitable distribution of fishery resources
(para. 78) on the basis of quotas, but it finally declined to balance up the
interests of the States concerned, in the absence of sufficient information
and usable parameters (pp. 32 and 201). The Court's refusa1in 1974 to
engage in a distribution of fishing quotas already showed that this role is
not an easy one for a court of law to assume. The Court also ruled out the
notion of the exceptionaldependence of a Stateon economic resources, as
it was also to do in its 1982Judgment. It will be recalled that in 1977the
Court ofArbitration summedup therole ofproportionality in unequivocal
terms :

"It is rather a factor to be taken into account in appreciating the
effects of geographical features on the equitable or inequitable char-
acter of a delimitation, and in particular of a delimitation by appli-
cation of the equidistance method" (paras. 99 and 100-101).

The Chamber, on the contrary, has considered it essential to correct its
median line at the exit from the Gulf, established from basepoints on
opposite coasts, using a calculation of proportionality based on al1the

coasts of the Gulf and then recalculated to attenuate it, without reference
to any particular geographical feature the influence ofwhich rnightcreatea
distortion which would be considered inequitable, the operation being
carried out at thejudge's owndiscretion and from a viewof equity,known
only to himself at present, which is cloaked in the word "correction7'.
41. The danger which the two Courts had throughout their history
managed to avoid is confronting us today. Their prudence was necessary,
because it was clear that an inordinate use of equity would lead to gov-
ernment byjudges, which no State would easily accept (cf. I.C.J. Reports
1974,p. 149,dissenting opinion, para. 34).The adviceon theapplication of
equity given to the Parties by the 1969Judgment has been replaced in the
1982Judgment and theChamber's Judgment by a systemof equityerected
into a doctrine separate from law, one which isno longer an application of
law. It is, in short, a law unto itself, where each case is exposed to the
application of anyimaginablecriteria,methods and correctionsconducive
to a result whch thedisappearance of rules leavesto the discretion of each
tribunal. But. while it is true that manv rules of international law are
drafted as principles of conduct rather than norms, to interpret them in
accordance with thelawisone thing, whereasit isaverydifferent matter to
replace them by an equity whch lacks al1general doctrine and variesfrom
case to case not onlv in accordance with the circumstances - for that is

always so - but in accordance with whatever thejudge may choose to dub
an equitable result. In 1977,Professor H. Briggs,in adeclaration appended
to the Decision, foresaw the
"threat that the rule of positive law expressed in Article 6 will be eroded by its identification with subjective equitable principles, per-

mitting attempts by the Court to redress theinequities of geography"
(Cmnd. 7438, p. 126).

Controlled equity asaprocedure for applying the law would contribute to
the proper functioning of international justice ; equity left, without any
objective elements of control, to the wisdom of thejudge rerninds us that
equity was oncemeasured by "the Chancellor's foot" ;1doubt that inter-
national justice can long survive an equity measured by the judge's eye.
When equity is simply a reflection of the judge's perception, the courts
which judge in this way part Company from those which apply the law.
42. The foregoing observations showhow far 1am from the Chamber's
reasoning on al1points in this case. The same is true, accordingly, as
regards the result of that reasoning, i.e., the delimitation line, and 1have
not voted for the operative paragraph, any more than for the reasoning
behind it. A distinction must however be drawn :since equity is now a

matter of eachjudge's opinion, 1do not maintain that the Chamber's line,
or any of the linespresented during this case,is lessequitable than the one
presented by myself on the map attached to this opinion. 1voted against
theChamber's line because, unlesscoincidence orsomemiraculouschance
has made of it the oneand only equitable line - which ispresuming a great
deal -, the means employed inits production areinany caseincompatible
with what survives of the law applicable to such a delimitation, in parti-
cular the equal division of overlaps and equidistance as a method of
achieving that equality. It is this that prompts me to append a map (see
p. 390)illustrating the line 1considered to effect an equal division, in the
geographic circumstances, of the areas in issue between the Parties, with
the sobriety appropriate to a proposa1theaim of whichis to showhow the
much-reviled equidistance method provided a reasonable solution to the
Parties' requestfor the separation of their respective continental shelf and
fishery zones (cf. 1977 Decision as regards the Atlantic sector, where
equidistance was applied subject, after lengthy reflection, to a correction :

paras. 237-252).

43. To speak briefly of the roleof equidistance,it isnecessary to goback
to the 1958Convention which is in force between the Parties so far as the
continental shelf is concerned and, in that connection, indicate that the
construction of its Article 6 presented by the Judgment is not well-
founded. President Sir Humphrey Waldock, in his above-quoted lecture,
said :

"Article 6 of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf of
1958had provided that, in the absence of agreement, the continental
shelf boundary in the caseboth of 'opposite'and of 'adjacent' States
should be determined by the equidistanceprinciple, unless another
boundary is justified by special circumstances." (P. 11, emphasis
added.) GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP. GROS) 387

This is the formula already found in the 1977 Decision, and these two
references should in my view suffice: as between opposite States and

adjacentStatesthe differenceis one solelyof ageographical nature, andin
either casethe "principle" of equidistance, saidArticle 6,isapplicable, Le.,
is the way to establish the delimitation. In 1969the Court recognized that
equidistance was a sound method, but not the only one, and that others
could be utilized "in theapplication of equitable principles", but it is to be
noted that this paragraph 85,which is never quoted intotobut only by the
selection of this or that convenient passage, is entirely devoted to the way
in which the States actually concerned should, in the eyesof theCourt, set
about negotiating an agreement.
44. An equidistance line "every point of which is equidistant from the
nearest points on thebaselines" isaunique linethat depends onlyupon the
positions of thebasepoints. Solong as those positions are known there can
be no dispute as to the course of the line, and al1technical treatises are
agreed on the principles of itsconstruction.Furthermore, because the two
sets of basepoints of the two coasts continually interact on the line, the

determination of relevant basepoints on one coast is to some extent
dependent on the configuration of theother coast, sothat where the coasts
are opposite, and provided that there are no incidentalfeatures likeislands
a significant distance offshore, the equidistance line usually effects a
reasonably even division between them.

45. This line on page 390, below, is essentially an equidistance line
constructedfrom mainland basepoints. Suchalinecannot be made topass
through Point A, and consequently the line starting at Point A follows a
neutral course perpendicular to the coastal front of Maine until it inter-
sectsthe equidistance line. Forthe construction of theequidistance line the
Canadian Brier, Tuscet and Cape Sable Islands and the United States
Great Wass, Mount Desert and Vinalhaven Islands are al1treated as part
of the mainland. No account is to be taken of Nantucket or the other
islands and isletssouth of Cape Cod, orof SealIsland offNova Scotia.This

equidistance line turns to the south-east at apoint a fewmilessouth-east of
a line between Cape Cod Elbow and Cape Sable. It crossesGeorges Bank
about 14%miles Westof the Chamber's line,and intersects the Canadian
200-mile limit about 29 miles from the terminus of the Chamber's line.

46. The 1958Convention on the Continental Shelf posits an equidis-
tance/special-circumstances rule, a single rule which is clear: if there are
no special circumstances, equidistance must be applied. The 1969Judg-
ment and the 1977Decision were based on that rule and interpreted it in
the desire to seat international law firmly on a concept of rigour in the
application of an equity dependent on that existing law. When the Judg-
ment of 1982 decided, in paragraphs 109 and 110, to summarize the
development of customary law on continental shelf delimitation, it took GULF OF MAINE (DISS. OP. GROS) 388

sides in the combat against the idea of equidistance by "as a first step"
depriving it of any "preferential status" as a method, thus creating for

negotiators and, subsequently, judges something like a thought prohibi-
tion. This ban is now renewed by the Judgment of 1984.The difference
between the international law on the continental shelf of 1958 and the
swerveto a new direction in 1982is therefore fundamental. It would seem
that the idea of conducting a preliminary examination in terms of the
equidistance method is so feared that it has tobe proscribed. It isdifficult
to grasp the necessity of such an apriori opposition to the very notion of
equidistance having any useful role to play in searching for an equitable
solution.
47. So far as its doctrine is concernedlthe present Judgment can be
summed up in four words : the result is equitable. This is tantamount to
expecting States that corne to the Court to accept this new basis of the
function of thejudge as one freed from the positive law he is charged to
apply. The 1969Judgment andthe 1977Decision had erected guardrails to
the use of the concept of equity ;these the 1982Judgment and the present

one have thrown down. TheCourt, in its FisheriesJudgment of 1951,had
carefully limited its ruling to theparticular character of the situation. The
Chamber has sought to make a contribution to bringing the conventional
law on delimitation up to date, but ths, 1feel,runs counter to the Court's
judicial task, as Charles De Visscher pointed out in 1963 :
"The function of interpretation is not to perfect a legalinstrument
so as to adapt it more or less exactly to what one may be tempted to
envisageasthe full attainment of a logicallypostulated objective, but

to shed light on what the parties actually intended."

The course taken since February 1982has been to indulge in an equity
beyond the law, detached from any established rules, based solely on
whatever each group ofjudges seisedof a case declares itself able and free
to appreciate in accordance with its political or economic views of the
moment. This is to transform the International Court of Justice into a

court of equity, as Judges SirArnold McNair and Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice
had warned in their time. Since 1982wehave been witnessing not merely a
new trend injurisprudence but a different manner of settling inter-State
disputes.
48. Like that of the Court in 1982,the Judgment of the Chamber has
attempted to construct, in support of an unsuccessful codification of
maritime delimitation, a doctrine of theequitable result, demonstrated by
the progression of the reasoning through the contradictions it seeks to
efface. The decision's apparent refusa1 to take account of the natural
resources of the areas to be delimited gives wayin the closing paragraphs
238, 239 and 240 to recognition by the Chamber that the use of those
resources is a major concern and the expression of itshopethat the Parties
willfind the compromise solution offered them satisfactory to their inter-
ests. Bythus assirnilatingaprocedure whch continuestobear the stamp ofthe 1982Convention, the Chamber adds to the Court's case-law one more
consensus decision of the type whoseregrettable effects 1recently exposed
("La recherche du consensus dans les décisionsde la Cour internationale
de Justice", Festschriftfür Hermann Mosler, 1983,p. 351 ; esp. pp. 357-
358). Again,consensushere isjust another word for acompromise,the very
type of transaction in which the Partieshad formallyrequested the Cham-
ber not to engage, calling upon it to decide "in accordance with the

principles and rules of international law applicable in the matter as
between the Parties7'(Special Agreement, Art. II, para. 1).This is not, in
myopinion, ajudicial method of work enabling those problems to bedealt
with that are directed to a court of law and not to an amicable concilia-
tor.

(Signed) André GROS.Chamber's line - -- -- -- -

Judge Gros' line

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. GROS

1. En raison de l'importance de l'arrêtdu point de vue de ses consé-
quences sur le droit applicable à la délimitation desespaces maritimes,je
crois nécessaire d'exposer lesmotifs de mon dissentiment.

2. Les Parties ont soumis à la Chambre environ sept mille six cents
pages de pièces écrites, deux mille pagesde plaidoiries avec trois cents
cartes, croquis ou schémas présentés à l'appui et plus de 12 mètres de
rayons sont occupéspar les volumes déposés à la bibliothèque par les
Parties; de cet ensemble volumineux il ne ressort cependant pas une
position nette sur les problèmes juridiques essentiels qui se posent dans
l'affaire. Ainsi, lesproblèmes de la ligne unique, du droit applicable en
l'espèce,de l'équitéd ,u rôle exact de la géographieont été examinéa svec
beaucoup de détail maisdans une certaine imprécisionet avec quelques
contradictions internes, souvent avec l'emploi de formules ou d'affirma-
tions catégoriques présentées comme des règlesou des principes de droit.
L'avertissement du juge Holmes sur la relativité des mots revient à la

mémoire :
A word ...is the skin of a livingthought and may Varygreatly in
colour and content according to the circumstances and the time in
which it is used. )(245 US 418, 425.)

(GLe mot ...recouvre une pensée vivante et sa couleur et son
contenu peuvent varier selon le moment et les circonstances. O)

AUcours de ce procès,les Parties et la Chambre se sont référée àsdes
décisionsde justice pour appuyer le raisonnement juridique ; souvent la
citation d'un textejuridictionnel est faite sans indication que la couleur et
le contenu ont changé. Il faut saisir le moment présent sans fard, la
jurisprudence n'est pluscomprise dans le sens qu'elleavait en 1969et en
1977,ily a eu un revirement dejurisprudence, dont il faut prendre acte, et
c'est à l'intérieurde ce changement que se place l'arrêtde la Chambre.

3. Ledroit international évoluedepuis que, par son arrêt du18décem-
bre 195 1,la Cour adonnélepremier signalde l'importance économiquede
certaines situations pour l'examen d'une délimitation maritime, en cinq

lignes dans un arrêtde vingt-six pages :
Il faut enfin faire plaàeuneconsidérationdont laportéedépasse
des données purement géographiques :celle de certains intérêtéco-
nomiques propres àune régionlorsque leur réalitéet leur importance
se trouvent clairement attestées par un long usage. ))(C.I.J.Recueil

1951, p. 133.) DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE GROS

[Translation f

1. Becauseof theimportance of theJudgment from the standpoint of its
consequencesfor thelawapplicableto thedelimitation of maritime spaces,
1believe it necessary that 1 should set forth the grounds of my dissent.
2. The Parties have submitted to the Chamber some 7,600 pages of
pleadings and 2,000pages of oral arguments together with 300supporting

maps, sketches or diagrams - more than 12metres of shelvingis taken up
by the volumesdeposited in thelibrarybytheParties ;yetno clearposition
regarding the essential legalproblems arisingin this caseemergesfrom this
mass of material. Thus the problems of the single boundary, of the law
applicable to the present case, of equity, of the exact role of geography,
have been examined in great detail but with a certain lack of precision
and some self-contradictions, accompanied frequently by the use of cate-
gorical formulae or assertions presented as rules or principles of law.
One is reminded of Mr. Justice Holmes' warning about the relativity
of words :

"A word .. .is the skin of a living thought and may Varygreatly in
color and content according to the circumstances and the time in
which it is used." (245 U.S. 418, 425.)

In the course of the present proceedings, the Parties and the Chamber
have each referred tojudicial decisions in support of their legal reasoning,

but frequently ajudicial text has been quoted without anything to indicate
that colour andcontent havein factchanged. The present must howeverbe
seen in its own true colours :thejurisprudence of the subject is no longer
viewedas in 1969and 1977,but has taken a sudden turn of which due note
must be taken, and theJudgment of the Chamber takes itsplace within this
change.
3. International law has been evolving since, in its Judgment of 18
December 1951, the Court first signalled the economic importance of
certain situations in the determination of a maritime boundary, in the
following five lines of a 26-page Judgment :

"Finally, there is one consideration not to be overlooked, the scope
ofwhich extends beyond purely geographical factors : that of certain
economic interests peculiar to a region, the reality and importance of
which are clearly evidenced by a long usage." (I.C.J. Reports 1951,
p. 133.) La position contraireétaitaffirméedans l'opinion dissidente de sirArnold
McNair :

<<La Norvèges'estefforcéedejustifier le décretde 1935par divers
arguments, dont les principaux sont les suivants (A, B, C et D) :

A) Un Etat a le droit de délimiterses eaux territoriales suivant les
exigencesde ses intérêts économiques estociaux. C'est là,pour moi,
une nouveauté. Ellerévèlle 'un desdésaccordsfondamentauxentre les
Parties, à savoir la différenceentre la conception subjective et la
conception objective de la délimitation des eaux territoriales.
A mon avis, la modification des limites des eaux territoriales pour
protéger lesintérêts économiquee st autres intérêtssociaux ne se
justifie pasen droit. Au surplus, sil'onapprouvait une tellepratique, il
enrésulterait une tendance dangereuse :les Etats seraient encouragés

à estimer leurs droits d'une manière subjective, plutôt que de se
conformer à une règle internationale commune. ))(C.I.J. Recueil
1951, p. 169.)

Aux conférencesde 1958et 1960,l'idéed'une zone de pêche contiguë,
fort prèsdes côtes d'un Etat, commence à prendre forme, mais dans les
annéesqui suivent c'est le plateau continental qui est au premier plan.
L'arrêd t elaCour du 20février1969dans lesaffaires du Plateau continental
dela merduNord(C.I.J. Recueil1969,p. 4-56,désormaisdésigné l'arrêtde
1969),la sentence arbitrale entre la France et le Royaume-Uni du 30juin
1977(la Documentation française, 241pages,ci-aprèsdésignéela sentence
de 1977[texte anglais :Cmnd 7438]),avaient établi,la sentence appuyant
l'arrêt,un ensemble juridique dont les élémentssont bien connus. La
troisièmeconférencedes Nations Unies, aprèsdix ans d'efforts, a produit
la convention du 10 décembre 1982(ci-après désignée la convention de

1982)qui traite de ladélimitation desespaces maritimes d'une manièrequi
n'estpas celle de lajurisprudence précitée maisqui a trouvél'appui de la
Cour,avant mêmed'êtreadoptéepar les Etats membres de la conférence,
dans l'arrêtdu 24 février1982en l'affaire du Plateau continental(Tunisie/
Jamahiriya arabe libyenne)(C.I.J. Recueil1982,p. 18-94,ci-aprèsdésigné
l'arrêtde 1982).D'autres décisionsseront citées mais les textes essentiels
sont lesconventions de 1958et 1982d'unepart, lesdécisionsde 1969,1977
et 1982d'autre part. C'est unfait que l'arrêtde 1982,fondésurleprojet de
convention de 1982,a constitué unrevirement dejurisprudence et que la
convention a substitué un régime nouveau de délimitation du plateau
continental et d'une zonede 200milles à celui qui résultaitpour leplateau
continental de laconvention de 1958,de l'arrêtde 1969et de lasentence de
1977. C'est encore un fait que le présent arrêtrejoint pour l'essentiel

l'opinion de la Cour en 1982.Ce sont les effets de ce revirement conven-
tionnel et jurisprudentiel qui constituent la raison essentielle de mon
désaccord avec lamajorité de la Chambre sur la solution donnée aux
problèmesposéspar la présente affaire. J'ai dit en son temps pourquoi il
me semblait que l'arrêtde 1982s'était engagé sur une voie erronée(C.I.J.The opposite viewpoint was stated in the dissenting opinion of Judge Sir
Arnold McNair :

"Norway has sought to justify the Decree of 1935on a variety of
grounds, of which the principal are the following(A, B,C and D) :
(A) That a State has a right to delimit its territorial waters in the
manner required to protect its economic and other social interests.
This is a novelty to me. It revealsone of the fundamental issueswhich
divide the Parties, namely, the difference between the subjective and
the objective views of the delimitation of territorial waters.
In myopinion themanipulation of thelimits of territorial waters for

the purpose of protecting economic and other social interests has no
justification in law ; moreover, the approbation of such a practice
would have a dangerous tendency in that it would encourageStates to
adopt a subjective appreciation of their rights instead of conforming
to a common international standard." (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 169.)

During the Conferences of 1958 and 1960, the idea of a contiguous
fishing zone lyingclose to thecoastline of a State began to take shape, but
in the years which followed it was the continental shelf which came to the
fore. On this, the Court's Judgment of 20 February 1969in the North Sea
Continental Shelfcases (I.C.J. Reports 1969,pp. 4-56,hereinafter referred
to as the 1969Judgment), and the Decision of the Court of Arbitration
between the United Kingdom and France dated 30 June 1977 (Cmnd
7438 ; hereinafter referred to as the 1977 Decision) constituted - the
Decision supporting the Judgment - a body of case-law whose elements
are well known. The Third United Nations Conference, after a decade of
effort, produced the Convention of 10 December 1982 (hereinafter re-
ferred to as the 1982convention), which deals with the delimitation of

maritime spaces in a manner which is not that of the above-mentioned
case-law but, even before its adoption by the States members of the
Conference, attracted the support of the Court in the Judgment of 24
February 1982on the ContinentalShelf(Tunisia/Libyan ArabJarnahiriyu)
(I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 18-94,hereinafter referred to as the 1982Judg-
ment). References will be made to other decisions but the essential texts
are, on theonehand, the Conventions of 1958and 1982and, on the other,
the decisions of 1969,1977and 1982.It is a fact that the 1982Judgment,
whichwasbased on the draft of the 1982Convention,constituted a sudden
change in the case-law,and that the Convention substituted a new régime
for thedelimitation of both thecontinental shelfand the 200-milezone for
that which, in the caseof thecontinental shelf,had emerged from the 1958
Convention, the 1969Judgment and the 1977Decision. Moreover, it is a
fact that the present Judgment essentially chimes with the standpoint
taken by the Court in 1982.The effects of this marked change of stancein
conventional law and jurisprudence form the main reason for my dis-

agreement with the majority of the Chamber regarding the solution to theRecueil 1982, opinion dissidente, p. 143-156) ;le revirement de la Cour
pouvait être atténué par une décisionde cette Chambredans un différend
où les élémentsnécessairesétaient réunispour renforcer le droit de la
délimitation desgrands espaces maritimes au lieu de l'affaiblir. Il n'en a
rien été.

4. Je ferai une observation préliminaire sur cette affaire, présentéepar
lesPartiescomme un important précédentendroit international. Iln'en est
pas ainsi puisque les Parties elles-mêmesont indiqué à la Chambre les

précautionsprises pour assurer éventuellement leur libertéde négociation
sur la ligne résultant de la décisiondans une réponse des Etats-Unis à
l'audience du 9 mai 1984 à une question dejuge ;par ailleurs les Parties
s'étaientà l'avance assuréesde la relativitédu futur arrêtau seul différend
du Maine considéré à part de trois autres différends de limite maritime
entre lesdeux Etats, selon des procès-verbaux de conversations bilatérales
publiés par le département d'Etat en 1975-1976 et communiqués à la
Chambre le 8mai 1984(annexe 3,septembre 1976,p. 3 à 6 incluse). Enfin,
le rôle joué enplaidoirie par la notion de circonstances spécialescomme
l'utilisation faite des principes ou méthodes invoqués eussent assuré eux
seuls que l'arrêtdu Maine n'ait d'effets quepour l'objet même du litige, la

délimitation des zones maritimes de cette région.

