Separate Opinion of Judge Bustamante (translation)

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047-19621221-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
047-19621221-JUD-01-00-EN
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SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE BUSTAMANTE

[Tralzslation]
Although 1 am in agreement with the reasoning and conclusions
of the Judgment of the majority of the,Court, 1 am availing myself
of the right granted by Articl57 of the Statute of the International
Court of Justice to develop in aseparate opinion certain additional
arguments based on my full persona1 interpretation of the inter-
national MandatesSystem in the light ofthe historicalcircumstances
of its creation. 1 believe, moreover, that this process makes it
possible to establish more clearly the responsibility of a Judge in
the totality of a decision of the Court.

The present proceedings were instituted by two separate Appli-
cationsfiledby the Agents of the Governments of Liberia and Ethio-
pia against the Republic of SouthAfricain its capacity as Mandatory
for the territory of South West Africa, concerning various facts and
situations related to the exercise of the Mandate. By a decision of
the Court, the proceedings under the two Applications were joined.
The Agent of the Republic of South Africa, without going to the
merits of the claims, submitted four preliminary objections, the
first two denying the jurisdiction of the Court, and the other two
maintaining that the Applications are inadmissible owing to lack
of fulfilment of certain conditions. The oral proceedings being over,

the Court has to decide on the objections.
Since the bases of the objections are connected with the inter-
pretation of the Mandate agreement for South West Africa, it seems
to me necessary to examine first of al1what, in the light of inter-
national law, are the nature and characteristics of the legal system
of Mandates established by the Covenant of the League of Nations
in 1919 .he Mandate for South West Africa is but one example of
the application of this system.

The creationof the international Mandates

At the end of the First World War, one of the problems to be
dealt with was the determination ofthe fate of the colonialterritories
which, as a result of the war, had ceased to belong to the defeated
States and were inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by them-
selves. Under Article 119of the Treaty of Versailles-28 June 1919
-Germany renounced in favour of the Principal Allied and Asso-
ciated Powers al1her rights and titles over her oversea possessions,
which they had already militarily occupied. These Powers did not
themselves directly take over sovereignty over these possessions,

34 but, on 6 May 1919 ,hortly before the signature of the Treaty
of Peace, agreed to allot them, as Mandates, to certain allied
States which had occupied theml. When the time came for
the signature of the Peace Treaty, those Powers gave substance to
their decision to confirm the Mandates which had been allotted, but

decided at the same time to embody them in a new legal system
placed under the authority and guardianship of the League of Na-
tions. This was the origin of Article 22 of the Covenant.

This historical background shows that the idea of the Mandate
appeared for the first time outside the ambit of the League of Na-
tions, and even before its foundation. At the beginning, it was
confined to a direct allocation of the territories to the Mandatory

by the Powers, but the legal regime governing this allocation had
not yet been defined. It was only at the time of the signature of the
Covenant that the Powers operated the real transfer ofthe Mandates,
as Mandators, to the League of Nations and-in collaboration with
the other founder Members of that organization-embodied in the
text of Article 22 the basic concepts and rules of the international
Mandates, which might be summed up as follows:

(a) recognition of certain fundamental rights as belonging to the
inhabitants of the underdeveloped territories;
(b) establishment of a system of tutelage for such peoples under
an advanced nation acting in the capacity of Mandatory and "on
behalf of the League of Nations";

(c) attribution to States Members of the League of the (sacred
trust of civilization »,namely, the promotion of the well-being and
development of the peoples concerned and the safeguard of their
rights.

The sociologicalinterpretation of the international Mandates

The events referred to above were indeed but the expression of

the inflqence of a collective state of mind in the post-war world.
At that time the general anti-colonialist conscience, which had
been at work for some time, became particularly active and the
preservation and protection of human rights appeared more and
more incompatible with the survival of conquest and the mainte-
nance of colonial regimes. President Wilson, with his "14 Points",
was the leader of this movement at the Peace Conference called by
the victorious Powers to draft the Peace Treaty. He proclaimed the
''
nationalities principle" which was used in the last resort by the
Conference as the criterion for its decisions. One of the main asser-
tions of this principle was the right of every underdeveloped people

l Communiqué of the Supreme Council of the Peace Conference,6Maye1919.
A. Millot: Les Mandats internationp.36, ÉLarore, Paris1924.Officia1Journal
of the League of Nations, Ju1920.
35to fulfil its own destiny and aspire to political independence under
the protection and with the respect and assistance of the interna-
tional community l.

The Allied and Associated Powers, in their wisdom, endorsed
these concepts in the Covenant ofthe League ofNations.The League,
whose assigned purposes were of universal scope, is generallyagreed
by legal writers to have acquired the significance of being the first
organized expression of the international community. Indeed, one
has only to read the introduction and Articles 23, 24 and 25 of the
Covenant, together with the Preamble of Part XII1 of the Treaty of

Versailles concerning the International Labour Organisation, to
realize that the creation of the League of Nations as a body designed
to give organic structureand a general legal framework tothe nations
of the world as a whole was inspired by a new humane approach.
This was a positive realization of ideas already perceived by Vitoria
and Grotius in their thoughts concerning a joint community of
purpose inspiring the coexistence of nations in a framework of law.
In respect of the underdeveloped peoples, Article 22 of the Covenant
reflects the new ideological requirements of the world in its state-
ment of the two characteristic features of international tutelage:
the well-being and development of the people under tutelage and

the joint CO-operation of the community of States in the achieve-
ment of these purposes.
In my view, consideration of the sociological factors which
operated from the beginning of the 1919 system of tutelage must be
of prime importance for the interpretation of the nature and sig-
nificance of that system. Since the law is a living phenomenon
which reflects the collective demands and needs of each stage of
history, and the application of which is designed to achieve a social
purpose, it is clear that the social developments of the period con-
stitute one of the outstanding sources for the interpretation of law,

alongside examination of the preparatory work of the technicians
and research into judicial precedents. The law is not just a mental
abstraction, nor the result of repeated applications of judicial
decisions, but is first and foremost a rule of conduct which has its
roots in the deepest layers of society.

Itis in the light of this criterion that the constituent elements
and distinguishing features of the sÿstem of international mandates
must, in my view, be studied.

The elementsof the international Mandate

Three kinds of elemenimust be regarded as making up the system
of international mandates: the operative personaland reulelements,
and the fizi~poseson the institution.

1 A. hfillot, op.cit.,ff..15 The fiurposes have already been mentioned in the foregoing
paragraph: they are the well-being and development of the manda-
ted peoples, so as to lead them on to higher stages of civilization
and to political independence. These purposes are sought to be
obtained through a complex legal system, which has fairly close

similarities-in -the views of writers--with the legal concepts of
guardianship, trust andmandate in privatelaw, and with the protec-
torate regime in public law. It seems to me that, without exagger-
ating these analogies, the rules governing other similar institutions
should be adapted to international mandates to the extent that is
reasonable, and that the sovereign nature of States permits.
In an objective sense the achievement of the purposes of the
Mandate is entrusted, as a fiduciary attribution of responsibility,
to an advanced nation in the capacity of Mandatory. The extent of
the Mandate differs according to the degree of development of the
people under tutelage, and a number of other circumstances (A,
B, and C Mandates), but in none of those categories does the Man-
datory acquire sovereigrity over the mandated people (Art. 22,
paras. 3 to 6).
As a real element of the system, mention must be made of the

physical territory inhabited by the people under mandate. But it
must be noted that this territory is inseparable from the population
and constitutes an instrument to be used in its service. The territory
is handed over to the Mandatory only temporarily for administra-
tive purposes, and in no category of mandate can this be taken to
signify a transfer of sovereignty.
Among the personal elements of an international mandate
mention must, in my view, first be made of the populatio~s under
mandate; secondly, of the League of Nations and the States of
which it is made up; and thirdly, the Mandatory State.
I do not here mention the Principal Allied and Associated Powers
which, before the foundation of the League of Nations, had directly
allocated the colonial possessions acquired as a result of the war to
certain States as Mandatories. This allocation, which clearly in-
volved legal acts, in reality represented a stage prior tothe operation

of the true international system created by the Covenant. The
League of Nations found the appointment of the Mandatories and
the handing over of the ex-colonial territories already accomplished.
It received this heritage from the Powers and, on that basis, began
its functions as an international tutelary institution.
The history of this preparatory period is quite conclusive.

The first step by the Council of the League of Nations was-in
accordance with the advice of the Belgian Representative, M.
Hymans, expressed in a report adopted by the Council on 5 AU~US~
1920--to request the Principal Allied and Associated Powers:

(a) to name the States to which they had decided to allocate the
Mandates provided for in Article- 22 of the Covenant ; S. W. SFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 353

(b) to inform it as to the frontiers of the territories to come
under those Mandates;
(4 to communicate to it the terms and the conditions of the

Mandates that they proposed should be adopted by the Council
following the prescriptions of Article 22.
According to the Hymans report, when the Powers had replied
to those questions the Council would take cognizance of the Man-
datory Power appointed and would examine the draft Mandates
communicated to it, in order to ascertain that they conformed to
the prescriptions of Article 22 of the Covenant; it would then

notify each State appointed as Mandatory that it was invested
with the Mandate l.
It was in connection with this approach that the Powers in-
formed the Council of the allocation of the Mandates to the countries
which they had already appointed as Mandatories on 6 May 1919,
and also sent it the drafts containing the terms and conditions of
each Mandate. These drafts included that which the Government

of Great Britain had directly agreed upon with the Government
of the Union of South Africa for the Mandate for South West
Africa. (This draft is known as the "Balfour Draft" 2.)The Council
approved it with some non-essential changes 3,which were never
the subject of reservations or complaints by either Great Britain
or the Union of South Africa.

