Dissenting Opinion of Vice-President Koretsky

Document Number
051-19690220-JUD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
051-19690220-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF VICE-PRESIDENT KORETSKY

To my great regret,1am unable to concur in the Court's Judgment, for
the reasons which 1 state below.

The Judgment denies the possibility of applying Artic6, paragraph 2,
of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf to these cases on a
purely conventional basis. It is a fact that the Federal Rep~iblic of
Germany has not ratified the Convention. Therefore, despite the Fede-
ral Government's having recognized the doctrine of the continental
shelf as embodied in Articles I to 3 of the Convention, despite its

reliance thereon in proclaiming its sovereign rights over the con-
tinental shelf, despite its having announced a bill for ratification, and
despite its conclusion with the Netherlands and Denmark of respective
treaties that fix partial continental shelf boundaries following "to sonie
extent ... the equidistance line" or adopting a "seaward terminus ...
equidistant from" the coasts concerned (Memorials, para. 60) and are
thus more than consistent with paragraph 2 of Article6, the Federal

Republic of Germany has disp~ited the possibility of regarding that
provision as binding upon it. It may be noted that, during the negotia-
tions which took place with the Netherlands and Denmark, the Federal
Republic contested this possibility only after a certain delay, and that it
was not consistent in doing so, since it even assumed as an alternative
possibility in its final Submissions that the rule contained in the second
sentence of paragraph 2 of Article 6 could be applicable between the
Parties, adding that "special circumstances within the meaning of that

rule would exclude the application of the equidistance method in the
present case". ln this Submission (No. 2) the Federal Republic linked the
principle of equidistance (though calling it a "method") with the "special
circumstances" r~ile,and it may be recalled that, during the oral pro-
ceedings, Counsel for Denmark and the Netherlands had combined them
in the form of the "equidistance'special-circumstances" rule.

The Judgment acknowledges that "such arule was embodied in Article
6 of the Convention, but as a purely conventional rule" (paragraph 69).
However, as the Federal Republic has not ratified the Convention, the 155 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS. OP.KORETSKY)

Judgment considers that "quaconventional rule ... it is not opposable to
the Federal Republic of Germany" (ibicl.). It may be regretted that the
Judgment did not deal fully with the question as to whether "special

circumstances" could in fact be established with regard to the maritime
boundaries between the Federal Republic and the Netherlands, and
between the Federal Republic and Denmark, respectively.
In its first finding, the Judgment uses the following words in respect of
each case: "(A) the use of the equidistance method of delimitation not
being obligatory as between the Parties." It thus disjoins the equidistance

principle from the other two components of the triad: agreement-special
circumstances-eaiiidistance. These three interconnected elements are
embodied in the Convention, as also in the Convention on the Territorial
Sea and the Contiguous Zone, and have entered into the province of the
general principles of international law, being consolidated-as a combined
principle of customary international law. Each of these three elements

plays its part in the determination of a boundary line between two
maritime areas, such as areas of the continental shelf in particular.

Agreement is deemed to constitute the principal and most appropriate
method of determining the boundaries of the areas of any continental
shelf. This is confirmed by the practice of States. The Convention itself

gives it pride of place, and this was quite natural, as the issue was one
concerning the geographical limits of the sovereign rights of States. It
was unnecessary to prescribe at that stage any directives as to the con-
siderations on the basis of which parties ought to arrive at agreement.
Provided there is no encroachment on the sphere of the sovereign rights
of any other State, parties are free to agree on whatever terms they wish

for the delimitation of boundaries, bearing in mind, generally, both legal
and non-legal considerations: relevant political and economic factois,
related considerations of security and topography, the relations ("good-
neighbourly" or otherwise) between the States concerned, and whatever
imponderables may escape hard and fast classification. The assessrnent
of such considerations is a political and subjective matter, and it is not

for the Court as a judicial organ to concern itself with it unless the parties
submit to it a dispute on a question or questions of a really legal character.

The next element of the triad-the "special circumstances" situation-
is, however, an objective matter, concerning as it does, for instance, the
unusual geographical configuration of the coastline to either side of a
frontier, and a disagreement as to whether oi not a certain situation

could be regarded as a case of "special circumstances" justifying an
appropriate boundary line would be a justiciable dispute.
And it is only after the failure of these two elements of the triad, in
the event of a deadlock, that the third element-the equidistance prin-
ciple-makes its appearance as the last resort, offering a way out of the
impassz in a geometrical construction which introduces a mathematicaldefinitude and a certainty of maritime boundaries. The Judgment itself
agrees that "it would probably be true to say that no other method of
delimitation has the same combination of practical conkenience and

certainty of application" (paragraph 23).

If it be held that the principles and rules inseparably embodied in
paragraph 2 of Article 6 of the Convention are no more than treaty
provisions and are not, as such, opposable to the Federal Republic,

then one may ask whether these principles and rules are or have become
an institution of international law, either as general principles developed
in relation to the continental shelf, or as an embodiment of international
custom. There are sufficient grounds for considering them to qualify in
both these ways, but 1am inclined to consider them rather as principles
of general international law, seeing that established doctrine lays much

stress on the timefactor as a criterion of whether a given principle belongs
to customary international law: by and large, customary international
law turns its face to the past while general international law keeps abreast
of the times, conveying a sense of today and the near future by absorbing
the basic progressive principles of international law as soon as they are
developed.

Contemporary inte~national law has developed not only quantitatively
but more especially qualitatively.
There has been far-reaching development of the work of the codifica-
tion of international law which has been organized in the United Nations

on a hitherto unknown scale. In the first stage, drafts of international
multilateral conventions were prepared by the International Law Com-
rriission, composed of jurists "of recognized competence in international
law", which in response to its request, received numerous comments and
observations from almost al1 governments. There followed, upon the
themes of those drafts, an increased amount of special literature (books

or articles) and the work of universities and research institutes, including
the Institute of International Law, and various learned societies (e.g., the
International Law Association). Then came the discussions in the General
Assembly of the reports and drafts prepared by the Inteinational Law
Commission. This preparatory work led finally to the convocation of
special intergovernmental conferences in which the great majority of

States participated. The scale and thoroughness of this process for the
forming and formulation of principles and rules of international law
should lead to the consideration in a new light of what is accepted asthe
result of such work of codification.

Where it used to be considered indispensable, for determining certain 157 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP. KORETSKY)

general principles of international law, to gather the relevant data brick
by brick, as it were, from governmental acts, declarations, diplomatic
notes, agreements and treaties, mostly on concrete matters, such prin-
ciples are now beginning to be crystallized by international conferences

which codify certain not inconsiderable areas of international law. Elihu
Root, the well-known jurist and statesman, one of the frarners of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, wrote (in his
Prefatory Note to the Te.xtsof the Peace Conferencesat The Hague, 1899
and 1907, Boston 1908):
"The question about each international conference is not merely
what it has accomplished, but also what it has begun, and what it has
moved forward. Not only the conventions signed and ratified, but

the stepstaken towards conclusions which may not reach practical
and effective form for many years to corne, are of value."

Elihu Root wrote this in connection with the Peace Conferences of 1899
and 1907.Certain principles which were embodied in The Hague Con-
ventions at that time have been acknowledged as principles of general

international law, though States have been slowto put thern into practice.
The 1958 Conference on the Law of the Sea, with the Conventions
adopted there, among them the Convention on the Continental Shelf,
introduced substantial definitude in this field of international law; and
the principles and rules of the international law of the sea formulated
therein have becorne the general principles of that law with almost un-
precedented rapidity.
The rapid technical progress in the exploration and exploitation of
submarine oil and gas resources has entailed the necessity for correspond-
ing legal principles and rules. The practice of States has predetermined
the course of development of the doctrine as also of the principles and
rules of international law relating to the continental shelf.
The Anglo-Venezuelan Treaty Relating to the Submarine Areas of the
Gulf of Paria, 1942(U.N. Legislative Series: Laulsand Regulations on the
Rwe 4' the High Seas, Vol. 1 (1951), p. 44) was followed in a com-
paratively short time by numerous unilateral governmental acts, such as
the Presidential Proclamation concerning the policy of the United States

with respect to the natural resources of the subsoil and seabed of the
continental shelf (1945), the Presidential Declaration (of Mexico) of the
same year with respect to the continental shelf, and decrees, laws and
declarations by almost al1 the other Latin American States (in the
period 1946-1951), and by the Arab States, Pakistan and others (U.N.
Legislative Series, Law and Regulations on the Régimeof the High Seas,
STILEGiSER.Bi1).
As a result of the inclusion in the work of the United Nations of the
task of determining the principles andrules of international law relating to the continental shelf, the general principles of the law of the continental
shelf had already taken shape before the Conference, though not in a
finally "polished" form, on the basis of governmental acts, agreements
and scientific works. The Ceneva Conference of 1958,in the Convention

on the Continental Shelf which was adopted, gave definite formulation
to the ptinciples and rules relating thereto. These were consolidated in
subsequent practice in a growing number of governmental acts, interna-
tional declarations and agreements (as mentioned in the written and oral
proccedings), which in most cases referred to the Convention or, when

they did not do so, made use of its wording. A11this has led to the develop-
ment, in great measure organized and not spontaneous, of the general
principles of international law relating to the continental shelf, in not
only their generality but also their concreteness. Thus, by a kind of
coalescence of the principles, a genuine comnzunis opitziojuris on the

matter has corne into being. States, even some not having acceded to the
Convention, have followed its principles because to do so was for them a
recognition of necessity, and have thereby given practical expression to
the other part of the well-known formula opiniojuris sivenecessitatis.

And this conclusion might be reached also by deducing these principles
as "direct and inevitable consequences" of the premises and considering
their binding force to be that of historically developed logical principles
of law (see Lotus, Dissenting Opinion by Judge Loder, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 10, p. 35).

This finds confirmation in the doctrine which regards the continental
shelf as being an actualcontinuation of the submarine areas of the territo-
rial sea, which, in its turn, is acontinuation of the mainland of the coastal
State.The United States Presidential Proclamation of 1945. assertine theu
right of the United States to exercisejurisdiction over the nat'uralresources

of the subsoil and seabed of the continental shelf.,reeurded that shelf "as
an extension of the land-mass of the coastal nation and thus naturally ap-
purtenant to it". In 1946an Argentine decree stated : "The continental shelf
is closely united to the mainland both in a morphological and a geological
sense." The Peruvian Presidential Decree of 1947stated that "the continen-

tal submerged shelf forms one entire morphological and geological unit
with the continent", and the decrees of almost al1other Latin American
countries employ virtually identical expressions. (U.N. Legislutive Series,
Lalz3sand Regulationsonrhe Régimeojrhe High Seas, ST'LEG,SER.B,'l).
The Judgment also recognizes that thesubmarine areas of the continental
shelf" may be deemed to be actually part of the territory over which

the coastal State already has dominion-in the sense that, although
covered with water, they are a prolongation or continuation of that
territory, an extension of it under the seau (paragraph 43). But what conclusion can be drawn from this premise-in relation to
principles and rules of international law which govern or should govern
the delimitation of a given part of the continental shelf? Bearing in mind
that the continental shelf constitutes, as is stated in the operative part of
the Judgment, under (C) (l), "a natural prolongation of" each Party's
"land territory into and under the sea" (including, may 1 add, the

territorial sea appertaining to thesame coastal State), the question might
be asked as to whether there exist, for the delimitation of the continental
shelf as between "adjacent" States, any special principles and rules
different from those which have been established (in State practice,
treaties, agreements, etc.) in relation to the delimitation of such maritime
areas as the territorialsea. Concerning any possible connection between

the conceivable principles-whether similar or different-governing the
delimitation, respectively, of the territorial sea and of the continental
shelf, it may be noted, in the first place, that the sovereign rights of a
coastal State over its territorial sea and over the continental shelf are
different in scope.
In relation to the territorial sea three "strata" (to use that term) may

be distinguished: (a)themaritimearea, (6) the seabed and its subsoil and
(c) the air-space. The sovereignty of a coastal State extends to al1three of
these strata with regard to the territorial sea adjacent to its coast.
In relation to a contiguous zone the coastal State has ceitain rights
in connection with a delimited maritime area.
In relation to the continental shelf, that is to say, to the seabed and
subsoil of submarine areas adjacent to a given coast, but outside the

area of the territorial sea(ergo, submarine areas of the contiguous zone
included), the coastal State has "sovereign rights for the purpose of
exploring it and exploitiiig its natural resources", not affecting "the
legal status of the superjacent waters as high seas, or that of the air-
space above these waters".

Thus, there has occurred some kind of bifurcation of the legal régimes
of the territorial sea and of the continental shelf. The maritime and air
"strata" over the continental shelf are outside the sphere of the rights
of a given coastal State. But the continental shelf itself is within the
sphere of the special territorial (though limited) rights of the coastal
State to which it is appurtenant, on the ground of the close physical

relationship of the continental shelf with the mainland (via the submarine
area of its territorial sea), as being its natural prolongation, as was
recognized by the Court and has become the generally recognized concept
of international law. Although Bracton might have considered the sea
coast "quasi maris accessoria", which was historically understandable,
not only the territorial sea but also the continental shelf may now be
considered as "accessories" of or, in the words of the Judgment in the

Fisheries case, as "appurtenant to the land territory" (I.C.J. Reports
1951, p. 128; in French, more explicitly, "comme accessoiredu territoireterrestre") '.To apply the old adage accessoriurn sequitur suumprincipale,
this appurtenance may be considered as entailing common principles for
the delimitation of maritime spaces, that is to say for both the territorial
sea and the continental shelf.

This explains why, in the International Law Commission, almost

from the beginning, it was frequently said that the question of the delimi-
tation of the continental shelf is, in the words of M. Cordova, a former
Judge of the International Court, "closely bound up with the delimitation
of territorial waters" (I.L.C. Yearbook, 1951, Vol. 1, p. 289).

The starting-point for determining the boundaries of a continental
shelf is formed by the definitive boundaries of the territorial sea of a
given State (Article 1of the Convention on the Continental Shelf defines
the continental shelf, as has been recalled, as adjacent to the Coast but
outside the area of the territorial sea), and it was for that reason that
Professor François, the rapporteur of the International Law Commission,

was able to state as follows in 1951:
"It seems reasonable to accept, as demarcation line between the
continental shelves of two neighbouring States, the prolongation of

the line of demarcation of the territorial waters" (A,'CN.4;'42,p. 717).

The Committee of Experts, which was composed not of mere draftsmen
but of very experienced specialists acquainted with the practice of States
in the matter of the determination and delimitation of maritime bound-
aries, who were the representatives of cartography as a science within
the field of political geography which is intimately connected with "public
law", stated in their report, in answer to, inter alia, the question of how
the lateral boundary line should be drawn through the territorial sea of

two adjacent States:
"The committee considered it imnortant to find a formula for

drawing the international boundaries in the territorial waters of
States, which could also be used for the delimitation of the respective
continental shelves of two States bordering the same continental
shelf" (A.'CN.4,'61,Add. 1, Annex, p. 7).

lt will be observed that the two Geneva Conventions of 1958-that on the
Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone and that on the Continental

' Cf. Grishadarna award: "the fundamental principles of the law of nations, both
ancient and modern, according to which the maritime territory is essentially an
appurtenance of a land territory" [rranslation hy the Registry]. (U.N.R.I.XI,.,
p. 159.)Shelf-formulated very similar and, in substance, even identical principles
and rules for the delimitation of both theterritorial sea and the continental
shelf '.It is particularly noteworthy in this respect that Article 6 of the
SovietiFinnish Agreement concerning boundaries in the Gulf of Finland
actually provides for the boundary of the territorial sea to constitute
that of the continental shelf (U.N. Treaty Series, Vol. 566, pp. 38-42).

