Dissenting Opinion of Judge Gros (translation)

Document Number
055-19740725-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
055-19740725-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE GROS

[Translation]

1consider that Iceland's claim to establish an exclusive fishing zone
over the superjacent waters of the continental shelf is contrary to the
rules of international law, but the reasoning which leads me to that
opinion, and my analysis of the dispute itself, are different from what is
contained in the Judlgment, from both the reasoning and the decision of
the Court; a judgment of the Court comprises the reasoning part and the

operative clause, and to understand the scope of thejudgment it is not
possible to separate either of these elements from the other, and an
elliptical operative clause only reveals its meaning when read with the
reasoning leading up to it. Adapting myself to the method adopted by
the Court, 1 have c:ast a negative vote on the questions which it has
selected; 1 must explain how 1 understood the Court's mission in the

present case, the meaning of the question put to it, the answer to be given
thereto, and thus the:reasons supporting my dissenting opinion.
1.The first question which was raised for the Court in this merits-
phase of the case was to determine what its task was. The Court has
recognized in its Judgment of 2 February 1973 on jurisdiction that the
Exchange of Notes of 11 March 1961contained in its penultimate para-

graph, a "compromissory clause" which conferred jurisdiction on the
Court to give judgment in any dispute which might arise concerning the
extension of fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland. Examination of that
agreement and of the negotiations which led up to its being concluded
leads me to an interpretation different from that in the Judgment as to
the definition of the disputes which could be brought before the Court.

2.The basic principle of the Court's jurisdiction is the acceptance of
that jurisdiction by the Parties; whether what is in question is a compro-
missory clause providing for the jurisdiction, or a special agreement, the
rule is that interpretation cannot extend the jurisdiction which has been
recognized. It should be added in the present case that, Iceland having

failed to appear, and Article 53 of thetatute being applied by the Court,
it is particularly necessary to satisfy oneself that the Court is passing
upon a dispute which has been defined as justiciable by lceland and the
United Kingdom, aind not some other dispute constructed during con-
sideration of the case by the Court. An obligation to bring a dispute
before a court is always reciprocal and of equal extent for each State
which has accepted it; hence the need to proceed to a special verification

in this case, since 1c:elandhas not CO-operated in the precise definition
of the dispute. 1 have stated on another occasion that 1disagreed with
the penalizing approach of the Court with regard to a State which fails to
appear, in its interpretation of Article 53 (Fisheries Jurisdiction, I.C.J.Reports 1973, p. 307); the present phase has strengthened my conviction
on this point.
3. The Exchange of Notes of 1961would not appear to leave room for
any doubt, and 1will quote the English text which is the authoritative

text:
"The Icelandic Government will continue to work for the im-

plementation of the Althing Resolution of May 5, 1959, regarding
the extension of fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland, but shall give
to the United Kingdom Government six months' notice of such
extension and, in case of a dispute in relation to such extension, the
matter shall, at the request of either party, be referred to the Inter-
national Court of Justice."

Thus the reference is to a possible dispute in relation to the extension by
the Government of ][celandof its fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland in
relation to the limits recognized in the 1961 agreement. The Court, in its

Judgment of 2 February 1973, stated in the last explanatory paragraph
on this point :

"The compromissory clause enabled eitherof the parties to submit
to the Court ariy dispute between them relating to an extension of
IcelandicJisheriesjurisdictionin the waters above itscontinental shelf
beyond the 12-rnile limit. The present dispute is exactly of the char-
acter anticipated in the compromissory cla~lse of the Exchange of
Notes." (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 21, para. 43; emphasis added.)

It is important to note that the formula underlined may be found in
paragraphs 11, 14, 15,16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 27, 28, 40 and 41 of the

Judgment. To rely o'nthe form of words used in the operative clause of
the 1973 Judgment in order to assert that the Court found that it had
jurisdiction to entei-tain the Application, with the implication that the
content of that Application binds the Court, is to disregard, first the
inherent connection between the reasoning of the 1973 Judgment, which
is based solely on the concept of extension of fisheries jurisdiction, and

the form of the operative clause; and secondly the rule that it is the 1961
treaty which determines what the subject-matter of the justiciable dispute
is, and not the Application or the submissions of one of the Parties. The
Court should decid,e what the extent of itsjurisdiction is, without being
bound by the argument addressed to it on the point.
1have quoted the original-language text of the Judgment to avoid any
ambiguity resulting from translation, and to show that I cannot accept

the argument that a form of words as precise as "dispute in relation to
the extension of fisheries jurisdiction" can be interpreted as impliedly
including any connected question which one of the Parties may have had
occasion to refer to in the course of the negotiations preceding the 1961
agreement, if the other Party refused to make that question the subject
of the agreement itself. That an idea or even a proposa1 may have beenput forward in the course of negotiations is not sufficient for them to
survive rejection, arid acceptance of that rejection by the author of such
proposais; any other view of the matter would enable multiple disputes
to be artificially created, simply by the introduction into a negotiation,
as a matter of principle, of various problems. No negotiations could be
usefully carried on if courts had such freedom to extend their results. It
would become necessary to draw up minutes of agreement as to the
meaning of the mosi:important articles of a treaty, and then, as suspicion
increased, of al1its articles.

In the present case.,itsclear that the 1961agreementonly contemplated
one sort of dispute as justiciable, namely the extension of Iceland's
fisheriesjurisdiction.
4. If any confirmation from a textual source were necessary on this
point, it should be recalled that the only passage where any more general
consideration is mentioned is in the United Kingdom reply to the Ice-
landic Note of 11March 1961,in the last paragraph and in the following
form :

''1 have the honour to confirm that in view of the exceptional
dependence of the Icelandic nation upon coastal fisheries for their
livelihood and economic development, and without prejudice to
the rights of the:United Kingdom under international law towards a
third Party, the contents of Your Excellency'sNote are acceptable to
the United Kirigdom and the settlement of the dispute has been
accomplished on the terms stated therein." (Application, p. 25.)

Nothing further need be said; this is an opinion held by the Government
of the United Kingdom, and not a term of the agreement.
5. The kind of dispute which the parties to the 1961agreement had in
contemplation, and which they agreed to bring before the Court, was
pegged to a legal point which was specially defined, in a limited way, and
because assurances, -whichwere also special and precise, had been sought
and obtained on thiij one point. If, as 1hold, this definition of the justi-
ciable dispute has n,ot been applied in the present Judgment, the Court
has gone beyond the bounds of itsjurisdiction.
Iceland, which is absent from the proceedings, has from the outset
disputed that the Cciurt has any jurisdiction, and this claim was rejected
in the Judgment of 2 February 1973 by an almost unanimous Court,
which observed that the dispute was exactly of the character anticipated
in the 1961 agreement (cf. para. 3 above) and that that agreement was
still in force and applicable. The Judgment on the merits, on the other

hand, departs from the definition of the dispute on which judgment is to
be given on two points:

(a) in that it does riot decide the precise question of law contemplated
in the compromissory clause of 1961, i.e., the conformity with inter-
129 national law of the extension to 50 miles of Iceland's fisheries
jurisdiction ;
(b) in that it adopts an extensive interpretation, in relation to the text,

of the'1961 agreement on the scope of the Court's jurisdiction, as if
it had read: any dispute on any question whatever connected with a
modification of the fisheries régimefixed by the present agreement.

With some interna1 contradiction, the Judgment simultaneously
declines to exercise tlie jurisdiction conferred upon the Court by the 1961
agreement and exercises jurisdiction which was not created by that
agreement. Study of the records of the negotiations which led to the 1961

agreement will show that this is so.
6. A first series of meetings took place between 1 October and 4
December 1960, and a second series between 17 and 20 December 1960
(documents deposited in the Registry of the Court by the United King-
dom on 13 October 1972 1).

At the first meeting the views of the Icelandic Government were ex-
plained extremely clearly as being a claim to exclusive fisheries juris-
diction, but "in accordance with international law", and for the time
being it was a matter of obtaining the United Kingdom's recognition of
the 12-mile limit. These talks also show that the Lcelandic Government
was already talking of establishing a more or less continuous belt of

reserved waters aroiind Lceland, possibly extending for 12 miles, from
which British ships would be barred from navigation as well as fishing,
and it is at this point that the British idea appears of the necessary
guarantee against any fresh extension of the fishing zone, if the 12-mile
limit were recognizecl in the current negotiations.

United Kingdom delegation:
"Moreover, \Ne should need to have some guarantee in any

agreement that after the transitional period the Icelandic Govern-
ment would not seek to exclude our vessels from any of the waters
outside 12 miles, unless of course there were to be some change in
the general rule of international law agreed under United Nations
auspices. Woulcl your Government be prepared to give us such a

guarantee in anlyagreement?" (Records, p. 14.)

This request for a guarantee is repeated incessantly (cf. para.8 on p. 17,
and para. 14: ". .. ari assurance that there would be no further extensions
towards the Continental Shelf"), and the first formulation of a guarantee
was provided by the (Government of Lcelandin these terms:

1 1 note that the Governmentof Iceland, having been informeof the deposit of
these records and of the possibility of consulting them in the Registry of the Court,
did not take advantagefthis possibility. The records prepared by the United Kingdom
delegation to these negotiations have been widely used by the United Kingdom in its
pleadings and by theurt in itsJudgment of 2 February 1973.The Court has not been
able to take cognizance of any similar record on the lcelandic side. "The Icelandic Government reserves its right to extend fisheries
jurisdiction in Icelandic waters in conformity with international law.
Such extension would, however, be based either on an agreement
(bilateral or multilateral) or decisions of the Icelandic Government
which would be subject to arbitration at the request of appropriate

parties." (Records, p. 20.)

(See also page 27 where the link between what was to be included in the
proposed agreement and the "guarantee" is openly recognized, and what
was included in the agreement was no more than the adjustment of the
jurisdiction of Iceland in a 12-mile fishing zone; further, the lcelandic
delegateonly refers to an "assurance" in respect of a possible extension of

jurisdiction after thr: agreement, never in respect of anything else, cf.
page 31.)
7. The basic element to which the guarantee which was contemplated
related was thus clearly the extension of fishing rights claimed by Iceland
over waters beyond the 12-mile limit, in accordance with whatever the
current state of international law might be at the chosen moment; the

means contemplated by Iceland were negotiation, bilateral or multilat-
eral, or a unilateral decision of the Icelandic Government which would
be subject to arbitration. At no time during the further talks on this
question of the guarantee does it appear that there was any modification
of this position takeri up by Iceland as to the content of the commitment
which it contemplated undertaking, and the form of words proposed by
the Icelandic delegation (and reproduced in para. 6 above) was gradually

altered to what ultimately became the penultimate paragraph of the
Exchange of Notes of 1961 (see text in para. 3 above). The United King-
dom position was an immediate recognition that any extension of fishery
limits effected in accordance with international law would be opposable
to the United Kingdom; on the other hand, an agreement would be

necessary, not a unilateral decision, even with the possibility of arbitra-
lion. Thus the British1counter-proposal was the following:

"Except in accordance with the terms of any subsequent agree-
ment between the United Kingdom and Iceland, or of any subsequent
multilateral agreement which embodies a generally accepted rule of
law in relation to fishing limits, the Ecelandic Government will not
take any action to exclude vessels registered in the territory of the

United Kingdoin from fishing in any area outside the 12-mile
limit." (Records, p. 33.)
8. The immediate response of the Icelandic delegate, after studying

this text, was that it was necessary to "leave the Icelandic Government's
Iiands 'untied' " in respect of possible further extensions of fishery juris-
diction, in particular, he explained, by applying customary law which
developed more easily than treaty law as the two Geneva Conferences
had shown (ibid.,p. 33, last paragraph). The point was taken up by a FISHERIESJURISDICTION(DISS. OP. GROS) 131

mernber of the British delegation who said that a unilateral extension was
not acceptable, even when based on custom; the Icelandic representative
then confirmed that there was a conflict of views on this by saying that
"further extension b~ryond12 miles would only be on a basis of a change

either of international law or of customary law" (ibid., p. 34, para. 2).
9. At the followirig meeting the point in dispute was defined by the
United Kingdom deiegation as follows:

"They appreciated Mr. Andersen's desire that the draft should
cover the possibility of a further extension of Icelandic fishery limits
in conformity with a new rule of customary law, as distinct from an
international agreement. The difficulty, however, would be how to
establish that siich a customary rule existed. In the United Kingdom

view such a rule would not only have to reflect the practice of a
number of States, but also be generally accepted, i.e., established by
general consent and recognized as such by the International Court of
Justice." (Records, p. 38.)

The same day, the United Kingdom delegation handed to the other
party the following draft :

"Assurance by the Icelandic Government on no extensions
offishery limirs beyond 12 miles

The Icelandic Government will not take any action to exclude
vessels registered in the United Kingdom from fishing in any area
outside the 12-mile limit except in accordance with the terms of a

subsequent international agreement embodying a generally accepted
rule of law in rr:lation to fishery limits, or in conformity with a rule
of international law, established by general consent and recognized
as such by the International Court of Justice, which would permit
such an extension of fisheryjurisdiction." (Records, p. 40.)

10. There can the:refore be no doubt as to the concrete expression of
the legal point in issue between the two States; Iceland was proposing to

take a unilateral decision, based upon international law-treaty law or
customary law-according to its own assessment of the state of the law
at the time of afresh extension of the fishery limits, and the United King-
dom was asking that the existence of the rule permitting the extension
should be susceptible of being decided by the Court (cf. a revised draft of
the assurance quotecdin para. 9 above: "Any dispute as to whether such

a rule exists may be referred at the request of either party to the Inter-
national Court of Justice." (Records, Annex 2, para. 6, p. 40.)). According
to the United Kingdom delegation, the assurance would have to cover
three essential points:

"(1) The Icelandic Government will not claim an extension of fishery limits beyond 12 miles except in accordance with a rule of
international law which has been clearly established (a) by embodi-
ment in an international agreement, or (6) accepted by general
consent as a rule of customary international law.
(2) Any dispute about whether such a rule ofinternational law has
been established shall be submitted to the International Court of

Justice: and pending the Court's decision, any measure taken to
give effect to such a rule will not apply to British vessels.

(3) The assurance on this point will form an essential part of the
agreement.

If these three points could be met then Her Majesty's Government
would do al1 they could to help the Icelandic Government on the
form and preseritation of the assurance. In particular, if a reference

to the Althing's Resolution of May 5 1959 was important, they
would have no objection to including one." (Records, p. 42, em-
phasis added in para. 2.)

Itake note of the mention of the Resolution of 5 May 1959,to which
the United Kingdorri did not object, but which was left as entirely under
the responsibility of Iceland, and was not incorporated in the agreement
so as to become one of the terms thereof. The Icelandic Law remains
what it was, without it being possible for the United Kingdom to invoke

it, if it were not observed by Iceland, in support of an international claim
based on the idea that an extension of Iceland's jurisdiction would only
be lawful if carried outon the basis and in the spirit of the Law of 1948.
The Icelandic delegate replied to the British proposed text that while
the formula proposed in London was not acceptable to his Government:

"there did not :seemto be any real differences of opinion between
the two sides. The lceland Government must state that their aim
was the Continental Shelf. They were, however, ready to state their

intention to base their action on rules of international law and also
their willingness,to submit any dispute to the International Court"
(Records, pp. 421-43,para. 7).

What was contemplated was clearly a dispute over a future action by
Iceland, announced quite unequivocally, directed to exclusivejurisdiction
over the waters of the continental shelf, and that a judicial decision
should be obtained clnsuch an action according to international law, and
no more, but that is what the British party was seeking. On 2 December

1960 the Icelandic delegate said that the most difficult feature of the
problem of the assurance was to meet the British requirement that no
measure to apply an extension would be taken pending reference to the
International Court of a dispute relating to such measures (Records,
p. 44, para. 5, injînc'). 11. The last meeting of the first series of talks confirms that the essen-
tial feature of the assurance would be that "it would.. .be for the Inter-
national Court to decide whether [any act extending Icelandic jurisdiction]
was in fact in accordance with International Law" (Records, p. 46,
para. 3).
It was at this point that the British proposa1 appears, for six months'
advance notice before any extension, making it possible to refer the

matter to the Court before the measure was actudly applied (Records,
p. 46, para. 6), and the drafting of the penultimate paragraph of the
Exchange of Notes of 1961 thereafter progressed more easily. The
United Kingdom delegation proposed three draft texts, and each of
these contained in one form or another the basic idea that possible
disputes would relate to the question whether a rule of international
law exists permitting an extension of Tcelandic fisheries jurisdiction

(Records, p. 48 and p. 49, para. 5).Annex A at page 50 gives the final
version of the text expressing in concrete form the British views on the
guarantee which shoilld result from the referral of the matter to the Court
to ensure that any f:resh extension of Iceland's jurisdiction would be in
accordance with international law.
12. This detailed study of the negotiations is necessary to dissipate
any doubt as to what was involved in the cornmitment to judicial settle-

ment undertaken by Tceland and the United Kingdom in March 1961.
There was never an!, question of "guaranteeing" the United Kingdorn
against anything other than possible Icelandic measures to extend its
fisheries jurisdiction, of which the United Kingdom was already aware,
affecting the superjaçent waters of the continental shelf, by means of a
recourse to judicial settlement limited to the question of the conformity

of such measures with international law. All the drafts which were
discussed are quite clear on this point, up to the finaltext of the Exchange
of Notes of March 1961, where the reference to the conformity of the
measures with international law disappears. Examination of the records
relating to the disappearance of these terms supplies the explanation of
it. The United Kingdom obtained what it had always asked for, but to
spare Tcelandic feelings, it accepted a form of words which was less

explicit than the drafts which had been discussed; this is recorded
expressis verbisin the Record for5 December 1960,page 48, paragraph 1.
It is thus apparent how little in accordance with historical truth it
would be to deduce., frorn this purely forrnal concession by the British
Government, that there was a transformation and extension of the system
of a jurisdictional guarantee which that Government had unceasingly
sought as a condition sine qua non of any agreement with Iceland. The

United Kingdom wished to be assured of possible examination by the
Court, according to international law, of any subsequent measure ex-
tending Iceland's jurisdiction as it was to be recognized in the contem-
plated agreement; it obtained this assurance as it had been negotiated,
and finally accepted by Iceland on the understanding that the formulation
should be pitched in a low key. 13. The second series of talks, held from 17 to 20 December 1960,
confirms that the United Kingdom was seeking a "watertight" agreement
on the basis of an assurance that Iceland "would not attempt to extend
[itsfishery limits] beyond 12miles ... otherwise than with the agreement

of the International Court" (Record for 17 December, p. 3, para. 15;
again on 18December, p. 4, para. 3, in the same terms). Furthermorethe
Icelandic delegate said that this form of assurance, accepted in principle
by Tceland, "would havethe additional advantage, from the British point
of view, of includi~igan undertaking by the Icelandic Government to
the effect that theexisting base-lines would not be altered otherwise than
with the agreement of the International Court". This again confirms, if
it were necessary,that the dispute contemplated involved the examination
according to international law of the extension of the limits, and nothing
else. This was also to draw inspiration from the Court's Judgment in the
Fisheries case in 1951,where it was said that: "the method employed for
the delimitation of i.hefisheries zone... is not contrary to international
law" (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 143). For completeness the identical termi-
nology used on 19 December 1960 by the Foreign Minister of Iceland
should be mentioned :

"recognition by Her Majesty's Government of Iceland's 12-mile
fishery jurisdiction in return for an assurance against further exten-
sion" (Records,p. 5, para. 1).
14. The Judgment also invokes (para. 32) the attempts to negotiate an
interim agreement in 1972, which were unsuccessful, in support of the
contention that Iceland agreed to negotiate on the basis of a preferential
right. In 1972 Icelarid only entered into negotiations with several States
in order to fix very short adjustment periods in respect of its Regulations
extending exclusivejurisdiction to 50 miles, which it never for a moment
contemplated withdrawing or modifying (cf. para. 25 below) and, as
regards the United Kingdom, the kind of discussion which took place is
indicated by the Note of the Icelandic Government of 11 August 1972
(Annex 10 to the United Kingdom Memorial), the very one in which it

is claimed that a request by Iceland for a discussion of preferential rights
can be found, for it 'endswith the following words: "(c) The term of the
agreement would expire on 1June, 1974." This Note of 11August 1972
dates from after the hearing held by the Court, in Iceland's absence, on
1August 1972,on tlherequest for interim measures of protection, and is
prior to the Order of 17 August 1972, which Tceland has not accepted:
what was contemplated was an agreement for lessthan two years, and the
Icelandic Government stated that it intended to "have full rights . ..to
enforce the regulations [of 14July 19721 ...inside the 50-milelimit".

The abortive negotiations of 1972are totally irrelevant to the definition
of the subject of the dispute; on the Icelandic side they were directed to
the conclusion of an,agreement leading to the extinction of the rights of
the United Kingdoin in 1974, and organizing an interim régimeuntilthen, the Regulaticlns of 14July being kept in force, in application of the
Althing Resolution of 15 February 1972, which only contemplated tran-
sitional agreements. Confirmation of this is supplied by an Icelandic

Memorandum of 19January 1973(Annex 13to the Memorial), proposing
an agreement to be in force until 1 September 1974, i.e., for 18 months
only. Finally the fact that the agreement ultimately concluded on 13
November 1973entirely reserved the legal position of each party cannot
be overlooked, and for lceland that position was not a claim to preferen-
tial rights but to exclusive jurisdiction extending to 50 miles. That the
United Kingdom niay have had a different conception of Iceland's rights
is not an element of interpretation of the position of that State.
15. The history of the negotiation of the text founding the jurisdiction
of the Court in the present case explains-if there were any need, the text
being clear-the la.conic provision in the penultimate paragraph of the
1961agreement. When Iceland entered into an undertaking in 1961it did
so to a limited extent. The Court should give an answer on the only
question which co~ildbe brought before it; since it has not done so, it has
not exercised the jiirisdiction conferred by the agreement. 1have made it

clear for my own part that 1 regarded the extension from 12 to 50 sea
miles as contrary to general international law, and therefore non-oppos-
able to any State fishing in the waters adjacent to the 12-milelimit around
Iceland. The Court stated in its Judgment in the North Sea Continental
Shelf cases that: "The coastal tat te-ha no jurisdiction over the super-
jacent waters." (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 37, para. 59.)The claim of Iceland
is expressly in relation to those waters. As to the lawfulness of an
encroachment into sea areas which al1States fishing in the area, without
exception, regardedlas forming part of the high seas on 1 September 1972,
it is unarguable that it was lawful; Articles 1 and 2 of the Convention
on the High Seas and Article 24 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea
are provisions which are in force, and since the only argument relied on
to exclude them isthat they are outdated, no reply on this point isneeded;
the calling of a third codifying Conference in July 1974 amply demon-
strates that certain procedures, and agreement, are necessary to replace
codifying texts. Ui~til different texts have been regularly adopted, the

law of the sea is recorded in the texts in force.
It has also been said that a claim extending beyond 12 miles is not
ipso jure unlawful, because there have been many claims of this kind;
but by conceding that these claims are also notipsojure lawful oneadmits
that acceptance by others is necessary to make them opposable. What
could a claim which was disputed by al1the States concerned in a given
legal situation be, iifit were not unlawful? But since al1States fishing in
the Icelandic waters in question are opposed to the extension, what is the
reason for not stating this and drawing the necessary conclusion?
There is no escaping the fact that if the States which oppose the exten-
sion cannot do so cinthe basis of a rule of international law, their opposi-
tion is ineffective, and this must be said; but if they can base their opposi-
tion on such a rule.,it is equally necessary not to hesitate to say that. It isthe accumulation and the constancy of the opposition which should have
obliged the Court to make a general pronouncement in the present case.