These details have to be mentioned to bring out the fact that

the "Mandate Declaration" for South West Africa made by the
Council of the League of Nations on 17 December 1920-at the
same time as several other similar declarations-was in origin a
direct bilateral convention, including the compromissory clause in
Article 7, between Great Britain and the Union of South Africa.
This convention was confirmed by the Council in accordance with
Article 22, paragraphs 2 and 8, of the Covenant of the League of

Nations.
After these events in the initial period of activity of the Council,
the intervention of the Allied Powers as such, at least as far as
appearances are concerned, vanished from the legal and political
setting in which the new Mandates system was to operate. Those
Powers continued, as Members of the League of Nations, to take

part in debates inthe Council and the Assembly, but any individual
activity by them as Mandators or virtual sovereigns of the Man-

A. Millotop.citpp. 36 and jj.
Photostatcopy distributeto Judges of the Court by the Registry in October
1962, containinthe document received from the Secretof the United Nations
in Geneva entitled "Mandate for GerSouth West Africa--Submittefor Appro-
val (9596)".
-4hlilloop. cit., pp. 61. S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 354

dated temtories disappeared. Article 22 of the Covenant does not
mention whether the Powers were to preserve for the future the
power to appoint Mandatories where necessary, or whether that
power was to be conferred on the League of Nations through the
Council. 1 would personally opt for the latter presumption since,
in my view, the intention of the Powers was to renouncefinally any
rights to the former colonies. Moreover, the question was no longer

of any importance from the time of the promulgation of the Charter
of the United Nations, Article 81 of which confers on the Organi-
zation the right to make such appointments.

The populations under Mandate are in my view an essential
element of the system, because Article 22 of the Covenant recog-
nized them as having various rights, such as persona1 freedom
(prohibition of slavery), freedom of conscience and religion, equitable
treatment by the Mandatory, and access to education, economic
development and political independence (self-determination).They
were thus recognized as having the capacity of legal persons, and

this is why in the Mandate agreements those populations are, as 1
believe, parties possessed of a direct legal interest, although their
limited capacity requires that they should have a representative
or guardian.
The tutelary function of the League of Nations, of which the
Council was the organ to define and supervise the conditions of the
Mandate, derives from the provisions of Article 22, particularly
paragraphs 1, 2,7, 8 and g.
The Mandatory exercises its function on behnlf ofor as delegated
by the League of Nations (Article 22, paragraph 2).While, through
the Council, it is for the League to "define" the degree of authority,

control or administration to be exercised by the Mandatory (Ar-
ticle 22, paragraph 8),the latter gives its consent and accepts or
refuses the function (Article 22,paragraph 2). Therefore one of the
features of an international Mandate is that the Mandatory per-
forms its function completely willingly.
In my view there is no valid reason for disregarding the applic-
ability of the legal principles governing certain private law in-
stitutions in the field of international law. During the elaboration
of legal doctrine recourse has sometimes been had-and this is
well known-to municipal legal sources to establish and shape, on
the principle of analogy, new systems to regulate the legal relation-

ships between peoples. One such case is that of international
tutelage, where the striking analogy with municipal guardianship
can be seen in Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations
and in Chapters XI-XII1 of the Charter of the United Nations.
If that is true, 1 cannot see any reason for not recognizing the
populations under international Mandate as having the status of
legal persons and for not applying to them the principle of the
necessity oftheir legal representation by "third parties" since these S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 355
peoples have the rights recognized by the Covenant together with
a certain capacity, although a diminished one, as in the case of

wards under municipal law, and having regard to the fact that an
organized international power (the League of Nations), personifying
the international community, takes over, in accordance with the
Covenant itself, the tutelage and protection of the populations
concerned. The function assigned by the Covenant to the League
of Nations, as a clearly characterized "tutelary authority" for such
territories, comes particularly clearly out of the text of paragraph2
of Article 22, according to which the Mandatory is required to
exercise its functions "on behalfof the League".
It seems to me that this point is of prime importance for the
decision in this case because, starting from the recognition of the
direct legalinterest which the populations under tutelage possess in

their mandate regime and having regard to their capacity as legal
persons-for whom the League of Nations is the tutelary authority
-many legal consequences flow therefrom. In the first place, the
populations under Mandate are in fact ,parties to the Mandate
agreements and represented by the League of Nations. Secondly,
the Mandatory's obligation to submit to the supervision of the
tutelary authority and account for the exercise of the Mandate is
obvious. Finally, from this concept it follows that al1the Members
of the Organization are jointly and severally responsible for the
fulfilment of the "sacred trust" and for watching over the popula-
tions whose destiny has been put under their aegis. Evidence of
this joint and several responsibility is the fact that paragraph 2
of Article 22 of the Covenant enables the capacity of Mandatory

to be conferred on any Member of the League whatever, which
means that al1must be prepared to accept such a mission. Moreover,
paragraph 4 of the same Article stipulates that the wishes of the
communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire must be
heard in the selection of the Mandatory from among the advanced
nations. This link of responsibility between al1the States Members
and the underdevelopedcountries is the natural effect of the "sacred
trust" prescribed by the Covenant. In the light of these inferences
it cannot be a matter for surprise if Article 7 of the Mandate for
South West Africa grants States Members the right to apply the
compromissory clause with regard to the Mandatory. These States
are not "third parties" outside the Mandate but jointly and

severally responsible associates of the tutelary organization en-
trusted with ensuring the proper application of the Mandate.
For these same reasons there can be no question, in my view, of
qualifying as mere "humanitarian" or "moral" recommendations
the provisions of the Covenant of the League of Nations and of the
Charter of the United Nations in which the "sacred trust" of the
States Members is described and established in respect of the pop-
lations of the Mandated or Trusteeship territories. This approach
unjustifiably reduces the scope for the operation and application

40 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE)
356
of the law, and confines within an ambit of mere equitable choice
what in fact are clearly characterized rights pregnant with social
implications. The "sacred trust" relates not only to duties of a

moral order but also to legal obligations correlative with the rights
recognized as belonging to the inhabitants of those territories by
Articles22 of the Covenant and 76 of the Charter. By these provi-
sions international law claimed for such peoples the quality of
human and legal persons. This is the same process of legal advance
under which the abolition of slavery was first proclaimed and which
then led to the promulgation of the Declaration of Human Rights 1.
By an interesting coincidence aZZthe rights set forth in Articles

22 and 76 for the benefit of the under-developed populations are
embodied-as well as many others-in this Declaration.

Characteristicfeatures of the international Mandate

From al1 of the foregoing, it may be inferred that the Mandate
System instituted by the Covenant of the League of Nations has
the following characteristic features:

I. The Mandate is a complex institution which-at base-has
similarities with other private and public law concepts but which-
in suBstance-constitutes a form of tutelage in which certain ex-
colonial populations, having regard to their partial incapacity,
are the subject of protection by the civilized States assembled in
a body-the League of Nations-which in fact represents the in-

ternational community.
2. The Mandate, in respect of its external forms and general
a,spect, is a legal institution incorporated in international legislation
(Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations). The latter
prescribes al1 the features, organs, conditions of and securities for

the system and, in this sense, the Mandate is an integral part of the
Treaty of Versailles, in which the Covenant is included. For each
particular case the Mandate adds certain special details and condi-
tions relating to a specific territory and Mandatory. The instru-
ment in which these details are defined is given the name of "Man-
date Declaration" or "Mandate Agreement". The Mandate agree-
ments or conventions constitute a subsequent phase of implementa-
tion, and represent the concrete or objective aspect of the system,

its application to a particular case. But there can be no disjoining
of the agreementfrom the system: the former takes its inspiration
from the principles of the latter, and those principles are an integral
part of the agreement. The system and the agreement operate as
an inseparable whole whose elements, which are conditional one
upon the other, form an organic unit.

' GeneralAssembly-, Oscial Documents, 3rd Session, ResolutionsPart 1,
21 September-12 December 1948.
41 3. The function of the Mandatory is a resPonsibility rather
than a right (Article 22, paragraph z of the Covenant). The less

developed the population under Mandate, the heavier the respon-
sibility of that Mandatory, asin the case of CMandates (Article 22,
paragraph 6).It is for this very reason that the Mandatory must
be willing to accept the Mandate (Article 22, paragraph z); it is
for the Mandatory to refuse the trust if it cannot bear the burden.
This is one of the most characteristic features of the system:
the Mandatory signifies its acceptance not as a party with an
interest in the prospects flowing from the contract but as a colla-
borator of the international community in its trust of civilizing
a certain under-developed people. It is one of those cases where
the bilateral aspect of the agreement does not seek to establish
or suppose any real balance between the obligations and the rights
of the parties. The legal concept is nearer that of the unilateral
contracts of private law rather than that of synallagmatic contracts.
The rights granted to the Mandatory are for the purpose only
of the better fulfilment of its obligations towards the country
under tutelage. The concept of obligation predominates. Once
the Mandate has been accepted, the mission of the Mandatory

becomes a mission which, to a varying extent, must always surpass
the Mandatory's own interests and, first and foremost, serve the
interests of the population under tutelage. The C Mandates do
not constitute an exception to this rule. It is true that under them
the Mandatory enjoys wider powers and may even 1egitimateIy
obtain greater economic benefits by the use made of the ex-colo-
nia1territory; but as far as the Mandatory is concerned, the terri-
tory is res aliena as in al1 the Mandates, and its inhabitants are
legal persons who will one day have the capacity to decide for
themselves.