If both the territorial sea and the continental shelf are regarded as a
natural prolongation of a given mainland and if, in this sense, it is
considered that they have a territorial character, it must be still borne

in mind that their delimitation should be effected not in accordance with
the principles and rules applicable to the delimitation of land territories
themselves, but in accordance with those applicable to the delimitation
of maritime areas coveiing such a prolongation of a territory.
Until recently, attention was mainly directed to the delimitation of the
territorial sea and contiguous zone and, to someextent, of the continental

shelf, in a seaward direction, since the complexities of inter-State relations
and contradictions gave rise to problems concerning the correlation of the
freedom of the high seas with the sovereignty of coastal States over their
territorial sea and, associated therewith, problems of navigation, innocent
passage, fisheries,etc. Questions of policy and, in the words of Article 24
of the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone,

questions concerning the prevention of infringements of a given State's
customs, fiscal, immigration or sanita~y regulations. committed witliin its
territory, or within its territorial sea, gave rise to certain problems con-
cerning lateral boundaries. When the exploitation of the natural resources
of the s~ibsoil of the sea became a real possibility, and the problems

connected with the delimitation of the continental shelf area not only
in a seaward direction but more especially between neighbouring States
whose continental shelf is adjacent to their coasts, beeame more acute,
the character of the "territoriality" of the sovereign rights of a coastal
State called for more certainty and more definiteness and almost, indeed,
for mathematical precision.

Inevitably, the definition of the boundary of a given part of the con-
tinental shelf must be effected not on the shelf itself but on the waters
which cover it. This entails the application to the delimitation of the
continental shelf of principles and rules appropriate to the delimitation

It may also be noted that the delegate of the Federal Republic of Germany to
the Geneva Conference of 1958, Professor Münch, declared that he was in agreement
with the wording of Article 6, paragraphs1and 2, "subject to an interpretatioof
thewords 'special circumstances' as meaning that any exceptional delimitaof the
territoriawaters would affect the delimitatioof the continental shelf" (U.N.
Conference on the Law of the Sea, OficiaR lecords, VI, 4th Comniittee,p. 98).of sea areas and accordingly of the territori-al sea, the boundaries of
which can be described as mathematically, geometrically constructed in
a manner that is as simple as is permitted by the configuration of the
Coastor by the baselines.
Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention envisages cases where the

same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of tivo adjacent
States. It follows that when it is a question of delimiting the boundary of
the continental shelves of two coastal States in conformity with existing
principles and rules, and even if the presence of special circun~stancesis
observed and confirmed, those special circumstances can only justify a
deviation from the normal line if they are located comparatively near to
the landward starting-point of the boundary line of the continental shelf
adjacent to the territories of the two (and only two) adjacent States.
Moreover, the boundary line will generally be constructed with reference
to the baselines of the territorial sea, in the drawing of which due allow-
ance will alieady have been made for certain irregularities of configura-
tion. At al1events, the factors concerned should be considered only in
relation to the determination of a single boundary line between two
adjacent States, while the influence of any special circumstances on both
must be taken into account. Al1 "macrogeographical" considerations

are entirely irrelevant, except in the improbable framework of a desire
to redraw the political map of one or more regions of the world.

If "special circumstances" were recogiiized to exist in relation to a
given part of the continental shelf, in what way would they affect the
application in these cases of the general principles governing the delimi-
tation of the boundary line?The Federal Republic of Germany maintains
that, within the meaning of the "special circumstances" rule, that rule
would exclude the application of the equidistance method. But the absence
of any mention of another principle to be regarded as alternative to the
one specified might be interpreted to mean that the equidistance principle
would not be eliminated, excluded or replaced, but rather modified or
inflected. This is to say that there may be a certain deviation from the
strict mathematical course of an equidistance line orthat, still taking the
equidistance principle asthe basis of the delimitation, the direction of the
boundary line,after initially taking the equidistant course, may bechanged
after an appropriate point.

Thus the presence of specialcircumstancesmight introducea corrective
or might only amend the principle which serves as the starting-point. It
is conceivable that in the middle, or towards the end-but not at the
beginning-of a boundary line, a change of direction, corrective of the
line, may be effected under the influence of special circumstances. This
could be the case if there were somegeographical hindrance to continuing
the line in the same direction, so that a deviation in some section of the
line arose in conforrnity with the very nature of the special circumstance
involved. The possibility is not excluded of exercising a certain flexibilityin the actual drawing of the line but without, of course, substituting an
alternative basis of delimitation.

The Judgment attaches special significance to the fact that, under

Article 12of the Convention, any State may make a reservation in respect
of Article 6, paragraph 2, froni which it concludes that Article 6, para-
graph 2, comes within the category of purely conventional rules and that
therefore the ~rinci~les and rules embodied in it are excluded from the
province of the general principles and rules of international law and
fromthat of customary international law. The Judgrnent Statesthis while
reasoning that the use of the equidistance method for the purpose of
delimiting the continental slielf which ap--rtains to the Parties is not
obligatory as between them.
Ttmust be noted once more that Article 6, paragraph 2, embodies not
only the principle of equidistance, but also two other principles concerning
respectively the determination of the boundary of the continental shelf
byagreement (and it would be impossible to imagine that anyone could
oppose this principle or wish to make a reservation with regard to it)

and the "special circumstances" clause as a corrective to the equidistance
principle. These three elements of Article 6, paragraph 2, are, as 1
have already noted, intimately interconnected in constituting a normal
procedure for the deterniination of a boundary line of the continental
shelf as bethveenadjacent States. It is therefore impossible to apply to this
provision the logical method of separability, just as it is impossible to
separate the principles and rules of Article 6, paragraph 2, from the
general doctrine of the continental shelf as enshrined in the first three
articles of the Convention.
From a consideration of the reservations-comparativcly few in
number-which were made by governments to Article 6, paragraph 2, it
will be seen that not one of the governments opposed in any general way
the principles and rules embodied in this Article. They stated only (as
inthe instances of Venezuela and France) that, in certain specific areas off

their coasts, there existed "special circumstances" which excluded the
application of the principle of equidistance.

Thus, for instance, the Government of the French Republic stated
that:
"In the absence of a specific agreement, the Government of the

French Republic willnot accept that anyboundary of the continental
shelf determined by application of the principle of equidistance shall
he invoked against it: ... if it lies in areas where, in the Govern-
ment's opinion, there are 'specialcircumstances' within the meaning of Article 6, paragraphs 1and 2, that is to Say:the Bayof Biscay,the
Bay of Granville, and the sea areas of the Straits of Dover and
of the North Sea off the French Coast" [trrrnslation by theRegistry]
(Status of Multilaterai conventions in respect of which the Secretary-
General performs depositary functions; ST/LEG/SER.D/l).

And the Government of Yugoslavia made a reservation in respect of
Article 6 of the Convention which can easily be understood in viewof its
positive attitude to the principle of equidistance l.In its instrument of
ratification, the Government of Yugoslavia stated: "In delimiting its
continental shelf, Yugoslavia recognizes no 'special circumstances'
which should influence that delimitation" (idem).

What are, in effect, the principles and what has been the practice, with
regard to the delimitation of the territorial sea?
Sovereign rights over the territorial sea, likeal1territorial rights, have
an inherent spatial reference, and every such right is subject to certain
limits which are determined by historically developed principles. The

territorial sea as a maritime space is inseparably connected with the land
territory of which it is an appurtenance.
As recalled above, the question of the boundaries of the territorial sea
arises mainly in connection with the measurement of its breadth, but the
lateral boundaries (as they have not given rise to the kind of serious
dispute so common in regard to the breadth, sothat not al1the documen-
tation on them has been published) are usually, as far as we know, deter-
mined in treaties, conventions, or inadministrativeagreementsconcerning,

particularly, customs jurisdiction and fisheries.

It has been estimated that there are some 160places where international
boundaries have been extended from the Coast,but the documentation in
this connection isscant. It is clear however, that there has been a very
general tendency in defining these boundaries to employ, for the sake
of clarity and certitude, virtually mathematical concepts expressed in the
use of geographical CO-ordinates, parallels of latitude, geometrical
constructions, charts showing points connected by straight lines, per-

It is worthy of notethat, at the conferencc on thc Law of the Sea, the Delegation
of Yugoslavia proposed to delete from Article 72 (now Article 6) the words "and
unless another houndary line isjustified by special circumsta(G/CONF. 13/42,
p. 130)and the Delegation of the United Kingdom, in its amended draft of the same
Article, omitted thsame words (ihid p.,134).pendiculars, produced territorial boui-idaries, and even in such straight-
forward visual means as the aligiiment of topographical features. There
has also been a tcndency to apply the principle of equidistance l,which
as a result had historieally evoived. The principles and methods for deli-
miting the territorial sea have become-to use the expression of a well-
known specialist oii boundary questions, S. Whittemore Boggs-
implicitin the conceptof the territorial sea..These principles and methods

are summed up in Article 12 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea
and the Contiguous Zone, which premises tlie baseline from which the
breadth of the territorial sea of each of the two States concerned is
iiieasured, tlie difirent questions connected with the method of deter-
mining baselinec having been dealt witli in Articles 3 to 9 of the same
Convention.

The Judgment (paragraphs 88 ff.)refers to the "rule of equity" as a

ground for the Court's decision, and apparently understands the notion
of equity in afar wider sense tlian the restricted connotation given to it in
the Cornnion Law countiies. TtStates: "Whatever the legal reasoning of a
court of justice, its decisions must by definition be just, and therefore
in that sense equitable" (paragraph 88). Aiiy judge might be pleased
with this statenient, but the point it makes appears to me purely semantic.

The International Court is a court of law. Its function is to decide disputes
submitted to it "in accordaiice with international law" (Statute, Article
38, paragraph 1),and on no other grounds. It is true that the Court may
be givcii "power .. . to decide a case e.~ciequoet bono", but only "if the
parties agree thereto" (ibitlparagraph 2). It might be held that in such
circiim~tanccs the Court rvould be discharging the functions of an

arbitral tribunai, but the measure of discretion which the ex aequo et borlo
priiiciple confers upoii a court of law as such is at al1events soniething
which the International Court of Justice has never enjoyed. This principle
is accordingly nowhere to be found in the decisions either of the present
Court or of its predecessor, because there never lias been any case in
which the parties agreed that the Court might decide es aequo et hono.

A typical attitude is expressed in the following extract froin a letter addressed
by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs to tlie InternatiLaw Commission on
2 August 1953: "If.. .the International Law Cominission were to deem indispens-
able a choice bctween the three definitions" it has "proposthe French Govern-
ment considers that delimitation by mcanî of a line every point of which is equidistant
from tlie nearest points on the coastline of each of the two adjacent States sliould be
chosen, as being likcly to yield the best solution in the greatest number of cases"
[trar~slation b.v the Re~irfvy] (Doc. A/CN./3,'71/Add.2;I.L.C. Yearbook, 1953,
Vol. II, pp. 88 f., in fine).This negative fact seems to indicate that States are somewhat averse to
resorting to this procedure and it was not on this basis that the Court
was asked to give a decision in the present case. TheCourt itself Statesin
its Judgment that "There is ... no question inthis case of any decision ex
aequo et bono" (paragraph 88); nevertheless it may be thought to have
tended somewhat in that direction.

The notion of equity was long ago defined in law dictionaries, which
regard it as a principle of fairness bearing anon-juridical, ethical charac-
ter. Black, for example, cites: "Its obligation is ethical rather than jural
and its discussion belongs to the sphere of morals. It is grounded in the
precepts of the conscience, not in any sanction of positive law" (4th
edition, 1951, p. 634) 2.The science of ethics has been and still is the
subject of somewliat heated debates and of ideological differences
concerning the content and meaning of equity and of what is equitable.
1feel that to introduce so vague a notion into the jurisprudence of the
International Court may open the door to making subjective and there-

fore at times arbitrary evaluations, instead of following the guidance of
established general principles and rules of international law in the settle-
ment of disputes submitted to the Court. Thus the question of the actual
sizeof the area of continental shelf which would fall to the Federal Repub-
lic on application of the equidistance principle is not in itself relevant for
the present cases, where the issues raised are, in the words of Lord
McNair, "issues which can only be decided on a basis of law" (Fislieries,
dissenting opinion, I.C.J. Reports 19.51, p. 158).

To demonstrate the necessity for applying the rule of equity, reference
has been made to the United States Presidential Proclamation of 1945,
which stated that: "In cases where the continental shelf extends to the
shores of another State, or is shared with an adjacent State, the bound-
ary shall be determined by the United States and the State concerned in
accordance with equitable principles", but here this means nothing
more than calling upon neighbouring States to conclude agreements.

Certain other proclamations, while stating that boundaries will be

determined in accordance with equitable principles, use qualifying terms.
For example, the Royal Pronouncement of Saudi Arabia (1949) affirms

l It may be recalled as an example that, in its letter to the International Law
United Kingdom stated: "4. Wherethe adjacent Statesare unable to reach agreementthe
... Her Majesty's Government consider that as a rule recourse should be had to
judicial settlement.ch settlement should be according to international law rather
than ex aequo et bono" (I.L.C. Yearbook, 1953, Vol. Ip.85).

Professor Max Huber understands it "as a basis independent of law" [trans-
lation by the Registry] (Annuaire de l'Institut de droit into.national, 1934, p. 233).that the boundaries "will be determined in accordance with equitable
principles by Our Government l in accordance with other States .. . of
adjoining areas"; the Proclamation of Abu-Dhabi (1949) places more

emphasis on the unilateral character of the delimitation: the Ruler
proclaims that the boundaries are to be determined ".. .on equitable
principles, by us aftcr consultation l with the neighbouring States"
(U.N. Legislative Series, Laws and Regulations on the Régime of the
High Seas, ST/LEG/SER. B/1).