5. La question est poséedans lecompromis de façon simple :quel est le
tracéde la frontière maritime unique divisant le plateau continental et les
zones de pêchedu Canada et des Etats-Unis dans la régiondu golfe du
Maine (préambuleetart. II, par. 1).Le débata montréque cette simplicité
recouvrait quelques problèmes sérieuxque j'examinerai maintenant.

Je commencerai par celui de la frontière unique que le présidentde la
Chambre a posédans sa question aux Parties dans les termes suivants :

<<Au cas où une méthode déterminéeou une combinaison de
méthodesparaîtrait appropriée pour la délimitationdu plateau conti-
nentalet une autrepour celledeszones exclusivesdepêche,quels sont
selon les Parties les motifsjuridiques que l'on pourrait invoquer en
faveur de l'uneplutôt que de l'autre pourladétermination d'une ligne
unique ? ))(Audience du 19 avril 1984.)

La formulation de cette question montre qu'un point de droit essentiel
de l'affaire n'avait pas encore étérésolupar les Parties, celui du droit
applicable à la détermination d'une ligne uniqued'un plateau continental
et des zones de pêche,question fondamentale du présent différend.L'exa-
men de la question de la ligne unique est celui du droit applicable, rien de
moins. Comme l'arrêt l'indique au paragraphe 161lesréponses des Parties

n'ont pas étéau-delà d'un renvoi du problème à la Chambre elle-même.problems raised by thepresent case. 1said at the timewhy1considered that
the 1982Judgment had taken a wrong turning (I.C.J. Reports 1982, dis-
senting opinion, pp. 143-156) ; the Court's deviation could have been
mitigated by a decision of the present Chamber in a dispute which had al1
the elements needed to strengthen rather than erode the law on the
delimitation of maritime expanses, but this opportunity has been
missed.
4. 1would like to make one initialcomment on this casewhich has been
presented by the Parties as an important precedent in international law.
This is not so,sincethe Parties themselveshave informed the Chamber of
the precautions they have taken to ensure that, if necessary, they will be
free to negotiate on the boundary laid down by the decision (reply by the
United States toa judge's question :sitting of 9 May 1984) ; moreover, the
Parties had made sure in advance that the future Judgment would relate

solelyto the Gulf of Mainedispute, held to beacaseapart from threeother
maritimeboundary disputes between the twoStates,astranspires from the
minutes of bilateral talksissued by the StateDepartmentin 1975-1976and
communicated to the Chamber on 8 May 1984(Ann. 3, September 1976,
pp. 3-6). Finally, the part played in the oral arguments by the concept of
special circumstances, together with the use made of the principles or
methods relied on, would in themselveshave been sufficient to ensure that
the effectsof the GulfofMaine Judgment wereconfined to theactual object
of the dispute, namely the delimitation of the maritime zones of that
particular area.
5. In the Special Agreement the question is put quite simply : What is
the course of the single maritime boundary that divides the continental
shelfand fisherieszonesof Canada and the United States ofAmerica in the
Gulf of Maine area (preamble and Art. II, para. 1) ?It became apparent
during the argument that this simplicity in fact overlay some serious
problems, which 1shall now consider.
1shall begin with the problem of the single boundary line, which the

President of the Chamber raised in his question to the Parties in the
following terms
"In the event that one particular method, or set of methods, should
appear appropriate for the delimitation of the continental shelf, and
another for that of the exclusive fishery zones, what do the Parties
consider to be the legalgrounds that might be invoked for preferring
one or the other in seeking to determine a singleline ?" (Sitting of 19
April 1984.)

The wording of this question showsthat apoint of lawthat wasessential
to the case had not at that time been resolved by the Parties, namely the
question of the law applicable to the determination of a single boundary
dividing acontinental shelfand fisheryzones,the fundamental question in
the present dispute. To examine the question of the single boundary is to
enquire into the applicable law, no less. As the Judgment Statesin para-
graph 161, the replies of the Parties have done no more than refer the 363 GOLFE DU MAINE (OP.DISS.GROS)

L'agent du Canada, àl'audience du 10avril 1984,a traité laligne unique
comme un concept de droit et les Parties ont sembléestimer que leur
demanded'une ligne unique dans le compromis suffisait pour l'imposer à
la Chambre. Mais l'accord des Partiesdemandant une seuleligne pour les
deux zones considérées ne crée pas p,ar lui-même, unerèglede droit dans
l'affairejuger, permettant d'écarter touslesfaits de la cause, leséléments
juridiques et toutes circonstancespertinentes du dossier qu'ilfaut traiter ;
ily a un accord des Parties sur lepoint A, point dedépartde la ligne et sur
l'arrivéede la ligne dans un vaste triangle, deux indications qui, prises en-
semble,établissent une limitationprécisede la compétencede la Chambre

pour le tracéde la ligne, mais cela nefait, ni du point A ni du triangle des
concepts de droit. Ces élémentsdu compromis sont des précisionsde fait
mineures données par des parties qui, en quinze ans de négociations,
n'avaient pu semettre d'accord sur un seul segment de limitemaritime de
plateau continental et de pêche.Les Parties n'ont pas indiquéleur accord
sur le point A et sur le triangle, ni sur la formule de ligne unique, en se
fondant sur des motifsjuridiques, bien au contraire. Et ce sont ces motifs
juridiques que la question du président demandait aux Parties d'exposer.
La compétencede la Chambre pour décideren droit quelle doit êtrela
frontière maritime demandée n'étaitpas limitéepar les indications des
Parties. Il lui fallait rechercher s'ilexiste en droit international une règle

imposant une ligne uniquepour leplateau continental et lazone de pêche,
ou en autorisant l'emploi, quellesque soient lescirconstances defait et les
règlesdu droit applicable, ce qui n'a étéfait ni par les Parties, ni par
l'arrêt.

6. La réponse de l'arrêt estdonnée aux paragraphes 192 à 194 : la
délimitationrequise est une délimitationpar ligne unique de deux élé-
ments différents. Ce fait représente une particularitéjusqu'ici inédite,qui
caractérisececas et lesparagraphes citésen tirent des conséquencespour
les critèresà utiliser pour unir plateau continental et pêchepar une ligne

unique. L'essentiel esticietj'y reviendrai;ilest nécessairede fixerledébat
sur cette réponseparcequ'ellecommande leraisonnement de l'arrêtsur le
droit applicable à l'affaire. La ligne unique ayant été demandée à la
Chambre, cette demande à elle seule,<ce faitO, dit la Chambre, suffit à
créer unesorte de circonstance spécialedominant tout le reste, principes,
critères etméthodes,et mettant de côtéleproblèmede savoir sicette ligne
unique est, ou non, établie conformément au droit. Il me paraît que cette
réponsen'en est pas une. En effet, si les mots circonstances spéciales >)
ontétéévités,l'idée eb siten celle-làetune foisde plus lemot changéne sert
pas pour éviter le problème. La ((particularité >)dela ligne unique est un
fait, dit l'arrêt,un fait n'estpertinent que s'ila une influencejustifiable sur

la motivation juridique de la limite à décider, laquestion est toujours
posée.Dans le droit de la délimitation,jusqu'à maintenant, les faits per-
tinents étaienttangibles parce que c'étaientuniquement descirconstances
géographiques particulières.En étendant l'idéede la particularité à la
constatation qu'uneseuleligneest demandéeon pose la question sous une problem back to the Chamber itself. At the Sitting of 10 April 1984the
Agent of Canada treated the singleboundary as a "legal concept", and the
Parties appeared to think that the mere fact of their having asked for a
single boundary in the Special Agreement sufficed to impose it on the
Chamber. However,an agreement between parties to request only one line
for the two areas in question does not, in itself, create a rule of law in the
case to be decided, making it possible to ignore al1thefacts of the case, the
legalelements and al1the circumstances relevant to the situation in hand ;
the Parties are agreed on point A, as being the point of departure of the

line,and on thelocation of its other terminus within a broad triangle - two
indications which, taken together, set a strict limit to thejurisdiction of the
Chamber in determining the course of the boundary - but this does not
turn either point A or the triangle into a legal concept. These elements of
the Special Agreement are minor factual details provided by parties who,
in 15years of negotiations, had not been able to reach agreement on even
one segment of continental shelfboundary or fishing limit. The Partiesdid
not invoke any legal considerations when indicating their agreement on
point A, the triangle and the single-line formula :quite the reverse. It was
precisely such legalities that the President's question called upon them to
explain. The Chamber'sjurisdiction to decide, in law, what the requested

maritime boundary should be was not limited by the Parties' indications.
Its task was to see whether there existed in international law any rule
prescribing or authorizing the use of a singleline for the continental shelf
and the fishery zone, whatever the factual circumstances and the rules of
the applicable law, something that has not been done eitherby the Parties
or by the Judgment.
6. The Judgment's reply is given in paragraphs 192-194 :the delimita-
tion called for is "a delimitation of two distinct elements by means of a
single line. This is an unprecedented aspect of the case which lends it its
special character" - and the paragraphs referred to go on to draw con-
clusions for the criteria to be used to unite continental shelf and fisheries

through the use of a single line. The essence of the matter lies here, and I
shall come back to it ;discussion must be focused upon this reply, sinceit
governs the reasoning of theJudgment regarding the lawapplicable to this
case.The Chamber having been asked fora singleline, this request in itself
- "this fact", says the Chamber - suffices to create a sort of special
circumstance which takes precedence overal1the rest - principles, criteria
and methods - and supersedes the problem of determining whether this
singleline is, or is not, established in accordance with law. It is clear to me
that this reply is no reply : the words "special circumstances" are, indeed,
avoided, but the idea is there for sure and, once again, a change of ter-
minology does not suffice to avoid aproblem. The "special aspect" of the

singlelineisafact, saystheJudgment, and asafact is onlyrelevant ifit has
a justifiable influence upon the legal grounds for the boundary to be
determined, the question remains. In the law of delimitation, heretofore,
relevant facts used to be tangible, because they consisted solely of parti-
cular geographic circumstances. When the notion of "special aspect" is autre forme mais elle demeure la même : quels sont les motifsjuridiques

permettant d'appliquer cette demande aux faits de l'espèce,un certain
plateau continental etcertaines zonesde pêchec ,ar s'iln'yapasde réponse
autre quelatransformation d'une demande des Parties enunecirconstance
spéciale,source de déductionsjuridiques, le droit applicable se restreint à
une appréciation à priori des Parties. Il faut aller plus loin:les Parties
elle-mêmesn'avaientpas répondu à la question en ce sens et elles avaient
admis qu'ily avait un problème en effet et que c'était à la Chambre de le
résoudre. Laquestion de droit préalable demeure entièrede savoir si la
Chambre peut donner aux mots frontièremaritimeunique )utilisésdans
lecompromis lecaractère d'une circonstancedécisivepour la délimitation
dans la région du golfe du Maine ou si en raison de règles de droit
applicables aux faits de l'affaire, cette demande, qui est un fait dans le
dossierglobal, ne suffitpas pour décider unedélimitationpar ligneunique,

simple hypothèse tant qu'elle n'estpas vérifiée par des motifsjuridiques.
La Cour internationale de Justice a dit :

la saisine de la Cour est une chose, l'administration de lajustice en

est une autre. Celle-ci est régiepar le Statut et par le Règlement ...>)
(Nottebohm, exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1953,
p. 122.)
7. Ledroit international a évolué depuis lesconférencesde codification
de 1930et de 1958jusqu'à la convention du 10décembre1982présentée
commeune codification. Il faut rappeler que la conférence de1930et celle

de 1958avaient étépréparéespar des étudeset rapports des plus grands
internationalistes, auteurs d'ouvrages classiquessur le droit de la mer. En
1958lestatut du plateau continental a été codifiédans une convention, la
revendication de zone de pêchedans des parties restreintes de haute mer
par 1'Etatcôtier étantprisien considérationdans uneconvention deportée
plus limitée,rapidement dépasséepar les prétentions de certains Etats
côtiers. Ce n'est que prèsde vingt ans plus tard et avant tout résultat des
travaux de la troisièmeconférencedesNations Unies sur ledroitde la mer
que la'notion de zone économiqueexclusive allant jusqu'à 200 milles et
comportant le droit de pêcheexclusif a étémise en pratique unilatérale-
ment ou par des accords entre certains Etats, parfois pour la pêche seu-
lement ; le droit de 1'Etatcôtier à une telle zone est aujourd'hui admis.
Cette pratique a été inscriteau cours de la troisième conférence des

Nations Unies en des textes qui ne portent pas la marque de la recherche
juridique mais celle des compromis d'intérêts. Lm a éthodeutiliséepar la
conférence,la suppression des séancesde comitésde juristes et la réu-
nion de groupes dont la composition était destinée à refléter lesintérêts
contraires, sil'onencroit les exposésfaits dans lesrevues dedroit interna-
tional par certains des participants de la conférence,ont donné à des
travaux qui n'ont pas de procès-verbaux officiels un cachetqui les met à
part des conférencesde codification. De plus, la convention de 1982n'est GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP.GROS) 364

extended to the fact that a single line has been requested, the question is
put in another guise,but it remains the same :what arethe legal grounds
permitting this request to be applied to the facts of the case, namely a
certain continental shelf and certain fishery zones ? - since, if there is no
other answer than to transform a request of the Parties into a special
circumstance from which legaldeductions can be made, the applicable law
isconfined toan apriori assessment by the Parties. What is more, even the
Parties themselvesdid not givean answer in this sense to the question put
to them, and they had admitted that here was a real problem which the
Chamber would have to solve.No answer, infact, has yet been givento the
preliminaryquestion oflawasto whether the Chamber may viewthewords
"single maritime boundary" used in the Special Agreement as a circum-
stance of decisive effect on the delimitation in the Gulf of Maine area or

whether, by virtue of any rules of law applicable to the facts, this request,
whichis one fact among othersin the overall case, does not in itself suffice
to determine that there shall be a single-line delimitation - this being a
merehypothesis for solongasithas not been verifiedonlegalgrounds. The
International Court of Justice has said :
"the seisin of the Court is one thing, the administration ofjustice is

another. The latter is governed by the Statute, and by the Rules."
(Nottebohm, Preliminary Objection,Judgment, Z.C.J. Reports 1953,
p. 122.)
7. International law has evolved since the codification conferences of
1930and 1958,down to the Convention of 10December 1982whch has

been presented asacodification. It shouldbe recalled that theConferences
of 1930and 1958had been prepared through studies and reports by the
most eminent experts in international law, the authors of standard works
on the law of the sea. In 1958, the régimeof the continental shelf was
codified in a convention, while the claims of the coastal State to a fishery
zone in modest areas of the high seas were taken into consideration in a
convention of more limited scope which was rapidly overtaken by the
pretensions of certain coastal States. It was not for another 20 or so years
later, though before the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of
the Sea had yielded any result, that the concept of an exclusiveeconomic
zone extending to 200miles and comprising exclusivefishing rights was to
be put into practice - sometimes in regard only to fisheries - whether
unilaterally or by agreement between certain States ; the right of a coastal

State to such a zone is nowadays accepted. During the Third United
Nations Conference, this practice was enshrined in texts which bear the
stamp not of legalresearch but of compromises between interests. Judging
by the accounts given in international law reviews by some of the parti-
cipants, the method of work adopted by the Conference, doing away with
themeetings ofcommittees ofjurists but conveninggroupsso composed as
to reflect the opposinginterests, gaveits proceedings (for which there are
no officia1minutes) a cachet which sets them apart from those of codifi-
cation conferences. Moreover, the 1982Convention has not yet come into pasen vigueur et, enfin, leGouvernement desEtats-Unis, répondant à une
question dejuge, apris une position particulière vis-à-visde laconvention
qui rend douteuse son application àla présente affaire(audience du 9 mai
1984).Ilresteà examiner si,pour ladélimitationde lafrontière demandée,

le texte conventionnel de décembre 1982 contient des règles de droit
international général,déjàapplicables.

8. Iln'yarien dans ledroit conventionnel, dans ledroit coutumier,eten
particulier dans la convention de 1982sur la détermination des limitesde
plateau continental et de pêchequi donne quelque indication que ce soit
sur une obligation de procéderpar une ligne unique. Le but recherchépar
les Etats dèslaconférencede 1958et porté à l'extrême depuis quelque dix
ans est clair, agrandir toujours davantage le domaine maritime de 1'Etat
côtier;ce fut d'abord la zonecontiguë et la zone de pêcherapprochée, en
mêmetemps que leplateau continental, puis lazoneéconomiqueexclusive
oudepêche révélan dtans certainesaffirmations des Etats une intentionde
mer territoriale étendue. Alors aue la convention de 1958sur le la te au
continental contient bien une règle, équidistance + circonstances spé-

ciales,cette règleaffirméepar lajurisprudence de 1969 àfévrier1982a été
affaiblie par l'incapacitéde la troisièmeconférencedesNations Unies de
déciderdu rôle de l'équidistance etde l'équitéautrement que dans des
textes qui ne contiennent pas de règlede délimitation,ni pour le plateau
continental, ni pour la zone économique ;les articles 74et 83sebornent à
dire qu'un accord fondésur le droit international visé à l'article 38 du
Statut de la Cour devrait permettre d'aboutirà une solution équitable. Il
est difficile de trouver dans une telle formule une règlequelconque;dire
qu'une bonne application du droit international doit donner un résultat
équitableest un truisme. Nécessitéd'un accord entre les Etats intéressés,
application du droit international, équit- mais par quels moyens ?C'est
le président du groupe de négociation où l'on aboutit à la formule de
compromis de l'article 83 sur la limite qui a expriméle doute que << la
conférencesoitjamais enmesure de rédigerune disposition apportant une
réponsenette etprécise àla question des critèresde délimitationO,comme

l'a rappeléle Président sirHumphrey Waldock (The International Court
and the Law of the Sea, 1979,p. 12 ; voir aussi l'opinion de M. Oda sur la
valeur juridique du texte de 1982, C.I.J. Recueil 1982, p. 246, par. 143).
Tout a étéainsi détruitdes acquis de la constructionjuridique de 1958,de
l'arrêt de1969et de lasentence de 1977,par l'effetde cesdeux articles de la
convention de 1982qui ne tiennent pas compte de cettejurisprudence et
l'effacent par l'emploid'une formule vide de contenu. Dèsfévrier1982,la
Cour avait revisél'arrêtde 1969pour la délimitation du plateau conti-
nental en interprétant le droit coutumier dans le sens des textes déjà
connus du projet de convention de la troisième conférence desNations
Unies.
9. Les Parties connaissaient la convention de 1982et le revirement de
jurisprudence ;elles n'ont pu invoquer une règlede droit mais pouvaient
penser qu'une ligne unique serait une formule commode et présentementforceand, in addition, theGovernment of the United States,when replying
to a question put by ajudge, adopted a particular position with regard to
theConvention whichcasts doubtupon itsapplicability to the present case
(sitting of 9 May 1984).It remains tobe ascertainedwhether the text of the
Convention of December 1982contains any rules of general international
law which as such were already applicable to the delimitation of the
boundary which the Chamber was asked to determine.
8. There is nothing on delimitation of continental shelf or fishery
boundaries in conventional law, in customary law, or more particularly in
the Convention of 1982,which gives any indication of any obligation to
proceed by means of a single line. The objective sought by States as from
the 1958Conference, and carried to extremes over thepast decade or so,is
plain : the ever-increasing enlargement of the maritime domain of the

coastal State ;first it was the contiguous zone, then the adjacent fishing
zone, at the sametimeas thecontinental shelf,then the exclusiveeconomic
or fishery zone which, in certain declarations by States, has connoted an
intention to widen the territorial sea.Whereas the 1958Convention on the
Continental Shelf contained a rule, the equidistance/special-circum-
stances rule, that rule - though upheld by the case-law from 1969 to
February 1982 - has been eroded by the fact that the Third United
Nations Conference was unable to reach a decision regarding the role of
equidistance and equity other than in texts which do not contain any rule
of delimitation, either for the continental shelf or for the economiczone :
Articles74and 83confine themselvesto sayingthat an agreement based on
international law within the meaning of Article 38 of the Statute of the
Court should make it possible to arrive at an equitable solution. It is dif-
ficult to discern any rule in such a formula : to Saythatdue application of

international law should giverise to an equitable result is a truism. Neces-
sity for an agreement between the States concerned, application of inter-
national law, equity - yes,but by what means ? It was the chairman of the
negotiatinggroup in which the Article 83compromise formula on delimi-
tation was reached who expressed doubt that "the Conference willeverbe
ableto drawup aformulaprovidingaclear and precise answer to theques-
tion of the criteria for delimitation", as President Sir Humphrey Waldock
has recalled (The International Courtand theLaw of the Sea, 1979,p. 12 ;
see also Judge Oda's opinion on the legal value of the 1982Convention,
I.C.J.Reports1982,p. 246,para. 143).Al1the gainsrepresentedbythe legal
edificeof 1958,the 1969Judgment and the 1977Decision, have thus been
destroyed by the effect of those two articles of the 1982 Convention,
which take no account of thatjurisprudence and efface it by the use of an
emptyformula. The Courthad already, in February 1982,revised the 1969
Judgment so far as delimitation of the continental shelf was concerned,

by interpreting customary lawin accordance with the known provisions of
the draft convention produced by the Third United Nations Conference.
9. The Parties in the present case were acquainted with the 1982Con-
vention and the change of course in the case-law ; they were unable to
invokeany legalrulebut could wellhave thought that asinglelinewould beconforme àleurs intérêts. La positiode la Chambre ne peut êtrela même,
tant qu'il n'apas éétabliqu'uneligneuniqueest, soitprescrite par ledroit
international générals,oitjuridiquement exigéepar leséléments pertinents
dans l'affaire présente. LaCour dans son arrêtdu 24 février1982a décidé
d'écarter touteétude de l'équidistancepar le motif que les Parties ne
l'avaient pas proposée mais elle n'a pas soutenu que cela l'eût empêché
d'étudiercette méthodesiellel'avaitpenséutile. La situation étaitlamême
pour la Chambre au moment de rechercher si une délimitation par une
ligne unique est conforme au droit dans les circonstances de l'espèce.

