Separate Opinion of Vice-President Wellington Koo

Document Number
050-19640724-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
050-19640724-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF

VICE-PRESIDENT WELLINGTON KOO

I. 1 am in complete agreement with the Court's findings on the
first, second and fourth Preliminary Objections and with the general
line of reasoning which has led up to them, except on one point in
connection with the second Objection which calls for some elucidation
on my part. As regards the third Prelirninary Objection, 1 regret to

be unable to concur in the Court's conclusion in favour of a joinder to
the merits. It is my view that this objection should have been rejected.
Accordingly, 1 propose to state the reasons for my opinion in the two
respects.

2.
The Judgment in referring to the reliance cf the Respondent
upon the decision of the Court in the Israel v.Bulgaria case in support
of the second Preliminary Objection points out a number of differences
between that case and the present one. In so far as this is done for the
purpose of making an independent approach to the instant case on
its merits, it can be easily understood. But, as 1 look at it, calling
attention to these differences does not imply, nor do they themselves

justify an implication of, any justification of theecision in the former
case, concerning which my views remain the same as stated in the
Joint Dissenting Opinion appended to the Judgment in that case.

3. The differences which have been noted in the present Judgment
on the second Preliminary Objection are, in my view, only of an inci-
dental character as regards the point in issue. The two situations
ansing from Article 36 (5) of the Statute in relation to the Bulgarian

declaration of acceptance under Article 36 and from Article 17 (4) of
the Hispano-Belgian Treaty of 1927 in relation to Article37 are basi-
cally similar, if not identical, so far as the question of the transfer of
the compulsory jurisdiction from the old Court to the new Court is
concerned. Both depend upon the factor of being "still in force",
independently of the disappearance of the Permanent Court, which was

taken for granted. This term, which, as regards declarations of accept-
ance mentioned in Article 36 (5),was originally drafted in English and
rendered in French as "pour une durCe qui n'est pas encore expirée",
constitutes the requisite condition for the said transfer. As regards
Article 37,the condition is in fact the same for it calls for "a treaty or
convention in force [which] provides for reference of a matter to a

tribunal to have been instituted by the League of Nations, or to the52 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. WELLINGTON KOO)

Permanent Court of International Justice". The dissolution of both
the League and the Court had been known and they were expected to
be on their way to disappearance. The purpose of Article 37 and
Article 36 (5) is the same : it is to preserve as Far as possible the com-

pulsory jurisdiction arrangements in force apart from the expected
dissolution of the League and the Court. The form of the instrument
in which the compulsory jurisdiction provision is embodiedis immaterial.
Whether this provision forms the whole subject-niatter of a given instru-
ment or is only one of the provisions of a treaty or convention for

pacific settlement of disputes-by specified bodies, or whether it consti-
tutes a special provision in a general treaty or convention on other
matters, is of no decisive importance as regards the transfer of the
jurisdiction under Article 37. What matters is that the treaty or
convention should in such case continue to be in force. This contin-
uation of validity refers to the instrument as a whole ; so long as the

instrument itself remains in force, so long does the provision for com-
pulsory jurisdiction, just as under Article 36 (5) of the new Statute,
the declarations of acceptance made under Article 36 of the old Statute,
are considered to remain in force so long as the period for which they
were made has not expirûd. Article 17 (4)of the 1927 Treaty, like the

Bulgarian declaration of acceptance, may have been temporarily
inoperative due to the dissolution of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice, but this transient factor of inapplicability had been
taken for granted and had been the very reason for the provisions of
Arricle 37 just as it had been, in respect of declarations of acceptance
under Article 36, for those of Article 36 (5). In other words the whole

purpose of both provisions was intended to discount the effect of the
dissolution of the old Court and make possible the effective transfer of
its compulsory jurisdiction to the new Court.

4. Moreover, on closer examination it will be found that the argu-
ment of differentiation between the Aerial Incident case and the present
case does not explain away the former decision. From the juridical
point of view there is really no distinction as regards the principle of
transfer from the old Court to the new Court. Only the two sources

of the obligation to submit to compulsory jurisdiction are different.
In the case of the declarations of acceptance made under Article 36,
paragraph 2, of the old Statute, like similar declarations made under
the identically numbered provision of the new Statute, their effectiveness
depended upon the extent of concordance of the terms between any
two given acceptances, having due regard to the respective reservations

and limitations on the principle of reciprocity, whereas the jurisdictional
clauses, to which Article 37 is applicable, derive from the mutual con-
sent and agreement of the contracting parties in bilateral or multi-
lateral instruments. But the process of the transfer itself and the legaleffect of the transfer once consummated, are the same in both situations,
just as the purpose of the two provisions in the Statute in question is
identical. Only, in the instant case, as the Judgment has rightly
pointed out, the basic obligation of submitting to compulsory adjudi-
cation is clearly stipulated in Articles 2 and 17 (1) of the 1927 Treaty
just as in Article 23 in respect of "any disputes arising as to the inter-

pretation of execution of the present Treaty", while the provision of
Article 17 (4) is of a functional character as regards the tribunal for
such adjudication, as is also the casein respect of the tribunal mentioned
in Articles 21 and 22 for the determination of certain matters.

Such being the situation in the instant case, the difference in
legal effect, if any, is one of degree as regards the validity or strength

of the source of the obligation and not one of kind. For this reason
there is even greater justification to uphold the validity of the transfer
of the compulsory jurisdiction under Article 37 than under Article 36,
paragraph 5. It does 'not warrant any implication that the decision
in the Aerial Incident case was equally justifiable in law.

6. The third Preliminary Objection undoubtedly raises important

questions of law and fact. In principle 1 fully endorse judicial caution
as a sound policy in the interest of good administration of justice and
the Court certainly has full discretionary power to decide on a joinder
for good reasons, as the Court has affirmed in the present Judgment.

7. In the instant case 1 am, however, of the opinion that this objec-
tion could and should have been adjudicated upon. The elaborate
written pleadings and the lengthy oral hearing have brought out clearly

and almost exhaustively the various issues involved and the searching,
though conflicting, arguments of the two Parties. While the Applicant
has asked the Court, as the alternative to dismissal, to join the third
Preliminary Objection to the merits, the Respondent has urged that
the issue raised by it "is wholly ripe for decision" and that the alter-
native Belgian request for the joinder of this objection to the merits

cannot be justified.
8. In the light of the subrnissions of the Parties on the third Prelim-

inary Objection, two principal questions are involved at the outset :
(a) one of law and (b) one of fact, the other issues raised being sub-
ordinate to and dependent upon the answers to the two questions for
their solution. The question of law can be stated thus : does inter-
national law recognize the right of a State to protect its national~, natural or juristic perçons, being shareholders in a foreign company,
for darnage or injury to them through an internationally illicit act
done to the company by a third State? And the question of fact centring
on two crucial points : are the shares in Barcelona Traction registered
on its books in thename of nominees of American nationality and claimed
by the Applicant as belonging to natural and juristic persons of Belgian

nationality found prima facie to be owned by them, and have these
persons sustained damage through damage caused to the said company
by internationally wrongful acts, measures or omissions of the organs
of the Respondent Government?

g. If the answer to the question of law is found to be in the negative
and nevertheless the facts and circumstances of the case appear to be
weighty and serious, judicial caution and sound administration of
justice would dictate a joinder to the merits in order to make two deter-
minations at the second phase of the proceedings, if it should finally

take place. First, to determine whether the facts and circumstances
of the instant case are juridically adequate to constitute a valid ground
for recognizing the Applicant's capacity or jus standi before the Court.
Ifthey are found to be inadequate for the purpose, the claim of the
Applicant must be held to be inadmissible and the third Preliminary
Objection must be sustained. If they are found to be adequate, it

would then be in order to make the second determination, namely
whether the facts and circumstances of ihe instant case are of such a
particular character as to warrant the finding by the Court of another
exception to the existing recognized rule of protection of a company
only by its national State.

IO. If, on the other hand, the answer to the same question of law

is found to be in the affirmative and the essential facts alleged by the
Applicant constitute prima facie a valid ground for recognizing its
capacity, a jus standi in the instant case, the said objeStion must be
rejected at the present stage of the proceedings. Such a finding, how-
ever, would still leave it open to the Respondent at the later phase
of the proceedings on the merits, if it should finally take place, to refute

and disprove the alleged facts by counter-evidence. If the Respondent,
in the opinion of the Court, succeeds in the task, a finding will of course
be made to reject the Applicant's claim on the merits.

II. In brief, the primary question of law raised by the third Pre-
liminary Objection consists in determining first of al1 whether under
modern international law there exists a general right on the part of a

State to protect its nationals, shareholders in a foreign company,
vis-à-vis a third State independently of the general rule of protection
by States of their national companies and of the recognized exception
to it as noted above. It centres on the point urhether modern inter-national law sanctions such a general right of intervention as claimed
by the Applicant on behalf of Belgian shareholders. 1 propose now
to consider this question.

12. The introduction of the concept of private legal entities in
international law in the form of corporate bodies is a natural sequel to

its emergence in municipal law. Since there are almost as many dif-
ferent kinds of corporate entities as there are different systems of
municipal law under which they are constituted and since their activities
have been growing in complexity as well as in kind, the problem of
protecting their legitimate interests in international law has been

assuming increasing importance as well as endless complexity.
This idea of protection is fundamental and appears to be common
13.
ground between the two schools of advocates on the subject. Their
difference of view relates to the manner and extent of its implementation
in international law. What is pertinent to the question under consider-
ation, however, is to deterrnine which is the more reasonable and
practical view as regards protection of the shareholders by their national

State in a foreign company. Should this protection be confined to
the shareholders in a foreign company which is of the nationality of the
"offending State"? Should it be limited again to such a case where the
said foreign company has been dissolved or is practically defunct?
Should there be an additional requirement that the said shareholders
must be owners of a majority of the total number of shares of the

company or at least a substantial proportion of them? What is the
criterion for constituting a substantial proportion? Or what is the
bearing and effect of the attitude of the State, the nationality of which
is possessed by the company, upon the right of the national State of
its shareholders to protect their interests? Has it intervened or has

its intervention been energetic or not?
1 am inclined to think that while the positive answers to thern
14.
may be interesting or useful, they do not constitute essential elements
to a general rule of protection of the national shareholders of the inter-
vening State (still less to the particular issue under consideration).

15. Foreign investments constitute one form of property, rights
or interests, 2nd as such are in principle entitled to the protection of
international law. Since the kinds and methods of such investment

are numerous and varied, and since they are still in the process of
expansion and development, it is inevitable that at the present stage
of their evolution new circurnstances and unfamiliar features will be
encountered in the protection of such rights and interests in the inter-national field. But in essence they al1 fa11within the compass of the
general rule of diplomatic and judicial protection of international law.

What is really involved is the basic principle of protection, which has
been so clearly affinned by the Permanent Court of International
Justice in the Mavromnzatis case when it declared :

"It is an elementary principle of international law that a State

is entitled to protect its subjects, when injured by acts contrary
to international law committed by another State, from whom
they have been unable to obtain satisfaction through the ordinay
channels l."

Moreover, international law, which is primarily founded on the

generally recognized principles of law and justice, attaches less impor-
tance to form and appearance than municipal law. Where it is a
question of protection of property, rights and interests, it is the proper
function of international law to ascertain where andto what extent they

exist, and to accord recognition to realities rather than to forms and
appearance. As stated by this Court in the Reparation for Injuries
Sugered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion of
II Afiril 1949 "throughout its history, the development of international
law has been influenced by the requirements of international life ...2".

Max Huber, Rapporteur on British claims against Spain in the Spanish
Zone of Morocco, observed :

". .. Malgréle fait que beaucoup de systèmes de droit admettent
l'existence indépendante de sociétésen nom collectif, la juris-

prudence prépondérante des tribunaux reconnaît la possibilité de
distinguer entre les parts contributives des sociétaires, d'un côté,
et la sociétémêmede l'autre. Le droit international qui, dans ce
domaine, s'inspire essentiellement des principes de l'équité,n'a
établi aucun critère formel pour accorder ou refuser la protection

diplomatique à des intérêtsappartenant à des personnes de natio-
nalité différente. .. 3"

16. The right of a State to protect a company which possesses its
nationality by diplomatic intervention or by recourse to international
judicial settlement against another State for wrongful acts toward

the company involving its international liability is generally recognized
.by international law. This rule is evidently derived by analogy from
the principle that-

l P.C.Z.J., Series A, Noz, p.12.
Z.C.J. Reports 1949p. 178.
Quoted by John Thomas Miller Jr., Du traitement par les gouvernements
des intévétsétrangersdits substantiels des.sociétés,19582.. "By taking up the case of one of its subjects and by resorting

to diplomatic action or international judicial proceedings on his
behalf, a State is in reality asserting its own rights-its right to
ensure in the person of its subjects, respect for the rules of inter-
national law 1."

