Dissenting Opinion of Judge Sorensen

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051-19690220-JUD-01-11-EN
Parent Document Number
051-19690220-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE S0RENSEN

To my great regret 1 find myself unable to concur in the decision of
theCourt,and 1wish to avail myself of the right under Article 57of the
Statute to state the reasons for my dissent.
On certain points 1 agree with the Court. 1 do not think that the
equidistance principle-even subject to modification in special circum-
stances-is inherent in the legal concept of the continental shelf or part
of that concept by necessary implication.

1 also agree that the Federal Republic of Germany has not by her
conduct assumed the obligations under the Geneva Convention on the
Continental Shelf. As 1shall indicate later, the conduct of the Federal
Republic may be considered relevant in another context, but 1 agree
that the Convention is not opposable to her on a contractual or quasi-
contractual basis.
1 do find, however, that the Convention, and in particular Article 6
thereof, is binding upon the Federal Republic on a different basis. In
order to substantiate this opinion 1wish first to make some observations

on the Convention in general, and then afterwards to examine whether
the conclusions reached hold good with respect to Article 6 in particular.

Itis generally recognized that the rules set forth in a treaty or conven-
tion may become binding upon a non-contracting State as customary
rules of international law or as rules which have otherwise been generally
accepted as legallybinding international norms. It isagainst this particular
background that regard should be had to the history of the drafting and
adoption of the Convention, to the subsequent attitudes of States, and
to the relation of its provisions to theules of international law in other,
but connected. fields.

In that respect, however, 1 take a less narrow view than the Court
as to the conditions for attributing such effect to the rules set forth in
a convention. 1 agree, of course, that one should not lightly reach the
conclusion that a convention is binding upon a non-contracting State.

But 1find it necessary to take account of the fact-to which the Court
does not give specific weight-that the Geneva Convention belongs to
a particular category of multilateral conventions, namely those which
result from the work of the United Nations in the field of codification242 CONTINENTALSHELF(DISS. OP. SORENSEN)

and progressive development of international law, under Article 13 of
the Charter.

Over a number of years, and following the procedure laid down in
its Statute, the International Law Commission had elaborated a com-
prehensive set of draft articles on the law of the sea, including some on
the continental shelf. The Commission submitted the draft articles to
the General Assembly in the report of its eighth session in 1956. By

resolution 1105 (XI) the General Assembly decided to convene a con-
ference of plenipotentiaries to examine the law of the sea on the basis
of this draft, and al1 States Members of the United Nations or the
specialized agencies were invited to participate. The conference met in
Geneva in the early months of 1958 and adopted four conventions on
the law of the sea, one of them being the Convention on the Continental

Shelf, which were opened for signature on 28 April 1958.
In assessing the legal effects of a convention adopted in such circum-
stances, the distinction between the two notions of "codification" and
"progressive development" of international law may be taken as the
point of departure. According to Article 15 of the Statute of the Inter-

national Law Commission, the term "codification" is used in that Statute
to mean "the more precise formulation and systematization of rules of
international law in fields where there already has been extensive State
practice, precedent and doctrine". The term "progressive development",
011 the other hand, is used to mean "the preparation of draft conventions
on subjects which have not yet been regulated by international law or

in regard to which the law has not yet been sufficiently developed in the
practice of States".
There is no doubt that the distinction between these two categories is
sound in theory and relevant in practice. There are treaty provisions
which simply formulate rules of international law which have already
been generally accepted as part of international customary law, and it

is beyond dispute that the rules embodied and formulated in such
provisions are applicable to al1 States, whether or not they are parties
to the treaty. On the other hand, it is equally clear that there are treaty
provisions which are intended to modify the existing legal situation,
whether they change the content of existing rules or regulate matters
which have not previously been regulated by international law. Rules

set forth in such treaty provisions are neither binding upon nor can be
invoked by non-contracting States.
It has come to be generally recognized, however, that this distinction
between codification and progressive development may be difficult to
apply rigorously to the facts of international legal relations. Although
theoretically clear and distinguishable, the two notions tend in practice

to overlap or to leave between them an intermediate area in which it
is not possible to indicate precisely where codification ends and pro-
gressive development begins. The very act of forinulating or restating243 CONTINENTALSHELF(DISS. OP. S~RENSEN)

an existing customary rule may have the eiTectof defining its contents
more precisely and removing such doubts as may have existed as to its
exact scope or the modalities of its application. The opportunity may
also be taken of adapting the rule to contemporary conditions, whether
factual or legal, in the international community. On the other hand,
a treaty-purporting to create new law iilay be based on a certain amount
of State practice and doctrinal opinion which has not yer crystallized
into customary law. It may start, not from tabula rasn, but from a cus-
tomary rule MI statunasceiidi.

The International Law Commission itself has recognized that the
distinction between the process of codification and that of progressive
development, as defined in its Statute, gives rise to practical and theoreti-
cal difficulties. The report of its eiglith (1956) session contains, in the
introduction to the chapter 011the law of the sea-which includes the
draft articles on the continental sheif-, the following statement:

"In preparing its rules on the law of the sea, the Commission
has become conviiiced that, in this domain at any rate, the distinc-
tion established in thestatute between these two activities can Iiardly
be maintained. Not only niay there be wide differeiices oi'opinion
as to whether a subject is already 'sufficieiitlydeveloped in practice',
but also several of the provisions adopted by the Comn~ission,

based on a 'recognized prinçip!e of international law', have beeii
framed in such a way as to place thern in the 'progressive Jevelop-
ment' category. Although it tried at firsi to specify which Articles
fell into one and whicli into the other category, the Commission
has had to abandon the atiempt, as several do not wholiy belong to
either." (I.L.C.,VIII, Rcyort, para. 26).

Considerations such as these are borne out by an examination of the
process by which rules of customary international law are created.
Article 35 of the Statute of the Court refers to international custom
"as evidence of a general practice accepted as law". According to classic
doctrine such practice must have been pursued over a certain length
of time. There have even been those who have maintained the neces-
sity of "immemorial iisage". 1i1its previous jurisprudence, liowever,
the Court does not seem to have laid down strict requirements as to the
duration of the usage or practice which ri-iaybe accepted as law. In
particular, itdoes not seem to have drawn any conclusion in this respect
from the ordiiiary meaning of the word "custom" when used in other
contexts. In the Asylu~ncase the Court oiily required of the Colombian
Government that it should prove- "that the rule invoked by it is in accordance with a constant and
uniform usage practised by the States in question, and that this
usage is the expression of a right appertaining to the State granting
asylum anda duty incumbent onthe territorial State". (I.C.J. Reports
1950, p. 276; also quoted in the case concerning U.S. Nutionals in
Morocco, I.C.J. Reports 1952, p. 200).

The possibility has thus been reserved of recognizing the rapid emer-
gence cf a new rule of customary law based on the recent practice of
States. This is particularly important in view of the extremely dynamic
process of evolution in which the international community is engaged
at the present stage of history. Whether the mainspring of this evolution

is to be found in the development of ideas, in social and economic factors,
or in new technology, it is characteristic of our time that i-iewproblems
and circumstances incessantly arise and imperatively cal1for legal regula-
tion. In situations of this nature, a convention adopted as part of the
combined process of codification and progressive development of inter-
national law rnay well constitute, or come to constitute the decisive
evidence of generally accepted new rules of international law. The fact

that it does not purport simply to be declaratory of existing customary
law is immaterial in this context. The convention may serve as an authori-
tative guide for the practice of States faced with the relevant new legal
problems, and its provisions thus become the nucleus around which a
new set of generally recognized legal rules rnay crystallize. The word
"custom", with its traditional time connotation, may not even be an

adequate expression for the purpose of describing this particular source
of law.

This is not merely a question of terminology. If the provisions of a
given convention are recognized as generally accepted rules of law, this
is likely to have an important bearing upon any problem of interpretation

which may arise. In the absence of a convention of this nature, any
question as to the exact scope and implications of a customary rule
must be answered on the basis of a detailed analysis of the State practice
out of which the custoinary rule has emerged. If, on the other hand,
the provisions of the convention serve as evidence of generally accepted
rules of law, it is legitimate, or even necessary, to have recourse to
ordinary principles of treaty interpretation, including, if the circum-

stances so require, an examination of travaux prc;paratoires.

Turning now to the Convention on the Continental Shelf, it is hardly
necessary to recall that the legal problems with which it deals have
arisen out of the rapidly increasing demand for soiirces of energy and
the development of new techniques perrnitting the extraction of resources
from the subsoil of submarine areas. As problems of international law,

the problems relating to the exploitation of the natural resources of the continental shelf are of recent origin. Although the seeds of the con-
temporary doctrine of the continental shelf may be found in earlier
legal writings, it is only during the last quarter of a century that technical
developinents have added practical significance to the problems. The
point of departure for the evolution of the legal doctrine relating to

the continental shelf was the proclamation issued by the President of
the United States on 28 September 1945.
On the basis of early State practice and the comments made by govern-
ments, the International Law Commission hammered o~it the doctrine
of the continental shelf in legal provisions whicli were subsequently

discussed and adopted, with certain modifications, by the Geneva Con-
ference iii1958.As far as the main elements are concerned, the provisions
of the Convention circuinscribed the doctrine on a number of points.
The outer limits of the continental shelf were defined, although according
to alternative criteria, one of which was the indeterminate criterion of
exploitability. The rights of the coastal State over the shelf area were

characterized as "sovereign" rights-which means that they include the
ordinary legislative, executive and judicial coinpetence of the State on
a territorial basis-but only for limited purposes, namely the exploration
and exploitation of natural resources. These rights were declared to be
exclusive, and it was further laid down that they did not depend on
occupation or any express proclamation. The term "natural resources"

was defined in great detail. In addition, the Convention imposed certain
duties on the coastal State for the purpose of safeguarding the interest
of other States in the use of the high seas, and provisions were included
for delimitation vis-à-vis neighbouring States '.
It is difficult to express any definite opinion as to the exact legal status
of the continental shelf in general international law prior to the Geneva

Conference. It may be argued that customary international law had by
then already developed to the point of authorizing a coastal State to
exercise some measure of sovereign rights over the adjacent area of the
continental shelf. But it can hardly be aïserted that the doctrine of the
continental shelf, as forinulated and circuinscribed in considerable detail,
first by the lnternational Law Coniinissioii in its draft of 1956, and then

by the Geneva Conference in 1958, was nothing more than a restatement
of then existing rules of customary international law. The provisions of
the Convention were not simply declaratory of already accepted inter-
national law in the matter.
This beirig so, the question remains whether the Convention may
nevertheless now be taken as evidence of generally accepted rules of

international law. In the Judgment, the Court has applied certain mini-
mum conditions for recognizing that a treaty provision attains the

al1States adjacent to the samc continental shelf, whether or not they have a cominon
land frontier.

246 character of a generally accepted rule of customary law. In a general
way 1 agree that these conditions reflect the elements or factors to be

considered, except that Ialso believe, as indicated above, that it should
be considered as a relevant element that a convention has been adopted
in the process of codification and development of international law under
the United Nations Charter. 1do not, however, find the rather schematic
approach adopted by the Court entirely satisfactory. The conditions
should not, in my view, be considered as alternative conditions which
could be examined and rejected one by one. The proper approach, in

my opinion, is to examine the relevant elements as interlocking and
mutually interdependent parts of a general process.

Approaching the problems of the present cases in this manner, Ithink
that the decisive considerations may be summarized as follows. The

adoption of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf was a
very significant element in the process of creating new rules of inter-
national law in a field which urgently required legal regulation. The
Convention has been ratified or acceded to by a quite considerable
number of States, and there is no reason to believe that the flow of
ratificationshas ceased. It is significant that the States which have

become parties to the Convention are fairly representative of al1 geo-
graphical regions of the world and of different economic and social
systems. Not only the contracting parties, but also other States, have
adapted their action and attitudes so as to conform to the Convention.
No State which has exercised sovereign rights over its continental shelf
in conformity with the provisions of the Convention has been met with
protests by other States. True, there have been certain controversies on

such questions as the understanding of the term "natural resources"
and the delimitation of shelf areas between the States concerned, a
problem which will be examined further below. In general, however,
such controversies have revolved on the interpretation and application
of the provisions of the Convention, rather than the question whether
those provisions embody generally applicable rules of international law.

1 do not find it necessary to go into the question of the opinio juris.
This is a problem of legal doctrine which may cause great difficulties in
international adjudication. In view of the manner in which international
relations are conducted, there may be numerous cases in which it is
practically impossible for one government to produce conclusive evi-
dence of the motives which have prompted the action and policy of

other governments. Without going into al1 aspects of the doctrinal de-
bate on this issue, 1 wish only to cite the following passage by one of
the most qualified commentators on the jurisprudence of the Court.
Examining the conditions of the opinionecessitatisjurisSir Hersch Lauter-
pacht writes :247 CONTINENTALSHELF(DISS. OP. S~RENSEN)

"Unless judicial activity is to result in reducing the legal signifi-
cance of the most potent source of rules of international law,
namely, the conduct of States, it would appear that the accurate
principle on the subject consists in regarding al1 uniforni conduct
of Governments (or, in appropriate cases, abstention therefrom) as
evidencing the opirlio iicccssifutis juris except when it is shown that

the conduct in question was not accompanied by any such intentiori."
(Sir Hersch Lauterpacht : Thr Doi~rlupmerltof lntcrnationnl Lnii.hy
tlzc Internutiot~al Court, London 1958,p. 380.)

Applying these considerations to the circumstances of the present
cases, 1think that the practice of States referred to above inay be taken
as sufficient evidence of the existence of any necessary opiriiojuris.

In my opinion, the conclusion may therefore safely be drawn that as

a result of a continuous process over a qiiarter of a century, the rules
embodied in the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf have
now attained the status of generally accepted rules of international law.
That being so, it is nevertheless necessary to examine in particular
the attitude of the Federal Republic of Germany with regard to the
Convention. In the Fishcrics case the Court said that the ten-mile rule

would in any event "appear to be inapplicable as against Norway inas-
much as she has always opposed any atteinpt to apply it to the Norwegian
coast" (I.C.J. Rcport.r 1951, p. 131). Similarly, it might be argued in
the present cases that the Convention on the Contiiiental Shelf would
be inapplicable as against the Federal Republic, if she had consistently
refused to recogi-iizeit as an expression of generally accepted rules of

international Iaw and had objected to its applicability as against her.
But far from adopting siich an attitude, the Federal Republic has gone
quite a long May to~vards recognizing the Convention. Itis part of the
whole picture, though not decisive in itself, that the Federal Republic
signed the Convention in 1958, iinmediately before the time-limit for
signature under Article 8. More significant is the fact that the Federal

Republic has relied on the Convention for the piirpose of assertiiig her
own rights in the continental shelf. The Proclamation of the Federal
Government, dated 20 January 1964, contairied the following passage:

"In order to eliminate legal uncertainties that might arise during
the preseiit situation until the Geneva Convention on the Continental
Shelf comes into operation and is ratified by the Federal Republic
of Germany, the Federal Governnient deems it desirable already
now to make the following statement:

1. In view of the development of general international law as
expressed in recent State practice and in particular in the signing
of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf, the Federal Government regards the exploration and exploitation of the

natural resources of the seabed and subsoil ... as the exclusive
sovereign right of the Federal Republic of Germany .. ."