This was in fact the purpose of the first submission of the United King-
dom, wliich is not answered in the Judgment; furthermorethe Agent said
in the course of his argument that it was understood and accepted "that
submissions (6) and (c) are based on general international law and are
of course not confined merely to the effect of the Exchange of Notes".
The Court has decided entirely otherwise. As a result of its refusa1 to
give judgment on the conformity of the 50-mile extension with general
international law, the Court has had to treat the 1961agreement as the
sole ground of non-opposability of that extension to the United King-
dom, interpreting that agreement as a recognition by Iceland that the
Court has jurisdiction for any dispute concerning any measure relating
in any way to fisheries.
16. Going beyond the events of 1961,it should be added that analysis
of Iceland's position on the fisheries problem for the last quarter-century
and more leads to the conclusion that that State has unremittingly
advanced, and secured recognition of, the view that claims as to the
extent of the fishery zone were entirely distinct from problems of conser-
vation. Tlius under the North-West Atlantic Fisheries Convention of 8
February 1949(Art. 1, para. 2), and then under the North-East Atlantic
Fisheries Convention of 24 January 1959,Iceland was to be one of the

parties which attached the greatest importance to the forma1reservation
that those conventions did not affect the rights, claims, or views of any
contracting State in regard to the extent of jurisdiction over fisheries.

The constant elernent in the policy of Iceland appears to me to be the
distinction between limits of an exclusive fishery zone, and a claim to
preferential rights beyond that zone. These are two clearly different
problems; by asserting, by means of its Regulations of 14 July 1972,
exclusive fisheriesjurisdiction up to a 50-mile limit Iceland took up its
position in the field of its claims as to the extent of its exclusive fishing
zone, as the two parties to the 1961agreement had foreseen; this was the
legal point which the Court was to decide.

17. Subparagraph 3 of the operative clause of theJudgment contains a
decision that there is an obligation to negotiate between Iceland and the

United Kingdom "for the equitable solution of their differences con-
cerning their respective fishery rights.. .",and subparagraph 4 indicates
various considerations as guidelines for such negotiations. 1consider that
the role of the Court does not permit of it giving a pronouncement on
these two points, and that by doing so, the Court has exceededthe bounds
of itsjurisdiction. 18. Subparagraph 3 refers to differences concerning the "respective"
fishery rights of the two States. There are of course differences, since
Iceland is claiming to exclude the United Kingdom finally from the area
up to 50 miles, but this claim is made erga omnes, and it is somewhat
unreal to treat as a bilateral problem, capable of being bilaterally resolved,

the effects of the Icelandic Regulations of 14July 1972asserting exclusive
jurisdiction over the superjacent waters of the continental shelf, after
having declined to reply to the question raised as to the unlawfulness of
such Regulations iri international law. Although in subparagraph 4 there
are formal safeguards for the position of the other States, the Court has
regarded it as possible, to isolate, as it were, the bilateral differences and

settle them by the Judgment. This is the first point that i should deal
with before turning to the substance of subparagraphs 3 and 4 of the
operative clause of the Judgment.
19. The origin of these subparagraphs 3 and 4 of the operative clause
is in the last part of the United Kingdom's submissions (final submission
(d)) which gave the dispute a wider dimension than the sole question

of the lawfulness of the unilateral extension of jurisdiction, and on the
basis of that submission problems of conservation have been extensively
discussed in argument. But the bounds of a judgment are not fixed by a
party in its Application, nor in its final submissions, nor, afortiori, in its
argument, when the jurisdiction being exercised is one specially laid
down by a treaty, with a view to bringing before the Court a precise

question of law. P:îrticularly when the other Party is absent from the
proceedings, the Court cannot simultaneously decline to reply to the
joint request for a cleclaratory judgment which was indisputably made in
the 1961 agreement, and decide what the conditions shall be of negotia-
tions over conservaltion as to which no-one but the Applicant has ever
asked its opinion, since it should be remembered that according to Ice-

land there are 11 States regularly fishing in the waters around iceland
(cf. Fisheries Jurisdiction in Iceland, Reykjavik, February 1972, table 1,
p. 14). As for the Cinited Kingdom, its counsel, in reply to a question on
29 March 1974, stated that in the United Kingdom's pleadings, the only
States which were regarded as interested or affected or concerned by the
question of fisheries around iceland were those which have in the past
fished in that area, that is to say, apart from the United Kingdom and

Iceland, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Faroes, Belgium and
Norway. Thus questions also arose as to the nature of the interest in the
fisheries of the geographical area in question, which the Judgment neither
takes into account :norresolves.
20. It is now sonie considerable time ago that attention was drawn to
the difficulties which result from submissions being drafted both as a

restatement of the arguments in support of the claim and as the final
definition of what the Court is asked to decide (cf. "Quelques mots sur
les 'conclusions' en, procédure internationale", J. Basdevant, Mélanges
Tomaso Perassi, p. 175).The present case affords a fresh example of this.
The Court, which i:;the solejudge of its jurisdiction, must therefore sort out what in the submissions is a statement of arguments and what is the
precise statement of the claim; the claim cannotgo beyond the subject of
the jurisdiction conferred upon the Court, and that jurisdiction was
limited to a declaratory decision as to the conformity of Iceland's uni-
lateral extension of jurisdiction from 12 to 50 miles with existing inter-

national law on 1 September 1972, the date on which the Icelandic
Regulations were brought into force.
21. If one reads the second submission in the United Kingdom's
Application it is apparent that the second part thereof was so drafted
that it could not constitute a claim, but merely an argument in support
of the first part of that submission, by which the Court was asked to

declare that questions of conservation cannot be regulated by a unilateral
extension of limits to 50 miles, as a sort of consequence of the declaration
asked for as to the non-conformity of the lcelandic regulations with
general international law, in the first submission of the United King-
dom. The submission continues with the following:

"[questions of conservation] are matters that may be regulated, as
between Iceland and the United Kingdom, by arrangements agreed
between those two countries, whether or not together wirh other

inrerestedcouwtriesand whether in the form of arrangements reached
in accordance with the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Convention
of 24 January, 1959,or in the form of arrangements forcollaboration
in accordance with the Resolution on Special Situations relating to
Coastal Fisheries of 26 April, 1958, or otherwise in the form of
arrangements ugreed between tlzem that give effect to the continuing

rights and interests of both of them in the fisheries of the waters in
question" (Application, para. 21; emphasis added).
A further version of this submission was given in the Memorial on

the merits (reprod~iced in para.11 of the Judgment) where the obligation
to negotiate appears formally expressed, and was to be maintained as a
final submission. The Court would have exhausted its jurisdiction by
saying, in reply to -thefirst part of the submission, that questions of con-
servation cannot be regulated by a unilateral extension of limits to 50
miles and a claim by Iceland to exclusive jurisdiction in that zone.

How could such a general question of law as conservation involving
at least 11 fishing States be judicially settled "between Iceland and the
United Kingdom ... whether or not together with other interested
countries"? While it was possible in 1961 for Iceland and the United
Kingdom to agree on an assurance against any fresh extension of juris-
diction, the effect of which would be suspended as between those two

States by recourse to the Court, it is not reasonable to imagine that a
system of conservation of marine resources concerning 11 States could
be worked out by two of them. The importance of the United Kingdom's
interest in the fisheries around ce lan is recognized. But the question
put to the Court i.5not the equitable sharing of the resources of these
fisheries, a suggestiion analagous to that which the Court rejected in its FISHERIESJURISDICTION (DISS. OP. GROS) 1 39

Judgment with regard to the delimitation of the continental shelf of the
North Sea (I.C.J.Reports 1969, p. 13,para. 2, and pp. 21 to 23, paras.
18 to 20), from which Judgment 1 would adopt the expression that in the
present case, there is nothing "undivided to share out" between the
United Kingdom and Iceland. The idea of the "respective" fishing rights

is not a correct description of the position in fact and in law. The legal
status of the fisheries between 12 and 50 miles from Iceland can only be
an objective status, which takes account of the interests of al1 States
fishing in those waters. Further, the problems of "fishing rights" in the
waters around Iceland have been under study for a considerable time
with the States concerned, and Iceland has recognized the need to resolve

those problems with such States, as has also the United Kingdom.
22. On 22 July 1972-at the height of the Iceland fishery crisis and
one week after the promulgation of the Icelandic Regulations of 14July
1972 which constitute the act impugned in the United Kingdom Appli-
cation-there was ijignedin Brussels an agreement between the European
Economic Community and Iceland in order to "consolidate and to

extend .. . the ecotiomic relations existing between the Community and
Iceland". The first article relates that "the aim is to foster in the Commu-
nity and in Iceland the advance of economic activity [and] the improve-
ment of living and employment conditions". The agreement applies to
fish products (Art. 2), to which a Protocol No. 6 is specially devoted;
Article 2 of that Protocol provides:

"The Community reserves the right not to apply the provisions of
this Protocol ifa solution satisfactory to the Member States of the
Community and to Iceland has not been found for the economic
problems arisivrgfrom the nzeasures adopted by Iceland concerning
jîshing rights." (Emphasis added.)

In application of'this Article 2 of Protocol No. 6, and at the request
or with the approval of member States of the Community (including the
United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany), although the
agreement with Iceland had come into force on 1April 1973, the imple-
mentation of the Protocol on Icelandic fish products has already been
postponed five time:s, the last time on 1 April 1974. To prevent Iceland

from benefiting from a customs arrangement granted it by a treaty be-
cause there is an unsettled dispute over "fishing rights" is, to say the
least, to declare oneself concerned or affected by that dispute. Thus the
European Economic Community has five times declared its direct interest
in coming to a settlement regarding fishing rights in the waters round
Iceland by refusing to grant Iceland the implementation of the special

tariff provisions laid down in the agreement of 22 July 1972.This agree-
ment is moreover mentioned in the White Book on the fishing dispute
published by the British Government in June 1973 (Cmnd. 5341): the
reference occurs in paragraph 22, immediately following a paragraph
on Anglo-German CO-operation, and we read : "It will be for the Community to declare when a satisfactory
solution to the fisheries dispute has been achieved and, consequently,
when to decide that the terms of the Protocol should take effect."

23. The common interest evinced by the member States of the Euro-
pean Economic Community, and the terms of Article 2, paragraph 1,
of the above-cited Protocol No. 6,alike show that these States are not
indifferent to the elaboration of a régimefor fisheries in the waters round
Iceland. For its part, Lceland, by accepting the agreement and Protocol
No. 6,has recognized the interest of the European Economic Community

in the settlement of the question of fishing rights. Thus the memorandum
explaining the grounds of the first proposal to postpone implementation
of Protocol No. 6, submitted by the Commission to the Council on 20
March 1973,refers to the "economic problems arising from the measures
adopted by Icelancl concerning fishing rights" for the member States of
LheCommunity. This position of Lceland vis-à-vis the EEC may usefully

be compared with that of Norway in its agreement of 14 May 1973with
the EEC, which came into force on 1July 1973: the concessions granted
therein by the EEC will only be valid provided Norway respects "fair
conditions of competition"; on 16 April 1973, the date when the agree-
ment was initialledl, the Commission indicated that al1 the tariff-reduc-
'ions granted on certain fish products of Norwegian origin had been
agreed to subject to the continued observance of the existing conditions

of overall competition in the fishing sector, which covers the eventuality
of any unilateral extension of the fishery zone.
As is well known, the member States of the European Community
constitute a majority in the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission;
what is more, an observer of the Community as such takes part in its
work, as is also the case of the North-West Atlantic Fisheries Commis-

sion. The catch-quotas of the participant Community members could,
according to a proposa1 made by the Commission of the Communities
to the Council, be negotiated and administered on a Community basis.
24. Now an agreement whereby lceland formally accepts that treaty
provisions of undoubted economic importancefor that country should be
suspended for so long as the problem of the economic difficulties arising

out of the measures it has taken in respect of fishing rights remains
unresolved would appear to constitute a recognition by Iceland and the
EEC of an obligation to negotiate. The negotiations concern the econo-
mic consequences of Iceland's claim to exclusive fisheries jurisdiction,
and the context of the negotiations is no longer, directly, fishing rights; but
what the EEC understood in an analogous situation has been seen in the
instance of Norway, and the distinction should not be over-nicely drawn.

The question of fishing rights is necessarily affected by any decision
regarding the economic consequences, whatever solution is reached for
dealing with the economic consequences and whatever the chosen
method; but the debate is one of wider scope, and extends to FlSHERIES JURISDICTION (DISS.OP. GROS) 141

general economic relations between al1 the countries concerned. While
the Court, in subparagraph 4 of the operative part of the Judgment, has
not sought to define more than the conservation aspect of fishing rights
in the prescriptions directed to the United Kingdom and Iceland, the

working-documents of the Community accurately convey an all-round
picture of the various aspects of the problem of fishing in the waters
round Iceland. One more example: a Danish memorandum on fishing
submitted to the Council on 20 March 1973recommends, after reviewing
the problem of regions almost wholly dependent on fishing (Greenland,

the Faroes), special measures of both a structural and a regional nature.
By finding, in the Judgment, that there is a bilateral obligation to
negotiate concernirig "respective" rights of a bilateral character, when
Iceland has accepted a multilateral obligation to negotiate on much
wider bases in institutions and international bodies which do not corne
within the purview of the Court's jurisdiction, the Court has formulated

an obligation which is devoid of al1useful application.
25. The necessity of dealing with the problem of fisheries in the waters
round Iceland comprehensively and with those States particularly inter-
ested is also accentuated by the fact that certain States have concluded
agreements of an interim character with Iceland, as the United Kingdom
did on 13November 1973,in order to mitigate the difficulties caused them

by the application of the lcelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972. The
first negotiationswere conducted with the local government of the Faroe
Islands and enabletl fishermen from these islands to fish within the 50-
mile limit (Reykjavik agreements of 15-16 August on bottom-line and
handline fishing and of 19 September 1972 on trawl fishing). A Danish

Note iterbale of 23 August 1972states that "questions concerning fishing
in the North Atlantic should . .. be settled in an international context"
and expresses the hope that negotiations "with the Parties whose inter-
ests are threatened by the new lcelandic regulations may be resumed as
quickly as possible" (cited in Revue généralede droit international public,
1974, pp. 343 f.1).

Belgium, on 7 September 1972, concluded with lceland an agreement
which was renewed for 18 months in March 1974; Article 1 reserves the
position of the parties on theextent of fisheriesjurisdiction, but when the
text was transmitted to the Council of the European Communities, the
following indication was given: "the Belgian Government considers that,

so far as Belgium is concerned, this agreement constitutes a satisfactory,
albeit temporary solution within the meaning of Article 2 of Protocol
No. 6 to the EEC-tcelandic Agreement of 22 July 1972". Another agree-
ment was concluded with Norway on 10 July 1973. These agreements,
even when they reserve the legal position of each of the States vis-à-vis
Iceland, necessarily take account of the 1972 Regulations which are the

source of the dispute, and Iceland doubtless views them as provisional
accommodations of very limited duration which have been made pending

1 Quotations translated frorn French by the Registry.

142 FISHERIES JURISDICTION (DISS. OP.GROS) 142

the general acceptance of itsclaim. (The agreement of 19September 1972
concluded with the Faroes is subject to denunciation by Iceland at any
time, while it may denounce that of 15-16August at six months' notice.)
Hence al1 one may deduce therefrom is an affirmation of the interest of
those States in reaching an objective solution of the problem. These
agreements, added to the treaty with the EEC which one of them men-
tions, give concrete support to the dual conclusion that there exists a
group of specially interested States concerning which the Court has no
means of knowing what intentions they may have of negotiating with a
view to establishing an objective fisheries régime, and that it has no
jurisdiction to lay down the law to them, not even by way of directions
for negotiation. The failure of al1 these bilateral negotiations to arrive
at anything other than phasing-out agreements which leave the sub-
stantive problem aside shows that the situation will be resolved solely

by a multilateral agreement corresponding to the objective character
of the régimedesired.
26. It was not a series of accidents which caused these problems to be
considered successively under the auspices of the OEEC (in 1956,in order
to put an end to the difficultiesof landing Icelandic fishcatches inBritish
ports) and of NATO (informal talks in 1958between representatives of
Iceland, the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany and
France), before being raised in the framework of the European Econo-
mic Community and the treaty of 1972,but the recognition of the objec-
tive character of the régimeof these fisheries.
If a bilateral agreement with Iceland was possible in 1961, that was
Secause the essential content of that agreement consisted of the United
Kingdom's recognition of the 12-mile limit; but in the last portion of the
operative part of its Judgmentthe Court passes upon a question regarding
a fisheries régimefor the conservation of resources, and there is nothing
bilateral about that. Iceland pointed this out in clear terms to the United
Kingdom during the London conversations of 3 and 4 November 1971

(United Kingdom Memorial on the merits, para. 23) before enacting its
1972 Regulations : Iceland's purpose was to protect its fishing industry
against massive competition by "super-trawlers" from Spain, Portugal,
Toland, the USSR and Japan and to facilitate the planned expansion
of Iceland's own fishingindustry (it will be noted that Iceland here adds
three States, to the eleven listed in paragraph 19 above, but, in any
event, the circle of States concerned is not unlimited even if such varia-
tions are to be found; it isthus wholly irrelevant to look into the claims
of States which are equally far removed from the Iceland fishery area
and Iceland's preoccupations). Iceland has wider aims than conservation.
A review of Iceland's economic problems seenin relation toan extension
of fisheriesjurisdiction is to be found in the already-quoted OECD report
of 1972(in particular, pp. 32-39). As the Court did not touch upon this
aspect of the situation, I will simply Say that any tribunal that wished
to study the régimeof Iceland's fisheries would have found it indispen-
sable to consider these problems; it is not sufficient to say in general FISllERIES JURISDICTION (DISS. OP. GROS) 143

terms that Iceland is dependent on its coastal fisheries "for its livelihood
and economic development" if no attempt is made to grasp the economic
realities underlying the phrase. Indeed, for want of al1 research on the
point, the Court's pronouncement constitutes simply an abstract reply
to an abstract question. Even from the standpoint adopted by the Court,

whereby a problem of objective régime may purportedly be resolved by
means of bilateral inegotiations, the question should have been placed
within its true dime:nsions, these being of wider scope than conservation
procedure, which, in the unique case of Iceland, is probably not the only
factor capable of reconciling the legitimate interests that stand confronted

(cf. para. 31 below).
27. The obligation to negotiate in the present case does not originate
in a kind of general undertaking drawn from Article 33 of the Charter,
which is above ail a list of means of settlement; this theory makes of the
obligation to negotiate a universal but an uncertain remedy, since when
negotiations take place without a specific objective the Parties necessarily

remain free to appr.aise their desirability and the necessity of their suc-
cess. There is only one obligation laid down in Article 33, that of seeking
a solution to any dispute likely to endanger peace and security, and
parties are left entirely free to adopt the "peaceful means of their own
choice". There is nothing to authorize selecting one of those means,
negotiation, and turning it into a legal obligation, when al1 the other

methods remain open. The danger in this new construction is that it may
have the result of irnposing upon States which are before the Court in
relation to a specific:dispute, in the form of directions for negotiations
occasioned by that dispute-but not on the dispute itself-, rules of
conduct which a mizdiator or conciliation commission might propose,
though without compulsory effect. Thus it is as if, in creating the idea of

an obligation to negotiate on account of Article 33, it were desired to
lend one of the meains greater effect than the others. This interpretation
would enable the Court, in any grave dispute, to transform itself into an
arbitrator, conciliator or mediator, as the case might be, and that is what
it has done in the tlresent instance. Article 33 of the Charter does not

permit this evolutiin in the role of the Court, which is contrary both
to the Charter and to the Court's own Statute. In paragraph 100 of its
1969 Judgment the Court said that one must not "over-systematize"
(1.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 54).
The source of the obligation to negotiate in this case is the legal nature
of the fishei-ies régimewhich is the subject of the dispute, and that can

only be actualized b!i means of negotiation among al1the States concer-
ned; it is there. solely, that the Court could have found the answer to the
question it had chosen to ask itself and discovered that it could not incor-
porate it into its decision but at most give it a place in the reasoning of
the judgment.
28. To conclude rny observations on subparagraphs 3 and 4 of the

operative part: by virtue of the interpretation placed on the 1961 agree-
ment and the negoti;ltions that enabled it to be concluded (see in parti-cular paras. 25 and (47of the Judgment) the Court considers that Iceland

has agreed to the inclusion of problems of conservation (zones and me-
thods), preferential rights and historic rights within the categories of
dispute which it might find the Court adjudicating.1 havealready indicated
that it appeared to imeto be an unwavering constant of Icelandic p~licy
always to distinguish problems of conservation and preferential rights
from the problem of the extension of fisheries jurisdiction (para. 16

above) and that the 1961 agreement was one of the proofs of this. If this
position had shifted in 1961,why is there nothing in the records to revea;
as much? Yet what would have been the concession in point?-the
recognition that, in relation to any extension beyond the 12-mile limit
of the exclusive fishery zone, any problems of conservation or preferen-
tial and historic righitsmight also be referred to adjudication as elements

of a dispute over the extension of the zone. 1 must say that 1 find this
improbable in the absence of any formal admission onthe part of Iceland
and considering its constant attitude of opposition to al1 confusion of
problems concerning the breadth of the exclusive fishery zone with
problems of the fish~rryrégimebeyond that zone.