But this analogy, by the very nature of the corporate personality,
is only approximate and cannot be pushed too far. It has been gener-
ally accepted because it facilitates protection abroad by its so-called
national State. But it could not have been, and was obviously not

intended to be, an all-in-al1prescription for the protection of the various
categories of rights and interests embodied in a corporate entity, the
owners of which often have several different nationalities. Moreover,
as a matter of fact, even in municipal law the shareholders are entitled,
in certain circumstances, to take action in their own names in respect

of injuries to a corporate entity. This principle is not only to be found
in the decisions of the English and United States courts but is also
recognized in the jurisprudence and law of associations under the
Continental system2.

As the concept of corporate personality has become more com-
17.
plex and the activities of modern private corporations of different
kinds have rapidly grown in variety and range, often extending to the
temtories of many States with different municipal law systems, their
organization has taken on many forms of structure with an increasing

number of constituent and associated elements. They often have
subsidiaries with varying degrees of ownership and different classes
of shareholders with differentiated rights of voting and sharing in- the
profits or dividends. Because of this fact of rapid growth and devel-
opment of modern joint stock companies and corporations, the problem

of their protection has likewise become more complex.

18. In my view the foregoing general considerations are useful to
keep in mind when examining the points at issue in respect of the third
Preliminary Objection.

It may be true, as contended by counsel for the Respondent,
19.
that international jurisprudence provides no precedent to support the
Applicant's claim of the nght of protection of the interests of its na-
tional~, shareholders in a foreign company, against the wrongful acts of a
third State done to the company. But it is to be noted that the cases

of arbitral awards examined by the Parties were mostly decided several

P.C.I.J., Series A. No2,p. 12.
'J. Mervyn Jones, "Claims on Behalf of Nationals who Are Shareholders in
Foreign Companies", inBritis hearbook of Intevnational Law1949,Vol. XXVI,

PP. 232-234.decades ago whereas the progress and development of corporate organi-
zation and activities in international commerce and finance have over-

taken their applicability and have created new and unprecedented
conditions which in turn constantly give rise to hitherto unknown
problems in international law for fair and equitable solution.

20. For this reason, the original simple rule of protection of a com-

pany by its national State has been found inadequate and State prac-
tice, treaty regulation and international arbitral decisions have come
to recognize the right of a State to intervene on behalf of its nationals,
shareholders of a company which has been injured by the State of its
own nationality, that is to say, a State where it has been incorporated

according to its laws and therefore is regarded as having assumed its
nationality.

21. Whetner this recognition may be regarded as an exception to

the rule of protection of a compariy by its own national State or as a
supplementary rule of protection of the shareholders of a company
is immaterial ; nor, in my view, is it a point of great consequence that
this recognition is sometimes qualified by the requirement that such
protection must be conditioned by the extinction or the practically
defunct state of the company in question. The important point to

note is that the national State of the shareholders is recognized to
have the right to protect them irrespective of whether they are to be
regarded merely as beneficial owners of the rights, property and interests
of the company or as virtual successors to the defunct or practically
defunct company.

22. It is true, as has been contended by the Respondent, that this
right of protection has been recognized because the wrongdoing State
Feing the national State of the particular company, there would other-
wise be no possibility of redress under international law. But it is
equally true that the raison d'êtreof this recognition is to secure redress

for the damage caused to the shareholders, and the particular rule
allowing only the national State of the company to exercise its protection
is setaside, precisely for this predominant purpose of effective protec-
tion of the legitimate interests of the shareholders of the Company
who are nationals of the intervening State. If this is true, it follows

that the original rule authorizing only the national State of the com-
pany to exercise diplornatic protection of its property, rights and
interests is more of the nature of a particular rule for the protection of
the company as such rather than a general rule to apply to the ptotec-
tion of al1kinds of rights and interests, both individual and corporate,

grouped within the juridical entity of the company. This being so,the national State of the shareholders of a foreign company is a fortiori,
entitled to exercise protection on their behalf.

23. For convenience sake or as a matter of policy, the national
State of the shareholders of a foreign company may leave their protec-
tion to the national State of the foreign company to exercise the right

of protection on its behalf as a first step. But this right is neither an
exclusive right nor a preferential right. There is no fundamental
reason why the national State of the shareholders of the company
should be denied the right to undertake their protection vis-à-vis the
third State having caused damage to the company and consequently
to its shareholders. This protection may be undertaken, for the pur-

pose of obtaining redress, either jointly with the national State of the
company or simultaneously with and independently of it. It is for
the shareholders' national State to determine as a matter of policy
what step is to be taken and when it is to be taken for the purpose.
It may well be that the action taken by the company's own State is

effective in securing redress for the company and therefore also for
the shareholders from the State causing the damage to it ; and in that
event, the State of the shareholders will see no need to intervene on
their behalf. But if the action of the national State of the company is
fruitless or if it is disinclined to take steps to protect the company or
discontinues its intervention without securing the desired result, there

is no good reason why the national State of the shareholders should be
precluded from exercising its own right to intervene on their behalf for
effective protection.

24. Perhaps in one instance the interests of the shareholders may
not be protectable in international law ; that is, if the wrongdoing
State is one of which the shareholders of a foreign company so injured
are nationals. In such a'case it is not only impossible to conceive of

an international claim to protect the interests of the shareholders as
such against their own State, if they own al1the shares of the company,
but the said State can also justifiably disclaim international respon-
sibility toward the national State of the injured company on the same
ground as that on which the national State of a company injured by
itself declines responsibility by affirming that under. international law

a State cannot, at least in theory, injure itself or clairn against itsdf.
For possible protection, the interests of the shareholders would have
to depend upon the attitude and effort of the national State of the com-
pany in asserting its right of diplomatic intervention in favour of the
company as such. For, on the principle stated by the Court in the

Mavrommatis case in claiming for redress of an injury caused to its
nationals by a foreign State, a State is really asserting its own right
to ensure respect for international law by the foreign State in the person
of its nationals, the national State of the company in question could
perhaps insist upon redress being accorded to the injured company

so as to repair also the losses to the shareholders by the wrongdoingnational State of the shareholders, but it would be confronted by the
argument of lack of genuine interests on its part, to which international
law attaches primary importance.

25. However, if there are other shareholders of a different national-
ity or nationalities from that of the shareholders of the wrongdoing
State, the claims of their national States obviously cannot be met with
the same refusa1 to acknowledge international responsibility for its
wrongful act.

26. What 1 have said above shows that the rule of protection of a
company by its national State and the rule of protection of its share-

holders by their national State are really not, and cannot be, exclusive
of each other. These two rights are based on different concepts ; they
are different and independent of each other. They CO-exist. They
are complementary and equally necessary from the standpoint of inter-

national law, though the right of a State to protect a company incor-
porated under its laws is lirnited to the needs arising from the nature
of the corporate personality only l.

27. The so-called exception, mentioned above, in favour of protec-
tion of the shareholders by their national State, to the general rule of
protection of a company by its national State, in my view is not an
exception. On examination it will be found to be of the nature of a

sepxate rule for the protection of the interests of the shareholders in
a foreign company by their national State. It is independent of the
first rule and CO-existswith it. It is only incidentally by circumstances
connected with it. It is different from the right of the national State
of the foreign company. Like the latter it flows indirectly from the

general right of a State to protect its nationals and their property,
rights and interests on the territory of a foreign State. It is a natural
corollary of the principles of international law regarding fair treatment
by a State of aliens on its territory and diplomatic protection by their
national State for redress of wongful acts committed by the foreign

State in breach of its international obligations.

28. For if the rule of protection of a company only by its national
State even in respect of the interests of its shareholders were of the
nature of a general and absolute rule, then in the case of the injury to

a company with foreign shareholders having been caused by its own

lSee De Visscher (Ch.),"De la protection diplomatiqudes actionnaires d'une
sociétécontre 1'Etat sous la législation duquel cette sociétés'est constituée", in
Revue de droit international et de législation com, 934, pp. 641-642.

58 national State, that should be the end of the matter, since it is affirmed
that a State cannot incur international liability toward itself. Yet
the Respondent admits and agrees that in such a case international
liability attaches to the national State of the company for having caused
darnage to its foreign shareholders through the corporate body, though
the wrongful act has been directed to the company only. This recog-

nition of the right of diplomatic protectionof a State of its nationals,
shareholders in a foreign company, already sanctioned by State prac-
tice, international arbitral awards and treaty stipulations, constitutes
in fact a rule in application of the general principle of diplomatic pro-
tection of nationals by their own state in international law. In other
words, the interests of shareholders are recognized by international

law as entitled to protection by their national State in the same way
as the other property, rightsand interests of its nationals are protected.

The Respondent has also argued that such dual or multiple
29.
protection by the national State of the company and the national
State or States of the shareholders will cause inconvenience and even
confusion internationally. It is pertinent to cite as an appropriate
answer what this Court has stated in the Repuration for Irtjuries,
Advisory Opinion, of 1949 when referring to the possibility of competi-
tion between the State's right of diplomatic protection and the Organ-
ization's right of functional protection, as follows :

"In such a case, there is no rule of law which assigns prionty
to the one or to the other, or which compels either the State or
the Organization to refrain from bringing an international claim.

The Court sees no reason why the parties concerned should not
find solutions inspired by goodwill and common sense. ...
Although the bases of the two claims are different, that does
not mean that the defendant State can be compelled to pay the
reparation due in respect of the darnage twice overl."

The argument of confusing multiple protection therefore has no merit.

30. In the present case it will also be relevant to recall that in the
early years following the declaration of bankruptcy of Barcelona Trac-
tion by the Reus court on 12 February 1948, Canada, the national
State of the company, intervened actively to protect its interests.

The efforts of the Canadian Govemment, however, showed a change

lI.C.J. Repovt1949,pp. 185-186.

59of attitude as time went on. By late 19j1 the Canadian Secretary of
State for External Affairs told the Spanish Consul in Canada that

"Canadian interests in this case are so slight that it is of little interest
to us"'. In a letter of 19 July 1955 replying to Mr. Arthur Dean,
attorney for Sidro, who had urged that "a vigorous inquiry" from
several ambassadors in Madrid, including the Canadian Ambassador,

"would be most helpful in bringing about a favourable result", the
Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs declined to accept the
suggestion and stated : "The Canadian Government has not been pre-
pared actually to intervene in this matter to make representations to

the Spanish Government as to the measures which ought to be taken
toward a settlement 2."

31. In connection with the issue of the right of a State under inter-
national law to protect its national~, shareholders in a foreign com-
pany, against a third State, an incidental question of law has been

debated by the Parties in the present case as to whether this right, if
it exists, is not limited to legal shareholders but extends to beneficial
owners of shares. The question relates to the system of registering the
shares of a particular company in its books in the names of the nominees.
This is usually authorized by statutory law or sanctioned by commercial

practice in the economically more advanced countries where capital
for investment abroad as well as at home is more abundant. Techni-
cally the registered shareholders are legal owners of the shares so
registered, but it would be obviously unjust and incorrect, in the light

of the intent and purpose of the municipal law which provides for such
a system of registration, which recognizes the equitable title of the
beneficial owner, and which as a fact must be taken into consideration
bji international law, to disregard the interests of the beneficial or

real owners, if in the event of the particular company having suffered
damage caused by the wrongful acts of a foreign State, the national
State of the real owners of the shares in question should be denied the
right of protecting them on the international plane, even if the national

State of the nominees, who are the registered owners, should decline,
for considerations of policy or expediency, to intervene with the wrong-
doing State to protect its own nationals, the registered owners of the
shares in a given case.