Leaving aside for the moment the particular question of the delimitation
of the German area of the continental shelf vis-à-vis other States, to

which 1 shall revert later, this proclamation may be taken as conclusive
evidence of the attitude adopted by the Federal Republic towards the
Convention. This attitude is relevant, not so much in the context of
the traditional legal concepts of recognition, acquiescence or estoppel,
as in the context of the general process of creating international legal
rules of universal applicability. At a decisive stage of tliis formative

process, an interested State, which was not a party to the Convention,
formally recorded its view that the Convention was an expression of
generally applicable international law. This view being perfectly well
founded, that State is not now in a position to escape the authority of
the Convention.

It has been asserted that the possibility, made available by Article 12,

of entering reservations to certain articles of the Convention, makes it
difficult to understand the articles in question as embodying generally
accepted rules of international law. 1 intend to revert to this question
below, with particular regard to Article 6. As a more general point 1
wish to state that, in my view, the faculty of making reservations to a
treaty provision has no necessary connection with the question whether

or not the provisioncan be considered as expressing a generally recognized
rule of law. To substantiate this opinion it may be sufficient to point
out that a number of reservations have been made to provisions of the
Convention on the High Seas, although this Convention, according to
its preamble, is "generally declaratory of established principles of inter-
national law". Some of these reservations have been objected to by other
contracting States, while other reservations have been tacitly accepted.

The acceptance, whether tacit or express, of a reservation made by a
contracting party does not have the effect of depriving the Convention
as a whole, or the relevant article in particular, of its declaratory char-
acter. It only has the effect of establishing a special contractual relationship
between the parties concerned within the general franiework of the
customary law embodied in the Convention. Provided the customary

rule does not belong to the category of jus cogens, a special contractual
relationship of this nature is not invalid as such. Consequently, there
is no incompatibility between the faculty of making reservations to
certain articles of the Convention on the Continental Shelf and the
recognition of that Convention or the particular articles as an expression
of generally accepted rules of international law.
As a special proviso to the preceding general observations 1 only wish to add that the recognition of the Convention as an expression of generally
accepted international law should not prejudge an issue which has arisen
since the convention was adopted in 1958. The test of exploitability for
determining the outer limits of the continental shelf should not be taken
to imply that the status of the seabed and subsoil of the ocean depths

could be governed by the Convention. The legal concept of the continental
shelf cannot reasonably be understood, even in its widest connotation, as
extending far beyond the geological concept. The problem does not arise
in the present cases, and 1therefore do not find it necessary to pursue it
further.

Once it has been concluded that the provisions of the Convention
on the Continental Shelf must be considered as generally accepted rules
of international law and that they are therefore applicable to the Federal
Republic even as a non-contracting State, it is necessary to look more

particularly at Article 6, which is the relevant article for the purpose
of the present cases. Although the provisions of the Convention in
general are considered to be binding on the Federal Republic, there
might be special grounds for holding that this general conclusion does
not apply to a particular article.
In examining this question, it must surely be held, by way ofa starting-
point, that Article 6can hardly be separated from the rest of the Conven-

tion without upsetting the balance of the legal régime instituted by the
Convention, or breaking the unity and coherence of that régime. For
once it is recognized that the coastal State has sovereign rights for
certain purposes over the continental shelf adjacent to its coasts, a
question of delimitation in relation to the shelf areas of neighbouring
States necessarily arises-save only in the rare instances of islarid States

which do not share their continental shelf with other States. A convention
on the legal régime of the continental shelf would be incomplete if it
left this question of delimitation open. Consequently, there would have
to be strong reasons for not considering Article 6 as generally binding
along with the rest of the Convention. To put it otherwise, there is a
strong presumption in favour of considering the rules on the delimitation

of the shelf areas as having a similar legal effect to that of the rules on
the extent and nature of the rights of the coastal State.
Far from being invalidated, this presumption is upheld and confirmed
by other elements. The rules set forth in Article 6 conform to the rules
which are generally applied for the delimitation of maritime areas between
neighbouring States. The 1958 Geneva Conference faced this problem
in three different contexts, in addition to that of the continental shelf,

namely the territorial sea, the contiguous zone and the special fishery
conservation areas. For al1three situations it adopted identical solutions,as formulated in Article 12 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea
and the Contiguous Zone. These solutions are substantially the saine as
that of Article 6 of the Continental Shelf Convention. The European

Fisheries Convention of 9 March 1964 adopted the same solution for
the delimitation of exclusive fishing zones as between neighbouring
States.
Furthermore, the practice of States since 1958 inmatters concerning
the delimitation of shelf areas conforms to the rules of Article 6, and
there is no difference between the practice of States parties to the Conven-
tion and that of non-contracting States. The main rule of the Article,

the principle of equidistance or the median line, has been followed in
several bilateral agreements between neighbouring States. It is true that
some of these bilateral agreements deviate from the geometrically exact
line of equidistance. In some cases the agreement has the effect of
"straightening out" the line. In other cases it has taken account of
"special circumstances" within the meaning of Article 6. However that

may be, such agreements are perfectly compatible with the provisions
of Article 6. Likewise, unilateral delimitations proclaimed by States,
even before becoming parties to the Convention, have been based on
the equidistance principle in conformity with Article 6.Although there
are areas in certain parts of the world where the delimitation is still
the subject of controversy, there seems to be no case where the delimita-
tion, whether undertaken bilaterally or unilaterally, cannot be considered

as having taken place within the framework of Article 6.
It has been argued by the Federal Government-and the Court has
accepted that line of argument--that certain instances of State practice
are irrelevant for the purpose of the present cases, since they relate only
to paragraph 1 of Article 6, namely the delimitation of shelf areas
between opposite coasts, and not to the delimitation as between adjacent

States under paragraph 2 of Article 6. In my opinion, this argument is
not decisive. In order to substantiate this opinion a closer analysis of
the provisions of Article 6 is called for.
The geographical terms used in the two paragraphs of Article 6 are
not quite precise. Paragraph 1refers to two or more States "whose coasts
are opposite each other" while paragraph 2 refers to "adjacent States".

These two provisions thus seem to envisage two distinct types or models
of geographical configuration. The realities of geography, however, do
not always conform to such abstract models. The coastlines of adjacent
States (i.e., States having a common land frontier) nlay confront each
other as opposite coasts in their further course from the point where
the common land froiitier meets the sea. Thus the same coastline may
fall under the provisions of both paragraphs. Neither expressly nor

implicitly does Article 6 provide any exact and rational, criterion for
deciding when, and to what extent, two coastlines are adjacent and when
they are opposite.
The dificulties of drawing a clear-cut distinction between the two typesof geographical situations were, in my opinion, well illustrated during
the oral proceedings by the production of a sketch map (marked D)
showing the area between Denmark and Germany in the westernmost

part of the Baltic Sea.
As a matter of legal principle, the distinction between "median line"
(paragraph 1) and "equidistance" (paragraph 2) seems to me to be
fictitious, and the juridico-technical terminology of the two paragraphs
therefore inadequate. In both paragraphs the decisive element is that
the line in question shall be drawn in such a manner that each point of
it is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the

breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. The geometrical
technique which is used for the drawing of the line is likewise identical
in the two cases.
The proceedings of the Geneva Conference seem to confirm that the
legal principle is the same in the two cases. In its draft articles the
International Law Commission had applied the distinction between

"opposite coasts" and "adjacent States" to the delimitation of the con-
tinental shelf as well as of the territorial sea. Article 12 of the draft
dealt with the delimitation of the territorial sea in straits and off other
opposite coasts, while Article 14dealt with the delimitation of the territo-
rial sea of two adjacent States. At the Conference, however, it was
proposed by Norway that the two rules be merged into one, and a new

consolidated rule was eventually adopted as Article 12of the Convention
on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone. In support of the
proposal it was argued that-

"the problems dealt with in the two articles [scilArticles 12 and
14 of the I.L.C. draft] were so closely interrelated as in some cases
to be practically indistinguishable-for instance where two States
had a common land frontier which met the sea at the head of a

deep bay" (Oficial Records, Vol. II1,p. l88),

and also that-

"The merging of Articles 12and 14was merely a matter of drafting;
the substance of the two articles was so similar that they would
be better combined" (ihid., p. 190).

These arguments met with the general approval of the First Coinmittee
of the Conference, dealing with the territorial sea and contiguous zone.
In the Fourth Committee, discussing the continental shelf, the delegate
of Norway drew attention to the fact that the problems dealt with in

Article 72 of the draft (which later became Article 6 of the Convention)
were very similar to those covered by other articles, particularly Articles
12and 14,with regard to which the Norwegian delegation had submitted
proposals. Any drafting changes in the texts of Articles 12, 14 and 66252 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP. S~RENSEN)

(concerning the contiguous zone, eventually Articl24 of the Convention
on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone) should therefore be
taken into consideration by the drafting committee (OfJic Riacords,
Vol. VI, p. 92). This suggestion, however, was not followed up, although

nobody spoke against it. Consequently, the differences which now exist
between the provisions of the two Conventions on this point seem to
be due to insuficient co-ordination in the drafting, rather than different
views on the principles involved. So far as Articl6 of the Convention
on the Continental Shelf is concerned, there is no difference of principle
between paragraphs 1 and 2. A more adequate formulation of that
principle would have been a negative formulation, on the model of

Article 12 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea, to the effect that
"no State is entitled to extend its area of the continental shelf beyond
a line, every point of which is equidistant from [etc.]" (it may be pointed
out in passing that the aforesaid Article 12 employs the term "median
line" with respect to both opposite and adjacent coasts).

A formula such as the one just quoted would also be the only adequate
formula for dealing with complex situations, for instance where three
or more States are facing each other as opposite States.It seems obvious
that under the median line principle no State should be authorized to
extend its area into the area to be divided by two other States, and that
the median line between States A and B rnust stop where it intersects
with the median line between B and C, although this does not follow

from the actual wording of Article 6.
Although an international judge cannot rewrite the Coiivention on
the Continental Shelf, the preceding explanations seem to warrant the
conclusion that paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article6 should be interpreted as
expressions of a single legal principle, and that no clear-cut distinction
can be made between the practice of States under one or the othei- of
the two paragraphs.

In order to cover al1aspects of the practice of States relating to Article
6, it is also necessary to consider the reservations which some States
have made to that Article. Such reservations are not inadmissible under
Article 12 of the Convention, and their legal effects must therefore be
determined on the merits of each particular case. Sorne of the reservations
have been objected to by other States, but it is not for the Court in the
present cases to express an opinion on the legal effects ofh objections.

The reservations made, and the objections entered against them, are
relevant only in so Far as their total effect niight be to disprove the
thesis that Article6, as part of the Convention, has been accepted as
generally binding international law. In my opinion, however, this is not
the case.First, only four out of 39 States parties to the Convention have
entered reservations to Article 6. Secondly, having examined each of
the reservations in detail, 1 find it safe to consider thern not as aiming

at excluding the régime of Article 6 as such, but at placing on record that the existence or non-existence of special circumstances is claimed
within the meaning of the express terms of that Article.

In general, the reservations made to Article 6 do not seern to invalidate
the conclusion that the ~ractice of States is in conformitv with the
provisions of Article 6.
Now ifthe Federal Republic, in her relations with other North Sea
States, had consistently denied the applicability of Articl6,paragraph 2,
to the delimitation of her shelf area, the question might have arisen of

whether the provisions of that paragraph were opposable to the Federal
Republic in spite of her objections. Like the more general probleni
examined above relating to her attitude to the Convention in general,
thisis a problem concerning the attitude of the Federal Kepublic at the
formative stage of a new rule of generally applicable international law.
Far from having denied the applicability of Article 6, hoqever, the
Federal Republic has on one occasion actually referred to it as being

applicable. In the Joint Minutes, signed in Bonn on 4 August 1964 by
the respective leaders of a German and of a Netherlands delegation
(Memorial, Federal Republic/Netheriands, p. 104), it is stated that the
treaty which the two delegations would propose to their Go~ernments
to conclude concerning the lateral delimitation of the continental shelf
near the Coast would constitute "an agreement in accordance with the
first sentence of paragraph 2 of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention".

The same Joint Minutes embodied a statement to the effect that the
Federal Government was seeking to bring about a conference of North
Sea States-

"with a view to arriving at an appropriate division of the continental
shelf situated in the middle of the North Sea in accordance with
the first sentence of paragraph (1) and the firstentence of paragraph
(2) of Article6 of the Geneva Convention".

Consequently, there is nothing to substantiate a conclusioil that
Article 6, and in particular paragraph 2 thereof, has not become part
of generally accepted international law on an equal footing with the
other provisions of the Convention.

If,then, Article 6, paragraph 2, is held to be applicable, the next
question is: which of the specific rules set forth in that paragraph should
be applied in the present case?
The first sentence provides that the boundary shall be determined
by agreement between the States concerned. In the present cases, the
Parties have negotiated with a view to reaching agreement. These nego-

tiations have not been entirely unsuccessful, since partial agreements254 CONTINENTALSHELF(DISS. OP. S~RENSEN)

concerning the delimitation near the coast were concluded. No agreement

could be reached on delimitation farther out to sea. Each of the two
Special Agreements States in the preamble that the existing disagreement
"could not be settled by detailed negotiations". On the other hand,
Article 1, paragraph 2, or each Special Agreement provides that the
Governments concerned "shall delimit the continental shelf in the North
Sea as between their countries by agreement in pursuance of the decision

requested from the lnternational Court of Justice". In their pleadings
before the Court the Parties haveconfirmed that at present the possibilities
of negotiation have been exhausted, and that no agreement will be
possible for so long as the Court has not decided what principles and
rules are applicable. Ih my opinion, theCourt cannot but take cognizance
of this declaration.
Consequently, the next question is whether the principle of equidis-

tance should be applied, or whether there are special circumstances
which justify another boundary line. A natural construction of the
wording of the provision, in particular the words "unless another bound-
ary line is justifie.. .",seems to indicate that the principle of equidis-
tance is intended to be the main rule, and the drawing of another boundary
line an exception to this main rule. This general understanding of the

provision seems to be confirmed by the travaux prépuratoires,including
in particular the 1953report of the Committee of Experts and the reports
of the International Law Commission in 1953 and 1956. The problem,
however, of the degree to which the "special circumstances rule" should
be considered as an exception to the main rule, and of exactly how
"exceptional" it should be, is largely identical with the problem as to

whether the words "special circumstances" should be given a wide or
a narrow construction, and as to the nature of the "special circumstances"
which could justify a departure from the principle of equidistance.

This question is not only crucial to the settlement of the dispute
between the Parties, if, as 1 believe, Article 6 is applicable, but also the
most difficult question to answer. The ordinary and natural meaning

of the words in the context of Article 6 does not give any guidance.
If one then turns to the travaux préparatoires, some guidance is found
in the debates and in the reports of the International Law Commission.
Mention is made of "any exceptional configuration of the coast, as well
as the presence of islands or of navigable channels" (I.L.C. R<.port,1953,
Commentary on Article 82, and Report, 1956,Commentary on Article 72).