10. Jusqu'à la convention de 1982la délimitationdansla convention de

1958sur le plateau continental se faisait selon la règle équidistance +
circonstances spéciales (article6 de la convention de 1958sur le plateau
continental ; voir pour la mer territoriale et lazonecontiguël'article 12de
la convention sur ces espaces). Ceci semblait indiquer à l'époquequ'un
principe identique pouvait être la basede toute ligne délimitantles divers
espaces maritimes alors de portéerestreinte. Avec la zone de pêcheou la
zoneéconomiqueexclusive,une question nouvelle sepose : où se trouvent
l'identiténaturelle entre le plateau continental et la zone et le rapport de
dépendanceentre l'Etat et la masse d'eau jusqu'à200 milles ? En 1973,sir
Gerald Fitzmaurice disait àce sujet qu'<au-delà d'un certain point on ne
pouvait revendiquer des eaux territoriales sans frôler l'absurde>)dèsque
ces eaux cessaient de conserver quelque lien physique avec la terre<<dont

ellesétaientcensées ...relever >(C.I.J.Recueil 1973,p. 72,par. 8).Ce sont
ces prétentions, jugées démesurées avant la troisième conférence des
Nations Unies sur ledroit de la mer par la plupart desEtats intéressésà la
pêchelointaine comme par lesjuristes des précédentescodifications, qui
passent au premier plan ; on veut conquérirsurlamer leplus grand espace
possible pour l'exploiter, tout de suite ou plus tard, et surtout pour en
exclure les autres. C'est l'accaparement de zones étendues, plateau conti-
nental et zone de 200mdles,qui devientlebut, avecdes conséquencespour
le droit de la délimitation que les conférencesde 1958 et 1960 avaient
traitéesà un moment où le problème de limite s'appliquait à des eaux
territoriales d3ou6 milles,ou àune zone de pêchejusqu'à12milles,avec
le souci principal d'en assurer l'opposabilité aux Etats tiers. Lorsqu'on

réclame200milles,laquestion de ladélimitationprend un aspect différent,
car elleestliéeàl'étendueimmense desespacesmarinsencause etlesEtats
ne se mettront plus d'accord sur des règles clairesparce qu'on cherche à
accaparer le plus possible, par tous les moyens de délimitation imagi-
nables. C'est ce que consacrent les deux articles de la convention de 1982
(73 et 84)qui ouvrent la voie de l'arbitraire en ne définissantrien, et c'est
aussileraisonnement del'arrêtde laChambre fondécommel'arrêtde 1982
sur ces mêmes articles et, commeeux, sur la contestation de principe de la
méthodede l'équidistanceetl'utilisation concurrente decritères,méthodes
et arguments diversreliéspar la seuleidéede trouver un résultat équitable.
La Chambre a ainsi adoptéaprèsles Parties, avec l'exposéd'une ((norme
fondamentale >)laformuleinutilisable delaconvention de 1982(par. 7et8 GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP.GROS) 366

a convenient formula and serve their interests at present. The position of
theChamber cannot be the same,solong asit has not been established that
a single line is either prescribed by general international law or legally
demanded by the relevant factors in the present case. The Court in its
Judgment of 24 February 1982decided to set aside any consideration of
equidistance, because the Partieshad not proposed it, but did not maintain
that this would have prevented it from considering that method if it had
thought fit. The Chamber wasin no differentsituation when the timecame
to determine whether adelimitation by a singleline was legallyacceptable
in the circumstances of the present case.
10. Prior to the 1982Convention, delimitation under the 1958Conven-
tion on the Continental Shelf took place according to the "equidistance/

special-circumstances rule" (Art. 6 of the 1958Convention on the Conti-
nental Shelf ;cf. Art. 12of that on the Territorial Seaand the Contiguous
Zone).At the time, this seemed toindicatethat an identicalprinciplecould
provide the basis for any boundary delimiting the various areas of mari-
timejurisdiction - then of modest extent. A new question arose with the
introduction of the exclusive fishing or economic zone : where lie the
natural identity between the continental shelf and the zone and the rela-
tionship of dependence between a State and waters stretching for 200
miles ?In 1973,Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice observed in this connection
that "there must come a point at which claims to territorial waters would
verge on the absurd" as soon as those waters ceased to retain any sort of
physical bond with the lands "to which they were supposed to be ...
appurtenant" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 72, para. 8). It is these pretensions,
judged inordinate by most distant-water fishing States and the jurists of
previous codificationsbefore theThird United Nations Conference on the
:the ambition is to wrest from
Lawof the Sea,which now come to the fore
the sea the greatest possible expanse with a view to its immediate or
eventual exploitation and, above all, the exclusion of others. It is the
seizureof vast areas, thecontinental shelfand the 200-milezone,whichhas
become the aim, with repercussions on a law of delimitation whch the
1958and 1960Conferences had dealt with at a time when the boundary
problemappliedto a territorialseaof3or6 miles,ora fishingzoneofup to 12
miles,with the ensuring of opposability to third States asthemainconcern.
In the context of a 200-mileclaim, the question of delimitation takes on a
different complexion, since it is inseparable from the immensity of the
maritime spaces involved, and States will no longer agree clear rules,
because of their determination to appropriate as much asthey possibly can
by everyconceivable means of delimitation. That is what lies enshrined in
the two articles of the 1982Convention (Arts. 73 and 84),which open the
wayto arbitrariness bydefining nothng, and it is likewisethe reasoning of
theChamber's Judgment, founded asit is,likethe 1982Judgment, on those

same articles and, like the articles themse!ves, on an apriori denial of the
equidistance method and on the concurrent use of various criteria, meth-
ods and arguments solely interconnected by the idea of arriving at an
equitable result. The Chamber thus followed the Parties in adopting, ci-dessus)etdécidé del'appliquer enl'espèce. Laformulation de cette règle
par la Chambreau paragraphe 112de l'arrêtne peut voiler que deux mots
la résumant aussi bien que deux alinéas : accord + équité.

11. La convention de 1982 a substituéau concept de plateau continen-
tal codifiépar la convention de 1958la seule notion d'une distance de
200milles, que 1'Etatcôtier ait ou non cette prolongation naturelle de son
territoire terrestre quel'arrêtde 1969a étudiée(par. 47-48et 95 ;sentence
1977,par. 191et 194 ;comparer art. 76,par. 1,de laconvention de 1982).Il
y a donc désormais,pour certains Etats, un plateau continental mythique
et inexistant, alors que pour d'autres qui ont ce prolongement physique
naturel il n'en est tenu aucun compte ...si l'on tient que la convention de
1982non encore en vigueur abien, sur ce point, modifiéla convention de

1958,ceque l'arrêtne dit pas. Sans avoir àjuger autre chose que l'objet du
présent différend je dirai que laquestion ne sepose pas entre lesParties qui
sont liéespar la convention de 1958sur leplateau continental. La thèsede
la désuétudede la convention de 1958n'a pasétésoutenue par les Etats-
Unis mais celle de son effet non déterminant ))sur la délimitation d'une
ligne unique ;le tribunal arbitral franco-britannique avait rejetéformel-
lement la thèsede la désuétudede la convention de 1958alors présentée
par le Gouvernement français. Les Parties sont d'accord pour dire que le
plateau continental de la zone du golfe du Maine est un plateau continu,
sans faille. Dans cette affaire il y a donc un plateau continental physique
reconnu et une convention sur le plateau continental en vigueur qui n'est
pas appliquée entre les Parties.
12. Pourla zonedepêchede200millesrevendiquéepar lesdeux Parties,
il faut remarquer que le débatdevant la Chambre a étésouvent élargiau
concept de zone économique. Tellen'estpas la demande expriméedans le
compromis qui ne parle que de zones de pêche etla décisiondes Etats-

Unis, prise pendant la procédure,en 1983,de revendiquer une zone éco-
nomique exclusive,ne peut avoir d'effetsur la décisionde limite. Il est vrai
que l'article III, paragraphe 1, du compromis prévoit que la frontière
maritime décidéepar la Chambre s'appliquera à toute revendication ou
tout exercicededroits souverains ou de toutejuridiction sur leseaux, lelit
de la mer et le sous-sol. Mais la Chambre juge ce qui lui a étésoumis, une
limite de plateau continental et de pêcheries(compromis, art. II, par. 1).
Les zones de pêche des deuxEtats consistent en une exploitation de
ressourceshalieutiques de lamassed'eaudans lalimite de 200milles.Alors
que leplateau continental est un problèmede lit de la mer et de ressources
du sous-sol (arrêt de1969, par. 96 in fine)la délimitation de pêcheries
évoquela division de la masse d'eau. Une ligne unique établira une unité
entre le lit de la mer et l'exploitation d'un sous-sold'une part, la masse
d'eau et ses ressourcesd'autre part, on ne peut présumerque cette unité
préexiste.Lesdeux éléments ont toujours ététraités à part. En 1958ilyeut
uneconventionsur leplateau continental etune autre surlapêche ;déjàen

1945 lesEtats-Unis firent deux proclamations le mêmejour, l'une sur lethrough thepropounding of a "fundamental norm", the unusable formula
ofthe 1982Convention (paras. 7and 8 above)and decided to apply it to the
case. The terms in which the Chamber has formulated this rule in para-
graph 112of theJudgment are merely the veilfor twowords that sum itup
just as well as two subparagraphs : agreement + equity.
11. The 1982 Convention replaced the continental shelf concept as
codified by the 1958Convention with the one notion of a distance of 200
miles,whether or not thecoastal Statehas that natural prolongation of its
land territory which the 1969Judgment analysed (paras. 47-48 and 95 ;
1977Decision, paras. 191and 194 ;cf. 1982Convention, Art. 76,para. 1).
Hence certain States now are credited with a mythcal, non-existent con-
tinental shelf, whereas others which do have such a natural physical pro-
longation see no account taken of it - that is, if one holds that the 1982
Convention whch isnot yetinforce has indeed, on thispoint, modified the
1958Convention, which the Judgment does not Say.Not having to judge

anythingother than the subject of the present dispute, 1would Saythat the
question does not arise between the Parties, who are bound by the 1958
Convention on the Continental Shelf. The United States has not main-
tained that the 1958Convention has lapsed, but that it is not "determi-
native" for the delimitation of a single line ;the Anglo-French Court of
Arbitration had formally rejected the contention, put forward at that time
by the French Government, that the 1958 Convention had lapsed. The
Parties agree that the continental shelf of the Gulf of Maine area is one
continuous, unbroken shelf. The present case therefore features both a
recognized physical continental shelf and a continental shelf convention
which is in force but is not being applied between the Parties.
12. As to the 200-milefishery zone claimed by either Party, it must be
pointed out that thearguments before the Chamber wereoften widened to
covertheconcept of an economiczone. This wasnot what wascalled for in
the SpecialAgreement,whichspeaksonly of fisheryzones, and theUnited
States decision to claim an exclusiveeconomic zone, taken in 1983while

the case was pending, cannot have any effect on the boundary decision.
Admittedly, Article III, paragraph 1,of the SpecialAgreement does pro-
vide that the maritime boundary decided by the Chamber shall apply to
any claim or exerciseof sovereignrights orjurisdiction over the waters or
sea-bed and subsoil.But the Chamber isjudging what has been submitted
to it, i.e., a continental shelf and fisheries boundary (Special Agreement,
Art. II,para. 1).The fisheryzones of the two Statesconnoteexploitation of
the fishing resources of the volume of water within the 200-mile limit.
Whereas the continental shelf presents a problem of sea-bed and subsoil
resources (1969 Judgment, para. 96 infine), the delimitation of fisheries
involves division of the water column. A single boundary will establish a
unity between the sea-bed and the exploitation of the subsoil on the one
hand, and the water column with its resources on the other ;it cannot be
assumed that this unity ispre-existent. The twoelementshave alwaysbeen
treated separately. In 1958there was one convention on the continental

shelf and another on fishing, whle back in 1945the United States madeplateau continental, l'autre sur la pêchedans certaines zones rapprochées
de haute mer. Les Parties ont, l'une, les Etats-Unis, plaidé une sorte
d'incorporation du plateau continental dans la zone de 200milles,l'autre,
leCanada, l'existenced'une règlededroit de la ligne unique. Mais aucune
n'aexpliquécommentla massed'eauavaitincorporé,oueffacé,un plateau
continental réelet continu, par un phénomènede suppression de l'identité
propre du sous-sol et du sol de la mer par le seul effet de pêcheriesdans
cette masse d'eau.

13. La Chambre a décidé aux paragraphes192, 193et 194 d'exclure
purement et simplement tout critère qui ne serait plus adapté <(à la
délimitationde l'un comme de l'autre des deux objetspour lesquelsla déli-
mitation est demandée ;il s'agitd'oune délimitationpar ligne unique de
deux élémentsdifférents )>(par. 192) ;dans le fait mêmeque la délimita-
tion aundouble objet ilyauneparticularité pertinente du casd'espèce. (<Il
en découle ..qu'ilconviendrait d'exclurel'application ...d'un quelconque

critère qui apparaîtrait typiquement et exclusivement liéaux caracté-
ristiques propres d'une seuledes deux réalitésnaturelles à délimiter en-
semble ))(par. 193).Il faut citer le paragraphe 194 :
(<En réalité, unedélimitationpar ligneunique,comme cellequidoit

êtreréalisée dans lecas d'espèce, à savoir une délimitation valant à la
fois pour le plateau continental et la colonne d'eau surjacente, ne
saurait êtreeffectuéeque par l'application d'un critère ou d'une
combinaison de critèresqui nefavorisepas l'un decesdeux objetsau
détrimentde l'autre et soit en mêmetemps susceptible de convenir
également à une divisionde chacun d'eux.A cepropos, ilest d'ailleurs
à prévoirque, avec l'adoption progressive, par la plupart des Etats
maritimes, d'unezone économiqueexclusiveet, par conséquent,avec
la généralisationde la demande d'une délimitation unique, évitant

autant qu'il est possiblelesinconvénientsinhérents à une pluralitéde
délimitationsdistinctes,la préférence iradésormais,inévitablement, à
des critères se prêtantmieux, par leur caractère plus neutre, à une
délimitationpolyvalente. ))(Les italiques sont de moi.)

14. Il meparaît difficilede considérerque laChambre a ainsirépondu à
la question qu'avait poséesonprésident auxParties. On ne peut en même
temps déciderqu'ily a deux réalitésdifférenteset qu'onne tiendra aucun
compte de ladifférencepour déterminer lalimite, sinonen admettant, sous
levoiledes mots, qu'oneffaceleproblèmeplutôt qu'on ne le traite. S'ileût
étépossible, pour un espace de plateau continental irréel,et dans l'état
actuel des possibilitésd'exploitation seulement, de soutenir que ce faux
plateau continental ne sedistinguait pasde lamasse d'eau,ilest exclude le

faire après avoir reconnu l'existencedans le golfe du Maine d'un plateau
continental réeletcontinu, déjàexploré.En second lieu,aprèsavoir misde
côtéle plateau continental, il faut exclure aussi les pêcheriespour main-
tenir la balance égaledans la logique de l'arrêt ;c'est une mer privéedetwoproclamations on the same day, one on the continental shelf,the other
on fishing in certain inshore areas of the high seas. Of the Parties, one,the
United States, has argued that the continental shelf has as it were been
incorporated into the 200-milezone, and the other, Canada, that there is a
rule of lawrequiring a singleboundary. But neither of them has explained

how the water column can have absorbed, or effaced, a real, continuous
continental shelf, by some phenomenon whereby the specific identity of
the subsoil and sea-bed is suppressed simply through the presence in the
column of fisheries.
13. The Chamber has decided, in paragraphs 192, 193 and 194, the
forma1 preclusion of any criterion "which can now be seen as inappro-
priate to the delimitation of one or other of the two objects" that it is
requested to delimit ; this means "a delimitation of two distinct elements
by means of a single line" (para. 192) ;the very fact that the delimitation
has a twofold object constitutes a special aspect of the case. "It follows
that . ..it isnecessary ...to rule out theapplication of anycriterion found
tobe typically and exclusivelybound up with theparticular characteristics
of one alone of the two natural realities that have to be delimited in
conjunction" (para. 193).Here paragraph 194must be quoted :

"In reality, a delimitation by a singleline, such as that which has to
be carried out in the present case, i.e., a delimitation which has to
apply at one and the same time to the continental shelf and to the
superjacent water column, can only be carried out by the application
of a criterion, or combination of criteria, which does not giveprefer-
ential treatment to oneof thesetwoobjectsto the detriment of the other,
and at the same time issuchas to be equallysuitableto the division of
either of them. In that regard, moreover, it can be foreseen that with
the gradua1 adoption by the majority of maritime States of an ex-
clusive economic zone and, consequently, an increasingly general
demand for single delimitation, so as to avoid as far as possible the
disadvantages inherent in a plurality of separate delimitations, pre-
ference willhenceforth inevitably be given to criteria that, because of
their moreneutral character, are best suitedfor usein amulti-purpose

delimitation." (Emphasis added.)
14. It seems to me difficult to consider that the Chamber has thus
replied to the question which its President had put to the Parties. One
cannot simultaneously recognize the existence of two different realities
and decide to ignore the difference in determining the boundary except on
the supposition that words can be used to suppress a problem rather than
dzal with it. Even had it been possible, in the case of an unreal continental
shelf area, but only givenpresent possibilities of exploitation, to maintain

that this false continental shelfwas not to be distinguished from the water
column, it is out of the question to do so after having recognized the
existence in the Gulf of Maine of a real, continuous continental shelf,
which has already been explored. In the second place, after having dis-
carded the continental shelf, to strike an equal balance according to thesens,une mer vide,qu'onva diviser,cequi n'apas étéunthèmedes Parties.
Enfin,je saisismalceque peut êtreuncritèrequinefavorisepasun objet au
détrimentde l'autre et convienten même tempsaux deux objets ; les mots

appelleraient des explications que l'arrêtne donne pas et qu'il ne peut
appartenir àd'autres de donner. Sil'on donne aux mots leur senspropre,
ledit critère ne doit nuire nàl'un (plateau continental) nià l'autre (eau),
c'estdonc un critèredépourvud'effetqui, pournepas favoriser, n'agitpas.
Mais alorscomment convient-il ?La seuleconclusion est quelaquestion du
président demeureposée,non plus seulement pour le différendjugé mais
pour tous les Etats qui envisageraient une ligne unique.Il reste toujoursà
expliquer comment deux Etats liéspar l'article6 de la convention de 1958
surleplateaucontinental en sont déliép sarce qu'une zoned'eausurjacente
n'y est pas soumise ; avant toute qu&stionde ligne unique, le plateau
continental étaitdéjàrecouvert par la haute mer, soumise à un régime
différent. Le résultat du refus de balancer l'équitéde l'élémentplateau

continental et l'élément masse d'eau es qtue l'eaua annihilétoute prise en
considération d'unélémens tansqu'on ait pu apprécier enquoiil eût porté
atteinteà l'autre élément. Poser comme un principe qu'ily aopposition ne
suffit pas et l'adage devient:l'eau seuleimporte. Ce qui étonnepuisqu'il
n'yapas de critèreéquitablerévélé pour diviserde l'eau,sans s'êtreassuré
qu'on nenuit pas au plateau continental, ce qui fait que cet élémentsera
toujours perdant. On ne peut échapper à l'obligation d'appliquer la con-
vention de 1958en vigueur entre les Parties pour 1'<o<bjet))plateau conti-
nental sousprétexteque 1'0objet )eau en serait défavoriséou que cela ne
<<convient » pas ; il est nécessaireen cette affaire de commencer par le
traité applicable pour le plateau continental et de voir quel élément est
favorisé ou défavorisé.

15. En ne procédantpas à l'examen des facteurs propres à déciderdu
tracéd'une ligne équitable àla fois pour l'élémenp tlateau continental et
l'élément pêcherielsa, Chambre n'a pas appliqué aux faits un raisonne-
ment d'appréciationde l'équitable.Il est encore temps, peut-être,de con-
tester la confusion injustifiéedes élémentsà délimiter etde ne pas laisser
s'établir l'idéeque, dans le droit positif contemporain, il n'existe plus
qu'unerèglede délimitation : 200millesdechaqueEtat sajuridiction sur

l'eaude mer et tout cequ'ellecontient ou recouvre est complèteet il suffit
de diviser la masse d'eauentre les Etats intéressés, lerestesuit.Pour qu'un
tel prononcésoit une règle,il faut lui trouver une motivation qui, pour le
moment,se borne a une simple affirmation, sans cet examen auquel lejuge
doit normalement procéder pour appliquer le droit aux faits. Que pèsent
dans la décisionde limite l'utilisation du sous-sol et cellede l'eau, lemême
poids, des poids différents ou aucun ? Même si c'étaiatucun, thèsede la
Chambre, avec le petit rôle concédéin extremis à une vérificationque lalogic of the Judgment, one must also exclude the fisheries ; it is a sea
deprived of al1meaning, an empty sea,which is to be divided - which was
not among the Parties' themes. Finally, 1 find it hard to grasp what a
criterion can be that does not givepreferentialtreatmentto one objecttothe

detrimentof theother and at the same time issuitabletoboth ;these words
cal1for explanations which arenot provided by the Judgment and cannot
be for others to provide. If they are to be taken in their proper sense, the
criterionmust do no harm either toone object (continental shelf)orto the
other (water), soit must be acriterion devoid of effect :one which, toavoid
givingpreferential treatment, exerts no action. But, in that case, how is it
suitable ? The only conclusion to be drawn is that the President's question
remains unresolved, not onlyin regard to the dispute here decided but for
anyStatescontemplating a singleboundary.It stillremains tobe explained
how two States bound by Article 6 of the 1958Convention on the Con-
tinental Shelf become released from it because it does not apply to a
superjacentzone ofwater ;beforeanyquestion of a singleboundary arose,
the continental shelf was already covered by the high seas, which were
subject to a different régime.The result of refusing to balance up the
equities of the two elements, the continental shelf and the water column, is
that the water has obliterated al1consideration of the other element with-

out any opportunity being allowed of appreciating how the latter would
have prejudiced the former. To say that the two elements are apriori in
opposition isnot found sufficient, and the maxim becomes :only the water
counts. This is surprising, because no equitable criterion is revealed for
dividing the water without first ensuring that no harm is done to the
continental shelf, which means that the latter element will always be the
loser. The obligation to apply the 1958Convention in force between the
Parties as regards the "object" continental shelf cannot be escaped on the
pretext that it would be detrimental to the "object" water or not "be
suitable" ;in the present case it is necessary to begin with the treaty
applicable in regard to the continental shelf and to see which element is
favoured or disfavoured.
15. Bynot carrying out an examination of the proper factors for deter-
mining the course of a boundary equitable for both elements, the conti-
nental shelf and the fisheries, the Chamber has failed to assessthe equities

in its treatment of the facts. Perhaps there is still time to challenge the
unwarranted confusion of the elements to be delirnited and to prevent the
idea from taking root that, in contemporary positive law,only one delimi-
tation rule stillexists:upto 200milesfrom eachState, itsjurisdiction over
the waters of the sea and everything which they contain or cover is total,
and oneneed onlydivideup thewater between theStatesconcerned for the
rest to follow of its own accord. For such a ruling to be a rule, somebetter
groundsmust be foundfor it than what existsat present, which isconfined
to a bare assertion in the absence of such an examination as a court must
normally carry out in order to apply the law to the facts. What weight do
use of the subsoil and use of the water carry in the determination of the
boundary :the same weight, different weights or no weight at al1 ? Even iflignen'estpaspréjudiciable àlabalancedesintérêts(par. 238-239),ilserait
utile de connaître la motivation de ce néant.