The Court, rejecting the application of the equidistance method in
these cases and observing that there is no other single method of delimi-
tation the use of which is in al1 circumstances obligatory 3,has found

that "delimitation is to be effected by agreement in accordance with
equitable principles" (Judgment, paragraph 101 (C) (1)) thus envisaging
new negotiations (even though, before they requested the Court to
decide the dispute between them, the Parties had already carried on
somewhat protracted but unsuccessful negotiations).
At the same time, the Court has considered it necessary to indicate
"the factors to be taken into account" by the Parties in their negotiations
(paragraph 101 (D)). The factors which have been specified could
hardly, in my opinion, be considered among the principles and rules of
international law which have to be applied in these cases. The word
"factor" indicates something of a non-juridical character that does not

come "within the domain of law". The Court has put forward considera-
tions that are,rather, economico-political in nature, and has givensome
kind of advice or even instructions; but it has not given what 1personally
conceive to be a judicial decision consonant with the proper function of
the International Court.
It may be appropriate to recall in this connection the observation
made by Judge Kellogg in the Free Zones case to the effect that the
Court could not "decide questions upon grounds of political and econo-
mic expediency" (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 24, 1930, p. 34). Interpreting
Article 38 of the Statute, he noted that "it is deemed impossible to avoid
the conclusion that this Court is competent to decide only such questions

as are susceptible of solution by the application of rules and principles of

Italics supplied.
The Convention sveaks of the eauidistance orinciole but the Couruses the
term "equidistance rnefhod", thereby ;educing thé significance of the principle to
that of a technical means.
' It may be noted that the Court was asked to indicate not a rnethodof delimitation
internationalawwhich are applicable in the circumstances that were indicated inof
these cases and referred to in the Special Agreements.law" (ibid.,p. 38); and he cited the statement which was made by James
Brown Scott in his address at The Hague Peace Conference of 1907:
"A court is not a branch of the Foreign Office, nor is it a Chancellery.

Questions of a political nature should ... be excluded, for a court is
neither a deliberative nor a legislative assembly. It neither makes laws
nor determines a policy. Its supreme function is to interpret and apply
the law to a concrete case. . .If special interests be introduced, if political
questions be involved, the judgrnent of a court must be as involved and
confused as the special interests and political questions l."

Although 1feel obliged to disagree with the whole of section (C) of the
operative part of the Judgment, 1consider it necessary to refer here only
to sub-paragraph (2) of that section; in which the Court, envisaging a
case where "the delimitation leaves to the Parties areas that overlap",
decides that such areas "are to be diilidedbetween them in agreed pro-
portions or, failing agreement, equally 2". Here, the Judgment goes
beyond the province of questions relating to the delimitation of the
continental shelf and enters upon that of questions of distribution,

despite the fact that the Court itself has earlier stated that "its task in
the present proceedings relates essentially to the delimitation and not the
apportionment of the areas concerned" (paragraph 18) 3.
To draw a boundary line in accordance with the proper principles
and rules relating to the determination of boundaries is one thing, but
how to divide an area with an underlying "pool or deposit" is another
thing and a question which the Court is not called upon to decide in the
present cases.
It may be sufficient to recall that Article 46 of the Treaty between the

Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Federal Republic of Germany
concerning Arrangements for Co-operation in the Ems Estuary (Ems-
Dollard Treaty signed on 8April 1960)stated :
"The provisions of this Treaty shall not affect the question of the

course of the international frontier in the Ems Estuary. Each
Contracting Party reserves its legal position in this respect" (United
Nations Treaty Series, Vol. 509, pp. 94 K.).

'See Proceedings of The Hague Peace Conferences. Conference of 1907, Vol. II,
New York, 1921, p. 319, where the text is given more fully.
Italics supplied.
It may be appropriate to mention here that, when analysing the former Judg-
ments of the Court on "Contestations relatives au tracé de la frontière", Professor
that there is a distinction to be made between conflicts concerningfrontiers andng
those to do with the attribution of a territory" [translation by the Re(Recueil
des Cours de I'Academie de droit internatioital, Vol. 107 (1p.2452).And the Supplementary Agreement to this Treaty, signed on 14May 1962
(ibid., p. 140), which was concluded with a view to CO-operationin the
exploitation of the natural resources underlying the Ems Estuary, leaves
the existing frontiers of both parties intact. And, naturally, for the
exploitation, even in common, of a given part of the continental shelf itis

necessary first to know the boundaries of the continental shelf of each of
the parties. 1 need scarcely say that common exploitation does not
createcommon possession of the continental shelf, or common sovereign
rights in a given area.
Generally speaking, such agreements are in fact concluded with a view
to preserving the sovereign rights of the individual parties in a given
area of the continental shelf. Only in the unthinkable contingency of its
being desired to internationalize an entire continental shelf would a
departure from this standpoint appear apposite.
It would be as wellto cite, in addition, Articles 4 of the two agreements
concluded by the United Kingdom with, respectively, Norway and
Denmark, concerning the delimitation of the continental shelfas between
each pair of countries (Utiited Natiolis Trenty Series, Vol. 551. A/AC.
135110;reproduced in Memorials, Annexes 5 and 12). Article 4 of the
Anglo-Norwegian Agreement reads:

"If any single geological petroleum structure or petroleum
field, or any single geological structure or field of any otherineral
deposit, including sand or gravel, exterids across the dividing line
and the part of such structure or field which is situated on one side
of the dividing line is exploitable, wholly or in part, from the other
side of the dividing line, the Contracting Parties shall,in consultation
with the licensees, if any, seek to reach agreement as to the manner
in which the structure or field shall bernost effectivelyexploited and
the manner in which the proceeds deriving therefrom shall be ap-
portioned" (United Nations Treatj, Serics, Vol. 551, p. 216).

Here we have a special rule which is concerned with relations between
licenseesand with the possibility of briiiging them together in a working-
arrangement, but not a rule concerning the actual boundary of a given
part of the continental shelf or the possibility of changing that boundary.

In sum, 1 consider that the principles and rules of international law
enshrined in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Continental
Shelf ought to be applied in these cases at least qua general principles
and rules of international law.
But even if one does not agree that this provision is applicable in these
cases in its entirety or in part, it is nevertheless necessary that the prin-ciples and rules which are applied inthe delimitation of a lateral boundary
of the continental shelf should have a natural connection with the three
interconnected principles and rules-agreement, special circumstances,
equidistance-which determine the boundaries of a territorial sea.
For, considering that it is a continuation, a natural prolongation of the
territorial sea (its bed and subsoil), the continental shelfis not unlimited
in extent, whether seaward or laterally, but lies within limits consistently
continuing the boundary lines of the territorial sea in accordance with
the same principles, rules and treaty provisions as provided the basis for
the determination of the territorial sea between the two given adjacent
States; that is, in these cases, between the Netherlands and the Federal
Republic of Germany on the one hand and between Deninark and the
Federal Republic of Germany on the other.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF VICE-PRESIDENT KORETSKY

To my great regret,1am unable to concur in the Court's Judgment, for
the reasons which 1 state below.

The Judgment denies the possibility of applying Artic6, paragraph 2,
of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf to these cases on a
purely conventional basis. It is a fact that the Federal Rep~iblic of
Germany has not ratified the Convention. Therefore, despite the Fede-
ral Government's having recognized the doctrine of the continental
shelf as embodied in Articles I to 3 of the Convention, despite its

reliance thereon in proclaiming its sovereign rights over the con-
tinental shelf, despite its having announced a bill for ratification, and
despite its conclusion with the Netherlands and Denmark of respective
treaties that fix partial continental shelf boundaries following "to sonie
extent ... the equidistance line" or adopting a "seaward terminus ...
equidistant from" the coasts concerned (Memorials, para. 60) and are
thus more than consistent with paragraph 2 of Article6, the Federal

Republic of Germany has disp~ited the possibility of regarding that
provision as binding upon it. It may be noted that, during the negotia-
tions which took place with the Netherlands and Denmark, the Federal
Republic contested this possibility only after a certain delay, and that it
was not consistent in doing so, since it even assumed as an alternative
possibility in its final Submissions that the rule contained in the second
sentence of paragraph 2 of Article 6 could be applicable between the
Parties, adding that "special circumstances within the meaning of that

rule would exclude the application of the equidistance method in the
present case". ln this Submission (No. 2) the Federal Republic linked the
principle of equidistance (though calling it a "method") with the "special
circumstances" r~ile,and it may be recalled that, during the oral pro-
ceedings, Counsel for Denmark and the Netherlands had combined them
in the form of the "equidistance'special-circumstances" rule.

The Judgment acknowledges that "such arule was embodied in Article
6 of the Convention, but as a purely conventional rule" (paragraph 69).
However, as the Federal Republic has not ratified the Convention, the 0PINIO:N DISSIDENTE DE M. KORETSKY,
VICE-PRÉSIDENT

[Traduction]

A mon grand regret je ne suis pas en mesure, pour les raisons que
j'indique ci-dessous, de souscrire à l'arrêtde la Cour.

L'arrêtnie qu'il salitpossible d'appliquer auxprésentesaffaires, sur une

base purement conve:ntionnelle, le paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la Con-
vention de Genèvesur le plateau continental. Lefait est quela République
fédéraled'Allemagne:n'a pas ratifié laConvention. C'est pourquoi, bien
que le Gouvernement fédéralait reconnu la doctrine du plateau conti-
nental telle que la consacrent lesarticles 1à 3 de laConvention, bien qu'il
se soit fondé sur cette doctrine pour proclamer ses droits souverains sur
le plateau continental, bien qu'il ait annoncé un projet de loi de ratifica-
tion et bien qu'il ait conclu avec les Pays-Bas d'une part et le Danemark
d'autre part des traités qui fixent des lignes de délimitation partielle du

plateau continental en suivant cdans une certaine mesure ... la ligne
d'équidistance 1)ou de telle manière que (l'extrémitéde la limite . .. du
côté de la haute mer est équidistante des cotes ))intéressées(mémoires,
par. 60), traités qui sont donc plus que conformes au paragraphe 2 de
l'article6, la République fédérale d'Allemagne acontestéqu'il soit pos-
sible de considérer cette disposition comme obligatoire à son égard.On
relèvera que, lors des négociations qu'elle a menées avec les Pays-Baset
le Danemark, la République fédéralen'a contesté cette possibilitéqu'au

bout d'un certain temps, et qu'elle n'apas adoptésur cepoint une attitude
cohérente puisqu'ellf:a mêmeadmis subsidiairement dans sesconclusions
finales que la règleénoncéedans la deuxièmephrase du paragraphe 2 de
l'article6 pouvait êtreapplicable entre les Parties, ajoutant que (des
circonstances spécialesau sens de cette règles'opposeraient à l'application
de la méthode de l'équidistance dans la présente affaire ».Dans cette
conclusion (no2), la République fédérale a établiun lien entre le principe
de l'équidistance(qu'elle appelle «méthode )))et la règle des ((circons-
tances spéciales », et l'on se souviendra qu'au cours de la procédure
orale le conseil du Danemark et des Pays-Bas les a combinés sous la

forme d'une règle 1É:quidistance/circonstances spéciales 1).
L'arrêtreconnaît qu'cc une telle règlea bien étéconsacrée à l'article 6
de la Convention, mais uniquement en tant que règleconventionnelle 1)
(par. 69). Or, commela République fédérale n'a pas ratifiéla Convention, 155 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS. OP.KORETSKY)

Judgment considers that "quaconventional rule ... it is not opposable to
the Federal Republic of Germany" (ibicl.). It may be regretted that the
Judgment did not deal fully with the question as to whether "special

circumstances" could in fact be established with regard to the maritime
boundaries between the Federal Republic and the Netherlands, and
between the Federal Republic and Denmark, respectively.
In its first finding, the Judgment uses the following words in respect of
each case: "(A) the use of the equidistance method of delimitation not
being obligatory as between the Parties." It thus disjoins the equidistance

principle from the other two components of the triad: agreement-special
circumstances-eaiiidistance. These three interconnected elements are
embodied in the Convention, as also in the Convention on the Territorial
Sea and the Contiguous Zone, and have entered into the province of the
general principles of international law, being consolidated-as a combined
principle of customary international law. Each of these three elements

plays its part in the determination of a boundary line between two
maritime areas, such as areas of the continental shelf in particular.

Agreement is deemed to constitute the principal and most appropriate
method of determining the boundaries of the areas of any continental
shelf. This is confirmed by the practice of States. The Convention itself

gives it pride of place, and this was quite natural, as the issue was one
concerning the geographical limits of the sovereign rights of States. It
was unnecessary to prescribe at that stage any directives as to the con-
siderations on the basis of which parties ought to arrive at agreement.
Provided there is no encroachment on the sphere of the sovereign rights
of any other State, parties are free to agree on whatever terms they wish

for the delimitation of boundaries, bearing in mind, generally, both legal
and non-legal considerations: relevant political and economic factois,
related considerations of security and topography, the relations ("good-
neighbourly" or otherwise) between the States concerned, and whatever
imponderables may escape hard and fast classification. The assessrnent
of such considerations is a political and subjective matter, and it is not

for the Court as a judicial organ to concern itself with it unless the parties
submit to it a dispute on a question or questions of a really legal character.

The next element of the triad-the "special circumstances" situation-
is, however, an objective matter, concerning as it does, for instance, the
unusual geographical configuration of the coastline to either side of a
frontier, and a disagreement as to whether oi not a certain situation

could be regarded as a case of "special circumstances" justifying an
appropriate boundary line would be a justiciable dispute.
And it is only after the failure of these two elements of the triad, in
the event of a deadlock, that the third element-the equidistance prin-
ciple-makes its appearance as the last resort, offering a way out of the
impassz in a geometrical construction which introduces a mathematicall'arrêtconsidère qulecette règle ((comme règleconventionnelle ... n'est
pas opposable a la République fédérale ))(ibid O). peut regretter que
l'arrêtn'ait pas traité fond la question de savoir si l'on pouvait en fait
établir l'existencecle ((circonstances spéciales))en ce qui concerne les
limites maritimes entre la République fédérale et les Pays-Bas d'une part,
et entre la République fédérale et le Danemark d'autre part.
Dans la première conclusion de l'arrêt ilest dit,à propos de l'une et
l'autre affaires:((A:)l'application de la méthode de délimitation fondée

sur l'équidistancen'est pas obligatoire entre les Parties1)Par conséquent,
l'arrêtdissocie leprincipe de l'équidistancedes deux autres élémentsde la
triade: accord -circonstances spéciales - équidistance. Ces trois éléments
mutuellement liéssont consacrés dans la Convention ainsi que dans la
convention sur la mer territorialeet la zone contiguë et relèventdésormais
des principes générauxdu droit international, étant venus se combiner
en un principe de droit international coutumier. Chacun de ces trois
élémentsjoue son rôledans la détermination d'une ligne de délimitation
entre deux zones maritimes comme, par exemple, des zones du plateau
continental.

L'accord est censéconstituer la méthode principale et la plus appro-
priéepour la déterm.inationdes limites des zones d'un plateau continental,
et la pratique des Ei:atsle confirme. La Convention elle-mêmementionne
cet élémenten premier lieu, ce qui était tout à fait naturel s'agissant des
limites géographiques des droits souverains d'Etats. 11n'était pasnéces-
saire à ce stade de donner aux parties des directives quant aux considéra-
tions sur la base des;quellesun tel accord devrait être fondé.A condition
de ne pas empiéter sur les droits souverains d'un autre Etat, les parties
sont libres de convenir des modalités de délimitation qu'elles désirent,
en tenant compte, d'une manière générale, aussibien de considérations

juridiques que de c:onsidérationsnon juridiques: facteurs politiques et
économiquespertinents, aspects connexes de sécuritéet de topographie,
relations (ede bon voisinage ))ou autres) entre les Etats intéresséset tous
autres impondérables qui échappent à une classification rigide. L'appré-
ciation de ces considérations a un caractère politique et subjectif et la
Cour en tant qu'organe judiciaire n'a pas às'en occuper, àmoins que les
parties ne la saisisisent d'un litige relatifà un ou plusieurs points de
caractère vraiment juridique.
Le deuxième élérnentde la triade - les ((circonstances spéciales))-
présenteen revanche un caractèreobjectif puisqu'il concerne, par exemple,

la configuration géographique inhabituelle de la côte de part et d'autre
d'une frontière, et une contestation sur le point de savoir si une situation
donnée peut êtreconsidérée comme un cas de cccirconstances spé-
cialesnjustifiant une:délimitationappropriéeserait un différendjusticiable.
Ce n'estque si cesdeux élémentsde latriade nepeuvent pas s'appliquer,
si l'on setrouve dans une impasse, que le troisième élémen t le principe
de l'équidistance -- fait son apparition en dernier ressort; il permet de
sortir de l'impasse grâce à une construction géométrique qui fait appel àdefinitude and a certainty of maritime boundaries. The Judgment itself
agrees that "it would probably be true to say that no other method of
delimitation has the same combination of practical conkenience and

certainty of application" (paragraph 23).