At the Geneva Conference, one of the members of the 1953 Committee
of Experts, Commander Kennedy, speaking this time as a representative
of the United Kingdom, mentioned as examples of special circumstances
"the presence of a small or large island in the area to be apportioned",
such islands to be "ti-eated on their merits", of "the possession by one
of the two States concerned of special mineral exploitation rights or
fishery rights. or the presence of a navigable channel" (Oficirrl Records,Vol. VI, p. 93). As an element of the travaux priparatoires the explana-
tions of votes given by delegates at the Conference when the Article was
adopted may also be taken into consideration. The representative of
the Federal Republic stated that he had voted in favour of the Article
"subject to an interpretation of the words 'special circumstances' as
meaning that any exceptional delimitation of territorial waters would

affect the delimitation of the continental shelf" (ibid., p. 98). Although
a declaration of this kind cannot be held against the Federal Republic
as justifying inferences a contrario, the statement is, nevertheless, signifi-
cant as evidence of the types of special circumstance which were in the
minds of delegates to the Conference. Incidentally, the statement made
by the German delegate takes account of the situations obtaining in the

Germano-Netherlands and Germano-Danish border areas, and the two
subsequent partial agreements of 1964and 1965 may be taken to recog-
nize the existence of "special circunistances" in these two situations.
Nowhere in the travaux prkpuratoires, however, is any reference to be
found to geographical situations resembling the bend in the general
direction of the German North Sea coast.

Itis true that the special circurnstances clause was meant to apply in
cases where the equidistance principle would lead to inequitable or
unreasonable results. To indicate what is inequitable or unreasonable,
however, is hardly possible in the absence of any standard of evaluation.
The Convention itself does not offer any such standard, nor do the
truvaus pri?puratoirc.s.There is no basis in international law for main-

taining that two or three neigl-ibouring States should have shelf areas
of approximately the same size measured in square kilometres. The idea
of justifia disrrihurii.~, however meritorious it may be as a moral or
political principle, has not become part of international law, as will be
seen fronl a cursory glance at the established international order with

its patent factual inequalities between States. Nor is there any basis for
maintaining that the respective areas of the continental shelf should
be proportionate to the length of the coasts of the States concerned,
or to any such uncertain and hitherto unknown concept as their "coastal
fronts". In itself, the continental shelf area which appertains to the
Federal Republic under the equidistance principle is not insignificant: it

covers an area of 23,000 square kilometres (more than two-thirds of
the total land area of the Netherlands, and more than half of that of
Denmark), and its farthest point out to sea is at a distance of some
170 kilometres, or nearly 100 nautical miles, from the nearest points of
the German coast.
The fact that this area would have been larger, had it not been for

the combined effect of the Netherlands-German and Germano-Danish
equidistance lines, is immaterial in this context. This combined effect
is the product of the bend of the German coast as a geographical factor,
and of the location of the Federal Republic's land frontiers with her
neighbours, as a legal and political factor. Had the Netherlands-German256 CONTINENTAL SHELF(DISS. OP. S~RENSEN)

frontier lain farther to the west, and the Germano-Danish frontier farther
to the north, the two equidistance lines would have met farther out to
sea, or might not have met at all, so that the "cutting-off effect would
have been reduced or entirely removed. But the Court has to base its
findings on the geographical and political factors as they are, and not
upon comparisons with hypothetical situations. The politico-geographical

circumstances of coastal States al1over the world, including those around
the North Sea, are extremely different and have the effect of producing
great inequalities as to the areas of continental shelf which each State
could claim under the principle of equidistance. The special circumstances
clauses of Article 6 cannot reasoriably be understood as being designed
to rectify any such inequalities caused by elementary geographical factors

in combination with the location of political frontiers.

If anything, it might conceivably be argued that the areas to which
sovereign rights attach for the purpose of exploring and exploiting the
natural resources of the continental shelf should be delimited in such a
way as to apportion these resources equitably among the Statesconcerned,

taking into account the structure and trends of their respective national
economies. The Convention, however, does not give any support for
a solution based on such considerations, and the Parties to the present
cases have not been able to provide relevant information as to the location
of the natural resources, ifany, of the areas in question.

One final consideration appears to be relevant. The delimitation of
maritime areas between neighbouring States is a matter which may
quite often cause disagreement and give rise to international disputes.
In accordance with the function of law in the international community,
the rules of international law should be so framed and construed as to
reduce such causes of disagreement and dispute to a minimum. The

clearer the rule, and the more automatic its application, the less the
seed of discord is sown. This is particularly important in the absence
of provision for the compulsory adjudication of disputes between the
parties. The Conveiition on the Continental Shelf does not include any
clause concerning the adjudication of boundary disputes, as envisaged
at a certain stage of the work of the International Law Commission.

Several of the States parties to the Convention are not parties to the
Optional Protocol concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes,
adoptecl by the Geneva Conference, or to any other instrument providing
for compulsory adjudication. In such circumstances, ifthe Court is faced
with alternative ways of interpreting a treaty provision, it would seem
not only legitimate but also advisable to give preference to the inter-

pretation which will have the effect of circumscribing more narrowly the
possible area of dispute. As far as Article 6 of the Convention on the
Continental Shelf is concerned, there is no doubt that the principle of
equidistance is one whose application is simple and almost mechanical,while the special circumstances clause, because of its very vagueness,
it fraught with potential conflict. Consequently, a narrow interpretation
of the term "special circumstances" should be preferred.
Similar considerations are even more pertinent to the fundamental
question, whether or not the provisions of the Convention, and in

particular Article 6, should be recognized as gerierally accepted inter-
national law. If this question is answered in the negative, and the delimi-
tation is to be governed by a principle of equity only, considerable legal
u11cert:tintywill ensue, and that in a field where legal certainty is in the
interest not only of the internationalcommunity in general, but also-on
balance-of the States directly concerned.

For the reasons stated above, my opinion is that the question set
forth in the Special Agreements should have been answered as follows:
1. Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Continental Shelf
of 29 April 1958 is applicable to the delimitation, as between the

Parties, of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which
appertain to each of them, beyond the partial boundary lines already
agreed upon.
2. Within the meaningofArticle 6, paragraph 2, no specialcircumstances
exist which justify another boundary than that resulting from the
application of the principle of equidistance.

(Sigtled) Max SORENSEN.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE S0RENSEN

To my great regret 1 find myself unable to concur in the decision of
theCourt,and 1wish to avail myself of the right under Article 57of the
Statute to state the reasons for my dissent.
On certain points 1 agree with the Court. 1 do not think that the
equidistance principle-even subject to modification in special circum-
stances-is inherent in the legal concept of the continental shelf or part
of that concept by necessary implication.

1 also agree that the Federal Republic of Germany has not by her
conduct assumed the obligations under the Geneva Convention on the
Continental Shelf. As 1shall indicate later, the conduct of the Federal
Republic may be considered relevant in another context, but 1 agree
that the Convention is not opposable to her on a contractual or quasi-
contractual basis.
1 do find, however, that the Convention, and in particular Article 6
thereof, is binding upon the Federal Republic on a different basis. In
order to substantiate this opinion 1wish first to make some observations

on the Convention in general, and then afterwards to examine whether
the conclusions reached hold good with respect to Article 6 in particular.

Itis generally recognized that the rules set forth in a treaty or conven-
tion may become binding upon a non-contracting State as customary
rules of international law or as rules which have otherwise been generally
accepted as legallybinding international norms. It isagainst this particular
background that regard should be had to the history of the drafting and
adoption of the Convention, to the subsequent attitudes of States, and
to the relation of its provisions to theules of international law in other,
but connected. fields.

In that respect, however, 1 take a less narrow view than the Court
as to the conditions for attributing such effect to the rules set forth in
a convention. 1 agree, of course, that one should not lightly reach the
conclusion that a convention is binding upon a non-contracting State.

But 1find it necessary to take account of the fact-to which the Court
does not give specific weight-that the Geneva Convention belongs to
a particular category of multilateral conventions, namely those which
result from the work of the United Nations in the field of codification OPlNION DISSIDENTE DE M. SORENSEN

[Traductionj
A mon grand regret il ne m'est pas possible de m'associer à l'arrêtde

la Cour et je désire faire usage du droit que me confère l'article 57 du
Statut pour indiquer les raisons de mon dissentiment.
Sur certains points l'opinion exprimée par la Cour coïncide avec la
mienne. Je ne pense pas par exemple que le principe de l'équidistance
- mêmes'il peut êtremodifiédans des circonstances spéciales - soit
inhérentàla notionjuridique de plateau continental ou qu'il s'y rattache

nécessairement.
De même,je conviens que la République fédérale d'Allemagnen'a pas,
par son comportemi:nt, assumé les obligations qui découlent de la Con-
vention de Genève sur le plateau continental. Comme je l'indiquerai par
la suite, on peutpenser que le comportement de la République fédérale
joue un rôle d'un autre point de vue, mais j'admets que la Convention

ne lui est pas opposable sur une base contractuelle ou quasi contractuelle.
Je n'en estime pas moins que la Convention, et plus particulièrement
son article 6. lie la R.épubliquefédéralepour d'autres motifs. Pour étayer
cette opinion, je voudrais présenter d'abord quelques observations sur la
Convention en géniiral puis examiner si les conclusions auxquelles je
serai parvenu s'appliquent à l'articl6 en particulier.

IIest généralementreconnu que les règles énoncéesdans un traité ou
dans une conventioi~ peuvent obliger un Etat non contractant en tant
que règlescoutumières de droit international ou que règlesgénéralement
acceptées par ailleurs comme normes internationales juridiquement

obligatoires. C'est dans ce contexte particulier qu'il convient d'examiner
l'historique de la rédaction et de l'adoption de la Convention, les attitudes
que les Etats ont adoptées par la suite et les rapports qui existent entre
les dispositions de la Convention et les règles de droit internationalap-
plicables à des domaines différentsmais connexes.
J'adopte toutefois un point de vue moins étroit que celui de la Cour

en ce qui concerne les conditions qui doivent être reunies pour que l'on
puisse attribuer un pareil effet aux règlesénoncéesdans une convention.
On ne devrait certes pas conclure à la légèrequ'une convention est obliga-
toire pour un Etat non contractant - je le reconnais volontiers. Il me
parait cependant nécessairede tenir compte d'un fait auquel la Cour n'a
attachéaucune importance particulière et qui est le suivant: la Convention
de Genève appartient à une catégorie spéciale de conventions multi-242 CONTINENTALSHELF(DISS. OP. SORENSEN)

and progressive development of international law, under Article 13 of
the Charter.

Over a number of years, and following the procedure laid down in
its Statute, the International Law Commission had elaborated a com-
prehensive set of draft articles on the law of the sea, including some on
the continental shelf. The Commission submitted the draft articles to
the General Assembly in the report of its eighth session in 1956. By

resolution 1105 (XI) the General Assembly decided to convene a con-
ference of plenipotentiaries to examine the law of the sea on the basis
of this draft, and al1 States Members of the United Nations or the
specialized agencies were invited to participate. The conference met in
Geneva in the early months of 1958 and adopted four conventions on
the law of the sea, one of them being the Convention on the Continental

Shelf, which were opened for signature on 28 April 1958.
In assessing the legal effects of a convention adopted in such circum-
stances, the distinction between the two notions of "codification" and
"progressive development" of international law may be taken as the
point of departure. According to Article 15 of the Statute of the Inter-

national Law Commission, the term "codification" is used in that Statute
to mean "the more precise formulation and systematization of rules of
international law in fields where there already has been extensive State
practice, precedent and doctrine". The term "progressive development",
011 the other hand, is used to mean "the preparation of draft conventions
on subjects which have not yet been regulated by international law or

in regard to which the law has not yet been sufficiently developed in the
practice of States".
There is no doubt that the distinction between these two categories is
sound in theory and relevant in practice. There are treaty provisions
which simply formulate rules of international law which have already
been generally accepted as part of international customary law, and it

is beyond dispute that the rules embodied and formulated in such
provisions are applicable to al1 States, whether or not they are parties
to the treaty. On the other hand, it is equally clear that there are treaty
provisions which are intended to modify the existing legal situation,
whether they change the content of existing rules or regulate matters
which have not previously been regulated by international law. Rules

set forth in such treaty provisions are neither binding upon nor can be
invoked by non-contracting States.
It has come to be generally recognized, however, that this distinction
between codification and progressive development may be difficult to
apply rigorously to the facts of international legal relations. Although
theoretically clear and distinguishable, the two notions tend in practice

to overlap or to leave between them an intermediate area in which it
is not possible to indicate precisely where codification ends and pro-
gressive development begins. The very act of forinulating or restatinglatérales, celles qui sont le fruit des travaux des Nations Unies dans le
domaine de la codification et du développementprogressif du droit inter-
national, selon les termes de l'article 13de la Charte.
Suivant en cela la procédure définiedans son statut, la Commission
du droit international a consacré plusieurs années à élaborerun ensemble
complet de projets tcl'articlessur le droit de la mer et notamment sur le
plateau continental. En 1956, la Comn~ission a soumis ces projets d'ar-
ticlesà l'Assembléegénéraledans son rapport sur sa huitième session.

Par sa résolution 1105 (XI), l'Assembléegénéralea décidéde convoquer
une conférence de plénipotentiaires chargéed'examiner le droit de la
mer sur la base des projets et elle a invité tous les Etats Membres de
l'organisation des Nations Unies et des institutions spécialisées à y
participer. RéunieB Genève au début de 1958, la conférence a adopté
quatre conventions sur le droit de la mer et notamment sur le plateau
continental, qui ont été ouvertes à la signature le 28 avril 1958.

Pour apprécier pleinement les effets juridiques d'une convention
adoptée dans de telles circonstances, on peut, au départ,distinguer entre
les deux notions de ((codification 11et de (développement progressif 1du
droit international. D'après l'article 15 du statut de la Commission du
droit international, le terme de codification s'applique aux cas où il
s'agit de ccformuler avec plus de précision et de systématiser les règles
du droit international dans des domaines où il existe déjàune pratique
étatique considérable, des précédents et des opinions doctrinales 1).

L'expression adéveloppement progressif 1)concerne les cas où il s'agit
de ((rédigerdes conventions sur des sujets qui ne sont pas encore réglés
par le droit international ou relativement auxquels le droit ne s'est pas
encore suffisamment développédans la pratique des Etats 1).
La distinction entre ces deux catégories est sans aucun doute valable
cl1théorie et utile en pratique. Certaines dispositions conventionnelles
ne font qu'énoncer des règles de droit international qui ont déjà été
généralementacceptéesdans le cadre du droit international coutumier;

il est indéniableque les règlesqui s'ytrouvent consacréessont applicables
à tous les Etats, qu'ils soient ou non parties au traité. D'un autre côté,
il est tout aussi évidentqu'il existe des dispositions conventionnelles dont
l'objet estde changer la situation juridique existante, que ce soiten modi-
fiant la teneur de règles préexistantes ou en réglementant des matières
non encore réglées parle droit international. Les Etats non contractants
ne sont pas tenus par les règlesénoncéesdans des dispositions conven-

tionnelles de cet ordre, de même qu'ils nepeuvent s'en prévaloir.
11est cependant généralementadmis aujourd'hui que les relations
juridiques internationales étant ce qu'elles sont, la distinction entre
codification et dév<:loppemeiitprogressif peut êtredifficile à appliquer
strictement. Bien qu'elles soient claires et distinctes en théorie, ces deux
notions tendent en pratique à se recouvrir ou au contraire à laisser
subsister entre elles un domaine intermédiaire où il est impossible d'in-
diquer avec précisionoù finit la codification et où commence le dévelop-243 CONTINENTALSHELF(DISS. OP. S~RENSEN)

an existing customary rule may have the eiTectof defining its contents
more precisely and removing such doubts as may have existed as to its
exact scope or the modalities of its application. The opportunity may
also be taken of adapting the rule to contemporary conditions, whether
factual or legal, in the international community. On the other hand,
a treaty-purporting to create new law iilay be based on a certain amount
of State practice and doctrinal opinion which has not yer crystallized
into customary law. It may start, not from tabula rasn, but from a cus-
tomary rule MI statunasceiidi.