16. Une ligne unique non justifiée par un raisonnement juridique ne
peut êtrela solution raisonnable requise par l'arrêtde 1969,paragra-
phe 90 in fine, ni le résultat équitable selon la formulede la norme fon-
damentale exposéepar lesPartiesetreprisepar la Chambre(arrêt,par.112).
L'existence d'accords bilatéraux ayant fixéune ligne unique pour un
plateau continental et pour une zone de 200 milles ne prouve rien, le fait

quedesEtats aient conclu desaccordsfixant une ligne unique étanten soi
sans pertinence si rien n'indique comment cette ligne satisfaàttoutes les
équités,plateau continental, pêche,etc., alors que c'est peut-êtrepar
compromis, négligenced'unfacteur, ou le simple désirde commoditéque
de tels accords ont étéconclus. Même si l'oncitait un accord qui prévoit
une ligneuniqueplateau continental/zone en précisantformellement dans
le texte que la ligne a émodifiéesur un segment particulier, soit pour un
motif deplateau continental, soit dezone,ilfaudrait encore savoirpar quel
raisonnement les Parties sont arrivées à cette solution;un accord com-
porte à l'occasion des concessionsnon motivéespar l'invocation du droit
international. Deux Etats peuvent négocierune ligne unique qui leur
convienne sans se poser la question de l'équitédu résultat ; lejuge doit
déterminerune ligne équitable pourles deux Parties, après avoirexaminé
et résolu les problèmesdifférentsque posent le plateau continental et la

zone. Au débutdu différend,entre 1964et janvier 1976, les deux Etats
discutaient uniquement d'une lignede délimitationpour le plateau conti-
nental, comme l'arrêt lerappelle aux paragraphes 64 à68 ;le débat se
poursuivait encore sur ce terrain en 1976.C'est ce qu'expose ledéparte-
ment d'Etat dans un compte rendu sur les négociations publié enjanvier
1976quimontre, àl'époque,queleGouvernement des Etats-Unis songeait
à une limite du plateau continental seulement, en notant le danger de
porter préjudiceà l'éventuelle limitede leur zoneéconomiquedans legolfe
du Maine,cequi impliquait alors deux limites distinctes(annexe 2,janvier
1976,p. 2, par. II, et p. 5-6,par. IV-V).C'estpeut-êtreavec l'extension du
différend à la pêcheque les Etats-Unis en sont venus à la théoriede la
frontière naturelle du chenal nord-est séparantdes zones de pêche, cequi
constituait une autre admission du caractère particulier de chacun des
deux éléments à délimiter.Il existait ainsi, au moins de 196à 1976,des

motifs de différenciation entre une limite de plateau continental et une
limitede zones de pêchee,tla demandedes Parties d'une ligneunique dans
lecompromis,intervenue à la find'une longue négociationdont lesParties
n'ont pas révélé le contenu, demeure insuffisante pour faire de la ligne
unique une particularité décisive.

17. La constatation que la ligne uniquen'est qu'une indication de pro-
cédéde délimitation et, de ce fait, ne lie pas la Chambre si le droitit were none at all, as the Chamber holds - subject to the small role
conceded inextremis to chechng thatthe line does not harm thebalance of
interests (paras. 238-239) -, it would be useful to know the reason for this
total negition.
16. A singleboundary notjustified by legalreasoning can be neither the
"reasonable" solution called for by the 1969 Judgment, paragraph 90
infine, nor the equitable result in terms of the fundamental norm pro-

pounded by the Parties and taken up by the Chamber (Judgment, para.
112).The existence of some bilateral agreements that have fixed a single
boundary for a continental shelf and for a 200-mile zone does not prove
anything, the fact of States' signing agreementsthat fix a singleboundary
being in itself irrelevant in the absence of any indication how the line in
question satisfies al1the equitable considerations, in relation to the con-
tinental shelf,fishing, etc., when it was perhaps out of a sense of compro-
mise, neglect of some factor, or merely for the sake of convenience that
such agreements were concluded. Even if one were to cite an agreement
providing for a singlecontinental shelf/zone boundary and formally spe-
cifying in the text that the line had been modified in a particular segment
for a reason connected either with the continental shelf or with the zone,
one would still need to know by what reasoning the parties arrived at that
solution ;sometimes an agreement includes concessions which are not
motivated by reliance on international law. Two States may negotiate a

single boundary which suits them without going into the question of
whether the result is equitable ; a court must establish a line which is
equitable for both parties, after having examined and solved the different
problems to whch the continental shelf and thezone giverise. In the early
stages of the present dispute, between 1964 and January 1976, the two
States only discussed a delimitation line for the continental shelf, as the
Judgment recalls in paragraphs 64-68 ;the discussion was still centred on
this topic in 1976.Thiswasrevealedby the StateDepartmentin arecord of
the negotiations issued in January 1976which showed that at the time the
United States Government was considering a continental shelf boundary
only, while noting the danger of prejudicing the potential boundary of its
economic zone in the Gulf of Maine, which therefore implied two distinct
boundaries (Ann. 2,January 1976,p. 2,para.II, and pp. 5-6,paras. IVand
V).It wasperhaps theextension of thedispute tofishing that prompted the
United States theory of a natural boundary along the Northeast Channel

separating fishery zones, whch constituted another admission of the spe-
cial character of each of the two elements to be delimited. There accord-
ingly existed - at least from 1964to 1976 - grounds for differentiating
between a continental shelf boundary and a fishery zones boundary, and
the Parties' request for a single line in the Special Agreement, concluded
after lengthy negotiations the content of whch the Parties have not
revealed, does not suffice to make the single line a determinative special
aspect.
17. The finding that the single boundary is merely an indication of
delimitation procedure, and accordingly does not bind the Chamber if theapplicable aux circonstances pertinentes de l'affaire ne permet pas d'ap-
pliquer un tel procédé, n'apas été contreditepar l'arrêt.La pertinence
d'une circonstance, ou d'une particularité, c'est un choix de vocabulaire,
s'explique et se démontre, etce n'est qu'enallant au fond des choses du
plateau continental et de lazone de pêchedansla régiondu golfedu Maine
qu'ileût étépossible de découvrir cequ'ilen était.Ou bien cette étude des
deux catégoriesde zones maritimes en cause montre que leur délimitation
pose les mêmes problèmes,ou que le contenu de chaque élément est
entièrement sans pertinence, selon la logique interne du présentarrêt,ce

qui permet dans lesdeux cas d'aboutir raisonnablement àune seulelimite,
ou bien on constate que, dans la présente affaire,il existe des différences
entre une ligneraisonnable pour lesolet lesous-sold'unepart et une autre
pour l'eau qui les recouvre. Si les deux Etats ont encore des difficultàs
délimiter leurs eauxterritorialeset s'ilsont négocentre 1964et 1976(voir
par. 16ci-dessus) uniquement sur une limite de plateau continental, il est
difficiled'admettre la théoriequi aétésoutenuede laligneunique, règleen
voiede formation, sinon acquise, du droit international contemporain, ou
la thèsede la ligneunique circonstance spéciale.Pour appuyer sa décision
sur ce point la Chambre, au paragraphe 194de l'arrêt, anticipe surl'éven-
tualitéd'une zoneéconomiqueexclusive,acceptéepar lesEtats maritimes,
englobant toutesformes dejuridiction, cequi, ilfaut ledire, ressemblera de
fort ~rèsàunemer territoriale de 200milles.Iciencore. sirArnold McNair
avai; déjàannoncéqu'une revendication de juridiction exclusive sur des

zonesétendueséauivalaitDarsoncontenu. mêmefonctionnel etdivisible. à
la situationde dr'oitqui Gévautpour la zone de souverainetésurles eaux
territoriales (C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 159-169).Ayant changéle droit de ces
espaces, les Etats ne peuvent garder ceux des traits qui, auparavant,
expliquaient les travaux sur l'intérêt spécidale pêcheet la dépendance
économiquede certains élémentsd'une population. Toutes les bases de
raisonnement ont été changées,1'Etatcôtier a voulu unejuridiction exclu-
sivesur le sol et le sous-sol,puis sur la masse d'eau, il l'aobtenus les
ressources ne sont pas la causejuridique de la zone exclusive, elles sont
miseshors du problème,l'existencede ressources minéralesou biologiques
n'est pas prise en compte. Un plateau continental sans ressources et une
mer presque vide ne font aucun obstacle à l'appropriation du plateau
continental et d'une zonede pêche.La notion de dépendanceéconomique
ne peut plus êtreinvoquéecommeunélémend t éterminant,au sens donné

par la Cour à ces deux mots dans l'arrêtde 1951précité.Dans les para-
graphes 237 à 240,la Chambre examine brièvement les effets possiblesdu
partage des ressources opérépar la ligne, ce qui semble contredire leur
exclusion dans l'examendu principe de la ligne unique. En effaçant toute
différenceentre plateau continental et eau,un pas est fait versl'unification
desdroits exercés,en mêmetemps que celledes espaces maritimes remis à
la souverainetéde 1'Etatcôtier.law applicable to the relevant circumstances of the case does not allowthe
application of suchprocedure, has not been contradicted by theJudgment.
The relevance of a circumstance or special aspect - the choice of words is
optional - can be explained and demonstrated, and only by thorough
enquiryconcerning thecontinental shelfand the fishery zonein the Gulf of
Maine area would it have been possible to gauge the truth of the matter.

Either such analysis of the two categories of maritime domain concerned
would have shown that their delimitation involves the same problems or
that the content of each is - in accordance with the interna1 logic of the
present Judgment - quite irrelevant, in both of which eventualities one
may reasonably devisea singleboundary, or elseit would have brought to
light the existence of some differences between the respective lines that
would be reasonable on the one hand for the sea-bed and subsoil and, on
the other, for the waters above them. Considering that the two States still
have difficulty in delimiting their territorial waters and that they nego-
tiated between 1964 and 1976 (cf. para. 16, above) with respect to a
continental shelf boundary only, it is difficult to accept the theory which
has been argued of the single boundary as a rule of contemporary inter-
national law in process of formation, if not already accomplished, or the
thesis of the singlelineasa special circumstance. To bolster its decision on
this point the Chamber, inparagraph 194of theJudgment, anticipates the

possibility of an exclusive economic zone, accepted by maritime States,
covering al1forms ofjurisdiction, something which, it must be said, will
closely resemble a 200-mile territorial sea. Here again, Judge Sir Arnold
McNair had already declared that a claim to exclusivejurisdiction over
extensive areas was equivalent in substance, even if that substance was
functional and divisible,to the legal situation which obtainsin thezone of
sovereignty over territorial waters (I.C.J. Reports 1951, pp. 159-169).
Having changed the lawon such areas, States cannot retain those features
which once gave point to the work done in studying the special fishery
interest and economic dependence of certain sectors of a population. The
entire bases of reasoning have been altered ; the coastal State wanted
exclusivejurisdiction over the sea-bed and subsoil, then over the water
column, and it hasobtained what it wanted ;but the resources are not the
legal cause of the exclusive zone, they have been removed outside the

problem : the existence of minera1 or living resources is not taken into
account. A continental shelf without resources and an almost empty sea
offer no obstacle to the appropriation of the continental shelf and of a
fisheryzone.The notion ofeconomicdependence can no longerbeinvoked
as a determining factor, in the meaning given by the Court to those two
words in the 1951Judgment quoted above. In paragraphs 237-240, the
Chamber briefly examines the possible effects of the sharing of resources
resulting from the line,which seems to contradict their exclusion from the
examination of the principle of the single boundary. By obliterating any
distinction between the continental shelf and the water, a step is taken
towards unification of the rights enjoyed as well as that of the maritime
spaces placed under the sovereignty of the coastal State. 18. Le problèmede l'unité deszones n'estpas nouveau ;il a étéabordé
dans trois opinionsjointes à l'arrêtdu 24 février1982queje crois utile de
rappeler :

a) Le juge Oda a consacré une section de son opinion dissidente au
<<Rapport entre le plateau continental et la zone économiqueexclu-
sive )(par. 126-131)et un chapitre VI1(par. 146-177)aux (<Principes et

règlesde délimitationdu plateau continental et de la zone économique
exclusive 1).J'y relève quela question de la ligne unique est posée au
paragraphe 126et que lejuge Oda semble conclure à 1'0alignement ))
possible du régimede lazonesur celuidu plateau continental (par. 130,
débutet fin). Mais sa position est plus réservée aux paragraphes 143 à
145, qui comportent une critique détailléedes aspects négatifs des
formulations de la convention de 1982sur le droit de la délimitation

(C.I.J. Recueil 1982, p. 246-247, par. 143 in fine, par. 144, par. 145,
dernièrephrase). Les conclusions dujuge Oda demeurent réservées au
paragraphe 146(al. 4-5) et, si l'analyse des deux zones en question est
complète, il indique plutôt des voies d'approche pour le problème
qu'une décision fermepour une ligne unique, il me semble.

b) L'opinion dissidente du juge Evensen traite aussi de la zone écono-
mique exclusivenotamment aux paragraphes 7, 8,9 et 10où il pose le

problèmedeslignesde délimitation différentesetseréfère auxréponses
de la Tunisie et de la Libye ;il indique son doute, en l'espèce,<< que la
méthodepratique de délimitation doive êtreexclusivement ou essen-
tiellement fondée surles considérationsrelatives au plateau continen-
tal))en raison de ((l'affaiblissement de l'effetpratique de la notion de
prolongement naturel par suite de l'apparition du concept de la zone
économiquede 200milles ))(par. 10).Au paragraphe 15,lejuge Even-
sen revient sur l'idéed'une ligne unique, ainsi que dans ses Conclu-

sions ))(par. 319), se fondant sur le caractère (<opportun ))de cette
solution (theobviousadvisability,dit le texte anglais original, plus fort).
(C.I.J. Recueil 1982, p. 269-288, 296-297et 319-323.)
c) Lejuge Jiménezde Aréchagatraite en une page la question de la zone
économiqueexclusive(par. 54-56)et ilestime que << ladélimitationde la
zone économique exclusive et la délimitation du plateau continental
coïncideront tout au moins dans la trèsvaste majoritédescas normaux.
La raison est que les deux délimitations sont régiespar des règles

identiques ... (par. 56, ils'agitdes articles 74 et 83 de la convention de
1982).(C.I.J. Recueil 1982, p. 115-116.)

19. Les observations qui précèdent ont étérédigéesau moment et à
propos d'un différendsur leplateau continental où la question de la ligne
unique ne seposait pas, mais par troisjuges qui commentaient l'Œuvrede
la troisième conférencesur le droit de la mer ; on en trouve le reflet au

paragraphe 194de l'arrêtqui prévoitune généralisationdans l'avenirde la
ligne unique (par. 17 ci-dessus). Le problème en l'espècen'en est pas 18. The problem of the unity of the zones is not a new one ; it was
broached in three opinions, appended to the Judgment of 24 February
1982,which S find it appropriate to recall :

(a) Judge Oda devoted a section of his dissentingopinion to the "Relation
between the Continental Shelf and the Exclusive Economic Zone"
(paras. 126-131)and Chapter VIS(paras. 146-177)to the "Principles
and Rules for the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf/Exclusive
Economic Zone". 1note that the question of the single boundary is
raised in paragraph 126and thatJudgeOda seemsto conclude that an
"alignment" is possible of the régimeof the zone on that of the

continental shelf (para. 130, beginning and end). But his position is
more reserved in paragraphs 143-145,which contain a detailed criti-
cismof the negative aspects of the wording of the 1982Convention on
the law of delimitation (I.C.J. Reports 1982,pp. 246-247, para. 143in
fine, para. 144, para. 145, last sentence). Judge Oda's conclusions
continue to be reserved in paragraph 146(subparas. (4) and (5)) and,
while his analysis of the two zones in question is thorough, he seems
rather toindicate waysof approaching theproblem than to comedown
firmly in favour of a single line.
(b) The dissentingopinion of Judge Evensen alsodeals with the exclusive
economic zone, in particular in paragraphs 7, 8, 9 and 10,where he

raises the ~no~ ~m of different delimitation lines and refers to the
replies given by Tunisia and Libya ; he points out that, in the case in
question, he has doubts as to whether "a practical method for the
delimitation of the areas concerned should be based solely or mainly
on continental shelfconsiderations" owing to the "practical impact of
the concept of natural prolongation through the development of that
of the 200mileeconomic zone" (p. 10).In paragraph 15and alsoin his
"Conclusions" (p. 319) Judge Evensen reverts to the idea of a single
line, on the grounds of the "obvious advisability" of this solution.
(I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 269-288, 296-297and 319-323.)

(c) Judge Jiménezde Aréchagadeals in one page with the question of the
exclusiveeconomic zone (paras. 54-56)and he considers that "at least
in the large majority of normal cases, the delimitation of the exclusive
economic zone and that of the continental shelf would have to coin-
cide.The reason isthatboth of thesedelimitations are governed by the
same rules" (para. 56, dealing with Articles 74 and 83 of the 1982
Convention). (I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 115-116.)

19. The foregoing observations were drafted in connection with a dis-

pute on the continental shelf at a time when the question of the singleline
did not arise, but by threejudges commenting on the work of the Third
Conference on the Lawof the Sea ;they are reflected in paragraph 194of
the Judgment, whch predicts that in future the singleline willbe generally
adopted (para. 17,above). This does not bring the problem concerned any avancépour autant. D'abord parce que, la convention de 1982n'étant pas
en vigueur, il faut décider si la confusion entre le plateau continental
jusqu'à 200milleset lazone est dSjàune règledu droit coutumier.Cepoint
n'est pas acquis car, s'il en étaitainsi, il n'y aurait plus de possibilitéde
tracer aujourd'hui de délimitationpour le seul plateau continental et cela
se saurait par l'examende la pratique (contra,plusieurs différends actuels
portant sur le plateau continental seulement). La Chambre ne pouvait
prendre une position de neutralisation mutuelle des critèrespertinents du
plateau continental et de l'eausans lesexaminer, saufà trancher d'abord ce
problèmede lareconnaissance endroit coutumier de laconfusion de toutes
lesjuridictions sur les espaces maritimes dans la zone de 200 milles, en
dehors des textes de la convention de 1982.Lejuge applique le droit établi

etnon un droit éventuel.Ilfaut savoirsilejuge peut délimiter,à volonté, un
plateau continental et l'eau qui le recouvre, pris à part, successivement
examinés ouconfondus, et ceci ne peut se déciderdans l'abstrait, avec la
seule explication que la ligne unique serait une solution de l'avenir,
opportune ou commode d'ailleurs ;encore faudrait-il qu'elle fût raison-
nableet raisonnée.Il fallaitjuger siune ligneunique serait dans laprésente
affaire une ligne équitableet pour quels motifs. C'est une question que
la Cour, dans l'arrêtde 1982,avait évoquéed'une phrase en fin du para-
graphe 107 :

<Quant à la présencede puits de pétroledans une zone à délimiter,
cetteprésencepeut, selonlesfaits,représenterun élément àconsidérer

dans le processus au cours duquel tous les facteurs pertinents sont
soigneusement peséspour aboutir à un résultat équitable.))(C.I.J.
Recueil 1982, p. 77-78.)

Ilyaurait donc un facteurpertinent dans laprésencede ressourcesdans un
plateau continental.
20. Si, de l'examen des problèmes de plateau continental et des pro-
blèmesde zone de pêche exclusivedans la régiondu golfe du Maine, il
apparaissait que, par l'application du droit aux faits, il n'existe pas de
facteurs qui compliquent le tracéd'une seule ligne, cette solution serait
certesplus <<simple ))pour la Chambre etpour lesParties mais cen'estpas
le problème ; simplicité estproche de facilité etla facilité n'estpas un

critère de délimitation de frontières, c'est trop souvent un renvoi des
difficultésà une périodeultérieure.Si l'unification de deux lignes diffé-
rentes qui pourraient se justifier dans les faits, l'une pour le plateau
continental, l'autre pour la zone économique, apparaissait inéquitable
pour l'un par rapport à l'autre, on voit mal quelle application de l'équité
pourrait justifier une ligne unique qui serait partiellement inéquitable
parce qu'elle aurait des résultats extraordinaires, anormaux ou déraison-
nables, soit du côtédu plateau continental, soit du côtéde la zone. Tout
étaitdonc dans l'étudedesfaits, d'autant plus qu'ila étémis en évidence à
propos du banc de Georges que toute exploitation pétrolière risque decloser to solution, if only because, the 1982Convention not being in force,
one has to decide whether the merging of the continental shelf up to the

200-milelimitwith thezoneisalreadya rule ofcustomary law.This point is
not self-evident for, if that were the case, there would no longer be any
possibility of drawing a boundary confined to the continental shelf, and
whether that is so could be deduced from an examination of current
practice (the reverse is suggested by the fact that several current disputes
concern the continental shelf alone). The Chamber could not adopt a
position involving the mutual neutralization of the relevant criteria of the
continental shelf and of the water without examining them, unless it first
settled this problem of the recognition in customary law of the merging of
al1jurisdictions over the maritime spaces in the 200-milezone, quite aside
from the texts of the 1982Convention.Acourt appliesestablished lawand
not a possible future law.The question is whether it may, at will,delimit a
continental shelf and the supejacent waters taking them separately, in
turn, oras fused with one another, and that question isone which it cannot
decide in the abstract, with the sole explanation that a single boundary is
the solution ofthe future and, furthermore, one advisable or convenient ; it

still has to be one reasonable and reasoned. What had to bejudged was
whether a single boundary would in the present casebe an equitable line
and on what grounds.This isa question to which theCourt referred in the
1982Judgment, in a sentence at the end of paragraph 107 :

"As to the presence of oil wellsin an area to be delimited, it may,
depending on the facts, be an element to be taken into account in the
process ofweighingal1relevant factorsto achievean equitable result."
(I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 77-78.)