32. International law, being primarily based upon the general

principles of law and justice, is unfettered by technicalities and for-
malistic considerations which are often given importance in municipal

1Letter, dated 12 February 1952 from the Belgian Ambassador in Madrid
to the Belgian Ministeof External Trade, document filed by the Belgian Govern-
ment on 5 May 1964.
Document filed by the Belgian Government on 5 May 1964.law. As has already been stated above, the fundamental right of

diplomatic intervention of a State to protect its nationals against another
State and to seek redress for them for any wrongful act on its part aims
generally to protect the genuine interests of its nationals. It is the
reality which counts more than the appearance. It is the equitable

interest which matters rather than the legal interest. In other words
it is the substance which carried weight on the international plane
rather than the form.

33. The salient issue of the whole question, from the point of view
of international law, is the right of protection of a State of the legitimate

interests of its nationals, shareholders in a foreign company, against a
wrongdoing third State. In regard to the evolution of a rule of custom-
ary international law there always exists the possibility of a difference

of opinion as to the degree of uniformity of the facts and the regularity
of their occurrence necessary to warrant, on this basis of reasoning, an
affirmation of its existence. This is obviously because, in the absence
of a generally accepted norm for evaluating the factors, it must depend,

to a certain extent, upon a subjectiveappreciation,both of the recurrence
of the same facts and of the rapid development of foreign investments
in the international community, in arriving at a conclusion1. In my
vievr the evidence placed before the Court has not established the exis-
tence of any rule denying recognition of the existence of the interests

of shareholders or beneficial owners of shares in a foreign company or
prohibiting their protection by their national State or States by diplo-
matic intervention or recourse to international adjudication. On the
contrary there is seen a substantial body of evidence of State practice 2,

treaty arrangements3 and arbitral decisions4 to warrant the affirmation
of the inexplicit existence of a rule under international law recognizing
such a right of protection on the part of any State of its nationals,
shareholders in a foreign company, against another wrongdoing State,

irrespective of whether that other State is the national State of the
company or not, for injury sustained by them through the injury it
has caused to the company.

See De Visscher, Interprétation judiciaire, 2p19-25I.
For cases see Alexandre-Charles Kiss, "La protection diplomatique des
actionnaires dans la jurisprudence et la pratique internationales", inTravaux et
Recherchesde l'Institut de Droit comparéde l'Université de Paris, 1960, Vol. XVIII,
pp. 178-210.
For treaty arrangements, see Daniel Vignes, "La protection des actionnaires
dans les conventions internationales bilatérales", ibid.. pp.I1-241.
"or a review of cases see J. Mervyn Jones, "Claims on Behalf of Nationals
who Are Shareholders in Foreign Companies", in British Yearbook of International
Law, 1949, Vol. XXVI, pp. 237-254.64 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. WELLINGTON KOO)

34. Having determined the general question of law as above, it
remains now to consider the question of fact, narnely whether the

evidence placed before the Court justifies a conclusion that the Applicant
has established its jus standi in the instant case. The main facts
alleged bg the Applicant consist of the following : (1)ownership by
Belgian nationals of shares in Barcelona Traction and their holding of
the capital of the company amounting to 88 per cent., both on 12 Feb-

ruary 1948,thedate on which Barcelona Traction was declared bankrupt,
and on 14 June 1962, the date of the Application filed on 19 June 1962
instituting the present proceedings ; (2)the order of the Reus court
of 12 February 1948 declaring Barcelona Traction bankrupt ; (3) the
seizure of the property and other assets of Ebro, Barcelonesa and other
subsidiaries of the company ; (4)the mediata y civilissima seizure of

the shares of the subsidiaries belonging to Barcelona Traction kept in
Toronto ; (5) the printing and issuance of new shares in substitution
of them ; (6)the holding of a general shareholders' meeting on the
basis of their possession by the bankruptcy organs ;(7) the replacement
of the originally appointed legal representatives before the Spanish

courts ; (8) the appointment of new boards of directors for the subsi-
diaries ;(9)the holding of a private meeting of creditors andthe appoint-
ment of the trustees for the liquidation of the capital of Barcelona
Traction ; and (IO) the sale of the subsidiaries through the newly
createdshares to Fecsa, belonging to the March group on 4 January 1952.

35. Whether the foregoing facts are al1 true as alleged ; or what is
the precise character or actual amount or value of the interests owned

by Belgian nationals, both natural and juristic perçons ; or how the
damage has been caused to them ; or to what extent it has been actually
sustained by them-these are al1 questions which essentially belong
to the merits. At the present stagi of the proceedings it is sufficien<
in my view, to note that the facts alleged by the Applicant have not
been denied by the Respondent. This being so, and in the light of the

question of law detennined above, it is proper to conclude that prima
facie the Applicant has established its jus standi and that the third
Preliminary Objection should have been rejected.

(Signed) WELLINGTON KOO.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF

VICE-PRESIDENT WELLINGTON KOO

I. 1 am in complete agreement with the Court's findings on the
first, second and fourth Preliminary Objections and with the general
line of reasoning which has led up to them, except on one point in
connection with the second Objection which calls for some elucidation
on my part. As regards the third Prelirninary Objection, 1 regret to

be unable to concur in the Court's conclusion in favour of a joinder to
the merits. It is my view that this objection should have been rejected.
Accordingly, 1 propose to state the reasons for my opinion in the two
respects.

2.
The Judgment in referring to the reliance cf the Respondent
upon the decision of the Court in the Israel v.Bulgaria case in support
of the second Preliminary Objection points out a number of differences
between that case and the present one. In so far as this is done for the
purpose of making an independent approach to the instant case on
its merits, it can be easily understood. But, as 1 look at it, calling
attention to these differences does not imply, nor do they themselves

justify an implication of, any justification of theecision in the former
case, concerning which my views remain the same as stated in the
Joint Dissenting Opinion appended to the Judgment in that case.

3. The differences which have been noted in the present Judgment
on the second Preliminary Objection are, in my view, only of an inci-
dental character as regards the point in issue. The two situations
ansing from Article 36 (5) of the Statute in relation to the Bulgarian

declaration of acceptance under Article 36 and from Article 17 (4) of
the Hispano-Belgian Treaty of 1927 in relation to Article37 are basi-
cally similar, if not identical, so far as the question of the transfer of
the compulsory jurisdiction from the old Court to the new Court is
concerned. Both depend upon the factor of being "still in force",
independently of the disappearance of the Permanent Court, which was

taken for granted. This term, which, as regards declarations of accept-
ance mentioned in Article 36 (5),was originally drafted in English and
rendered in French as "pour une durCe qui n'est pas encore expirée",
constitutes the requisite condition for the said transfer. As regards
Article 37,the condition is in fact the same for it calls for "a treaty or
convention in force [which] provides for reference of a matter to a

tribunal to have been instituted by the League of Nations, or to the OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. WELLINGTON KOO,

VICE-PRÉSIDENT
[Traduction]

I.Je m'associe entièrement aux conclusions de la Cour relatives aux
première, deuxième et quatriè-me exceptions préliminaires ainsi qu'aux
motifs sur lesquels ces conclusions sont fondées, sauf sur un point
concernant la deuxième exception qui appelle quelques explications

de ma part. En ce qui concerne la troisième exception préliminaire,
j'ai le regret de ne pas pouvoir m'associer aux conclusions de la Cour
en faveur d'une jonction au fond. J'estime que cette exception aurait dû
êtrerejetée. Je me propose d'indiquer les raisons de mon opinion sur
ces deux points.

2. Après avoir rappelé que le défendeur invoque à l'appui de la
deuxième exception préliminaire la décision prise par la Cour dans
l'affaire Israël c. Bulgarie, l'arrêténumèreun certain nombre de diffé-
rences entre cette affaire et l'affaire actuelle. Cela est facilement compré-

hensible dans la mesure où il s'agit de marquer que la présente affaire
est abordée de façon indépendante, en elle-même. Toutefois, selon moi,
le fait d'appeler l'attention sur ces différencesn'implique nullement que
l'on justifie la décisionprisedans l'affaire précédenteni que les différences
en question suffisent à justifier cette décision, à propos de laquelle je
maintiens le point de vue exprimé dans l'opinion dissidente collective

jointe à l'arrêtrendu dans cette affaire.
3. Les différences indiquées dans la présente décision, à propos de la

deuxième exception préliminaire, n'ont selon moi qu'un intérêtacces-
soire pour la question en cause. La situation résultant du jeu. de
l'article 36, paragraphe5,du Statut par rapport àla déclaration d'accep-
tation faite par la Bulgarie en application de l'article 36 et la situation
qui découle du jeu de l'article 17, paragraphe 4, du traité hispano-

belge de 1927par rapport àl'article 37 sont fondamentalement similaires,
sinon identiques, dans la mesure où il s'agit du transfert de la juridiction
obligatoire de l'ancienne Cour à la nouvelle. Dans les deux cas, le facteur
du maintien en vigueur a une importance essentielle, indépendamment
dela disparition de la Cour permanente,tenue pour acquise. L'expression
«still in forc»qui, s'agissant des déclarations d'acceptation mentionnées

à l'article 36, paragraph5, a étCrédigéeà l'origine en anglais et traduite
en français par les mots «pour une durée qui n'est pas encore expirée »,
correspond à la seule condition mise audit transfert. En ce qui concerne
l'article 37, la condition, en fait, est la même,car elle exigeun traité
ou une convention en vigueur [qui] prévoit le renvoi àune juridiction que52 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. WELLINGTON KOO)

Permanent Court of International Justice". The dissolution of both
the League and the Court had been known and they were expected to
be on their way to disappearance. The purpose of Article 37 and
Article 36 (5) is the same : it is to preserve as Far as possible the com-

pulsory jurisdiction arrangements in force apart from the expected
dissolution of the League and the Court. The form of the instrument
in which the compulsory jurisdiction provision is embodiedis immaterial.
Whether this provision forms the whole subject-niatter of a given instru-
ment or is only one of the provisions of a treaty or convention for

pacific settlement of disputes-by specified bodies, or whether it consti-
tutes a special provision in a general treaty or convention on other
matters, is of no decisive importance as regards the transfer of the
jurisdiction under Article 37. What matters is that the treaty or
convention should in such case continue to be in force. This contin-
uation of validity refers to the instrument as a whole ; so long as the

instrument itself remains in force, so long does the provision for com-
pulsory jurisdiction, just as under Article 36 (5) of the new Statute,
the declarations of acceptance made under Article 36 of the old Statute,
are considered to remain in force so long as the period for which they
were made has not expirûd. Article 17 (4)of the 1927 Treaty, like the

Bulgarian declaration of acceptance, may have been temporarily
inoperative due to the dissolution of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice, but this transient factor of inapplicability had been
taken for granted and had been the very reason for the provisions of
Arricle 37 just as it had been, in respect of declarations of acceptance
under Article 36, for those of Article 36 (5). In other words the whole

purpose of both provisions was intended to discount the effect of the
dissolution of the old Court and make possible the effective transfer of
its compulsory jurisdiction to the new Court.