29. One further point remains to be examined: what is the effect of
this last part of the operative clause of the Judgment? The interim agree-
ment of 13 November 1973 is a treaty which the Court is obviously

powerless to modify; and it applies as an interim agreement until 13 No-
vember 1975"pending a settlement of the substantivedispute and without
prejudice to the legal position or rights of either Government on the
question" (this is froin the first sentence of the agreement). In 1972 the
Parties conducted unsuccessful negotiations directed to the conclusion
of an interirn agreernent for the duration of the proceedings before the

Court; the agreement of November 1973 is different: it guarantees the
United Kingdom a certain provisional position for two years in any
event, while expressly reserving the question of settlement of the dispute.
It is clearly contrary to the first paraçraph of the agreement, cited above,
and contrary to al1the probabilities, to say that by using this expression
Iceland agreed that a decision of the Court on the merits could settle the

dispute. The legal position of [celand is in fact recognized by the agree-
ment, and it is reserved-thus left outside the agreement. If Iceland had
tacitly accepted that the Court should be empowered to settle the dispute
on the merits, which it has always refused to do, it would thus have recog-
nized the jurisdiction of the Court.That amounts to saying that it would
have granted what in its eyes was a favourable position to the United

Kingdom for two years, and in addition recognized that the Court would
give judgment on the merits of a dispute as to which Article 7 of the
agreement indicates that the Parties are aware that it will no doubt be
still in existence in November 1975: "lts termination [that of the agree- ment] will not affect:the legal position of either Government with respect
to the substantive dispute." Comparison of this Article 7 with the first
paragraph seems to me to leave no room for doubt. Furthermore, the
history of Article 7 was already available in a British document (White
Book, Ann. A, Doc. 9) which reproduces the counter-proposais for an
interim agreement made by the United Kingdom on 3-4 May 1973in the

course of talks in Reykjavik. The Icelandic ministers had asked that at
these talks the question should be examined whether, if an interim arran-
gement were agreed, the proceedings before theCourt could be suspended
(White Book, Ann. A, Doc. 6 (f),p. 16). The draft counter-proposal of
the United Kingdom shows how the negotiations went on this point
(White Book, Ann. A, doc. 9, para. 6) and my colleague, Judge Petrén,

has demonstrated in his dissenting opinion that lceland refused to accept
a form of words for Article 7 which would have provided for an obligation
to negotiate with th~eUnited Kingdom on the merits before Novembei
1975; that obligation having been formally excluded, it is impossible to go
against the clear text of the treaty and impose it. The 1973 agreement,
which maintains the legal position of the Parties as they stand at present

and as they may be in November 1975, therefore prevents the bilateral
obligation to negotiate pronounced by the Court from having any effect.
The two Governmei~ts could of course decide to negotiate tomorrow, if
they so wish, but thlrre is nothing to oblige them to do so, and the 1973
agreement recognizes this.
This is not all. Tlhe general considerations in subparagraph 4 of the

operative clause of the Judgment, being intended for bilateral Anglo-
Icelandic negotiations, are in danger of being overtaken by events by
November 1975. If iitis suggested that before November 1975the United
Kingdom could come back to the Court, in one way or another, 1should
explain briefly that it seems to me that the position is otherwise.
30. The Judgment (subpara. 4 of the operative clause) is not applicable
until 1975, since the: interim settlement for British fishing was reached

with the reservation of any settlement on the merits. This again confirms
the abstract, not to say illusory, aspect of this final part of the operative
clause. It also follows from this that any change in international law in
this field will render theJudgment obsolete.
Paragraph 76 of the Judgment states that the agreement of November

1973 does not relieve the Parties from their obligation to negotiate;
even if such a bilateral obligation existed, which has here been cor~tested,
the 1973agreement broke new ground, where modification is not possible,
as defined in the following way by the Prime Minister of the United
Kingdom in the House of Commons:

"Our positiori at the World Court remains exactly as it is, and the
agreement is without prejudice to the case of either country in this
matter. This is an interim agreement covering two years from the
moment of signature this afternoon, in the expectation that the

Conference on the Law of the Sea will be able to reach firm conclu- FISHERIESJURISDICTION (DJSS. OP. GROS) 146

sions. We al1know the difficulties facing a conference on the law of
the sea, but 60th Gorlernments hope that it will have been possible
by tlie expiration of this agreement to reach agreement on the law of
tlze sea and thut that will tllen govern tlie situation." (Hansard,

Commons, 13 November 1973, column 252; emphasis added.)

If the British Government recognizes that the agreement is without
prejudice to the legal position of the lcelandic Government, and is not

contemplating any possibility prior to the expiration of the agreement
other than general agreement on the law of the sea in connection with
the proceedings of the Third Conference on the Law of the Sea, it defi-
nitely appears that ithetwo Governments considered that the 1973agree-
ment "relieved" them from bilateral negotiation for so long asno general

agreement has been reached in the general framework of the proceedings
in progress. These statements would also appear to exclude the hypothesis
of any return to the Court prior to the termination of the agreement of
November 1973, to seek judgment on the substantive dispute, which is
agreed to be reserved.

31. Since a disseriting.,or separate opinion should be kept within limits,
1will not deal with other points on which 1also disagree with the Judg-
ment,-with the exception of one of these. The invocation of the Judg-
ment in the North Sea Contirier~tal Shcif'cases to support the present
decision, with regard to the recognition of a bilateral obligation to nego-

tiate and the reference to equity in paragraphs 75 and 78 of the Judgment
and in the final part of the operative clause, is unjustified. The present
legal position is quite distinct, since it was the special agreements which
had decided that the task of actually fixing the boundaries should be
reserved to the Parties, who undertook to do so "on the basis of, and in
accordance with, the principles and rules of international law found by

the Court to be applicable" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 13, para. 3 of the
Judgment). Thus in 1969the Court did exactly the opposite of what it has
done today, when instead of giving a judicial statement of the state of
international law on the subject, and leaving the application thereof to the
Parties, the Judgment disregards the obligation to state the law, and falls

back on an obligation to negotiate which was not provided for in the
1961agreement by the two States. Furthermore, in 1969the delimitation
of the continental shelf only concerned the three States which were
Parties before the Court, and they alone were competent to effect it.
That is not the case here for the matters which the Court has sought to

resolve in subparagraph 4 of the operative clause: that is, the bilateral
organization of a fishery conservation régime whilethere is a multilateral
obligation to negotiate.
Since 1 also attach particular importance to the question of equity, I
would recall that the Court on that occasion took the greatest possible
precautions in its drafting specifically in order to prevent its observations

being treated as of general application. The inequity of the geographicalsituation was simplt:, and was the result of the natural configuration of
the Coast; the adjustment involved a single operation, which was also
simple, namely, as just a modification as possible of the boundary. The
fisheries situation of Iceland is quite unrelatrd to this, since it involves
interests which are of their nature extremely diverse; to inject the concept

of equity into a recommendation of negotiations is not sufficient to make
it applicable, because of the circumstance, which is unique in the world, of
the absolute econon~icdependence of a State on fisheries. "Equality is to
be reckoned within the same plane, and it is not such natural inequalities
as these that equity could remedy" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 50,para. 91).
To hold the balance between the economic survival of a people and the

interests of the fishing industry of other States raises a problem of the
balanced economic development of all, according to economic criteria, in
which fishing is only one of the elements takeri intoaccount, and of which
the bases are international interdependence and solidarity. The concepts
of rate of economic growth, industrial diversification, vulnerability of an
economy faced with the "caprices" of nature, population structure and

growth, use of energy, investment needs, development of external markets
for fish products, regularization of such markets, foreign participation in
lcelandic undertakings, industrial development funds, among many
others, define the e:conomic interests of Iceland in obtaining a certain
settlement of the fisheries problem. Not merely have these expressions
never been used, but it is clear that differences of views on these questions

do not give rise to jilsticiable disputes, since these are problems of econo-
mic interests which are not the concern of theCourt. But theCourtcannot
make them disappear by refusing to see anything but a conservation
problem; the balance of facts and interests is broken.

32. In effect the Judgment decides that Iceland did not have the right
to extend its fisheries limits from 12to 50 miles on grounds of conserva-
tion, which will be generally conceded, but this is to choose a ground
which is not that of Iceland, after having avoided deciding that, in the

present state of existing law, the extension to50 miles is not opposable to
the fishing States, whatever ground may be relied on for such an extension,
including the interests of Iceland as it has explained theni; but to dis-
regard a line of argument amounts to rejecting it. Then, sticking to this
single theme of conservation, the Court constructs for the two parties to
a dispute a system of consultation on conservation problems as if the
solution of these could take the place of the only decision which was con-

templated in 1961, .namely that on the lawfulness of any fresh extension
of limits beyond 12miles. To respond to a dispute over a claim to exclusive
jurisdiction by givi17gguidelines for a conservation agreement is not a
fulfilment of the Court's task; even if the Court thought that the question
raised under the agreement was too narrow, it is the question which was

148defined by the parties. An agreement can never define anythingother than
what was subject to negotiation at the appropriate time between the par-
ties who concluded it; as the Court has said: "no party can impose its
terms on the other party" (I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 139). Nor can a court
impose its interpretation of an agreement on the States which concluded
it, so as to make it say something more than, or something different from,

what it says. Here again the Court has already spoken:
". .. though it is certain that the Parties, being free to dispose of
their rights, might ... embody in their agreement any provisions

they might devise .. .,it in no way follows that the Court enjoys the
same freedom; as this freedom, being contrary to the proper func-
tions of the Court, could in any case only be enjoyed by it if such
freedorn resulted frorn a clear and explicit provision.. ." (FreeZones
of Upper Sailoy and the District of Gex, Order of 6 December 1930,
P.C.I. J., Series A, No.24, p. 11).

33. By centring its decision around problems of conservation which
are not the subject of the dispute which arose in 1972 as a result of Ice-
land's extension of its fisheries jurisdiction from 12to 50 miles, the Court
has raised an abstract question to which it has given, in the last part of the

operative clause of the Judgment, an abstract reply. In contentious cases,
the Court is bound by what it is asked to adjudge; when it applies Article
53 of the Statute, th'erule is still stricter, since the Court must satisfy itself
that it is not going further or in a direction other than what was agreed to
by the State which is absentfromthe proceedings, in the instrument which
established the competence of the tribunal. Thus the Court observed in
the Ambatielos case that: "in the absence of a clear agreement between

the Parties . . . the Court has no jurisdiction to go into al1the merits of the
present case" (1.c.~'. Reports 1952, p. 39); the least that can be said is
that the problems of conservation were not the subject of such discussion
in 1960 between the United Kingdom and Iceland, and that it is difficult
to see by what unequivocal agreement it could have become a dispute in
itself under the Excllange of Notes of 1961.
34. The Court has not fulfilled its mission in the present case, since

is has not decided the legal question which the Parties to the 1961agree-
ment had envisaged laying before it, for purposes which they were free to
decide upon, and since it has dealt with the problem of the conservation
of Icelandic fisheries as being the substance of the dispute. Such a judg-
ment cannot therefore be effective for the settlement of the real substan-
tive dispute, even if there were an intention to achieve this, as appears
from paragraph 48 and from certain covert allusions in the text.

The real task of the Court is still to "decide in accordance with inter-
national law such disputes as are submitted to it" (Art. 38 of the Statute).
To introduce into international relations an idea that the decisions of the
Court may be given according to what on each occasion the majority
thought to be both just and convenient, would be to effect a profound
transformation. It vvillbe sufficient to quote the Court itself: "Having thus defined . ..the legal relations between the Parties.. .,

the Court has c:ompleted its task. It is unable to give any practical ad-
vice as to the varioiis courses which mieh" be followed with a view
to terminating the asylum, since, by doing so, it would depart from
its judicial function. But it can be assumed that the Parties, now that
their mutual legal relations have been made clear, will be able to find
a practical ... solution ..." (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 83.)

That this new concept must be rejected as in contradiction with the role
of an international tribunal appears to me to be clear, simply from the
observation that an international court is not a federal tribunal; the
States-of which there are now not many-which come before the Court

do not do so to receive advice, but to obtain judicial confirmation of the
treaty commitments which they have entered into, according to estab-
lished international law, in relation to a situation with which they are well
acquainted. The Court saw al1this in the Judgment in the Fislieries case,
in which the special nature of the situation was the dominant feature in
the decision (I.C.J. Reports 1951, Judgment of 18 December 1951); by
seeking to effect, under cover of a case limited to Icelandic fisheries, a

pronouncement of' universal effect, the Court contradicts its whole
previous attitude. .4s long ago as 1963, Charles De Visscher wrote in
his commentary on judicial interpretation:

"The function ofinterpretation is not to perfect a legal instrument
with a view to adapting it more or less precisely to what one may be
tempted to envisage as the full realisation of an objective which was
logically postulated, but to shed light on what was in fact the will
of the Parties."

There coul'd be no better response to the philosophy which inspires the
Judgment and the postulates it contains (particularly paras. 44-48).

(Signed) André GROS.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. GROS

J'estime que la prétention de l'Islande d'établir une zone de pêche
exclusive sur les eaux surjacentes du plateau continental est contraire aux
règlesdu droit international, mais le raisonnement qui me conduit à cette
opinion et l'analyse que je fais du différend lui-mêmesont différentsdu

contenu de l'arrêt,tant de la motivation que de la décisionadoptées par
la Cour; un arrêtde la Cour est constitué par les motifs et le dispositif,
aucun de ces éléments n'étant séparable de l'autrepour la compréhension
de la portée de l'arrêt,et un dispositif elliptique ne prend son sens que
confrontéaux motifs qui l'annoncent. Me pliant à la méthode adoptée par
la Cour je me suis prononcé par un vote négatif sur les questions par elle
retenues; il me faut exposer comment j'entendais la mission de la Cour

en la présenteaffaire, le sens de la question posée, laréponseà lui donner,
et ainsi les motifs à l'appui de mon opinion dissidente.

1. La première question qui se posait à la Cour dans cette phase du
fond de l'affaire était de déterminer quelle était sa mission. La Cour a
reconnu dans son arrêtdu 2février 1973 sur la compétence que l'échange
de notes du 11 mars 1961 contenait dans son avant-dernier alinéa une

((clausecompromissoire »qui attribuait compétence à la Cour pour juger
un différend éventuelconcernant l'élargissement de la juridiction sur les
pêcheriesautour de l'Islande. L'examen de cet accord et de la négociation
qui conduisit à sa conclusion m'amène à une interprétation différentede
celle de l'arrêtquant à la définition des différendsdont la Cour pouvait
êtresaisie.

2. Le pricipe de base de la juridiction de la Cour est l'acceptation de
cette juridictionpar les Parties; qu'il s'agisse d'une clause compromis-
soire prévoyant la juridiction ou d'un compromis la règleest que I'inter-
prétation ne peut étendre la compétence reconnue. II convient d'ajouter
dans le cas présent que, l'lslande-ayant fait défaut et la Cour appliquant
l'articl53 du Statut, il est particulièrement nécessairede s'assurer que la
Cour juge bien un différend définicomme justiciable par l'Islande et le

Royaume-Uni, non pas un autre différendconstruit au cours de l'examen
de l'affaire par la cour. Une obligation de porter un différendau juge est
toujours réciproque et égale pour les Etats qui l'ont acceptée, d'où la
nécessitéd'une vérification particulièreici, l'Islande n'ayant pas contribué
à la détermination exacte du différend. J'aiindiquéen une autre occasion
que je m'écartais de la conception pénalisatrice de la Cour dans son
interprétation de l'article 53 à l'égard de1'Etatqui fait défaut (Conipétence
en matière de pccheries, C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p.307); la phase actuelle a

renforcé cette conviction. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE GROS

[Translation]

1consider that Iceland's claim to establish an exclusive fishing zone
over the superjacent waters of the continental shelf is contrary to the
rules of international law, but the reasoning which leads me to that
opinion, and my analysis of the dispute itself, are different from what is
contained in the Judlgment, from both the reasoning and the decision of
the Court; a judgment of the Court comprises the reasoning part and the

operative clause, and to understand the scope of thejudgment it is not
possible to separate either of these elements from the other, and an
elliptical operative clause only reveals its meaning when read with the
reasoning leading up to it. Adapting myself to the method adopted by
the Court, 1 have c:ast a negative vote on the questions which it has
selected; 1 must explain how 1 understood the Court's mission in the

present case, the meaning of the question put to it, the answer to be given
thereto, and thus the:reasons supporting my dissenting opinion.
1.The first question which was raised for the Court in this merits-
phase of the case was to determine what its task was. The Court has
recognized in its Judgment of 2 February 1973 on jurisdiction that the
Exchange of Notes of 11 March 1961contained in its penultimate para-

graph, a "compromissory clause" which conferred jurisdiction on the
Court to give judgment in any dispute which might arise concerning the
extension of fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland. Examination of that
agreement and of the negotiations which led up to its being concluded
leads me to an interpretation different from that in the Judgment as to
the definition of the disputes which could be brought before the Court.

2.The basic principle of the Court's jurisdiction is the acceptance of
that jurisdiction by the Parties; whether what is in question is a compro-
missory clause providing for the jurisdiction, or a special agreement, the
rule is that interpretation cannot extend the jurisdiction which has been
recognized. It should be added in the present case that, Iceland having

failed to appear, and Article 53 of thetatute being applied by the Court,
it is particularly necessary to satisfy oneself that the Court is passing
upon a dispute which has been defined as justiciable by lceland and the
United Kingdom, aind not some other dispute constructed during con-
sideration of the case by the Court. An obligation to bring a dispute
before a court is always reciprocal and of equal extent for each State
which has accepted it; hence the need to proceed to a special verification

in this case, since 1c:elandhas not CO-operated in the precise definition
of the dispute. 1 have stated on another occasion that 1disagreed with
the penalizing approach of the Court with regard to a State which fails to
appear, in its interpretation of Article 53 (Fisheries Jurisdiction, I.C.J. 3. L'échangede notes de 1961 ne semble pas laisser de place au doute
et je citerai le texte anglais qui fait foi

«The Icelandic Government will continue to work for the imple-
mentation of the Althing Resolution of May 5, 1959, regarding the

extension of fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland, but shall give to
the United Kingdom Government six months' notice of such exten-
sion and, in case of a dispute in relation to such extension, the matter
shall, at the request of either Party, be referred to the International
Court of Justice. ))

11 s'agit donc d'un différend éventuelconcernant l'extension par le Gou-
vernement islandais de sa compétence sur les pêcheriesautour de l'Islande
par rapport aux linlites reconnues dans l'accord de 1961. La Cour, dans
son arrêtdu 2février1973,a déclarédans le dernier paragraphe explicatif

sur ce point :
((The compromissory clause enabled either of the parties to

submit to the Courtany dispute between them relating toanextension
of Icelandic jîsheries jurisdictionin the waters above its continental
shelf beyond the 12-mile limit. The present dispute is exactly of the
character anticipated in the compromissory clause of the Exchange
of Notes.)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 21, par. 43; les italiques sont de
moi.)

Il est important de noter que la mêmeformule reproduite en italiques
se retrouve aux paragraphes 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 27, 28,
40 et 41 de l'arrêt. Lorsqu'on invoquela formule du dispositif de l'arrêt

de 1973 pour dire que la Cour s'est déclaréecompétente pour connaître
de la requête, sous-entendant que le contenu de cette requête lie la Cour,
on méconnaît d'une part le lien inhérent entre le raisonnement de cet
arrêtde 1973 fondé uniquement sur la notion d'extension de la compé-
tence sur les pêcherieset la formule du dispositif, d'autre part la règle
selon laquelle c'est le traité de 1961 qui détermine l'objet du différend
justiciable, non pas la requêteni les conclusions d'une Partie. La Cour

doit juger l'étendue de sacompétence sans êtreliéepar l'exposéqui lui
en est présenté.

J'ai reproduit le texte original de l'arrêt pourévitertoute ambiguïté de
la traduction et pour indiquer que je ne puis accepter l'argument qu'une
formule aussi précise: différendconcernant [ou au sujet de, ou relatif à,

quelque traduction qu'on choisisse] un élargissement de la compétence
sur les pêcheries puisseêtre interprétée comme impliquanttoute question
annexe dont l'une des Parties a pu avoir l'occasion de parler dans la
négociation préalable à l'accord de 1961, si l'autre Partie a refuséd'en
faire le sujet de l'accord lui-même.11ne suffit pas d'avoir avancé uneidéeReports 1973, p. 307); the present phase has strengthened my conviction
on this point.
3. The Exchange of Notes of 1961would not appear to leave room for
any doubt, and 1will quote the English text which is the authoritative

text:
"The Icelandic Government will continue to work for the im-

plementation of the Althing Resolution of May 5, 1959, regarding
the extension of fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland, but shall give
to the United Kingdom Government six months' notice of such
extension and, in case of a dispute in relation to such extension, the
matter shall, at the request of either party, be referred to the Inter-
national Court of Justice."

Thus the reference is to a possible dispute in relation to the extension by
the Government of ][celandof its fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland in
relation to the limits recognized in the 1961 agreement. The Court, in its

Judgment of 2 February 1973, stated in the last explanatory paragraph
on this point :

"The compromissory clause enabled eitherof the parties to submit
to the Court ariy dispute between them relating to an extension of
IcelandicJisheriesjurisdictionin the waters above itscontinental shelf
beyond the 12-rnile limit. The present dispute is exactly of the char-
acter anticipated in the compromissory cla~lse of the Exchange of
Notes." (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 21, para. 43; emphasis added.)

It is important to note that the formula underlined may be found in
paragraphs 11, 14, 15,16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 27, 28, 40 and 41 of the

Judgment. To rely o'nthe form of words used in the operative clause of
the 1973 Judgment in order to assert that the Court found that it had
jurisdiction to entei-tain the Application, with the implication that the
content of that Application binds the Court, is to disregard, first the
inherent connection between the reasoning of the 1973 Judgment, which
is based solely on the concept of extension of fisheries jurisdiction, and

the form of the operative clause; and secondly the rule that it is the 1961
treaty which determines what the subject-matter of the justiciable dispute
is, and not the Application or the submissions of one of the Parties. The
Court should decid,e what the extent of itsjurisdiction is, without being
bound by the argument addressed to it on the point.
1have quoted the original-language text of the Judgment to avoid any
ambiguity resulting from translation, and to show that I cannot accept

the argument that a form of words as precise as "dispute in relation to
the extension of fisheries jurisdiction" can be interpreted as impliedly
including any connected question which one of the Parties may have had
occasion to refer to in the course of the negotiations preceding the 1961
agreement, if the other Party refused to make that question the subject
of the agreement itself. That an idea or even a proposa1 may have beenou mêmeune proposition dans le cours d'une négociation pour qu'elles
survivent à leur rejet et à l'acceptation de ce rejet par l'auteur de ces
propositions; une autre vue des choses permettrait de créer artificielle-
ment des différendsmultiples par la seule introduction dans une négocia-
tion, pour le principe, de problèmes divers. Aucune négociation ne pour-
rait êtreutilement menée si l'amplification de ses résultats devenait ainsi

libre entre les mains du juge. On rendrait alors nécessairela rédaction de
procès-verbaux d'accord sur le sens des articles les plus importants, puis,
la suspicion augmentant, sur tous les articles d'une convention.
Dans le cas présent, il est clair que I'accord de 1961n'envisage comme
justiciable qu'une seule espèce de différend, l'élargissementde la compé-
tence de l'Islande en matière de pêcheries.

4. Si une confirmaiion de texte était nécessairesur ce point il faudrait
rappeler que le seul passage où une considération de caractère plus
généralest mentionnée est dans la réponse du Royaume-Uni à la note
islandaise du 11 mars 1961, au dernier paragraphe et sous la forme
suivante :

(tJ'ai l'honneur de confirmer au'étant donnéaue la nation islan-
daise est exceptionnellement tributaire de ses pêcheries côtièrespour
sa subsistance et son développement économique et sans préjudice
des droits du Royaume-Uni, conformément au droit international,
à l'égard desEtats tiers, les dispositions de la note de Votre Excel-
lence rencontrent l'agrémentdu Royaume-Uni et que le différendse

trouve donc réglédans les conditions indiquées dans ladite note. ))
(Requête,p. 25.)

Il n'y a rien à ajouter; c'est une opinion du Gouvernement du Royaume-
Uni non un terme de I'accord.
5. L'espècede différendque les parties à I'accord de 1961ont envisagé

et accepté de porter devant la Cour a étéfixéesur un point de droit
spécialement déterminé,de façon restreinte et parce que des assurances
données également de façon spéciale et précise avaient été demandées
et obenues sur ce seul point. Si, comme je le crois, cette détermination du
différendjusticiable n'a pas étéappliquée dans le présent arrêtla Cour a
excédéles termes de sa compétence.