4. An international Mandate is, by its'very nature, temporary
and of indeterminate duration. Its duration is limited by the ful-
filment of the essential purpose of the Mandate, that is to say,
by the completion of the process of development ofthe people under
tutelage through their acquisition of full human and political
capacity. It follows that any Mandate agreement remains in force
until such time as the people concerned attains the desired degree
of structural organization as a nation.

5. The corollary to the two foregoing paragraphs is that an
international Mandate, through which tutelage is exercised, does
not and can never imply a transfer of sovereignty to the Mandatory
or the annexation of the mandated territory by the tutelary State.
It is only at the conclusion of the Mandate that the people can
choose for itself between independence or incorporation in the ad-
ministering State. It is true that C Mandates (Article 22, para-
graph 6 of the Covenant) brought the mandated territory into a
closer relationship with the Mandatory by the fact that the latter S.W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 358 .

applied its own laws to the temtory in question; but this exten-
sion of the legislative powers of the Mandatory does not imply
an act of sovereignty on its part, but simply the application of a
prior authorization with regard to administration contained in the
Mandate agreement, with a view to adapting the territory to the
legislation of a more advanced country.
6. The tutelary organization's right of supervision over the
exercise of the Mandate is an institutional rule in the Mandates
System, expressly provided for by Article 22 of the Covenant

(paragraphs 7, 8 and 9). This right is not just an adjectival or
procedural formality, but an essential element on which adherence
to the purposes of the system and the efficiency of its application
depend. It should not be forgotten that in the Mandate agreements
one of the parties, the beneficiaryunder tutelage, has no possibility
of entering into discussion with the other party, the Mandatory,
on an equal footing, having regard to its lack of legal capacity.
Thus, the only way of safeguarding the rights of the people under
Mandate is to entrust the supervision of the Mandatory's acts to
the Mandator or tutelary organization which, on the one hand,
represents the ward and, on the other, personifies the interest of
the States of the world assembled in an association. Absence of a
supervisoryorgan would be tantamount to unilateral and arbitrary

exercise of the Mandate and would inevitably lead to annexation.
A Mandate so mutilated would be of an essentially different nature
from that provided for in Article 22 of the Covenant.
7. Another special feature of the Mandates System is that its
effects extend to al1 the States Members of the League of Nations
as a consequence of the "sacred trust of civilization" conferred on
them by Article 22 of the Covenant. This extension is reflected in
responsibilities and obligationswith a view to the protection of the
peoples under Mandate, either in the interna1 or administrative
activities of the League, or on the judicial plane when the Mandate

agreements contain a compromissory clause.

The Mandate Agreements

In seeking to establish the nature of the Mandate agreements
there should be no hesitation over the fact that they areinstruments
in which a contractual element is present. There is a combination
of intentions. 1 shall not deal with the "pre-agreement" by which

one or more Powers allocated the Mandate for a particular territory
to another State: this is a matter outside the League of Nations.
But once this "pre-agreement" came into the hands of the League
of Nations, the formulation of the agreement began: the Manda-
tory's acceptance is a firioripresupposed because it had already
expressed that acceptance directly to the Power concerned. If
that Power had also defined the conditions of the Mandate, there
43remained only to obtain the confirmation of the Council of the
League and to specify that the Mandate would be exercised by the
Mandatory on behalf of the League of Nations. The agreement was
then concluded. But if the degree of authority, control or admini-
stration to be exercised by the Mandatory had not been the subject

of direct agreement between the Power and the State Member
appointed as Mandatory, the Council was to define such matters
explicitly (Article22, paragraph 8,of the Covenant). This was the
"Mandate Declaration", which has currently always and every-
where been known as the "Mandate agreement". Acceptance of
this Declaration by the Mandatory might certainly be explicit,
but it was always implied, not only because the Declaration was
transmitted or notified to al1 the States Members-including the
Mandatory and without objection on its part-but, above all,
because in fact the very exercise of the Mandate was objective evi-
dence of the agreement of the Mandatory. It may be added that
this almost unilateral appearance of the Council's "Declaration"
is not in any way surprising, having regard to the nature-explained
above-of the international Mandate institution. More than a

contract, it is a statute the basic conditions of which are laid down
in advance by Article 22 of the Covenant; in regard to these, the
Mandatory has only the alternatives of acceptance or refusal.
The strictly contractual part of the "Mandate agreement" is
represented only by the practical details in each case relating to
the Mandatory's degree of authority and the conditions with which
its administration must comply. But it is self-evident that in this
case the "Declaration" is but the result of a prior understanding be-
tween the Council and the Mandatory. It should be added that as
regards these details, the Council does not negotiate with the Man-
datory :under paragraph 8of Article22 of the Covenant, theCouncil
"defines" and it is for the Mandatory to accept the responsibility
or not. It must be reiterated that an international Mandate is first
and foremost a responsibility and not an exchange of balancing

services as in ordinary bilateral contracts.
There is no indication inparagraph 8of Article22 of the Covenant
from which it may be inferred that the rules defined by the Council
to establish the conditions of each Mandate were to take the form
of a solemn treaty. In fact, the customary rule adopted in the case
of South West Africa, and in other cases, was that it took the form
of a Declaration by the Council, as referred to above. Moreover,
the final terms of thetext of this kind of declaration by the Council
provides for deposit of the original in the archives of the League
of Nations, after forwarding of certified copies to the secretariat
and to the Powers Signatories of the Treaty of Versailles. Con-
sidering that the "Declaration" by the Council is an officia1public
instrument of the League of Nations, in my view that instrument

implies or contains of itself the forma1 registration of the Mandate
to which it refers, without need of any other formality. This
44 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 360

form of registration of and publicity for the declaratory instruments
of the Council in respect of the Mandate agreements constitutes
a specialproceduresomewhatdifferent from but just as effective as
that prescribed in Article 18 of the Covenant fortreaties. Moreover,
as the International Mandates system is an institution related
to the interna1 administration of the League of Nations, it is not

at al1odd that solemn forms should not have been used.

The Compromissory Clame

The texts of the "Declarations" or "Mandate agreements"
which were issued immediately after the establishment of the
League of Nations contain a clause which does .not appear in the
text of Article 22 of the Covenant, although it must in the spirit
of the Covenant be regarded as a neceçsary security for the system.
This is the "compromissory clause" under which the Mandatory

"agrees that, if any dispute whatever should arise between the
Mandatory and another Member of the League of Nations relating
to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the
Mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by negotiation, shall
be submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice".
(Seefor example Article 7 of the Mandate for German South West
Africa, dated 17 December 1920, Memorial submitted by Liberia,
annex B, page 172.) Having regard to its content, Article 7 of the
Mandate of 17 December 1920 was but a provision equivalent to
the "optional clause" in Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of

the Permanent Court of International Justice, this Statute having
been ratified by the Union of South Africa nine months later, on
4 August 1921 l.

Moreover this provision of Article 7 is but the implementation
of Article 14of the Covenant of the League of Nations which estab-
lished recourse to the Permanent Court as the final, although
voluntary, means of settling international disputes between States.
In this case, recourse to judicial jurisdiction was desirable and even

urgent, having regard to possible frictions which might arise
between the tutelary body or its members and the Mandatory.
A supervisory regime, like that of the Mandate System where the
supervised entity is a sovereign State, can create situations and
cause controversies of an extremely delicate nature, settlement by
law being the only appropriate form. Moreover, the insertion of this
clause in the Mandate agreement merely satisfied the wishes expres-

Fifth Annual Report of the PermaneCourt of International Jus(1928-
1929)page 390.Collection of texts governing the jurisdiction of the Court, P.C.I.J..
Series D, No6,page 18.
45sed in Article 14 of the Covenarit in favour of the jurisdiction of
the Permanent Court of International Justice. Again, this safe-

guard of recourse to judicial jurisdiction is universally accepted
for the settlement of all sorts of litigious situations or situations
subject to legal interpretation, so that its inclusion in a Mandate
agreement does not involve any anomaly.
From the foregoing considerations it may be concluded that the
compromissory clause,just as much asthe rest of the agreement, is
one of the major provisions of the Mandate system.
During the proceedings there has been discussion as to whether,
in the Mandate regime, the jurisdiction of the International Court
constitutes a form of supervision over the Mandatory's exercise of
its functions or, more correctly, an integral part of the Mandate
supervisionmachinery, another phase of which isthe administrative
supervision for which the Council of the League of Nations was
made responsible.
It is clear that a decision by the Court in a case of thjs kind
implies, in facta form of supervision over the acts ofthe Mandatory,

in the sense that it acts as a regulator to define the true meaning
and scope of the Mandate as a legal institution and to correct possible
deviations by any party in its application. But it cannot be said'
that the Court is a supervisory organ with regard to the exercise
of the Mandates, because its function is strictly legal and not ad-
ministrative or political, and because a Court cannot on its own
initiative institute supervisory measures, its functions being
exercised only at the request of the parties, which virtually negatives
the effectiveness of the supervision. In my view, the true signi-
ficance of the clause providing for recourse to the Court is that of
a secz~ritfor bothpartiesas to the proper application of the Mandate
and the proper exercise of supervision.