The International Law Commission itself has recognized that the
distinction between the process of codification and that of progressive
development, as defined in its Statute, gives rise to practical and theoreti-
cal difficulties. The report of its eiglith (1956) session contains, in the
introduction to the chapter 011the law of the sea-which includes the
draft articles on the continental sheif-, the following statement:

"In preparing its rules on the law of the sea, the Commission
has become conviiiced that, in this domain at any rate, the distinc-
tion established in thestatute between these two activities can Iiardly
be maintained. Not only niay there be wide differeiices oi'opinion
as to whether a subject is already 'sufficieiitlydeveloped in practice',
but also several of the provisions adopted by the Comn~ission,

based on a 'recognized prinçip!e of international law', have beeii
framed in such a way as to place thern in the 'progressive Jevelop-
ment' category. Although it tried at firsi to specify which Articles
fell into one and whicli into the other category, the Commission
has had to abandon the atiempt, as several do not wholiy belong to
either." (I.L.C.,VIII, Rcyort, para. 26).

Considerations such as these are borne out by an examination of the
process by which rules of customary international law are created.
Article 35 of the Statute of the Court refers to international custom
"as evidence of a general practice accepted as law". According to classic
doctrine such practice must have been pursued over a certain length
of time. There have even been those who have maintained the neces-
sity of "immemorial iisage". 1i1its previous jurisprudence, liowever,
the Court does not seem to have laid down strict requirements as to the
duration of the usage or practice which ri-iaybe accepted as law. In
particular, itdoes not seem to have drawn any conclusion in this respect
from the ordiiiary meaning of the word "custom" when used in other
contexts. In the Asylu~ncase the Court oiily required of the Colombian
Government that it should prove- PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS.S~RENSEN) 243

pement progressif. ]Lesimple fait d'énoncer ou de réaffirmerune règle
coutumière existante peut avoir pour effet d'en définir plusprécisément
la teneur et d'éliminerles doutes qui auraient pu subsister sur sa portée

exacte ou sur ses modalités d'application. On peut également saisircette
occasion pour adapter la règle à la situation qui existe en fait ou en droit
dans la sociétéinternationale. En revanche un traité visant a créer un
droit nouveau peut être fondédans une certaine mesure sur la pratique
des Etats et sur des opinions doctrinales non encore cristalliséesen droit
cout~imier.Pareil traité peut partir non d'une table rase mais d'une règle
coutumière instatu nascet~di.
La Commission du droit international a reconnu elle-mêmeque la

distinction entre les processus de codification et de développement pro-
gressif, tels qu'ils s'ont définisdans son statut, soulève des difficultés
d'ordre pratique et d'ordre théorique. La Commission a déclaré en 1956
dans son rapport suirles travaux desa huitième session,dans l'introduc-
tion du chapitre sur le droit de la mer, qui comprend le projet d'articles
sur le plateau continental:

«En élaborant la réglementation du droit de la mer, la Commis-
sion a acquis la conviction que, du moins dans cette matière, la
distinction entre ces deux activités,prévuepar le statut, peut diffi-
cilement êtremaintenue. Non seulement les opinions sur le point

de savoir si un sujet est déjà((suffisammentdéveloppédans la pra-
tique 11peuvent largement diverger, mais plusieurs dispositions
adoptées par la Commission et baséessur un eprincipe reconnu en
droit international 11ont étéélaboréesd'une manière qui les range
dans la catégorie du ((développement progressif 1)du droit. Après
avoir essayéde spécifierles articles rentrant dans l'une ou l'autre
catégorie, la Commission a dû y renoncer, plusieurs articles n'ap-
partenant entièrement ni à l'une ni à l'autre des deux catégories. :)

(Rapport dela Commission du droit international sur les travaux de
sa huitième session, par. 26.)
Ces considérations - ou des considérations analogues - sont con-

firméespar un examen du processus de création desrèglesdedroit inter-
national coutumier. L'article 38 du Statut dela Cour se réfère à la cou-
tume internationale ((comme preuve d'une pratique générale acceptée
comme étant le droit ,)Conformément à la doctrine classique, cette
pratiquedoit s'être poursuiviependant un certain lapsde temps. D'aucuns
ont même conclu àla nécessitéd'un « usage immémorial N.La Cour,dans
sa jurisprudence antérieure, ne semble cependant pas avoir posé de
règlesstrictes quant à la duréede l'usage ou de la pratique pouvant être

acceptéecomme étaintle droit. En particulier, elle ne semble pas avoir
tiré de conclusions du sens habituellement attaché au mot coutume
lorsqu'il est employé dans d'autres contextes. Dans l'affaire du Droit
d'asile,la Cour a seulement déclaréque le Gouvernement dela Colombie
devait prouver "that the rule invoked by it is in accordance with a constant and
uniform usage practised by the States in question, and that this
usage is the expression of a right appertaining to the State granting
asylum anda duty incumbent onthe territorial State". (I.C.J. Reports
1950, p. 276; also quoted in the case concerning U.S. Nutionals in
Morocco, I.C.J. Reports 1952, p. 200).

The possibility has thus been reserved of recognizing the rapid emer-
gence cf a new rule of customary law based on the recent practice of
States. This is particularly important in view of the extremely dynamic
process of evolution in which the international community is engaged
at the present stage of history. Whether the mainspring of this evolution

is to be found in the development of ideas, in social and economic factors,
or in new technology, it is characteristic of our time that i-iewproblems
and circumstances incessantly arise and imperatively cal1for legal regula-
tion. In situations of this nature, a convention adopted as part of the
combined process of codification and progressive development of inter-
national law rnay well constitute, or come to constitute the decisive
evidence of generally accepted new rules of international law. The fact

that it does not purport simply to be declaratory of existing customary
law is immaterial in this context. The convention may serve as an authori-
tative guide for the practice of States faced with the relevant new legal
problems, and its provisions thus become the nucleus around which a
new set of generally recognized legal rules rnay crystallize. The word
"custom", with its traditional time connotation, may not even be an

adequate expression for the purpose of describing this particular source
of law.

This is not merely a question of terminology. If the provisions of a
given convention are recognized as generally accepted rules of law, this
is likely to have an important bearing upon any problem of interpretation

which may arise. In the absence of a convention of this nature, any
question as to the exact scope and implications of a customary rule
must be answered on the basis of a detailed analysis of the State practice
out of which the custoinary rule has emerged. If, on the other hand,
the provisions of the convention serve as evidence of generally accepted
rules of law, it is legitimate, or even necessary, to have recourse to
ordinary principles of treaty interpretation, including, if the circum-

stances so require, an examination of travaux prc;paratoires.

Turning now to the Convention on the Continental Shelf, it is hardly
necessary to recall that the legal problems with which it deals have
arisen out of the rapidly increasing demand for soiirces of energy and
the development of new techniques perrnitting the extraction of resources
from the subsoil of submarine areas. As problems of international law,

the problems relating to the exploitation of the natural resources of the PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP.DISS.S~RENSEN) 244

((que la règle ciont il se prévaut est conformeà un usage constant
et uniforme, pratiqué par les Etats en question, et que cet usage tra-
duit un droit appartenant à 1'Etat octroyant l'asile et un devoir in-
combant à 1'Etat territori11(C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 276; citédans
l'affaire des L)roits des ressortissantsdes Etats-Unis au Maroc,
C.I.J. Recueil 1'952,p. 200).

La Cour s'est ainsi réservéla possibilité de reconnaître l'apparition
rapide d'une nouvelle règle de droit coutumier fondée sur la pratique

étatique récente, faiit particulièrement important eu égard au processus
d'évolution extrêmementdynamique que connaît actuellement la com-
inunauté internationale. Que le ressort de cette évolution se trouve dans
le mouvement des :idées,dans des facteurs sociaux et économiques ou
dans la technologie riouvelle, un trait marquant denotre époqueest qu'il
surgit sans cesse des circonstances et des problèmes nouveaux nécessitant
une réglementationjuridique. Dans des situations de cet ordre, une con-
vention adoptéegrâce aux processus combinésde codification et de déve-
loppement progressif du droit international peut fort bien êtreou devenir
la preuve décisivede nouvelles règlesde droit international généralement
acceptées. Le fait que ladite convention ne vise pas simplement à être
déclaratoire d'un di-oit coutumier préexistant a peu d'importance dans
cette perspective. Elle peut servir de guide reconnu pour la pratique des
Etats qui ont à résoudre les nouveaux problèmes juridiques en cause, et

ses dispositions peuvent ainsi constituer le noyau autour duquel secristal-
lisera un nouvel ensemble de règlesjuridiques généralement reconnues.
Le terme coutume, qui dans sa signification classique implique un certain
élémentde temps, p'eutmêmeêtreune expression impropre pour décrire
cette source particulière du droit.
11ne s'agit pas ici seulement d'une question de terminologie. Recon-
naître aux dispositions d'une convention le caractère de règles de droit
généralementacceptées peut avoir une grande influence sur tous les
problèmes d'interprktation susceptibles de se poser. En l'absence d'une
convention de cette nature, toute question relative à la portée et aux
conséquencesexactes d'une règlecoutumière doit êtrerésolueau moyen
d'une analyse détaillée dela pratique des Etats qui est l'origine de cette
règlecoutumière. En.revanche, si lesdispositions de la convention témoi-
gnent de l'existence de règles de droit généralement acceptées,il est

légitimeet même nécessaire d'avoirrecours aux principes usuels de I'inter-
prétation des traités,et en particulier, le cas échéànl'étudedes travaux
préparatoires.
Pour en venir à la Convention sur le plateau continental, il eàtpeine
nécessaire de rappeler que les problèmes juridiques qui y sont traités
se sont posésdu fail:de l'augmentation rapide des besoins énergétiques
et du développement de nouvelles techniques permettant d'extraire les
ressources du sous-sol des mers. Les problèmes concernant l'exploitation
des ressources naturelles du plateau continental n'ont acquis que tout continental shelf are of recent origin. Although the seeds of the con-
temporary doctrine of the continental shelf may be found in earlier
legal writings, it is only during the last quarter of a century that technical
developinents have added practical significance to the problems. The
point of departure for the evolution of the legal doctrine relating to

the continental shelf was the proclamation issued by the President of
the United States on 28 September 1945.
On the basis of early State practice and the comments made by govern-
ments, the International Law Commission hammered o~it the doctrine
of the continental shelf in legal provisions whicli were subsequently

discussed and adopted, with certain modifications, by the Geneva Con-
ference iii1958.As far as the main elements are concerned, the provisions
of the Convention circuinscribed the doctrine on a number of points.
The outer limits of the continental shelf were defined, although according
to alternative criteria, one of which was the indeterminate criterion of
exploitability. The rights of the coastal State over the shelf area were

characterized as "sovereign" rights-which means that they include the
ordinary legislative, executive and judicial coinpetence of the State on
a territorial basis-but only for limited purposes, namely the exploration
and exploitation of natural resources. These rights were declared to be
exclusive, and it was further laid down that they did not depend on
occupation or any express proclamation. The term "natural resources"

was defined in great detail. In addition, the Convention imposed certain
duties on the coastal State for the purpose of safeguarding the interest
of other States in the use of the high seas, and provisions were included
for delimitation vis-à-vis neighbouring States '.
It is difficult to express any definite opinion as to the exact legal status
of the continental shelf in general international law prior to the Geneva

Conference. It may be argued that customary international law had by
then already developed to the point of authorizing a coastal State to
exercise some measure of sovereign rights over the adjacent area of the
continental shelf. But it can hardly be aïserted that the doctrine of the
continental shelf, as forinulated and circuinscribed in considerable detail,
first by the lnternational Law Coniinissioii in its draft of 1956, and then

by the Geneva Conference in 1958, was nothing more than a restatement
of then existing rules of customary international law. The provisions of
the Convention were not simply declaratory of already accepted inter-
national law in the matter.
This beirig so, the question remains whether the Convention may
nevertheless now be taken as evidence of generally accepted rules of

international law. In the Judgment, the Court has applied certain mini-
mum conditions for recognizing that a treaty provision attains the

al1States adjacent to the samc continental shelf, whether or not they have a cominon
land frontier.

246récemment le caracitèrede problèmes de droit international. Bien qu'on
puisse trouver dans des écritsjuridiques antérieursle germe de la doctrine
contemporaine du plateau continental, ce n'est qu'au cours du quart de
siècle qui vient de s'écoulerque l'évolution dela technique a conféré
une importance pratique à ces problèmes. L'évolution dela doctrine
juridique du plateau continental a pour point de départ la proclamation
publiéepar le présidentdes Etats-Unis le 28 Septembre 1945.
Se fondant sur les premières manifestations de la pratique des Etats
et sur les observations formuléespar les gouvernements, la Commission
du droit internatiorial a énoncéla doctrine du plateau continental dans
des dispositions juridiques qui ont étépar la suite discutéeset adoptées,
avec certaines modifications, lors de la conférence de Genève de 1958.

Les dispositions de la Convention ont préciséplusieurs aspects des prin-
cipaux élémentsde la doctrine. Les limites extérieuresdu plateau conti-
nental sont définies:suivant,il est vrai, un choix de critères, dont le critère
indéterminéde l'exploitabilité. Lesdroits de 1'Etatriverain sur le plateau
continental sont qualifiésde ((souverains ))-ce qui signifieque ces droits
englobent les compétences législative, exécutiveet judiciaire habituelle-
ment exercéespar I'Etat dans le cadre territorial -, mais seulement à
des fins limitées: e:uploration et exploitation des ressources naturelles.
Ces droits sont cara.ctérisécomme des droits exclusifs, indépendants de
l'occupation ou de toute proclamation expresse. Le terme de ((ressources
naturelles 1est défini1e façon très détaillée. Deplus, certains devoirs sont

imposés à 1'Etat riverain en vue de sauvegarder les intérêtsdes autres
Etats pour ce quiest de l'utilisation de lahaute mer, et desdispositions par-
ticulièresconcernantla délimitationentre Etats voisins ont étéinsérées '.
Il est difficile de formuler une opinion définiesur le statut juridique
exact du plateau continental en droit international généralavant la con-
férencede Genève. (3n peut alléguerque le droit international coutumier
s'était déjà développé àce moment-là au pointd'autoriser un Etat riverain
à exercer certains droits souverains sur la zone adjacente du plateau con-
tinental. Cependant on peut difficilement dire que la doctrine du plateau
continental, telle qu'elle a été formuléeet circonscrite avec force détails,
tout d'abord par la Commission du droit international dans son projet

de 1956,puis par la conférence de Genèveen 1958,n'a constituérien de
plus qu'une réaffirmation des règles de droit international coutumier
existant alors. Lesdispositions de la Convention n'ont pas été simplement
déclaratoires du droit international déjà acceptéen la matière.
Cela étant, il reste néanmoins à établir si la Convention peut être
considéréeaujourd'hui comme constituant la preuve de règles de droit
international généralement acceptées.Dans l'arrêt,la Cour fait inter-
venir certaines conditions minimales qui permettent de reconnaître à

l J'emploie l'expression «Etats voisins)) dans son sens large et génépour
décrire tous les Etats adjacents au même plateau continental, qu'ils aienonou
une frontière terrestre commune. character of a generally accepted rule of customary law. In a general
way 1 agree that these conditions reflect the elements or factors to be

considered, except that Ialso believe, as indicated above, that it should
be considered as a relevant element that a convention has been adopted
in the process of codification and development of international law under
the United Nations Charter. 1do not, however, find the rather schematic
approach adopted by the Court entirely satisfactory. The conditions
should not, in my view, be considered as alternative conditions which
could be examined and rejected one by one. The proper approach, in

my opinion, is to examine the relevant elements as interlocking and
mutually interdependent parts of a general process.