L'Islande, absente, a contesté dès I'orgine toute compétence à la Cour
et l'arrêtdu 2 février 1973 a rejetécette contestation presque unanime-
ment en disant que le différend était précisémenttel que le prévoyait
I'accord de 1961 (cf. par. 3 ci-dessus) et que cet accord étaittoujours en
vigueur et applicable. L'arrêt sur le fond, par contre, s'écartede la défini-
tion du différendàjuger sur deux points:

a) en ne tranchant pas la question de droit précise envisagée dans la
clause compromissoire de 1961, c'est-à-dire la conformité avec leput forward in the course of negotiations is not sufficient for them to
survive rejection, arid acceptance of that rejection by the author of such
proposais; any other view of the matter would enable multiple disputes
to be artificially created, simply by the introduction into a negotiation,
as a matter of principle, of various problems. No negotiations could be
usefully carried on if courts had such freedom to extend their results. It
would become necessary to draw up minutes of agreement as to the
meaning of the mosi:important articles of a treaty, and then, as suspicion
increased, of al1its articles.

In the present case.,itsclear that the 1961agreementonly contemplated
one sort of dispute as justiciable, namely the extension of Iceland's
fisheriesjurisdiction.
4. If any confirmation from a textual source were necessary on this
point, it should be recalled that the only passage where any more general
consideration is mentioned is in the United Kingdom reply to the Ice-
landic Note of 11March 1961,in the last paragraph and in the following
form :

''1 have the honour to confirm that in view of the exceptional
dependence of the Icelandic nation upon coastal fisheries for their
livelihood and economic development, and without prejudice to
the rights of the:United Kingdom under international law towards a
third Party, the contents of Your Excellency'sNote are acceptable to
the United Kirigdom and the settlement of the dispute has been
accomplished on the terms stated therein." (Application, p. 25.)

Nothing further need be said; this is an opinion held by the Government
of the United Kingdom, and not a term of the agreement.
5. The kind of dispute which the parties to the 1961agreement had in
contemplation, and which they agreed to bring before the Court, was
pegged to a legal point which was specially defined, in a limited way, and
because assurances, -whichwere also special and precise, had been sought
and obtained on thiij one point. If, as 1hold, this definition of the justi-
ciable dispute has n,ot been applied in the present Judgment, the Court
has gone beyond the bounds of itsjurisdiction.
Iceland, which is absent from the proceedings, has from the outset
disputed that the Cciurt has any jurisdiction, and this claim was rejected
in the Judgment of 2 February 1973 by an almost unanimous Court,
which observed that the dispute was exactly of the character anticipated
in the 1961 agreement (cf. para. 3 above) and that that agreement was
still in force and applicable. The Judgment on the merits, on the other

hand, departs from the definition of the dispute on which judgment is to
be given on two points:

(a) in that it does riot decide the precise question of law contemplated
in the compromissory clause of 1961, i.e., the conformity with inter-
129 droit international de l'extension à 50 milles de la compétence de

l'Islande sur les pêcheries;
b) en interprétant l'accord de 1961 sur l'étenduede la compétence de la
Cour d'une manièreextensive parrapport au texte comme s'ilavait dit:
tout différendportant surtoute question quelconque en rapport avec
une modification du régimedes pêcheriesfixédans le présentaccord.

Par une contradiction interne l'arrêta en mêmetemps décliné d'exercer

la compétence telle qu'elle est attribuée à la Cour par l'accord de 1961
et exercé une compétence que cet accord n'a pas établie. L'étudedes
comptes rendus de la négociation qui aboutit à l'accord de 1961 montre
qu'il en est bien ainsi.
6. Une première série d'entretiens eut lieu entre le 1" octobre et

le 4 décembre 1960, une seconde du 17 décembre au 20 décembre
1960(documents déposéspar le Royaume-Uni au Greffe de la Cour le
13octobre 1972 1).
A la première réunion les vues du Gouvernement islandais ont été
exposéesde façon fort nette comme une demande de juridiction exclusive

sur les pêcheriesmais ((conformément au droit international ))et pour
le moment il s'agit de faire admettre par le Royaume-Uni la limite de
12milles. Cesconversations montrent aussi que leGouvernement islandais
parle déjà d'établir une ceinture plus ou moins continue d'eaux réservées

autour de l'Islande, peut-êtrede 12 autres milles dont les navires britan-
niques seraient exclus pour la navigation comme pour la pêche etc'est
alors qu'apparaît l'idéebritannique de la garantie nécessairecontre une
nouvelle extension de la zone de pêche,au cas où 12milles seraient admis
dans la négociation en cours.

Délégationdu Royaume-Uni :
((Au surplus, il faudrait que tout accord auquel nous parvien-

drions contienne une disposition garantissant qu'après la période
transitoire le Gouvernement islandais ne cherchera pas à exclure
nos navires des eaux, d'aucune partie des eaux situéesau-delà de la
limite des 12 milles, à moins, bien entendu, qu'un changement de la

règle généralede droit international rie soit décidésous les auspices
des Nations Unies. Votre gouvernement serait-il prêtà nous donner
une telle garantie dans un accord? ))(Compte rendu, p. 14.)

Cette demande de garantie est dès lors sans cesse reprise (cf. compte
rendu, p. 17, par. 8, et par. 14: ((une assurance qu'il n'y aura pas de
nouvelles extensions jusqu'au plateau continental ») et la première for-
mulation d'une garantie est apportée par le Gouvernement islandais en
ces termes:

1 Je note que le Gouvernement islandais, informédu dépôtde ces comptes rendus
et de la possibilitéde les consulter au Greffe de la Cour n'a pas fait usage de cette
offre. Les comptes rendus préparéspar la délégationdu Royaume-Unià ces négocia-
tions ont étéutiliséslargement par le Royaume-Uni dans les écritures et par la Cour
dans l'arrêtdu2 février1973. Aucun document analogue émanantde l'Islande n'a pu
ètre connu de la Cour. national law of the extension to 50 miles of Iceland's fisheries
jurisdiction ;
(b) in that it adopts an extensive interpretation, in relation to the text,

of the'1961 agreement on the scope of the Court's jurisdiction, as if
it had read: any dispute on any question whatever connected with a
modification of the fisheries régimefixed by the present agreement.

With some interna1 contradiction, the Judgment simultaneously
declines to exercise tlie jurisdiction conferred upon the Court by the 1961
agreement and exercises jurisdiction which was not created by that
agreement. Study of the records of the negotiations which led to the 1961

agreement will show that this is so.
6. A first series of meetings took place between 1 October and 4
December 1960, and a second series between 17 and 20 December 1960
(documents deposited in the Registry of the Court by the United King-
dom on 13 October 1972 1).

At the first meeting the views of the Icelandic Government were ex-
plained extremely clearly as being a claim to exclusive fisheries juris-
diction, but "in accordance with international law", and for the time
being it was a matter of obtaining the United Kingdom's recognition of
the 12-mile limit. These talks also show that the Lcelandic Government
was already talking of establishing a more or less continuous belt of

reserved waters aroiind Lceland, possibly extending for 12 miles, from
which British ships would be barred from navigation as well as fishing,
and it is at this point that the British idea appears of the necessary
guarantee against any fresh extension of the fishing zone, if the 12-mile
limit were recognizecl in the current negotiations.

United Kingdom delegation:
"Moreover, \Ne should need to have some guarantee in any

agreement that after the transitional period the Icelandic Govern-
ment would not seek to exclude our vessels from any of the waters
outside 12 miles, unless of course there were to be some change in
the general rule of international law agreed under United Nations
auspices. Woulcl your Government be prepared to give us such a

guarantee in anlyagreement?" (Records, p. 14.)

This request for a guarantee is repeated incessantly (cf. para.8 on p. 17,
and para. 14: ". .. ari assurance that there would be no further extensions
towards the Continental Shelf"), and the first formulation of a guarantee
was provided by the (Government of Lcelandin these terms:

1 1 note that the Governmentof Iceland, having been informeof the deposit of
these records and of the possibility of consulting them in the Registry of the Court,
did not take advantagefthis possibility. The records prepared by the United Kingdom
delegation to these negotiations have been widely used by the United Kingdom in its
pleadings and by theurt in itsJudgment of 2 February 1973.The Court has not been
able to take cognizance of any similar record on the lcelandic side. ((Le Gouvernement islandais se réserve le droit d'étendre sa
compétence en matière de pêcheriesdans les eaux islandaises con-
formément au droit international. Cette extension serait néanmoins
fondée soit sur un accord (bilatéral ou miltilatéral), soit sur des
décisions du Gouvernement islandais qui seraient soumises à un
arbitrage à la demande des parties intéressées» . (Compte rendu,

p. 20.)
(Cf. aussi page 27 où le lien entre le contenu de l'accord projeté et la
((garantie»est formellement reconnu, et le contenu de l'accord n'est que
l'aménagementde la compétence de l'Islande dans une zone de pêchede

12 milles; de même,le délégué islandais ne parle de l'((assurance» que
contre un élargissement éventuelde la compétenceaprès l'accord,jamais
pour autre chose, cf. page 31.)

7. L'élémentde fond sur lequel porte la garantie envisagéeétaitdonc
bien l'extension du droit de pêcherevendiquépar l'Islande dans les eaux
au-delà de 12 milles conformément à ce que serait, au moment choisi,
l'état du droit international; les méthodesenvisagéespar l'Islande étaient
la négociation,bilatéraleou multilatérale,ou une décisionunilatéraledu
Gouvernement islandais qui pourrait être soumise à l'arbitrage. 11
n'apparaît à aucun moment dans la suite des entretiens sur ce point de la
garantie qu'ait étémodifiéecette position de l'Islande quant au contenu
de l'engagement qu'elle envisageaitde prendre, et la formule présentéepar
la délégationislandaise et reproduite au paragraphe 6 ci-dessus a été

affinéedans sa rédaction jusqu'à devenir l'avant-dernier paragraphe de
l'échangede notes de 1961 (texte ci-dessus, par. 3). La position du
Royaume-Uni a étéde reconnaître immédiatement qu'une extensioil
éventuelle des limitesde pêche effectuée selon le droit international serait
opposable au Royaume-Uni; par contre il faudrait un accord et non pas
une décisionunilatérale, même avec possibilitéd'arbitrage. La contre-
proposition britannique était donc:

((Le Gouvernement islandais ne prendra aucune mesure pour
exclure les navires immatriculésdans le territoire du Royaume-Uni
de la pêchedans toute zone situéeau-delà de la limite des 12milles,
si ce n'est conformément aux termes d'un accord ultérieur entre le
Royaume-Uni et l'Islande, ou d'une convention multilatérale ulté-
rieure qui consacrerait une règlede droit généralementacceptéeau
sujet des limites de pêche.h(Compte rendu, p. 33.)

8. La réponse immédiatedu délégué islandaia sprèsexamen de ce texte
fut que le Gouvernement islandais devait avoir ((les mains libres))pour
une extension ultérieurelorsqu'elle serait possible, notamment, disait-il,
en application du droit coutumier qui évolue plus facilementque le droit
conventionnel ainsi que les deux conférences de Genève l'ont montré
(eod. loc.p. 33, dernier paragraphe). Et le point est repris par un délégué "The Icelandic Government reserves its right to extend fisheries
jurisdiction in Icelandic waters in conformity with international law.
Such extension would, however, be based either on an agreement
(bilateral or multilateral) or decisions of the Icelandic Government
which would be subject to arbitration at the request of appropriate

parties." (Records, p. 20.)

(See also page 27 where the link between what was to be included in the
proposed agreement and the "guarantee" is openly recognized, and what
was included in the agreement was no more than the adjustment of the
jurisdiction of Iceland in a 12-mile fishing zone; further, the lcelandic
delegateonly refers to an "assurance" in respect of a possible extension of

jurisdiction after thr: agreement, never in respect of anything else, cf.
page 31.)
7. The basic element to which the guarantee which was contemplated
related was thus clearly the extension of fishing rights claimed by Iceland
over waters beyond the 12-mile limit, in accordance with whatever the
current state of international law might be at the chosen moment; the

means contemplated by Iceland were negotiation, bilateral or multilat-
eral, or a unilateral decision of the Icelandic Government which would
be subject to arbitration. At no time during the further talks on this
question of the guarantee does it appear that there was any modification
of this position takeri up by Iceland as to the content of the commitment
which it contemplated undertaking, and the form of words proposed by
the Icelandic delegation (and reproduced in para. 6 above) was gradually

altered to what ultimately became the penultimate paragraph of the
Exchange of Notes of 1961 (see text in para. 3 above). The United King-
dom position was an immediate recognition that any extension of fishery
limits effected in accordance with international law would be opposable
to the United Kingdom; on the other hand, an agreement would be

necessary, not a unilateral decision, even with the possibility of arbitra-
lion. Thus the British1counter-proposal was the following:

"Except in accordance with the terms of any subsequent agree-
ment between the United Kingdom and Iceland, or of any subsequent
multilateral agreement which embodies a generally accepted rule of
law in relation to fishing limits, the Ecelandic Government will not
take any action to exclude vessels registered in the territory of the

United Kingdoin from fishing in any area outside the 12-mile
limit." (Records, p. 33.)
8. The immediate response of the Icelandic delegate, after studying

this text, was that it was necessary to "leave the Icelandic Government's
Iiands 'untied' " in respect of possible further extensions of fishery juris-
diction, in particular, he explained, by applying customary law which
developed more easily than treaty law as the two Geneva Conferences
had shown (ibid.,p. 33, last paragraph). The point was taken up by abritannique qui dit qu'une extension unilatéralene pourrait êtreacceptée,
mêmefondée sur la coutume; la Partie islandaise confirme alors I'opposi-

tion de vues en disant qu'ccuneextension ultérieure au-delà de 12 milles
ne se ferait que sur labase d'un changement du droit international ou du
droit coutumier)) (eod. /oc.,p. 34, par. 2).
9. A la séancesuivante le point débattuest ainsi précisépar la déléga-
tion du Royaume-Uni :

((La délégationdu Royaume-Uni n'ignore pas que M. Andersen
souhaite que le projet prévoiela possibilité d'une extensionfuture
de la zone de pêche islandaise enconformité d'unenouvelle règlede
droit coutumier, indépendamment detoute conventioninternationale.
Mais comment établir l'existence d'une telle règle de droit coutu-
mier? Là est la difficulté.De l'avis du Royaume-Uni, il ne suffirait
pas qu'une telle règle traduise la pratique d'un certain nombre
d'Etats, il faudrait aussi qu'elle soit généralement acceptée, en
d'autres termes qu'elle soit établie par consentement généralet
reconnue comme telle par la Cour internationale de Justice.))

(Compte rendu, p. 38.)
Et le mêmejour la délégationdu Royaume-Uni remettait à l'autre
Partie le projet suivant:

(tAssurancesdonnées par le Gouvernement islandaisqu'il n'étendrapas
les limites de pêcheau-delà des 12 milles

Le Gouvernement islandais ne prendra aucune mesure pour ex-
clure les navires immatriculés au Royaume-Uni de la pêchedans
toute zone situéeau-delà de la limite des 12milles, si cen'estconfor-
mément aux termes d'un accord international ultérieur consacrant
une règle de droit généralement acceptée au sujet des limites de
pêche,ou à une règlede droit international établiepar consentement
généralet reconnue comme telle par la Cour internationale de
Justice, autorisant un tel élargissementde la compétenceen matière
de pêcheries. )(Compte rendu, p. 40.)

10. Il ne peut donc y avoir de doute sur la concrétisation du point de
droit en litige entre les deux Etats; l'Islande se propose de prendre une
décisionunilatérale, fondéesur le droit international, conventionnel ou
coutumier, selon sa propre appréciation de l'étatdu droit au moment
d'une extension nouvelle des limites de pêche,le Royaume-Uni demande

que l'existencede la règlepermettant l'extension puisse êtredécidéepar
la Cour (cf. un projet ultérieur desassurances citéesau paragraphe 9
précédent:((Tout différendsur la question de savoir si une telle règle
existe pourra êtreporté devant la Cour internationale de Justice à la
demande de l'une ou l'autre Partie.))(Compte rendu, annexe 2, par. 6,
p. 40)). D'aprèsla délégationdu Royaume-Uni la garantie doit couvrir
trois points essentiels:

c1) Le Gouvernement islandais ne demandera pas à repousser les FISHERIESJURISDICTION(DISS. OP. GROS) 131

mernber of the British delegation who said that a unilateral extension was
not acceptable, even when based on custom; the Icelandic representative
then confirmed that there was a conflict of views on this by saying that
"further extension b~ryond12 miles would only be on a basis of a change

either of international law or of customary law" (ibid., p. 34, para. 2).
9. At the followirig meeting the point in dispute was defined by the
United Kingdom deiegation as follows:

"They appreciated Mr. Andersen's desire that the draft should
cover the possibility of a further extension of Icelandic fishery limits
in conformity with a new rule of customary law, as distinct from an
international agreement. The difficulty, however, would be how to
establish that siich a customary rule existed. In the United Kingdom

view such a rule would not only have to reflect the practice of a
number of States, but also be generally accepted, i.e., established by
general consent and recognized as such by the International Court of
Justice." (Records, p. 38.)

The same day, the United Kingdom delegation handed to the other
party the following draft :

"Assurance by the Icelandic Government on no extensions
offishery limirs beyond 12 miles

The Icelandic Government will not take any action to exclude
vessels registered in the United Kingdom from fishing in any area
outside the 12-mile limit except in accordance with the terms of a

subsequent international agreement embodying a generally accepted
rule of law in rr:lation to fishery limits, or in conformity with a rule
of international law, established by general consent and recognized
as such by the International Court of Justice, which would permit
such an extension of fisheryjurisdiction." (Records, p. 40.)

10. There can the:refore be no doubt as to the concrete expression of
the legal point in issue between the two States; Iceland was proposing to

take a unilateral decision, based upon international law-treaty law or
customary law-according to its own assessment of the state of the law
at the time of afresh extension of the fishery limits, and the United King-
dom was asking that the existence of the rule permitting the extension
should be susceptible of being decided by the Court (cf. a revised draft of
the assurance quotecdin para. 9 above: "Any dispute as to whether such

a rule exists may be referred at the request of either party to the Inter-
national Court of Justice." (Records, Annex 2, para. 6, p. 40.)). According
to the United Kingdom delegation, the assurance would have to cover
three essential points:

"(1) The Icelandic Government will not claim an extension of limites de pêcheau-delà de 12milles, si ce n'est conformément à une
règle de droit international clairement établie a) du fait de son
insertion dans un accord international ou b) généralement acceptée
comme règlede droit international coutumier.
2) Tout difSérend sur le point de savoir si une règlede droit inter-

national s'est ainsiétablie serasoumis à la Cour internationalede
Justiceet, dans l'attente de la décisionde la Cour, toute mesure prise
pour donner effet à une telle règle ne s'appliquera pas aux navires
britanniques.
3) Les assurances sur ce point formeront une partie essentielle de
l'accord.
Si ces trois points peuvent êtreacceptés,le Gouvernement de Sa

Majesté fera tout son possible pour assister le Gouvernement
islandais quantà la forme et à la présentation deces assurances. En
particulier, s'ilest important de se réféàela résolution de1'Althing
du 5 mai 1959, il ne verra pas d'objection à ce qu'il en soit fait
mention. »(Compte rendu, p. 42, lesitaliques dans l'alinéa2 sont de
moi.)
Je note la mention de la résolution du 5 mai 1959 contre laquelle le

Royaume-Uni ne fait pas d'objection mais qui est laisséeentièrement à la
responsabilité de l'Islande et n'est pas incorporée dans l'accord pour
devenir l'un des termes de cet accord. La loi islandaise demeure ce qu'elle
était sansque le Royaume-Uni puisse l'invoquer, si elle n'étaitpas obser-
véepar l'Islande, comme base d'une réclamation internationale fondée
sur l'idéequ'une extension de la juridiction islandaise ne serait licite que
si elle se faisait sur la base et dans l'esprit de la loi de 1948.
Le délégué islandais répond au texte britannique que si le texte de
garantie de Londres n'est pas acceptable pour son gouvernement

(cilne semble pas y avoir de véritables différencesd'opinion entre
les deux parties. Le Gouvernement islandais doit déclarerque son
but est le plateau continental.Il est cependant prêt à déclarerque
son intention est de fonder son action sur les règlesdu droit inter-
national et aussi son acceptation de la soumission de tout différend
à la Cour internationale de Justice. ))(Compte rendu, p. 42 et 43,
par.7.)

Il s'agit bien de différendsur une action future de l'Islande, annoncée
sans ambages, tendant à la compétenceexclusive sur les eaux du plateau
continental, et de fairejuger une telle action selon le droit international,
rien de plus mais c'est ce que demande la Partie britannique. Le 2 décem-
bre 1960le délégué islandâis indique que la plus grande difficultédans ce
problème de la garantie est de répondre à la demande britannique
qu'aucune mesure d'extension nouvelle ne soit mise en application pen-
dant que la Cour est saisied'un différendsur cette mesure (compte rendu,
p. 44, par. 5infine). fishery limits beyond 12 miles except in accordance with a rule of
international law which has been clearly established (a) by embodi-
ment in an international agreement, or (6) accepted by general
consent as a rule of customary international law.
(2) Any dispute about whether such a rule ofinternational law has
been established shall be submitted to the International Court of

Justice: and pending the Court's decision, any measure taken to
give effect to such a rule will not apply to British vessels.

(3) The assurance on this point will form an essential part of the
agreement.

If these three points could be met then Her Majesty's Government
would do al1 they could to help the Icelandic Government on the
form and preseritation of the assurance. In particular, if a reference

to the Althing's Resolution of May 5 1959 was important, they
would have no objection to including one." (Records, p. 42, em-
phasis added in para. 2.)

Itake note of the mention of the Resolution of 5 May 1959,to which
the United Kingdorri did not object, but which was left as entirely under
the responsibility of Iceland, and was not incorporated in the agreement
so as to become one of the terms thereof. The Icelandic Law remains
what it was, without it being possible for the United Kingdom to invoke

it, if it were not observed by Iceland, in support of an international claim
based on the idea that an extension of Iceland's jurisdiction would only
be lawful if carried outon the basis and in the spirit of the Law of 1948.
The Icelandic delegate replied to the British proposed text that while
the formula proposed in London was not acceptable to his Government:

"there did not :seemto be any real differences of opinion between
the two sides. The lceland Government must state that their aim
was the Continental Shelf. They were, however, ready to state their

intention to base their action on rules of international law and also
their willingness,to submit any dispute to the International Court"
(Records, pp. 421-43,para. 7).

What was contemplated was clearly a dispute over a future action by
Iceland, announced quite unequivocally, directed to exclusivejurisdiction
over the waters of the continental shelf, and that a judicial decision
should be obtained clnsuch an action according to international law, and
no more, but that is what the British party was seeking. On 2 December

1960 the Icelandic delegate said that the most difficult feature of the
problem of the assurance was to meet the British requirement that no
measure to apply an extension would be taken pending reference to the
International Court of a dispute relating to such measures (Records,
p. 44, para. 5, injînc'). II. La dernière réunion de la première série d'entretiens confirme
que l'essentiel de la garantie sera qu'(<ilappartiendra à la Cour interna-
tionale de Justice de décidersi [toutacteétendant lajuridiction islandaise]
est enfait conforme au droit international )>(compte rendu, p. 46, par. 3).