It would seem, then, that thepresence of resourcesin acontinental shelfisa
relevant factor.
20. If it wereto become apparentfrom an examination of the respective
problems of the continental shelfand the exclusivefishery zonein the Gulf
of Maine area that, when law is applied to the facts, there are no factors

complicating the drawing of a single boundary, this solution would cer-
tainly be "simpler" for the Chamber and the Parties, but that is not the
point ;simplicity comes near to facility, and facility is no criterion for
delimiting boundaries ;it isal1too oftena means of postponing difficulties
to a later period. If it were apparent that the unification of two different
lineswhichmight bejustified by thefacts, one forthecontinental shelf and
theotherfor theeconomic zone, wasinequitable for one of them in relation
to the other, it is hard to see what application of equity might justify a
singleline which would be partially inequitable because it would produce
extraordinary, unnatural or unreasonable results, either on thecontinental
shelf side or on the side of the zone. Everything therefore depended on
analysis of thefacts, especiallyasithad been submitted in connection with
Georges Bank that any oil extraction might ruin its fisheries and causeruiner lespêcheriesdu banc, deprovoquer despollutions dans tout legolfe
avecdesresponsabilitéslourdesetenfin quelesthèsesdesPartiessemblent
exclure aussi bien des accords sur l'aménagementen commun des pêche-
ries que sur l'exploitation commune de gisements diviséspar la délimita-
tion. La tâche dujuge n'est cependant pas limitéepar la présentation des
opinionsdes Parties sur tous cespoints (voirl'arrêtde 1969,paragraphe 97,
sur l'unitéde gisement << élémend t efait qu'il estraisonnable deprendre en

considération au cours d'une négociationsur une délimitation )et l'opi-
nion individuelle dujuge Jessup, pages 66 et suivantes, 81 à84,qui, allant
bien au-delà du paragraphe 240 du présent arrêt, souhaitait<< mieux faire
comprendre les principes d'équitéqui ...font << partie du droit internatio-
nal que [la Cour] doit appliquer (p. 84)).
21. Bienqueleplateau continental soitdevenu un terme ne s'appliquant
plus à un contenu physique, l'article 56 de la convention de 1982, qui
définitcequ'estla zone économiqueexclusive,lesdroits, lajuridiction, les
obligations que se voient reconnaître les Etats se termine par :<<les droits

relatifs aux fonds marins et à leur sous-sol énoncésdans le présentarticle
s'exercent conformément à la partie VI ); cette partie VI est intitulée
(<Plateau continental ))et comprend dix articles, dont l'article 76 sur la
<<définitiondu plateau continental )),l'article 77 sur le<(droits de 1'Etat
côtiersur leplateau continental O,l'article78 sur le régimejuridique des
eaux et de l'espace aériensurjacents ...))sans parler de l'article 83 sur la
<<délimitation du plateau continental ..)),identique à l'article 74 sur la
zone. Que reste-t-il de l'unitéjuridique desespaces maritimes et de l'idée
que le plateau continental devra se confondre avec la zone, si le dernier

paragraphe de l'article56définissantla zone renvoie à lapartie VI pour une
autre définitionde l'élémenp t lateau continental que l'article 77 ne con-
tient Das.et ~ourauoi deux articlessurune délimitation définie d'une seule
façon ?La construction du traitén'a de sens avec une partie V (<<Zone
économiqueexclusive ))et une partie VI (<Plateau continental )))que si
les deux espaces divergent par certains éléments, à tel point qu'il était
nécessairede leurconsacrer deuxparties d'une convention surle droitde la
mer.Lesexégètes qui veulent confondre lesrèglesde délimitationont donc

à justifier la radicale inutilitéde la partie VI, dans un texte dit de codi-
fication D.Il sembleque lacomparaison desarticles 55 à 62,73 et 74(zone)
avec les articles 76, 77, 78, 81, 83 (plateau continental) ne laisse le choix
qu'entre la conclusion qu'il y a bien deux régimesjuridiques, ou le
chaos.
22. Avant la convention de 1982,selon l'arrêtde 1969et la sentence de
1977,le droit international avait posé quelquesjalons solides, l'équidis-
tance + les circonstances spécialesde la région à délimiteravec la confi-
guration des côtes en premier rang, leurs particularités, en respectant la

nature commela << donnéedefait ))Lasolution du ré sen différendaurait
pu être déduitedes termes mêmesdu paragraphe 99 de l'arrêtde
1969 :
<En raison de la situation géographiqueparticulière des côtes despollution throughout the Gulf, entailing heavy responsibilities, and as the

Parties' positions seemed to rule out agreement on eitherjoint manage-
ment of the fisheries or joint exploitation of deposits divided by the
delimitation. The judicial task is however not limited by the Parties'
presentation of their opinions on al1thesepoints (cf. 1969Judgment, para.
97,on theunity of any deposits, "a factual element whichit isreasonable to
take into consideration in the course of the negotiations for a delimita-
tion", and the separate opinion ofJudge Jessup (pp. 66ff.and 81-84),who,
going well beyond paragraph 240 of the present Judgment, hoped to
contribute to "further understanding of the principles of equity which ...
are 'part of the international law which [the Court] must apply' " (p.
84)).
21. Although "continental shelf" has become a term which no longer
applies to a physical content, Article 56 of the 1982Convention, which
defines the exclusiveeconomic zone and the rights,jurisdiction and duties
attributed to States, ends with the followingwords :"The rights set out in
this article with respect to the sea-bed and subsoil shall be exercised in

accordance with Part VI". This Part VI is headed Continental Shelf and
contains ten articles including Article 76 on the "Definition of the Con-
tinental Shelf", Article 77 on the "Rights of the Coastal state over the
Continental Shelf", Article 78 on the "Legal Status of the Superjacent
Waters and Air Space . . .not to mention Article 83on the "Delimitation
of the Continental Shelf .. ."identical with Article 74 on the Zone. What
is left of the legal unity of maritime spaces and of the idea that the
continental shelf should be merged with the zone, if the last paragraph of
Article 56definingthezone refers back to Part VI foranother definition of
the continental shelf element not contained in Article 77, and why should
there be two articles on a delimitation defined in one and the same way ?
The construction of the Treaty with a Part V (Exclusive Economic Zone)
and a Part VI(ContinentalShelfl only makes senseif the twoareas differ in
certain ways, to such an extent that it was necessary to devote to them two
parts of a convention on the law of the sea. Exegeteswho want to fuse the
rulesofdelimitation have therefore tojustify theradical uselessnessof Part

VI,in what purports to be a text of "codification". Comparison of Articles
55-62 and 73-74 (Zone) with Articles 76, 77, 78, 81 and 83 (Continental
Shelf) seems to leave only this alternative : either two legal régimes,or
chaos.

22. Prior to the 1982Convention, international law, according to the
1969Judgment and the 1977Decision, had developed afewfirmprecepts :
equidistance plus the special circumstances of the area to be delimited,
with in the forefront the configuration of the coasts, their special aspects,
and nature to be respected asthe "given fact". The solution to the present
dispute could have been deduced from the very terms of paragraph 99 of
the 1969Judgment :

"In view of the particular geographical situation of the Parties' Parties dans cette mer, il peut se faire que les méthodeschoisies pour

fixer la délimitation des zones respectives conduisent en certains
secteurs àdes chevauchements entre leszones relevant des Parties. La
Cour considèrequ'ilfaut acceptercette situation commeune donnée
defait etlarésoudresoitpar une divisiondeszonesdechevauchement
effectuéepar voie d'accord ou, à défaut,par parts égales,soit par des
accordsd'exploitation en commun, cette dernière solutionparaissant
particulièrement appropriéelorsqu'il s'agitde préserverl'unité d'un
gisement. ))

Bienquel'arrêtde laChambre fasseallusion à cesindications il n'enretient
que l'idéede la division par parts égaleset la modifie entièrement en la
complétantpar des critères,méthodeset correctionsqui sont endehors du
texte de 1969et de la sentence de 1977 à tous points de vue. Il reste aux
partisans du videjuridique actuel à démontrerque la convention de 1958
est devenuedésuèteet que la convention de 1982que les Etats-Unis n'ont
pas signée,qui n'estpas en vigueur, a révélésur cepoint une règlededroit
coutumier, contraire àla convention de 1958et à lajurisprudence 1969-
1977enassumant qu'ily aconfusion entre leplateau continental etlazone

de 200 milles et qu'une ligneunique s'impose, sans autre recherche.

23. La thèseque leplateau continental est aujourd'hui confondu avecla
zone et que la convention de 1958sur le plateau continental est désuète
était déjà soutenuepar le Gouvernement français en 1977pour la con-
vention de 1958et ellefut rejetéepar le tribunal arbitral (voir par. 45,46,
47, 48 et 205) aprèsavoir indiquéqu'il devait <<prendre en considération
l'évolutiondu droit de la mer dans toute la mesure où cela seraitpertinent
pour l'examendelaprésenteaffaire )(par. 48infine), cequin'étaitpasune
adhésion mais une manière courtoise d'écarterun projet de codification.
LaCour elle-même dans sonarrêt surla Compétence enmatièredepêcheries
avait décidéqu'elle nepouvait, comme tribunal, rendre un jugement sub

specie legis ferendae (C.I.J. Recueil 1974, par. 53). Il faudrait trouver
aujourd'hui dans l'évolutiondu droit de la mer un élément préciq sui soit
plus ou aussi pertinent que la convention de 1958sur le plateau continen-
tal; la convention de 1958 ayant été jugéeapplicable au plateau conti-
nental par les Etats-Unis entre 1969et 1976au moins, selon la documen-
tation partielle remisiila Chambre (par. 16ci-dessus),ileût éténécessaire
pour saisir les causes de sa dérélictionde trouver d'autres motifs que
l'affirmation selonlaquellecetraitén'aplus d'effetdéterminantparce qu'il
ne peut êtreappliqué à l'eau. C'estle 16juillet 1970que les Etats-Unis ont
fait une déclarationà propos de l'adhésiondu Canada à la convention de
1958 en date du 6 février 1970 avec une réserveque provoquait une
objection américaine(Nations Unies, Traités multilatéraux,1975,p.455).

Aucune indication n'aétéfourniesurdes motifsjuridiques de terminaison
de la convention de 1958depuis cette date. Quant à la position juridique
prise par le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis surlaconvention de 1982et son GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP.GROS) 375

coastlines upon that sea, the methods chosen by them for the purpose
of fixing the delimitation of their respective areas may happen in

certain localitiesto lead toan overlapping of the areas appertaining to
them. TheCourt considers that such a situation must be accepted asa
givenfact and resolvedeither by an agreed, or failing that by an equal
divison of the overlapping areas, or by agreements forjoint exploi-
tation, the latter solution appearing particularly appropriate when it
is a question of preserving the unity of a deposit."

Although the Chamber's Judgment alludes to these indications, it in fact

retains of them nothing more than the idea of equal division, and this it
modifies completely by supplemeting it with criteria, methods and cor-
rections which howeverviewed areextraneous to the 1969text or the 1977
Decision. It is up to those who support the current legal vacuum to
demonstrate that the 1958 Convention has in fact become obsolete and
that the 1982Convention, which the United States did not sign and which
is not in force, has nonetheless uncovered a customary rule on this point
which runs counter toboth the 1958Convention and the 1969-1977 case-
lawbyassuming that afusion has taken place between thecontinental shelf
and the 200-mile zone and that a single boundary is called for, without
further enquiry.
23. The argument that the continental shelf is now fused with the zone
and that the 1958Convention on the Continental Shelfis obsolete was put
forward by the French Government in 1977where the 1958Convention
wasconcerned, and wasrejected by theCourt of Arbitration (cf. Decision,

paras. 45,46,47,48 and 205)after its having indicated that "it should take
due account of the evolution of the law of the sea in so far as this may be
relevant in the context of the present case" (para. 48 infine), which was no
acquiescence but simply a polite way of setting on one side a draft codi-
fication. The InternationalCourt itself, in itsJudgment on FisheriesJuris-
diction,had decided that, asacourt oflaw,it could notrenderjudgment sub
specielegisferendae (I.C.J.Reports1974,para. 53).The task at present is to
discover in the evolution of the law of the sea some precise element of at
least equal relevance to the 1958Convention, which the United States held
applicable to the continental shelf between 1969and 1976,if not longer,
judging by the partial documentation furnished to the Chamber (para. 16
above) ;to grasp the causes of this treaty's dereliction,it would have been
necessary to find other grounds than a mere statementthat it is no longer
determinative becauseitcannot applyto water. On 16July 1970the United
States issued a declaration regarding Canada's having on 6 February of

that year acceded to the 1958Convention with a reservation that gave rise
to an objection on the part of the United States (United Nations, Multi-
lateral Treaties 1975,p. 455). No indication has been given of any legal
grounds for the termination of the 1958Convention since then. As for the
legalposition adopted by the Government of the United States regarding
the 1982Convention and its role,inits replyto aquestion put by ajudge atrôle, en réponse à la question d'unjuge, àl'audience du 9 mai 1984,elle
permet une telle liberté dans les positions à prendre dans chaque cas
particulier,à la discrétionde ce gouvernement, que le problème de l'ap-
plication par les Etats-Unis du contenu de ce texte relèvetoujours de leur
seuleappréciation.Enfinilfaut rappeler qu'il existeunplateau continental
uniforme dans le golfe du Maine et mêmeau-delà des 200 milles, la
délimitationdela dernièrepartiede plateau continentalentre 200milleset

lerebord extérieurdu talus restantàfaire par lesdeux Etats dans unephase
ultérieure(compromis, art. VII).Il ne semble guèreconforme au bon sens
de faire disparaître un plateau continental dans le golfe en le confondant
aveclamassed'eau,alors qu'ilrestera àdélimiterun dernier segment,traité
commeespaceparticulier de plateau à partir de 200milles,où l'eaun'aura
plus d'influence.
24. Laposition prisepar laChambre surla ligneunique dans ladernière
partie de l'arrêtoù, vérifiantson résultat,les élémentsutiliséssont l'en-
semble des ressources économiquesen cause et largement mises en avant
par les Parties, afin de montrer que celles-ci devraient êtresatisfaites du
résultat, appelle les mêmesremarques que fit sur une autre affaire sir
Robert Jennings dans son opinion dissidentesur la requêtede l'Italieàfin
d'intervention :

<<[ceci]revientàadmettre que l'emplacement correct d'unedélimita-
tion de plateau continental peut êtredéterminépar un tribunal à
l'issued'une sorte de compromis entre les différentesrevendications.
Or une telle hypothèseest certainement contraire aux principes. Les
délimitations de plateau continental sont déterminées envertu du
droit applicable, compte tenu de toutes les circonstancespertinentes.
Mais l'étenduedes revendications des parties n'est pas une circons-
tancepertinente. Lesdroits sur leplateau continental appartiennentà

tel ou tel Etat, qu'ils soient ou non revendiqués.Les revendications
sont donc dénuéesde pertinence, si ce n'est dans la mesure où elles
peuvent êtrejustifiéesdevant lCour surlabase du droit applicable.
(Plateau continental(Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), requêteà fin
d'intervention,C.I.J. Recueil 1984,p. 155,par. 22.)
La motivation de la Chambre n'étant pasjustifiée sur la base du droit

applicable,la ligne unique demeureune méthode adoptéepar la Chambre
selon un raisonnement fondé, aprèsla Cour en 1982,sur la libertéd'ap-
préciationdujuge. La question n'a pas étérésoluede savoir si, dans cette
affaire,la ligneunique fournit un résultat équitab;lesparagraphes 238 à
241 inclus n'expriment que l'espoir d'une acceptation par les parties des
considérations expriméespar la Chambre sur sa décision. Cecimontre
combien un règlementtransactionnel est éloigné d'un jugement fondésur
la règlede droit qui s'impose aux Parties.
25. Ainsi, dans cette affaire, la question primordiale a bien étéposée
mais reste sans solution. La Chambre n'a pas trouvéles motifsjuridiques
que l'on pourrait invoquer en faveur d'une méthode de délimitation du
plateau continental plutôt qued'uneméthodede délimitationdel'eaupour thesitting of9May 1984,it allowssuchadegreeof freedomin the positions
to be adopted in each specific case,at the discretion of that Government,
that the problem of the application of the contents of that instrument by
the United States will invariably remain a matter for its own exclusive
appreciation. Finally it should be recalled that there is a uniform conti-
nental shelf in the Gulf of Maine and that it extends even beyond the
200-milelimit, the delimitation of its final part between the 200-mileline
and the outer edge of the slope remaining to be undertaken by the two
States at some subsequent stage (SpecialAgreement, Art. VII). It scarcely
makes sense to eliminate the continental shelf within the Gulf by assimi-
lating it to the water column, when the final part of it will remain to be

delimited and willbe treated as a specificarea ofshelf asfrom the 200-mile
line where the water will cease to be a factor.
24. The position taken with regard to the single boundary by the last
part of the Judgment, where, in verifying its conclusions, the Chamber
considers as factors the whole range of economic resources abundantly
invoked by the Parties, with a viewto demonstrating that they ought to be
satisfied with the result, calls for thesame remarks as Judge Sir Robert
Jennings made on another case in his dissenting opinion on Italy's appli-
cation for permission to intervene :

"[this] is to assume that the correct location of a continental shelf
boundary isdetermined by acourt of law byestablishing some sort of
compromise between different claims. Such an assumption is surely
contraryto principle. Continental shelfboundariesare established by
the applicable law, taking account of al1the relevant circumstances.
The actual extent of the claims of the parties is not a relevant cir-
cumstance. Continental shelf rights in fact belong whether they are
claimed or not. Claims are, therefore, irrelevant except in so far as
they can bejustified before the Court by reference to the applicable
law." (ContinentalShelf (LibyanArab Jamahiriyal Malta),Application
for Permission fo Intemene, I.C.J. Reporrs 1984, p. 155,para. 22.)

As the Chamber's reasoningis notjustified by reference to the applicable
law, the single line remains a method adopted by the Chamber in accor-
dance with alineofreasoning that it hasbased, likethe Court in 1982,upon
judicial freedom of appraisal. Whether, in the present case, the single line
provides an equitable result is a question still unresolved, and what para-
graphs 238-241express is merely the hope that the Parties will accept the
considerations put fonvard by the Chamber in regard toits decision. This
shows how far removed is a compromise solution from a judgment based
on the legal prescriptions to which the Parties must bow.
25. Thus whilethe crucialquestion in thepresent casehas been posed. it
has not been answered.The Chamber has not discovered the legalgrounds
that could be relied upon to support a method of continental shelfdelimi-
tation, rather than one of delimiting waters. for the determination of its déterminersaligneunique. L'explicationducritèreindifférentnepeut être
la réponsecar elle annule la question;on soutient alors que lejuge peut
écarter tout critère particulàune zone ou àl'autre, cequi est repousser
chaquezone dans uncomplet isolement, et onnielapossibilité mêmed'une
délimitation commune aux espaces en cause. Dans la logique interne du
présentarrêtil n'étaitpeut-être pasnécessaire d'éviter ainsuine question
centrale à tout le débat,en vérité ledébatlui-même. LaChambre ayant
suivilaCour dans lerevirement dejurisprudence de 1982indiquéau début
de cette opinion n'a diviséen parts égalesque de l'eau, cequi suffit pour
admettre qu'il n'y a pas de motifs juridiques à invoquer pour l'une ou
l'autre desdeux zones dont on a ainsi constatésinon décidéla fusion. La

question du présidentde la Chambre restera cependant posée auxnégo-
ciateurs de traités cherchanà établir uneligne unique,à moins qu'elle ne
les découraged'adopter ceprocédéchaque fois que le plateau continental
aura une réalité.

26. La conclusion de l'examendu problème de la ligne unique, élément
décisifdans un droit nouveau de la délimitation,me paraît êtreque, dans
l'étatactuel du droit international, selon lajurisprudence de la Cour dans
l'arrêtde 1982fondésur le texte conventionnel de 1982,tout peut désor-
mais êtrejugé pertinent pourarriver à un résultat équitablesi les Etats
intéresséssont d'accordpour lesoutenir ou silejuge en estconvaincu. Ceci
mesembleplusprèsdu subjectivismeque del'application du droit auxfaits
pour la délimitation d'espacesmaritimes. C'est donc, au-delà de la ligne
unique, tout leproblèmedu droit désormaisapplicable à une délimitation
des espaces maritimes, plateau continental ou zone. La clédu raisonne-

ment juridique de la Chambre se trouve dans la solution adoptée pour
procéder à l'établissementde la ligne unique en se fondant sur lecaractère
inédit et décisifde ce fait et, comme tout ce raisonnement est à base
d'équitable,il faut examiner de quelle équitéil s'agit.