The Mandate agreements which contain the compromissory
clause introduce a new persona1 element into the convention:
that of "another Member of the League of Nations". It is for the
other Members of the League of Nations to act as a party in the

judicial controversy, against the Mandatory State. Since this
provision has given rise to discussion and to doubt as to its inter-
pretation, it seems to me necessary to go into the point.
1 have already said that the new international Mandate institu-
tion, incorporated into the Covenant as a legal advance and based
on the concept of tutelage, was one in which, by reason of itshuman
rights objectives, each of the Members of the League of Nations
and, in general, the entire international community of which the
League was probably the first organized expression, had an interest.
Should a dispute arise between Che League and a Mandatory, al1
the States Memberswould have the same legal interest as the League
in the dispute, and would be affected to the same extent by viola-
tions of the agreements, one or more of those States having the

46right to appear before the Court to defend the common cause.
But there is a further reason which obviously the Council of the

League of Nations took care to provide for in the compromissory
clause. Under Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute of the Permanent
Court, only States and the States Members of the League could
be parties in cases before the Court in contentious proceedings.
The League, which was not a State, could only request "advisory
opinions" (Article 14 of the Covenant) ; thus should an insoluble
difference of view with the Mandatory arise, the intervention of
the States Members, the jointly responsible constituent elements
of the League, became indispensable as parties to the proceedings.

The dissolution of the Leagzseof Nations and the new
Trusteeship System of theSan Francisco Charter

Obviously the provisions of the Covenant which had instituted
the international Mandates System did not envisage the possibility
of the dissolution of the League of Nations and did not foresee
its possible effects on the Mandate agreements in force. In fact,

however, the dissolution occurred in April 1946 and the question
arises whether that event had as a consequence the total or partial
lapsing of the Mandates instituted in accordance with the Covenant
of 1919.
In connection with this question, it is desirable, once more, to
recall the nature of the Mandates system and the role of the parties
to the separate agreements concluded in each case.
In the Mandate agreements, the peoples under tutelage, lacking
a full capacity, were represented by the League of Nations which
was to assume the protection of their interests. The question there-
fore is whether the disappearance of a guardian on the international
plane is sufficient to alter or to cause to lapse agreements which
it had concluded in favour of the country under Mandate with
third States acting as Mandatories.
1 can find no justification for this argument concerning lapse.
After the dissolution, the two parties principally concerned-the
country under tutelage and the Mandatory-remained the same;

andthe purposes of the Mandate had to continue to be implemented,
forthe peoples under tutelage still had an urgent need of assistance
and guidance. If, therefore, the two parties survived as such and
if the purposes of the agreement were still in course of implemen-
tation when the League was dissolved, the continuance of the Man-
date would appear to be beyond question. It has to be stressed that
in principle the duration of an international Mandate extends over
an indefinite and frequently long period, up to the moment when
the full'capacity-moral, civic and political-of the subject under
tutelage is achieved. The question whether the disappearance of the League of Nations, as the tutelary body, raises an insurmount-
able obstacle to the survival of the Mandate remains to be consi-
dered.
This contention is based on the premise that the League being a
principal or direct party to the Mandate agreement, the disappear-
ance of that party causes the Mandate to lapse. But the view has
already been advanced that the intervention of the League,
apart from its quality as a high international authority, was
no more than that of a representative, in the role of a protecting

or tutelary body, of theparty really concerned, which is the country
under tutelage. In such circumstances, the disappearance of a
guardian in the realm of municipal private law would raise no
difficulty since the legal systems of States have provided means
of replacing a guardian who has died or is prevented from or
unwilling to continue as guardian, without any disturbance or
interruption of the guardianship. There can be no perfect analogy
on the international plane, but 1 think that just because there is
an absence of legislative rules on the subject the system is a great
deal more flexible, having regard to the element of the sovereign
power of States which create their law as and when the need arises.
What is of principal importance in the present case is to maintain
in action the machinery of the Mandate in order to render assistance
to peoples under tutelage. In fact, the situation would be one where
the only element lacking for the entire working of the system would
be the body entrusted with supervisory power by the League of
Nations. But a number of events occurred immediately before or

simultaneously with the dissolution of the League which opened
the way to filling that gap and providing that element.
The situation created in the world by the war made it impossible
for the old League of Nations to survive. In these circumstances, a
considerablenumber of States, which included the Principal Allied
and Associated Powers and the majority of the States which in
1919 had participated in the foundation of the League of Xations,
met at San Francisco in April 1945, immediately after the Second
World War, to create the United Nations, the Charter of which is
dated 26 June 1945. The principles and essential purposes of
this new body coincided, in the main, with those of the League of
Nations. So far as the institution of Mandates was concerned, the
Charter of the United Nations maintained, in principle, the concept
of tutelage as it had appeared in the Covenant of 1919, although
in a much more developed form in the new instrument in which
the expression "International Trusteeship System" replaced the
name "Mandate" (Articles 75 et seq.). The Charter expressly

provided for the transformation of the old "Mandates" of the
League of Nations into "Trusteeship Agreements" subject to the
new system, in accordance with the rules and conditions, indicated
in Articles 76, 77, paragraph I (a),79, 80, 81 and 85.These Articles
will be analysed hereafter; what is relevant to my reasoning is
48the noting of the following facts: (a) that the Charter of the United

Nations made provision for the maintenance of the old Mandates
and provided means for their transformation into "Trusteeship
Agreements" in conformity with the new system; (b) that conse-
quently, according to the opinion of the founders of the United
Nations, the dissolution of the League was not to affect the normal
functioning of the Mandates in essence but only in form.

Moreover, the Assembly of the League of Nations expressed a
similar criterion in one of its final resolutions, the resolution dated
18 April 1946, on the eve of its dissolution. That resolution read as
follows :

"The Assembly ...recognizes that, on the termination of the
League's existence, its functions with respect to the mandated
territories will cometo an end, but notes thatafitersXI, XII and
XIII of the Charterof the United Nations embody firinciples corre-
s9onding to thosedeclaredin Articl22of theCovenantof the League.
Takes note of the expressed intentions of the Members of the
League now administeringterritories under Mandate to continueto
administer them for the well-beingand development of the peoples
concerned in accordance with the obligations contained in the
respective Mandates, until other arrangenzentshave been agreedbe-
tween the United Nations and the respective Mandatory Powers."
(Italics added.) (L. ofN.,O. J., Spec.Sup.No. 194,pp. 58,278-279.)

Al1this shows clearly that in the opinion of the founders of the
United Nations and also according to the criterion of the Assembly
of the League of Nations, the dissolution of that latter body was
not intended to put an end to the continuity or the functioning of
the Mandates instituted under Article 22 of the Treaty of Versailles.
The "continued existence" of the Mandate, referred in the Appli-
cations, follows from the Charter itself and from the resolution of
18 April 1946.
The above findings do not in any way imply an intention to
establish or to regard as established the principle of automatic or
ex oficio succession of the United Nations to the League of Nations.

It has been sufficiently clearly shown, in the course of the written
and oral proceedings in this case, that the theory of automatic
succession is inconsistent with the historical background of the
discussions and resolutions of the two great bodies during the
transitionalperiodin 1945-1946. What 1 wish to emphasize is that
the San Francisco Charter provided for the necessary machinery
to render viable the continuance of Mandates after compliance, in
each particular case, with certain formalities.
The time has now come to consider specific provisions of the
Charter of the United Nations regarding the Mandates instituted
during the period of the League of Nations.

49 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 365

The San Francisco Charter reveals definite progress beyond the
Covenant of the League of Nations in respect of the development
of the institution for the protection of dependent, under-developed
or former colonial countries. There is, in the first place, specific
recognition of the principle that the interests of the inhabitants of
these territories are piiramount, and confirmation of the acceptance
by the Member States of the United Nations of the "sacred trust"
of assisting the peoples who have not yet attained a full measure of

self-government (Article 73 of the Charter). To this end there was
instituted an "international Trusteeship System" the basic ob-
jectives of which are laid down in Article 76: the promotion of
social, economic and political advancement, preparation for in-
dependence, respect for fundamental human freedoms without
distinctionas to race, sex, language or religion.
As to the position of old Mandates in relation to the new Trustee-
ship System under the Charter, Article 77, paragraph 1, sub-
paragraph (a), provided in a mandatory manner ("shall apply")
for the application of the new Trusteeship System to territories
now held under Mandate, although the second paragraph of the
same Article, as well as Article 79, refer to subsequent agreements
for the determination of the terms and conditions in which trustee-
ship shall be established. In the interval, that is to say between the
promulgation of the Charter and the entry into force of an agree-

ment, nothing in the new provisions of the Charter shall be con-
strued "in or of itself to alter in any manner the rights whatsoever
of any States or any peoples or the terms of existing international
instruments to which Members of the United Nations may respec-
tively be parties" (Article 80, paragraph 1, of the Charter). But,
immediately thereafter, paragraph 2 of the same Article provides
that paragraph I "shall not be interpreted as giving grounds for
delay or postponement of the negotiation and conclusion of agree-
ments for placing mandated and other territories under the
Trusteeship System ..."
In my opinion, this wording of paragraph 2,which is connected
with that of Articles 77 (para. I (a)) and 81, clearly defines the
obligation-the urgent obligation it might be said-of Mandatory
States without delay to put into force a new Mandate agreement.