C'est alors qu'apparaît la proposition britannique d'un préavisde six

mois avant toute extension, permettant de saisir la Cour avant que la
mesure soit appliquée (compte rendu, p. 46, par. 6) et l'élaboration de
l'avant-dernier paragraphe de l'échangede notes de 1961se poursuit dès
lors plus facilement. La délégation du Royaume-Uni propose trois
projets de texte et chacun contient d'une manière ou d'une autre l'idéede
base que les différends éventuelsporteront sur le point de savoir s'il existe

une règlede droit international qui permette une extension de la compé-
tence islandaise sur les pêcheries(compte rendu, p. 48 et p. 49, par. 5).
Une annexe A, page 50, donne la dernière version du texte concrétisant
les vues britanniques sur la garantie devant résulter de la saisine de la
Cour pour assurer la conformité avec le droit internationald'une nouvelle
extension de compétence de l'Islande.

12. Cet examen détaillé desnégociations est nécessairepour lever tout
doute sur le contenu de l'engagement juridictionnel pris par l'Islande et
le Royaume-Uni en mars 1961. 11n'a jamais étéquestion de ((garantir))
le Royaume-Uni contre autre chose que des mesures islandaises éven-
tuelles d'extension de la compétence sur les pêcheriesdéjàconnues de la

partie britannique et devant porter sur les eaux du plateau continental
par un recours juridictionnel limité à la question de la conformité de
telles mesures avec le droit international. Tous les projets discutés sont
formels sur ce point jusqu'au texte final de l'échangede notes de mars
1961 où la conformité des mesures avec le droit international disparaît.
L'examen des comptes rendus à propos de la disparition de ces termes en
donne l'explication. Le Royaume-Uni a obtenu ce qu'il a toujours

demandémais, pour épargner les susceptibilités islandaises, a accepté une
formule moins explicite que les projets discutés: c'est ce que rapporte
expressis verbis le compte rendu du 5 décembre 1960 au paragraphe 1,
page 48.

On voit combien ilserait peu conforme à la véritéhistorique de déduire

de cette concession purement formelle du Gouvernement britannique la
transformation et l'extension du système de garantie juridictionnelle que
ce gouvernement n'avait cesséde réclamercomme condition sinequa non
de tout accord avec l'Islande. Le Royaume-Uni voulait une garantie
d'examen par la Cour, selon le droit international, de toute mesure ulté-
rieure étendant la compétence de l'Islande telle qu'elle allait être reconnue

dans l'accord envisagé; il a obtenu cette garantie telle qu'elle avait été
négociée,et acceptéefinalement par l'Islande sous réserved'une présen-
tation sans éclat. 11. The last meeting of the first series of talks confirms that the essen-
tial feature of the assurance would be that "it would.. .be for the Inter-
national Court to decide whether [any act extending Icelandic jurisdiction]
was in fact in accordance with International Law" (Records, p. 46,
para. 3).
It was at this point that the British proposa1 appears, for six months'
advance notice before any extension, making it possible to refer the

matter to the Court before the measure was actudly applied (Records,
p. 46, para. 6), and the drafting of the penultimate paragraph of the
Exchange of Notes of 1961 thereafter progressed more easily. The
United Kingdom delegation proposed three draft texts, and each of
these contained in one form or another the basic idea that possible
disputes would relate to the question whether a rule of international
law exists permitting an extension of Tcelandic fisheries jurisdiction

(Records, p. 48 and p. 49, para. 5).Annex A at page 50 gives the final
version of the text expressing in concrete form the British views on the
guarantee which shoilld result from the referral of the matter to the Court
to ensure that any f:resh extension of Iceland's jurisdiction would be in
accordance with international law.
12. This detailed study of the negotiations is necessary to dissipate
any doubt as to what was involved in the cornmitment to judicial settle-

ment undertaken by Tceland and the United Kingdom in March 1961.
There was never an!, question of "guaranteeing" the United Kingdorn
against anything other than possible Icelandic measures to extend its
fisheries jurisdiction, of which the United Kingdom was already aware,
affecting the superjaçent waters of the continental shelf, by means of a
recourse to judicial settlement limited to the question of the conformity

of such measures with international law. All the drafts which were
discussed are quite clear on this point, up to the finaltext of the Exchange
of Notes of March 1961, where the reference to the conformity of the
measures with international law disappears. Examination of the records
relating to the disappearance of these terms supplies the explanation of
it. The United Kingdom obtained what it had always asked for, but to
spare Tcelandic feelings, it accepted a form of words which was less

explicit than the drafts which had been discussed; this is recorded
expressis verbisin the Record for5 December 1960,page 48, paragraph 1.
It is thus apparent how little in accordance with historical truth it
would be to deduce., frorn this purely forrnal concession by the British
Government, that there was a transformation and extension of the system
of a jurisdictional guarantee which that Government had unceasingly
sought as a condition sine qua non of any agreement with Iceland. The

United Kingdom wished to be assured of possible examination by the
Court, according to international law, of any subsequent measure ex-
tending Iceland's jurisdiction as it was to be recognized in the contem-
plated agreement; it obtained this assurance as it had been negotiated,
and finally accepted by Iceland on the understanding that the formulation
should be pitched in a low key. 13. La deuxième séried'entretiens, entre le 17et le 20 décembre 1960,
confirme la recherche par le Royaume-Uni d'un accord ((sans faille ))sur
la garantie que l'Islande ((n'étendrait pas ses limites de pêcheau-delà
de 12 milles ... autrement qu'avec l'accord de la Cour internationale
de Justice ))(compte rendu du 17 décembre, p. 3, par. 15; de nouveau le

18décembre, p. 4, par. 3, dans les mêmes termesexactement). En plus le
délégué islandais indique que cette forme de garantie acceptéeen principe
par l'Islande ((aurait cet avantage additionnel, du point de vue britan-
nique, d'inclure un engagement du Gouvernement islandais de ne pas
modifier les lignes de base existantes autrement qu'avec l'accord de la

Cour internationale ». Ce qui confirme, s'il en était encore besoin, que le
différendenvisagé est l'examen selon le droit international de l'extension
des limites, rien d'autre. C'était s'inspirer d'ailleursde l'arrêtde la Cour
sur les Pêcheries en 195 1où il fut déclaré: que la méthodeemployéepour
!a délimitation de la zone de pêche ...n'est pas contraire au droit inter-

national)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 143). Pour être completil faut signaler
les termes identiques employés le 19 décembre 1960 par le ministre des
Affaires étrangères d'Islande:

((une garantie contre une nouvelleextension en échange de la recon-
naissance par le Gouvernement de Sa Majesté de la juridiction de
pêchede l'Islande de 12milles )>(compte rendu, p. 5,par. 1).

14. L'arrêtdans son paragraphe 32 invoque aussi les tentatives de
négociation d'un accord provisoire en 1972, qui n'aboutirent pas, pour
appuyer la thèseque l'Islande a acceptéde négociersur la base d'un droit

préférentiel.En 1972 l'Islande n'a entamé de négociations avec plusieurs
Etats que pour fixer des délais trèsbrefs d'accommodement à son règle-
ment de juridiction exclusivejusqu'à 50milles dont, à aucun moment, elle
n'envisage le retrait ou la modification (cf. par. 25 ci-après) et, en ce qui
concerne le Royaume-Uni, le genre de discussion qui eut lieu est éclairé

par la note du Gouvernement islandais du 11 août 1972 (mémoire
Royaume-Uni, annexe IO), celle mêmeoù l'on prétend trouver une de-
mande de discussion sur des droits préférentielsde la part de l'Islande,
car elle se termine par ces mots: ctc) l'accord viendrait à expiration le
lerjuin 1974 >).Cette note du 11août 1972est postérieure à l'audience de

la Cour tenue en l'absence de l'Islande le ler août 1972, sur la demande
de mesures conservatoires, et antérieure à l'ordonnance du 17 août 1972
que l'Islande n'a pas acceptée; le texte et le contexte ne laissent donc
aucune place au doute: on envisage un accord pour moins de deux anset
le Gouvernement islandais indique qu'il entend ((avoir pleinement le
droit d'appliquer le règlement [du 14juillet 19721 ...à l'intérieurde la

limite de 50 milles >).
La négociation sans résultat de 1972est dénuéede toute pertinence pour
la délimitation de l'objet du différend; elle tendait du côté islandais à
conclure un accord amenant à l'extinction des droits du Royaume-Uni
en 1974 en organisant jusque-là un régime transitoire, le règlement du 13. The second series of talks, held from 17 to 20 December 1960,
confirms that the United Kingdom was seeking a "watertight" agreement
on the basis of an assurance that Iceland "would not attempt to extend
[itsfishery limits] beyond 12miles ... otherwise than with the agreement

of the International Court" (Record for 17 December, p. 3, para. 15;
again on 18December, p. 4, para. 3, in the same terms). Furthermorethe
Icelandic delegate said that this form of assurance, accepted in principle
by Tceland, "would havethe additional advantage, from the British point
of view, of includi~igan undertaking by the Icelandic Government to
the effect that theexisting base-lines would not be altered otherwise than
with the agreement of the International Court". This again confirms, if
it were necessary,that the dispute contemplated involved the examination
according to international law of the extension of the limits, and nothing
else. This was also to draw inspiration from the Court's Judgment in the
Fisheries case in 1951,where it was said that: "the method employed for
the delimitation of i.hefisheries zone... is not contrary to international
law" (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 143). For completeness the identical termi-
nology used on 19 December 1960 by the Foreign Minister of Iceland
should be mentioned :

"recognition by Her Majesty's Government of Iceland's 12-mile
fishery jurisdiction in return for an assurance against further exten-
sion" (Records,p. 5, para. 1).
14. The Judgment also invokes (para. 32) the attempts to negotiate an
interim agreement in 1972, which were unsuccessful, in support of the
contention that Iceland agreed to negotiate on the basis of a preferential
right. In 1972 Icelarid only entered into negotiations with several States
in order to fix very short adjustment periods in respect of its Regulations
extending exclusivejurisdiction to 50 miles, which it never for a moment
contemplated withdrawing or modifying (cf. para. 25 below) and, as
regards the United Kingdom, the kind of discussion which took place is
indicated by the Note of the Icelandic Government of 11 August 1972
(Annex 10 to the United Kingdom Memorial), the very one in which it

is claimed that a request by Iceland for a discussion of preferential rights
can be found, for it 'endswith the following words: "(c) The term of the
agreement would expire on 1June, 1974." This Note of 11August 1972
dates from after the hearing held by the Court, in Iceland's absence, on
1August 1972,on tlherequest for interim measures of protection, and is
prior to the Order of 17 August 1972, which Tceland has not accepted:
what was contemplated was an agreement for lessthan two years, and the
Icelandic Government stated that it intended to "have full rights . ..to
enforce the regulations [of 14July 19721 ...inside the 50-milelimit".

The abortive negotiations of 1972are totally irrelevant to the definition
of the subject of the dispute; on the Icelandic side they were directed to
the conclusion of an,agreement leading to the extinction of the rights of
the United Kingdoin in 1974, and organizing an interim régimeuntil135 COMPÉTENCEPÊCHERIES (OP. DISS. GROS)

14juillet étantmaintenu et cela en application de la résolutionde 1'Althing
du 15 février 1972qui ne vise que des accords provisoires. Confirmation
est donnée par un mémorandum islandais du 19janvier 1973 (mémoire,
annexe 13) proposant encore un accord provisoire jusqu'au 1"septembre
1974, donc pour dix-huit mois seulement. Enfin le fait que l'accord
finalement conclu le 13 novembre 1973 réserve entièrement la position

juridique de chacun ne peut pas êtrenégligé,et pour l'Islande cette posi-
tion n'est pas une réclamation de droits préférentiels maisd'une juri-
diction exclusive allant jusqu'à 50 milles. Que le Royaume-Uni ait une
conception différente desdroits de l'Islande n'est pas un élémentd'inter-
prétation de la position de cet Etat.

15. La négociation du texte qui établit la compétence de la Cour en
la présente affaire explique la clause laconique de l'avant-dernier para-
graphe de l'accord de 1961, s'il en était besoin puisque le texte est clair.
Lorsque l'lslande s'est engagée en 1961elle l'a fait dans un cadre limité.
La Cour devait répondre à la seule question qui pouvait lui être soumise;
ne l'ayant pas fait, elle n'a pas exercéla compétenceconféréepar l'accord.

J'ai indiqué pour ma part que je considérais l'extension de 12à 50 milles
comme contraire au droit international généralet, de ce fait, inopposable
à tout Etat qui pêcheraitdans les eaux adjacentes à la limite de 12 milles
autour de I'lslande. La Cour a dit dans son arrêtsur lePlateau continental
de la mer du Nord: c<l'Etat[riverain] n'a aucune juridiction sur les eaux
surjacentes )(C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 37, par. 59). La prétention explicite

de l'lslande porte sur ces eaux. Quant à la licéitéd'une emprise sur des
espaces maritimes que tous les Etats qui pêchentdans ces parages esti-
maient, sans exception, à la date du 1" septembre 1972, faire partie de
la haute mer, elle n'est pas soutenable; les articl1set 2 de la Convention
sur la haute mer et l'article 24 de la Convention sur la mer territoriale
sont des dispositions en vigueur et l'argument invoqué pour les écarter

n'ayant étéque leur caractère démodé aucune réponsen'est requise, la
réunion d'une troisième Conférence de codification en juillet 1974 mon-
trant à l'évidence qu'ilfaut des procédures et un accord pour remplacer
des textes de codification. Tant que des textes différents n'ont pas été
régulièrementadoptés, le droit de la mer est inscrit dans les textes en
vigueur.

On dit aussi qu'une revendication au-delà de 12milles n'est pas illicite
de plein droit parce qu'il y a beaucoup de revendications de ce genre;
mais en reconnaissant que ces revendications ne sont pas non plus licites
de plein droiton admet qu'il faut l'acceptation d'autrui pour lesrendre op-
posables. Que serait une revendication contestéepartous lesEtats concer-

nés par une situation juridique donnée, sinon illicite; or tous les Etats
qui pêchentdans les parages de l'Islande en cause sont opposésà I'exten-
sion, où est la raison pour ne pas le constater et en tirer la conséquence?
11n'y a pas d'échappée;si les Etats qui s'opposent à l'extension ne
peuvent se fonder sur une règle de droit international, leur opposition
est sans effet et il faut le dire, mais s'ils peuvent se fonder sur une telle

règle il faut aussi ne pas hésiterà le dire. C'est la somme et la constance
136then, the Regulaticlns of 14July being kept in force, in application of the
Althing Resolution of 15 February 1972, which only contemplated tran-
sitional agreements. Confirmation of this is supplied by an Icelandic

Memorandum of 19January 1973(Annex 13to the Memorial), proposing
an agreement to be in force until 1 September 1974, i.e., for 18 months
only. Finally the fact that the agreement ultimately concluded on 13
November 1973entirely reserved the legal position of each party cannot
be overlooked, and for lceland that position was not a claim to preferen-
tial rights but to exclusive jurisdiction extending to 50 miles. That the
United Kingdom niay have had a different conception of Iceland's rights
is not an element of interpretation of the position of that State.
15. The history of the negotiation of the text founding the jurisdiction
of the Court in the present case explains-if there were any need, the text
being clear-the la.conic provision in the penultimate paragraph of the
1961agreement. When Iceland entered into an undertaking in 1961it did
so to a limited extent. The Court should give an answer on the only
question which co~ildbe brought before it; since it has not done so, it has
not exercised the jiirisdiction conferred by the agreement. 1have made it

clear for my own part that 1 regarded the extension from 12 to 50 sea
miles as contrary to general international law, and therefore non-oppos-
able to any State fishing in the waters adjacent to the 12-milelimit around
Iceland. The Court stated in its Judgment in the North Sea Continental
Shelf cases that: "The coastal tat te-ha no jurisdiction over the super-
jacent waters." (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 37, para. 59.)The claim of Iceland
is expressly in relation to those waters. As to the lawfulness of an
encroachment into sea areas which al1States fishing in the area, without
exception, regardedlas forming part of the high seas on 1 September 1972,
it is unarguable that it was lawful; Articles 1 and 2 of the Convention
on the High Seas and Article 24 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea
are provisions which are in force, and since the only argument relied on
to exclude them isthat they are outdated, no reply on this point isneeded;
the calling of a third codifying Conference in July 1974 amply demon-
strates that certain procedures, and agreement, are necessary to replace
codifying texts. Ui~til different texts have been regularly adopted, the

law of the sea is recorded in the texts in force.
It has also been said that a claim extending beyond 12 miles is not
ipso jure unlawful, because there have been many claims of this kind;
but by conceding that these claims are also notipsojure lawful oneadmits
that acceptance by others is necessary to make them opposable. What
could a claim which was disputed by al1the States concerned in a given
legal situation be, iifit were not unlawful? But since al1States fishing in
the Icelandic waters in question are opposed to the extension, what is the
reason for not stating this and drawing the necessary conclusion?
There is no escaping the fact that if the States which oppose the exten-
sion cannot do so cinthe basis of a rule of international law, their opposi-
tion is ineffective, and this must be said; but if they can base their opposi-
tion on such a rule.,it is equally necessary not to hesitate to say that. It isdes oppositions qui aurait dû obliger la Cour à un prononcéde caractère
généraldans la présenteaffaire.
C'étaitd'ailleurs le but de la première conclusion du Royaume-Uni à
laquelle l'arrêtne donne pas réponse; or l'agent avait été amené par une
question à répondre à l'audience qu'ilétait entendu et évident ((que les
conclusions b) et c) sont fondéessur le droit international généralet,
bien sûr, ne concernent pas uniquement leseffetsde l'échangede notes )).

La Cour en a décidétout autrement. Le refus de juger la conformité de
l'extensionà 50 milles en fonction da droit international générala amené
la Cour à faire de l'accord de 1961 le seul motif de l'inopposabilité de
cette extension au Royaume-Uni en construisant cet accord comme une
reconnaissance par l'Islande d'une compétence de la Cour pour tout
différend relatifà une mesure quelconque en rapport avec la pêche.

16. Au-delà des événementsde 1961il faut ajouter que l'analyse de la
position de l'Islande sur le problème de ses pêcheriesdepuis plus d'un
quart de siècleconduit à la conclusion que cet Etat a sans relâche soutenu
et obtenu la reconnaissance d'une thèse selon laquelle les revendications
portant sur l'étenduede la zone de pêcheétaient entièrement séparéesdes

problèmes de conservation. Ainsi dans la Convention sur les pêcheriesde
l'Atlantique du nord-ouest, du 8 février1949(art. 1,par. 2), puis dans la
Convention sur les pêcheriesde l'Atlantique du nord-est, du 24 janvier
1959 (art. 2), l'Islande devait être parmi les parties l'une de celles qui
attachaient le plus d'intérêt à la réserve formelleque ces conventions
ne portaient aucune atteinte aux droits, revendications ou points de vue
detoutEtat contractant concernant l'étendue dela compétenceen matière
de pêcheries.
La constante de la politique islandaise me parait être de distinguerles
limites d'une zone de pêche exclusiveet la revendication de droits préfé-
rentielsau-delàde cette zone. Les deux problèmes sont clairement diffé-
rents; en affirmant par son règlement du 14juillet 1972 une juridiction

exclusive de pêchejusqu'à 50 milles l'Islande se plaçait sur le terrain de
ses revendications sur l'étenduede sa zone de pêche exclusivec ,omme les
deux parties à l'accord de 1961 l'avaient prévu; c'est le point de droit
que la Cour devait trancher.

17. Le sous-paragraphe 3 du dispositif de l'arrêtdécidequ'il ya obliga-
tion de négocierentre l'Islande et le Royaume-Uni ((pour aboutir à la
solution équitable de leurs divergences concernant leurs droits de pêche
respectifs...))et le sous-paragraphe 4 indique diverses considérations

comme directivespour cette négociation.Je tiens que la missionde la Cour
ne lui permet pas derendre une décision avecforceobligatoire sur cesdeux
points et que, ce faisant, la Cour a dépasséles limites de sa compétence.the accumulation and the constancy of the opposition which should have
obliged the Court to make a general pronouncement in the present case.

This was in fact the purpose of the first submission of the United King-
dom, wliich is not answered in the Judgment; furthermorethe Agent said
in the course of his argument that it was understood and accepted "that
submissions (6) and (c) are based on general international law and are
of course not confined merely to the effect of the Exchange of Notes".
The Court has decided entirely otherwise. As a result of its refusa1 to
give judgment on the conformity of the 50-mile extension with general
international law, the Court has had to treat the 1961agreement as the
sole ground of non-opposability of that extension to the United King-
dom, interpreting that agreement as a recognition by Iceland that the
Court has jurisdiction for any dispute concerning any measure relating
in any way to fisheries.
16. Going beyond the events of 1961,it should be added that analysis
of Iceland's position on the fisheries problem for the last quarter-century
and more leads to the conclusion that that State has unremittingly
advanced, and secured recognition of, the view that claims as to the
extent of the fishery zone were entirely distinct from problems of conser-
vation. Tlius under the North-West Atlantic Fisheries Convention of 8
February 1949(Art. 1, para. 2), and then under the North-East Atlantic
Fisheries Convention of 24 January 1959,Iceland was to be one of the

parties which attached the greatest importance to the forma1reservation
that those conventions did not affect the rights, claims, or views of any
contracting State in regard to the extent of jurisdiction over fisheries.

The constant elernent in the policy of Iceland appears to me to be the
distinction between limits of an exclusive fishery zone, and a claim to
preferential rights beyond that zone. These are two clearly different
problems; by asserting, by means of its Regulations of 14 July 1972,
exclusive fisheriesjurisdiction up to a 50-mile limit Iceland took up its
position in the field of its claims as to the extent of its exclusive fishing
zone, as the two parties to the 1961agreement had foreseen; this was the
legal point which the Court was to decide.

17. Subparagraph 3 of the operative clause of theJudgment contains a
decision that there is an obligation to negotiate between Iceland and the

United Kingdom "for the equitable solution of their differences con-
cerning their respective fishery rights.. .",and subparagraph 4 indicates
various considerations as guidelines for such negotiations. 1consider that
the role of the Court does not permit of it giving a pronouncement on
these two points, and that by doing so, the Court has exceededthe bounds
of itsjurisdiction. 18. Le sous-paragraphe 3 parle des divergences concernant les droits
de pêche crespectifs)) des deux Etats. Certes, il y a divergences puis-
que l'Islande prétend exclure définitivement le Royaume-Uni jusqu'à
50 milles mais la prétention est erga omnes et il est quelque peu irréelde

traiter comme un problème bilatéral, susceptible d'une solution bilaté-
rale, leseffets du règlement islandais du 14juillet 1972portant juridiction
exclusive sur les eaux surjacentes du plateau continental, après avoir
déclinéde répondre à la question posée sur le caractère illicite en droit
internationald'une telle réglementation. Bien qu'il yait dans le sous-para-
graphe 4 des précautions de forme quant à la situation des autres Etats,

la Cour a estimépossible d'isoler en quelque sorte la divergence bilatérale
et de la réglerpar I'arrêt.C'est le premier point que je doistraiter avant
d'examiner le fond des sous-paragraphes 3 et 4 du dispositif de l'arrêt.