4. Moreover, on closer examination it will be found that the argu-
ment of differentiation between the Aerial Incident case and the present
case does not explain away the former decision. From the juridical
point of view there is really no distinction as regards the principle of
transfer from the old Court to the new Court. Only the two sources

of the obligation to submit to compulsory jurisdiction are different.
In the case of the declarations of acceptance made under Article 36,
paragraph 2, of the old Statute, like similar declarations made under
the identically numbered provision of the new Statute, their effectiveness
depended upon the extent of concordance of the terms between any
two given acceptances, having due regard to the respective reservations

and limitations on the principle of reciprocity, whereas the jurisdictional
clauses, to which Article 37 is applicable, derive from the mutual con-
sent and agreement of the contracting parties in bilateral or multi-
lateral instruments. But the process of the transfer itself and the legal BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 52

devait instituer la Société desNations ou à la Cour permanente de
Justice internationale D.La dissolution future, tant de la. Sociétédes
Kations que de la Cour, était connue, et l'on savait qu'elles allaient
disparaître. L'article37 et l'articl36, paragraphe 5, ont le mêmebut,
à savoir conserver dans toute la mesure possible les arrangements en
vigueur intére-ssant la juridiction obligatoire, indépendamment de la

dissolution attendue de la Société desNations et de la Cour. Peu importe
la forme de l'instrument qui comporte une clause de juridiction obliga-
toire. Que cette clause constitue le seul objet dudit instrument, ou qu'elle
ne soit que l'une des dispositions d'un traité ou d'une convention pour le
règlement pacifique des différendspar des organes déterminés, ou encore
qu'il s'agisse d'une disposition spéciale d'un traité ou d'une convention

de caractère généralconcernant d'autres questions, cela n'a pas d'impor-
tance décisivepour le transfert de la juridiction en vertu de l'article 37.
Ce qui importe, c'est qu'en pareil cas le traité ou la convention demeure
en vigueur. Ce maintien en vigueur s'applique à l'instrument dans son
ensemble ; tant que l'instrument lui-mêmedemeure en vigueur, la clause
de juridiction obligatoire demeure en vigueur elle aussi, de mêmeque les

déclarations d'acceptation faitesen application de l'article 36 de l'ancien
Statut sont considéréesaux fins de l'article 36,paragraphe 5, du nouveau
Statut comme demeurant en vigueur pour la durée restant à courir,
L'article 17 (4)du traité de 1927 de mêmeque la déclaration d'accepta-
tion de la Bulgarie peuvent avoir ététemporairement inopérants en

raison de la dissolution de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale
mais ce facteur transitoire d'inapplicabilité allait de soi ; il était la raison
d'êtrede l'article 37 comme il était la raison d'êtrede l'article 36,para-
graphe 5, à l'égarddes déclarations d'acceptation faites en application
de l'article36. En d'autres termes, le but mêmede ces deux dispositions
était d'écarter l'effet que pourrait avoir la dissolution de l'ancienne

Cour et de rendre possible le transfert effectif de sa compétence obliga-
toire à la nouvelle Cour.

4. En outre, si l'on y regarde de plus près, on s'aperçoit que l'argu-
ment fondé sur la différenciation entre l'affaire de l'Incident aérien
et la présente affaire n'explique pas sufisamment la décision prise dans

le premier cas. Du point de vue juridique, il n'existe vraiment aucune
distinction en ce qui concerne le principe du transfert de l'ancienne
Cour à la nouvelle Cour. Seules diffèrent les deux sources d'obligation
de se soumettre à la juridiction obligatoire. Dans le cas des déclarations
d'acceptation souscrites en vertu de l'article36,paragraphe 2,de l'ancien
Statut, comme dans le cas des déclarations similaires faites en vertu de la

disposition qui porre le mêmenumérodans le nouveau Statut, l'efficacité
dépend du degré de concordance des termes de deux acceptations don-
nées, compte tenu des réserves et des limitations liéesau principe de
la réciprocité; en revanche, les clauses juridictionnelles auxquelles
l'article37 est applicable découlent du consentement et de l'accord
mutuel des parties contractantes ayant conclu des instruments bila-effect of the transfer once consummated, are the same in both situations,
just as the purpose of the two provisions in the Statute in question is
identical. Only, in the instant case, as the Judgment has rightly
pointed out, the basic obligation of submitting to compulsory adjudi-
cation is clearly stipulated in Articles 2 and 17 (1) of the 1927 Treaty
just as in Article 23 in respect of "any disputes arising as to the inter-

pretation of execution of the present Treaty", while the provision of
Article 17 (4) is of a functional character as regards the tribunal for
such adjudication, as is also the casein respect of the tribunal mentioned
in Articles 21 and 22 for the determination of certain matters.

Such being the situation in the instant case, the difference in
legal effect, if any, is one of degree as regards the validity or strength

of the source of the obligation and not one of kind. For this reason
there is even greater justification to uphold the validity of the transfer
of the compulsory jurisdiction under Article 37 than under Article 36,
paragraph 5. It does 'not warrant any implication that the decision
in the Aerial Incident case was equally justifiable in law.

6. The third Preliminary Objection undoubtedly raises important

questions of law and fact. In principle 1 fully endorse judicial caution
as a sound policy in the interest of good administration of justice and
the Court certainly has full discretionary power to decide on a joinder
for good reasons, as the Court has affirmed in the present Judgment.

7. In the instant case 1 am, however, of the opinion that this objec-
tion could and should have been adjudicated upon. The elaborate
written pleadings and the lengthy oral hearing have brought out clearly

and almost exhaustively the various issues involved and the searching,
though conflicting, arguments of the two Parties. While the Applicant
has asked the Court, as the alternative to dismissal, to join the third
Preliminary Objection to the merits, the Respondent has urged that
the issue raised by it "is wholly ripe for decision" and that the alter-
native Belgian request for the joinder of this objection to the merits

cannot be justified.
8. In the light of the subrnissions of the Parties on the third Prelim-

inary Objection, two principal questions are involved at the outset :
(a) one of law and (b) one of fact, the other issues raised being sub-
ordinate to and dependent upon the answers to the two questions for
their solution. The question of law can be stated thus : does inter-
national law recognize the right of a State to protect its national~, BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 53

téraux ou multilatéraux. Mais le processus du transfert lui-même
et l'effet juridique du transfert réalisésont les mêmes dans les deux
situations, tout comme le but des deux dispositions du Statut est
identique. La seule différenceest qu'en l'espèce, commel'arrêtle souligne
à juste titre, l'obligation fondamentale de se soumettre à un règlement

judiciaire est nettement stipulée à l'article2 et à l'articl17 (1)du traité
de 1927 de même qu'à l'article 23 qui vise cles contestations qui
surgiraient au sujet de l'interprétation ou de l'exécution du présent
traité», tandis que les dispositions de l'article 17 (4) ont un caractère
plutôt fonctionnel, en ce qui concerne le tribunal appelé à statuer,

et il en est de mêmedes articles 21 et 22 où un tribunal chargé de régler
certaines affaires est mentionné.

5. Etant donné la situation en l'espèce, la différence quant à l'effet
juridique, si elle existe, n'est pas une question de nature - ce n'est
qu'une affaire de degré et cela concerne la validité de la source de
l'obligation. C'est pourquoi la validité du transfert de la juridiction

obligatoire se justifie mieux encore en vertu de l'article 37 qu'en vertu
de l'article6, paragraphe 5. Ceci ne veut pas dire que la décisionrendue
en l'affaire de l'Incident aérien se justifiait également en droit.

6. La troisième exception préliminaire soulève indubitablement
d'importants problèmes de droit et de fait. En principe, j'estime qu'il

est bon en matière judiciaire d'adopter une politique de prudence qui
facilite la bonne administration de la justice et la Cour a certainement
le pouvoir discrétionnaire de décider la jonction au fond pour des
motifs valables comme elle le fait dans le présent arrêt.

7. En l'espèce, toutefois, je suis d'avis que la Cour aurait pu et dû
statuer sur cette exception. Les divers problèmes en cause et l'argu-
mentation fouilléeencore que contradictoire des deux Parties ont été

clairement exposésde façon presque exhaustive dans les écritures, fort
détaillées, et lors de la longue procédure orale. Le demandeur prie
subsidiairement la Cour, au cas où la troisième exception préliminaire
ne serait pas rejetée,de la joindre au fond ; le défendeur soutient, de son
côté,que la question soulevée par cette exception est absolument mûre

pour êtretranchée » et que la demande subsidiaire de jonction au fond
présentéepar la Belgique n'est pas justifiée.

8. Quand on considère les conclusions des Parties sur la troisième
exception préliminaire, deux questions principales se posent d'emblée,
à savoir a) une question de droit et b) une question de fait, la solution
des autres problèmes soulevés étant subordonnée à la réponse donnée

à ces deux questions. La question de droit peut êtreénoncéedans les
termes suivants : le droit international reconnaît-il à un Etat le droit natural or juristic perçons, being shareholders in a foreign company,
for darnage or injury to them through an internationally illicit act
done to the company by a third State? And the question of fact centring
on two crucial points : are the shares in Barcelona Traction registered
on its books in thename of nominees of American nationality and claimed
by the Applicant as belonging to natural and juristic persons of Belgian

nationality found prima facie to be owned by them, and have these
persons sustained damage through damage caused to the said company
by internationally wrongful acts, measures or omissions of the organs
of the Respondent Government?

g. If the answer to the question of law is found to be in the negative
and nevertheless the facts and circumstances of the case appear to be
weighty and serious, judicial caution and sound administration of
justice would dictate a joinder to the merits in order to make two deter-
minations at the second phase of the proceedings, if it should finally

take place. First, to determine whether the facts and circumstances
of the instant case are juridically adequate to constitute a valid ground
for recognizing the Applicant's capacity or jus standi before the Court.
Ifthey are found to be inadequate for the purpose, the claim of the
Applicant must be held to be inadmissible and the third Preliminary
Objection must be sustained. If they are found to be adequate, it

would then be in order to make the second determination, namely
whether the facts and circumstances of ihe instant case are of such a
particular character as to warrant the finding by the Court of another
exception to the existing recognized rule of protection of a company
only by its national State.

IO. If, on the other hand, the answer to the same question of law

is found to be in the affirmative and the essential facts alleged by the
Applicant constitute prima facie a valid ground for recognizing its
capacity, a jus standi in the instant case, the said objeStion must be
rejected at the present stage of the proceedings. Such a finding, how-
ever, would still leave it open to the Respondent at the later phase
of the proceedings on the merits, if it should finally take place, to refute

and disprove the alleged facts by counter-evidence. If the Respondent,
in the opinion of the Court, succeeds in the task, a finding will of course
be made to reject the Applicant's claim on the merits.

II. In brief, the primary question of law raised by the third Pre-
liminary Objection consists in determining first of al1 whether under
modern international law there exists a general right on the part of a

State to protect its nationals, shareholders in a foreign company,
vis-à-vis a third State independently of the general rule of protection
by States of their national companies and of the recognized exception
to it as noted above. It centres on the point urhether modern inter- BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 51

de protéger ses ressortissants, personnes physiques ou morales, qui sont
actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangèreet qui ont subi un dommage ou un
préjudicedu fait d'un acte internationalement illicite commis par un Etat
tiers à l'encontre de la société? Quant à la question de fait, elle porte

sur les deux points essentiels suivants : premièrement, les actions de la
Barcelona Traction inscrites au nom de nominees de nationalité améri-
caine dans la comptabilité de la sociétéet appartenant, selon le deman-
deur, à des personnes physiques et morales de nationalité belge sont-elles
prima facie la propriété deces ressortissants ? Deuxièmement, ces per-
sonnes ont-elles étélésées à raison du préjudice causé à ladite société

par des actes, mesures ou omissions internationalement illicites des
organes du Gouvernement défendeur ?

g. Si l'on répond négativement à la question de droit et si néanmoins
les faits et les circonstances de l'espècene paraissent pas dépourvus de
poids et de sérieux,la prudence qui s'impose en matière judiciaire et le
souci d'une bonne administration de la justice militent en faveur d'une
jonction au fond qui permettra de trancher deux questions lors de la

seconde phase de la procédure, si celle-ci doit finalement avoir lieu. On
devra d'abord déterminer si les faits et les circonstances de l'espèce
fournissent une base juridique suffisante pour qu'il soit légitime de
reconnaître au demandeur qualité pour agir devant la Cour. Si ce n'est
pas le cas, la réclamation du demandeur devra être considéréecomme

irrecevable et la troisième exception préliminaire devra être retenue.
Si c'est au contraire le cas, il faudra alors trancher la seconde question,
c'est-à-dire déterminer si les faits et les circonstances de l'espècerevêtent
un caractèresi particulier quela Cour serait fondéeà admettre une autre
exception à la règle actuellement reconnue selon laquelle une société
ne peut êtreprotégéeque par 1'Etat dont elle a la nationalité.

IO. Si, en revanche, on répond affirmativement à la question de droit

et si les faits essentiels alléguéspar le demandeur fournissent de prime
abord une base permettant de reconnaître sa qualité pour agir en
l'espèce,cette exception doit êtrerejetée au stade actuel de la procédure.
Une telle conclusion laisserait toutefois au défendeur la possibilité, lors
de la phase ultérieure de la procédure au fond, si celle-ci doit finalement
avoir lieu, de contester et de réfuter les faits alléguésen apportant les

preuves nécessaires. Si la Cour estime que le défendeur apporte ces
preuves, elle rejettera évidemment la réclamation du demandeur
au fond.