27. Enredéfinissant ledroitde ladélimitationdesespacesmaritimes sur
la base desarticles 74 et 83de la convention de 1982la Chambre a montré
le mauvais serviceque la troisièmeconférencedesNations Unies a rendu
au droit international ; j'ai résumécette formulation en deux mots :
accord + équité.Comme la notion d'accord n'a rien àvoir avec le travail
judiciaire, il ne reste que l'équi. ais s'il est une notion juridique sur
laquelle chacun a sa véritc'estbien l'équité.e ne crois pas nécessairede
dire plus que l'essentielpour laprésenteaffairedans cedébatquinecessera
sans doutejamais. De quelle équitéparle-t-ondans cequipeut survivredu
droit de la délimitation des espaces maritimes en 1984 ? single line. The explanation involving criteria of more neutral character
cannot be the answer, since it cancels out the question;it means clairning
that thejudge mayeliminate anycriterion peculiar to onezoneor theother,
whichisto relegateeachzone to total isolation, and the verypossibility of a
delimitation common to both is thus denied. This avoidance of a question

central to the whole debate - indeed, the debate itself - was perhaps
unnecessary within the interna1 logic of the present Judgment. Having
followed the Court in the change ofjurisprudence that occurred in 1982,
asindicated at the beginning of this opinion, the Chamber has merely
effected an equal division of water, and this fact in itself is sufficient
admission that there are no legal grounds to be relied upon as regards
either of the two zones whose fusion has thus been noted if not decided.
The question put by the President of the Chamber will nevertheless con-
tinue to face treaty negotiators seeking to establish a single boundary,
unlessit discourages them from adopting this procedure whenever a real
continental shelf is involved.
26. To my mind, the conclusion to be drawn from examination of the
problem of the single boundary qua decisive factor in a new law of
delimitation is that, in the present state of international law according to
the Court's jurisprudence in the 1982Judgment based on the convention

text of that year, anything may henceforth be deemed relevant for the
purpose of reaching an equitable result if the States concerned agree to
hold it so or the judge is convinced of its relevance. 1 find this closer to
subjectivism than to the application of law to the facts with a view to the
delimitation of maritime areas. Over and above the question of the single
boundary, therefore, it is the entire problem of the law applicable from
now on to any maritime delimitation, be it of the continental shelf or the
zone, which has tobe faced. The key to the Chamber's legal reasoning lies
in the approach it adopted in setting out to establish the single boundary,
starting from the unprecedented and decisivenature of thefact of having
been asked for one, and, as al1of that reasoning is based on equitable
considerations, it is necessary to enquire what kind of equity is
involved.

27. In redefining the law of maritime delimitation on the basis of
Articles 74 and 83 of the 1982Convention the Chamber has exposed the
disservice rendered international law by the Third United Nations Con-
ference ; 1have summed up this formulation in two words :agreement +
equity. As the concept of agreement has nothing to do with the work of
judges, only equity remains. But if there is any legalconcept to whicheach
attaches his ownmeaning,it isequity.There is,1feel,no need forme to Say
more than what is essential to the present case in a surely never-ending
debate. What is the equity referred to in any remnant of the law of
maritime delimitation that may survive in 1984 ? 28. L'arrêtde la Chambre suit la ligne de penséede l'arrêtde la Cour et
confirmeun revirement dejurisprudence par rapport àl'arrêtde 1969et à
la sentence de 1977.Dans une opinion dissidente sur l'arrêtde 1982j'ai
exprimémon sentiment sur le fond du problème que constitue cette nou-
vellevisionde l'équitéetilmeparaît vain delerépéter;je désireincorporer
à la présenteopinionletexte intégraldesparagraphes 9, 10, 11,12pour les
onzepremières lignes,13, 14pour lesvingt-quatre premières lignes,16,17,

18 de l'opinion de 1982 ; de nombreuses citations ne sont donc pas
nécessaires,je n'en ferai qu'une qui est importante :
<Si la Cour a le droit de changer de conception de l'équitépar
rapport à l'arrêtde 1969, il ne suffit pas de quelques citations de
cet arrêt pour nier le changement. ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1982, p. 151,
par. 16.)

29. La raison décisivepour laquelleje n'ai pas accepté aujourd'hui la
conception de la Chambre développantcelle de l'arrêtde la Cour de 1982
demeure que l'équité nc eonsistepas enune recherche successived'égalité,
de proportionnalité et de résultat;chacune de ces considérationsest une
manièred'appliquer l'équitéc ,'est un choix dans la façon d'appliquer le
droit et non un cumul d'équités auxquelles rien'interdirait d'ailleurs d'en
ajouter d'autres qu'onentrevoit dans cet étatd'esprit. Aprèsavoirrestreint

le droit de la délimitationaux deux mots : accord + équité,il ne faut pas
faire de cette équitél'équivalent d'un pouvoirdiscrétionnaire du juge.

30. La Chambre a appliquélesecond alinéade la version qu'elledonne
au paragraphe 112d'une norme fondamentale O,l'équitabledes critères,
l'aptitude de méthodes àassurer un résultat équitable. Devant une situa-
tion géographiqueaussi simple que la nature pe.utfaire, c'est-à-dire sans
caractéristiquesgéographiquesparticulièresentraînant desdistorsions, au
sens précisde tous ces mots dans la sentence de 1977(par. 238-245 et
248-252),la Chambre adécidé dene tenir aucun compte des ressources du
plateau continental et des zones de pêche en cause,sauf dans un bref
examen de l'équité de sa ligne, au tout dernier état deson raisonnement
(par. 237-238),et a divisé une masse d'eau aucontenu indifférent pour le
résultat. LaChambre a pour ce faire procédé à une analysejuridique très

développéequisefonde(par. 95-114,155-163,190-230)sur larecherche du
résultat équitable,version 1982,arrêt et convention, et, utilisant des cri-
tèrespar elle déclaréséquitableset des méthodesdiversesjugéesaptes à
cela, la Chambre a procédé à la recherche d'une ligne équitableen elle-
même.
31. Pour suivrelalogiqueinterne duraisonnement de laChambre ilfaut
prendre en considérationlesparagraphes 79 à96 qui décrivent ladoctrine
de l'arrêt,les paragraphes 191 à 206 qui portent sur les méthodes, l'ap-
plication de ces deux élémentsdu raisonnement quant au résultatéqyi-
table se trouvant vérifiéepar les paragraphes 235 à 241 inclus. Le para-
graphe 191définitla règlefondamentale selon la Chambre dans une nou-
velleversion des articles sur ladélimitationdelaconvention de 1982,lepa- 28. The Chamber's Judgment follows the line of thought of the Court's,
thus confirming that there has been a break in the case-law in relation to
the 1969 Judgment and the 1977 Decision. In a dissenting opinion
appended to theJudgment of 1982 1 have already expressed myreaction as
to the nub of theproblem raised by this newviewof equity, and it seemsto
me uselessto repeat it here ; wish to incorporate into thepresent opinion

the full text of paragraphs 9, 10, 11,12(first 11lines), 13, 14(first 25lines),
16,17and 18of the 1982opinion ;it isthus unnecessary to introduce many
quotations here, and 1 shalljust give one, which is important :
"While the Court is entitled to change its conception of equity in
comparison with the 1969Judgment, the use of a fewquotationsfrom
that Judgment does not sufficeto prove that no suchchange has taken
place." (1.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 151,para. 16.)

29. The decisive reason for my not having accepted the conception of
today'sJudgment, in which the Chamber enlarges upon that of the Court
in 1982,continues to reside in the fact that equity does not consist in a
successivesearch for equality, proportionality, result ; each of these con-
siderations isawayof applyingequity,it isa choice made inthe manner of
applying the law, and not an accumulation of equities which there is
nothing to forbid supplementing with such others as one may glimpse in

that frame of mind. One must not narrow down the lawof delimitation to
two words, agreement plus equity, only to equate that equity withjudicial
discretion.
30. The Chamber hasapplied the second subparagraph of the versionof
a "fundamental norm" which it gives in paragraph 112 : the equitable
character of the criteria, the capability of the methods to ensure an equi-
table result. Faced with a geographical situation as simple as nature can
produce, Le.,one devoid of any particular geographical featuresleading to
distortions, within the precise meaning of al1 those words in the 1977
Decision (paras. 238-245and 248-252),the Chamber has decided to take
no account of the resources of the continental shelf and fishery zones
concerned, savein a brief examination of the equity of its line at the very
end ofitsreasoning(paras. 237-238),and has divided avolumeofwater the
content of whichisindifferent fromthe viewpoint of the result. To that end
it has performed a highly developed legal analysis based (paras. 95-114,
155-163and 190-230)on the quest for an equitable result, in the 1982

versionenshrinedby the Judgment and Convention of that year, and, with
the aid of critena whichit declares equitable and various methods deemed
apt for the purpose, has gone in search of a line equitable in itself.
31. To follow the interna1 logic of the Chamber's reasoning, one must
take into consideration paragraphs 79-96,which expound the doctrine on
which it bases the Judgment, and paragraphs 191-206 concerning the
methods, with paragraphs 235-241 offering a verification of the applica-
tion of those two elements of the reasoning from the viewpoint of the
equitable result. Paragraph 191defines the fundamental rule according to
the Chamber in a new version of the articles on delimitation in the 1982379 GOLFE DU MAINE (OP.DISS.GROS)

ragraphe 241assureque le résultatd'ensembleest bien équitable.Lachaîne
est complète et la construction nouvelle mérited'être rappelée dans ses
éléments essentielspuisque, avec l'arrêtprécédentde 1982, la jurispru-
dence de la Cour apparaît fixéepour le moment. L'appréciationde l'arrêt
du Maine nepeut doncpasêtrefaitepar rapport auxacquis de 1969et 1977

qui sont formellement répudiés et ce serait un travail vain d'opposer aux
décisionsde la Cour en 1982et de la Chambre en 1984une argumentation
dont elles se sont volontairement détachées. L'étude faiteaux para-
graphes 79 à 96 se termine par la constatation que, article 6 de la conven-
tion de 1958et droit coutumier réunis, ledroit de la délimitationserésume
en ceci : toute délimitation doit se faire consensuellement par les Etats,
principe qu'on peut àla rigueur, dit la Chambre, compléter <<en allant un
peu loin dans l'interprétation de la convention de 1958,par une règle
sous-jacente que tout accord ou toute autre solutionéquivalentesetraduise
par l'application de principes équitables(arrêt,par.89). Ces principes ne
sont pas, dit-on, des principes de droit, comme le sont le principe de
l'accordet larèglesous-jacente ci-dessuscitée(par. 90).L'arrêttermine ces
passages sur ledroitde ladélimitationpar lerappel de prononcésde l'arrêt

de 1982et par une description des textes pertinents de la convention de
1982.Il ne me paraît pas que cette nouvelle doctrine apporte plus que le
paragraphe 71 de l'arrêtde 1982dans ses huit dernièreslignes auxquelles
répondaitle paragraphe 19d'une opinion dissidente (p. 153).C'estce qui
apparaît lorsque l'arrêtapplique la doctrine à l'espèce,dans l'emploi des
critères, des méthodeset des corrections, tous et toutes fondés sur une
notion d'équité,réalisée par des réactions successivesdujuge et toujours
subjectives.

32. Les méthodes combinéesavec des corrections successives sont
appliquées en invoquant certes des justifications pour chaque coup de
pouce àune ligne théoriquetrouvéepar la premièreméthodeemployée, la
division par parts égales, présumée inéquitable cependant puisque sans
cesse corrigée. La fin étant établie d'abord, les moyens suivent. Ceci

apparaît dèsla description desfaits, au débutd~l'arrêt,exerciceclassique
de toute décisionde délimitation, généralement restreint à la description
géographiquede la situation ; ce n'est pas le cas ici où la Chambre inter-
prète déjàles faits géographiquespour préparer ce qu'elle en fera dans
l'utilisation desméthodeset corrections d'une lignequi n'estplusjustifiée
par sesméritespropres résultantde l'emploide facteursd'équitédéfinis et
balancésdans un examen d'ensemble des circonstances pertinentes, mais
au gré d'évaluationssuccessivesdujuge libéré à la fois du droit et desfaits
géographiquesde l'espèce.L'idéeque le golfe est un rectangle n'a pas
d'autre utilitéque de préparerla découverte qu'unangle dans le nord du
golfepermettra de tracerune bissectrice ;lechoixde lignesimaginairesqui
créent descôtésdu rectangle mythique finissant dans une zone qui ne
relève pas de la compétence de la Chambre est présentécomme une
représentationfrappante de la nature. Legolfen'estpas un rectangle dans GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP. GROS) 379

Convention, whileparagraph 241givesan assurance that the overallresulr
is indeed equitable. The chain is thus complete, and it is worth drawing
attention to the new construction in its essential elementsbecause, if it is
taken together with the previous Judgment, that of 1982,thejurisprudence

of the Court appears fixed for the time being. Thus there can be no
appraisal of the Gu[fof Maine Judgment in relation to the attainments of
1969and 1977,which have been categorically repudiated, and it would be
no use seeking to counter the decisions of the Court in 1982, and the
Chamber in 1984,by arguments with which they have deliberately parted
Company.The study carried out in paragraphs 79-96 concludes with the
finding that, if Article 6 of the 1958 Convention is taken together with
customary law,the lawon delimitation can besummarized asfollows :any
delimitation must beeffectedbyconsent between States,aprinciple which,
"going alittle far in interpreting" the 1958Convention, can conceivably be
supplemented, according to the Chamber, by an implicit rule that any
agreement or other, equivalent solution must involve the application of
equitable principles (Judgment, para. 89).These principles are not, we are
told, principles of lawliketheprinciple of agreement and theaforesaid im-
plicit rule (para. 90).The Judgment concludes these passages on the lawof
delimitation by recalling certain dicta from the 1982 Judgment and
describing the relevant provisions of the 1982Convention. To my mind
this new doctrine is noadvance upon paragraph 71 of the 1982Judgment
(last eightines),whichhas been answered by paragraph 19of adissenting

opinion (I.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 153).That much is apparent, when the
Judgment applies its doctrine to the case in hand, in the use of criteria,
methods and corrections each and everyone of whch isbased on anotion
of equity reached by the successiveand always subjective reactions of the
iudge.
c. Admittedly, the application of the combined methods, with succes-
sivecorrections, isaccompanied byreferences to thejustificationsfor each
adjustment made to a theoretical line arrived at via the method, that of
equal division, which is the first to be employed yet is presumed to be
inequitable, since it is constantly corrected. The end having first been
established,the means follow.This isapparent evenat thebeginning of the
Judgment in thedescription of the facts,whichinany delimitation decision
is a textbook exercisegenerally restricted to the geographical description
of the situation;not soin thepresent instance, where the Chamber already
interprets the geographical facts so as to prepare the treatment it will be
giving them in its use of methods and in its corrections of a line which is
justified not by its own merits resulting from theemployment of factors of
equitydefined and balanced within an overall examination of the relevant
circumstances, but at the whim of the successive evaluations of ajudge

unfettered either by law or by the geographical facts of the case. The idea
that the Gulf is a rectangle has no other utility than to prepare the dis-
covery that an angle in the north of the Gulf will enable a bisector to be
drawn ; the choice of someimaginary lines to composecertain sidesof the
mythical rectangleending in an area outside the Chamber's competence is une description stricte des faits de cette affaire puisqu'il n'a, comme tout
golfe,que trois côtés,mais cela vapermettre précisémentde lui trouver un

quatrième côté à l'entréedu golfe qui sera une ligne indispensable pour
justifier la directiondu dernier segment de la ligneen permettant de tracer
uneperpendiculairedepuiscette ligneirréellede fermeture du golfejusqu'à
la côte des Etats-Unis, ceci aussi étrangeà la situation géographiqueque
la description d'un golfe rectangulaire, le tout étant réminiscent de la
technique du lissageproposéepar leGouvernement françaisen 1977que la
sentence a rejetésans ambiguïté(sentencede 1977,par. 230et 246).Et c'est
ainsi qu'un golfede forme plutôt ovale permettra de faire une sériede
déductions fondéessur un rectangle admis comme imaginaire par la
Chambre elle-mêmeU . n procédé analogueavaitservipour l'arrêtde 1982
(C.I.J. Recueil1982,opinion dissidente, p. 154-155,par. 18,19et 21) ;voir
la mise en garde par sir Gerald Fitzmaurice contre le tracéde lignes à

volontépour délimiter desespaces maritimes (Compétenceen matièrede
pêcheries,C.I.J. Recueil 1973, opinion individuelle, p. 29, note 11).Cette
suite de déductions provoquéespar des lignes composéespour une fin
précise est un élémendtu raisonnement de la Chambre dans sa recherche
d'un résultat équitable.

33. Une remarque de portée générale est utilesur le sujet des faits
géographiqueset de leur utilisation. Lorsqu'on dit parfois que la géogra-
phie est neutre la formule implique que les choses sont ce qu'ellessont et
elle confirme l'adage qu'a il n'est jamais question de refaire la nature
entièrement >(arrêtde1969,par. 91). La géographie estplutôt impartiale
que neutre en ce sens qu'elle est décisivepour une délimitation et, en

elle-même, nedonne aucune préférence à un Etat plutôt qu'à l'autre.Le
juge ne peut donc pas modifier la situation géographique par des repré-
sentations, que ce soit une ligne, un rectangle ou un angle, qui sont sa
propre vision des faits et qui modifient les faits. Lorsque ces procédés
techniques sont utilisés ils peuvent servirà préparer l'application d'une
méthodemais ils ne sont pas une interprétation de la situation géogra-
phique telle que la nature l'a faite. Dans un plateau continental continu
entre deux Etats,comme c'est lecas ici,ladélimitationpeutêtrefaite, dans
la zone contestée,par parts égales,comme l'adit la Cour en 1969dans un
paragraphe 99que le présentarrêt invoque ;mais si l'onajoute au plateau
continental la masse d'eau, après avoir déclaréque ni l'un ni l'autre des

deux élémentsne peuvent servir à la délimitationfaute de critèresindif-
férentsde leur part, toute interprétation nouvelle des faits géographiques
qui touche à une égalitéacceptée commeréglant ladélimitation àopérer
devient injustifiable. C'estce qu'on voit dans les approches successiveset
diverses du problème dans le présentarrêt,qu'il s'agissedu golfe rectan-
gulaire, des côtes représentéespar d'autres lignes que celles des limites
nationales des eaux territoriales, de la ligne artificielle de fermeture du
golfeet de sadirection, de ladistorsion attribuéà l'îlede Sablemais pas à
cellede Nantucket, du refus de prise enconsidération descôtes desParties
pour le segment de ligne après la sortie du golfe, interprétations de lapresented asastriking likenessof nature. The Gulf isnot arectangle in any
exact description of the facts in this case, since, like any gulf, it has only

three sides,but it ismade out to be one simplybecause that enables it to be
givenafourth sideat itsentrance whichwillprove an indispensablelinefor
justifying the direction of the final segment of the boundary, in that a
perpendicular can be drawn between this unreal closing line of the Gulf
and the Coastof the United States, this being as foreign to the geographical
situation as the description of a rectangular gulf, and the whole being
reminiscent of the smoothing-out techniqueproposed by the French Gov-
ernment in 1977and unequivocally rejected by the Decision (paras. 230
and 246).By such means is a gulf of somewhat oval shape pressed into the
service of a series of deductions based on a rectangle whose imaginary
character isconceded by theChamber itself.TheJudgment of 1982availed
itself of a similar procedure (cf. dissenting opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982,
pp. 154and 155,paras. 18, 19and 21 ; cf. Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice's
warning against the arbitrary drawing of lines in maritime delimitation,
FisheriesJurisdiction, I.C.J. Reports1973,p. 29, separate opinion, n. 11).

This succession of deductions stimulated by lines made up with a definite
end in view is a factor in the reasoning p-.sued by the Chamber in its
search for an equitable result.
33. One general observation is called for on the subject of geographical
facts and the uses to which they areput. When it is said, asit sometimes is,
that geography isneutral, thisimplies that thingsare what they are, and the
formula confirms the dictum that "There can never be any question of
completely refashioning nature" (1969Judgment, para. 91).Geography is
impartial rather than neutral, in the sense that it is decisive in a delimi-
tation and, in itself,givesno preference to oneStaterather than another. A
judge may not, therefore, iodify the geographical situation by any rep-
resentation, be it a line, rectangle or angle, which is his own vision of the
facts and alters those facts. When such technical procedures are utilized,
they may serve to prepare the application of a method but they are not an
interpretation of the geographical situation as nature fashioned it. In the
caseof acontinuous continental shelfbetween two States,as in thepresent

instance, the delirnitation may be effected in the disputed area by equal
division, as the Court said in 1969in a passage of its Judgment (para. 99)
cited by the present decision ; but if one adds to the continental shelf the
waters above it after having declared that, sinceneither element yieldsany
criterion equally applicable to the other, neither provides the key to the
delimitation,any newinterpretation of thegeographical factswhichupsets
the equality accepted as governing the delirnitation becomes unjustifiable.
But this is precisely what is visible in the successive approaches to the
problem in the present Judgment, whether it be the rectangular Gulf, the
coasts represented by other lines than those of the national limits of the
territorial waters, the artificial closingline of the Gulf andits direction,the
distortion attributed to SableIsland but not Nantucket, the refusa1to take
the Parties' coasts into consideration for the segment of the boundary
outside the Gulf, or interpretations of the geography of the Gulf which 381 GOLFE DU MAINE (OP.DISS.GROS)

géographiedu golfe qui faussent la recherche de la division des zones

maritimes en cause par parts égales,que la Chambre tient pour le critère
équitablede base pour son examen.
34. Puisque le critèrede base pour la Chambre est la division par parts
égalesrecommandée dès1969,il faut observer qu'ilne s'agissait pas,dans
l'arrêtde 1969,de l'ensemble du plateau continental mais de chevauche-
mentsencertains secteurs entre leszones desParties(par. 99) ;la sentence
de 1977est aussi précise lorsqu'ellerestreint le résultatde la division aux
espaces marginaux où les plateaux continentaux des Parties convergent
(par. 78).Cet aspect deschosesest laisséde côtédans l'arrêtde laChambre
alors qu'ila des conséquencessur l'usagede la proportionnalité appliquée
à toutes les côtes des Parties par rapportà la totalité deszones de plateau
continental et de pêchee,nmêmetemps que surlamanièrede fixerlalimite

elle-même.Lorsqu'on mesure une terre contestée ce n'est que la partie
contestée quifait l'objet de l'opération, eton laisse en dehors tout ce qui
est reconnu comme étantincontestablement la propriétéde chacune des
parties ;personne ne songe à invoquer contre l'un qu'ilait déjà plusde
terre que l'autre. Dans le débatla méthodede l'arpentage de l'eau a été
invoquéesur des espaces dont la plus grande portéen'est pas contestée
au lieudes seuleszones de chevauchement (<en certains secteurs)(arrêtde
1969,par. 99), et la Chambre a suivi la mêmevoie.
35. Les chevauchements ne sont pas particuliers au plateau continental
et àla zone de 200milles ; dèsque deux Etats ont des côtes adjacentes, la
difficulté naît de leurs avancéesdans les eaux territoriales ou la zone

contiguë où elles peuvent se confronter en empiétementsréciproques. Le
présentdifférendporte surun chevauchement précistelqu'ilapparaît dans
les faits et la condition préalablà l'emploi de la méthodede division en
parts égalesenvisagéd eans l'arrêtestque cettezone de chevauchement soit
définiepar lejuge, non selon les prétentions des Partiesmais sur des bases
objectives.Tel n'apas été lecas. Lefait est que, dans cequ'on peut appeler
la zone du différendréel, c'est-àdire la zone des seuls chevauchements
entre les effets des côtes pertinentes des deux Etats, la situation géogra-
phique présente une égalitéentre les Etats qui ne demande aucune cor-
rection fondéesurdesraisonnementsd'équité ;c'estune situation d'égalité
dans un mêmeplan, au sens de l'arrêtde la Cour de 1969,si l'onécarteles
savants calculs (nice calculations, expression utiliséepar la sentence de