19. L'origine de ces sous-paragraphes 3 et 4 du dispositif se trouve dans
la dernière partie des conclusions du Royaume-Uni (conclusion finale d))

qui a donné au différend une portée plus large que la seule question de
licéitéde l'extension unilatérale de la compétence et sur la base de cette
conclusion les problèmes de conservation ont étélargement plaidés.
Mais les limites d'un arrêt ne sont pas fixéespar une partie dans sa
requZte ni dans ses conclusions finales ni à fortiori dans son argumenta-

tion, lorsqu'il s'agit d'une compétence spécialement prévuepar un traité
pour saisir la Cour d'une question de droit précise.Particulièrement en
l'absence de l'autre Partie la Cour ne peut à la fois décliner de répondre
à la demande commune de jugement déclaratoire incontestablement
faite dans l'accord de 1961et déciderles conditions d'une négociation de
conservation sur laquelle, personne d'autre que le demandeur ne lui a

demandé un avis, car il faut rappeler que, d'après I'lslande, onze Etats
pêchentde façon régulière dansles eaux islandaises (cf. Juridictionsur les
pêcheries en Islande, Reykjavik, février1972,tableau I,p. 7). Leconseil du
Royaume-Uni de son côté,répondant à une question le 29 mars 1974, a
déclaréque, dans les écritures du Royaume-Uni, n'étaient considérés
comme intéressés,affectés et concernés par la question des pêcheries

autour de l'Islande que les Etats quiypêchaientdans le passé,c'est-à-dire
outre le Royaume-Uni et l'Islande, l'Allemagne fédérale,les Féroé, la
Belgique et la Norvège. Des questions se posaient donc aussi sur les
caractères de l'intérêtdans les pêcheriesde la région géographique en
cause, questions que I'arrêt n'envisageni ne résout.

20. Depuis longtemps déjà on a signalé les difficultésqu'entraîne la
rédaction de certaines conclusions à la fois comme un rappel de l'argu-
mentation à l'appui de la demande, et comme la définition finale de ce
qu'il est demandé à la Cour de dire et juger (cf. ((Quelquesmots sur les
((conclusions » en procédure internationale )),M. J. Basdevant, Mélanges

TomasoPerassi, p. 175).L'affaire actuelle en présenteun nouvel exemple.
La Cour qui est seule juge de sa compétence doit donc trier dans des

138 18. Subparagraph 3 refers to differences concerning the "respective"
fishery rights of the two States. There are of course differences, since
Iceland is claiming to exclude the United Kingdom finally from the area
up to 50 miles, but this claim is made erga omnes, and it is somewhat
unreal to treat as a bilateral problem, capable of being bilaterally resolved,

the effects of the Icelandic Regulations of 14July 1972asserting exclusive
jurisdiction over the superjacent waters of the continental shelf, after
having declined to reply to the question raised as to the unlawfulness of
such Regulations iri international law. Although in subparagraph 4 there
are formal safeguards for the position of the other States, the Court has
regarded it as possible, to isolate, as it were, the bilateral differences and

settle them by the Judgment. This is the first point that i should deal
with before turning to the substance of subparagraphs 3 and 4 of the
operative clause of the Judgment.
19. The origin of these subparagraphs 3 and 4 of the operative clause
is in the last part of the United Kingdom's submissions (final submission
(d)) which gave the dispute a wider dimension than the sole question

of the lawfulness of the unilateral extension of jurisdiction, and on the
basis of that submission problems of conservation have been extensively
discussed in argument. But the bounds of a judgment are not fixed by a
party in its Application, nor in its final submissions, nor, afortiori, in its
argument, when the jurisdiction being exercised is one specially laid
down by a treaty, with a view to bringing before the Court a precise

question of law. P:îrticularly when the other Party is absent from the
proceedings, the Court cannot simultaneously decline to reply to the
joint request for a cleclaratory judgment which was indisputably made in
the 1961 agreement, and decide what the conditions shall be of negotia-
tions over conservaltion as to which no-one but the Applicant has ever
asked its opinion, since it should be remembered that according to Ice-

land there are 11 States regularly fishing in the waters around iceland
(cf. Fisheries Jurisdiction in Iceland, Reykjavik, February 1972, table 1,
p. 14). As for the Cinited Kingdom, its counsel, in reply to a question on
29 March 1974, stated that in the United Kingdom's pleadings, the only
States which were regarded as interested or affected or concerned by the
question of fisheries around iceland were those which have in the past
fished in that area, that is to say, apart from the United Kingdom and

Iceland, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Faroes, Belgium and
Norway. Thus questions also arose as to the nature of the interest in the
fisheries of the geographical area in question, which the Judgment neither
takes into account :norresolves.
20. It is now sonie considerable time ago that attention was drawn to
the difficulties which result from submissions being drafted both as a

restatement of the arguments in support of the claim and as the final
definition of what the Court is asked to decide (cf. "Quelques mots sur
les 'conclusions' en, procédure internationale", J. Basdevant, Mélanges
Tomaso Perassi, p. 175).The present case affords a fresh example of this.
The Court, which i:;the solejudge of its jurisdiction, must therefore sortconclusions ce qui est exposéd'arguments et ce qui est l'exposé précisde
la demande; la demande ne peut outrepasser l'objet de la compétence

attribuée à la Cour et cette compétence étaitlimitéeà une décision décla-
ratoire sur la conformité avec le droit international positif de l'extension
unilatérale de la compétence de I'lslande de 12 à 50 milles, le ler sep-
tembre 1972, date de la mise en vigueur du règlement islandais.

21. La lecture de la deuxième conclusion de la requêtedu Royaume-

Uni montre que sa deuxième partie était ainsi rédigée qu'il nepouvait
s'agir d'une demande mais seulement d'une argumentation à l'appui de
la première partie de cette même conclusionqui demandait à la Cour de
dire qu'on ne peut régler desquestions de conservation par une extension
unilatérale de limites à 50 milles comme une sorte de conséquence de la

déclaration sollicitée sur la non-conformité de la réglementation islan-
daise avec le droit international généraldans la première conclusion du
Royaume-Uni. Puis venait ce passage:

((que ces questions [de conservation] peuvent être régléesentre
l'Islande et le Royaume-Uni par des arrangements conclus entre
ces deux pays, avec ou sans la participation des autres pays intéressés,
et soit sous forme d'arrangements réalisésconformément à la con-
vention du 24janvier 1959sur les pêcheriesde l'Atlantique du nord-

est soit sous forme d'arrangements organisant leur collaboration
conformément à la résolution du 26 avril 1958 sur les situations
spécialestouchant lespêcheries côtières soit encoresousforme d'arran-
gements qui seraient convenus entre eux et qui donneraient effet aux
droits et intérêtsconstants des deux pays dans les pêcheries deseaux

en question )(requête,par. 21; les italiques sont de moi).
Une nouvelle version de cette conclusion fut donnée dans le mémoire

sur le fond (reproduite au paragraphe 11 de l'arrêt)où apparaît I'obliga-
tion de négocieren termes formels, qui sera maintenue comme conclusion
finale. La Cour eut épuisé sacompétence en disant, en réponse à la pre-
mière partie de la conclusion, que les problèmes de conservation ne peu-
vent êtrerégléspar une extension unilatérale des limites à 50 milles et la
revendication d'une compétence exclusive de l'Islande dans cette zone.

Comment une question de droit aussi généraleque la conservation,
mettant en cause au moins onze Etats qui pêchent, peut-elleêtrejudiciaire-
ment réglée((entre I'lslande et le Royaume-Uni ...avec ou sans la parti-
cipation des autres pays intéressés))?S'ilétaitpossible en 1961à l'Islande
et au Royaume-Uni de se mettre d'accord sur une garantie contre une

nouvelle extension de juridiction dont l'effet serait suspendu entre ces
deux Etats par un recours à la Cour, iln'est pas raisonnable d'imaginer
qu'un statut de conservation des ressources halieutiques intéressant onze
Etats puisse êtreélaborépardeux. L'importance des intérêts du Royaume-
Uni dans les pêcheriesautour de I'lslande est reconnue. Mais la question

poséeà la Cour n'est pas de répartir équitablement les ressources de ces
pêcheries,proposition analogue à celle que la Cour a rejetée dans son out what in the submissions is a statement of arguments and what is the
precise statement of the claim; the claim cannotgo beyond the subject of
the jurisdiction conferred upon the Court, and that jurisdiction was
limited to a declaratory decision as to the conformity of Iceland's uni-
lateral extension of jurisdiction from 12 to 50 miles with existing inter-

national law on 1 September 1972, the date on which the Icelandic
Regulations were brought into force.
21. If one reads the second submission in the United Kingdom's
Application it is apparent that the second part thereof was so drafted
that it could not constitute a claim, but merely an argument in support
of the first part of that submission, by which the Court was asked to

declare that questions of conservation cannot be regulated by a unilateral
extension of limits to 50 miles, as a sort of consequence of the declaration
asked for as to the non-conformity of the lcelandic regulations with
general international law, in the first submission of the United King-
dom. The submission continues with the following:

"[questions of conservation] are matters that may be regulated, as
between Iceland and the United Kingdom, by arrangements agreed
between those two countries, whether or not together wirh other

inrerestedcouwtriesand whether in the form of arrangements reached
in accordance with the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Convention
of 24 January, 1959,or in the form of arrangements forcollaboration
in accordance with the Resolution on Special Situations relating to
Coastal Fisheries of 26 April, 1958, or otherwise in the form of
arrangements ugreed between tlzem that give effect to the continuing

rights and interests of both of them in the fisheries of the waters in
question" (Application, para. 21; emphasis added).
A further version of this submission was given in the Memorial on

the merits (reprod~iced in para.11 of the Judgment) where the obligation
to negotiate appears formally expressed, and was to be maintained as a
final submission. The Court would have exhausted its jurisdiction by
saying, in reply to -thefirst part of the submission, that questions of con-
servation cannot be regulated by a unilateral extension of limits to 50
miles and a claim by Iceland to exclusive jurisdiction in that zone.

How could such a general question of law as conservation involving
at least 11 fishing States be judicially settled "between Iceland and the
United Kingdom ... whether or not together with other interested
countries"? While it was possible in 1961 for Iceland and the United
Kingdom to agree on an assurance against any fresh extension of juris-
diction, the effect of which would be suspended as between those two

States by recourse to the Court, it is not reasonable to imagine that a
system of conservation of marine resources concerning 11 States could
be worked out by two of them. The importance of the United Kingdom's
interest in the fisheries around ce lan is recognized. But the question
put to the Court i.5not the equitable sharing of the resources of these
fisheries, a suggestiion analagous to that which the Court rejected in itsarrêt surla délimitation du Plateau continental de la mer dN uord (C.I.J.

Recueil1969, p. 13,par. 2, p. 21 à 23, par. 18à 20), arrêt oùje reprendrai
la formule qu'il n'y a, en la présente affaire, riend'ccindivisà partager ))
entre le Royaume-Uni et l'Islande. L'idée desdroits de pêche((respectifs))
ne correspond pas à une description exacte de la situation de fait et de
droit. Le statut juridique des pêcheriesentre 12et 50 milles de l'Islande
ne peut êtrequ'un statut objectif, tenant compte des intérêts de tous Etats
qui pêchentdans cesparages. Les problèmesde ((droit de pêche))dans les
eaux autour de.1'Islande ont d'ailleurs étéétudiés depuis longtempsavec
les Etats intéresséset l'Islande a reconnu la nécessitéde lesrésoudreavec
eux, comme le Royaume-Uni, d'ailleurs.

22. Le 22 juillet 1972 - en pleine crise sur la question des pêcheries
autour de l'Islande, une semaine aprèsla parution du règlementislandais
du 14juillet 1972qui est l'acte attaqué dans la requêtedu Royaume-Uni
- était signéà Bruxelles un accord entre la Communauté économique
européenne et l'Islande «pour consolider et étendre les relations écono-
miques mutuelles D.L'article premier décide qu'il s'agite favoriser dans
la Communauté et en Islande l'essor de l'activitééconomique, I'amélio-
ration des conditions de vie et des conditions d'emploi)). L'accord
s'applique aux produits de la pêche(art. 2) et un protocole no 6concerne

spécialementces produits; l'article 2de ce protocole décide:

((La Communauté se réserve de ne pas appliquer le présent
protocole dans le cas ou une solution satisfaisante pour les Etats
membresde la Communauté et l'Islanden'aurait pas été apportée aux
difficultéséconomiques résultan dtes mesures adoptéespar l'Islande
enmatière de droitdepêche ))(Les italiques sont de moi.)

Par application de cet article du protocole no 6, et sur la demande ou

avec l'approbation d'Etats membres de la Communauté (parmi lesquels
le Royaume-Uni et la République fédérale d'Allemagne), bien que I'ac-
cord avec l'Islande soit entré envigueur dèsle leravril 1973,le protocole
sur les produits de la pêchede l'Islande a étéreporté déjàcinq fois, la
dernière fois le ler avril 1974.Empêcherl'Islande de bénéficied ru traite-
ment douanier qui lui est accordédans un traitéparce qu'il y a un diffé-
rend non réglésur le ((droit de pêche ))c'est, pour le moins, se déclarer
concerné ou affectépar ce différend. LaCommunauté économiqueeuro-
péennea donc déclarécinq fois son intérêt direct aurèglementdu droit de
pêche autour de l'Islande et cela en refusant d'accorder à l'Islande

l'application du traitement douanier prévu à l'accord du 22juillet 1972.
Cet accord est d'ailleurs mentionnédans le Livre blancdu Royaume-Uni
sur le différend depêche,de juin 1973 (Cmnd. 5341), au paragraphe 22,
immédiatementaprèsun paragraphe sur la coopération anglo-allemande,
où on lit: FISHERIESJURISDICTION (DISS. OP. GROS) 1 39

Judgment with regard to the delimitation of the continental shelf of the
North Sea (I.C.J.Reports 1969, p. 13,para. 2, and pp. 21 to 23, paras.
18 to 20), from which Judgment 1 would adopt the expression that in the
present case, there is nothing "undivided to share out" between the
United Kingdom and Iceland. The idea of the "respective" fishing rights

is not a correct description of the position in fact and in law. The legal
status of the fisheries between 12 and 50 miles from Iceland can only be
an objective status, which takes account of the interests of al1 States
fishing in those waters. Further, the problems of "fishing rights" in the
waters around Iceland have been under study for a considerable time
with the States concerned, and Iceland has recognized the need to resolve

those problems with such States, as has also the United Kingdom.
22. On 22 July 1972-at the height of the Iceland fishery crisis and
one week after the promulgation of the Icelandic Regulations of 14July
1972 which constitute the act impugned in the United Kingdom Appli-
cation-there was ijignedin Brussels an agreement between the European
Economic Community and Iceland in order to "consolidate and to

extend .. . the ecotiomic relations existing between the Community and
Iceland". The first article relates that "the aim is to foster in the Commu-
nity and in Iceland the advance of economic activity [and] the improve-
ment of living and employment conditions". The agreement applies to
fish products (Art. 2), to which a Protocol No. 6 is specially devoted;
Article 2 of that Protocol provides:

"The Community reserves the right not to apply the provisions of
this Protocol ifa solution satisfactory to the Member States of the
Community and to Iceland has not been found for the economic
problems arisivrgfrom the nzeasures adopted by Iceland concerning
jîshing rights." (Emphasis added.)

In application of'this Article 2 of Protocol No. 6, and at the request
or with the approval of member States of the Community (including the
United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany), although the
agreement with Iceland had come into force on 1April 1973, the imple-
mentation of the Protocol on Icelandic fish products has already been
postponed five time:s, the last time on 1 April 1974. To prevent Iceland

from benefiting from a customs arrangement granted it by a treaty be-
cause there is an unsettled dispute over "fishing rights" is, to say the
least, to declare oneself concerned or affected by that dispute. Thus the
European Economic Community has five times declared its direct interest
in coming to a settlement regarding fishing rights in the waters round
Iceland by refusing to grant Iceland the implementation of the special

tariff provisions laid down in the agreement of 22 July 1972.This agree-
ment is moreover mentioned in the White Book on the fishing dispute
published by the British Government in June 1973 (Cmnd. 5341): the
reference occurs in paragraph 22, immediately following a paragraph
on Anglo-German CO-operation, and we read : Il appartiendra à la Communautédedéclarerquand une solution
satisfaisante du différendde pêchea étéobtenue et, en conséquence,
de décider du moment de l'entrée enapplication des termes du

Protocole. ))

23. L'intérêc tommun manifestépar les Etats membres de la Commu-
nauté économique européennecomme les termes de l'article 2, para-
graphe 1,du protocole no 6 cité ci-dessusmontrent que ces Etats ne sont
pas indifférentsà l'élaborationd'un statut des pêcheriesd'Islande. De son
côtél'Islande, en acceptant l'accord et le protocole no 6, a reconnu I'in-
térêtde la Communauté économique européenne au règlement de la
question du droit de pêche. Ainsi, l'exposé des motifs de la première
proposition de report de l'application du protocole no 6, le 20 mars 1973,

présentéepar la Commission au Conseil indique que « I'lslande a intro-
duit des mesures en matière dedroits de pêchequi présententdes difficul-
téséconomiques pour les Etats membres de la Communauté ))II faut
rapprocher de cette situation de l'Islande vis-à-vis de la CEE celle de la
Norvège dans son accord du 14mai 1973avec la CEE, entréen vigueur le
ler juillet 1973, où les concessions accordéespar la CEE ne valent que
dans le cas où la Norvège respecterait ((les conditions équitables de
concurrence ));la Commission a donné,le 16avril 1973,jour du paraphe
de cet accord, l'indication que toutes les réductions de droits de douane
accordéessur centains produits de la pêcheoriginaires de Norvègeétaient

faites sous réservedu respect des conditions actuelles de concurrence
généraledans le secteur de la pêche,ce qui vise l'hypothèse d'uneexten-
sion unilatéralede la limite de la zone de pêche.
On sait que les Etats membres de la Communauté européenne consti-
tuent une majorité à la Commission internationale pour les pêcheries de
l'Atlantique Nord-Est; au surplus, la Communauté prend part aux tra-
vaux avec un observateur, comme dans la Commission pour les pêcheries
de l'Atlantique Nord-Ouest. Les quotas de capture à partager entre les
Etats participants pourraient, selon une proposition de la Commission au
Conseil, êtrenégociés et gérédse manièrecommunautaire.

24. 11semble qu'un accord où l'Islande accepte formellement qu'un
chapitre de traité dont l'importance économique est certaine pour elle
soit suspendu tant que le problème des difficultéséconomiquesrésultant
de ses mesures en matière de droit de pêchen'est pas résoluconstitue une
reconnaissance par l'lslande et par la CEE d'une obligation de négocier.
La négociation a pour objet les conséquences économiquesde la préten-
tion dejuridiction exclusive de l'lslande et le cadre de la négociationn'est
plus directement le droit de pêche maison a vu pour la ~orvègece qu'en-
tendait la CEE dans une situation analogue et on ne doit pas exagérerla
nuance. Le droit de pêche est nécessairement affectp éartoute décisionsur

les conséquences économiques,quels que soient le règlement des consé-
quences économiques et la méthodechoisie, mais le débatest élargiaux
relations économiques généralesentre tous les pays concernés.Alors que
la Cour n'a cherché à définirdans le sous-paragraphe 4 du dispositif de "It will be for the Community to declare when a satisfactory
solution to the fisheries dispute has been achieved and, consequently,
when to decide that the terms of the Protocol should take effect."

23. The common interest evinced by the member States of the Euro-
pean Economic Community, and the terms of Article 2, paragraph 1,
of the above-cited Protocol No. 6,alike show that these States are not
indifferent to the elaboration of a régimefor fisheries in the waters round
Iceland. For its part, Lceland, by accepting the agreement and Protocol
No. 6,has recognized the interest of the European Economic Community

in the settlement of the question of fishing rights. Thus the memorandum
explaining the grounds of the first proposal to postpone implementation
of Protocol No. 6, submitted by the Commission to the Council on 20
March 1973,refers to the "economic problems arising from the measures
adopted by Icelancl concerning fishing rights" for the member States of
LheCommunity. This position of Lceland vis-à-vis the EEC may usefully

be compared with that of Norway in its agreement of 14 May 1973with
the EEC, which came into force on 1July 1973: the concessions granted
therein by the EEC will only be valid provided Norway respects "fair
conditions of competition"; on 16 April 1973, the date when the agree-
ment was initialledl, the Commission indicated that al1 the tariff-reduc-
'ions granted on certain fish products of Norwegian origin had been
agreed to subject to the continued observance of the existing conditions

of overall competition in the fishing sector, which covers the eventuality
of any unilateral extension of the fishery zone.
As is well known, the member States of the European Community
constitute a majority in the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission;
what is more, an observer of the Community as such takes part in its
work, as is also the case of the North-West Atlantic Fisheries Commis-

sion. The catch-quotas of the participant Community members could,
according to a proposa1 made by the Commission of the Communities
to the Council, be negotiated and administered on a Community basis.
24. Now an agreement whereby lceland formally accepts that treaty
provisions of undoubted economic importancefor that country should be
suspended for so long as the problem of the economic difficulties arising

out of the measures it has taken in respect of fishing rights remains
unresolved would appear to constitute a recognition by Iceland and the
EEC of an obligation to negotiate. The negotiations concern the econo-
mic consequences of Iceland's claim to exclusive fisheries jurisdiction,
and the context of the negotiations is no longer, directly, fishing rights; but
what the EEC understood in an analogous situation has been seen in the
instance of Norway, and the distinction should not be over-nicely drawn.

The question of fishing rights is necessarily affected by any decision
regarding the economic consequences, whatever solution is reached for
dealing with the economic consequences and whatever the chosen
method; but the debate is one of wider scope, and extends tol'arrêt quel'aspectconservation du droit de pêchesousforme de directives
adresséesau Royaume-Uni et à l'Islande, c'est le tableau exact des diffé-
rents aspects du problèmede la pêcheautour de l'Islande que donnent les

travaux de la Communauté. Un exempleencore: un mémorandum danois
sur la pêche remisau Conseil le20 mars 1973recommande aprèsétudedu
problème de régions qui dépendent quasi exclusivement de la pêche
(Groenland, Féroé)des mesures particulières d'ordre à la fois structurel
et régional.