II. En résumé,pour trancher la question de droit très importante que
soulève la troisième exception préliminaire, il faut déterminer d'abord
si le droit international contemporain donne à 1'Etat le droit général
de protéger ses ressortissants, actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangère,

à l'égardd'un Etat tiers, indépendamment de la règle généraled'après
laquelle la protection des sociétésest assurée par 1'Etat dont elles ont
la nationalité et de l'exception à cette règle qui est admise comme ilnational law sanctions such a general right of intervention as claimed
by the Applicant on behalf of Belgian shareholders. 1 propose now
to consider this question.

12. The introduction of the concept of private legal entities in
international law in the form of corporate bodies is a natural sequel to

its emergence in municipal law. Since there are almost as many dif-
ferent kinds of corporate entities as there are different systems of
municipal law under which they are constituted and since their activities
have been growing in complexity as well as in kind, the problem of
protecting their legitimate interests in international law has been

assuming increasing importance as well as endless complexity.
This idea of protection is fundamental and appears to be common
13.
ground between the two schools of advocates on the subject. Their
difference of view relates to the manner and extent of its implementation
in international law. What is pertinent to the question under consider-
ation, however, is to deterrnine which is the more reasonable and
practical view as regards protection of the shareholders by their national

State in a foreign company. Should this protection be confined to
the shareholders in a foreign company which is of the nationality of the
"offending State"? Should it be limited again to such a case where the
said foreign company has been dissolved or is practically defunct?
Should there be an additional requirement that the said shareholders
must be owners of a majority of the total number of shares of the

company or at least a substantial proportion of them? What is the
criterion for constituting a substantial proportion? Or what is the
bearing and effect of the attitude of the State, the nationality of which
is possessed by the company, upon the right of the national State of
its shareholders to protect their interests? Has it intervened or has

its intervention been energetic or not?
1 am inclined to think that while the positive answers to thern
14.
may be interesting or useful, they do not constitute essential elements
to a general rule of protection of the national shareholders of the inter-
vening State (still less to the particular issue under consideration).

15. Foreign investments constitute one form of property, rights
or interests, 2nd as such are in principle entitled to the protection of
international law. Since the kinds and methods of such investment

are numerous and varied, and since they are still in the process of
expansion and development, it is inevitable that at the present stage
of their evolution new circurnstances and unfamiliar features will be
encountered in the protection of such rights and interests in the inter- BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 55

est dit plus haut. Il s'agit de savoir si le droit international contemporain
sanctionne le droit générald'intervention revendiqué par le demandeur
au nom des actionnaires belges. Je me propose maintenant d'examiner

cette question.

12. L'introduction dans le droit international d'entités juridiques
privées sous forme de personnes morales est une conséquence naturelle
de leur apparition en droit interne. Comme il existe presque autant de
types de sociétésqu'il y a de systèmes de droit interne en vertu desquels

elles sont constituées et comme les activités de ces sociétésont gagné
en complexité et en vérité,le problème de la protection de leurs intérêts
légitimes a pris de plus en plus d'importance, et est devenu infiniment
complexe.

13. La notion de protection est fondamentale et paraît admise par
les tenants des deux thèses en présence. Leurs divergences de vues ont
trait à la forme et à la portéede sa mise en Œuvre en droit international.

Ce qui importe dans le cas présent, cependant, c'est de déterminer quel
est le point de vue le plus raisonnable et le plus pratiqueà adopter en ce
qui concerne la protection des actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangère par
leur Etat national. Cette protection doit-elle viser uniquement les
actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangère qui possède la nationalité de 1'Etat
((faiitiI? Doit-elle se limiter au cas où ladite sociétéétrangère a été

dissoute ou a en fait cesséd'exister ?Faut-il ajouter une autre condition,
à savoir que lesdits actionnaires possèdent la majorité ou tout au moins
une part substantielle des actions de la société? Quel est le critère pour
déterminer ce qui constitue une part substantielle ?Quelle est l'influence
et quel est l'effet de l'attitude de 1'Etat dontla société possèla nationa-

lité sur le drgit pour 1'Etat national des actionnaires de protéger leurs
intérêts? Est-il intervenu et son intervention a-t-elle étéénergique
ou non ?

14. Je suis porté à croire que des réponses positives à ces questions,
quels que soient leur intérêtet leur utilité, ne constituent pas des

éléments essentiels pour ce qui est de la règle généralede la protection
des actionnaires ressortissants de 1'Etat intervenant et encore moins
pour ce qui est du problème particulier à l'examen.

15. Les investissements étrangers représentent une certaine forme de
biens, de droits et d'intérêtset comme tels peuvent en principe prétendre
à êtreprotégésen droit international. Comme ces investissements se
font selon des formules et des méthodes nombreuses et variéeset comme

le processus d'expansion et de développement n'est pas achevé, il est
inévitable, au stade actuel de l'évolution, que la protection de ces droits
et intérêtssur le plan international soulève des problèmes nouveauxnational field. But in essence they al1 fa11within the compass of the
general rule of diplomatic and judicial protection of international law.

What is really involved is the basic principle of protection, which has
been so clearly affinned by the Permanent Court of International
Justice in the Mavromnzatis case when it declared :

"It is an elementary principle of international law that a State

is entitled to protect its subjects, when injured by acts contrary
to international law committed by another State, from whom
they have been unable to obtain satisfaction through the ordinay
channels l."

Moreover, international law, which is primarily founded on the

generally recognized principles of law and justice, attaches less impor-
tance to form and appearance than municipal law. Where it is a
question of protection of property, rights and interests, it is the proper
function of international law to ascertain where andto what extent they

exist, and to accord recognition to realities rather than to forms and
appearance. As stated by this Court in the Reparation for Injuries
Sugered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion of
II Afiril 1949 "throughout its history, the development of international
law has been influenced by the requirements of international life ...2".

Max Huber, Rapporteur on British claims against Spain in the Spanish
Zone of Morocco, observed :

". .. Malgréle fait que beaucoup de systèmes de droit admettent
l'existence indépendante de sociétésen nom collectif, la juris-

prudence prépondérante des tribunaux reconnaît la possibilité de
distinguer entre les parts contributives des sociétaires, d'un côté,
et la sociétémêmede l'autre. Le droit international qui, dans ce
domaine, s'inspire essentiellement des principes de l'équité,n'a
établi aucun critère formel pour accorder ou refuser la protection

diplomatique à des intérêtsappartenant à des personnes de natio-
nalité différente. .. 3"

16. The right of a State to protect a company which possesses its
nationality by diplomatic intervention or by recourse to international
judicial settlement against another State for wrongful acts toward

the company involving its international liability is generally recognized
.by international law. This rule is evidently derived by analogy from
the principle that-

l P.C.Z.J., Series A, Noz, p.12.
Z.C.J. Reports 1949p. 178.
Quoted by John Thomas Miller Jr., Du traitement par les gouvernements
des intévétsétrangersdits substantiels des.sociétés,19582.. BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 56

et fasse intervenir des notions peu familières. Mais, pour l'essentiel,
ces droits et intérêtsrelèvent tous de la règle générale dela protection
diplomatique et judiciaire du droit international. Ce qui compte réelle-
ment, c'est le principe fondamental de la protection qui a étési claire-

ment affirmé par la Cour permanente de Justice internationale dans
l'affaire Mavrommatis quand elle a déclaré :

« C'est un principe élémentaire du droit international que celui
qui autorise 1'Etat à protéger ses nationaux léséspar des actes
contraires au droit international commis par un autre Etat, dont

ils n'ont pu obtenir satisfaction par les voies ordinaires l.))

En outre, le droit international qui est fondéau premier chef sur les

principes généralement reconnus de droit et de justice attache moins
d'importance à la forme et à l'apparence que le droit interne. Lorsqu'il
s'agit de la protection des biens, droits et intérêts,le droit international
a pour fonction de déterminer où et dans quelle mesure ces biens,

droits et intérêts existentet de tenir compte des réalitésplutôt que des
formes et des apparences. Comme la Cour l'a déclarédans son avis
consultatif relatif à la Réparationdes dommages subis au service des
Nations Unies, « Le développement du droit international, au cours

de son histoire, a étéinfluencé par les exigences de la vie internatio-
nale.. . )Max Huber, rapporteur dans l'affaire des réclamations britan-
niques dansla zone espagnole du Maroc, qui opposait la Grande-Bretagne
et l'Espagne, a fait observer ce qui suit :

(... malgré le fait que beaucoup de systèmes de droit admettent
l'existence indépendante de sociétés en nom collectif,la jurispru-
dence prépondérante des tribunaux reconnaît la possibilité de
distinguer entre les parts contributives des sociétaires, d'un côté,

et la société même de l'autre. Le droit international qui, dans ce
domaine, s'inspire essentiellement des principes de l'équité, n'a
établi aucun critère formel pour accorder ou refuser la protection
diplomatique à des jntérêtsappartenant à des personnes de nationa-

litédifférente... 1)

16. Le droit international reconnaît généralement le droit qu'a un
Etat de protéger une sociétéqui possède sa nationalité par une inter-
vention diplomatique ou par un recours à un règlement judiciaire inter-

national à l'encontre d'un autre Etat ayant commis contre cette société
des actes illicites engageant sa responsabilité internationale. Cette règle
découleévidemment par analogie du principe selon lequel :

1 C.P.J.I. sivie Ano z,p. 12.
C.I.J. Recueil 1949,p. 178.
Cité par John Thomas Miller Jr., Du traitement par les gouvevnements des
intérêts étrangerditssubstantiels des sociétrgjo, p. 82. "By taking up the case of one of its subjects and by resorting

to diplomatic action or international judicial proceedings on his
behalf, a State is in reality asserting its own rights-its right to
ensure in the person of its subjects, respect for the rules of inter-
national law 1."

But this analogy, by the very nature of the corporate personality,
is only approximate and cannot be pushed too far. It has been gener-
ally accepted because it facilitates protection abroad by its so-called
national State. But it could not have been, and was obviously not

intended to be, an all-in-al1prescription for the protection of the various
categories of rights and interests embodied in a corporate entity, the
owners of which often have several different nationalities. Moreover,
as a matter of fact, even in municipal law the shareholders are entitled,
in certain circumstances, to take action in their own names in respect

of injuries to a corporate entity. This principle is not only to be found
in the decisions of the English and United States courts but is also
recognized in the jurisprudence and law of associations under the
Continental system2.

As the concept of corporate personality has become more com-
17.
plex and the activities of modern private corporations of different
kinds have rapidly grown in variety and range, often extending to the
temtories of many States with different municipal law systems, their
organization has taken on many forms of structure with an increasing

number of constituent and associated elements. They often have
subsidiaries with varying degrees of ownership and different classes
of shareholders with differentiated rights of voting and sharing in- the
profits or dividends. Because of this fact of rapid growth and devel-
opment of modern joint stock companies and corporations, the problem

of their protection has likewise become more complex.

18. In my view the foregoing general considerations are useful to
keep in mind when examining the points at issue in respect of the third
Preliminary Objection.

It may be true, as contended by counsel for the Respondent,
19.
that international jurisprudence provides no precedent to support the
Applicant's claim of the nght of protection of the interests of its na-
tional~, shareholders in a foreign company, against the wrongful acts of a
third State done to the company. But it is to be noted that the cases

of arbitral awards examined by the Parties were mostly decided several

P.C.I.J., Series A. No2,p. 12.
'J. Mervyn Jones, "Claims on Behalf of Nationals who Are Shareholders in
Foreign Companies", inBritis hearbook of Intevnational Law1949,Vol. XXVI,

PP. 232-234. BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO)
57
((En prenant fait et cause pour l'un des siens, en mettant en mou-

vement, en sa faveur, l'action diplomatique ou l'action judiciaire
internationale, cet Etat fait, à vrai dire, valoir son droit propre,
le droit qu'il a de faire respecter en la personne de ses ressortissants,
le droit international l.))

Cependant, en raison de la nature mêmede la personnalité morale,
cette analogie nfest qu'approximative et ne peut être pousséetrop loin.
Elle a étéacceptéecar elle facilite la protection à l'étranger par ce qu'on
appelle 1'Etat national. On n'a pas pu avoir et l'on n'a évidement pas eu

l'intention d'en faire une règle généralementapplicable à la protection
des droits et intérêts de différentes catégories groupésdans une entité
sociale dont les propriétaires ont souvent des nationalités différentes.