If it be held that the principles and rules inseparably embodied in
paragraph 2 of Article 6 of the Convention are no more than treaty
provisions and are not, as such, opposable to the Federal Republic,

then one may ask whether these principles and rules are or have become
an institution of international law, either as general principles developed
in relation to the continental shelf, or as an embodiment of international
custom. There are sufficient grounds for considering them to qualify in
both these ways, but 1am inclined to consider them rather as principles
of general international law, seeing that established doctrine lays much

stress on the timefactor as a criterion of whether a given principle belongs
to customary international law: by and large, customary international
law turns its face to the past while general international law keeps abreast
of the times, conveying a sense of today and the near future by absorbing
the basic progressive principles of international law as soon as they are
developed.

Contemporary inte~national law has developed not only quantitatively
but more especially qualitatively.
There has been far-reaching development of the work of the codifica-
tion of international law which has been organized in the United Nations

on a hitherto unknown scale. In the first stage, drafts of international
multilateral conventions were prepared by the International Law Com-
rriission, composed of jurists "of recognized competence in international
law", which in response to its request, received numerous comments and
observations from almost al1 governments. There followed, upon the
themes of those drafts, an increased amount of special literature (books

or articles) and the work of universities and research institutes, including
the Institute of International Law, and various learned societies (e.g., the
International Law Association). Then came the discussions in the General
Assembly of the reports and drafts prepared by the Inteinational Law
Commission. This preparatory work led finally to the convocation of
special intergovernmental conferences in which the great majority of

States participated. The scale and thoroughness of this process for the
forming and formulation of principles and rules of international law
should lead to the consideration in a new light of what is accepted asthe
result of such work of codification.

Where it used to be considered indispensable, for determining certain la précisionmathématique et conduit àla certitude des limites maritimes.
L'arrêtlui-mêmereconnaît qu'ccil est probablement exact qu'aucune autre
méthodede délimitation ne combine au mêmedegréles avantages de la
commodité pratiqwe et de la certitude dans l'application»(par. 23).
*
*
Si I'on soutient que les principes et règlesénoncéssous une forme in-
divisible au paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la Convention constituent de
simples dispositionis conventionnelles et ne sont pas, en tant que telles,
opposables à la République fédérale,il y a alors lieu d'examiner si ces
principes et règlessont, ou sont devenus, une institution de droit inter-
national, soit en tant que principes générauxqui se seraient formés en
matière de plateau continental, soit parce qu'ils consacreraient la cou-

tume internationale. On est fondé àpenser que tel est bien le caà la fois
pour la première et pour la deuxième raison, mais je suis porté à les
considérer davantage comme des principes du droit international général
car la doctrine reçuiemet fortement l'accent sur le facteur temps comme
critère permettant de déterminer si un principe donné ressortit au droit
international coutumier: d'une manière générale, ledroit international
coutumier est tourné vers le passé,tandis que le droit international suit
son époque et, en absorbant les principes fondamentaux nouveaux du
droit international dès qu'ilsont pris forme, donne surtout le sentiment
du présent etdu proche avenir.
Le droit international contemporain ne s'est pas seulement développé
quantitativement mais aussi et surtout qualitativement.
L'Œuvrede codification du droit international entreprise par I'Organi-
sation des Nations Unies sur une échelleinconnue jusqu'alors a eu des

développements d'unegrande portée. Tout d'abord des projets de con-
ventions internatioi~ales multilatérales ont été établpar la Commission
du droit international, composéede juristes ((possédantune compétence
notoire en matière de droit international », et ces projets ont fait l'objet,
à la demande de la Commission, de nombreuses observations de la part
de presque tous les gouvernements. 11en est résultésur la matière de ces
projets, un nombre accru de publications spécialisées(ouvrageset articles),
et des travaux d'universités et d'instituts de recherche, notamment de
l'Institut de droitlinternational, ainsi que ceux de diverses sociétés sa-
vantes (par exemple l'Association de droit international). Vint ensuite
l'examen, par l'Assemblée généraled,u rapport et des projets établis par
la Commission du droit international. Ces travaux préparatoires ont fina-
lement abouti à la convocation de conférences intergouvernementales
spéciales auxquelles la grande majorité des Etats ont participé. Ce pro-
cessus de formatioi? et de formulation de principes et de règlesdu droit
international - par son envergure et sa méticulosité - devrait conduire

à considérer sous iin jour nouveau ce que I'on admet êtrele résultat de
ces travaux de codiification.
Alors qu'on estimait autrefois indispensable, pour définir certains 157 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DISS.OP. KORETSKY)

general principles of international law, to gather the relevant data brick
by brick, as it were, from governmental acts, declarations, diplomatic
notes, agreements and treaties, mostly on concrete matters, such prin-
ciples are now beginning to be crystallized by international conferences

which codify certain not inconsiderable areas of international law. Elihu
Root, the well-known jurist and statesman, one of the frarners of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, wrote (in his
Prefatory Note to the Te.xtsof the Peace Conferencesat The Hague, 1899
and 1907, Boston 1908):
"The question about each international conference is not merely
what it has accomplished, but also what it has begun, and what it has
moved forward. Not only the conventions signed and ratified, but

the stepstaken towards conclusions which may not reach practical
and effective form for many years to corne, are of value."

Elihu Root wrote this in connection with the Peace Conferences of 1899
and 1907.Certain principles which were embodied in The Hague Con-
ventions at that time have been acknowledged as principles of general

international law, though States have been slowto put thern into practice.
The 1958 Conference on the Law of the Sea, with the Conventions
adopted there, among them the Convention on the Continental Shelf,
introduced substantial definitude in this field of international law; and
the principles and rules of the international law of the sea formulated
therein have becorne the general principles of that law with almost un-
precedented rapidity.
The rapid technical progress in the exploration and exploitation of
submarine oil and gas resources has entailed the necessity for correspond-
ing legal principles and rules. The practice of States has predetermined
the course of development of the doctrine as also of the principles and
rules of international law relating to the continental shelf.
The Anglo-Venezuelan Treaty Relating to the Submarine Areas of the
Gulf of Paria, 1942(U.N. Legislative Series: Laulsand Regulations on the
Rwe 4' the High Seas, Vol. 1 (1951), p. 44) was followed in a com-
paratively short time by numerous unilateral governmental acts, such as
the Presidential Proclamation concerning the policy of the United States

with respect to the natural resources of the subsoil and seabed of the
continental shelf (1945), the Presidential Declaration (of Mexico) of the
same year with respect to the continental shelf, and decrees, laws and
declarations by almost al1 the other Latin American States (in the
period 1946-1951), and by the Arab States, Pakistan and others (U.N.
Legislative Series, Law and Regulations on the Régimeof the High Seas,
STILEGiSER.Bi1).
As a result of the inclusion in the work of the United Nations of the
task of determining the principles andrules of international law relating PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP.DISS. KORETSKY) 157

principes générauxdu droit international, de recueillir une à une les
données pertinentes en se fondant sur des actes gouvernementaux, des
déclarations, des notes diplomatiques, des accords et des traitésdenature
essentiellement concrète, ces principes commencent maintenant à se
cristalliser lors de conférences internationales qui codifient certains

domaines assez larges du droit international. Elihu Root, le célèbre
juriste ethomme d'lztat, l'un desauteurs du Statut de la Cour permanente
de Justice internationale, a écrit(dans sa préfaceaux Texts of'the Peace
Conferences ut The Hague, 1899 and 1907, Boston 1908):
((La question à se poser au sujet de chaque conférenceinternatio-

nale n'est pas clesavoir simplement ce qu'elle a accompli, mais aussi
ce qu'elle amis en train et ce qu'elle a fait avancer. Il n'y a pas que
les convention:; signéeset ratifiéesqui importent, il y a égalementles
jalons posés dans la voie de la conclusion de conventions qui ne
prendront peut-être pasune forme pratique et concrète avant bien
des années. J[T'raductiondu Greffè.]

Elihu Root a écritces lignes àpropos des conférences dela paix de 1899
et 1907. Certains principes qui étaient énoncés à l'époquedans les con-
ventions de La Ha:yeont été reconnuscomme principes du droit inter-
national général, bien que les Etats aient été lenàles mettre en pratique.
La conférence de 1958sur le droit de la mer, ainsi que les conventions
qui y ont été adoptées et notamment la Convention sur le plateau con-
tinental, ont rendci ce domaine du droit international beaucoup plus
précis; les principes et règlesdu droit international de la mer qui sont
formulés dans ces conventions sont devenus, avec une rapidité presque
sans précédent,les principes généraux dece droit.
Le progrès rapide des techniques d'exploration et d'exploitation des

ressources sous-marines en pétroleet en gaz a obligé à dégager desprin-
cipes et règlesde droit correspondants. La pratique des Etats a déterminé
l'évolution dela doctrine ainsi que des principes et règlesdu droit inter-
national concernant le plateau continental.
Le traité anglo-vénézuélien de 1942 relatif aux zones sous-marines du
golfe de Paria (U.N. Legislative Series: Laws and Regulations on the
Régime of the High Seas, Vol. 1 [1951],p. 44) a étésuivi en relativement
peu de temps d'un grand nombre d'actes gouvernementaux unilatéraux,
commela proclamaition du présidentdes Etats-Unis relative à la politique
de ce pays en ce qui concerne les ressources naturelles du sous-sol et du
lit de la mer dans la zone du plateau continental(l945), la déclaration du
présidentdu Mexique, de la mêmeannée,relative au plateau continental

et les décrets,loiset déclarations promulguéspar presque tous les autres
Etats d'Amérique latine (au cours de la période 1946-1951), ainsi que
par des Etats arabes, le Pakistan, etc.(U.N. Legislative Series, Law und
Regulatiorison the Régime of the High Seas, ST/LEG/SER.B/l).
Comme la tâche: consistant à définir les principes et règles du droit
international relatifs au plateau continental avait étéconfiéeà l'organi- to the continental shelf, the general principles of the law of the continental
shelf had already taken shape before the Conference, though not in a
finally "polished" form, on the basis of governmental acts, agreements
and scientific works. The Ceneva Conference of 1958,in the Convention

on the Continental Shelf which was adopted, gave definite formulation
to the ptinciples and rules relating thereto. These were consolidated in
subsequent practice in a growing number of governmental acts, interna-
tional declarations and agreements (as mentioned in the written and oral
proccedings), which in most cases referred to the Convention or, when

they did not do so, made use of its wording. A11this has led to the develop-
ment, in great measure organized and not spontaneous, of the general
principles of international law relating to the continental shelf, in not
only their generality but also their concreteness. Thus, by a kind of
coalescence of the principles, a genuine comnzunis opitziojuris on the

matter has corne into being. States, even some not having acceded to the
Convention, have followed its principles because to do so was for them a
recognition of necessity, and have thereby given practical expression to
the other part of the well-known formula opiniojuris sivenecessitatis.

And this conclusion might be reached also by deducing these principles
as "direct and inevitable consequences" of the premises and considering
their binding force to be that of historically developed logical principles
of law (see Lotus, Dissenting Opinion by Judge Loder, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 10, p. 35).

This finds confirmation in the doctrine which regards the continental
shelf as being an actualcontinuation of the submarine areas of the territo-
rial sea, which, in its turn, is acontinuation of the mainland of the coastal
State.The United States Presidential Proclamation of 1945. assertine theu
right of the United States to exercisejurisdiction over the nat'uralresources

of the subsoil and seabed of the continental shelf.,reeurded that shelf "as
an extension of the land-mass of the coastal nation and thus naturally ap-
purtenant to it". In 1946an Argentine decree stated : "The continental shelf
is closely united to the mainland both in a morphological and a geological
sense." The Peruvian Presidential Decree of 1947stated that "the continen-

tal submerged shelf forms one entire morphological and geological unit
with the continent", and the decrees of almost al1other Latin American
countries employ virtually identical expressions. (U.N. Legislutive Series,
Lalz3sand Regulationsonrhe Régimeojrhe High Seas, ST'LEG,SER.B,'l).
The Judgment also recognizes that thesubmarine areas of the continental
shelf" may be deemed to be actually part of the territory over which

the coastal State already has dominion-in the sense that, although
covered with water, they are a prolongation or continuation of that
territory, an extension of it under the seau (paragraph 43).sation des Nations 'Unies,les principes générauxdu droit du plateau con-

tinental avaient déjiipris forme avant la conférence(bien que cette forme
ne fût pas tout à lait au point) sur la base d'actes gouvernementaux,
d'accords et de travaux scientifiques. Dans la Convention sur le plateau
continental qu'elle ;aadoptée, la conférencede Genève de 1958a énoncé
de façon précise lesprincipes et règles en la matière. Ceux-ci ont été
confirmésdans la pratique ultérieurepar un nombre toujours plus grand
d'actes gouvernementaux et de déclarations et accords internationaux
(ainsi qu'on l'a mentionné au cours des procédures écriteet orale),

lesquels se référaientpour la plupart à la Convention ou, sinon, en
reprenaient les termes. Tout cela a conduit à la formation, dans une
grande mesure organisée et non pas spontanée, des principes généraux
du droit international relatifs au plateau continental, non seulement dans
leur aspect généralmais aussi dans ce qu'ils ont de concret. Ainsi, par
une sorte de fusion de ces principes, une véritable communis opiniojuris
a vu lejour en la matière. Des Etats, même s'ils n'avaientpas adhéré à la
Convention, ont s~~ivcies principes parce qu'ils correspondaient à une
nécessitédont ils avaient pris conscience, traduisant ainsi dans les faits

l'autre partie de la célèbreformule opitiiojuris sive necessitatis.
On pourrait également parvenir à cette conclusion en considérant ces
principes comme uine((conséquencedirecte et inévitable )des prémisses,
et leur force obligatoire comme celle de principes de droit logiques issus
de l'histoire (voir l'affaire du Lotus, opinion dissidente de M. Loder,
C.P.J.I. série A no 10, p. 35).
Cette conclusion trouve confirmation dans la doctrine selon laquelle
le plateau continental est un véritable prolongement des zones sous-
jacentes à la mer territoriale, qui sont elles-mêmesle prolongement du