La Cour prononçant dans l'arrêtqu'il y a une obligation bilatérale
de négociersur des droits ((respectifs ))de caractère bilatéral alors que
l'Islande a accepté une obligation de négocier multilatérale selon des

bases beaucoup plus larges auprès d'institutions et d'organismes inter-
nationaux qui ne relèvent pas de la juridiction de la Cour a, de ce fait,
élaboréune obligation qui est dépourvue de portéeutile.
25. La nécessitéde traiter le problème des pêcheriesautour de 1'1s-
lande de manièrecomplèteet avec les Etats particulièrement intéressés est
également marquéepar le fait que certains Etats ont, comme le Royaume-
Uni le fit le 13 novembre 1973, conclu des accords de caractère provi-
soire avec l'Islande pour aménagerles difficultésque leur causait I'appli-
cation du règlementislandais du 14juillet 1972.La premièrenégociation
fut menée avecle gouvernement local des Féroéet permit aux pêcheursde
ces îles de pêcherdans la limite des 50 milles (accords de Reykjavik des

15-16 août sur la pêche à la palangre età la ligneà la main et du 19sep-
tembre 1972 sur la pêcheau chalut). Une note verbale du Danemark
du 23 août 1972 déclare que (<les questions concernant la pêchedans
['Atlantique Nord doivent ..êtreréglées dans un cadre international » et
exprime l'espoir que les négociations ((avec les Parties dont les intérêts
sont mis en cause par les nouvelles dispositions islandaises puissent être
reprises aussi vite que possible )) (citédans la Revue généralede droit
international public, 1974, p. 343 et suiv.).
La Belgique a conclu un accord avec l'Islande le 7 septembre 1972
qui a étérenouveléen mars 1974pour dix-huit mois; l'article 1réservela

position des parties sur l'étenduede la juridiction de pêche mais,en
transmettant le texte au Conseil des Communautés, il a été indiqué que
((leGouvernement belge considèrequ'en ce qui concerne la Belgique, cet
accord constitue une solution satisfaisante, ne fût-ce qu'à titre temporaire,
au sens de l'article 2 du protocole no 6 annexé àl'accord CEE-Islande du
22juillet 1972 1).Un autre accord est conclu avec la Norvège le IOjuillet
1973. Ces accords, même lorsqu'ils réservenlta position juridique de
chacun des Etats vis-à-visde l'Islande, tiennent compte par nécessitédu
règlement de 1972source du litige, et l'Islande les considère sans doute
comme des aménagementsprovisoires de durée trèslimitéeen attendant
uneacceptation générale de sa prétention. (L'accorddu 19septembre 1972 FlSHERIES JURISDICTION (DISS.OP. GROS) 141

general economic relations between al1 the countries concerned. While
the Court, in subparagraph 4 of the operative part of the Judgment, has
not sought to define more than the conservation aspect of fishing rights
in the prescriptions directed to the United Kingdom and Iceland, the

working-documents of the Community accurately convey an all-round
picture of the various aspects of the problem of fishing in the waters
round Iceland. One more example: a Danish memorandum on fishing
submitted to the Council on 20 March 1973recommends, after reviewing
the problem of regions almost wholly dependent on fishing (Greenland,

the Faroes), special measures of both a structural and a regional nature.
By finding, in the Judgment, that there is a bilateral obligation to
negotiate concernirig "respective" rights of a bilateral character, when
Iceland has accepted a multilateral obligation to negotiate on much
wider bases in institutions and international bodies which do not corne
within the purview of the Court's jurisdiction, the Court has formulated

an obligation which is devoid of al1useful application.
25. The necessity of dealing with the problem of fisheries in the waters
round Iceland comprehensively and with those States particularly inter-
ested is also accentuated by the fact that certain States have concluded
agreements of an interim character with Iceland, as the United Kingdom
did on 13November 1973,in order to mitigate the difficulties caused them

by the application of the lcelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972. The
first negotiationswere conducted with the local government of the Faroe
Islands and enabletl fishermen from these islands to fish within the 50-
mile limit (Reykjavik agreements of 15-16 August on bottom-line and
handline fishing and of 19 September 1972 on trawl fishing). A Danish

Note iterbale of 23 August 1972states that "questions concerning fishing
in the North Atlantic should . .. be settled in an international context"
and expresses the hope that negotiations "with the Parties whose inter-
ests are threatened by the new lcelandic regulations may be resumed as
quickly as possible" (cited in Revue généralede droit international public,
1974, pp. 343 f.1).

Belgium, on 7 September 1972, concluded with lceland an agreement
which was renewed for 18 months in March 1974; Article 1 reserves the
position of the parties on theextent of fisheriesjurisdiction, but when the
text was transmitted to the Council of the European Communities, the
following indication was given: "the Belgian Government considers that,

so far as Belgium is concerned, this agreement constitutes a satisfactory,
albeit temporary solution within the meaning of Article 2 of Protocol
No. 6 to the EEC-tcelandic Agreement of 22 July 1972". Another agree-
ment was concluded with Norway on 10 July 1973. These agreements,
even when they reserve the legal position of each of the States vis-à-vis
Iceland, necessarily take account of the 1972 Regulations which are the

source of the dispute, and Iceland doubtless views them as provisional
accommodations of very limited duration which have been made pending

1 Quotations translated frorn French by the Registry.

142142 COMP~TENCEPÊCHERIES (OP. DISS. GROS)

sur les Féroéest librement dénonçable par l'Islande, celuides 15-16août
après préavisde six mois.) On ne peut donc en déduireque l'affirmation
de l'intérêdte ces Etats un règlement objectifdu problème. Ces accords,
ajoutés au traité avec la CEE dont l'un d'eux fait mention, concrétisent
la double constatation qu'il existe un ensemble d'Etats particulièrement

intéressésdont la Cour n'a aucun moyen de connaître les intentions de
négociation pour établir un statut objectif des pêcherieset qu'elle n'a
aucune compétence pour leur dire le droit, fût-ce sous forme de direc-
tives de négociation. L'échecde toutes ces négociations bilatérales à
obtenir autre chose que des accords d'extinction progressive (phasing-out
agreements) laissant en dehors la question de fond montre que la situa-
tion ne sera régléeque par un accord multilatéral correspondant au
caractère objectif du statut recherché.

26. Ce n'est pas une sériede hasards qui fait que ces problèmes aient
étéexaminés successivementsous les auspices de I'OECE (en 1956pour
mettre fin aux difficultésde déchargement du poisson capturé par les

Islandais dans les ports du Royaume-Uni) et de l'OTAN (conversations
officieuses de 1958 entre représentants de l'Islande, du Royaume-Uni,
de l'Allemagne fédéraleet de la France), avant la Communauté écono-
mique européenne et le traitéde 1972, mais bien la reconnaissance du
caractère objectif du statut de ces pêcheries.
Si en 1961il a pu y avoir un accord bilatéral avecl'Islande c'est que le
contenu de cet accord étaitessentiellement la reconnaissance de la limite
de 12millespar le Royaume-Uni; mais dans la dernièrepartie du dispositif
de son arrêtla Cour juge d'une question de statut des pêcheriespour la
conservation des ressources et cela n'a plus rien de bilatéral. L'Islande
dit nettement au Royaume-Uni dans lesconversations des 3et 4novembre
1971 à Londres (mémoiredu Royaume-Uni sur le fond, par. 23) avant de
prendre son règlement de 1972: le but recherchépar l'Islande étaitde
protéger son industrie de la pêchecontre la concurrence massive des
chalutiers géants de l'Espagne, du Portugal, de la Pologne, de l'Union

soviétiqueet du Japon et de faciliter une expansion planifiéede sa propre
industrie (on remarque que l'Islande ajoute ici trois Etats à la liste des
onze Etats mentionnés au.paragraphe 19ci-dessus mais, de toute manière,
le cercle des Etats concernésn'est pas illimité, mêmei de telles variations
existent; il est donc sans aucune pertinence de rechercher les prétentions
d'Etats fort éloignés,tant de la zone des pêcheriesd'Islande que des
préoccupations de cet Etat). L'Islande a des buts plus larges que la
conservation. Un exposé des problèmeséconomiques del'Islande vusen
fonction d'une extension de juridiction sur les pêcheriesse trouve dans
le rapport de 1972de l'OCDE déjàcité(notamment p. 32-39).Cet aspect
de la situation n'ayant pas étéabordé par la Cour, je dirai seulement que
la considération deces problèmes eût étéindispensable à un tribunal qui
veuille étudierle statut des pêcheriesde l'Islande; il ne suffit pas de dire FISHERIES JURISDICTION (DISS. OP.GROS) 142

the general acceptance of itsclaim. (The agreement of 19September 1972
concluded with the Faroes is subject to denunciation by Iceland at any
time, while it may denounce that of 15-16August at six months' notice.)
Hence al1 one may deduce therefrom is an affirmation of the interest of
those States in reaching an objective solution of the problem. These
agreements, added to the treaty with the EEC which one of them men-
tions, give concrete support to the dual conclusion that there exists a
group of specially interested States concerning which the Court has no
means of knowing what intentions they may have of negotiating with a
view to establishing an objective fisheries régime, and that it has no
jurisdiction to lay down the law to them, not even by way of directions
for negotiation. The failure of al1 these bilateral negotiations to arrive
at anything other than phasing-out agreements which leave the sub-
stantive problem aside shows that the situation will be resolved solely

by a multilateral agreement corresponding to the objective character
of the régimedesired.
26. It was not a series of accidents which caused these problems to be
considered successively under the auspices of the OEEC (in 1956,in order
to put an end to the difficultiesof landing Icelandic fishcatches inBritish
ports) and of NATO (informal talks in 1958between representatives of
Iceland, the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany and
France), before being raised in the framework of the European Econo-
mic Community and the treaty of 1972,but the recognition of the objec-
tive character of the régimeof these fisheries.
If a bilateral agreement with Iceland was possible in 1961, that was
Secause the essential content of that agreement consisted of the United
Kingdom's recognition of the 12-mile limit; but in the last portion of the
operative part of its Judgmentthe Court passes upon a question regarding
a fisheries régimefor the conservation of resources, and there is nothing
bilateral about that. Iceland pointed this out in clear terms to the United
Kingdom during the London conversations of 3 and 4 November 1971

(United Kingdom Memorial on the merits, para. 23) before enacting its
1972 Regulations : Iceland's purpose was to protect its fishing industry
against massive competition by "super-trawlers" from Spain, Portugal,
Toland, the USSR and Japan and to facilitate the planned expansion
of Iceland's own fishingindustry (it will be noted that Iceland here adds
three States, to the eleven listed in paragraph 19 above, but, in any
event, the circle of States concerned is not unlimited even if such varia-
tions are to be found; it isthus wholly irrelevant to look into the claims
of States which are equally far removed from the Iceland fishery area
and Iceland's preoccupations). Iceland has wider aims than conservation.
A review of Iceland's economic problems seenin relation toan extension
of fisheriesjurisdiction is to be found in the already-quoted OECD report
of 1972(in particular, pp. 32-39). As the Court did not touch upon this
aspect of the situation, I will simply Say that any tribunal that wished
to study the régimeof Iceland's fisheries would have found it indispen-
sable to consider these problems; it is not sufficient to say in generald'une manière générale que l'Islande est tributaire de ses pêcheries
côtières ((pour sa subsistance et son développement économique » si l'on
ne cherche pas à saisir les réalitéséconomiques sous la formule. L'absence

de toute recherche sur ce point fait du prononcé de la Cour une réponse
abstraite à une question abstraite. Mêmedans le systèmeadopté par la
Cour de prétendre réglerun problème de statut objectif par une négocia-
tion bilatérale il eût fallu en tracer le cadre véritable au-delà du procédé
de conservation qui, dans le cas unique de l'Islande, n'est vraisemblable-

ment pas le seul qui puisse concilier les intérêtslégitimes en présence
(cf. par. 31 infra).

27. L'obligation de négocier dans la présente affaire ne trouve pas sa
source dans une sorte d'engagement général tiréde l'article 33 de la
Charte, lequel est avant tout une énumérationde méthodes de règlement;

cette théorie fait de l'obligation de négocier un remède universel mais
incertain puisqu'une négociation sans but fixe laisse nécessairement aux
Parties l'appréciation de son opportunité et des nécessitésde sa réussite.
L'article 33 ne prévoit qu'une obligation, celle de rechercher la solution
d'un différend susceptible de menacer la paix et la sécurité,et laisse une

liberté totale aux parties pour adopter les ((moyens pacifiques de leur
choix)). Rien ne permet de choisir l'une des méthodes, la négociation,
pour en faire une obligationjuridique, alors que toutes lesautres méthodes
sont ouvertes. Le daneerude cette construction nouvelle est d'aboutir à
imposer aux Etats qui sont devant la Cour pour un différend précis,sous
la forme de directives pour une négociation à l'occasion de ce différend

- et non sur le différend même - des règlesde conduite qu'un médiateur
ou une commission de conciliation pourraient proposer, mais sans force
contraignante. Ainsi, en créant l'idéed'une obligation de négocier par
effet de l'article 33 on voudrait donner à l'une des méthodes plusd'effet
qu'aux autres. Cette interprétation permettrait à la Cour, pour tout

différend sérieux,de se muer en arbitre, conciliateur ou médiateur, selon
le cas, et c'est ce qu'elle a fait présentement. L'article 33 de la Charte ne
permet pas cette évolution du rôle de la Cour qui est contraire à la fois à
la Charte et au Statut de la Cour. Dans son arrêtde 1969, la Cour avait
dit qu'il ne faut pas ((systématiser à l'excès)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1969,
p. 54, par. 100).

La source de l'obligation de négocier dans cette affaire est la nature
juridique du statut des pêcheries qui est l'objetdu litige et dont la réalisa-
tion ne peut se faire que par la négociation entre tous les Etats concernés;
c'est là seulement que la Cour aurait pu trouver la réponseà la question
qu'elle avait choisi de se poser et constater qu'elle ne pouvait en faire un

élémentde décision mais,tout au plus, une part de son raisonnement dans
les motifs de l'arrêt.
28. Pour conclure sur les sous-paragraphes 3 et 4 du dispositif, par son
interprétation de l'accord de 1961 et de la négociation qui en permit la
conclusion (notamment aux paragraphes 25 et 47 de l'arrêt) laCour FISllERIES JURISDICTION (DISS. OP. GROS) 143

terms that Iceland is dependent on its coastal fisheries "for its livelihood
and economic development" if no attempt is made to grasp the economic
realities underlying the phrase. Indeed, for want of al1 research on the
point, the Court's pronouncement constitutes simply an abstract reply
to an abstract question. Even from the standpoint adopted by the Court,

whereby a problem of objective régime may purportedly be resolved by
means of bilateral inegotiations, the question should have been placed
within its true dime:nsions, these being of wider scope than conservation
procedure, which, in the unique case of Iceland, is probably not the only
factor capable of reconciling the legitimate interests that stand confronted

(cf. para. 31 below).
27. The obligation to negotiate in the present case does not originate
in a kind of general undertaking drawn from Article 33 of the Charter,
which is above ail a list of means of settlement; this theory makes of the
obligation to negotiate a universal but an uncertain remedy, since when
negotiations take place without a specific objective the Parties necessarily

remain free to appr.aise their desirability and the necessity of their suc-
cess. There is only one obligation laid down in Article 33, that of seeking
a solution to any dispute likely to endanger peace and security, and
parties are left entirely free to adopt the "peaceful means of their own
choice". There is nothing to authorize selecting one of those means,
negotiation, and turning it into a legal obligation, when al1 the other

methods remain open. The danger in this new construction is that it may
have the result of irnposing upon States which are before the Court in
relation to a specific:dispute, in the form of directions for negotiations
occasioned by that dispute-but not on the dispute itself-, rules of
conduct which a mizdiator or conciliation commission might propose,
though without compulsory effect. Thus it is as if, in creating the idea of

an obligation to negotiate on account of Article 33, it were desired to
lend one of the meains greater effect than the others. This interpretation
would enable the Court, in any grave dispute, to transform itself into an
arbitrator, conciliator or mediator, as the case might be, and that is what
it has done in the tlresent instance. Article 33 of the Charter does not

permit this evolutiin in the role of the Court, which is contrary both
to the Charter and to the Court's own Statute. In paragraph 100 of its
1969 Judgment the Court said that one must not "over-systematize"
(1.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 54).
The source of the obligation to negotiate in this case is the legal nature
of the fishei-ies régimewhich is the subject of the dispute, and that can

only be actualized b!i means of negotiation among al1the States concer-
ned; it is there. solely, that the Court could have found the answer to the
question it had chosen to ask itself and discovered that it could not incor-
porate it into its decision but at most give it a place in the reasoning of
the judgment.
28. To conclude rny observations on subparagraphs 3 and 4 of the

operative part: by virtue of the interpretation placed on the 1961 agree-
ment and the negoti;ltions that enabled it to be concluded (see in parti-considère que l'Islande a accepté que les problèmes de conservation
(zones et méthodes), de droits préférentiels et de droits historiques
étaientdes catégories de différends qu'ellepourrait voirjuger par la Cour.

J'ai indiqué que la constante de la politique islandaise me paraissait
partout et toujours de distinguer les problèmes de conservation et de
droits préférentielsdu problème de l'extension de la juridiction sur les
pêcheries(par. 16 ci-dessus) et que I'accord de 1961 en était une preuve
parmi d'autres. Si, en 1961,cette position avait évoluécomment se fait-il
que rien ne le révèledans les comptes rendus? Et pourtant, de quelle

concession s'agirait-il : de la reconnaissance que, à propos d'une extension
éventuelle de la zone de pêche exclusive au-delà de 12 milles, tous
problèmes de conservation, de droits préférentiels ethistoriques pour-
raient êtreaussi l'objet du recours au juge comme étantdes élémentsd'un
différend sur I'extension de la zone. Je dois dire que ceci me paraît
invraisemblable en l'absence de toute admission formelle de l'Islande et

en tenant compte de sonattitude constante d'opposition àtoute confusion
entre les problèmes de l'étendue de la zone de pêche exclusiveet du
régimede la pêcheau-delà de cette zone.

29. Un point reste à traiter. Quel est l'effet de cette dernière partie du
dispositif de l'arrêt? L'accord provisoire du 13 novembre 1973 est un
traité que la Cour ne peut évidemment modifier; or il s'applique comme
accord provisoire jusqu'au 13novembre 1975((en attendant un règlement

du différend au fond et sans préjuger la position juridique ou les droits
de chaque gouvernement à ce sujet 1)(c'est la première phrase de l'accord).
En 1972 les Parties avaient négociésans succès pour conclure un accord
provisoire pour la durée de la procédure devant la Cour; I'accord de
novembre 1973est différent,il assure au Royaume-lJni, quoi qu'il arrive,
un certain statut provisoire pour deux ans, en réservant formellement le

règlement du fond du différend. 11est évidemment contraire au premier
paragraphe de I'accord cité plus haut, comme à toute vraisemblance,
de dire que par cette formule l'Islande aurait accepté qu'une décisionde
la Cour sur le fond pourrait régler le différend. En effet, la position
juridique de l'Islande est reconnue par I'accord, et réservée,donc laissée

en dehors. Si l'Islande avait tacitement accepté que la Cour puisse régler
le differend au fond, ce qu'elle a toujours refusé,elle eut ainsi reconnu la
juridiction de la Cour. C'est dire qu'elle aurait accordéun statut favorable,
selon elle, au Royaume-Uni pour deux ans et en plus reconnu que la
Cour allait juger le fond d'un différend sur lequel l'article 7 de I'accord
indique que les Parties savent qu'il existera sans doute encore en

novembre 1975 : <(La terminaison [de I'accord] n'affectera pas la position
juridique de chaque Gouvernement sur le différend au fond.)) La com-
paraison de cet article 7 avec le premier paragraphe ne me paraît laisser
place à aucun doute. Au surplus l'historique de l'article 7 se trouvait déjàcular paras. 25 and (47of the Judgment) the Court considers that Iceland

has agreed to the inclusion of problems of conservation (zones and me-
thods), preferential rights and historic rights within the categories of
dispute which it might find the Court adjudicating.1 havealready indicated
that it appeared to imeto be an unwavering constant of Icelandic p~licy
always to distinguish problems of conservation and preferential rights
from the problem of the extension of fisheries jurisdiction (para. 16

above) and that the 1961 agreement was one of the proofs of this. If this
position had shifted in 1961,why is there nothing in the records to revea;
as much? Yet what would have been the concession in point?-the
recognition that, in relation to any extension beyond the 12-mile limit
of the exclusive fishery zone, any problems of conservation or preferen-
tial and historic righitsmight also be referred to adjudication as elements

of a dispute over the extension of the zone. 1 must say that 1 find this
improbable in the absence of any formal admission onthe part of Iceland
and considering its constant attitude of opposition to al1 confusion of
problems concerning the breadth of the exclusive fishery zone with
problems of the fish~rryrégimebeyond that zone.

29. One further point remains to be examined: what is the effect of
this last part of the operative clause of the Judgment? The interim agree-
ment of 13 November 1973 is a treaty which the Court is obviously

powerless to modify; and it applies as an interim agreement until 13 No-
vember 1975"pending a settlement of the substantivedispute and without
prejudice to the legal position or rights of either Government on the
question" (this is froin the first sentence of the agreement). In 1972 the
Parties conducted unsuccessful negotiations directed to the conclusion
of an interirn agreernent for the duration of the proceedings before the

Court; the agreement of November 1973 is different: it guarantees the
United Kingdom a certain provisional position for two years in any
event, while expressly reserving the question of settlement of the dispute.
It is clearly contrary to the first paraçraph of the agreement, cited above,
and contrary to al1the probabilities, to say that by using this expression
Iceland agreed that a decision of the Court on the merits could settle the

dispute. The legal position of [celand is in fact recognized by the agree-
ment, and it is reserved-thus left outside the agreement. If Iceland had
tacitly accepted that the Court should be empowered to settle the dispute
on the merits, which it has always refused to do, it would thus have recog-
nized the jurisdiction of the Court.That amounts to saying that it would
have granted what in its eyes was a favourable position to the United

Kingdom for two years, and in addition recognized that the Court would
give judgment on the merits of a dispute as to which Article 7 of the
agreement indicates that the Parties are aware that it will no doubt be
still in existence in November 1975: "lts termination [that of the agree- 145 COMPÉTENCEPÊCHERIES (OP.DISS.GROS)

dans un document britannique (Lii,re blarlcannexe A, doc. 9) qui indique
les contrepropositions du Royaume-Uni pour un accord provisoire
faites à la date des 3-4 mai 1973 dans des entretiens à Reykjavik. Les
ministres islandais avaient demandé qu'on examine à ces entretiens si,
en cas de conclusion d'un accord provisoire, la procédure devant la Cour
pouvait êtresuspendue (Livre hlarzk,annexe A, doc. 6f), p. 16). Le projet

de contreproposition du Royaume-Uni montre le déroulement de la
négociation sur ce point (Livre blanc,annexe A, doc. 9, par. 6) et mon
collègue, M. Petrén, a montré dans son opinion dissidente que l'Islande
a refusé pour l'article 7 une formule qui eut prévu une obligation de
négocier avec le Royaurne-Uni sur le fond avant novembre 1975; cette
obligation ayant été formellementexclue, il est impossible de l'imposer
contre le texte clair du traité. L'accord de 1973qui maintient les positions

juridiques des Parties telles qu'elles sont présentement et qu'elles pourront
êtreen novembre 1975 empêchedonc l'obligation bilatérale de négoîier
prononcée par la Cour d'avoir aucun effet. Certes les deux gouvernements
pourraient déciderde négocierdemain, s'ils le veulent, mais rien ne les y
oblige et. I'accord de 1973 le reconnaît.

II y a plus. Les considérations généralesdu sous-paragraphe4 du dispo-
sitif de l'arrêtétantdestinéeà une négociation bilatéraleanglo-islandaise
risquent d'êtredépasséespar les événementsd'ici novembre 1975. Si l'on

soutient que, avant novembre 1975, le Royaume-Uni pourrait revenir
devant la Cour, d'une manière ou d'une autre, j'indiquerai brièvement
que la situation me paraît différente.
30. L'arrêt (dispositif,sous-par4)n'est pas applicable avant 1975car le
règlement provisoire de la pêchebritannique a étéétabli sous réservede
tout règlement du fond. Ceci confirme encore le côté abstrait, pour ne
pas dire illusoire, de cette partie finale du dispositif. IIen résulte aussique

tout changement du droit international sur la matière rendra l'arrêtdésuet.