1977,notamment par. 27 et 250) fondés sur toutes les côtes et tous les
espaces maritimes des Parties dans le golfe et en dehors du golfe et si l'on
regarde cette zonedeschevauchements réelsquine dépassepas un premier
segmentdeligne à partir du point A,dans lapartie oùlesdeux Etats ont des
côtes adjacentes. Lorsque les faits géographiquesindiquent et permettent
une division qui assure une égalité,toute élaboration d'une équité amé-
liorant une égalité esthors de question et la ligne tracée doit assurer
seulement cette égalité.Ilest exact qu'énoncer leprincipe de ladivision des
chevauchements ne fait que poser le vrai problème, sansle résoudre.Mais
en restreignant la zone contestée àcequ'elle estvéritablement, la solution
devient visible. GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP.GROS) 381

distort that search for theequal division of disputed maritime areas which
theChamber holds to be thebasicequitablecriterionforthe purposes of its
task.
34. Since the Chamber's basic criterion is the equal division recom-
mended as long ago as 1969,it must be pointed out that the Judgment of
that year did not refer in this connection to the whole of the continental
shelf but only to the areas of overlap between the Parties' zones incertain
sectors (para. 99);the Decision of 1977was no lessprecise in limiting the
result of the division to those marginal areas where the Parties'continental
shelvesconverged (para. 78). This aspect of the matter is ignored by the
Chamber's Judgment, though it has repercussions on the use of propor-
tionality applied to al1the coasts of the Parties in relation to the whole of
the continental shelf areas and fishery zones, as well as on the actual
manner of determining the boundary. In a territorial dispute, it isonly the
land actually disputed that is measured up, and everything recognized as

incontestably belonging to one party is left out of the operation ;nobody
thinks to object against one party that it already has more land than the
other. During the oral proceedings, the methodology of hydrographic
surveyswas invoked in relation to areas the greater part of which werenot
in dispute, instead of merely areas of overlapping "in certain localities"
(1969 Judgment, para. 99), and the Chamber has followed suit.
35. Overlapping is not aphenomenon exclusiveto the continental shelf
and the 200-milezone ;once two States have adjacent coasts, the salients
thereon may begin to produce difficulty in the territorial waters and
contiguous zone,givingriseto mutual encroachments. The present dispute
concerns a specific overlap as apparent in the facts, and the precondition
for employing the method of equal division envisaged in the Judgment is
that thisarea of overlappingbe defined by the Chamber, not in accordance
with the Parties' claimsbut on objectivebases.This has not been done. The
fact isthat, in what may be called thearea of the real dispute, i.e.,solelythe

area whereoverlappings occur between the effectsof the relevant coasts of
the two States, the geographical situation presents an equality between
those States which does not cal1for any correction based on arguments
from equity ; it is a situation of equality in the same plane, within the
meaning of the Court's 1969Judgment, if nice calculations (an expression
used by the 1977Decision, in particular at paras. 27 and 250)based on al1
the coasts and sea areas of the Parties within and without the Gulf be
eschewedand attention focused on thiszoneofactual overlaps, whichdoes
not extend beyond an initial segment of line as from point A, in the part
where the two States have adjacent coasts. When the facts of geography
indicate and permit of a division producing equality, there can be no
question of elaborating an equity to improve upon equality, and the line
drawn has simply to ensure that equality. Adrnittedly, to enunciate the
principle of dividing overlaps is simply to pose the true problem, not to
solveit. Butitisthroughnarrowingthedisputed areadowntowhatit really
is that the solution becomes visible. 36. L'application dans la présente affairede la division en parts égales
suffit pour écarterl'argument fondésur l'idéede totale proportionnalité

tenuepour indispensablecondition d'unedélimitationmaritimeéquitable.
Cette rétention d'améliorer l'éga"ité fait intervenir en l'es~ècedes cir-
constances géographiques extérieuresou éloignéesde l'objet précisdu
différend.La rése ente affaire est un cas où un chevauchement limité.dû à
descôtesadjaLentesau point dedépartdelalignedemandée àlachambre,
pouvait êtrerésolu simplementpar la division de ce chevauchement par
parts égales,selontoute méthodeidoine, à commencer par l'équidistance.
A un différend limitédans l'espace etl'importance, magnifiépar lesParties
pour leurs raisons, la Chambre pouvait apporter la solution qui s'impo-
sait dèsqu'elle avait adopté le principe des parts égales. LaChambre a
construit, sans nécessité, dessuppléments d'équitéqui traversent tout
l'arrêtdans une sériede considérations doctrinales, de critères, de mé-
thodes et de corrections ;cet ensemble me paraît contraire au droit inter-
national applicable. Une foisladécisionde diviseren parts égalesprisepar

la Chambre, c'était une décision finale; àmoins de découvrir desdévia-
tions, l'inéquitable non encore aperçu, il n'y a plus rien à décider(voir
opinion dissidente, C.I.J. Recueil 1982, par. 13) et, de tels effets de cir-
constances géographiques particulières, rienn'apparaît.

37. Lorsque les Etats ont revendiquéet obtenu desjuridictions exclu-
sives sur une masse d'eaujusqu'à 200 milles ils ont pu assumer que cette
zone d'eau avait effacéles plateaux continentaux lorsqu'ils existent phy-
siquement, ou tout au moins que l'eauprime le lit et le sous-solde la mer;
ils ont choisi la notion vague de l'équitdu résultatavec la formule de la
convention de 1982,nouvelle équitéquiaboutit aux solutionstransaction-
nelles pour les négociateurset à l'exaequo et bonopour lejuge. Tant que
l'équitéaété conçuecommel'application d'unerèglededroit prescrivant le
recours à des principes équitables, une distinction avec l'arbitraire et l'ex
aequo et bono,apparaissait. Comme chaque affaire contentieuse a ses

caractèrespropres, l'Œuvredujuge sefaisait dans lecadre d'application de
la règlede droit aux faits ;mêmesi l'article 6 de la convention de 1958
laissait placeà une appréciation de l'effet de circonstances spéciales,
celle-ciétait contrôlable. En introduisant le désordredans la concepti~n
des principes équitables et la libertéde choix, au grédujuge, des circons-
tances etcritèrespertinents, la Cour dans l'arrêtde février1982et lesEtats
participants àla troisièmeconférencedesNations Unies par laconvention
de décembre 1982ont donné à l'équitédans la délimitation des espaces
maritimes ce contenu indécisde critères, de méthodeset de corrections
indéterminés quine sont plus fonction que d'un résultat. Une décision
libre de toute vérificationde son bien-fondé sur la base du droit peut être
opportune, elle n'estjamais un actejuridictionnel. Une équitédiscrétion-
nairement découverte n'est pas une forme d'application du droit.
38. L'arrêtdelaChambrea, ilestvrai,critiquéla tentativedes Parties de
cataloguer desprincipes équitablesprésentés commeétantdesprincipes de

droit international positif, d'application généraleet constante. Mais les 36. The application of equal division in the case is sufficient to rule out
the argument based on the idea of total proportionality held to be an

indispensable condition for an equitable maritime delimitation. In the
present instance, this pretension to improve upon equality involves the
importation of geographical circumstances that are extraneous to or
remote from the precise object of the dispute. The present case is one in
which a limited overlap, due to coasts adjacent to the point of departure of
the line requested of the Chamber, couldbe resolved simply by dividing it
equally with the aid of any appropriate method, and equidistance in the
first place.A dispute limited in spaceand size,magnified by the Partiesfor
their ownreasons, could havebeen giventhe right solution by the Chamber
once it had adopted the principle of equal division. Instead, the Chamber
has needlessly elaborated supplementary arguments from equity which
traverse the whole Judgment in a series of doctrinal considerations, cri-
teria, methods and corrections ; this edificeis,to my mind, contrary to the
applicable international law. Once the Chamber decided to apply equal
division, that decision was final ;unless deviations come to light, in the

shape ofpreviously unnoticed inequities, there isnothing elseleft to decide
(cf. dissenting opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982, para. 13), and there is no
visible evidence of particular geographic circumstances producing any
such effects.
37. When States claimed and obtained exclusivejurisdiction over an
expanseof water up to the 200-milelimit, theywereable to assumethat this
aquatic zone had effaced the continental shelves where they exist physi-
cally,orat least that the water takes priority over the sea-bed and subsoil ;
they chose the vague notion of the equity of the result with the wording of
the 1982Convention, a new equity conducive to compromisesolutionsfor
negotiators and ex aequoet bon0decisionsforjudges. Solong asequity was
conceived as the application of a rule of law prescribing recourse to
equitable principles, it wasdistinguishable from arbitrariness and ex aequo
et bono.As each contentious case has its own characteristics, thejudge's
work was performed within the bounds of the application of legal rules
to the facts ; even if Article 6 of the 1958 Convention left room for an

assessment of the effect of special circumstances, that assessment re-
mained under control. By introducing disorder into the conception of
equitable principles, and freedomfor thejudge to pick and choose relevant
circumstances and criteria, the Court, in the Judgment of February 1982,
and the States participating in the Third United Nations Conference, by
the Convention of December 1982,have given equity in maritime delimi-
tation this doubtful content of indeterminate criteria, methods and cor-
rections which are now wholly result-oriented. A decision not subject to
any verification of its soundness on a basis of law may be expedient, but it
isneverajudicial act. Equity discoveredbyan exerciseofdiscretion isnot a
form of application of law.
38. Admittedly, the Judgment of the Chamber has criticized the Parties'
attempt to catalogue equitable principles and present them as settled,
generally applicable principles of positive international law. But the argu- 383 GOLFE DU MAINE (OP. DISS. GROS)

développementsde l'arrêtsur lesprincipes, lescritèreset lesméthodes aux
paragraphes 192et suivants ne font que reprendre la thèse exposéepar les
Parties du libre choix dans la qualification de l'équitable,en ne changeant
que la terminologie ;lejuge Holmes a dit cequ'ilfaut penser du voile que
lesmots nepeuvent fournir(par. 2ci-dessus).L'histoiredelajurisprudence
entre décembre1969et février1982montre que la Cour a changéd'opi-
nion. Pour le moment prenons acte que, pour la Cour et pour cette
Chambre, l'équitéselon les décisionsde 1969et 1977est rejetéeet qu'on
appelle aujourd'hui ainsi, comme dans l'arrêtde 1982,non plus une déci-
sion fondée sur le droit mais une appréciation de l'opportunité d'un
résultat.ce aui est la définitionmêmede l'arbitraire si aucun élémentde
contrôle n'est concevable. Lamanière dont on a soutenu et acceptéque

tout pouvait êtreprésentécomme un facteur pertinent à poser dans la
balance des équitésest un abus du mot pertinent et rend impossible la
mission du juge, sinon celle du conciliateur qu'on ne luia pas demandé
d'être.La contradiction entre ledroit exposédans l'arrêtde 1969confirmé
par la sentence de 1977et le videjuridique résultant de la convention de
1982sur la délimitation d'une zone de 200 milles comprenant le plateau
continental est flagrante, mais c'estlepropre des revirements dejurispru-
dence et il faut examinerl'arrêtde la Chambre sur lesmériteset la logique
de ses propres motivations. Et c'est ce cumul de toutes les notions de
l'équitédans l'arrêtde la Chambrequi est lepoint central de la motivation
justifiant le résultat obtenu.

39. La Chambre a pris parti sur la manière de faire intervenir l'équité
dans sonjugement sur la délimitation deszones maritimes en cause, mais
sansdéfinirune conception de l'équitéP . ar la libertédechoix des critères,
encoreun mot qui peut signifier des choses bien différentes,desméthodes
etdescorrections,justifiéespar lesnotions d'égalitéd,e proportionnalité et
de résultat équitable, à chaque moment du raisonnement, la Chambre
accumule des motifs pour établir puispour justifier un résultat équitable,
maisilmanque àtous lesmots utiliséslecontenu que lescirconstances et le
droit donnent aujuge pour base nécessairede sonjugement. Il n'est pas
plus probant de direqu'un résultatest équitableque de dire qu'ilestjuste,
silejuge ne se réfère pasa un ordre de l'équitéou de lajustice. La Cour en
1969ajugéde l'application de <<la règlede l'équité dans lecasparticulier
dela délimitationdu plateau continental (arrêtde 1969,par. 88) ; l'équité

ne peut pas êtreconsidéréecomme une manière d'obtenir à la fois une
égalitéu, ne proportionnalité et une finalité. Lorsque lejuge veut assurer
une égalitéouune équivalence,l'égalité n'étant réalisaqbule e surun même
plan, ilpeut s'inspirerde laformulesouvent citéede l'arrêtdu 15décembre
1949dans l'affaire du Détroitde Corfou :<(ce que la Cour a, en d'autres
circonstances, appelélajuste mesurede laréparation,lechiffreraisonnable,
decelle-ci )(citédans l'arrêtde 1969au mêmeparagraphe 88 ;lesitaliques
sont de moi) ;il lui faut mesurer en effet les élémentsde fait et les
conséquencesjuridiques qu'il peut en tirer pour que sa décision puisse
assurerune équivalenceentre desprétentions ramenéesa leurjuste valeur. Une telle recherche implique des élémentsde réference,parfois appelés
paramètres,faute desquels lejuge sortirait de son rôle. En acceptant que le
plateau continental ne soit plus une zone réelledu lit et du sous-sol de la
mermaisune distance de 200millesprivéede sonparticularismenaturel, la
Chambre ne divise plus que de l'eau. La destruction de la notion du
prolongement naturel a pour conséquence qu'il n'ya plus rien àmesurer et

le lien entre la terre et le sous-sol et même la masse d'eaua perdu toute
signification. L'équitpar l'équivalenceentre deux zones d'eaupeut, dans
le videjuridique nouveau, se faire par division en parts égales maison ne
peut aller plus loin dans une recherche d'une équitéindéfinissable.L'arrêt
de 1969 limitait l'égalitéau seul partage de chevauchements, restreints
dans l'espace, riende plus;leprésent arrêa tjoute cependant, du débutdu
raisonnement jusqu'à son aboutissement, l'usage constant d'une notion
d'équitéde proportionnalité et d'une notion d'équitédu résultat.La pro-
portionnalité et le résultat équitablesont érigésen principe générald , onc
en règlespour toute délimitationet on ne voit pas pourquoi cela ne serait
pas étenduau domaine de la responsabilitéinternationale où la notion de
juste mesure de la réparationest de tous lestemps. C'estune décisionqui a
delourdes conséquences,d'autant plus regrettables qu'elleest,en l'espèce,
injustifiée.

40. La Cour permanente de Justice internationale et la Cour interna-
tionale deJustice n'ontjamais décidédirectementune affairesurlabasede
l'équitéjusqu'à l'arrêtde 1969et il semble que ce soit dû à la prudence de
juges fort au courant des difficultésdu sujet. Ce n'est que par de brèves
allusions que les deux Cours montrent qu'elles n'ignorent pas l'existence
du problème et leur sagesse apparaît encore mieux lorsque l'on voit
aujourd'hui où l'on a abouti. La Cour en 1969marque cette mêmepru-
dence mais, tenue de donner des indications assez précisespour qu'une
négociationmanquéeréussisseaprèsson arrêt,ellea dû,pour accomplir la
mission demandéepar lecompromis, développerune notion de l'équité en
douze paragraphes, ce qui est inhabituel, la Cour décidantle droit sansen
faire la théori; mais c'estbien cequi lui étaitdemandé.L'annéesuivante,
dans l'affaire de la Barcelona Traction,Light andPowerCompany,Limited

(C.I.J. Recueil 1970, par. 92-102), la Cour reste dans la prudence tradi-
tionnelle et, aprèsquelques considérationsrelatives à l'espèce,écartel'ap-
plication de l'équitétout en disant que (<le droit international exige une
application raisonnable D,ce qui ne va pas loin et revient plutôt à l'assi-
milation de l'équitableau raisonnable, mot employédans l'arrêtde 1969.
L'arrêtde 1974sur la Compétence enmatièredepêcheriea svaità examiner
le problème de la répartition de ressources entre Etats intéressés,et a
mentionnéle problèmede l'équité lorsque la Cour répète après l'arrê dte
1969 :

Ilne s'agit pas simplement d'arriveràune solutionéquitable,maisvalence between claims reduced to their true value. Such research implies
recourse to points of reference, sometimes called parameters, without
which thejudge would exceed his role. By accepting that the continental

shelf is no longer a real area of the sea-bed and subsoil, but that to a
distance of 200miles it is deprived of its natural specificity, the Chamber
has been solely dividing water. The destruction of the concept of natural
prolongation means that there is no longer anything left to measure, and
the link between the land and the subsoil and even the water column has
lostal1significance.Equity byequivalencebetween twomaritime elements
can,in the newlegalvacuum, beeffected byequal division,but that isasfar
as the search for an elusive equity can be taken. The 1969 Judgment
confined equality exclusivelyto the divisionof overlapsof hted extent -
nothing more than that ;whereas, from the outset of its reasoning right up
to its conclusion, the present Judgment addsto ths the continua1 deploy-
ment of a concept of equity in proportionality and a concept of equity in
the result. Proportionality and the equitable result are set up as general
principles, and therefore as rules for any delimitation, and one cannot see
why that should not be extended to the domain of international respon-

sibility, where the notion of a true measure of compensation has always
existed.It isa decisionwhichhas seriousconsequences and itisal1themore
regrettable in that, in this case, it is unjustified.
40. The Permanent Court of International Justice and the International
Court of Justice never directly decided a case on the basis of equity up to
the Judgment of 1969,and it would seem that this was due to prudence on
thepart ofjudges whowerewell awareof the difficultiesin thisconnection.
Itwasonlybybrief allusionsthat thetwo Courts showedtheir awarenessof
the existence of the problern, and their wisdom becomes al1 the more
apparent today when one contemplates the pass to which we have come.
The Court in 1969evinced the same caution but, called upon as it was to
givefairly preciseindicationsso that anegotiation whichhad failed should,
followingitsjudgment, succeed, it had, to accomplish the task defined by
the SpecialAgreement, to develop aconcept of equity, which it setforth in
12paragraphs ;thiswasunusual, as theCourt normallydeterminesthe law

without elaborating the theory, but this waswhat had been asked ofit.The
following year, in the Barcelona Traction,Light and Power Company,
Limited case (Z.C.J.Reports1970,paras. 92-102),the Court again took the
traditional prudent approach and, following several considerations rela-
ting to the case,ruled out the application of equity, though saying that, "as
inal1other fieldsofinternational law,it isnecessarythat the lawbe applied
reasonably" (para. 93), which does not go very far, and more or less
amounts to the assimilation of the equitable to the reasonable, the word
used in the 1969Judgment. The 1974Judgment on Fisheries Jurisdiction
had to examinetheproblem of the distribution of resources between States
concerned and mentioned theproblem of equity when the Court repeated
after the 1969Judgment :

"It is not a matter of finding simply an equitable solution, but an 385 GOLFE DU MAINE (OP.DISS. GROS)

d'arriverà une solution équitablequi repose sur le droit applicable))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 33, par. 78, et p. 202, par. 69.)
La Cour a envisagéalors une répartition équitable desressources halieu-
tiques (par. 78)selondesproportions maiselleafinalement refusédepeser

les intérêts desEtats intéressés,faute de données suffisantes et de para-
mètresutilisables (p. 32 et 201). Le refus de la Cour en 1974de s'engager
dans une répartition dequotas de pêchemontrait déjàque cerôle n'estpas
facileà assumer par lejuge. La Cour écartaitaussilanotion dedépendance
exceptionnelle d'unEtat surdes ressources économiquescommeellelefera
dans l'arrêtde 1982.Rappelons que le tribunal arbitral avait estimé lerôle
de la proportionnalité en termes sans ambages en 1977 :

<C'est plutôt un facteur àprendre en considérationpour juger de
l'effet des caractéristiques géographiques sur l'équitéou l'inéquité
d'une délimitation effectuée par la méthode de l'équidistance. ))

(Par. 99 et 100-101.)

La Chambre au contraire a tenu pour indispensable de corriger sa ligne
médiane à lahauteur de la sortie du golfe,établàepartir de points de base
surdescôtes opposées,enutilisant un calcul de proportionnalitéfondésur
toutes les côtes du golfe puis recalculépour l'atténuer,sans référence à
aucunecaractéristiquegéographiqueparticulièredont l'influencepourrait
créerune distorsion qu'on tiendrait pour inéquitable, l'opérationétant
faite au grédujuge et dans une vue d'équitéqu'il estprésentementseul à
connaître et qui est recouverte du mot (<correction)).
41. Ledanger quelesdeux Cours avaient au cours de leurhistoire réussi
à éviter estaujourd'hui devant nous. Leur prudence étaitnécessaireparce

que l'on voyait bien qu'une utilisation démesurée ou désordonnée de
l'équitéaboutissait au gouvernementdesjuges, cequ'aucun Etat n'accepte
facilement (voir C.I.J. Recueil 1974,opinion dissidente, p. 149,par. 34).
Les conseils sur l'application de l'équidonnésaux Parties par l'arrêtde
1969sont remplacés avec l'arrêd te 1982et l'arrêtde la Chambre par un
système d'équité érig eédoctrine séparéedu droit, non plus comme une
application du droit. C'est, en somme, un droit à part, ou chaque cas est
ouvert àtous critères,méthodesetcorrections imaginables pour un résultat
que la disparition de règleslaissàladiscrétiondechaque tribunal. Or, s'il
est vrai que beaucoup de règlesdu droitinternationalsont rédigées plutôt

comme des principes de comportement que comme des normes, leur
interprétation selon le droit est une chose, leur remplacement par une
équitésans doctrine généraleet variable avec chaque cas, non seulement
dans les circonstances,ce qui est toujours le cas, mais dans ce que lejuge
pourra choisir comme résultat baptisé équitablee ,st une bien autre chose.
Déjà,en 1977,le professeur H. Briggs dans une déclarationjointe à la
sentence voyait le

<risque que la règlede droit positif expriméà l'article6soit affaiblie equitable solution derived from the applicable law" (I.C.J. Reports
1974,p. 33, para. 78, and p. 202, para. 69).