This interpretation is fully warranted by a logical reasoning since
the intention of the authors of the Charter cannot have been to
leave the mandated territories indefinitely to the unfettered dis-
cretion of the Mandatory alone. To have done so would have been
to distort the character of this legal system as well as the intentions
of its founders. It would have amounted to what has been called
the "freezing" of the Mandate, which would practically be equiv-
alent to annexation. The best proof that this interpretation is
correct, is that al1 the Mandatory States which held Mandates

50before the drawing up of the Charter-except the Repubric of South
Africa-ratified new agreements with the approval of the United
Nations. The General Assembly, which in this case is the officia1
body for authoritative interpretation, has invariably considered
that an obligation exists for those States to adapt their Mandates
to the new Trusteeship System, and for their part the Mandatory
States have subscribed to this view. There is thus a very clear
concurrence of interpretation to which no reasonable objection can
be raised.
The objection has been raised that if Article 81 of the Charter
is to be interpreted-in the light of Articles 77 (para.ub-para. (a))
and 80 (para. 2)as a mandatoryprovision imposing upon Mandatory
States an obligation to conclude Trusteeship agreements, this
would involve the legal absurdity of compulsion to conclude a

contract the characteristic feature of which is "voluntariedad", that
isa freedom of decision to accept or reject. No legislative or judicial
power could, in principle, legally require such an aberration. But
that reasoning has no relevance to the point under discussion: the
true legal concept which arises, in connection with the articles of
the Charter to which reference has been made, is quite different.
Each of the States which became Members of the United Nations,
by virtue of their voluntary acceptance and signature of the
Charter, assumed al1 the obligations flowing therefrom, and,
consequently, if one of those Member States is a Mandatory. it at
the same time freely accepted the obligation to renew or to trans-
form the Mandate into a Trusteeship agreement. The negotiation
of a new agreement is in no sense an act imposed by force: it is a
eact which was concluded at the time when the Charter was signed
by the Mandatory.
It has been maintained that after the dissolution of the League of
Nations it was not indispensable-as being the only solution-to
effect the transformation of the Mandate Agreements into Trustee-
ship Agreements in accordance with Chapters XII and XII1 of the

Charter, since Chapter XI and, in particular, Article 73, indicates
the normal coursefor the functioning of League of Nations Mandates
without having to have recourse to the system of Trusteeship
Agreements introduced by the United Nations. The only obstacle-
it is said-tothe continuance of the normal exercise of the Mandate,
afterthe dissolution of the League,is the absence of the supervisory
power entrusted to the Council under Article 22, paragraph 8, of
the Covenant and Article 6 of the Agreement of 17 December 1920.
The Council having disappeared, the machinery for supervision
comes to a stop. But this gap is filled, so far as the new situation
is concerned, by Article 73, paragraph (4 ,hich lays down a new
and lessdemanding form of supervision-but still a form of super-
vision-and again completes the institutional framework of the
system in both its aspects: obligations of the Mandatory (Preamble
and paragraphs (a)to (d))and supervision ofits action (paragraph (e)). 1am unable to agree with this view because itis not in conformity
with either the wording or the system of the Charter. Chapter XI
constitutes a broad and general statement of principles, duties and
policies which, in reality, cover all categories of non-self-governing

territories (the old Protectorates and Colonies of the Powers which
had just been victorious in the Second World War, the detached
Colonies of the defeated States, the Mandated temtories born of
the First War and temtories which will voluntarily be placed under
trusteeship in the future). But it is Chapters XII and XII1 which
govern in a concrete way the new Trusteeship System the basic
objectives of which are described in Article 76 and of which the
transformation of Mandates into Trusteeship Agreements is spe-
cified in Articles 77, paragraph I, sub-paragraph (a), 79, 80 and 81.
These are, consequently, the relevant Articles of the Charterrelating
to Mandates and not Articles 73 and 74 of Chapter XI. As was so
well said by a Member of the Court, that latter Chapter was
designed to incorporate to some extent inthe new general protective
regime established by the Charter those territories which the
victorious Powers held under their sovereignty before the conflict
and to guarantee to those territories some international supervision,
though one exercised with great flexibility.

The Jurisdiction of the Court
in the Case,according to theAfiplications

The Applications submitted by the Governments of Liberia and
Ethiopia found the jurisdiction of the Court on Article '7 of the
Mandate for Gerrnan South West Africa and Article 37 of the
Statute of the International Court of Justice, having regard to
Article 80, paragraph 1,of the United Nations Charter.
The second paragraph of Article 7 of the Mandate agreement of
17 December 1920 accepted by the Union of South Africa as Man-
datory, provides as follows :
"The Mandatory agrees that, if any dispute whatever should
arise between the Mandatory and another Memberof the Leagueof
Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the
provisions of the Mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by
negotiation, shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant of the
League of Nations."

The Statute of the International Court of Justice, of which the
Applicants and the Respondent are signatories, provides in Ar-
ticle37 that :
"Whenever a treâty or convention in forceprovides for reference
of a matter to a tribunal to have been instituted by the League of
Nations, or to the Permanent Court of International Justice, the
matter shall, as between the parties to the present Statute, be
referred to the International Court of Justice."
52 Paragraph I of Article 80 of the Charter provides:
"Except as may be agreed upon in individual trusteeship agree-
ments, made under Articles 77, 79 and 81, placing each territory
under the trusteeship system, and until such agreements have been
concluded,nothing in this Chapter shall be construed in or of itself
to alter in any manner the rights whatsoever of any States or any
peoples or the terms of existinginternational instruments to which
Members of the United Nations may respectively be parties."

On the basis of these provisions, the reasoning of the Applicants
may be expressed as follows: the Mandate for South West Africa.
including Article 7 which contains the compromissory clause, is a
convention in force. Since a dispute which cannot be settled by
direct means has arisen between Liberia and Ethiopia on the one
hand and the Republic of South Africa as Mandatory for South
West Africa on the other, the solution must be sought by recourse
to international justice. The Permanent Court of International
Justice having disappeared, there remains only to apply Article 37
ofthe Statute of the International Court of Justice which specifically
provides for the jurisdiction of the Court in this kind of circumstance.
From an examination of the content of the Applications, it may

be seen that the questions requiring definition are as follows:
I. 1s the Mandate a conventionor not ?
2. If yes, is it a conventionin force?

3. If so, is Articl37 of the Statute of the Court applicable?

The reply to these questions will follow from the critical analysis
which 1 shall make of the Preliminary Objections presented by the
Agent for the Republic of South Africa.

The Preliminary Objections

Succinctly the content of the objections can be summarized as
follows :
I. The Mandate is not a convention in force.

2. The Mandate agreement, or Declaration b;i the Council of the
League of Nations dated 17 December 1920, is not even a conven-
tion, but simply a preparatory document or outline of what should
have been the true Mandate agreement (amended Submission by
the Respondent read at the last public hearing).
3. The compromissory clause contained in the Mandate agree-
ment (Article 7) does not fulfil the conditions required for validity

by the special nature of thiç clause.
4. The dispute which is the subject of the controversy does not
fulfil the conditions laidown in Article 7 of the Mandate agreement. 5. Consequently, Article 37 of the Statute of the Court is not
applicable. The Court has no jurisdiction in this case.

First Preliminary Objection

The Government of the Republic of South Africa denies the juris-
diction of the Court to hear and to determine this case, alleging that
"the Mandate for German South West Africa, upon Article 7 of
which the Applicants' claim to jurisdiction is founded, has lapsed,
in the sense ...that it is no longer a treaty or convention in force
within the meaning of Article 37 of the Statute of the Court".
The grounds supporting this objection may be put as follows:

(a) The Mandate agreement for South West Africa was a con-
vention between the League of Nations and the Union of South
Africa as Mandatory. But the League of Nations having been dis-
solved in Aprilrg46, one of the contracting parties disappeared and,
therefore, the convention as such lapsed. Al1that remained in force
was the objective or real fact of the existence of a territory and a
population which, since 1920, had been held by the Respondent
State under a special Mandate status. With the disappearance of the
League of Nations, the former contractual provision assigning super-
vision over the Mandate tothe Council of the extinct League (Article
6 of the Mandate Agreement) became impossible of implementation
and it remained for the Mandatory only to perform unilaterally the
institutional obligations of a general nature provided in Article 22,
paragraphs 1, 2,3 and 6, of the Covenant of 1919 and reproduced in
Articles I to5 of the Council's "Declaration" of 17 December 1920.

To sum up, the Respondent maintains that it continues to exercise
the Mandate as an objective institution subject to the basic des of
Article 22ofthe Covenant, but that it is exempt from the supervision
provided for as a non-essential or merely procedural contractual
obligation in paragraphs 7 and 9 of Article 22 (Article6 of the
Mandate agreement) since the supervisory organ-the Council of
the League of Nations--had ceased to exist. The Mandate, in the
sense of a convention, had lapsed.