Le paragaphe 76 de l'arrêtdit que l'accord de novembre 1973 ne
dispense pas les Parties de leur obligation de négocier; mênîesi une telle
obligation bilatérale existait, ce qui a été contestéici, l'accord de 1973
s'est placé sur un terrain nouveau et non modifiable que le Preniier
ministre du Royaume-Uni a ainsi défini devant la Chambre des

Communes :
((Notre position devant la Cour internationale de Justice demeure

exactement la mêmequ'avant, et l'accord est sans préjudice de la
cause de l'un ou l'autre pays. L'accord est provisoire et a étéconclu
pour deux ans à compter du moment de la signature cet après-midi,
dans l'espoir que la Conférencesur le droit de la mer sera en mesure ment] will not affect:the legal position of either Government with respect
to the substantive dispute." Comparison of this Article 7 with the first
paragraph seems to me to leave no room for doubt. Furthermore, the
history of Article 7 was already available in a British document (White
Book, Ann. A, Doc. 9) which reproduces the counter-proposais for an
interim agreement made by the United Kingdom on 3-4 May 1973in the

course of talks in Reykjavik. The Icelandic ministers had asked that at
these talks the question should be examined whether, if an interim arran-
gement were agreed, the proceedings before theCourt could be suspended
(White Book, Ann. A, Doc. 6 (f),p. 16). The draft counter-proposal of
the United Kingdom shows how the negotiations went on this point
(White Book, Ann. A, doc. 9, para. 6) and my colleague, Judge Petrén,

has demonstrated in his dissenting opinion that lceland refused to accept
a form of words for Article 7 which would have provided for an obligation
to negotiate with th~eUnited Kingdom on the merits before Novembei
1975; that obligation having been formally excluded, it is impossible to go
against the clear text of the treaty and impose it. The 1973 agreement,
which maintains the legal position of the Parties as they stand at present

and as they may be in November 1975, therefore prevents the bilateral
obligation to negotiate pronounced by the Court from having any effect.
The two Governmei~ts could of course decide to negotiate tomorrow, if
they so wish, but thlrre is nothing to oblige them to do so, and the 1973
agreement recognizes this.
This is not all. Tlhe general considerations in subparagraph 4 of the

operative clause of the Judgment, being intended for bilateral Anglo-
Icelandic negotiations, are in danger of being overtaken by events by
November 1975. If iitis suggested that before November 1975the United
Kingdom could come back to the Court, in one way or another, 1should
explain briefly that it seems to me that the position is otherwise.
30. The Judgment (subpara. 4 of the operative clause) is not applicable
until 1975, since the: interim settlement for British fishing was reached

with the reservation of any settlement on the merits. This again confirms
the abstract, not to say illusory, aspect of this final part of the operative
clause. It also follows from this that any change in international law in
this field will render theJudgment obsolete.
Paragraph 76 of the Judgment states that the agreement of November

1973 does not relieve the Parties from their obligation to negotiate;
even if such a bilateral obligation existed, which has here been cor~tested,
the 1973agreement broke new ground, where modification is not possible,
as defined in the following way by the Prime Minister of the United
Kingdom in the House of Commons:

"Our positiori at the World Court remains exactly as it is, and the
agreement is without prejudice to the case of either country in this
matter. This is an interim agreement covering two years from the
moment of signature this afternoon, in the expectation that the

Conference on the Law of the Sea will be able to reach firm conclu- de prendre fermement position. Nous connaissons tous les difficultés
qui se poseront à cette conférence; mais les deux gouvernenzents
espèrentqu'ailantl'expirationde I'accord ilaura étépossihred'aboutir
à uneententesur ledroit de la mer et quelasit~iationpourraalorsêtre
régléeen conséquence. » (Hansard, Commons, 13 novembre 1973,

colonne 252, les italiques sont de moi.)

Si le Gouvernenient britannique reconnaît que l'accord ne préjugepas
la position juridique du Gouvernement islandais et n'envisage pas avant
la fin de cet accord d'autre possibilité d'un règlement de la situation
qu'une entente généralesur le droit de la mer en rapport avec les travaux
de la toisième Conférence sur le droit de la mer, ilsemble bien que les

deux gouvernements aient estimé que I'accord de 1973 «dispense» de
négocier bilatéralement tant qu'une entente n'a pas étéréaliséedans le
cadre généralde travaux en cours. De même cesdéclarations paraissent
exclure l'hypothèse d'un retour devant la Cour avant la terminaison de
I'accord de novembre 1973 pour faire juger le fond du différendreconnu
comme étant réservé.

31. Une opinion dissidente ou individuelle devant avoir ses limites,
je ne trziterai pas d'autres points sur lesquels je silis aussi en désaccord
avec l'arrêt. Cependant je ferai exception pour l'un d'eux. L'invocation
de l'arrêtsur le Plateau continentalde la mer du Nord pour appuyer la
décision actuelle pour la reconnaissance d'une obligation de négocier
bilatérale et pour la référenceà l'équitédans les paragraphes 75 et 78 de

I'arrêtet dans la dernière partie du dispositifn'est pasjustifiée.La situation
juridique actuelle est sans rapport car ce sont les compromis qui avaient
décidéque la tâche d'établir effectivement les limites serait réservéeaux
Parties qui s'engageaient à le faire ((sur la base et en conformité des prin-
cipes et des règles de droit international tenus par la Cour pour appli-
cables)) (C.I.J. Recueil1969, p. 13, par. 2 de l'arrêt).La Cour a donc fait
en 1969 le contraire exactement de ce qu'elle fait aujourd'hui où, au lieu

de constater judiciairement l'état dedroit international pour en laisser
l'application aux Parties, I'arrêtignore l'obligation de dire le droit et se
rabat sur une obligation de négocier non prévue dans I'accord de 1961
par les deux Etats. Au surplus, en 1969, la délimitation du plateau
n'intéressait que les trois Etats Parties devantla Cour et ils étaient seuls
compétents pour la tracer. Ce n'est pas le cas aujourd'hui pour ce que la
Cour a voulu réglerdans le sous-paragraphe 4 du dispositif: l'organisation

d'un régime deconservation des pêcheriesde façon bilatérale alors qu'il
existe une obligation multilatérale de négocier.

Attachant aussi une particulière importance à la question de l'équité,
je rappellerai que la Cour prit alors les plus grandes précautions de
rédaction pour éviter précisémentla généralisationde ses observations.

L'iniquitéde la situation géographique étaitsimple et résultait du fait de
147 FISHERIESJURISDICTION (DJSS. OP. GROS) 146

sions. We al1know the difficulties facing a conference on the law of
the sea, but 60th Gorlernments hope that it will have been possible
by tlie expiration of this agreement to reach agreement on the law of
tlze sea and thut that will tllen govern tlie situation." (Hansard,

Commons, 13 November 1973, column 252; emphasis added.)

If the British Government recognizes that the agreement is without
prejudice to the legal position of the lcelandic Government, and is not

contemplating any possibility prior to the expiration of the agreement
other than general agreement on the law of the sea in connection with
the proceedings of the Third Conference on the Law of the Sea, it defi-
nitely appears that ithetwo Governments considered that the 1973agree-
ment "relieved" them from bilateral negotiation for so long asno general

agreement has been reached in the general framework of the proceedings
in progress. These statements would also appear to exclude the hypothesis
of any return to the Court prior to the termination of the agreement of
November 1973, to seek judgment on the substantive dispute, which is
agreed to be reserved.

31. Since a disseriting.,or separate opinion should be kept within limits,
1will not deal with other points on which 1also disagree with the Judg-
ment,-with the exception of one of these. The invocation of the Judg-
ment in the North Sea Contirier~tal Shcif'cases to support the present
decision, with regard to the recognition of a bilateral obligation to nego-

tiate and the reference to equity in paragraphs 75 and 78 of the Judgment
and in the final part of the operative clause, is unjustified. The present
legal position is quite distinct, since it was the special agreements which
had decided that the task of actually fixing the boundaries should be
reserved to the Parties, who undertook to do so "on the basis of, and in
accordance with, the principles and rules of international law found by

the Court to be applicable" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 13, para. 3 of the
Judgment). Thus in 1969the Court did exactly the opposite of what it has
done today, when instead of giving a judicial statement of the state of
international law on the subject, and leaving the application thereof to the
Parties, the Judgment disregards the obligation to state the law, and falls

back on an obligation to negotiate which was not provided for in the
1961agreement by the two States. Furthermore, in 1969the delimitation
of the continental shelf only concerned the three States which were
Parties before the Court, and they alone were competent to effect it.
That is not the case here for the matters which the Court has sought to

resolve in subparagraph 4 of the operative clause: that is, the bilateral
organization of a fishery conservation régime whilethere is a multilateral
obligation to negotiate.
Since 1 also attach particular importance to the question of equity, I
would recall that the Court on that occasion took the greatest possible
precautions in its drafting specifically in order to prevent its observations

being treated as of general application. The inequity of the geographicalla configuration naturelle descôtes; la remise en ordre n'impliquait qu'une
seule opération, simple aussi, la modification aussi juste que possible de
la limite. La situation des pêcheries d'Islande est sans rapport, mettant

en présence des intérêtstrès divers par nature; insérer dans des recom-
mandations de négociation la notion d'équiténe suffitpas à rendre celle-ci
applicable en raison de la circonstance unique dans le monde de la dépen-
dance économique absolue d'un Etat vis-à-vis de la pêche. ((L'égalité
se mesure dans un mêmeplan et ce n'est pas à de telles inégalitésnatu-
relles que l'équitépourrait porter remède ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 50,

par. 91). Aménager la balance entre la survie économique d'un peuple et
les intérêtsde l'industrie de la pêched'autres Etats pose un problème de
développement économique équilibréde tous, selon des critères écono-
miques, où la pêche n'estqu'un des éléments considérése,t dont l'inter-
dépendance et la solidarité internationales sont les fondements. Les

notions de taux de croissance économique, diversification industrielle,
vulnérabilitéd'une économieen face des ((caprices )de la nature, structure
et croissance de la population, utilisation de l'énergie, besoinsd'inves-
tissement, évolution des marchés extérieurs des produits de la pêche,
régularisation de ces marchés, participations étrangères dans les entre-

prises islandaises, fondsde développement industriel, parmi bien d'autres,
définissent les intérêtséconomiques de l'Islande à obtenir un certain
règlement du problème des pêcheries. Non seulement ces mots n'ont
jamais étéemployés mais il est clair que des divergences de vues sur ces
questions ne créentpas de différendsjusticiables car ils'agit de problèmes
d'intérêts économiquen se relevant pas de la Cour. Mais la Cour ne peut

les faire disparaître en ne voulant voir qu'un problème de conservation;
la balance des faits et des intérêtest rompue.

32. L'arrêt décide en somme que l'Islande n'avait pas le droit d'étendre
ses limites de pêchede 12 à 50 milles pour des motifs de conservation,
ce que chacun peut admettre, mais c'est choisir un motif qui n'est pas
celui de l'Islande après avoir évitéde décider que, dans l'état actuel du

droit positif, l'extension à 50 milles n'est pas opposable aux Etats qui
pêchent,quel que soit le motif invoquépour une telle extension y compris
l'intérêtde l'Islande dans la manière où elle l'a exposé; mais ignorer une
argumentation équivaut à la rejeter. Puis gardant ce thème unique de la
conservation, la Cour construit à l'intention de deux Etats parties à un
différend une consultation sur les problèmes de conservation comme si

leur solution pouvait remplacer la seule décision envisagée en1961,celle
portant sur la licéitéd'une extension nouvelle de limites au-delà de
12 milles. Répondre à un différend sur une prétention de juridiction
exclusive par des directives pour un accord de conservation n'est pas
accomplir la mission de la Cour; mêmesi la Cour estimait la question
posée selon l'accord trop étroite, c'est celle qui avait étéfixéepar les

148situation was simplt:, and was the result of the natural configuration of
the Coast; the adjustment involved a single operation, which was also
simple, namely, as just a modification as possible of the boundary. The
fisheries situation of Iceland is quite unrelatrd to this, since it involves
interests which are of their nature extremely diverse; to inject the concept

of equity into a recommendation of negotiations is not sufficient to make
it applicable, because of the circumstance, which is unique in the world, of
the absolute econon~icdependence of a State on fisheries. "Equality is to
be reckoned within the same plane, and it is not such natural inequalities
as these that equity could remedy" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 50,para. 91).
To hold the balance between the economic survival of a people and the

interests of the fishing industry of other States raises a problem of the
balanced economic development of all, according to economic criteria, in
which fishing is only one of the elements takeri intoaccount, and of which
the bases are international interdependence and solidarity. The concepts
of rate of economic growth, industrial diversification, vulnerability of an
economy faced with the "caprices" of nature, population structure and

growth, use of energy, investment needs, development of external markets
for fish products, regularization of such markets, foreign participation in
lcelandic undertakings, industrial development funds, among many
others, define the e:conomic interests of Iceland in obtaining a certain
settlement of the fisheries problem. Not merely have these expressions
never been used, but it is clear that differences of views on these questions

do not give rise to jilsticiable disputes, since these are problems of econo-
mic interests which are not the concern of theCourt. But theCourtcannot
make them disappear by refusing to see anything but a conservation
problem; the balance of facts and interests is broken.

32. In effect the Judgment decides that Iceland did not have the right
to extend its fisheries limits from 12to 50 miles on grounds of conserva-
tion, which will be generally conceded, but this is to choose a ground
which is not that of Iceland, after having avoided deciding that, in the

present state of existing law, the extension to50 miles is not opposable to
the fishing States, whatever ground may be relied on for such an extension,
including the interests of Iceland as it has explained theni; but to dis-
regard a line of argument amounts to rejecting it. Then, sticking to this
single theme of conservation, the Court constructs for the two parties to
a dispute a system of consultation on conservation problems as if the
solution of these could take the place of the only decision which was con-

templated in 1961, .namely that on the lawfulness of any fresh extension
of limits beyond 12miles. To respond to a dispute over a claim to exclusive
jurisdiction by givi17gguidelines for a conservation agreement is not a
fulfilment of the Court's task; even if the Court thought that the question
raised under the agreement was too narrow, it is the question which was

148Parties. Un accord ne fixejamais autre chose que ce qui était négociable
au moment donné entre les parties qui l'ont conclu; comme le disait la
Cour: ((nulle partie ne peut prétendre imposer ses conditions à l'autre))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 139). Le juge ne peut davantage imposer ses
interprétations d'un accord aux Etats qui l'ont conclu pour faire dire àcet
accord plus et autre chose qu'il ne dit. Et là aussi la Cour s'est prononcée:

((s'il est certain que les Parties, libres de disposer de leurs droits,
auraient pu, ...donner à leur accord n'importe quelle portée ... ilne

s'ensuit nullement que la Cour jouisse de la mêmeliberté; que
pareille liberté, contraire à la fonction propre de la Cour, ne pourrait
en tout cas lui appartenir que si elle résultaitd'une stipulation positive
et claire.)) (Zones ,franches de la Haute-Sai9oie et du Pays de Gex,
ordonnance du 6 décembre1930, C.P.J.I. sérieA no24, p. 11.)

33. En orientant sa décisionsur les problèmes de conservation qui ne
sont pas l'objet du différend né en 1972 du fait de l'extension de la

juridiction de l'Islande sur les pêcheriesde 12jusqu'à 50 milles, la Cour
a posé une question abstraite à laquelle, dans la dernière partie du
dispositif, elle a donné une réponse abstraite. Au contentieux, la
Cour est liéepar ce qu'on lui a demandé de juger; lorsqu'elle applique
l'article 53 du Statut la règle est encore plus ferme car la Cour doit
s'assurer qu'elle ne va pas plus loin ou ailleurs que 1'Etat absent de la
procédure a consenti dans l'acte qui établit la compétence du juge. C'est

ainsi que la Cour disait dans l'affaire Ambatielos: ((en l'absence d'un
accord clair entre les Parties ...la Cour n'est pas compétente pour
traiter au fond l'ensemble de la présente affaire)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1952,
p. 39); le moins qu'on puisse dire est que les problèmes de conservation
n'ont pas fait en 1960 l'objet d'un tel débat entre le Royaume-Uni et
l'Islande et que l'on voit mal par quel accord non équivoque ce serait

devenu un différend en soidans l'échange denotes de 1961.

34. La Cour n'a pas rempli sa mission dans la présente affaire en ne
décidant pas la question juridique que les Parties à l'accord de 1961
avaient prévu de lui renvoyer pour des fins qu'elles étaient libres de
décider,et en traitant le problème de conservation des pêcheriesd'Islande
comme constituant le fond du différend. Un tel arrêtne peut donc avoir

d'effet pour lerèglement du véritable différendau fond, mêmesi l'intention
étaitd'y aboutir comme on le voit dans le paragraphe 48,et dans quelques
allusions couvertes.
La mission propre de la Cour est toujours de ((réglerconformément au
droit international les différends qui lui sont soumis ))(art.38 du Statut).
En introduisant dans les relations internationales une conception selon

laquelle la Cour rendrait des décisions selon ce qu'à chaque occasion la
majorité penserait êtreà la fois juste et opportun, une transformation
profonde serait opérée. Ilsuffira de citer la Cour elle-même:defined by the parties. An agreement can never define anythingother than
what was subject to negotiation at the appropriate time between the par-
ties who concluded it; as the Court has said: "no party can impose its
terms on the other party" (I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 139). Nor can a court
impose its interpretation of an agreement on the States which concluded
it, so as to make it say something more than, or something different from,

what it says. Here again the Court has already spoken:
". .. though it is certain that the Parties, being free to dispose of
their rights, might ... embody in their agreement any provisions

they might devise .. .,it in no way follows that the Court enjoys the
same freedom; as this freedom, being contrary to the proper func-
tions of the Court, could in any case only be enjoyed by it if such
freedorn resulted frorn a clear and explicit provision.. ." (FreeZones
of Upper Sailoy and the District of Gex, Order of 6 December 1930,
P.C.I. J., Series A, No.24, p. 11).

33. By centring its decision around problems of conservation which
are not the subject of the dispute which arose in 1972 as a result of Ice-
land's extension of its fisheries jurisdiction from 12to 50 miles, the Court
has raised an abstract question to which it has given, in the last part of the

operative clause of the Judgment, an abstract reply. In contentious cases,
the Court is bound by what it is asked to adjudge; when it applies Article
53 of the Statute, th'erule is still stricter, since the Court must satisfy itself
that it is not going further or in a direction other than what was agreed to
by the State which is absentfromthe proceedings, in the instrument which
established the competence of the tribunal. Thus the Court observed in
the Ambatielos case that: "in the absence of a clear agreement between

the Parties . . . the Court has no jurisdiction to go into al1the merits of the
present case" (1.c.~'. Reports 1952, p. 39); the least that can be said is
that the problems of conservation were not the subject of such discussion
in 1960 between the United Kingdom and Iceland, and that it is difficult
to see by what unequivocal agreement it could have become a dispute in
itself under the Excllange of Notes of 1961.
34. The Court has not fulfilled its mission in the present case, since

is has not decided the legal question which the Parties to the 1961agree-
ment had envisaged laying before it, for purposes which they were free to
decide upon, and since it has dealt with the problem of the conservation
of Icelandic fisheries as being the substance of the dispute. Such a judg-
ment cannot therefore be effective for the settlement of the real substan-
tive dispute, even if there were an intention to achieve this, as appears
from paragraph 48 and from certain covert allusions in the text.

The real task of the Court is still to "decide in accordance with inter-
national law such disputes as are submitted to it" (Art. 38 of the Statute).
To introduce into international relations an idea that the decisions of the
Court may be given according to what on each occasion the majority
thought to be both just and convenient, would be to effect a profound
transformation. It vvillbe sufficient to quote the Court itself: ((Ayant ainsi défini les rapports de droit entre les Parties ...la
Cour a rempli sa mission. Elle ne saurait donner aucun conseil
pratique quant aux voies qu'il conviendrait de suivre pour mettre
fin à l'asile, car, ce faisant, elle sortirait du cadre de sa fonction
judiciaire. Toutefois, il est présumer que leurs rapports juridiques
réciproques se trouvant désormais précisés,les Parties seront en
mesure de trouver une solution pratique.)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1951,

p. 83.)
Que la nouvelle conception soit à rejeter comme contraire au rôle du juge

international me paraît résulter de la simple constatation que celui-ci
n'est pas un juge fédéral; les Etats, peu nombreux aujourd'hui, qui
viennent à la Cour ne le font pas pour recevoir des conseils, mais pour
obtenir la confirmation judiciaire des engagements conventionnels qu'ils
ont pris, selon le droit international établi, et en fonction d'une situation
bien connue d'eux. La Cour avait vu tout cela dans l'arrêtdes Pêcheries
où le caractère particulier de la situation domine la décision (C.I.J.

Recueil 1951, arrêtdu 18 décembre 1951); en voulant atteindre sous le
couvert d'une affaire restreinte aux pêcheriesde l'Islande un prononcé
d'effet universel la Cour contredittoute son attitude antérieure.M. Charles
De Visscher écrivait déjà dans ses commentaires sur l'interprétation
judiciaire en 1963:

((La fonction de l'interprétation n'est pas de perfectionner un
instrument juridique en vue de l'adapter plus ou moins exactement à

ce que l'on peut être tentéd'envisager comme la pleine réalisation
d'un objectif logiquement postulé, mais defaire la lumière sur ce que
les Parties ont effectivement voulu.))

Il n'y a pas de meilleure réponseà la philosophie qui inspire l'arrêtet aux
postulats qu'il contient (en particulier les paragraphes 44 à 48).

(Signé) André GROS. "Having thus defined . ..the legal relations between the Parties.. .,

the Court has c:ompleted its task. It is unable to give any practical ad-
vice as to the varioiis courses which mieh" be followed with a view
to terminating the asylum, since, by doing so, it would depart from
its judicial function. But it can be assumed that the Parties, now that
their mutual legal relations have been made clear, will be able to find
a practical ... solution ..." (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 83.)

That this new concept must be rejected as in contradiction with the role
of an international tribunal appears to me to be clear, simply from the
observation that an international court is not a federal tribunal; the
States-of which there are now not many-which come before the Court

do not do so to receive advice, but to obtain judicial confirmation of the
treaty commitments which they have entered into, according to estab-
lished international law, in relation to a situation with which they are well
acquainted. The Court saw al1this in the Judgment in the Fislieries case,
in which the special nature of the situation was the dominant feature in
the decision (I.C.J. Reports 1951, Judgment of 18 December 1951); by
seeking to effect, under cover of a case limited to Icelandic fisheries, a

pronouncement of' universal effect, the Court contradicts its whole
previous attitude. .4s long ago as 1963, Charles De Visscher wrote in
his commentary on judicial interpretation:

"The function ofinterpretation is not to perfect a legal instrument
with a view to adapting it more or less precisely to what one may be
tempted to envisage as the full realisation of an objective which was
logically postulated, but to shed light on what was in fact the will
of the Parties."

There coul'd be no better response to the philosophy which inspires the
Judgment and the postulates it contains (particularly paras. 44-48).

(Signed) André GROS.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Gros (translation)

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