En outre, le droit interne lui-même, dans certaines circonstances,
habilite en fait les actionnaires à agir en leur propre nom à raison de
préjudices causés à la personne morale. Ce principe se retrouve non
seulement dans les décisions des tribunaux anglais et américains, mais
aussi dans la jurisprudence et le droit des sociétés du système

continental 2.

17. Du fait que la notion de personnalité morale est devenue plus
complexe et que les activités des diverses catégories de sociétés privées
contemporaines ont rapidement gagné en variété et en importance

-- elles s'exercent souvent sur le territoire de nombreux Etats ayant des
systèmes de droit interne différents -, la structure de ces sociétés s'est
beaucoup diversifiée et le nombre des éléments constitutifs et associés
a augmenté. Ces sociétésont souvent des filiales qu'elles possèdent dans

une mesure plus ou moinslarge et où différentes catégoriesd'actionnaires
possèdent des droits divers en matière de vote et de répartition des
bénéficeset des dividendes. Vu la croissance et le développement rapides
des sociétéspar actions et des sociétés anonymes à l'époque moderne,

le problème de leur protection est devenu plus complexe.

18. Amon avis, il est utile d'avoir à l'esprit les considérations géné-
rales qui précèdent lorsqu'on examine la question soulevée dans la
troisième exception préliminaire.

19. Il est possible, comme le soutient le conseil du défendeur, que la

jurisprudence internationale ne fournisse aucün précédent à l'appui
de la thèse du demandeur selon laquelle il a le droit de protéger les
intérêtsde ressortissants actionnaires d'une sociét6étrangère contre les
actes illicites commis par un Etat tiers au préjudice de cette société.

Il convient toutefois de remarquer que les sentences arbitrales examinées

C.P.J.I. skriA no 2,p. 12.
J.Mervyn Jones, "Claims on Behalf of Nationals who Are Shareholders in
Foreign Companies", British Yearbook of International Law, 1949, vol.XXVI,
p. 232-234.decades ago whereas the progress and development of corporate organi-
zation and activities in international commerce and finance have over-

taken their applicability and have created new and unprecedented
conditions which in turn constantly give rise to hitherto unknown
problems in international law for fair and equitable solution.

20. For this reason, the original simple rule of protection of a com-

pany by its national State has been found inadequate and State prac-
tice, treaty regulation and international arbitral decisions have come
to recognize the right of a State to intervene on behalf of its nationals,
shareholders of a company which has been injured by the State of its
own nationality, that is to say, a State where it has been incorporated

according to its laws and therefore is regarded as having assumed its
nationality.

21. Whetner this recognition may be regarded as an exception to

the rule of protection of a compariy by its own national State or as a
supplementary rule of protection of the shareholders of a company
is immaterial ; nor, in my view, is it a point of great consequence that
this recognition is sometimes qualified by the requirement that such
protection must be conditioned by the extinction or the practically
defunct state of the company in question. The important point to

note is that the national State of the shareholders is recognized to
have the right to protect them irrespective of whether they are to be
regarded merely as beneficial owners of the rights, property and interests
of the company or as virtual successors to the defunct or practically
defunct company.

22. It is true, as has been contended by the Respondent, that this
right of protection has been recognized because the wrongdoing State
Feing the national State of the particular company, there would other-
wise be no possibility of redress under international law. But it is
equally true that the raison d'êtreof this recognition is to secure redress

for the damage caused to the shareholders, and the particular rule
allowing only the national State of the company to exercise its protection
is setaside, precisely for this predominant purpose of effective protec-
tion of the legitimate interests of the shareholders of the Company
who are nationals of the intervening State. If this is true, it follows

that the original rule authorizing only the national State of the com-
pany to exercise diplornatic protection of its property, rights and
interests is more of the nature of a particular rule for the protection of
the company as such rather than a general rule to apply to the ptotec-
tion of al1kinds of rights and interests, both individual and corporate,

grouped within the juridical entity of the company. This being so, BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 58

par les Parties, remontent pour la plupart à plusieurs dizaines d'années,
que l'organisation et les activités des sociétéssur le plan du commerce
et des finances internationales ont évoluéau point de les rendre inappli-
cables et ont créé desconditions nouvelles et sans précédentqui à leur

tour ne cessent de susciter des problèmes jusqu'alors inconnus en droit
international, et auxquels il faut trouver une solution juste et équitable.

20. C'est pour cette raison que la règle de la protection d'une société
par son Etat national, simple à l'origine, a étéjugée insuffisante et que

la pratique des Etats, les dispositions conventionnelles et les décisions
arbitrales internationales en sont arrivées à reconnaître à un Etat
le droit d'intervenir en faveur de ses ressortissants, actionnaires d'une
sociétéqui a étéléséepar 1'Etat dont elle possède la nationalité, autre-
ment dit 1'Etat où cette sociétéa étéconstituée conformément à la
législation locale et dont elle est en conséquence censéeavoir pris la

nationalité.

21. Que cette reconnaissance puisse êtreconsidérée commeune excep-
tion à la règle de la protection d'une sociétépar son Etat national ou
comme une règle supplémentaire de protection des actionnaires d'une

société, celan'a pas d'importance ;et il importe peu, àmon avis, que cette
reconnaissance fasse parfois l'objet d'une réserve, en vertu de laquelle
la protection serait subordonnée à la dissolution de la sociétéen question
ou au fait qu'elle a quasiment cesséd'exister. Ce qu'il importe de noter,
c'est que l'on reconnaît à 1'Etat national des actionnaires le droit de
protéger ces actionnaires, qu'ils soient à considérer simplement comme

des beneficial owners des droits, biens et intérêtsde la société ou comme
des successeurs virtuels de la sociétéqui est dissoute ou qui a en fait
cesséd'exister.

22. Il est vrai, comme l'a soutenu le défendeur, que ce droit de protec-

tion a étéreconnu parce que, sans cela, 1'Etat fautif étant 1'Etat national
de la sociétéen question, il n'y aurait aucune possibilité de réparation
en droit international. Il est toutefois non moins vrai que la raison d'être
de cette reconnaissance est d'assurer la réparation du dommage infligé
aux actionnaires et que la règle particulière selon laquelle seul 1'Etat

national de la sociétépourrait exercer la protection cesse de s'appliquer
précisémentet principalement lorsqu'il s'agit de protéger efficacement
les intérêtslégitimesdes actionnaires d'une sociétéqui sont ressortissants
de 1'Etat intervenant. S'il en est bien ainsi, il s'ensuit que la règleprimi-
tive autorisant uniquement 1'Etat national de iâ sociétéà exercer la
protection diplomatique des biens, droits et intérêtsde cette société

a plutôt le caractère d'une règle particulihre pour la protection de la
sociétéen tant que telle que celui d'une règle généraleapplicable à la
protection des droits et intérêts,individuels ou sociaux, de toutes
catégories, groupés dan5 le cadre de l'entité juridique qu'est la société.
Dans ces conditions, 1'Etat national des actionnaires d'une sociététhe national State of the shareholders of a foreign company is a fortiori,
entitled to exercise protection on their behalf.

23. For convenience sake or as a matter of policy, the national
State of the shareholders of a foreign company may leave their protec-
tion to the national State of the foreign company to exercise the right

of protection on its behalf as a first step. But this right is neither an
exclusive right nor a preferential right. There is no fundamental
reason why the national State of the shareholders of the company
should be denied the right to undertake their protection vis-à-vis the
third State having caused damage to the company and consequently
to its shareholders. This protection may be undertaken, for the pur-

pose of obtaining redress, either jointly with the national State of the
company or simultaneously with and independently of it. It is for
the shareholders' national State to determine as a matter of policy
what step is to be taken and when it is to be taken for the purpose.
It may well be that the action taken by the company's own State is

effective in securing redress for the company and therefore also for
the shareholders from the State causing the damage to it ; and in that
event, the State of the shareholders will see no need to intervene on
their behalf. But if the action of the national State of the company is
fruitless or if it is disinclined to take steps to protect the company or
discontinues its intervention without securing the desired result, there

is no good reason why the national State of the shareholders should be
precluded from exercising its own right to intervene on their behalf for
effective protection.

24. Perhaps in one instance the interests of the shareholders may
not be protectable in international law ; that is, if the wrongdoing
State is one of which the shareholders of a foreign company so injured
are nationals. In such a'case it is not only impossible to conceive of

an international claim to protect the interests of the shareholders as
such against their own State, if they own al1the shares of the company,
but the said State can also justifiably disclaim international respon-
sibility toward the national State of the injured company on the same
ground as that on which the national State of a company injured by
itself declines responsibility by affirming that under. international law

a State cannot, at least in theory, injure itself or clairn against itsdf.
For possible protection, the interests of the shareholders would have
to depend upon the attitude and effort of the national State of the com-
pany in asserting its right of diplomatic intervention in favour of the
company as such. For, on the principle stated by the Court in the

Mavrommatis case in claiming for redress of an injury caused to its
nationals by a foreign State, a State is really asserting its own right
to ensure respect for international law by the foreign State in the person
of its nationals, the national State of the company in question could
perhaps insist upon redress being accorded to the injured company

so as to repair also the losses to the shareholders by the wrongdoing BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 59

étrangère est à fortiori habilité à exercer un droit de protection en leur
faveur.

23. Pour des raisons de commodité ou de principe, 1'Etat national des
actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangère peut laisser à 1'Etat national de
la sociétéétrangèrele soin d'exercer en premier lieu le droit de protection
en faveur de la société.Mais ce droit n'est ni un droit exclusif ni un droit
préférentiel.Il n'y a pas de raison majeure pour refuser à 1'Etat national

des actionnaires de la sociétéle droit de les protéger à l'égardd'un Etat
tiers qui a causéun préjudice à la sociétéet en conséquence à ses action-
naires. Cette protection aux fins d'obtenir réparation peut êtreassumée
soit conjointement avec 1'Etat national de la société soit indépendam-
ment de cet Etat mais en même tem~s aue lui. C'est à 1'Etat national
L x
des actionnaires qu'il appartient de déterminer, sur le plan du principe,
quelles mesures il convient de prendre à cette fin et quand il convient
de les prendre. Il est possible que l'action entreprise par 1'Etat national
de la sociétépermette d'obtenir une réparation en faveur de la société
et par conséquent en faveur des actionnaires de la part de 1'Etat qui

a causéun préjudice à la société; dans ce cas, 1'Etat national des action-
naires ne verra pas la nécessitéd'intervenir en leur nom. Mais si l'action
de 1'Etat national de la société ne donneaucun résultat ou si cet Etat
n'est pas disposé à prendre des mesures pour protéger la sociétéou s'il
met un terme à son intervention avant d'avoir obtenu le résultat désiré,

il n'v a aucune raison valable d'em~êcher1'Etat national des action-
naires d'exercer son propre droit d'intervenir en leur faveur de façon
à leur assurer une protection efficace.

24. Peut-être existe-t-il un cas où les intérêtsdes actionnaires pour-
raient ne pas être protégésen droit international ; c'est lorsque les
actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangère ayant subi le dommage sont des
ressortissants de 1'Etat fautif. Dans ce cas, non seulement il est impos-

sible de concevoir une réclamation internationale visant la protection
des intérêtsdes actionnaires comme tels contre leur propre Etat, s'ils
possèdent toutes les actions de la société, mais encore ledit Etat peut
à juste titre dégagersa responsabilité internationale à l'égardde 1'Etat
national de la sociétélésée enaffirmant, comme le fait l'Etat national

d'une sociétédans le cas où il est lui-mêmel'auteur du dommage, qu'en
droit international un Etat ne peut, du moins théoriquement, se porter
préjudice à lui-mêmeou présenter une réclamation contre lui-même.
La protection des intérêtsdes actionnaires dépendra donc de l'attitude
de 1'Etat national de la sociétéet de 1:action menée par lui pour faire

valoir son droit à intervenir diplomatiquement au nom de la société en
tant que telle. En effet, conformément au principe énoncépar la Cour
permanente dans l'affaire Mavrommatis selon lequel, en demandant
réparation d'un dommagecausé àses ressortissants par un Etat étranger,
un Etat fait valoir son droit propre, le droit de faire respecter par 1'Etat

étranger en la personne de ses ressortissants le droit international,
1'Etat national de la société en questionpourrait peut-être insister pournational State of the shareholders, but it would be confronted by the
argument of lack of genuine interests on its part, to which international
law attaches primary importance.