territoire deI'Etat riverain. Dans laproclamation par laquelle le président
des Etats-Unis a, en 1945,affirméle droit des Etats-Unis d'exercer leur
iuridiction sur les ressources naturelles du sous-sol et du lit de la mer dans
la zone di1 plateau continental, le plateau était considéré((comme une
extension de la terre ferme de la nation riveraine et, partant, comme une
dépendancenaturelle 11Un décret argentinde 1946disposait: (Le plateau
continental est étroitement uni la terre, tant du point de vue morpholo-
gique que du point de vue géologique. )1Le décret promulgué par le

présidentdu Pérouen 1947précisaitque «la partie immergéedu plateau
continental constitue une entité morphologique et géologique unique
avec le continent 1):et les décrets promulguéspar la quasi-totalité des
autres pays d'Amkrique latine emploient des expressions à peu près
identiques. (U.N. Legislative Series, Lau'sand Regulations on the Régime
of the Higk Seas, ST/LEG/SER.B/l.) L'arrêt reconnaît également que
les zones sous-marines du plateau continental (peuvent êtreconsidérées
comme faisant véritablement partie du territoire sur lequel I'Etat riverain
exerce déjà son autorité: on peut dire que, tout en étant recouvertes

d'eau, ellessont un prolongement, une continuation, une extension de ce
territoire sous la mer )(par. 43). But what conclusion can be drawn from this premise-in relation to
principles and rules of international law which govern or should govern
the delimitation of a given part of the continental shelf? Bearing in mind
that the continental shelf constitutes, as is stated in the operative part of
the Judgment, under (C) (l), "a natural prolongation of" each Party's
"land territory into and under the sea" (including, may 1 add, the

territorial sea appertaining to thesame coastal State), the question might
be asked as to whether there exist, for the delimitation of the continental
shelf as between "adjacent" States, any special principles and rules
different from those which have been established (in State practice,
treaties, agreements, etc.) in relation to the delimitation of such maritime
areas as the territorialsea. Concerning any possible connection between

the conceivable principles-whether similar or different-governing the
delimitation, respectively, of the territorial sea and of the continental
shelf, it may be noted, in the first place, that the sovereign rights of a
coastal State over its territorial sea and over the continental shelf are
different in scope.
In relation to the territorial sea three "strata" (to use that term) may

be distinguished: (a)themaritimearea, (6) the seabed and its subsoil and
(c) the air-space. The sovereignty of a coastal State extends to al1three of
these strata with regard to the territorial sea adjacent to its coast.
In relation to a contiguous zone the coastal State has ceitain rights
in connection with a delimited maritime area.
In relation to the continental shelf, that is to say, to the seabed and
subsoil of submarine areas adjacent to a given coast, but outside the

area of the territorial sea(ergo, submarine areas of the contiguous zone
included), the coastal State has "sovereign rights for the purpose of
exploring it and exploitiiig its natural resources", not affecting "the
legal status of the superjacent waters as high seas, or that of the air-
space above these waters".

Thus, there has occurred some kind of bifurcation of the legal régimes
of the territorial sea and of the continental shelf. The maritime and air
"strata" over the continental shelf are outside the sphere of the rights
of a given coastal State. But the continental shelf itself is within the
sphere of the special territorial (though limited) rights of the coastal
State to which it is appurtenant, on the ground of the close physical

relationship of the continental shelf with the mainland (via the submarine
area of its territorial sea), as being its natural prolongation, as was
recognized by the Court and has become the generally recognized concept
of international law. Although Bracton might have considered the sea
coast "quasi maris accessoria", which was historically understandable,
not only the territorial sea but also the continental shelf may now be
considered as "accessories" of or, in the words of the Judgment in the

Fisheries case, as "appurtenant to the land territory" (I.C.J. Reports
1951, p. 128; in French, more explicitly, "comme accessoiredu territoire Mais quelle concliision peut-on tirer de cette prémissepour ce qui est
des principes et des règles du droit international qui régissent ou de-
vraient régirla délimitation d'unepartie donnée du plateau continental?
Compte tenu du fait que le plateau continental constitue, pour reprendre
les termes du dispositif de l'arrêt(C), l)), le ((prolongement naturel [du]
territoire [de chaque Partie] sous la mer » (territoire dans lequel il faut

inclure la mer terrii.oriale relevant de 1'Etat riverain en question), on
peut se demander s'ilexiste, en ce qui concerne la délimitation du plateau
continental entre Etats ((limitrophes 11,des principes et des règles parti-
culiers qui diffèrent de ceux qui ont été établi( sdans la pratique des Etats
ou dans des traités ou accords) pour la délimitation de zones maritimes
comme la mer territoriale. En recherchant un lien éventuel entre les

principes - qu'ils soient semblables ou différents - qui pourraient régir
la délimitation dela imerterritoriale,d'une part, et du plateau continental,
d'autre part, il faut sesouvenir que lesdroits souverains d'un Etat riverain
sur sa mer territoriale et sur le plateau continental ont un champ d'appli-
cation différent.
Pour ce qui est de la mer territoriale, on peut en quelque sorte distinguer

trois I(couches 11:a) la zone maritime, 6) le lit de la mer et son sous-sol
et c) l'espace aérien. Dans la zone de mer territoriale adjacente a ses
côtes, 1'Etatriverain exerce sa souveraineté sur les trois <(couches )l.
Dans la zone contiguë. I'Etat riverain détient certains droits sur un
espace maritime délimité.
Lorsqu'il s'agit erifin du plateau continental, c'est-P-dire du lit de la

mer et du sous-sol des zones sous-marines adjacentes à une côte donnée,
mais situéeen dehors de la mer territoriale (y compris, par conséquent,
les régions sous-marines de la zone contiguë), 1'Etatriverain (<exerce des
droits souverains sur le plateau continental aux fins de l'exploration de
celui-ci et de l'exploitation de ses ressources naturelles 11mais ces droits
<(ne portent pas atteinte au régimedes eaux surjacentes en tant que haute

mer ni à celui de l'espace aériensituéau-dessus de ces eaux 11.
Ainsi lerégimejuridique de la mer territoriale et celui du plateau conti-
nental ont en quelque sorte bifurqué.Les icouches 11maritime et aérienne
situées ail-dessus du plateau continental dépassent le champ d'applica-
tion des droits de 1'Etat riverain. Le plateau continental lui-même,en
revanche, rentre dans le cadre des droits territoriaux spéciaux (encore
que limités)de 1'Etat riverain dont il relève, parce que ce plateau a (par

l'intermédiairede la zone situéesous la mer territoriale) un lien physique
étroit avec la terre ferme, dont il constitue le prolongement naturel.
ainsi que l'a reconnu la Cour et selon la conception qui est maintenant
généralement admiseen droit international. Bracton aurait peut-être
considéré lacôte comme quasi maris accessoria, ce qui eût ét6compré-
hensible à l'époquemais, à l'heure actuelle, non seulement la mer terri-

toriale mais encore le plateau continental peuvent êtreconsidéréscomme
accessoires 11ou, pour reprendre les termes de l'arrêt rendudans l'affaire
des Pgcheries, ccomme accessoire du territoire terrestre JJ(C.I.J. Recueilterrestre") '.To apply the old adage accessoriurn sequitur suumprincipale,
this appurtenance may be considered as entailing common principles for
the delimitation of maritime spaces, that is to say for both the territorial
sea and the continental shelf.

This explains why, in the International Law Commission, almost

from the beginning, it was frequently said that the question of the delimi-
tation of the continental shelf is, in the words of M. Cordova, a former
Judge of the International Court, "closely bound up with the delimitation
of territorial waters" (I.L.C. Yearbook, 1951, Vol. 1, p. 289).

The starting-point for determining the boundaries of a continental
shelf is formed by the definitive boundaries of the territorial sea of a
given State (Article 1of the Convention on the Continental Shelf defines
the continental shelf, as has been recalled, as adjacent to the Coast but
outside the area of the territorial sea), and it was for that reason that
Professor François, the rapporteur of the International Law Commission,

was able to state as follows in 1951:
"It seems reasonable to accept, as demarcation line between the
continental shelves of two neighbouring States, the prolongation of

the line of demarcation of the territorial waters" (A,'CN.4;'42,p. 717).

The Committee of Experts, which was composed not of mere draftsmen
but of very experienced specialists acquainted with the practice of States
in the matter of the determination and delimitation of maritime bound-
aries, who were the representatives of cartography as a science within
the field of political geography which is intimately connected with "public
law", stated in their report, in answer to, inter alia, the question of how
the lateral boundary line should be drawn through the territorial sea of

two adjacent States:
"The committee considered it imnortant to find a formula for

drawing the international boundaries in the territorial waters of
States, which could also be used for the delimitation of the respective
continental shelves of two States bordering the same continental
shelf" (A.'CN.4,'61,Add. 1, Annex, p. 7).

lt will be observed that the two Geneva Conventions of 1958-that on the
Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone and that on the Continental

' Cf. Grishadarna award: "the fundamental principles of the law of nations, both
ancient and modern, according to which the maritime territory is essentially an
appurtenance of a land territory" [rranslation hy the Registry]. (U.N.R.I.XI,.,
p. 159.)1951, p. 128) l. Si l'on applique le vieil adage accessorium sequitur
suum principale, il semble que ce caractère accessoire suppose l'ap-
plication de certains principes communs pour la délimitation des
espaces maritimes, c'est-à-dire aussi bien pour la mer territoriale que
pour le plateau continental.
C'est ce qui explique pourquoi on a souvent dit, dès le début même

des travaux de la Commission du droit international, que la délimitation
du plateau continental est, pour reprendre l'expression de M. Cordova,
ancien juge à la Cour internationale, étroitement liéea la délimitation
des eauxterritoriales 1(Yearbookdela Commission du droit international,
1951,vol. 1,p. 289 [texte français: document des Nations Unies AJCN.4,'
SR.116, p. 61).

Pour déterminer les limites d'un plateau continental, il faut partir des
limites définitivesde Ilamer territoriale de 1'Etatriverain (l'article premier
de la Convention sur le plateau continental stipule, comme on l'a rappelé,
que l'expression ((plateaucontinental ))estutiliséepour désigner lesrégions
sous-marines adjacentes aux côtes, mais situées en dehors de la mer

territoriale), et c'est la raison pour laquelle M. François, rapporteur de la
Commission du droit international, a pu déclarer en 1951 :
cIl semble logique d'accepter comme ligne de démarcation entre

les plateaux continentaux de deux Etats voisins la ligne de démarca-
tion prolongée cleseaux territoriales. 1(Yearbook de la Commission
du droit international, 1951,vol. II, p. 103.)

Le comité d'experts, qui n'était pas un simple groupe'de rédaction
mais se composait cle spécialisteshautement expérimentésconnaissant
la pratique des Etats en matière de délimitations maritimes et, en tant
que tels, représentants de la science cartographique, branche de la
géographie politique, elle-mêmeintimement liée au ((droit public 11,

a déclarédans son rapport, en réponse notamment à la question de
savoir comment il fa.udrait tracer la ligne de délimitation latérale entre
les mers territoriales de deux Etats adjacents:

«Le comités'est efforcéde trouver des formules pour tracer les
frontières internationales dans les mers territoriales qui pourraient
en mêmetemps servir pour délimiter les frontières respectives de
(<plateau continental 1)concernant les Etats devant les côtes desquels

s'étend ceplateau. ))(Yearbook de la Commission du droit inter-
national, 1953, vol. II, p. 79.)
Il convient de noter que les deux conventions de Genèvede 1958 - celle

qui concerne la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë et celle qui a trait au

Cf. la sentence renclue dans l'affaire des Grisbadarna:principes fondamentaux
du droit des gens, tant ancien que moderne, d'après lesquels le territoire maritime
est une dépendance nécessaire d'un territoire terrest1)(Nations Unies, Recueil des
sentences urbitrales,ol. IX, p. 159).Shelf-formulated very similar and, in substance, even identical principles
and rules for the delimitation of both theterritorial sea and the continental
shelf '.It is particularly noteworthy in this respect that Article 6 of the
SovietiFinnish Agreement concerning boundaries in the Gulf of Finland
actually provides for the boundary of the territorial sea to constitute
that of the continental shelf (U.N. Treaty Series, Vol. 566, pp. 38-42).

If both the territorial sea and the continental shelf are regarded as a
natural prolongation of a given mainland and if, in this sense, it is
considered that they have a territorial character, it must be still borne

in mind that their delimitation should be effected not in accordance with
the principles and rules applicable to the delimitation of land territories
themselves, but in accordance with those applicable to the delimitation
of maritime areas coveiing such a prolongation of a territory.
Until recently, attention was mainly directed to the delimitation of the
territorial sea and contiguous zone and, to someextent, of the continental

shelf, in a seaward direction, since the complexities of inter-State relations
and contradictions gave rise to problems concerning the correlation of the
freedom of the high seas with the sovereignty of coastal States over their
territorial sea and, associated therewith, problems of navigation, innocent
passage, fisheries,etc. Questions of policy and, in the words of Article 24
of the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone,

questions concerning the prevention of infringements of a given State's
customs, fiscal, immigration or sanita~y regulations. committed witliin its
territory, or within its territorial sea, gave rise to certain problems con-
cerning lateral boundaries. When the exploitation of the natural resources
of the s~ibsoil of the sea became a real possibility, and the problems

connected with the delimitation of the continental shelf area not only
in a seaward direction but more especially between neighbouring States
whose continental shelf is adjacent to their coasts, beeame more acute,
the character of the "territoriality" of the sovereign rights of a coastal
State called for more certainty and more definiteness and almost, indeed,
for mathematical precision.