But 1 think 1 have shown in the foregoing paragraphs that the
dissolution of the League of Nations does not in itself constitute,
according to my view, a suficient reason for declaring the Mandate
agreement to have lapsed, since the real parties to the agreement,
namely the population under Mandate and the Mandatory, remain
unchanged. The League of Nations, as tutelary representative of that
population, could be replaced in that function; and it has been in

fact by the Vnited Nations in every case where the Mandatory
became a Member of the new Organization by signing the San
Francisco Charter. It was then for the competent organs of the
Cnited Nations to take over the supervisory authority which the
54Covenant assigned to the Council of the League of Nations: al1that
was required was the prior conclusion of a neu7Mandate agreement
with the Mandatory as provided for in Article 79 of the Charter.

Moreover the League of Kations inits resolution of 18 April1946,
and the Cnited Nations in the Charter, recognized the survival of
the Mandates after the dissolution of the League. After that
dissolution, the former Mandates maintained their "continued ex-
istence", that is to Say, their quality of "internationalconventions
in force".
In this preliminary phase of the proceedings the Court has to
decide on the following vital matter: the present force of the
Mandate Agreement for South West Africa; for whether it has or
has not jurisdiction to hear the present case depends on whether or
not that Agreement is in force within the meaning of Articles 36
and 37 of the Statute. In the light of al1of the foregoing consider-
ations there can in my view be no doubt that the answer is in the
affirmative: the Mandate Agreement continues and is in full force.
The Respondent has contended that the Republic of South
Africa'stitle as Mandatory was received under the former League of

Nations Mandate regime and that, therefore, the Mandatory had no
obligation to submit to the new United Nations regime, since there
is no legal link of automatic succession between the two world
organizations. If the Republic of South Afnca had remained outside
the United Nations and not become a Member of it, the argument
might probably ha1.e seemed to be well founded. But the Union of
South Africa was one of the Founder Members of the Vnited Na-
tions; it took part inal1 the proceedings for the dissoliition of the
1-eague of Nations and in the discussion of the San Francisco
Charter; it subscribed tothe Charter without making any reservation
at the time of signing it (which would moreover have been unusual
and unacceptable); therefore it accepted that instrument in its
entirety with its principles and obligations, among which were the
inclusion of the former Mandates in the new trusteeship regime
(Article 80, paragraph 2,of the Charter taken in conjunction with
Articles 77, paragraph I (a), 79 and 81). These Articles taken
together obliged the Mandatory State to negotiate and conclude

as soon as possible a trusteeship agreement in replacement of the
former Mandate agreement. To sum up, the fact of the Republic of
South Africa becoming a Member of the United Nations was the
legal linkwhich as far as it was concerned established continuity
between the two world organizations and between the two systems
for the protection of the former German colonies.
It has alsobeen argued that the supervisory system of the Charter
is different from and more exigent than that of the Covenant of the
League ;that the supervisory organs under the Charterare composed
and operate differently from those of the dissolved League, and that
the Mandatory State cannot be compelled to sign a contractual in-
strument which would render its obligations to the supervisory

55organ more burdensome and onerous. The contention is arguable in
principle or on speculativegrounds, since as supervision-as has been

said--was an essential part of the Mandate system, there are good
reasons for believing that such supervision would the better fulfil
its role and objectives to the extent that it became severer and more
perfected, despite the reticence of the Mandatory. But leaving aside
this aspect, the certain fact is, as has been said in the preceding
paragraph, that the Republic of South Africa, as a Member of the
United Nations, had accepted as a new norm the supervisory regime
of the Charter. The only way of obtaining mitigation of that regime
or the maintenance of the supervisory machinery established by the
former Mandates would be to negotiate a new trusteeship agreement
with the competent organ of the United Nations as provided for in
Article 79 of the Charter. If this had been the first step taken by
the Union of South Africa in 1945, the problem wodld long ago
have been settled on equitable terms. Unfortunately the record
shows that the Republic of South Africa has consistently declined

to entertain such a solution.
In the meantirne, the Respondent State has chosen a more liberal
position: that of exercising a Mandate without supervision on the
basis of the assertion that supervision is merely a "procedural
condition" and not essential to the Mandate regime. In my view
this assertion is incorrect and even arbitrary, because it is contra-
dicted by the substantive or institutional character assigned by the
Covenant to the Council'sright of supervision (Article 22, paragraphs
7, 8 and 9). 1must underline what 1 have already said elsewhere: a
Mandate without supervision is no longer a Mandate because such
mutilation would signify the unilateral exercise of the Mandatory
function, which at base greatly resembles disguised annexation. It
is not possible to attribute such an intention to the authors of the
Covenant or even less to those of the Charter. Apart from the need
for supervision of the whole process of the exercise of the Mandate,
it is essential that there should be some body tvhich, if necessary,

can act as impartial judge of whether the degree of development
acquired by the Mandated population is such that there should be a
declaration of independence; some body possessed of sufficient
authority to reqiiest that the Mandatory cease its functions. It may
be added that from the beginning this condition of supervision was
accepted bythe Mandatory, as it figured at the time ofthe foundation
of the League of Nations in the Balfour draft Mandate presented to
the Council of the League by the British Government representing
the Union of South Africa.

(b) Another reason by which the Respondent supports its first
preliminary objection is that the Mandate agreement did not take
the form of a treaty as provided for in Article 18 of the Covenant of
the League of Nations. The agreement is indeed simply contained
in the Council'sDeclaration of 17December 1920. But 1have already
explained earlier that the Mandate agreements are conventions sui

56generis, a chain of intentions expressed in successive acts in which
the conditions originally proposed by the Powers, with the consent
of the Mandatory, are finally defined by the Council of the League
of Nations. There is no indication in Article 22 of the Covenant as
to the instrumental form of the Mandate agreements, although a
general practice existed, in view of the very special nature of the
Mandates System, of including these agreements in "Declarations"
of the same kind as that of 17 December 1920 for the Mandate for
South West Africa. 1 have already said that in my view the officia1
instrument in which the Council's "Declaration" is contained in-
cludes of itself an act of registration of the Mandate without any
other form of registration being necessary. The Respondent does not
deny having always regarded this declaration as the real Mandate

convention. The pleadings in the first part of the proceedings con-
firm this consensus. Moreover, the form of publicity given to and
registration of these "declarations" or "agreements" laid down in
the final paragraph of the Mandate agreement for South West
Africa (Annex B) and in other similar agreements, is somewhat
different from but very similar to that provided for by Article 18
of the Covenant in the case of treaties. 1 am convinced that this
divergence from the solemn forms provided for in Article 18 of the
Covenant does not affect the validity of the Mandate agreements or
conventions for the following reasons :

I. Because Article 18 refers to "treaty or international engage-
ment" and the Mandate agreements, although included among such
treaties or international engagements, have a special characteristic
inthat they are not covenants between States but between a State
and an international organization.

2. Because the Mandate agreements are interna1 administrative
instruments of the League of Nations.

3. Because the form of publication and registration of the Man-
date agreements is entirely similar to that laid down by Article 18
of the Covenant in the case of treaties.
4. Because the exact meaning of Article 18 of the Covenant does
not in my view extend to nullifying unregistered treaties ipso jzrre,
but simply creates for one of the parties the right if it wishes of
raising the objection of inadmissibility of the obligation to perform
the treaty. Any other interpretation would tend to destroy the

principle ofgoodfaith which governs, as a basic rule, the legal theory
of conventional instruments and which has received explicit con-
firmation in international law in Article2,paragraph 2, of the Charter
of the United Nations. In the present case South Africa recognized
and exercized the Mandate of 17 December 1920 for a number of
years as a valid agreement or convention, and cannot by the prin-
ciple ofgood faith be allowed to alter that course of conduct. (c) The Agent for the Republic of South Africa, at the last public
hearing, amended the first of the submissions read at the end
of the oral arguments in a way which entirely alters the position
taken up till then. The Respondent State has in fact always recog-

nized the existence of the Mandate agreement constituted by the
"Declaration" of 17 December 1920.It has moreover recognized that
this agreement remained fully in force until the date of dissolution
of the League of Nations, that is to say for more than 25 years
(1920-1946),by admitting that after that date the Mandate, although
in its view having lapsed as a convention, survives as a reality
derived from the institution created by Article 22 of the Covenant.
But at the last moment the Respondent asserts that there never
was a true Mandate agreement because the "Declaration" of 17
December 1920 Kas only a unilateral document issued by the
Council of the League of Nations and which, at the most, represents
a preparatory outline of what was to have been the future Mandate
agreement.
\Vit11the greatest moral and legal conviction 1 find that this
submission is not well founded. In the first place, the Respondent
has consistently regarded it as established in good faith that the
Mandate agreement was identical with the Declaration. Secondly,

1 have shown in the foregoing pages that the contractual element
of acceptance by the Mandatory is present in al1the paragraphs of
the preamble of that Declaration, where reference is made to the
Government of the Union of South Africa having agreed to accept the
exercise of the Mandate. Thirdly, the Declaration was forwarded to
that Government and brought to its knowledge without it ever
having raised in the Council any allegation or the slightest reserva-
tion with regard to the siçnificance of the agreement. Fourthly, the
lTnion of South Africa, now the Republic of South Africa, has exer-
cized the Mandate for South West Africa for 42 years on the basis
of the document of December 1920. Fifthly, during the early stages
of these proceedings, the Republic of South Africa filed the Decla-
ration as being the document constituting the agreement (Annex B
to the Preliminary Objections).
In my view, therefore, this submission of the Respondent must be
dismissed.