The Court then considered an equitable distribution of fishery resources
(para. 78) on the basis of quotas, but it finally declined to balance up the
interests of the States concerned, in the absence of sufficient information
and usable parameters (pp. 32 and 201). The Court's refusa1in 1974 to
engage in a distribution of fishing quotas already showed that this role is
not an easy one for a court of law to assume. The Court also ruled out the
notion of the exceptionaldependence of a Stateon economic resources, as
it was also to do in its 1982Judgment. It will be recalled that in 1977the
Court ofArbitration summedup therole ofproportionality in unequivocal
terms :

"It is rather a factor to be taken into account in appreciating the
effects of geographical features on the equitable or inequitable char-
acter of a delimitation, and in particular of a delimitation by appli-
cation of the equidistance method" (paras. 99 and 100-101).

The Chamber, on the contrary, has considered it essential to correct its
median line at the exit from the Gulf, established from basepoints on
opposite coasts, using a calculation of proportionality based on al1the

coasts of the Gulf and then recalculated to attenuate it, without reference
to any particular geographical feature the influence ofwhich rnightcreatea
distortion which would be considered inequitable, the operation being
carried out at thejudge's owndiscretion and from a viewof equity,known
only to himself at present, which is cloaked in the word "correction7'.
41. The danger which the two Courts had throughout their history
managed to avoid is confronting us today. Their prudence was necessary,
because it was clear that an inordinate use of equity would lead to gov-
ernment byjudges, which no State would easily accept (cf. I.C.J. Reports
1974,p. 149,dissenting opinion, para. 34).The adviceon theapplication of
equity given to the Parties by the 1969Judgment has been replaced in the
1982Judgment and theChamber's Judgment by a systemof equityerected
into a doctrine separate from law, one which isno longer an application of
law. It is, in short, a law unto itself, where each case is exposed to the
application of anyimaginablecriteria,methods and correctionsconducive
to a result whch thedisappearance of rules leavesto the discretion of each
tribunal. But. while it is true that manv rules of international law are
drafted as principles of conduct rather than norms, to interpret them in
accordance with thelawisone thing, whereasit isaverydifferent matter to
replace them by an equity whch lacks al1general doctrine and variesfrom
case to case not onlv in accordance with the circumstances - for that is

always so - but in accordance with whatever thejudge may choose to dub
an equitable result. In 1977,Professor H. Briggs,in adeclaration appended
to the Decision, foresaw the
"threat that the rule of positive law expressed in Article 6 will be parune confusion avecdesprincipeséquitablessubjectifs, permettant
à un tribunal arbitral d'essayerde corriger les inéquitésde la géogra-

phie >>(sentence, p. 241).

L'équité contrôléc eomme procédé d'applicationdu droit contribuerait au
bon fonctionnement de lajustice internationale ;l'équité laissé sans élé-
ments objectifs de contrôle à la sagesse du juge rappelle qu'une certaine
équité avaitpour mesure le pied du chancelier )),je doute que lajustice
internationale résisteà uneéquité ayantpour mesure l'Œildujuge. Lorsque
l'équitén'estqu'un refletde la conscience dujuge, les tribunaux quijugent
ainsi sont séparésde ceux qui appliquent le droit.

42. Lesobservations quiprécèdentmontrent combienje suiséloigné du
raisonnement de la Chambre sur tous les points dans cette affaire. Ceci
demeure vrai, par conséquent,pour lerésultatde ceraisonnement, la ligne
de délimitation,etje n'ai pas votépour le dispositif, pas plus que pour sa
motivation. Une nuance s'impose ;puisque l'équitabledésormaisest à la
mesure de chaque juge, je ne soutiens pas que la ligne de la Chambre, ou
l'une quelconque des lignes qui ont pu êtreprésentées aucours de cette
affaire, soient moins équitables que celle présentéepar moi sur la carte
jointe àcette opinion. A chacun sonéquité,selonl'arrêt. J'ai votc éontre la
ligne de la Chambre parce que, sauf coïncidence ou hasard miraculeux en

faisant la seule ligne équitable,ce qui est beaucoup présumer, de toute
façon les moyens utiliséspour la produirenesont pas compatibles avecce
qui survit du droit -applicable à une telle délimitation, notamment la
division des chevauchements en parts égaleset l'équidistance comme
méthodepour réalisercette égalité.Ce qui m'amène à joindre une carte
(voir ci-après p. 390) reproduisant la ligne que j'ai considérée comme
divisant également,dans les circonstances géographiques, les zonesen
cause entre les Parties, avec la sobriétéqui s'imposepour une proposition
qui a pour but de montrer que la méthodede l'équidistance, siattaquée,
donnaitune solutionraisonnable delaséparation demandéepar lesParties

entre leurs zones de plateau continental et de pêche (comparersentence
arbitrale de 1977pour le secteur atlantique oùl'équidistanceest appliquée
avec une correction longuement étudiée, par. 237-252).
43. Pourparler brièvementdu rôlede l'équidistanceilfaut remonter à la
convention de 1958en vigueur entre les Parties pour leplateau continental
et,à ce propos, indiquer que la construction que l'arrêt présente de l'ar-
ticle6 n'est pas fondée. Le Président sirHumphrey Waldock, dans sa
conférence déjàcitée,a dit :

L'article 6 de la convention de Genève de 1958 sur le plateau
continental prévoyait qu'à défaut d'accord la limite du plateau
continental entre Etats <<se faisant face)>comme entre Etats limi-
trophes )) soit déterminéesuivant le principe de l'équidistance,à
moins que des circonstances spécialesnejustifient une autre limite. )>
(Page 11de l'original. Les italiques sont de moi.) eroded by its identification with subjective equitable principles, per-

mitting attempts by the Court to redress theinequities of geography"
(Cmnd. 7438, p. 126).

Controlled equity asaprocedure for applying the law would contribute to
the proper functioning of international justice ; equity left, without any
objective elements of control, to the wisdom of thejudge rerninds us that
equity was oncemeasured by "the Chancellor's foot" ;1doubt that inter-
national justice can long survive an equity measured by the judge's eye.
When equity is simply a reflection of the judge's perception, the courts
which judge in this way part Company from those which apply the law.
42. The foregoing observations showhow far 1am from the Chamber's
reasoning on al1points in this case. The same is true, accordingly, as
regards the result of that reasoning, i.e., the delimitation line, and 1have
not voted for the operative paragraph, any more than for the reasoning
behind it. A distinction must however be drawn :since equity is now a

matter of eachjudge's opinion, 1do not maintain that the Chamber's line,
or any of the linespresented during this case,is lessequitable than the one
presented by myself on the map attached to this opinion. 1voted against
theChamber's line because, unlesscoincidence orsomemiraculouschance
has made of it the oneand only equitable line - which ispresuming a great
deal -, the means employed inits production areinany caseincompatible
with what survives of the law applicable to such a delimitation, in parti-
cular the equal division of overlaps and equidistance as a method of
achieving that equality. It is this that prompts me to append a map (see
p. 390)illustrating the line 1considered to effect an equal division, in the
geographic circumstances, of the areas in issue between the Parties, with
the sobriety appropriate to a proposa1theaim of whichis to showhow the
much-reviled equidistance method provided a reasonable solution to the
Parties' requestfor the separation of their respective continental shelf and
fishery zones (cf. 1977 Decision as regards the Atlantic sector, where
equidistance was applied subject, after lengthy reflection, to a correction :

paras. 237-252).

43. To speak briefly of the roleof equidistance,it isnecessary to goback
to the 1958Convention which is in force between the Parties so far as the
continental shelf is concerned and, in that connection, indicate that the
construction of its Article 6 presented by the Judgment is not well-
founded. President Sir Humphrey Waldock, in his above-quoted lecture,
said :

"Article 6 of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf of
1958had provided that, in the absence of agreement, the continental
shelf boundary in the caseboth of 'opposite'and of 'adjacent' States
should be determined by the equidistanceprinciple, unless another
boundary is justified by special circumstances." (P. 11, emphasis
added.)C'est la formule qu'on trouvait déjàdans la sentence de 1977et ces deux

référencesme paraissent suffisantes ;il n'ya entre Etats se faisant face et
Etats limitrophes qu'une différencegéographique, dans les deux cas le
<(principe >)de l'équidistance,disait l'article 6, s'applique, c'est-à-dire la
manièred'établirla délimitation. Dès1969la Cour admettait que l'équi-
distance étaitune bonne méthodemais non la seule et que d'autres pou-
vaient êtreutilisées<pour appliquerdesprincipeséquitables ))maisilfaut
noter que ce paragraphe 85, qui n'estjamais cité en entier mais en choi-
sissant tel passage qui convienne, est entièrement consacréà ce que, selon
laCour, lesEtats encausedevaientfairepour négocierutilement un accord
entre eux.
44. Une ligne d'équidistance <dont chacun des points est équidistant
des points les plus proches situéssur les lignes de base est une ligne

unique qui dépend seulement de la position des points de base. Tant que
cespositions sont connues ilne saurait yavoirdecontroversesur letracéde
la ligne,et tous lestraitéstechniquessont unanimes quant auxprincipes de
saconstruction. Enoutre, du fait quelesdeuxsériesdepoints de base situés
sur les deux côtes exercent constamment une action conjointe sur le tracé
de la ligne, la détermination des points de base pertinents d'une côte
dépenddans une certaine mesure de la configuration de l'autre côte, de
sorte quelorsqu'il s'agitde côtes sefaisant face,àtcondition qu'il n'existe
pas de particularitésnon essentiellestellesquedes îlessituées assezloin au
large, la ligne d'équidistanceaboutit d'ordinaire à un partage raisonna-
blement égalentre les deux côtes.
45. Cette ligne,qui figureci-après à la page 390,est essentiellement une

ligne d'équidistanceconstruite à partir de points de base situés sur laterre
ferme.Comme on nepeut pas faire passer cette lignepar lepoint A,laligne
quipart de cepoint suitun tracéneutre,perpendiculaire àlafaçadecôtière
du Maine, jusqu'au point où elle coupe la ligne d'équidistance. Pour la
construction de la ligne d'équidistance, les îles canadiennes de Brier,
Tuscet et Cap-de-Sable et les îles américaines de Great Wass, Mount
Desert et Vinalhaven sont toutes considéréescomme faisant partie de la
terreferme. Ilnefaut tenir aucun compte deNantucket ou desautres îleset
îlots qui se trouvent au sud du cap Cod, ni de l'île Seal au large de la
Nouvelle-Ecosse. Cette ligne d'équidistance s'oriente vers le sud-est à
partir d'un point situéàquelques milles au sud-est d'une lignejoignant le
coudedu cap Cod aucap de Sable.Ellecoupe lebancde Georges à environ
14,5 milles àl'ouest de la ligne tracéepar la Chambre, et la limite cana-

dienne des 200 milles à environ 29 millesdu point terminal de cette ligne.
46. La convention de 1958sur le plateau continental pose une règlede
l'équidistance + circonstances spéciales, une règleunique qui est claire ;
s'iln'ya pas de circonstances spéciales,l'équidistance doitêtreappliquée.
L'arrêtde 1969etlasentence de 1977sesont appuyéssurcetterègleet l'ont
interprétéeavecle souhait de fixer ledroit international sur une notion de
rigueur dans l'application d'une équitédépendante de ce droit existant.
Lorsque l'arrêtde 1982 a décidédans ses paragraphes 109 et 110 de
résumer ledroit coutumier sur la délimitationdu plateau continental, il a GULF OF MAINE (DISS.OP. GROS) 387

This is the formula already found in the 1977 Decision, and these two
references should in my view suffice: as between opposite States and

adjacentStatesthe differenceis one solelyof ageographical nature, andin
either casethe "principle" of equidistance, saidArticle 6,isapplicable, Le.,
is the way to establish the delimitation. In 1969the Court recognized that
equidistance was a sound method, but not the only one, and that others
could be utilized "in theapplication of equitable principles", but it is to be
noted that this paragraph 85,which is never quoted intotobut only by the
selection of this or that convenient passage, is entirely devoted to the way
in which the States actually concerned should, in the eyesof theCourt, set
about negotiating an agreement.
44. An equidistance line "every point of which is equidistant from the
nearest points on thebaselines" isaunique linethat depends onlyupon the
positions of thebasepoints. Solong as those positions are known there can
be no dispute as to the course of the line, and al1technical treatises are
agreed on the principles of itsconstruction.Furthermore, because the two
sets of basepoints of the two coasts continually interact on the line, the

determination of relevant basepoints on one coast is to some extent
dependent on the configuration of theother coast, sothat where the coasts
are opposite, and provided that there are no incidentalfeatures likeislands
a significant distance offshore, the equidistance line usually effects a
reasonably even division between them.

45. This line on page 390, below, is essentially an equidistance line
constructedfrom mainland basepoints. Suchalinecannot be made topass
through Point A, and consequently the line starting at Point A follows a
neutral course perpendicular to the coastal front of Maine until it inter-
sectsthe equidistance line. Forthe construction of theequidistance line the
Canadian Brier, Tuscet and Cape Sable Islands and the United States
Great Wass, Mount Desert and Vinalhaven Islands are al1treated as part
of the mainland. No account is to be taken of Nantucket or the other
islands and isletssouth of Cape Cod, orof SealIsland offNova Scotia.This

equidistance line turns to the south-east at apoint a fewmilessouth-east of
a line between Cape Cod Elbow and Cape Sable. It crossesGeorges Bank
about 14%miles Westof the Chamber's line,and intersects the Canadian
200-mile limit about 29 miles from the terminus of the Chamber's line.

46. The 1958Convention on the Continental Shelf posits an equidis-
tance/special-circumstances rule, a single rule which is clear: if there are
no special circumstances, equidistance must be applied. The 1969Judg-
ment and the 1977Decision were based on that rule and interpreted it in
the desire to seat international law firmly on a concept of rigour in the
application of an equity dependent on that existing law. When the Judg-
ment of 1982 decided, in paragraphs 109 and 110, to summarize the
development of customary law on continental shelf delimitation, it took pris parti dans lecombatcontre l'idéede l'équidistanceen luienlevanttout
<statut privilégié>commeméthode<< asafirst stepD,créantcequi semble
une interdiction de raisonner pour lenégociateur etensuite lejuge. L'arrêt

de 1984reprend cette interdiction. La différenceentre le droit internatio-
nal du plateau continental de 1958et lajurisprudence qui l'icterprétait, et
lerevirement de 1982,estdonc fondamentale. Il semblequ'on aitpeur d'un
examen préliminaire par la méthode de l'équidistanceau point de pré-
tendre l'interdire.l est difficile de saisir la nécd'une telle opposition
de principe à la notion mêmede l'équidistance comme facteur utile de
l'examen d'une solution équitable.

47. Cet arrêtserésume,pour sadoctrine, en quatre mots :lerésultatest
équitable. C'est demander aux Etats qui viennent devant la Cour une
acceptation de cefondement nouveau de la mission dujuge, libéré du droit

positif qu'il estchargéd'appliquer. L'arrêdte 1969et la sentence de 1977
avaientconstruit desbarrières àl'emploidelanotion de l'équité ;l'arrêtde
février1982et leprésent arrêltes ont supprimées.La Cour dans son arrêt
de 1951en l'affairedes Pêcheriesavait soigneusement limitésonprononcé
au caractère particulier de la situation. La Chambre a voulu contribuer à
une mise àjour du droit conventionnel de ladélimitation,cequi mesemble
contraire à la missionjudiciaire de la Cour comme l'écrivaitdéjà en1963
Charles De Visscher :

<La fonction de l'interprétation n'est pas de perfectionner un
instrumentjuridique en vue de l'adapter plus ou moins exactement à
ce que l'on peut être tentéd'envisager comme la pleine réalisation
d'un objectif logiquement postulé, maisde faire la lumièresur ce que
les Parties ont effectivement voulu. 1)

C'est transformer la Cour internationale de Justice en une cour d'équité
que s'être engagé depuis février1982dans une équité au-delàdu droit,
séparéede règlesétabliesavec pour seule base ce que chaque formation
judiciaire saisie d'une affaire se déclare capable et libre d'apprécier, selon
sesvues politiques et économiquesdu moment ;sir Arnold McNair et sir
Gerald Fitzmaurice avaient alerté la Cour déjà.Depuis 1982 c'est plus
qu'un revirement de jurisprudence, c'est une autre manière de régler les
différendsentre Etats.

48. La décisionde la Cour en 1982et l'arrêtde la Chambre ont tentéde

construire, à l'appui d'une codification manquéedu droit de la délimita-
tion des espaces maritimes, une doctrine du résultat équitable démon-
tréepar la progression du raisonnement à travers les contradictions qu'il
cherche à effacer. Le refus apparent de prise en considération des res-
sources naturelles des espaces à délimiterdans la décisionfait place à la
reconnaissance, dans lesparagraphes 238,239 et 240qui terminent l'arrêt,
de la préoccupation majeure que la Chambre reconnaît à cette utilisation
des ressources et l'espoir que les Parties trouveront satisfaisant pour leurs
intérêtsce règlementtransactionnel qui leur est offert. Avec cette assimi- GULF OF MAINE (DISS. OP. GROS) 388

sides in the combat against the idea of equidistance by "as a first step"
depriving it of any "preferential status" as a method, thus creating for

negotiators and, subsequently, judges something like a thought prohibi-
tion. This ban is now renewed by the Judgment of 1984.The difference
between the international law on the continental shelf of 1958 and the
swerveto a new direction in 1982is therefore fundamental. It would seem
that the idea of conducting a preliminary examination in terms of the
equidistance method is so feared that it has tobe proscribed. It isdifficult
to grasp the necessity of such an apriori opposition to the very notion of
equidistance having any useful role to play in searching for an equitable
solution.
47. So far as its doctrine is concernedlthe present Judgment can be
summed up in four words : the result is equitable. This is tantamount to
expecting States that corne to the Court to accept this new basis of the
function of thejudge as one freed from the positive law he is charged to
apply. The 1969Judgment andthe 1977Decision had erected guardrails to
the use of the concept of equity ;these the 1982Judgment and the present

one have thrown down. TheCourt, in its FisheriesJudgment of 1951,had
carefully limited its ruling to theparticular character of the situation. The
Chamber has sought to make a contribution to bringing the conventional
law on delimitation up to date, but ths, 1feel,runs counter to the Court's
judicial task, as Charles De Visscher pointed out in 1963 :
"The function of interpretation is not to perfect a legalinstrument
so as to adapt it more or less exactly to what one may be tempted to
envisageasthe full attainment of a logicallypostulated objective, but

to shed light on what the parties actually intended."

The course taken since February 1982has been to indulge in an equity
beyond the law, detached from any established rules, based solely on
whatever each group ofjudges seisedof a case declares itself able and free
to appreciate in accordance with its political or economic views of the
moment. This is to transform the International Court of Justice into a

court of equity, as Judges SirArnold McNair and Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice
had warned in their time. Since 1982wehave been witnessing not merely a
new trend injurisprudence but a different manner of settling inter-State
disputes.
48. Like that of the Court in 1982,the Judgment of the Chamber has
attempted to construct, in support of an unsuccessful codification of
maritime delimitation, a doctrine of theequitable result, demonstrated by
the progression of the reasoning through the contradictions it seeks to
efface. The decision's apparent refusa1 to take account of the natural
resources of the areas to be delimited gives wayin the closing paragraphs
238, 239 and 240 to recognition by the Chamber that the use of those
resources is a major concern and the expression of itshopethat the Parties
willfind the compromise solution offered them satisfactory to their inter-
ests. Bythus assirnilatingaprocedure whch continuestobear the stamp of389 GOLFE DU MAINE (OP. DISS.GROS)

lation d'un procédé quireste la marque de la convention de 1982, la
Chambre apporte à la jurisprudence de la Cour une nouvelle décision
de consensus dont j'ai exposé leseffets regrettables récemment (GLa
recherche du consensus dans les décisionsde la Cour internationale de
JusticeO,FestschriftfiirHermann Mosler, 1983,p. 351,en particulier p. 357-
358). Le consensus ici est un autre mot, de nouveau, qui désigne une
transaction, cette opération que les Parties avaient formellement prié la

Chambre de ne pas faire,et ellesdemandaient de statuer conformément
auxrèglesetprincipes dedroitinternational applicables enlamatièreentre
les Parties))(compromis, art. II, par. 1). Il ne me semble pas que cette
méthodede travailjudiciaire puisse permettre de traiter les problèmesqui
sont posésau juge et non à un conciliateur amiable.

(Signé)André GROS.the 1982Convention, the Chamber adds to the Court's case-law one more
consensus decision of the type whoseregrettable effects 1recently exposed
("La recherche du consensus dans les décisionsde la Cour internationale
de Justice", Festschriftfür Hermann Mosler, 1983,p. 351 ; esp. pp. 357-
358). Again,consensushere isjust another word for acompromise,the very
type of transaction in which the Partieshad formallyrequested the Cham-
ber not to engage, calling upon it to decide "in accordance with the

principles and rules of international law applicable in the matter as
between the Parties7'(Special Agreement, Art. II, para. 1).This is not, in
myopinion, ajudicial method of work enabling those problems to bedealt
with that are directed to a court of law and not to an amicable concilia-
tor.

(Signed) André GROS. ATLANTIC
OCEAN

70' 68. 6 O 6 O
... l l . . . l l l t ~ . l . . . . ~ . . ~ ~ . ~ . ~ . ~ ~

CARTE

MENTIONNÉE DANS L'OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. GROS

Ligne de la Chambre -- ----- - -

Ligne de M. Gros

148Chamber's line - -- -- -- -

Judge Gros' line

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of Judge Gros (translation)

Links