Inevitably, the definition of the boundary of a given part of the con-
tinental shelf must be effected not on the shelf itself but on the waters
which cover it. This entails the application to the delimitation of the
continental shelf of principles and rules appropriate to the delimitation

It may also be noted that the delegate of the Federal Republic of Germany to
the Geneva Conference of 1958, Professor Münch, declared that he was in agreement
with the wording of Article 6, paragraphs1and 2, "subject to an interpretatioof
thewords 'special circumstances' as meaning that any exceptional delimitaof the
territoriawaters would affect the delimitatioof the continental shelf" (U.N.
Conference on the Law of the Sea, OficiaR lecords, VI, 4th Comniittee,p. 98). PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. KORETSKY) 161

plateau continental - ont formulé des principes et des règles similaires
et même,quant au fond, identiques au sujet de la délimitation tant de la

mer territoriale que du plateau continental l. 11 est particulièrement
remarquable à ce propos que l'article 6 de l'accord conclu entre l'U.R.S.S.
et la Finlande au sujl:t des lignes de délimitation dans le golfe de Finlande
prévoie expressémentque les limites du plateau continental seront celles

des eaux territoriales (Nations Unies, Recueil des traités, vol. 566, p. 39
à 43).
Mêmesi l'on conisidère aussi bien la mer territoriale que le plateau
continental comme le prolongement naturel d'un territoire donné et si

on estinie qu'ils ont ainsi un caractère territorial, il faut se souvenir que
leur délimitation doit s'opérer non pas selon les principes et les règles
applicables à la délimitation des territoires terrestres eux-mêmes,mais

conforméinent aux principes et aux règles applicables à la délimitation
de zones maritimes situées au-dessus d'un tel prolongement de territoire.
Jusqu'à une date récente, on s'intéressait surtout à la délimitation de
la mer territoriale et de la zone contiguë et, dans une certaine mesure,
à la délimitation vers le large du plateau continental; en effet, les com-

plexités des relationis et des contradictions interétatiques posaient des
problèmes quant aux rapports existant entre la liberté de la haute mer
et la souveraineté des Etats riverains sur leurs eaux territoriales, d'où
résultaient des problèmes relatifs à la navigation, au passage inoffensif,

à la pêche,etc. Des questions de politique généraleet, pour reprendre
les termes de l'article 24 de la convention sur la mer territoriale et la zone
contiguë, le désirde prévenir les contraventions aux lois de police doua-

nière, fiscale, sanitaire ou d'immigration d'un Etat sur son territoire ou
dans sa mer territoriale ont donné lieu à quelques problèmes concernant
les lignes de délimitation latérale.Les questions relatives h la délimitation
du plateau continental, non seulement vers le large mais plus particu-

lièrement entre Etats limitrophes ayant un plateau continental adjacent à
leurs côtes, ont gagnéen acuité lorsqu'il est devenu réellement possible
d'ex~loiter les ressources naturelles du sous-sol marin: le caractère
11teriitorial'1des droits souverains d'un Etats riverain a aiors exigéplus

de certitude, plus de clarté et presque, en fait, une précision mathé-
matique.
Le tracé de la ligne de délimitation d'une zone du plateau continental
doit inévitablement s'opérer non pas sur le plateau lui-mêmemais sur

les eaux adjacentes. Ainsi donc, il faut appliquer à la délimitation du
plateau continental des principes et des règles permettant de délimiter

'
Il convient de noter également que M. Münch, représentant de la République
fédérale d'Allemagne à la conférence de Genève de 1958, a dit qu'il acceptait le
libellé des paragraphes 1 et 2 de I'article 6, ((en interprétant cependanles mots
ccirconstances spéciale:'jcomme signifiant que toute délimitation particulière des
eaux territoriales doit avoir une influence sur la délimitation du plateau contiln.tal
(Conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer. Documents officiels, vol. VI,
Quatrième Commission, p. 117.)of sea areas and accordingly of the territori-al sea, the boundaries of
which can be described as mathematically, geometrically constructed in
a manner that is as simple as is permitted by the configuration of the
Coastor by the baselines.
Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention envisages cases where the

same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of tivo adjacent
States. It follows that when it is a question of delimiting the boundary of
the continental shelves of two coastal States in conformity with existing
principles and rules, and even if the presence of special circun~stancesis
observed and confirmed, those special circumstances can only justify a
deviation from the normal line if they are located comparatively near to
the landward starting-point of the boundary line of the continental shelf
adjacent to the territories of the two (and only two) adjacent States.
Moreover, the boundary line will generally be constructed with reference
to the baselines of the territorial sea, in the drawing of which due allow-
ance will alieady have been made for certain irregularities of configura-
tion. At al1events, the factors concerned should be considered only in
relation to the determination of a single boundary line between two
adjacent States, while the influence of any special circumstances on both
must be taken into account. Al1 "macrogeographical" considerations

are entirely irrelevant, except in the improbable framework of a desire
to redraw the political map of one or more regions of the world.

If "special circumstances" were recogiiized to exist in relation to a
given part of the continental shelf, in what way would they affect the
application in these cases of the general principles governing the delimi-
tation of the boundary line?The Federal Republic of Germany maintains
that, within the meaning of the "special circumstances" rule, that rule
would exclude the application of the equidistance method. But the absence
of any mention of another principle to be regarded as alternative to the
one specified might be interpreted to mean that the equidistance principle
would not be eliminated, excluded or replaced, but rather modified or
inflected. This is to say that there may be a certain deviation from the
strict mathematical course of an equidistance line orthat, still taking the
equidistance principle asthe basis of the delimitation, the direction of the
boundary line,after initially taking the equidistant course, may bechanged
after an appropriate point.

Thus the presence of specialcircumstancesmight introducea corrective
or might only amend the principle which serves as the starting-point. It
is conceivable that in the middle, or towards the end-but not at the
beginning-of a boundary line, a change of direction, corrective of the
line, may be effected under the influence of special circumstances. This
could be the case if there were somegeographical hindrance to continuing
the line in the same direction, so that a deviation in some section of the
line arose in conforrnity with the very nature of the special circumstance
involved. The possibility is not excluded of exercising a certain flexibilitydes zones maritimes, et par conséquent la mer territoriale, dont on peut
dire que les limites sont tracées, par des procédésmathématiques, c'est-

à-dire géométriques,de la manière la plus simple possible compte tenu
de la configuration de la côte ou des lignes de base.
Le paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la Convention envisage le cas où un
même plateau coni.inental est adjacent aux territoires de deu'c Etats
limitrophes. 11s'ensuit que, lorsqu'il s'agit de délimiter les plateaux con-

tinentaux de deux Etats riverains conformément aux principes et règles
existants, et mêmesi la présencede circonstances spécialesest alors cons-
tatée et confirmée, ces circonstances spéciales ne peuvent justifier de
déviation par rapport à la ligne normale que si elles se manifestent rela-

tivement près du point de départ, côtéterre, de la ligne de délimitation
du plateau continerital adjacent aux territoires de ces deux Etats limi-
trophes (et cleu.rseulement). D'ailleurs, la ligne de délimitation sera en
généralconstruite par rapport à la ligne de base de la mer territoriale,

pour le tracé de laqiuelle on aura déjàtenu compte de certaines irrégula-
rités de la configura.tion géographique. Quoi qu'il en soit, on doit tenir
compte des élément!p ; ertinents en n'ayant en vue qu'une seule délimita-
tion entre deux Etats limitrophes, tout en prenant en considération l'effet
des circonstances spéciales éventuellesà l'égardde l'un et de l'autre de

ces Etats. Les consiidérations ((macrogéographiques 1)n'ont absolument
aucune pertinence, sauf dans l'hypothèse improbable où l'on souhaiterait
redessiner la carte politique d'une ou de plusieurs régions du monde.
Au cas où on reconnaîtrait qu'il existe des circonstances spéciales 1)

en ce qui concerne une zone donnée du plateau continental, de quelle
manière influeront-elles sur l'application des principes générauxrégissant
la délimitation? La ]Républiquefédérale d'Allemagnesoutient que, selon
la règle des 'circonstances spéciales 11il faudrait alors exclure I'applica-

tion de la rnéthode ,deI'équidistance. Mais iln'est fait mention d'aucun
autre principe à aplpliqucr à la place de celui de l'équidistance, ce qui
peut s'interpréter comme signifiant que le principe de I'équidistance ne
sera pas éliminé,exclu ni remplacé, mais plutôt modifié ou infléchi.

C'est-à-dirc qu'il pourra y avoir une certaine déviation par rapport au
tracé strictement mathématique d'une ligne d'équidistance, ou bien que
la délimitation resta.nt fondée sur le principe de l'équidistance, la ligne
sera au départ une pure ligne d'équidistance mais pourra changer de
direction au-delà d'un certain point.

Ainsi, l'existence de circonstances spéciales pourrait avoir pour effet
d'introduire un correctif, ou simplement permettre de compléter le prin-
cipe pris comme point de départ. On peut concevoir qu'au milieu, ou
vers l'extrémité - niais non pas au début - d'une ligne de délimitation,

des circonstances spécialesdéterminent un changement de direction, qui
corrige la ligne. Ce pourrait êtrele cas s'il existait quelque empêchement
géographique interdisant de prolonger la ligne dans la mêmedirection,
de telle sorte qu'une déviation serait alors imposéesur un certain segment

par la nature même descirconstances spéciales. 11n'est pas exclu dein the actual drawing of the line but without, of course, substituting an
alternative basis of delimitation.

The Judgment attaches special significance to the fact that, under

Article 12of the Convention, any State may make a reservation in respect
of Article 6, paragraph 2, froni which it concludes that Article 6, para-
graph 2, comes within the category of purely conventional rules and that
therefore the ~rinci~les and rules embodied in it are excluded from the
province of the general principles and rules of international law and
fromthat of customary international law. The Judgrnent Statesthis while
reasoning that the use of the equidistance method for the purpose of
delimiting the continental slielf which ap--rtains to the Parties is not
obligatory as between them.
Ttmust be noted once more that Article 6, paragraph 2, embodies not
only the principle of equidistance, but also two other principles concerning
respectively the determination of the boundary of the continental shelf
byagreement (and it would be impossible to imagine that anyone could
oppose this principle or wish to make a reservation with regard to it)

and the "special circumstances" clause as a corrective to the equidistance
principle. These three elements of Article 6, paragraph 2, are, as 1
have already noted, intimately interconnected in constituting a normal
procedure for the deterniination of a boundary line of the continental
shelf as bethveenadjacent States. It is therefore impossible to apply to this
provision the logical method of separability, just as it is impossible to
separate the principles and rules of Article 6, paragraph 2, from the
general doctrine of the continental shelf as enshrined in the first three
articles of the Convention.
From a consideration of the reservations-comparativcly few in
number-which were made by governments to Article 6, paragraph 2, it
will be seen that not one of the governments opposed in any general way
the principles and rules embodied in this Article. They stated only (as
inthe instances of Venezuela and France) that, in certain specific areas off

their coasts, there existed "special circumstances" which excluded the
application of the principle of equidistance.

Thus, for instance, the Government of the French Republic stated
that:
"In the absence of a specific agreement, the Government of the

French Republic willnot accept that anyboundary of the continental
shelf determined by application of the principle of equidistance shall
he invoked against it: ... if it lies in areas where, in the Govern-
ment's opinion, there are 'specialcircumstances' within the meaningpouvoir, dans la pratique, faire preuve d'une certaine souplesse quant

au tracé de la lign~e,mais sans qu'il soit question, naturellement, de
remplacer par un autre le principe de base de la délimitation.

L'arrêtattache une importance particulière au fait que, en vertu de
l'article 12 de la C~~nvention,tout Etat peut apporter une réserve au
paragraphe 2 de l'article6; d'après l'arrêt,cela permettrait de conclure

que cette disposition relève de la catégorie des règles purement conven-
tionnelles et que, pal: conséquent, les principes et les règlesqu'elle énonce
sont exclus du domaine des principes et règles générauxdu droit inter-
national et de celui du droit international coutumier. En mêmetemps,
I'arrêt considèreque l'application de la méthode de l'équidistance pour

la délimitation du plateau continental qui relève de chacune des Parties
n'est pas obligatoire entre elles.
11faut noter une fois de plus que le paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 énonce
non seulement le principe de I'équidistance mais aussi deux autres prin-
cipes, qui sont, l'un celui de la délimitation du plateau continental par

voie d'accord (et ilest inconcevable que quiconque puisse s'opposer à
ce principe ou veuilile y apporter une réserve), et l'autre la clause des
((circonstances spéciales 1à titre de correctif au principe de l'équidistance.
Ces trois élémentsdu paragraphe 2 de l'article 6, comme je l'ai déjà
fait remarquer, se combinent intimement pour constituer la procédure
normale de délimitai.iond'un plateau continental entre Etats limitrophes.

11est donc impossible d'appliquer à cette disposition la méthode logique
de la divisibilité, de mêmequ'il est impossible de séparer les principes
et règles énoncés au paragraphe 2 de l'article6 de la doctrine générale
du plateau continental telle que la consacrent les trois premiers articles
de la Convention.

Si l'on étudie les réserves- du reste relativement peu norilbreuses -
que des gouvernements ont apportées au paragraphe 2 de l'article6, on
constate qu'il n'y a pas un seul de ces gouvernements qui ait marqué une
opposition généraleaux principes et aux règles énoncésdans cette dis-
position. Ces gouvernements, le Venezuela et la France par exemple,

se sont bornés à déclarer que, dans certaines zones au large de leurs
côtes, il existe des~circonstances spéciales 1qui excluent l'application du
principe de l'équidistance.
Le Gouvernemeni. de la République française a dit ceci:

(Le Gouvernement de la République française n'acceptera pas
que lui soit opposée, sans un accord exprès, une délimitation entre
des plateaux continentaux appliquant le principe de I'équidistance:

... si elle se situe dans des zones où il considère qu'il existe des
~lcircoiistances spéciales11au sens des alinéas 1 et 2 de l'article 6, of Article 6, paragraphs 1and 2, that is to Say:the Bayof Biscay,the
Bay of Granville, and the sea areas of the Straits of Dover and
of the North Sea off the French Coast" [trrrnslation by theRegistry]
(Status of Multilaterai conventions in respect of which the Secretary-
General performs depositary functions; ST/LEG/SER.D/l).

And the Government of Yugoslavia made a reservation in respect of
Article 6 of the Convention which can easily be understood in viewof its
positive attitude to the principle of equidistance l.In its instrument of
ratification, the Government of Yugoslavia stated: "In delimiting its
continental shelf, Yugoslavia recognizes no 'special circumstances'
which should influence that delimitation" (idem).

What are, in effect, the principles and what has been the practice, with
regard to the delimitation of the territorial sea?
Sovereign rights over the territorial sea, likeal1territorial rights, have
an inherent spatial reference, and every such right is subject to certain
limits which are determined by historically developed principles. The

territorial sea as a maritime space is inseparably connected with the land
territory of which it is an appurtenance.
As recalled above, the question of the boundaries of the territorial sea
arises mainly in connection with the measurement of its breadth, but the
lateral boundaries (as they have not given rise to the kind of serious
dispute so common in regard to the breadth, sothat not al1the documen-
tation on them has been published) are usually, as far as we know, deter-
mined in treaties, conventions, or inadministrativeagreementsconcerning,

particularly, customs jurisdiction and fisheries.

It has been estimated that there are some 160places where international
boundaries have been extended from the Coast,but the documentation in
this connection isscant. It is clear however, that there has been a very
general tendency in defining these boundaries to employ, for the sake
of clarity and certitude, virtually mathematical concepts expressed in the
use of geographical CO-ordinates, parallels of latitude, geometrical
constructions, charts showing points connected by straight lines, per-

It is worthy of notethat, at the conferencc on thc Law of the Sea, the Delegation
of Yugoslavia proposed to delete from Article 72 (now Article 6) the words "and
unless another houndary line isjustified by special circumsta(G/CONF. 13/42,
p. 130)and the Delegation of the United Kingdom, in its amended draft of the same
Article, omitted thsame words (ihid p.,134). à savoir: le golfe de Gascogne, la baie de Granville et les espaces
maritimes du Pas de Calais et de la mer du Nord au large des côtes

françaises )b(contre-mémoire néerlandais, ann. 3, II, 1B3). (Etat des
conventions multilatérales pour lesquelles le Secrétairegénérae lxerce
les fonctions de dépositaire STjLEGlSER. D, 1.)

Quant au Gouvernl-ment yougoslave, il a formulé une réserveà l'article
6 de la Convention qui se comprend facilement, vu l'attitude positive
qu'il avait adoptéesur le principe de l'équidistance '.Dans son instrument

de ratification, le Gouvernement yougoslave a déclaré: 1Dans la déli-
mitation de son plateau continental, la Yougoslavie ne reconnaît
aucune (circonstance spéciale 1qui devrait influencer cette délimitation. n
(Ibid.)