(d) As another ground for its first objection to the jurisdiction
of the Court the Respondent contends that the compromissory
clause inserted in Article 7 of the December 1920 Mandate agree-
ment is a sort of bastard accretion, an anomaly introduced into the
the document by the Council of the League of Nations. In doing so,
it is argued, the Councilexceeded its powers, since Article 22 of the
Covenant did not include the compromissory clause among the
conditions of the Mandate. Moreover, in respect of its external form,
the compromissory clause in Article 7 of the Mandate does not
constitute a true treaty within the meaning of Article 18 of the
Covenant of the League of Nations.

58 1 have already touched upon this subject in another section of
this opinion.
While it is clear that recourse to the jurisdiction of the Permanent
Court \vas not included in Article22 of the Covenant as one of the
original conditions of the Mandate agreements, it is also true that
under paragraph 8 of Article 22 of the Covenant the Council of the
League of Xations was empowered "to define" the conditions of
administration and control of each Mandate. 1 have already set out
the man'- reasons for which the Council had, as an act of good
Mandate administration, to include the compromissory clause in the
agreements with a number of Mandatory States for various terri-
tories. For their part the Mandatories, including the Republic of
South Xfrica, far from refusing the insertion of this clause, accepted
it explicitly or tacitly. Artic7e\vas never the subject of a denun-

ciation bj- South Africa. On the contrary, South Africa expressly
agreed with Great Britain concerning the compromissory clause
when accepting the Mandate, according to the Balfour draft the
text of \?.hich was the basis for the Council's Declaration of17 De-
cember 1930.

Moreover, as 1 have already said, the compromissory clause
is the legal means of providing a final settlement for disputes arising
between the League of Nations or its Members and the Mandatory
inthe administrative or political fieldin connection with the exercise
of the supervisory powers referred to in paragraph g of Article22
of the Covenant and in Article 6 of the Mandate agreement. It
must be noted that in international life sufficientpowers are lacking
in institutional or administrative procedures for a settlement of
conflicts always to be possible by those means. In some cases it is
necessary to have recourse to the authority of an impartial third
Pov-er which gives a final legal decision. The League of Nations

as such had not the possibility of bringing contentious proceedings
against a State, the concept of sovereignty forbidding such an
approach. It was thus the States Members, possessed of the same
legal interest as the League, which were endowed with that function
by Article 7 of the Mandate.

If the compromissory clause could not be brought into opera-
tion at the request of "another Member", the whole international
Mandate system might fail because there would be no decisive
legal means of settling deadlocks between the Mandatory and the
League of Nations with regard to administrative supervision.
An example of this is afforded by the present case, the normal
operation of the Mandate for South West Africa having been upset
and supervision paralyzed for many years, owing to the power-
lessness or ineffectiveness of an administrative or political solution
to put an end to the existing dispute. As regards the form of the instrument, 1 have already explained
that because of the special nature of the Mandate agreements
the solemn form of an international treaty was not workable
because what was involved was not a convention between two
States, but one between the League of Nations and the Mandatory
Çtate for the purpose of the interna1 administration of the League.

However, the final article of the Agreement of 17 December 1920
provided for the publicity to be given to and the registration of
the convention, including thc compromissory clause, by prescribing
that the "Mandate Declaration", an officia1document of the Coun-
cil, should be deposited in the archives of the League of Nations
and that certified copies should be sent to the Secretary-General
and to al1the sjgnatoires oftheTreaty of Versailles. This is much the

same form ofregistrationas isprescribed inArticle 18of the Covenant
for international treaties. The necessary safeguards concerning the
dissemination and authenticity of the agreements were provided for.
The compromissory clause contained in Article 7 of the Mandate
instrument was not subject to the rules governing the optional
clause laid down in Article 36 of the Statute of the Permanent
Court of International Justice, since that Statute only came into
force later. Indeed, the Statute, the Protocol of Signature of which

is dated 16 December 1920, was signed only gradually during the
following months bythe States Members of the League of Nations.
The Assembly's resolution of 13 December 1920, mentioned in the
Protocol of Signature, provided that the Statute would come into
force "as soon as this Protocol has been ratified by the majority
of the Members of the League". The Union of South Afnca ratified
it only on 4 August 1921 l. The ratifications provided for in the
resolution of 13 December 1920 not having reached the required

majority immediately, the Statute entered into force only on
I September 1921 2, that is to Say, more than eight months after
the date of the Mandate for South West Africa containing the
compromissory clause in Article 7. It was not until after I Septem-
ber 1921 that preparations were set on foot for the first election of
judges 3.Thus, at the date of the approval of the Mandate for
South Africa, Article 36 of the Statute had not yet acquired
binding force and, subsequently, no forma1 defect could be imputed

to the compromissory clause of the Mandate instrument.
But there are other very important aspects of the subject.
I. The Union of South Africa ratified, on 4 August 1921, the
Protocol of 16 December 1920 which opened the Statute of the
Permanent Court of International Justice for signature by States

Members of the League of Nations4.
1 League of Nations, Oficzal Jounzal, Special Supplement No. 193, Twenty-first
List, Geneva, 1944.
Manley O. Hudson, Permanent Court of Internatzonal Justzce, New York, 1934,
PP. 134-135
HU~SOI, op czt , pp 116-120
4 ThePermanent Court of InternatioJust~e, 5th Annual Report (1928-I~ZQ),
No. 6, page 18.tion of Texts governing the jurisdicof the Court, Series D,

60 2. On 19 September 1929 the Union of South-Africa subscribed
for IO years (susceptible of prolongation) to the optional clause in
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Permanent Court,
and ratified the declaration on 7 April 1930~. This acceptance of
the optional clause was renewed on 7 April 1940 "until such time

as notice may be given to terminate the acceptance" 2.
3. Under Article 93, paragraph 1, of the Charter of the United
Nations, the States participating in the present controversy
are, by reason of the fact that they are States Members of the
Organization, also parties to the Statute of the International Court
of Justice. Acceptance of the Statute in 1945 consequently involved

acceptance of its Article 37 which provides for the transfer to the
International Court of Justice of the jurisdiction of the Permanent
Court in the cases covered by that Article. It may therefore be
concluded that the Republic of South Africa lias, since its acceptance
of the Statute of the new Court, voluntarily accepted the replace-
ment of the Permanent Court by the International Court of Justice
in the concrete case provided for by Article 7 of the Mandate for
South West Africa, which was for the Republic "a convention

in force" within the meaning of Article 37 of the Statute. At no
time, neither at the date of adherence to the Statute nor since
that date, has the Republic of South Africa made any reservation
or formulated any exception to exclude the case of Article 7 of
the Mandate from its acceptance of Article 37 of the Statute of
the International Court. It is therefore legitimate to conclude that
its acceptance of Article 37 was simple, complete and unrestricted.
The case of Article 7 of the Mandate is automatically included in
the statutory provision of Article 37. Moreover, Article 35 of the

Statute of the International Court provides that "the Court shall
be open to the States parties to the present Statute". Liberia,
Ethiopia and the Republic of South Africa have, in their capactiy
as such, the benefit of that provision.
4. On 12 September 1955 the Union of South Africa recognized

the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, by accepting
the optional clause in paragraph 2 of Article 36 of the Statute3.
It seems to me to be beyond doubt that on the basis of that attitude
the chronologically earlier provision of Article 7 in the Mandate
for South IlTest Africa was confirmed as being within the domain
of the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice.
There were then two voluntary acts by which the Republic
of South Africa accepted the transfer of jurisdiction from the

First addendum to the fourth edition of the Collection of Texts governing the
jurisdiction of the Court.en, 1932, page 7. Eigth Annual Report of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justi1932.
2 SixteenthReport of the Permanent Court of InternationaJustice, p. 334.
I'earbookof the InternationCourt of Justice, 1946-1947, p. 21j.
InternationaCourt of Justice, Yearbook 195j-1956, page 184; 1959-1960,
page 253; 1960-1961, page 215.
61Permanent Court to the International Court: in the first place,
the subscribing to Articl37 of the Statute; and secondly, adherence
tothe optional clause in 1955.These acts,undertaken at a time when
the Mandate Agreement of 17 December 1920 was in force, rein-
force, confirm and render irremovable Article 7 of that Agreement
which contains the compromissory clause.

(e) There is another defect vitiating its validity which the
Respondent attributes to the compromissory clause in Article 7
of the Mandate agreement, which is that that clause refers to
"another Member of the League of Nations" as the definition
of the partieswith capacityto invoke the jurisdiction of the Court,
notwithstanding the fact that the parties to the agreement are
only the League of Nations and the Mandatory. In the Respondent's
view, such "another Member" is a third legal person improperly
invited to be a party to judicial questions deriving from the Man-
dates. Furthermore, there are not now any more Members of the
League of Nations, which was dissolved sixteen years ago, therefore
the compromissory clause cannot be implemented. It is no longer
in force.
In fact, this observation relates to the subject-matter of the
Second Preliminary Objection, and that is why 1 shall deal with it
in my consideration of that Objection. 1can Say in advance that in
my view the observation is not well founded.