Approaching the problems of the present cases in this manner, Ithink
that the decisive considerations may be summarized as follows. The

adoption of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf was a
very significant element in the process of creating new rules of inter-
national law in a field which urgently required legal regulation. The
Convention has been ratified or acceded to by a quite considerable
number of States, and there is no reason to believe that the flow of
ratificationshas ceased. It is significant that the States which have

become parties to the Convention are fairly representative of al1 geo-
graphical regions of the world and of different economic and social
systems. Not only the contracting parties, but also other States, have
adapted their action and attitudes so as to conform to the Convention.
No State which has exercised sovereign rights over its continental shelf
in conformity with the provisions of the Convention has been met with
protests by other States. True, there have been certain controversies on

such questions as the understanding of the term "natural resources"
and the delimitation of shelf areas between the States concerned, a
problem which will be examined further below. In general, however,
such controversies have revolved on the interpretation and application
of the provisions of the Convention, rather than the question whether
those provisions embody generally applicable rules of international law.

1 do not find it necessary to go into the question of the opinio juris.
This is a problem of legal doctrine which may cause great difficulties in
international adjudication. In view of the manner in which international
relations are conducted, there may be numerous cases in which it is
practically impossible for one government to produce conclusive evi-
dence of the motives which have prompted the action and policy of

other governments. Without going into al1 aspects of the doctrinal de-
bate on this issue, 1 wish only to cite the following passage by one of
the most qualified commentators on the jurisprudence of the Court.
Examining the conditions of the opinionecessitatisjurisSir Hersch Lauter-
pacht writes : une disposition conventionnelle le caractère derèglede droit international
généralement acceptée.Je conviens que dans l'ensemble ces conditions
correspondent effectivement aux élémentsou aux facteurs dont il faut tenir
compte, à ceci près que je crois aussi, comme je l'ai indiqué plus haut,
que l'adoption d'une convention dans le cadre du processus de codifica-
tion et de développement du droit international, conformément à la
Charte des Nations Unies, est à considérercomme un élémentpertinent.
Le point du vue assez schématique adopté par la Cour ne me paraît
cependant pas entièrement satisfaisant. A mon avis, il ne faudrait pas
considérer ces conditions comme une sériede possibilités, susceptibles

d'êtreexaminéeset rejetéestour à tour. La bonne méthode consiste selon
moi à envisager les élémentsdont il s'agit comme les parties solidaires
et interdépendantes d'un tout.
Si l'on aborde ain.si les problèmes poséspar les présentes affaires,je
crois que les considérations décisivespeuvent êtrerésuméescomme suit:
l'adoption de la Convention de Genèvesur le plateau continental repré-
sentait un élémenttrès important du processus de création de nouvelles
règles du droit international dans un domaine qui appelait d'urgence
une réglementation juridique. Un nombre très considérable d'Etats ont
adhéié à la Convention ou l'ont ratifiéeet rien ne permet de croire que
ce mouvement de ratifications ait cessé.Il est significatif que les Etats qui
sont devenus parties à la Convention sont assez représentatifs de toutes
les régionsgéograph:iquesdu monde et de ses différents systèmesécono-
miques et sociaux. N,onseulement les parties contractantes, mais d'autres

Etats encore ont modifiéleurpratique et leur attitude pour se conformer
à la Convention. Il n'est pas d'exemple qu'un Etat ayant exercé sesdroits
souverains sur sa partie du plateau-continental, conformément aux dis-
positions de la Convention, se soit heurté à des protestations d'autres
Etats. Assurément,il y a eu des controverses sur de~-~ointstels que l'inter-
prétation de l'expression ressources naturelleset la délimitation des zones
du plateau entre les Etats intéressés,problème qui sera examiné plus
loin. Cependant ces c:ontroversesont eu généralementtrait à I'interpréta-
tion et à l'application des dispositions de la Convention plutôt qu'à la
question de savoir si ces dispositions sont l'expression de règlesde droit
international généralement applicables.
Je n'estime pas nécessaired'approfondir la question de l'opiniojuris.
C'est là un problème de doctrine qui peut soulever de grandes difficultés

lorsqu'il s'agit, pour un tribunal international, de rendre une décision.
Etant donnéla manikre dont les relations internationales sont conduites,
il peut être pratiquement impossible à un gouvernement, dans de nom-
breux cas, d'apporter. des preuves concluantes au sujet des motifs qui ont
pu inspirer les actes et la politique d'autres gouvernements. Sans entrer
dans tous les aspect!; des discussions doctrinales sur le sujet, je citerai
simplement le passage ci-après de l'un des commentateurs les plus auto-
risésde la jurisprudence de la Cour. Sir Hersch Lauterpacht écrit, lors-
qu'il examine les conditions de l'opinioecessitafisjuris:247 CONTINENTALSHELF(DISS. OP. S~RENSEN)

"Unless judicial activity is to result in reducing the legal signifi-
cance of the most potent source of rules of international law,
namely, the conduct of States, it would appear that the accurate
principle on the subject consists in regarding al1 uniforni conduct
of Governments (or, in appropriate cases, abstention therefrom) as
evidencing the opirlio iicccssifutis juris except when it is shown that

the conduct in question was not accompanied by any such intentiori."
(Sir Hersch Lauterpacht : Thr Doi~rlupmerltof lntcrnationnl Lnii.hy
tlzc Internutiot~al Court, London 1958,p. 380.)

Applying these considerations to the circumstances of the present
cases, 1think that the practice of States referred to above inay be taken
as sufficient evidence of the existence of any necessary opiriiojuris.

In my opinion, the conclusion may therefore safely be drawn that as

a result of a continuous process over a qiiarter of a century, the rules
embodied in the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf have
now attained the status of generally accepted rules of international law.
That being so, it is nevertheless necessary to examine in particular
the attitude of the Federal Republic of Germany with regard to the
Convention. In the Fishcrics case the Court said that the ten-mile rule

would in any event "appear to be inapplicable as against Norway inas-
much as she has always opposed any atteinpt to apply it to the Norwegian
coast" (I.C.J. Rcport.r 1951, p. 131). Similarly, it might be argued in
the present cases that the Convention on the Contiiiental Shelf would
be inapplicable as against the Federal Republic, if she had consistently
refused to recogi-iizeit as an expression of generally accepted rules of

international Iaw and had objected to its applicability as against her.
But far from adopting siich an attitude, the Federal Republic has gone
quite a long May to~vards recognizing the Convention. Itis part of the
whole picture, though not decisive in itself, that the Federal Republic
signed the Convention in 1958, iinmediately before the time-limit for
signature under Article 8. More significant is the fact that the Federal

Republic has relied on the Convention for the piirpose of assertiiig her
own rights in the continental shelf. The Proclamation of the Federal
Government, dated 20 January 1964, contairied the following passage:

"In order to eliminate legal uncertainties that might arise during
the preseiit situation until the Geneva Convention on the Continental
Shelf comes into operation and is ratified by the Federal Republic
of Germany, the Federal Governnient deems it desirable already
now to make the following statement:

1. In view of the development of general international law as
expressed in recent State practice and in particular in the signing
of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf, the Federal PLATI!AU CONTINENTAL(OP. DISS. S~RENSEN) 247

«A moins que l'action des tribunaux n'ait pour effet de réduire la
valeur juridique de la plus puissante source de règlesdu droit inter-
national, a savoir le comportement des Etats, il semble que le prin-
cipe à observer en la matière soit de considérer tout comportement
uniforme des gouvernements (ou, dans certains cas, leur abstention)
comme témoignant d'une opinio necessitatisjuris, sauf s'il est établi
que ledit comportement était indépendant d'une telle intention. ))

(Sir Hersch Lauterpacht: The Development of International Laio by
the International Court, Londres, 1958, p. 380.) [Traduction du
Greffe.]
Si l'on applique ors considérations aux circonstances de l'espèce,il me
semble que l'on peut.voir dans la pratique des Etats évoquéeci-dessus une
preuve suffisante de l'existence de l'opinio juris qui serait nécessaireen

l'occurrence.
On est donc, me semble-t-il, fondé àconclure qu'au terme d'un proces-
sus ininterrompu de plus de vingt-cinq ans, les règlesconsacréesdans la
Convention de Genkve sur le plateau continental ont maintenant acquis
le statut de règlesde droit international généralementacceptées.
Tln'en est pas moins nécessaired'examiner en particulier l'attitude de
la République fédérale d'Allemagne à l'égardde la Convention. Dans
l'affaire desêcheriesl,a Cour a déclaré quela règle desdix millessemblait
de toute manière ((inopposable à la Norvège, celle-ci s'étant toujours
élevéecontre toute tentative de l'appliquer à la côte norvégienne))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 131). De mêmepourrait-on soutenir en l'espèce
que la Convention sur le plateau continental est inopposable à la Ré-

publique fédérale,si celle-ci avait constamment refuséde reconnaître la
Convention comme l'expression de règlesde droit international générale-
ment accepties et si elle s'était opposéà ce qu'il en soit fait application
contre elle. Or, loin d'adopter une telle attitude, la République fédérale
s'est avancéeassez loin sur la voie de la reconnaissance de la Convention.
Elle a signéla Convention en 1958,immédiatementavant l'expiration du
délaipour les signatures prévupar l'article 8, et ce fait, bien qu'il nesoit
pas décisifen soi, constitue un indice parfii d'autres. Ce qui est encore
plus important, c'est que la République fédérale s'est fondéesur la Con-
vention pour faire valoir ses droits sur le plateau continental. La procla-
mation du Gouverriement fédéraldatée du 20 janvier 1964 contient le
passage suivant :

«Afin d'éliminerles incertitudes d'ordre juridique qui pourraient
surgir dans la situation actuelle, en attendant que la Convention
de Genève sur le plateau continental entre en vigueur et soit ratifiée
par la République fédérale d'Allemagne,le Gouvernement fédéral
estime désirable de faire dèsa présentla déclaration suivante:

1. Compte tenu de l'évolution du droit international généraltelle
qu'elle s'exprimedans la pratique récente desEtatset en particulier
dans la signature de la Convention de Genève sur le plateau con- Government regards the exploration and exploitation of the

natural resources of the seabed and subsoil ... as the exclusive
sovereign right of the Federal Republic of Germany .. ."

Leaving aside for the moment the particular question of the delimitation
of the German area of the continental shelf vis-à-vis other States, to

which 1 shall revert later, this proclamation may be taken as conclusive
evidence of the attitude adopted by the Federal Republic towards the
Convention. This attitude is relevant, not so much in the context of
the traditional legal concepts of recognition, acquiescence or estoppel,
as in the context of the general process of creating international legal
rules of universal applicability. At a decisive stage of tliis formative

process, an interested State, which was not a party to the Convention,
formally recorded its view that the Convention was an expression of
generally applicable international law. This view being perfectly well
founded, that State is not now in a position to escape the authority of
the Convention.

It has been asserted that the possibility, made available by Article 12,

of entering reservations to certain articles of the Convention, makes it
difficult to understand the articles in question as embodying generally
accepted rules of international law. 1 intend to revert to this question
below, with particular regard to Article 6. As a more general point 1
wish to state that, in my view, the faculty of making reservations to a
treaty provision has no necessary connection with the question whether

or not the provisioncan be considered as expressing a generally recognized
rule of law. To substantiate this opinion it may be sufficient to point
out that a number of reservations have been made to provisions of the
Convention on the High Seas, although this Convention, according to
its preamble, is "generally declaratory of established principles of inter-
national law". Some of these reservations have been objected to by other
contracting States, while other reservations have been tacitly accepted.

The acceptance, whether tacit or express, of a reservation made by a
contracting party does not have the effect of depriving the Convention
as a whole, or the relevant article in particular, of its declaratory char-
acter. It only has the effect of establishing a special contractual relationship
between the parties concerned within the general franiework of the
customary law embodied in the Convention. Provided the customary

rule does not belong to the category of jus cogens, a special contractual
relationship of this nature is not invalid as such. Consequently, there
is no incompatibility between the faculty of making reservations to
certain articles of the Convention on the Continental Shelf and the
recognition of that Convention or the particular articles as an expression
of generally accepted rules of international law.
As a special proviso to the preceding general observations 1 only wish PLATEAU CONTINENTAL(OP. DISS. SURENSEN) 248

tinental,laRépublique fédéraleconsidèreI'explorationetI'exploita-
tion des ressources naturelles du lit de la mer et du sous-sol . ..
comme ledroit souverain exclusifde la République fédérale d'Alle-
magne ..11

Sion laissedecôtépour l'instant laquestion particulièrede ladélimitation
de la zone allemande du plateau continental par rapport à d'autres Etats,
question sur laquelli:je reviendrai plus loin, on peut considérer que cette

proclamation constitue une preuve déterminante de l'attitude adoptée
par la République fkdérale à l'égardde la Convention. Cette attitude est
importante non point tant au regard des notions juridiques traditionnelles
de reconnaissance expresse ou tacite et d'estoppel que dans le contexte
d'un processus génkal de création de règlesjuridiques internationales
d'application universelle.A une étapedécisivede ce processus de forma-
tion, un Etat intéressé,qui n'étaitpas partieà la Convention, a formelle-
ment exprimél'idéeque cette Convention correspondait au droit inter-
national généralement applicable. Commece point de vue étaitparfaite-
ment fondé,cet Etal:ne saurait maintenant échapper à l'application dela
Convention.
On a affirméque, comme l'article 12 permet de faire des réserves à
certains articles de la Convention, il est difficile de concevoir que les
articles en question puissent consacrer des règlesde droit international

généralementacceptées. Je reviendrai sur cette question plus loin au
sujet de l'article6. Je voudrais faire ici une observation plus générale:
à mon avis, la facultéd'apporter des réservesa une disposition conven-
tionnelle ne dépend pas dela question de savoir si ladite disposition peut
êtreconsidéréeou non comme I'expression d'une règlede droit générale-
ment reconnue. A l'appui de cette manière de voir, il me suffira de souli-
gner que des réservesont étéfaites à certaines dispositions de la con-
vention sur la haute mer, bien que les dispositions de cette convention
soient, d'après son préambule, «pour l'essentieldéclaratoiresde principes
établis du droit international ))Certains Etats contractants se sont op-
posés à quelques-unes des réserves formuléespar d'autres Etats, mais
d'autres réserves ont été tacitementacceptées. L'acceptation tacite ou
expresse d'une réservefaite par une partie contractante n'a pas pour effet
d'ôter àla Convention tout entièreou à I'articleen question soncaractère

déclaratoire. Elle n'a pour effet que d'établir un rapport contractuel
spécialentre lesparties intéiesséesdans lecadre généraldudroitcoutumier
énoncédans la Convention. Si la règlecoutumière n'appartient pas à la
catégorie du jus cogens, un rapport contractuel spécialde cette nature
n'est pas nulen soi. II n'y a donc pas incompatibilité entre la faculté de
faire des réservesà certains articles de la Convention sur le plateau con-
tinental et lareconnalissancedecette convention ou desarticles en question
comme I'expression de règlesde droit international généralementaccep-
tées.
Aux observations généralesqui précèdentje voudrais apporter la to add that the recognition of the Convention as an expression of generally
accepted international law should not prejudge an issue which has arisen
since the convention was adopted in 1958. The test of exploitability for
determining the outer limits of the continental shelf should not be taken
to imply that the status of the seabed and subsoil of the ocean depths

could be governed by the Convention. The legal concept of the continental
shelf cannot reasonably be understood, even in its widest connotation, as
extending far beyond the geological concept. The problem does not arise
in the present cases, and 1therefore do not find it necessary to pursue it
further.