Quels sont en fait les principes applicables et quelle a étéla pratique

en matière de délimitation de la mer territoriale?
Les droits souverains sur la mer territoriale, comme tous les droits
territoriaux, présentent un caractère spatial inhérent et chacun d'eux est
assujetti àcertaines lirnites qui sont déterminéespar des principesd'origine

historique. La mer territoriale, en tant qu'espace maritime, est insépara-
blement liéeau territoire terrestre dont elle est une dépendance.
Ainsi que je l'ai ra.ppeléci-dessus, c'est surtout lorsqu'on doit déter-
miner la largeur de la mer territoriale que le problème des limites de

ladite mer se pose; ses limites latérales (qui n'ont pas donné lieu aux
graves litiges si fréquents quand il s'agit de la largeur, de sorte que toute
la documentation s'y rapportant n'a pas été publiée)sont généralement
préciséespour autant que nous sachions, dans des traités ou conventions

ou dans des accords administratifs ayant trait en particulier à lajuridic-
tion douanière et aux pêches.
On a estiméque des limites internationales avaient été tracées à partir
de la côte en près de 160 endroits, mais la documentation en la matière
est fort peu abondante. II est clair néanmoins qu'il s'est manifesté une

tendance très généraleà appliquer à la détermination de ces limites,
dans un souci de clarté et de certitude, des conceptions virtuellement
mathématiques, qui s'expriment dans l'emploi de coordonnées géogra-
phiques, de parallèles de latitude, de constructions géométriques, de

lIl y a lieu de noter qiu'à la conférence sur le droit de la mer, la délégation yougo-
slave avait proposé de supprimer à l'article 72 (devenu l'actuel article 6) les mots:
((et à moins que des circonstances spéciales ne justifient une autre délimitatio11
(A/CONF.13/42, p. 151) et quc la délégation du Royaume-Uni, dans le projet
modifié qu'elle abait déposésur le mêmearticle, avait omis le mêmemembre de
phrase (ibirl.p. 154).pendiculars, produced territorial boui-idaries, and even in such straight-
forward visual means as the aligiiment of topographical features. There
has also been a tcndency to apply the principle of equidistance l,which
as a result had historieally evoived. The principles and methods for deli-
miting the territorial sea have become-to use the expression of a well-
known specialist oii boundary questions, S. Whittemore Boggs-
implicitin the conceptof the territorial sea..These principles and methods

are summed up in Article 12 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea
and the Contiguous Zone, which premises tlie baseline from which the
breadth of the territorial sea of each of the two States concerned is
iiieasured, tlie difirent questions connected with the method of deter-
mining baselinec having been dealt witli in Articles 3 to 9 of the same
Convention.

The Judgment (paragraphs 88 ff.)refers to the "rule of equity" as a

ground for the Court's decision, and apparently understands the notion
of equity in afar wider sense tlian the restricted connotation given to it in
the Cornnion Law countiies. TtStates: "Whatever the legal reasoning of a
court of justice, its decisions must by definition be just, and therefore
in that sense equitable" (paragraph 88). Aiiy judge might be pleased
with this statenient, but the point it makes appears to me purely semantic.

The International Court is a court of law. Its function is to decide disputes
submitted to it "in accordaiice with international law" (Statute, Article
38, paragraph 1),and on no other grounds. It is true that the Court may
be givcii "power .. . to decide a case e.~ciequoet bono", but only "if the
parties agree thereto" (ibitlparagraph 2). It might be held that in such
circiim~tanccs the Court rvould be discharging the functions of an

arbitral tribunai, but the measure of discretion which the ex aequo et borlo
priiiciple confers upoii a court of law as such is at al1events soniething
which the International Court of Justice has never enjoyed. This principle
is accordingly nowhere to be found in the decisions either of the present
Court or of its predecessor, because there never lias been any case in
which the parties agreed that the Court might decide es aequo et hono.

A typical attitude is expressed in the following extract froin a letter addressed
by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs to tlie InternatiLaw Commission on
2 August 1953: "If.. .the International Law Cominission were to deem indispens-
able a choice bctween the three definitions" it has "proposthe French Govern-
ment considers that delimitation by mcanî of a line every point of which is equidistant
from tlie nearest points on the coastline of each of the two adjacent States sliould be
chosen, as being likcly to yield the best solution in the greatest number of cases"
[trar~slation b.v the Re~irfvy] (Doc. A/CN./3,'71/Add.2;I.L.C. Yearbook, 1953,
Vol. II, pp. 88 f., in fine). PLATE.4U CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. KORETSKY) 165

cartes où des points ::ont reliéspar des lignes droites, de perpendiculaires
et de limites territoriales prolongées, et qui fait mêmeappelàdes méthodes

optiques directes conime l'alignement de points de repère topographiques.
II y a eu aussi une tendance à appliquer le principe de l'équidistance ',
qui s'est par conséquent développé historiquement. Les principes et
méthodes de délimitation de la mer territoriale sont devenus, pour

reprendre l'expression d'un célèbrespécialistedes questions de délimita-
tion, S. Whittemore Boggs, implicites dans la notion de mer territoriale.
Ces principes et méthodes sont résumésdans l'article 12 de la convention
sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë, qui pose en prémisse la ligne

de base B partir de laquelle est mesurée la largeur de la iner territoriale
de chacun des deux Etats intéressés,les différentes questions liéesà la
méthode de détermiriation des lignes de base ayant déjà été traitéed sans
les articles 3 à 9 de la mêmeconvention.

La Cour (par. 88 et suiv. de l'arrêt) faitde la ((règlede l'équité >)un

motif desa décision, et semble donner à la notion d'équitéun sens beau-
coup plus large que la signification restreinte qui lui est donnée dans
les pays de common ILI H .l.dit: aQuel que soit le raisonnementjuridique
du juge, ses décisions doivent par définition êtrejustes, donc en ce sens

équitables l (par. 88). Tout juge se féliciterait de cette affirmation, qui
me parait cependant d'ordre purement sémantique. La Cour internatio-
nale juge en droit. Sn mission est de régler les différends qui lui sont
soumis 1conformément au droit international 11(Statut, art. 38, par. 1);

elle ne peut motiver autrement ses décisions. Il est exact que la Cour
peut se voir donner [la faculté ... de statuer es nequo et bono 31,mais
seuleinent si les p#.irtiessont d'accord (ibitl., par. 2). On pourrait
soutenir qu'en pareil cas, la Cour assumerait les fonctions d'un tribunal

arbitral niais, en tout étatde cause, elle n'a jamais bénéficié de la latitude
que le principe de la décisioneu nequo et bono peut donner à un tribunal
judiciaire. Ce principe ne se retrouve donc nulle part ni dans les décisions
de la Cour actuelle ni dans celles de la Cour qui l'a précédéec ,ar il n'y

a jamais eu d'affaire où les parties aient été d'accord pour autoriser la
Cour à statuer es aequo et bono. Ce fait négatif semble indiquer que les

' La position exprimée dans le passage ci-après d'une lettre adressée le2 août
1953 àla Coriimission du droit international pale ministre des Affaires étrangères
de France est caractéristique:,Si... la Commission du droit international estimait
indispensable un clioix entre les trois definitions proposé11par la Commission,
<tle Gouvernement français estime que la délimitation par une ligne dont tous les
points sont équidistant!;di1 point le plus proche de la ligne côtière de chacun des
deux Etats adjacents devrait Ctre retenue comme étant de nature à donner la meil-
leure soliition dans le plus grand nombrede cI(Doc. AICN./4/71/Add.Z; Yeurhook
de la Commission du droit international,1953, vol. II, p. 88-89 infit~c).This negative fact seems to indicate that States are somewhat averse to
resorting to this procedure and it was not on this basis that the Court
was asked to give a decision in the present case. TheCourt itself Statesin
its Judgment that "There is ... no question inthis case of any decision ex
aequo et bono" (paragraph 88); nevertheless it may be thought to have
tended somewhat in that direction.

The notion of equity was long ago defined in law dictionaries, which
regard it as a principle of fairness bearing anon-juridical, ethical charac-
ter. Black, for example, cites: "Its obligation is ethical rather than jural
and its discussion belongs to the sphere of morals. It is grounded in the
precepts of the conscience, not in any sanction of positive law" (4th
edition, 1951, p. 634) 2.The science of ethics has been and still is the
subject of somewliat heated debates and of ideological differences
concerning the content and meaning of equity and of what is equitable.
1feel that to introduce so vague a notion into the jurisprudence of the
International Court may open the door to making subjective and there-

fore at times arbitrary evaluations, instead of following the guidance of
established general principles and rules of international law in the settle-
ment of disputes submitted to the Court. Thus the question of the actual
sizeof the area of continental shelf which would fall to the Federal Repub-
lic on application of the equidistance principle is not in itself relevant for
the present cases, where the issues raised are, in the words of Lord
McNair, "issues which can only be decided on a basis of law" (Fislieries,
dissenting opinion, I.C.J. Reports 19.51, p. 158).

To demonstrate the necessity for applying the rule of equity, reference
has been made to the United States Presidential Proclamation of 1945,
which stated that: "In cases where the continental shelf extends to the
shores of another State, or is shared with an adjacent State, the bound-
ary shall be determined by the United States and the State concerned in
accordance with equitable principles", but here this means nothing
more than calling upon neighbouring States to conclude agreements.

Certain other proclamations, while stating that boundaries will be

determined in accordance with equitable principles, use qualifying terms.
For example, the Royal Pronouncement of Saudi Arabia (1949) affirms

l It may be recalled as an example that, in its letter to the International Law
United Kingdom stated: "4. Wherethe adjacent Statesare unable to reach agreementthe
... Her Majesty's Government consider that as a rule recourse should be had to
judicial settlement.ch settlement should be according to international law rather
than ex aequo et bono" (I.L.C. Yearbook, 1953, Vol. Ip.85).

Professor Max Huber understands it "as a basis independent of law" [trans-
lation by the Registry] (Annuaire de l'Institut de droit into.national, 1934, p. 233). PLATE.AUCONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. KORETSKY) 166

Etats répugnent quelque peu à recourir à cette procédure ' et ce n'est
en tout cas pas sur cette base que la Cour a étépriée de statuer en la
présente affaire. La Cour elle-mêmedéclare dans son arrêt qu'eil n'est
... pas question en l'espèced'une décision ex aequo et borio 1)(par. 88);

on peut néanmoins (estimerqu'elle a, dans une certaine mesure, penché
en ce sens.
La notion d'équitkest définiedepuis longten~ps dans les dictionnaires
de droit, qui y voient un principe de justice naturelle présentant un

caractère non pas juridique, mais éthique. Black, par exemple, cite les
observations suivantes: nL'obligation d'équitéest d'ordre éthique plutôt
que juridique et elle s'examine sur le plan moral. Elle se fonde sur les
préceptes de la conscience, et non sur une prescription de droit positif. 11

(4" éd., 1951, p. 643. [Traduction du Grejfe.-,;) Or, la science éthique a
fait et fait encore l'objet de controverses assez vives et donne lieu à des
divergences d'ordre idéologique sur le contenu et le sens de l'équité et

de ce qui est équitable. Il me semble qu'en introduisant une notion aussi
vague dans la jurisprudence de la Cour internationale, on risque d'ouvrir
la voie à des évaluations subjectives et donc parfois arbitraires, et que
le règlement des disrends soumis à la Cour ne s'inspirerait plus alors
des règles et des principes générauxdu droit international établi. C'est

ainsi que la question de l'étendue exactede la zone de plateau continental
qui reviendrait à la République fédéraleen application du principe de
l'équidistance n'a eri soi aucune pertinence dans les présentes affaires,

où les questions en jeu sont, pour reprendre les termes de lord McNair,
((des questions qui rie sauraient être tranchées qu'en droit 1)(PL;clleries,
opinion dissidente, C.I.J. Recueil 1951,p. 158).
Pour démontrer qlu'il est nécessaire d'appliquer la règle de l'équité,

l'arrêt faitmention idela proclamation présidentielle des Etats-Unis de
1945, dans laquelle ilest dit ceci: ((Dans le cas où le plateau continental
s'étend jusqu'aux rivages d'un autre Etat, ou est commun aux Etats-
Unis et à un Etat acljacent, la ligne de délimitation sera déterminéepar

les Etats-Unis et 1'Eta~itntéresséconformément àdes principes équitables >l,
mais cette disposition doit simplement s'entendre comme invitant des
Etats voisins à conclure des accords.
Dans certaines autres proclamations, s'il est bien dit que les limites
seront déterminéesconformément A des principes équitables, des con-

ditions spécifiquessont introduites. Par exemple, dans sa proclamation

'On se rappellera par exemple que, dans la lettre qu'il avait adressàela Com-
mission du droit internationalsur la question de la délimitation de la mer territoriale.
le Gouverneinent du Royaume-Uni avait déclaré: ~4. Si deux Etats voisins ne
peuvent aboutir à un accord ... le Gouvernement de Sa Majesté estime qu'en
règle généraleilIàudra ,avoir recours à un règlement judiciaire. Ce règlement devrait
intervenir sur la baseLI droit international plutôque ex aequo et bono ))(YeurDook
de la Commission du droit international, 1953, vol. 11 p. 85 [texte français: doc.
des Nations Unies AlCN.417 1, p.231).
Max Huber la comprend comme I(une base indépendante du droit )(Annuaire
de I'lnstitirt de droit international, 1934, p. 233).that the boundaries "will be determined in accordance with equitable
principles by Our Government l in accordance with other States .. . of
adjoining areas"; the Proclamation of Abu-Dhabi (1949) places more

emphasis on the unilateral character of the delimitation: the Ruler
proclaims that the boundaries are to be determined ".. .on equitable
principles, by us aftcr consultation l with the neighbouring States"
(U.N. Legislative Series, Laws and Regulations on the Régime of the
High Seas, ST/LEG/SER. B/1).