25. However, if there are other shareholders of a different national-
ity or nationalities from that of the shareholders of the wrongdoing
State, the claims of their national States obviously cannot be met with
the same refusa1 to acknowledge international responsibility for its
wrongful act.

26. What 1 have said above shows that the rule of protection of a
company by its national State and the rule of protection of its share-

holders by their national State are really not, and cannot be, exclusive
of each other. These two rights are based on different concepts ; they
are different and independent of each other. They CO-exist. They
are complementary and equally necessary from the standpoint of inter-

national law, though the right of a State to protect a company incor-
porated under its laws is lirnited to the needs arising from the nature
of the corporate personality only l.

27. The so-called exception, mentioned above, in favour of protec-
tion of the shareholders by their national State, to the general rule of
protection of a company by its national State, in my view is not an
exception. On examination it will be found to be of the nature of a

sepxate rule for the protection of the interests of the shareholders in
a foreign company by their national State. It is independent of the
first rule and CO-existswith it. It is only incidentally by circumstances
connected with it. It is different from the right of the national State
of the foreign company. Like the latter it flows indirectly from the

general right of a State to protect its nationals and their property,
rights and interests on the territory of a foreign State. It is a natural
corollary of the principles of international law regarding fair treatment
by a State of aliens on its territory and diplomatic protection by their
national State for redress of wongful acts committed by the foreign

State in breach of its international obligations.

28. For if the rule of protection of a company only by its national
State even in respect of the interests of its shareholders were of the
nature of a general and absolute rule, then in the case of the injury to

a company with foreign shareholders having been caused by its own

lSee De Visscher (Ch.),"De la protection diplomatiqudes actionnaires d'une
sociétécontre 1'Etat sous la législation duquel cette sociétés'est constituée", in
Revue de droit international et de législation com, 934, pp. 641-642.

58 BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 60

qu'une réparation soit accordée à la société lésédee façon à compenser
également les pertes infligées aux actionnaires par 1'Etat fautif dont
ces actionnaires sont ressortissants, mais on lui opposerait l'argument

qu'il n'a à cela aucun intérêtvéritable, auquel le droit international
attache une importance primordiale.

25. Cependant, s'il existe des actionnaires possédant une nationalité
ou des nationalités autres que celle de 1'Etat fautif, celui-ci ne peut
opposer aux réclamations de leurs Etats nationaux le mêmerefus de
reconnaître sa responsabilité internationale pour l'acte illicite commis
par lui.

26. Ce que je viens de dire montre que la règle de la protection d'une

sociétépar son Etat national et la règlede la protection des actionnaires
par leu; Etat national ne sont pas, ét ne pas être,exclusives
l'une de l'autre. Ces deux droits sont fondéssur des concepts différents ;
ils sont différentset indépendants l'un de l'autre. Ils coexistent. Ils sont
complémentaires et également nécessaires du point de vue du droit

international, encore que le droit d'un Etat à protéger une société
constituée conformément à sa législation selimite aux seuls besoins nés
de la nature de la personne morale l.

27. La prétendue exception mentionnée ci-dessus en ce qui concerne
la protection des actionnaires par leur Etat national, exception à la
règle généralede la protection d'une sociétépar son Etat national, n'est

pas, à mon avis, une exception. Quand on l'examine, on constate que,
Gu sa nature, il s'agit d'uni rèxle distincte portant sur la protection des
intérêts quedes actionnaires possèdent dans une sociétéétrangèrepar
1'Etat national de ces actionnaires. Cette règle est indépendante de la
première règle et coexiste avec elle. Si elle a des rapports avec elle,

ce n'est qu'incidemment et du fait des circonstances. Elle diffèredu droit
que possède 1'Etat national de la sociétéétrangère.Comme celui-ci, elle
découle indirectement du droit général qui appartient à 1'Etat de
protéger ses ressortissants ainsi que leurs biens, leurs droits et leurs

intérêtssur le territoire d'un Etat étrang"r. Elle est un corollaire naturel
des principes de droit international concernant, d'une part, le traite-
ment équitable par un Etat des étrangers se trouvant sur son territoire et,
d'autre part, la protection diplomatique exercée par 1'Etat national
pour obtenir réparation d'actes illicites commis par 1'Etat étranger

en violation de ses obligations internationales.
28. En effet, si la règle généraleprévoyant la protection d'une société

par son seul Etat national, mêmelorsque les intérêtsdes actionnaires
sont en cause, était par nature une règle généraleet absolue, il en
résulterait qu'au cas où un préjudice serait causé à une sociétécomptant

1Voir De Visscher (Ch.),aDe la protection diplomatique des actionnaires
d'une sociétécontre 1'Etat sous la législation duquel cette sociétés'est cono.ituée
Revue de droit international et de législationcorn1934,,p.641-642. national State, that should be the end of the matter, since it is affirmed
that a State cannot incur international liability toward itself. Yet
the Respondent admits and agrees that in such a case international
liability attaches to the national State of the company for having caused
darnage to its foreign shareholders through the corporate body, though
the wrongful act has been directed to the company only. This recog-

nition of the right of diplomatic protectionof a State of its nationals,
shareholders in a foreign company, already sanctioned by State prac-
tice, international arbitral awards and treaty stipulations, constitutes
in fact a rule in application of the general principle of diplomatic pro-
tection of nationals by their own state in international law. In other
words, the interests of shareholders are recognized by international

law as entitled to protection by their national State in the same way
as the other property, rightsand interests of its nationals are protected.

The Respondent has also argued that such dual or multiple
29.
protection by the national State of the company and the national
State or States of the shareholders will cause inconvenience and even
confusion internationally. It is pertinent to cite as an appropriate
answer what this Court has stated in the Repuration for Irtjuries,
Advisory Opinion, of 1949 when referring to the possibility of competi-
tion between the State's right of diplomatic protection and the Organ-
ization's right of functional protection, as follows :

"In such a case, there is no rule of law which assigns prionty
to the one or to the other, or which compels either the State or
the Organization to refrain from bringing an international claim.

The Court sees no reason why the parties concerned should not
find solutions inspired by goodwill and common sense. ...
Although the bases of the two claims are different, that does
not mean that the defendant State can be compelled to pay the
reparation due in respect of the darnage twice overl."

The argument of confusing multiple protection therefore has no merit.

30. In the present case it will also be relevant to recall that in the
early years following the declaration of bankruptcy of Barcelona Trac-
tion by the Reus court on 12 February 1948, Canada, the national
State of the company, intervened actively to protect its interests.

The efforts of the Canadian Govemment, however, showed a change

lI.C.J. Repovt1949,pp. 185-186.

59 BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 6 I

des actionnaires étrangers par 1'Etat national de cette société,la question
s'arrêteraitlà, puisqu'on affirme qu'un Etat ne peut encourir de responsa-
bilitéinternationale envers lui-même.Pourtant le défendeur admet que,
dans un tel cas, 1'Etat national de la sociétéest responsable sur le plan
international pour avoir causé un préjudice aux actionnaires ékangers

de la sociétéà travers la personne morale, bien que l'acte illicite ait visé
uniquement la société.Cette reconnaissance du droit qu'a 1'Etat de
protéger diplomatiquement ses ressortissants actionnaires d'une société
étrangère,déjàsanctionnée par la pratique des Etats, par des sentences
arbitrales internationales et par des dispositions conventionnelles, est
en fait une application du principe général dela protection diploma-

tique des nationaux par leur propre Etat en droit international. Autre-
ment dit, le droit international reconnaît que les intérêtsdes action-
naires ont droit à la protection de 1'Etat national de ceux-ci, tout comme
il admet la protection par un Etat des autres biens, droits et intérêts
appartenant à des ressortissants de cet Etat.

29. Le défendeur a voulu aussi tirer argument des inconvénients
et même dela confusion que présenterait sur le plan international une
protection double ou multiple exercée par 1'Etat national de la société
et par 1'Etat ou les Etats dont les actionnaires seraient les ressortissants.
Il parait pertinent de rappeler à ce sujet ce que la Cour a dit dans son
avis consultatif de 1949 relatif à la Réparationdes dommages subis

au servicedes Nations Unies lorsqu'elle a évoquéla possibilité d'une
concurrence entre le droit de protection diplomatique appartenant
à 1'Etat et le droit de protection fonctionnelle appartenant à l'Organisa-
tion. Elle s'est exprimée comme suit :

En pareil cas, il n'existe pas de règle de droit qui attribue une

priorité à l'un ou à l'autre, ou qui oblige soit 1'Etat soit l'Organisa-
tion à s'abstenir de présenter une réclamation internatiocale. La
Cour ne conçoit pas pourquoi les parties intéresséesne pourraient
trouver des solutions inspiréespar la bonne volonté et le bon sens.. .
Bien que les bases des deux réclamations soient différentes, cela

ne signifie pas que 1'Etat défendeur puisse êtrecontraint à payer
deux fois la reparation due à raison du dommage1. ))

A mon avis, l'argument selon lequel la protection multiple aboutirait
à la confusion est sans valeur.

30. En l'espèce, il est pertinent aussi de rappeler que, dans les pre-

mières années qui ont suivi la mise en faillite de la Barcelona Traction
par le tribunal de Reus le 12 février 1948, le Canada, Etat national de
la société,est intervenu activement pour la protection de ses intérêts.
Toutefois, à mesure que le temps passait, les démarches du Gouverne-

C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 185-186.of attitude as time went on. By late 19j1 the Canadian Secretary of
State for External Affairs told the Spanish Consul in Canada that

"Canadian interests in this case are so slight that it is of little interest
to us"'. In a letter of 19 July 1955 replying to Mr. Arthur Dean,
attorney for Sidro, who had urged that "a vigorous inquiry" from
several ambassadors in Madrid, including the Canadian Ambassador,

"would be most helpful in bringing about a favourable result", the
Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs declined to accept the
suggestion and stated : "The Canadian Government has not been pre-
pared actually to intervene in this matter to make representations to

the Spanish Government as to the measures which ought to be taken
toward a settlement 2."

31. In connection with the issue of the right of a State under inter-
national law to protect its national~, shareholders in a foreign com-
pany, against a third State, an incidental question of law has been

debated by the Parties in the present case as to whether this right, if
it exists, is not limited to legal shareholders but extends to beneficial
owners of shares. The question relates to the system of registering the
shares of a particular company in its books in the names of the nominees.
This is usually authorized by statutory law or sanctioned by commercial

practice in the economically more advanced countries where capital
for investment abroad as well as at home is more abundant. Techni-
cally the registered shareholders are legal owners of the shares so
registered, but it would be obviously unjust and incorrect, in the light

of the intent and purpose of the municipal law which provides for such
a system of registration, which recognizes the equitable title of the
beneficial owner, and which as a fact must be taken into consideration
bji international law, to disregard the interests of the beneficial or

real owners, if in the event of the particular company having suffered
damage caused by the wrongful acts of a foreign State, the national
State of the real owners of the shares in question should be denied the
right of protecting them on the international plane, even if the national

State of the nominees, who are the registered owners, should decline,
for considerations of policy or expediency, to intervene with the wrong-
doing State to protect its own nationals, the registered owners of the
shares in a given case.