Once it has been concluded that the provisions of the Convention
on the Continental Shelf must be considered as generally accepted rules
of international law and that they are therefore applicable to the Federal
Republic even as a non-contracting State, it is necessary to look more

particularly at Article 6, which is the relevant article for the purpose
of the present cases. Although the provisions of the Convention in
general are considered to be binding on the Federal Republic, there
might be special grounds for holding that this general conclusion does
not apply to a particular article.
In examining this question, it must surely be held, by way ofa starting-
point, that Article 6can hardly be separated from the rest of the Conven-

tion without upsetting the balance of the legal régime instituted by the
Convention, or breaking the unity and coherence of that régime. For
once it is recognized that the coastal State has sovereign rights for
certain purposes over the continental shelf adjacent to its coasts, a
question of delimitation in relation to the shelf areas of neighbouring
States necessarily arises-save only in the rare instances of islarid States

which do not share their continental shelf with other States. A convention
on the legal régime of the continental shelf would be incomplete if it
left this question of delimitation open. Consequently, there would have
to be strong reasons for not considering Article 6 as generally binding
along with the rest of the Convention. To put it otherwise, there is a
strong presumption in favour of considering the rules on the delimitation

of the shelf areas as having a similar legal effect to that of the rules on
the extent and nature of the rights of the coastal State.
Far from being invalidated, this presumption is upheld and confirmed
by other elements. The rules set forth in Article 6 conform to the rules
which are generally applied for the delimitation of maritime areas between
neighbouring States. The 1958 Geneva Conference faced this problem
in three different contexts, in addition to that of the continental shelf,

namely the territorial sea, the contiguous zone and the special fishery
conservation areas. For al1three situations it adopted identical solutions, PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. S~RENSEN) 249

précisionsuivante: la reconnaissance de la Convention comme expression
du droit international généralement accepté ne doit pas préjuger une

question qui s'est ]poséedepuis l'adoption de la Convention en 1958.
11ne faudrait pas interpréter le critère de l'exploitabilité, utilisé pour
déterminer les limites extérieures du plateau continental, comme im-
pliquant que lz régimedu lit des mers profondes et de leur sous-sol peut
êtrerégipar la Convention. On ne saurait raisonnablement attribuer à la
notion juridique de plateau continental, mêmedans son sens le plus
large, une portéebeaucoup plus étendue que celle de sa notion géologique.

Le problème ne se pose pas en l'espèceet ilne me parait donc pas néces-
saire d'y insister.

Après avoir conclu que les dispositions de la Convention sur le plateau

continental doivent êtretenues Dour des rèzles"de droit international
généralement acceptées et par conséquent applicables à la République
fédérale,mê~ne si cette dernière n'est pas un Etat contractant, il importe
d'examiner plus particulièrement l'article 6,qui est I'article clédans les
présentes affaires. Bien que les dispositions de la Convention prise dans
son ensemblesoient considérées comme obligatoiies pour la République
fédérale,il peut exister des raisons spéciales de soutenir que cette con-

clusion générale nes'applique pas à un article particulier.
Pour examiner cette question, on doit assurément partir de l'idéeque
l'article6 ne peut guère être détachédu reste de la Convention sans
bouleverser l'économie du régime juridique institué par celle-ci, ni en
rompre l'unitéet la cohérence. En effet, étant admis qu'un Etat riverain
possède à certaines fins des droits souverains sur le plateau continental

adjacent à ses côtes, une question de délimitation par rapport au plateau
continental relevant des Etats voisins se pose nécessairement, sauf dans
le cas peii fréquerit d'Etats insulaires qui ne partagent pas un même
plateau continental avec d'autres. Une convention sur le régimejuridique
du plateau continental surait incomplète si elle laissait ouverte la question
de la délimitation.Tlfaudrait donc de puissantes raisons pour ne pas ad-
mettre que l'article6 est généralement obligatoire de mêmeque le reste

de la Convention. En d'autres termes, il ya tout lieu de présumer que les
régles sur la délimitation des zones du plateau continental et les règles
sur l'étendueet la nature des droits de 1'Etatriverain ont un effetjuridique
comparable.
Loin d'être annulée, cetteprésomption se trouve étayéeet confirmée
par d'autres éléments.Les règles énoncéesà l'article 6 sont conformes A
celles qui sont généralement appliquéespour la délimitation des zones

maritimes entre Etats voisins. La conférence de Genève de 1958a affronté
ce problème dans trois cas différents, en dehors du plateau continental,
à savoir ceux de la mer territoriale, de la zone contiguë et des régions où
s'appliquent des mesures spéciales de conservation de la pêche. A cesas formulated in Article 12 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea
and the Contiguous Zone. These solutions are substantially the saine as
that of Article 6 of the Continental Shelf Convention. The European

Fisheries Convention of 9 March 1964 adopted the same solution for
the delimitation of exclusive fishing zones as between neighbouring
States.
Furthermore, the practice of States since 1958 inmatters concerning
the delimitation of shelf areas conforms to the rules of Article 6, and
there is no difference between the practice of States parties to the Conven-
tion and that of non-contracting States. The main rule of the Article,

the principle of equidistance or the median line, has been followed in
several bilateral agreements between neighbouring States. It is true that
some of these bilateral agreements deviate from the geometrically exact
line of equidistance. In some cases the agreement has the effect of
"straightening out" the line. In other cases it has taken account of
"special circumstances" within the meaning of Article 6. However that

may be, such agreements are perfectly compatible with the provisions
of Article 6. Likewise, unilateral delimitations proclaimed by States,
even before becoming parties to the Convention, have been based on
the equidistance principle in conformity with Article 6.Although there
are areas in certain parts of the world where the delimitation is still
the subject of controversy, there seems to be no case where the delimita-
tion, whether undertaken bilaterally or unilaterally, cannot be considered

as having taken place within the framework of Article 6.
It has been argued by the Federal Government-and the Court has
accepted that line of argument--that certain instances of State practice
are irrelevant for the purpose of the present cases, since they relate only
to paragraph 1 of Article 6, namely the delimitation of shelf areas
between opposite coasts, and not to the delimitation as between adjacent

States under paragraph 2 of Article 6. In my opinion, this argument is
not decisive. In order to substantiate this opinion a closer analysis of
the provisions of Article 6 is called for.
The geographical terms used in the two paragraphs of Article 6 are
not quite precise. Paragraph 1refers to two or more States "whose coasts
are opposite each other" while paragraph 2 refers to "adjacent States".

These two provisions thus seem to envisage two distinct types or models
of geographical configuration. The realities of geography, however, do
not always conform to such abstract models. The coastlines of adjacent
States (i.e., States having a common land frontier) nlay confront each
other as opposite coasts in their further course from the point where
the common land froiitier meets the sea. Thus the same coastline may
fall under the provisions of both paragraphs. Neither expressly nor

implicitly does Article 6 provide any exact and rational, criterion for
deciding when, and to what extent, two coastlines are adjacent and when
they are opposite.
The dificulties of drawing a clear-cut distinction between the two types PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. SURENSEN) 250

trois cas, elle a appliqué la mêmesolution, qui est formulée à l'article 12
de la convention sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë, et qui coïncide
en substance avec celle de l'article 6 de la Convention sur le plateau con-
tinental. La converition européenne sur la pêche du9 mars 1964a adopté

également cette solution pour la délimitation des zones exclusives de
pêcheentre Etats voisins.
En outre, la pratique des Etats depuis 1958,en matière de délimitation
de zones de plateau continental, est conforme aux règles de l'article 6 et
iln'y a pas de différenceà cet égardentre les Etats parties à la Convention

et ceux qui n'y sont pas parties. La principale règle contenue dans I'ar-
ticle, le principe de l'équidistance ou de la ligne médiane, a étésuivie
dans plusieurs accords bilatéraux entre Etats voisins. 11est vrai que quel-
ques-uns de ces ac:coi-dsbilatéraux s'écartent de la ligne d'équidistance

qui serait géométriquementexacte. Dans certains cas, l'accord a pour effet
de Iredresser » la ligne. Dans d'autres, il a été tenucompte de 1circons-
tances spéciales 11au sens de I'article6. Quoi qu'il en soit, de tels accords
sont parfaitement compatibles avec les dispositions de I'article 6. De
même lesdélimitations unilatérales proclamées par des Etats, avant même

de devenir parties à la Convention, se sont fondées sur le principe de
l'équidistance conirormément à I'article 6. Bien qu'il y ait des régions,
dans certaines parties du monde, où la détermination des limites prête
encore à controverse, il semble qu'en aucun cas la délimitation, qu'on
y ait procédé bilatéralementou unilatéralement, puisse êtreconsidérée

comme s'étant faite hors du cadre de I'article 6.
Le Gouvernement fédérala prétendu --et la Cour a acceptéla thèse -
que certains exemples tirés dela pratique des Etats ne sont pas pertinents
dans les présentes affaires car ils ne concernent que le paragraphe 1 de
l'article6, à savoir la délimitation des zones du plateau continental entre

Etats dont les côtes se font face, et non pas la délimitation entre Etats
limitrophes selon le paragraphe 2 de l'article 6. A mon avis, l'argument
n'est pas décisifet, pour le démontrer, il me paraît nécessaired'examiner
de plus près le contenu de l'article 6.

Les termes géographiques employés dans les deux paragraphes de
I'article 6 ne sont pas très précis. Le paragraphe 1 concerne deux ou
plusieurs Etats 8(dont les côtes se font face 1tandis que le paragraphe 2
vise des (Etats lirnitrophes 1111semble donc que ces deux dispositions
envisagent deux types ou deux modèles différents de configuration géo-

graphique. Mais la réalité géographiquene se conforme pas toujours à
ces modèles abstraits. Les lignes côtières d'Etats limitrophes (c'est-à-dire
d'Etats ayant une frontière terrestre commune) peuvent se faire face au-
delà de l'endroit où la frontière terrestre commune rejoint la mer. 11se
peut donc qu'une mêmecôte relève des deux paragraphes. L'article 6 ne

prévoit, ni expressément ni implicitement, un critère exact et raisonnable
pour décider quanid, et dans quelle mesure, deux lignes côtières sont ad-
jacentes et quand elles se font face.
La difficultéde distinguer nettenient entre cec deux sortes de situationsof geographical situations were, in my opinion, well illustrated during
the oral proceedings by the production of a sketch map (marked D)
showing the area between Denmark and Germany in the westernmost

part of the Baltic Sea.
As a matter of legal principle, the distinction between "median line"
(paragraph 1) and "equidistance" (paragraph 2) seems to me to be
fictitious, and the juridico-technical terminology of the two paragraphs
therefore inadequate. In both paragraphs the decisive element is that
the line in question shall be drawn in such a manner that each point of
it is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the

breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. The geometrical
technique which is used for the drawing of the line is likewise identical
in the two cases.
The proceedings of the Geneva Conference seem to confirm that the
legal principle is the same in the two cases. In its draft articles the
International Law Commission had applied the distinction between

"opposite coasts" and "adjacent States" to the delimitation of the con-
tinental shelf as well as of the territorial sea. Article 12 of the draft
dealt with the delimitation of the territorial sea in straits and off other
opposite coasts, while Article 14dealt with the delimitation of the territo-
rial sea of two adjacent States. At the Conference, however, it was
proposed by Norway that the two rules be merged into one, and a new

consolidated rule was eventually adopted as Article 12of the Convention
on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone. In support of the
proposal it was argued that-

"the problems dealt with in the two articles [scilArticles 12 and
14 of the I.L.C. draft] were so closely interrelated as in some cases
to be practically indistinguishable-for instance where two States
had a common land frontier which met the sea at the head of a

deep bay" (Oficial Records, Vol. II1,p. l88),

and also that-

"The merging of Articles 12and 14was merely a matter of drafting;
the substance of the two articles was so similar that they would
be better combined" (ihid., p. 190).

These arguments met with the general approval of the First Coinmittee
of the Conference, dealing with the territorial sea and contiguous zone.
In the Fourth Committee, discussing the continental shelf, the delegate
of Norway drew attention to the fact that the problems dealt with in

Article 72 of the draft (which later became Article 6 of the Convention)
were very similar to those covered by other articles, particularly Articles
12and 14,with regard to which the Norwegian delegation had submitted
proposals. Any drafting changes in the texts of Articles 12, 14 and 66 PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP.DISS. S~RENSEN) 25 1

géographiques a été fort bien illustrée,à mon avis, par la carte D qui a
étéprésentéeau cours de la procédure orale et où l'on voit la zone qui
séparele Danemark et l'Allemagne dans la partie la plus occidentale de

la Baltique.
Du point de vuejuridique, la distinction entre ((lignemédiane » (par. 1)
et ((équidistance » (par. 2) me parait fictive, et la terminologie juridico-
technique des deux paragraphes est par conséquent impropre. Dans les
deux paragraphes, l'élémentdécisifest que la ligne en question doit être
tracéede telle manière que chacun de ses points soitéquidistant des points
les plus proches des lignes de base à partir desquelles est mesurée la
largeur de la mer territoriale de chaque Etat. De même, lestechniques

géométriques emplciyéespour tracer la ligne sont identiques dans les
deux cas.
Les débats de la conférence de Genève semblent confirmer que le
principe juridique est le mêmedans les deux cas. Dans son projet d'ar-
ticles, laommissioii du droit international a appliquéladistinctionentre
(côtesqui sefont face 1)et((Etats limitrophes ))à ladélimitation du plateau
continental et de la mer territoriale. L'article 12 du projet concernait la
délimitation de la nier territoriale dans les détroits et au large d'autres

côtes se faisant face, tandis que l'article 14concernait la délimitation dela
mer territoriale entre deux Etats limitrophes. La Norvège a cependant
proposé à la conférence de fondre les deux règles en une seule et une
nouvelle règleunique a finalement étéadoptée, qui est l'article 12 de la
convention sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë. A l'appui de cette
proposition on a pritendu que

(les problèmes dont traitent ces deux articles [lesarticles 12 et 14du
projet de la Commission] sont en corrélation si étroite que, dans

certains cas, on ne saurait pratiquement lesdistinguer - par exemple
lorsque deux EIats ont une frontière commune qui rencontre la mer
à l'extrémité d'unebaie profonde ))(Docurnents ojîciels, vol. III,
p. 208)

et que

((lafusion des articles 12et 14est uniquement une question de rédac-
tion; les deux articles sont tellement similaires quant au fond que
mieux vaut les ifondreen un seul 1(ibid., p. 210).