The Court, rejecting the application of the equidistance method in
these cases and observing that there is no other single method of delimi-
tation the use of which is in al1 circumstances obligatory 3,has found

that "delimitation is to be effected by agreement in accordance with
equitable principles" (Judgment, paragraph 101 (C) (1)) thus envisaging
new negotiations (even though, before they requested the Court to
decide the dispute between them, the Parties had already carried on
somewhat protracted but unsuccessful negotiations).
At the same time, the Court has considered it necessary to indicate
"the factors to be taken into account" by the Parties in their negotiations
(paragraph 101 (D)). The factors which have been specified could
hardly, in my opinion, be considered among the principles and rules of
international law which have to be applied in these cases. The word
"factor" indicates something of a non-juridical character that does not

come "within the domain of law". The Court has put forward considera-
tions that are,rather, economico-political in nature, and has givensome
kind of advice or even instructions; but it has not given what 1personally
conceive to be a judicial decision consonant with the proper function of
the International Court.
It may be appropriate to recall in this connection the observation
made by Judge Kellogg in the Free Zones case to the effect that the
Court could not "decide questions upon grounds of political and econo-
mic expediency" (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 24, 1930, p. 34). Interpreting
Article 38 of the Statute, he noted that "it is deemed impossible to avoid
the conclusion that this Court is competent to decide only such questions

as are susceptible of solution by the application of rules and principles of

Italics supplied.
The Convention sveaks of the eauidistance orinciole but the Couruses the
term "equidistance rnefhod", thereby ;educing thé significance of the principle to
that of a technical means.
' It may be noted that the Court was asked to indicate not a rnethodof delimitation
internationalawwhich are applicable in the circumstances that were indicated inof
these cases and referred to in the Special Agreements.royale de 1949, l'Ar,abie Saoudite déclare: les limites (seront déterminées
par notre gouvernement conformément à des principes équitables en
accord avec les autres Etats ... avoisinants ));la proclamation du sou-
verain d'Abu-Dhabi datant de 1949 insiste davantage sur le caractère

unilatéral de la délimitation: le souverain proclame que les limites doivent
êtredéterminées (1selon des principes équitables, par nous, aprèsconsulta-
tion ' avec les Etaits limitrophes i!(U.N. Legislutive Series, Labvs and
Regulations on the hlégimeof the High Seas, ST/LEG;SER.B/ 1). jTraduc-

rion du Greffe.j

La Cour, rejetant l'application de la méthode de I'équidistance ' dans
les présentesaffaires et faisant observer qu'il n'existe pas d'autre méthode
unique de délimitation qui soit d'un emploi obligatoire en toutes circons-
tances 3, a statué que 1la délimitation doit s'opérer par voie d'accord

conformément à des principes équitables 1)(arrêt,par. 101 C) 1)), envi-
sageant donc de nouvelles négociations entre les Parties (bien que celles-
ci, avant de demander à la Cour de trancher le différend entre elles,

aient déjàprocédé$,anssuccès à des négociations assez prolongées).
En mêmetemps, la Cour a jugé bon d'indiquer les 1facteurs iiprendre
en considération 11au cours des négociations entre les Parties (par. 101
D)). Or, les facteurs qui sont cités peuvent difficilement, à mon avis,

être rangésparmi les principes et règles du droit international qu'il y
a lieu d'appliquer en l'espèce. Le terme ((facteur )ldésignequelque chose
de caractère non juridique, qui ne relève pas idu domaine du droit ).
La Cour a énoncédlesconsidérations qui sont plutôt d'ordre économico-

politique, a donné certains conseils, voire des instructions; mais elle
n'a pas rendu ce qui serait à mon sens une décisionjudiciaire répondant
à la véritable fonction de la Cour internationale.

11y a lieu de rappeler àce propos l'observation formulée dans l'affaire
des Zones ,franclies par M. Kellogg, pour qui la Cour ne pouvait pas
(1trancher des affaires en se fondant sur des motifs d'opportunité politique
et économique 11(C.P.J.I. sérieA no 24, 1930, p. 34). Interprétant l'article

38 du Statut, M. Kellogg a déclaré: 1il semble impossible d'échapper i
la conclusion que 1iiCour n'est compétente que pour trancher des ques-
tions susceptibles de recevoir une solution par l'application des règles

l Italiques ajoutés.
La Convention parle du principe de l'équidistance mais la Cour emploie l'ex-
pression améthode de l'équidistance 11réduisant par là l'importance du principe à
celle d'une technique.
11 y a lieu de noter que la Cour avait étépriée d'indiquer non pas une méthode
de délimitation pouvant s'appliquer en n'importe quelles ou en tolites circonstances.
mais les principes et les règles du droit internationaqui sont applicables dans les
circonstances de 1'espi:ceindiquées dans les compromis.law" (ibid.,p. 38); and he cited the statement which was made by James
Brown Scott in his address at The Hague Peace Conference of 1907:
"A court is not a branch of the Foreign Office, nor is it a Chancellery.

Questions of a political nature should ... be excluded, for a court is
neither a deliberative nor a legislative assembly. It neither makes laws
nor determines a policy. Its supreme function is to interpret and apply
the law to a concrete case. . .If special interests be introduced, if political
questions be involved, the judgrnent of a court must be as involved and
confused as the special interests and political questions l."

Although 1feel obliged to disagree with the whole of section (C) of the
operative part of the Judgment, 1consider it necessary to refer here only
to sub-paragraph (2) of that section; in which the Court, envisaging a
case where "the delimitation leaves to the Parties areas that overlap",
decides that such areas "are to be diilidedbetween them in agreed pro-
portions or, failing agreement, equally 2". Here, the Judgment goes
beyond the province of questions relating to the delimitation of the
continental shelf and enters upon that of questions of distribution,

despite the fact that the Court itself has earlier stated that "its task in
the present proceedings relates essentially to the delimitation and not the
apportionment of the areas concerned" (paragraph 18) 3.
To draw a boundary line in accordance with the proper principles
and rules relating to the determination of boundaries is one thing, but
how to divide an area with an underlying "pool or deposit" is another
thing and a question which the Court is not called upon to decide in the
present cases.
It may be sufficient to recall that Article 46 of the Treaty between the

Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Federal Republic of Germany
concerning Arrangements for Co-operation in the Ems Estuary (Ems-
Dollard Treaty signed on 8April 1960)stated :
"The provisions of this Treaty shall not affect the question of the

course of the international frontier in the Ems Estuary. Each
Contracting Party reserves its legal position in this respect" (United
Nations Treaty Series, Vol. 509, pp. 94 K.).

'See Proceedings of The Hague Peace Conferences. Conference of 1907, Vol. II,
New York, 1921, p. 319, where the text is given more fully.
Italics supplied.
It may be appropriate to mention here that, when analysing the former Judg-
ments of the Court on "Contestations relatives au tracé de la frontière", Professor
that there is a distinction to be made between conflicts concerningfrontiers andng
those to do with the attribution of a territory" [translation by the Re(Recueil
des Cours de I'Academie de droit internatioital, Vol. 107 (1p.2452). PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (OP. DISS. KORETSKY) 168

et principes du droit (ihid., p. 38); et il a citéà ce propos la déclaration
faite par James Brown Scott à la conférence de la paix de La Haye de
1907: ((Un tribunal ne saurait être la dépendance d'un ministère des

Affaires étrangères ni une chancellerie. Les questions d'ordre politique
devront . . .êtreexclues, car un tribunal n'est niune assembléelégislative
ni une assemblée délibérative.Sa fonction essentielle est d'interpréter
la loi, et d'en faire l'application à un cas concret . .. Si l'on y mêledes

intérêts particuliers, desquestions politiques, il est fatal que I'arrêtde
la Cour en devierine complexe et confus, comme le sont ces intérêts
spéciauxet ces problèmes politiques '.

Bien que je sois obligé d'exprimer mon désaccord sur l'ensemble de

la section C) du dispositif de I'arrêt,il me suffira de mentionner ici le
paragraphe 2) de cette section; la Cour y envisage le cas où lla délimita-
tion attribue aux ]Parties des zones qui se chevauchent >)et elle dit que

ces zones edoiven-t êtrediviséesentre les Parties par voie d'accord ou,
à défaut, par parts égales ? 11.Ce faisant, I'arrêtsort du domaine de la
délimitation du plateau continental pour entrer dans celui de la distribu-
tion, bien que la Cour elle-mêmeait déclaréauparavant que iisa tâche

en l'espèce concerne essentiellement la délimitation et non point la
répartition des espaces visés 1(par. 18) 3.

Tracer une limite conformément aux principes et règles applicables
en matière de délimitation est une chose mais c'en est une autre que de
savoir comment diviser une zone dont le sous-sol renferme un gisement,
et c'est là une question que la Cour n'a pas à trancher dans les présentes

affaires.
Il suffira de rappeler que l'article 46 du traité entre le Royaume des
Pays-Bas et la République fédérale d'Allemagneportant réglementation

de la coopération dans l'estuaire de l'Ems (traité Ems-Dollart signéle
8 avril 1960) stipule:

(Les dispositions du présent traité ne règlent pas la question du
tracé de la frontière internationale dans l'estuaire de l'Ems. Chaque
partie contractante réserve à cet égard sa position juridique. li(Na-

tions Unies, b:ecueildes traités,vol. 509, p. 95 et suiv.)

' Voir le texte intégral dans les Actes et docrrnients de la deuirièineco~firence de la
oaix. La Have. 1907.-vol. II. D. 313 et suiv.
~taliquei ajoutés'.
On peut mentionner à ce proDos Que MmeSuzanne Bastid, dans son analyse de
la jurisprudence de la Cour sir lei contestations relatives au tracé de la frontière, a
fait remarquer qu'il s'en dégageait 1certaines tendances qui inarquent la distinction
a faire entre les conflits relatifs aux frontières et ceux qui concernent l'attribution
d'un territoire ''(Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de &oit international, vol. 107
(1962), p. 452).

169And the Supplementary Agreement to this Treaty, signed on 14May 1962
(ibid., p. 140), which was concluded with a view to CO-operationin the
exploitation of the natural resources underlying the Ems Estuary, leaves
the existing frontiers of both parties intact. And, naturally, for the
exploitation, even in common, of a given part of the continental shelf itis

necessary first to know the boundaries of the continental shelf of each of
the parties. 1 need scarcely say that common exploitation does not
createcommon possession of the continental shelf, or common sovereign
rights in a given area.
Generally speaking, such agreements are in fact concluded with a view
to preserving the sovereign rights of the individual parties in a given
area of the continental shelf. Only in the unthinkable contingency of its
being desired to internationalize an entire continental shelf would a
departure from this standpoint appear apposite.
It would be as wellto cite, in addition, Articles 4 of the two agreements
concluded by the United Kingdom with, respectively, Norway and
Denmark, concerning the delimitation of the continental shelfas between
each pair of countries (Utiited Natiolis Trenty Series, Vol. 551. A/AC.
135110;reproduced in Memorials, Annexes 5 and 12). Article 4 of the
Anglo-Norwegian Agreement reads:

"If any single geological petroleum structure or petroleum
field, or any single geological structure or field of any otherineral
deposit, including sand or gravel, exterids across the dividing line
and the part of such structure or field which is situated on one side
of the dividing line is exploitable, wholly or in part, from the other
side of the dividing line, the Contracting Parties shall,in consultation
with the licensees, if any, seek to reach agreement as to the manner
in which the structure or field shall bernost effectivelyexploited and
the manner in which the proceeds deriving therefrom shall be ap-
portioned" (United Nations Treatj, Serics, Vol. 551, p. 216).

Here we have a special rule which is concerned with relations between
licenseesand with the possibility of briiiging them together in a working-
arrangement, but not a rule concerning the actual boundary of a given
part of the continental shelf or the possibility of changing that boundary.

In sum, 1 consider that the principles and rules of international law
enshrined in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Continental
Shelf ought to be applied in these cases at least qua general principles
and rules of international law.
But even if one does not agree that this provision is applicable in these
cases in its entirety or in part, it is nevertheless necessary that the prin-L'accord additionnel à ce traité, signé le 14 mai 1962 (ibid., p. 141),
qui a étéconcluen vluede lacoopérationpour l'exploitation des richesses
du sous-sol de l'estuaire de l'Ems, laisse intactes les frontières actuelles
des deux parties. II est évidentque pour l'exploitation, mêmecommune,
d'une certaine zone du plateau continental, il est nécessairede connaître

d'abord les limites du plateau continental de chaque partie. 11va presque
sans dire qu'une exploitation commune n'entraîne pas une possession
commune du plateau continental ni des droits souverains communs sur
une certaine zone.
D'une manière gériéralec,es accords sont en fait conclus pour préserver
les droits souverains des différentes parties dans une certaine zone du

plateau continental. Ce n'est que dans l'éventualité inconcevableoù I'on
désirerait internationaliser l'ensemble du plateau continental qu'il pour-
rait êtreapproprié d'adopter un point de vue différent.
11y a lieu de citer en outre l'article 4 de chacun des deux accords
conclus par le Royaume-Uni avec la Norvège d'une part et le Danemark

de l'autre, qui concernent la délimitation du plateau continental entre
les Etats intéressés(Nations Unies, Recueil des truités,vol. 551, A/AC.
135'10, reproduit dans le mémoire, ann. 5 et 12). L'article 4 de l'accord
anglo-norvégien stipule:

(Si une formiation géologique ou un gisement pétrolifère ou bien
une formation géologique ou un gisement contenant tout autre
dépôt minéral -- y compris le sable ou le gravier - s'étenddes deux

côtés de la ligne de séparation et que la partie de cette formation
ou de ce gisement située d'un côté de la ligne de séparation soit
exploitable, en totalité ou en partie, à partir de l'autre côté de la
ligne de séparation, les parties contractantes s'efforceront, en con-
sultation avec les concessionnaires éventuels, d'arriver i un accord

quant à la mariière la plus efficace d'exploiter la formation ou le
gisement et quant à la nianière de répartir les produits des exploita-
tions 1(Nations Unies, Recueil des truités,vol. 551, p. 219).

IIs'agit là d'une irèglespécialeconcernant les relations entre conces-
sionnaires ainsi que la possibilitéde les grouper dans le cadred'un accord
d'exploitation, mais non d'une règle relative i la limite elle-mêmed'une
zone donnée du plateau continental ou A la possibilité de modifier cette
limite.

En résumé,j'estin-ie que les principes et règles du droit international
consacrés par le paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 de la Convention sur le

plateau continental devraient être appliquésaux présentes affaires, au
moins en tant que principes et règles générauxdu droit international.
Mais mêmesi I'on refuse d'admettre que cette disposition soit appli-
cable, en totalité o~ien partie, aux présentes affaires, ilest nécessaireciples and rules which are applied inthe delimitation of a lateral boundary
of the continental shelf should have a natural connection with the three
interconnected principles and rules-agreement, special circumstances,
equidistance-which determine the boundaries of a territorial sea.
For, considering that it is a continuation, a natural prolongation of the
territorial sea (its bed and subsoil), the continental shelfis not unlimited
in extent, whether seaward or laterally, but lies within limits consistently
continuing the boundary lines of the territorial sea in accordance with
the same principles, rules and treaty provisions as provided the basis for
the determination of the territorial sea between the two given adjacent
States; that is, in these cases, between the Netherlands and the Federal
Republic of Germany on the one hand and between Deninark and the
Federal Republic of Germany on the other.que les principes et règles appliqués à la détermination d'une limite
latérale du plateau continental aient un rapport naturel avec les trois

principes et règles rriutuellement liés - accord, circonstances spéciales,
équidistance - qui régissentles limites de la mer territoriale.
En effet, puisque le plateau continental est la continuation, le pro-
longement naturel de la mer territoriale (c'est-à-dire de son lit et de son
sous-sol), il ne saura.it êtreillimitéen étendue, que ce soit vers le large

ou latéralement, mais il se situe dans les limites qui prolongent logique-
ment les lignes de délimitation de la mer territoriale, conformément aux
mêmesprincipes, règles et dispositions conventionnelles qui ont servi de
base à la délimitation de la mer territoriale entre les deux Etats limi-
trophes intéressés,à savoir, dans les présentesaffaires, entre les Pays-Bas

et la République fédiSraled'Allemagne d'une part, et entre le Danemark
et la République fédifraled'Allemagne de l'autre.

(Signé)V. KORETSKY.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Vice-President Koretsky

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