32. International law, being primarily based upon the general

principles of law and justice, is unfettered by technicalities and for-
malistic considerations which are often given importance in municipal

1Letter, dated 12 February 1952 from the Belgian Ambassador in Madrid
to the Belgian Ministeof External Trade, document filed by the Belgian Govern-
ment on 5 May 1964.
Document filed by the Belgian Government on 5 May 1964. BARCELONA TR.4CTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 62

ment canadien ont révélé un changement d'attitude. Vers la fin de 1951,

le secrétaire d'Etat aux Affaires étrangères du Canada a dit au consul
d'Espagne au Canada que ((les intérêtscanadiens dans cette affaire
sont si minimes que celle-ci nous intéresse peu ,jl.Dans une lettre
du 19 juillet 1955 où il répondait à Arthur Dean, avocat de la Sidro,

lequel avait soulignéqu'une « demande en termes énergiques », émanant
de plusieurs ambassadexrs en poste à Madrid, y compris l'ambassadeur
du Canada, Icontribuerait très utilement à obtenir un résultat favo-
rab!e D,le secrétaire d'Etat aux Affaires étrangèresdu Canada a décliné

la proposition en disant : (Le Gouvernement canadien n'a pas l'inten-
tion d'intervenir dans cette affaire ni de faire des représentations au
Gouvernement espagnol quant aux mesures qu'il conviendrait de prendre

en vue d'arriver à un règlement 2. ))

31.A propos du droit qu'un Etat aurait, sur le plan international,
de protéger des ressortissants actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangèrecontre
un Etat tiers, les parties en l'espèceont discutéd'une question juridique
incidente : ce droit, s'il existe, est-il ou non limité aux actionnaires en

droit strict (legal shareholders) ou s'étend-il aux beneficial owners des
actions ?La question a trait au système qui consiste à inscrire les actions
d'une sociétédonnéeau nom de nomzneesdans la comptabilité de cette
sociétéC . ette manière de faire est généralement autoriséeparla loi ou par

la pratique commerciale dans les pays économiquement plus avancés où
l'on dispose de capitaux plus abondants pour les investissements
àl'étrangercomme pour les investissements àl'intérieur. Techniquement,
les personnes inscrites sont les legal owners des actions en question,

mais compte tenu des intentions et du but du droit interne qui prévoit
un système de ce genre et reconnaît le titre du beneficialownerau regard
de l'equity - droit interne qui doit être pris en considération en tant que
fait par le droit international - il serait manifestement injuste et inexact

de négligerles intérêts despropriétaires réels,des beneficialowners,dans
l'hypothèse où, une sociétédonnée ayant subi un dommage à raison
d'actes illicites commis par un Etat étranger, 1'Etat national des proprié-
taires réelsdes actions se verrait refuser le droit de les protéger sur le

plan international, alors mêmeque 1'Etat national des nominees - les
propriétaires inscrits - déclinerait pour des raisons de principe ou
d'opportunité d'intervenir auprès de 1'Etat fautif pour protéger ses

propres ressortissants, qui se trouvent êtreles personnes au nom de qui
les actions sont inscrites.

32. Le droit international, qui se fonde avant tout sur les principes
générauxde droit et de justice, n'est pas liépar des considérations de
pure technique et des considérations formalistes auxquelles le droit

l Lettre du 12 février 1952adressée par l'ambassadeur de Belgique à Madrid
au ministre du Commerce extérieur de Belgique. Document déposépar le Gouver-
nement belge le 5 mai 1964.
$ Document déposépar le Gouvernement belge le 5 mai 1964.

60law. As has already been stated above, the fundamental right of

diplomatic intervention of a State to protect its nationals against another
State and to seek redress for them for any wrongful act on its part aims
generally to protect the genuine interests of its nationals. It is the
reality which counts more than the appearance. It is the equitable

interest which matters rather than the legal interest. In other words
it is the substance which carried weight on the international plane
rather than the form.

33. The salient issue of the whole question, from the point of view
of international law, is the right of protection of a State of the legitimate

interests of its nationals, shareholders in a foreign company, against a
wrongdoing third State. In regard to the evolution of a rule of custom-
ary international law there always exists the possibility of a difference

of opinion as to the degree of uniformity of the facts and the regularity
of their occurrence necessary to warrant, on this basis of reasoning, an
affirmation of its existence. This is obviously because, in the absence
of a generally accepted norm for evaluating the factors, it must depend,

to a certain extent, upon a subjectiveappreciation,both of the recurrence
of the same facts and of the rapid development of foreign investments
in the international community, in arriving at a conclusion1. In my
vievr the evidence placed before the Court has not established the exis-
tence of any rule denying recognition of the existence of the interests

of shareholders or beneficial owners of shares in a foreign company or
prohibiting their protection by their national State or States by diplo-
matic intervention or recourse to international adjudication. On the
contrary there is seen a substantial body of evidence of State practice 2,

treaty arrangements3 and arbitral decisions4 to warrant the affirmation
of the inexplicit existence of a rule under international law recognizing
such a right of protection on the part of any State of its nationals,
shareholders in a foreign company, against another wrongdoing State,

irrespective of whether that other State is the national State of the
company or not, for injury sustained by them through the injury it
has caused to the company.

See De Visscher, Interprétation judiciaire, 2p19-25I.
For cases see Alexandre-Charles Kiss, "La protection diplomatique des
actionnaires dans la jurisprudence et la pratique internationales", inTravaux et
Recherchesde l'Institut de Droit comparéde l'Université de Paris, 1960, Vol. XVIII,
pp. 178-210.
For treaty arrangements, see Daniel Vignes, "La protection des actionnaires
dans les conventions internationales bilatérales", ibid.. pp.I1-241.
"or a review of cases see J. Mervyn Jones, "Claims on Behalf of Nationals
who Are Shareholders in Foreign Companies", in British Yearbook of International
Law, 1949, Vol. XXVI, pp. 237-254. BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO)
63
interne accorde souvent de l'importance. Comme on l'a déjàdit, le droit

fondamental qu'a un Etat d'intervenir diplomatiquement pour protéger
ses ressortissants contre un autre Etat et chercher à obtenir réparation
d'un acte illicite commis par cet autre Etat contre lesdits ressortissants
s'applique généralement à la protection des intérêts authentiques de ces

ressortissants. La réalité compte plus que l'apparence. C'est l'intérêt
au regard de l'eguity qui importe et non l'intérêtau regard de la law.
En d'autres termes, c'est le fond qui importe sur le plan international
et non la forme.

33. Le nŒud de toute la question, du point de vue du droit inter-

national, est le droit pour un Etat de protéger lesintérêtslégitimesde ses
ressortissants, actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangère, contre 1'Etat tiers
auteur du dommage. S'agissant de l'évolution d'une règle de droit
international coutumier, des divergences d'opinion sont toujours pos-

sibles sur le point de savoir si les faits sont suffisamment uniformes
et répétés avecassez de régularité pour que, sur la base de ce raisonne-
ment, on puisse affirmer l'existence d'une telle règle. La raison évidente
en est qu'en l'absence d'une norme généralement admise pour l'évalua-

tion de ces facteurs, il faut, pour parvenir à une conclusion, s'en remettre
dans une certaine mesure à une appréciation subjective tant de la
répétition des mêmesfaits que de la rapidité du développement des

investissements étrangers dans la communauté internationale1. A mon
sens, les pièces fournies à la Cour n'ont pas établi l'existence d'une règle
niant que les actionnaires et les beneficial owners d'actions d'une société
étrangère aient des intérêtsou interdisant à leur Etat national de les

protéger par la voie d'une intervention diplomatique ou d'un recours
à un règlement judiciaire international. Au contraire, nombreux sont
les éléments tirésde la pratique des Etats2, des dispositions conven-
tionnelles3 et des décisionsarbitrales4 qui justifient l'affirmation selon

laquelle il existe une règle implicite reconnaissant à un Etat le droit
de protéger ainsi ses ressortissants, actionnaires d'une sociétéétrangère,
contre un Etat fautif, que celui-ci soit 1'Etat national de la société
étrangèreou non, du chef d'un dommage causé par cet Etat aux action-

naires et résultant d'un dommage causé par lui à la société.

l Voir De Visscher, Interprétation judiciaire, p. 219-251.
Voir des exemples dans : Alexandre-Charles Kiss, nLa protection diploma-
tique des actionnaires dans la jurisprudence et la pratique internationales u,
Travaux et Recherches de l'Institut de Droit comparé de l'Université de Paris, 1960,
vol. XVIII, p. 178-210.
Pour les dispositions conventionnelles, voirDaniel Vignes, nLa protection
des actionnairesdans les conventions internationales bilatéral8,ibid., p. 211-241.
4 Pour un examen des décisions, voir J. Mervyn Jones, "Claims on Behalf of
Nationals who Are Shareholders in Foreign Companies", British Yearbook of
International Law, 1949, vol. XXVI, p. 237-254.64 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. WELLINGTON KOO)

34. Having determined the general question of law as above, it
remains now to consider the question of fact, narnely whether the

evidence placed before the Court justifies a conclusion that the Applicant
has established its jus standi in the instant case. The main facts
alleged bg the Applicant consist of the following : (1)ownership by
Belgian nationals of shares in Barcelona Traction and their holding of
the capital of the company amounting to 88 per cent., both on 12 Feb-

ruary 1948,thedate on which Barcelona Traction was declared bankrupt,
and on 14 June 1962, the date of the Application filed on 19 June 1962
instituting the present proceedings ; (2)the order of the Reus court
of 12 February 1948 declaring Barcelona Traction bankrupt ; (3) the
seizure of the property and other assets of Ebro, Barcelonesa and other
subsidiaries of the company ; (4)the mediata y civilissima seizure of

the shares of the subsidiaries belonging to Barcelona Traction kept in
Toronto ; (5) the printing and issuance of new shares in substitution
of them ; (6)the holding of a general shareholders' meeting on the
basis of their possession by the bankruptcy organs ;(7) the replacement
of the originally appointed legal representatives before the Spanish

courts ; (8) the appointment of new boards of directors for the subsi-
diaries ;(9)the holding of a private meeting of creditors andthe appoint-
ment of the trustees for the liquidation of the capital of Barcelona
Traction ; and (IO) the sale of the subsidiaries through the newly
createdshares to Fecsa, belonging to the March group on 4 January 1952.

35. Whether the foregoing facts are al1 true as alleged ; or what is
the precise character or actual amount or value of the interests owned

by Belgian nationals, both natural and juristic perçons ; or how the
damage has been caused to them ; or to what extent it has been actually
sustained by them-these are al1 questions which essentially belong
to the merits. At the present stagi of the proceedings it is sufficien<
in my view, to note that the facts alleged by the Applicant have not
been denied by the Respondent. This being so, and in the light of the

question of law detennined above, it is proper to conclude that prima
facie the Applicant has established its jus standi and that the third
Preliminary Objection should have been rejected.

(Signed) WELLINGTON KOO. BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. WELLINGTON KOO) 64

34. Ayant déterminé ci-dessus la question généralede droit, reste

à examiner à présent la question de fait, qui est de savoir si les preuves
présentées à la Cour de conclure que le demandeur a établi
son jus standi en l'espèce. Lesprincipaux faits alléguéspar le demandeur
sont les suivants : 1)des ressortissants belges possèdent des actions
de la Barcelona Traction, et leur participation au capital de la société

s'élevait à 88 % tant au 12 février 1948, date de la déclaration de
faillite de la Barcelona Traction, qu'au 14 juin 1962, date de la requête
introduisant la présente instance qui a étédéposéele 19 juin 1962 ; 2)
jugement du tribunal de Reus du 12 février 1948 déclarant la Barce-
lona Traction en faillite 7) saisie des biens et avoirs de 1'Ebro. de la
, U r
Barcelonesa et autres filiales de la société; 4) saisie mediytcivilissima
des actions des filiales appartenant à la Barcelona Traction et conservées
à Toronto ; 5)impression et émission de nouveaux titres en remplace-
ment de ces actions ; 6) réunion d'une assemblée générale d'actionnaires
sur la base des titres possédéspar les organes dela faillite7) remplace-

ment des personnes nomméesantérieurement comme mandataires devant
les tribunaux espagnols ; 8) nomination de nouveaux conseils d'admi-
nistration pour les filiales ; 9) réunion privéede créancierset nomination
des trustees pour la liquidation du capital de la Barcelona Traction ;
IO) vente des frliales (grâce aux titres nouvellement créés) A la Fecsa,

appartenant au groupe March, le 4 janvier 1952.

35. Les faits ci-dessus sont-il tous véridiques, comme on l'allègue ?
Quel est le caractère exact, le montant ou la valeur véritable des intérêts
que possèdent les ressortissants belges, personnes physiques ou morales ?
Comment le dommage leur a-t-il étécausé? Dans quelle mesure en
ont-ils réellement souffert? Toutes ces questions relèvent essentielle-

ment du fond. Au stade actuel de la procédure, il suffit, selon moi,
de noter que les faits alléguéspar le demandeur n'ont pas étécontestés
par le défendeur. Puis~u'il en est ainsi, et compte tenu de la question
de droit définie ci-dessus, il convient de conclure qu'à première vue le
demandeur a établi son jus standi et que la troisième exception préli-

minaire aurait dû être rejetée.

(Signé) WELLINGTOK NOO.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Vice-President Wellington Koo

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