Ces arguments ont été généralemen atcceptéspar la première commission
de la conférence,qui s'occupait de la mer territoriale et de la zone con-
tiguë. A la quatrii5m.ecommission, qui consacrait ses travaux au plateau
continental, le délégué de la Norvègea attirél'attention sur le fait que les

problèmes traités darnsl'article 72 du projet (qui est devenu par la suite
l'article 6 de la Convention) étaienttrès semblables à ceux qui faisaient
l'objet d'autres articles, notamment les articles 12et 14,au sujet desquels
la délégationnorvégienne avait présentédes propositions. Tla ajouté que252 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP. S~RENSEN)

(concerning the contiguous zone, eventually Articl24 of the Convention
on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone) should therefore be
taken into consideration by the drafting committee (OfJic Riacords,
Vol. VI, p. 92). This suggestion, however, was not followed up, although

nobody spoke against it. Consequently, the differences which now exist
between the provisions of the two Conventions on this point seem to
be due to insuficient co-ordination in the drafting, rather than different
views on the principles involved. So far as Articl6 of the Convention
on the Continental Shelf is concerned, there is no difference of principle
between paragraphs 1 and 2. A more adequate formulation of that
principle would have been a negative formulation, on the model of

Article 12 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea, to the effect that
"no State is entitled to extend its area of the continental shelf beyond
a line, every point of which is equidistant from [etc.]" (it may be pointed
out in passing that the aforesaid Article 12 employs the term "median
line" with respect to both opposite and adjacent coasts).

A formula such as the one just quoted would also be the only adequate
formula for dealing with complex situations, for instance where three
or more States are facing each other as opposite States.It seems obvious
that under the median line principle no State should be authorized to
extend its area into the area to be divided by two other States, and that
the median line between States A and B rnust stop where it intersects
with the median line between B and C, although this does not follow

from the actual wording of Article 6.
Although an international judge cannot rewrite the Coiivention on
the Continental Shelf, the preceding explanations seem to warrant the
conclusion that paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article6 should be interpreted as
expressions of a single legal principle, and that no clear-cut distinction
can be made between the practice of States under one or the othei- of
the two paragraphs.

In order to cover al1aspects of the practice of States relating to Article
6, it is also necessary to consider the reservations which some States
have made to that Article. Such reservations are not inadmissible under
Article 12 of the Convention, and their legal effects must therefore be
determined on the merits of each particular case. Sorne of the reservations
have been objected to by other States, but it is not for the Court in the
present cases to express an opinion on the legal effects ofh objections.

The reservations made, and the objections entered against them, are
relevant only in so Far as their total effect niight be to disprove the
thesis that Article6, as part of the Convention, has been accepted as
generally binding international law. In my opinion, however, this is not
the case.First, only four out of 39 States parties to the Convention have
entered reservations to Article 6. Secondly, having examined each of
the reservations in detail, 1 find it safe to consider thern not as aiming

at excluding the régime of Article 6 as such, but at placing on record PLATEAUCONTINENTAL(OP. DISS. S~RENSEN) 252

le comité de rédaction devrait par conséquent prendre en considération

tous les changements de rédaction du texte des articles 12, 14 et 66
(concernant la zone contiguë, et devenu par la suite I'article 24 de la
convention sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë) (Documents oficiels,
vol. VI, p. 111). Cette proposition n'a toutefois pas étésuivie, bien que
personne ne s'y soit opposé. Par suite les divergences qui existent mainte-
nant sur ce point entre les dispositions des deux conventions semblent
dues à une coordina~tion insuffisante au moment de la rédaction plutôt

qu'à des divergences de vues sur les principes en cause. Pour ce qui est
de I'article6 de la Convention sur le plateau continental, il n'y a pas de
différence de principe entre les paragraphes 1et 2. Il aurait mieux valu
adopter une formule négative, sur le modèle de I'article 12 de la con-
vention sur la mer tlcrritoriale et dire qu'f(aucun Etat n'est en droit ...
d'étendre son plateau continental au-delà de la ligne médiane dont tous

les points sont équidistants [etc.] )J(On peut signaler en passant que
l'article 12emploie l'expression (ligne médiane 1aussi bien pour les côtes
qui se font face que pour les côtes limitrophes.)
Une formule comme celle qui vient d'êtrecitéeserait aussi la seule qui
répondrait à des siti~ations complexes, par exemple celle dans laquelle
trois Etats au moins se font face. Il paraît évident que le principe de la

ligne médiane ne devrait autoriser aucun Etat àétendre sa zone de plateau
continental jusque dans une zone à partager entre deux autres Etats, et
que la ligne médiane entre les Etats A et B doit s'arrêterlà où elle coupe
la ligne médiane entre les Etats B et C, bien que cela ne ressorte pas du
libelléactuel de l'article 6.
Bien qu'un juge iriternational ne puisse pas reformuler la Convention

sur le plateau continental, les explications qui précèdent semblent per-
mettre de conclure que les paragraphes 1 et 2 de I'articl6 devraient être
interprétés comme exprimant un principe juridique unique, et qu'on ne
peut pas faire de disi:inction préciseentre la pratique suivie par les Etats
sur la base de l'un ou de l'autre de ces deux paragraphes.
Pour envisager toiis les aspects de la pratique des Etats par rapport à
I'article6,il convieni; aussi d'examiner les réservesque certains Etats ont

formulées à son propos. L'article 12 de la Convention n'empêchepas
pareilles réserves et leurs conséquences juridiques exactes doivent donc
êtredéterminées dans chaque cas particulier. Certaines de ces réserves
ont étécontestées pa.r d'autres Etats mais la Cour n'a pas, dans les pré-
sentes affaires, à expirimer une opinion sur l'effetjuridique des objections
ainsi présentées.Les réserves faiteset les objections qu'elles ont soulevées

ne sont à considérer ici que dans la mesure où elles tendraient principafè-
ment à réfuter la thiSseselon laquelle l'article 6, partie intégrante de la
Convention, a étéreconnu comme une règle de droit iriternational liant
généralementles Etats. 11n'en va pas ainsi à mon avis. Tout d'abord, sur
les trente-neuf Etats parties à la Convention, quatre seulement ont for-
mulé des réserves a l'égard de l'article6. De plus, après avoir examiné
en détail chacune de:ces réserves, il me paraît parfaitement possible de that the existence or non-existence of special circumstances is claimed
within the meaning of the express terms of that Article.

In general, the reservations made to Article 6 do not seern to invalidate
the conclusion that the ~ractice of States is in conformitv with the
provisions of Article 6.
Now ifthe Federal Republic, in her relations with other North Sea
States, had consistently denied the applicability of Articl6,paragraph 2,
to the delimitation of her shelf area, the question might have arisen of

whether the provisions of that paragraph were opposable to the Federal
Republic in spite of her objections. Like the more general probleni
examined above relating to her attitude to the Convention in general,
thisis a problem concerning the attitude of the Federal Kepublic at the
formative stage of a new rule of generally applicable international law.
Far from having denied the applicability of Article 6, hoqever, the
Federal Republic has on one occasion actually referred to it as being

applicable. In the Joint Minutes, signed in Bonn on 4 August 1964 by
the respective leaders of a German and of a Netherlands delegation
(Memorial, Federal Republic/Netheriands, p. 104), it is stated that the
treaty which the two delegations would propose to their Go~ernments
to conclude concerning the lateral delimitation of the continental shelf
near the Coast would constitute "an agreement in accordance with the
first sentence of paragraph 2 of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention".

The same Joint Minutes embodied a statement to the effect that the
Federal Government was seeking to bring about a conference of North
Sea States-

"with a view to arriving at an appropriate division of the continental
shelf situated in the middle of the North Sea in accordance with
the first sentence of paragraph (1) and the firstentence of paragraph
(2) of Article6 of the Geneva Convention".

Consequently, there is nothing to substantiate a conclusioil that
Article 6, and in particular paragraph 2 thereof, has not become part
of generally accepted international law on an equal footing with the
other provisions of the Convention.

If,then, Article 6, paragraph 2, is held to be applicable, the next
question is: which of the specific rules set forth in that paragraph should
be applied in the present case?
The first sentence provides that the boundary shall be determined
by agreement between the States concerned. In the present cases, the
Parties have negotiated with a view to reaching agreement. These nego-

tiations have not been entirely unsuccessful, since partial agreements PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP.DISS. S~RENSEN) 253

conclure que leur objet n'était pasd'exclure le régimede l'article 6 en
tant que tel, mais de faire prendre acte de ce que l'existence ou I'iiiexis-
tence de circonstances spéciales était invoquée en s'appuyant sur les

termes de I'article luii-même.
D'une manière générale, les réserveaspportées à l'article 6 ne semblent
pas contredire la conclusion selon laquelle la pratique des Etats est con-
forme aux dispositions de l'article 6.
Or si la République fédérale avaictonstamment, dans ses relations avec
les autres Etats de la mer du Nord, nié I'applicabilitédu paragraphe 2
de I'article 6à la délimitation de sa partie du plateau continental, on
aurait pu se demandier si les dispositions de ce paragraphe lui étaientop-
posables en dépitde ses objections. De mêmeque pour le problème plus
général évoqué plus haut - celui de son attitudeà l'égardde la Conven-
tion considérée commeun tout - ce qui est en cause ici c'est l'attitude

de la République fkdéraleau stade de formation d'une nouvelle règle
généralement applicable dedroit international. Loin d'avoir nie I'appli-
cabilitéde l'article 6, la République fédéraleen a, au contraire, expressé-
ment fait mention à une certaine occasion comme étant applicable. Dans
le procès-verbal cornmun signé à Bonn le 4 août 1964 par les chefs des
délégationsallemande et néerlandaise (mémoire, Danemark République
fédérale,p. 951,il est dit que le traite que les deux délégations propose-
raient à leurs gouvernements de conclure au sujet de la délimitation
latérale du plateau continental à proximité de la côte constituerait (un
accord au sens de la1première phrase du paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la

Convention de Genève 11Le mêmeprocès-verbal commun note que la
délégation allemande s'efforcerait de réunir une conférence des Etats
riverains de la mer du Nord
((envue d'aboutir àune répartition appropriée du plateau continen-
tal situéau milieu de la mer du Nord conformément à la première

phrase du paragraphe 1 et à la première phrase du paragraphe 2
de I'article 6 de la Convention de Genève 1).
Rien ne permet clonc de conclure que I'article 6, et son paragraphe 2
en particulier, n'est pas devenu partie intégrante du droit international
généralement accepté,au mêmetitre que les autres dispositions de la

Convention.

Si l'on considère donc que I'article 6, paragraphe 2, est applicable, il
faut se demander ensuite laquelle des règlesénoncéesdans ce paragraphe
devrait jouer en l'espèce.
La première phrase dispose que la délimitation est déterminéepar
accord entre les Eitats. En l'occurrence, les Parties ont procédé à des
négociationsafin de:parvenir àun accord. Ces négociationsn'ont pas été
un échectotal puisclu'ellesont abouti à des accords partiels sur la délimi-254 CONTINENTALSHELF(DISS. OP. S~RENSEN)

concerning the delimitation near the coast were concluded. No agreement

could be reached on delimitation farther out to sea. Each of the two
Special Agreements States in the preamble that the existing disagreement
"could not be settled by detailed negotiations". On the other hand,
Article 1, paragraph 2, or each Special Agreement provides that the
Governments concerned "shall delimit the continental shelf in the North
Sea as between their countries by agreement in pursuance of the decision

requested from the lnternational Court of Justice". In their pleadings
before the Court the Parties haveconfirmed that at present the possibilities
of negotiation have been exhausted, and that no agreement will be
possible for so long as the Court has not decided what principles and
rules are applicable. Ih my opinion, theCourt cannot but take cognizance
of this declaration.
Consequently, the next question is whether the principle of equidis-

tance should be applied, or whether there are special circumstances
which justify another boundary line. A natural construction of the
wording of the provision, in particular the words "unless another bound-
ary line is justifie.. .",seems to indicate that the principle of equidis-
tance is intended to be the main rule, and the drawing of another boundary
line an exception to this main rule. This general understanding of the

provision seems to be confirmed by the travaux prépuratoires,including
in particular the 1953report of the Committee of Experts and the reports
of the International Law Commission in 1953 and 1956. The problem,
however, of the degree to which the "special circumstances rule" should
be considered as an exception to the main rule, and of exactly how
"exceptional" it should be, is largely identical with the problem as to

whether the words "special circumstances" should be given a wide or
a narrow construction, and as to the nature of the "special circumstances"
which could justify a departure from the principle of equidistance.

This question is not only crucial to the settlement of the dispute
between the Parties, if, as 1 believe, Article 6 is applicable, but also the
most difficult question to answer. The ordinary and natural meaning

of the words in the context of Article 6 does not give any guidance.
If one then turns to the travaux préparatoires, some guidance is found
in the debates and in the reports of the International Law Commission.
Mention is made of "any exceptional configuration of the coast, as well
as the presence of islands or of navigable channels" (I.L.C. R<.port,1953,
Commentary on Article 82, and Report, 1956,Commentary on Article 72).

At the Geneva Conference, one of the members of the 1953 Committee
of Experts, Commander Kennedy, speaking this time as a representative
of the United Kingdom, mentioned as examples of special circumstances
"the presence of a small or large island in the area to be apportioned",
such islands to be "ti-eated on their merits", of "the possession by one
of the two States concerned of special mineral exploitation rights or
fishery rights. or the presence of a navigable channel" (Oficirrl Records, PLATEAU CONTINENTAL(OP. DISS. S~RENSEN) 254

tation aproximité de la côte. Les Parties n'ont pu s'entendte sur la délimi-

tation dans les régions situéesplus au large. Chacun des deux compromis
précise dans son préambule que le désaccord existant (in'a pu êtreréglé
par des négociations approfondies 11. D'autre part, l'article premier,
paragraphe 2, de chaque compromis stipule que les gouvernements in-

téressés((délimiteront le plateau continental de la mer du Nord entre
leurs pays par voie d'accord conclu conformément à la décisiondemandée
a la Cour internationale de Justice )l.Dans leurs exposésdevant la Cour,
les Parties ont confirmé qu'actuellement les possibilités de négociation

sont épuisées etqu'un accord est exclu tant que la Cour n'aura pas décidé
quels sont les principes et les règles applicables. A mon avis, la Cour ne
peut que prendre acte de cette déclaration.

La question suivante est donc de savoir s'il faut appliquer le principe
de I'équidistance ou si des circonstances spéciales existent qui justifient
une autre délimitation. Si l'on interprète la clause, et en particulier les

termes (àmoins qui: ... nejustifient une autre délimitation 1de la manière
qui vient le plus naturellement a l'esprit, il semblerait que I'on ait voulu
faire du principe cle I'équidistance la règle première, ladétermination
d'une autre ligne de délimitation ne devant êtrequ'une exception à cette

règle. Cette acception générale de la clause semble confirmée par les
travaux préparatoiires, en particulier le rapport du comité d'experts de
1953 et les rapports de la Commission du droit international pour 1953
et 1956. Cependant, soulever la question de savoir jusqu'à quel point la

((règle des circonstances spéciales B doit êtreconsidéréecomme une excep-
tion à la règle principale, et dans quelle mesure exacte elle doit avoir un
caractère ((exceptionnel 11revient largement à se demander s'il faut inter-
préterles termes (circonstances spéciales »au sens large ou au sens étroit,

et quelle sorte de circonstances spéciales » pourrait justifier que I'on
s'écartedu principe: de l'équidistance.
Cette question présenteun intérêc tapital pour le règlement du différend
entre les Parties, si, comme je le crois, l'article 6 est applicable, mais il

est aussi extrêmementdifficile d'y répondre. Le sens ordinaire et naturel
de ces termes. dans le contexte de l'article 6. ne nous est d'aucun secours.
Mais si I'on examirie les travaux préparatoires, certaines indications peu-
vent êtretrouvées dans les débats et ra~worts de la Commissioii du droit
3 #
internatioiial. On !rmentionne (une configuration exceptionnelle de la
côte ou encore la présence d'îles ou de chenaux navigables 11(C.D.I.,
Rapport 1953, commentaire de l'art. 82, et C.D.I., Rappovr 1956,
commentaire de l'a~rt. 72). A la conférence de Genève, l'un des anciens

membres du comité d'experts de 1953, le co~nrna~?de Krennedy, qui repré-
sentait alors le Royaume-Uni, citait comme exemples de circonstances
spéciales I(I'existence d'une île, petite ou grande, dans la zone à répartir 1)
ou (<lefait que l'uri des Etats posséderait des droits spéciaux en matière

d'exploitation minière ou de pêche, ou encore l'existence d'un chenal
navigable 11(Documrentsoficiels, vol. VI, p. 112). Comme éléments desVol. VI, p. 93). As an element of the travaux priparatoires the explana-
tions of votes given by delegates at the Conference when the Article was
adopted may also be taken into consideration. The representative of
the Federal Republic stated that he had voted in favour of the Article
"subject to an interpretation of the words 'special circumstances' as
meaning that any exceptional delimitation of territorial waters would

affect the delimitation of the continental shelf" (ibid., p. 98). Although
a declaration of this kind cannot be held against the Federal Republic
as justifying inferences a contrario, the statement is, nevertheless, signifi-
cant as evidence of the types of special circumstance which were in the
minds of delegates to the Conference. Incidentally, the statement made
by the German delegate takes account of the situations obtaining in the

Germano-Netherlands and Germano-Danish border areas, and the two
subsequent partial agreements of 1964and 1965 may be taken to recog-
nize the existence of "special circunistances" in these two situations.
Nowhere in the travaux prkpuratoires, however, is any reference to be
found to geographical situations resembling the bend in the general
direction of the German North Sea coast.

Itis true that the special circurnstances clause was meant to apply in
cases where the equidistance principle would lead to inequitable or
unreasonable results. To indicate what is inequitable or unreasonable,
however, is hardly possible in the absence of any standard of evaluation.
The Convention itself does not offer any such standard, nor do the
truvaus pri?puratoirc.s.There is no basis in international law for main-

taining that two or three neigl-ibouring States should have shelf areas
of approximately the same size measured in square kilometres. The idea
of justifia disrrihurii.~, however meritorious it may be as a moral or
political principle, has not become part of international law, as will be
seen fronl a cursory glance at the established international order with

its patent factual inequalities between States. Nor is there any basis for
maintaining that the respective areas of the continental shelf should
be proportionate to the length of the coasts of the States concerned,
or to any such uncertain and hitherto unknown concept as their "coastal
fronts". In itself, the continental shelf area which appertains to the
Federal Republic under the equidistance principle is not insignificant: it

covers an area of 23,000 square kilometres (more than two-thirds of
the total land area of the Netherlands, and more than half of that of
Denmark), and its farthest point out to sea is at a distance of some
170 kilometres, or nearly 100 nautical miles, from the nearest points of
the German coast.
The fact that this area would have been larger, had it not been for

the combined effect of the Netherlands-German and Germano-Danish
equidistance lines, is immaterial in this context. This combined effect
is the product of the bend of the German coast as a geographical factor,
and of the location of the Federal Republic's land frontiers with her
neighbours, as a legal and political factor. Had the Netherlands-German PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS.S~RENSEN) 255

travaux préparatoires, on peut également prendre en considération les
explications de vote fournies par les délégués à la conférence lors de
l'adoption de l'article. Le représentant de la République fédérale déclara
qu'il avait votéen faveur de l'article ((eninterprétant cependant les mots
((circonstances spéciales)) comme signifiant que toute délimitation
particulière des eau:<territoriales devait avoir une influence sur la délimi-
tation du plateau continental ))(ibid.,p. 117). S'ilest vrai qu'on ne peut
invoquer une déclaration de ce genre contre la Républiquefédéralepour
en tirer des déductions a contrario, elle n'en estpas moins révélatriceen
tant qu'indication tiu genre de circonstances spécialesauquel pensaient
les délégués a la conférence. Soitdit en passant, la déclaration du délégué

allemand tient compte de la situation dans les régionsfrontières de la
République fédéraleavec ses voisins danois et néerlandais et on peut
penser que les deux accords partiels de 1964et 1965 reconnaissent I'exis-
tence de ((circonstances spéciales )dans ces deux cas. Cependant, dans .
aucun des travaux préparatoires il n'est fait état de situations géogra-
phiques comme le coude marqué que décrit,dans sa direction générale,
la côte allemande de la mer du Nord.
Certes la clause des circonstances spécialesest censées'appliquer aux
cas où le principe de l'équidistanceentraînerait des résultats inéquitables
ou déraisonnables. ILn'en est pas moins très difficile de définirI'inéqui-
table ou le déraisonnable en l'absence de toute norme d'appréciation.
La Convention elle-même nenous fournit pas une telle norme, ni d'ail-

leurs les travaux préparatoires. Rien, en droit international, ne permet
d'affirmer que deux ou trois Etats voisins devraient avoir des zones de
plateau continental d'une surface à peu près égale enkilomètres carrés.
L'idéedejustice distributive, quelle que soit sa valeur en tant que principe
moral ou politique, ne fait pas encore partie du droitinternational; ilsuffit
pour s'en convaiiicre de considérer l'ord~einternational établi, avec les
inégalitésde fait flagrantes qui existent entre les Etats. Rien ne permet
non plus de souten~irque les zones de plateau continental doivent être
proportionnelles à la longueur des côtes des Etats intéressés,ou à celles
de leurs ((façades maritimes ))notion bien vague et inconnue jusqu'ici.
En soi, la zone de plateau corf:nental qui relève de laRépubliquefédérale
en vertu du principe de 1';.aidistance n'est pas négligeable: elles'étend

sur 23 000 kilomètres carrés (soitplus des deux tiers de la superficie totale
du territoire des Pa.ys-Baset plus de la moitié decelle du Danemark) et
son point extrêmeen mer se situe à quelque 170 kilomètres, soit près de
100 milles marins, des points les plus proches de la côte allemande.

Le fait que cette zone aurait étéplus vaste, n'était l'effet combinédes
lignes d'équidistance germano-néerlandaiseet germano-danoise, importe
assez peu ici. Cet effet combiné découle de la courbure de la côte alle-
mande - facteur géographique - et de l'emplacement des frontières
terrestres entre la République fédéraleet ses voisins - facteur juridique
et politique. Si la frontière germano-néerlandaise s'était situéeplus à256 CONTINENTAL SHELF(DISS. OP. S~RENSEN)

frontier lain farther to the west, and the Germano-Danish frontier farther
to the north, the two equidistance lines would have met farther out to
sea, or might not have met at all, so that the "cutting-off effect would
have been reduced or entirely removed. But the Court has to base its
findings on the geographical and political factors as they are, and not
upon comparisons with hypothetical situations. The politico-geographical

circumstances of coastal States al1over the world, including those around
the North Sea, are extremely different and have the effect of producing
great inequalities as to the areas of continental shelf which each State
could claim under the principle of equidistance. The special circumstances
clauses of Article 6 cannot reasoriably be understood as being designed
to rectify any such inequalities caused by elementary geographical factors

in combination with the location of political frontiers.

If anything, it might conceivably be argued that the areas to which
sovereign rights attach for the purpose of exploring and exploiting the
natural resources of the continental shelf should be delimited in such a
way as to apportion these resources equitably among the Statesconcerned,

taking into account the structure and trends of their respective national
economies. The Convention, however, does not give any support for
a solution based on such considerations, and the Parties to the present
cases have not been able to provide relevant information as to the location
of the natural resources, ifany, of the areas in question.

One final consideration appears to be relevant. The delimitation of
maritime areas between neighbouring States is a matter which may
quite often cause disagreement and give rise to international disputes.
In accordance with the function of law in the international community,
the rules of international law should be so framed and construed as to
reduce such causes of disagreement and dispute to a minimum. The

clearer the rule, and the more automatic its application, the less the
seed of discord is sown. This is particularly important in the absence
of provision for the compulsory adjudication of disputes between the
parties. The Conveiition on the Continental Shelf does not include any
clause concerning the adjudication of boundary disputes, as envisaged
at a certain stage of the work of the International Law Commission.

Several of the States parties to the Convention are not parties to the
Optional Protocol concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes,
adoptecl by the Geneva Conference, or to any other instrument providing
for compulsory adjudication. In such circumstances, ifthe Court is faced
with alternative ways of interpreting a treaty provision, it would seem
not only legitimate but also advisable to give preference to the inter-

pretation which will have the effect of circumscribing more narrowly the
possible area of dispute. As far as Article 6 of the Convention on the
Continental Shelf is concerned, there is no doubt that the principle of
equidistance is one whose application is simple and almost mechanical, PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP.DISS.S~KENSEN) 256

l'ouest, et la frontière germano-danoise plus au nord, les deux lignes
d'équidistance se seraient rencontrées plus loin des côtes, ou mêmeau-
raient pu ne pas se rencontrer du tout, ce qui aurait réduit ou même
complètement éliminé((l'effetd'amputation JJMais la Cour doit fonder
ses conclusions sur les facteurs géographiques et politiques tels qu'ils
se présentent, etori pas sur des comparaisons avec ce qui aurait pu être.
La situation politico-géographique des Etats riverains varie beaucoup
dans le monde entier, notamment dans la mer du Nord, et les différences
existantes entraînent de grandes inégalitésquant aux zones de plateau
continental que chaque Etat peut revendiquer en vertu du principe de

l'équidistance.On ne peut raisonnablement croire que le but de la clause
des circonstances spiicialesprévuà l'article 6soit de rectifier lesinégalités
causéespar l'effetconjugué de facteurs géographiques élémentaires et de
l'emplacement de frontières politiques.
11seraità la rigueur possible de soutenir que les zones de plateau sur
lesquelles s'exercent des droits souverains en matière de prospection et
d'exploitation de reissourcesnaturelles devraient êtredélimitéesde façon
que les ressourcessoient répartieséquitablemententre les Etats intéressés,
compte tenu de la structure et des tendances de leurs économies natio-
nales. Mais la Convention n'offre aucun point d'appui à une solution
fondée sur de telles considérations, et les Parties aux présentes affaires
ont étédans l'incapacité de fournir des renseignements pertinents au

sujet de l'emplacement d'éventuellesressources naturelles dans les zones
en question.
Une dernière observation paraît s'imposer. La délimitation de zones
maritimes entre Etats voisins peut souvent entraîner des désaccords et
donner lieu à des différendsinternationaux. TIest conforme au rôle qui
incombe au droit dans la communauté internationale que les règles du
droit international soient rédigéeset interprétées de manière à réduire à
un minimum les causes de désaccord et de différend. Plus la règle est
claire, plus son application est automatique, et moindres sont les germes
de discorde. Cette considération est d'autant plus importante que nulle
clause n'oblige les partiesà soumettre leurs différends à une procédure
de règlement. La Ccmvention sur le plateau continental ne contient au-

cune disposition au sujet du règlement des différendsrelatifsà la délimi-
tation, bien que la Commission du droit international ait envisagé cette
possibilitéà un certain stade de ses travaux. Plusieurs Etats partiesà la
Convention ne sont pas parties au protocole de signature facultative
concernant le règlementobligatoire des différends,adopté par la confé-
rence de Genève, rii à aucun autre instrument stipulant cette obliga-
tion de règlement. Ilans ces conditions, si la Cour doit opter entre plu-
sieurs interprétatioils d'une clause conventionnelle, il est, semble-t-il,
non seulement légitime, mais encore souhaitable de préférercelle qui
restreindra le plus les possibilités de différends. En ce qui concerne
l'article de la Convention, il est hors de doute que le principe de l'équi-
distance se prête à une application simple et presque mécanique, alorswhile the special circumstances clause, because of its very vagueness,
it fraught with potential conflict. Consequently, a narrow interpretation
of the term "special circumstances" should be preferred.
Similar considerations are even more pertinent to the fundamental
question, whether or not the provisions of the Convention, and in

particular Article 6, should be recognized as gerierally accepted inter-
national law. If this question is answered in the negative, and the delimi-
tation is to be governed by a principle of equity only, considerable legal
u11cert:tintywill ensue, and that in a field where legal certainty is in the
interest not only of the internationalcommunity in general, but also-on
balance-of the States directly concerned.

For the reasons stated above, my opinion is that the question set
forth in the Special Agreements should have been answered as follows:
1. Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Continental Shelf
of 29 April 1958 is applicable to the delimitation, as between the

Parties, of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which
appertain to each of them, beyond the partial boundary lines already
agreed upon.
2. Within the meaningofArticle 6, paragraph 2, no specialcircumstances
exist which justify another boundary than that resulting from the
application of the principle of equidistance.

(Sigtled) Max SORENSEN. PLAT:EAUCONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. SORENSEN) 357

que la clause des circonstances spéciales, vu son caractère vague, est
grosse de conflitsp~ossibles.Il faudrait donc donner la préférence à une
interprétation étroite de l'expression ((circonstances spéciales
Des considératioris analogues s'appliquent a plus juste titre encore a la
question fondamentale, qui est de savoir si les dispositions de la Con-
vention, etnotammi-nt celles de l'article 6, doivent être reconnues comme
règles de droit international généralementacceptées. Si l'on y répond
par la négative, ladélimitation ne devant alors êtrerégieque par un
principe d'équité,on aboutira à une très grande incertitude juridique, et
cela dans un domaine où la précisionjuridique est non seulement dans

l'intérêt dela communauté internationale en général mais aussi - et
tout bien pesé - dans cclui des Etats directement intéressés.
Pour les raisons qui précèdent,j'estime que la question poséedans les
compromis aurait dû recevoir la réponsesuivante:
1) L'article 6, paragraphe 2, de la Convention sur le plateau continental,
en date du 29 avril 1958,est applicable à la délimitation entre les Par-
ties des zones di~plateau continental de la mer du Nord relevant de
chacune d'elles, au-delà des lignes de délimitation partielle déjà

déterminéespar voie d'accord.
3) Aucune circonst.ance spéciale, au sens de l'article 6, paragraphe 2,
nejustifie une ligne de délimitation autre que celle qui résulte deI'ap-
plication du priricipe de l'équidistance.

(SignéM )ax S~RENSEN.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Sorensen

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