It follows from the foregoing that the Mandate Agreement
for South West Africa is a convention in force, and that by virtue
of the provision contained in Article 7 of that Agreement, Ar-
ticle 37 of thetatute of the International Court of Justice is appli-

cable to the present controversy. In my view the First Preliminary
Objection is not well founded.

Second Preliminary Objection

The Second Preliminary Objection is formulated bythe Respond-
ent more or less as follows: according to Article7 of the Mandate
Agreement, a dispute to be heard and determined bythe Permanent
Court of International Justice would be one arising between the
Mandatory and "another Member of the League of Nations".
But in the present dispute there is no "Member" of the League
involved, the League having ceased to exist in April 1946. The
States which are Applicants, Liberia and Ethiopia, are ex-Members
of the dissolved League and have not therefore preserved the active
membership required by Article 7. The Applicants have therefore
no "locus standi" to appear before the Court. Moreover, it is
incomprehensible that the Council of the League of Nations should
have brought in as a party to the Mandate Agreement "another

62 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 378

Member of the League of Nations", such a State being a third
person without any direct legal interest in the implementation
of the Mandate (Preliminary Objections, p. 149).

To judge whether this Objection is well founded or not, it is
necessary once again to have regard to the nature of the interna-
tional Mandate institution created by Article 22 of the Covenant
of 19191 . refer in particular to the sections headed "The elements
of the international Mandate" and "Characteristic features of the
international Mandate", paragraph 7 of the present Opinion.
In summary form, the doctrinal interpretation of the Mandates
System instituted by the Covenant may be stated as follows: a
"sacred trust" for the benefit of the under-developed peoples of
the former colonies was entrusted to the Members of the League

of Nations, which represented the international community.
Each of those States Members is bound, jointly and severally
with the League, by the obligation and by the responsibility to
promote the purposes envisaged ,in Article 22 of the Covenant,
namely, to assist, advance and protect the peoples concerned.
In consequence, each State Member has an individual legal interest
in seeing that the Mandates entrusted by the League of Nations
to the various Mandatories are properly performed and fulfilled.
In the Mandate agreements the States Members are thus not alien
elements or "third persons" having no connection with the con-
tractual relationship, but joint parties with the League of Nations
for the achievement of its objectives.
This is the explanation of the participation of the States Members,
alongside the League, in the compromissory clause of the Mandate

agreements. Each of these States acquires a right of legal inter-
vention to protect the interests of the mandated population; and
this right-which is at the same time a responsibility-extendç
to the wholeduration of the Mandate. From the entry into force of
the agreement with the Mandatory-, this right of intervention of
other States Members becomes #art of the legal heritageof each one
of them, not for the duration of the League of Nations, but for
the duration of the Mandate itself. Possession of this right by the
States which acquired it thus extends beyond the life of the League
of Nations, even if the League is dissolved before the expiry of the
Mandate.
The Council of the League of Nations was therefore certainly
not acting ultra viveswhen-in Article7 of the Mandate-it granted

to States Members of the League of Nations the right to participate
in cases relating to the exercise of the Mandate. The whole of Ar-
ticle22 of the Covenant, considered in the light of the historical
background, previouslyreferred to, and in particular its paragraphs
I and 2, makes it possible to see the aim pursued by the authors
to enable al1 the States Members of the international community
incorporated in the League to participate in the "sacred trust of
63 civilization" conceived and established for the well-being and
development of peoples not yet able to stand by themselves.

If paragraphs 7 and 8 of Article22 confer upon the Council, re-
presenting the League of Nations, specific functions with regard
to supervision of the Mandate, that does not deprive Member
States of their legal interest in the performance of the conditions
by means of which the Mandate is carried out. The Member States
are, in this sense, inseparable collaborators in the action of the
League.
Al1 this leads to the conclusion that the reference to "another
Member of the League of Nations" in Article 7 of the Mandate
for South West Africa must be interpreted as referring to States
which were Members of the League of Nations up to its dissolution.
That membership gave them a power inherent in their status as
States to act as parties in accordance with Article7 of the Mandate
during the whole of the time that the Mandate is exercized by the
Mandatory. It is only in this way that the purposes of the institu-
tion can be served.
If this interpretatiowere not accepted, and since the League of

Nations as such has been dissolved, the legally unacceptable
conclusion would be reached that the mandated populations would
not have had the possibility of recourse to international judicial
authority in respect of possible abuses or deviations by the Manda-
tory. And it must be recalled that the right of defence before the
law is expressly mentioned in the Declaration of Human Rights.

Since Liberia and Ethiopia were Members of the League of
Nations up to its dissolution, those two States have, in my view,
the right to invoke the jurisdiction of the Court in accordance with
Article 7of the Mandate for South West Africa and Article 37 of the
Statute of the International Court of Justice.

Third Objection

In the opinion of the Respondent, "the disagreement between
the Applicants and the Republic of South Africa is not a 'dispute'
as envisaged in Article7 of the Mandate". In view of the provisions

of that Article disputes capable of being referred to the Court must
satisfy certain conditions, or be of certain kinds, which is not so
in the present case. The Applications of the Applicants are therefore
said to be inadmissible.
Pursuing its reasoning, the Respondent points out that according
to the Memorials of the Applicants, the subject of the controversy
is concerned with whether there was a violation of the obligations
imposed on the Mandatory by Articles 2-6 of the Mandate for the
benefit of the peoples of the Mandated Territory. But, in the sub-
mission of the Respondent, the action of the Applicants does not
comply with the principle that a legal remedy is only available

64 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 380

where a direct legal right or interest on the part of the Applicant
is in issue. The defence of the peoples under tutelage is not within
the individual competence of Member States since it is a function
of the Council of the League of Nations as supervisory organ under
the ;Ilandate. The Court therefore cannot deal with an application
such as those of Liberia and Ethiopia, dere no direct rights and
interests of the two States are involved. States Nembers of the
League of Kations might no doubt have certain interests of their
own with regard to Mandated territories, such asin the case of the
economic principle of the "open door", or the defence of their
nationals against acts which constituted an abuse of the Mandate;

but no direct legal interest can be attributed to the Applicants
in respect of the defence of the rights or interests of third parties,
in other words, the peoples of the Mandated territories. In this
domain, the Applicants have no locm standi before the Court.
This contention of the Respondent has already been refuted
by the argument based on the nature and purposes of the institu-
tion of Mandates. Since the Treaty of Versailles, Mandates have
introduced a new principle into intercational law, one which re-
flects a need of the international conscience: that of legal tutelage
for the well-being and development of former colonial peoples.
The human, civic, cultural and economic rights of these peoples,
and the prohibition of abuses which might be committed to their
prejudice, are expressly laid down in Article 22 of the Covenant of

the League of Nations which in its spirit is in harmony with the
Preamble of that instrument. From that moment, the "sacred
trust" conferred on the League and consequently on each and every
one of its Members, was no longer a "moral" or "humanitarian"
trust, but clearly one of an undeniably legal scope, laid down by
international law. Since that time, Member States, as integral
parts of the League itself, have possessed a direct legal interest
in the protection of underdeveloped peoples. It is no doubt on
the basis of these principles that the Mandate Agreement, in its
Article 7,conferïed upon Member States, in their individual capaci-
ty-, the right to invoke the compromissory clause to require of
the Ilandatory a correct application of the Mandate. The Council
of the League of Nations was authorized to include this right
because it is one which flows naturally from the "sacred trust"

instituted in the Covenant and because paragraph 8 of Article 22
of that instrument gives the Council the right to "define" the condi-
tions of the Mandate. The provision in question is indeed very
easy to understand since Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute of the
Permanent Court did not make it possible for the League of Nations
itself to have recourse, as a body, to the Court which was open
only to Member States and States in general. Al1 this reasoning
is confirmed by the Preamble and by Articles I (paras. 2 and 3)
and 2 (para. j) of the Charter of the Knited Nations. Looking at the matter from another aspect, the literal text

of Article 7 of the Mandate provides, in my opinion, the best
guide to a correct interpretation. According to its wording, the
Mandatory agrees that (any) other Member of the League of Na-
tions may submit to the Permanent Court any dispute whatever
relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions
of the Mandate. This text contains no limitations as regards the
kind of legal interest in issue, be it particular or general, whether
it directly relates to the Applicant State or whetherit is concerned
with other perçons legally close to the latter. In the present case,
1 have already explained that, in my opinion, one cannot describe-
asthe Respondent has done--the peoples of the Mandated territory
as "third parties" not parties to the Mandate convention since
these peoples are one of the parties under the convention, the bene-
fitting party whose interests are, to a certain extent, joint interests
with those of Member States, in view of the principles and purposes
of the Mandate institution. That beine so. nobodv can relv on the
wording of Article 7 to contend thatit kas intinded toJprovide

exclusively for recourse to the Court by States seeking the exercise of
the Court's jurisdiction in defence of their direct private interests
(for instance, the right to the open door or complaints of their
nationals), and that the Article cannot cover applications by any
Statein defence of the general interests of the peoples of the Man-
dated territory. Regard must be had to the fact that the wording
of Article 7 of the Mandate is broad, clear and precise: it gives rise
to no ambiguity, it refers to no exception. It is therefore not possible
to exclude from its content legal action concerned with what indeed
constitute the principal problems of the Mandate, that is to say
questions of interpretation with regard to the scope of the Manda-
tory's rights and the practical application of those rights to the
peoples placed under tutelage. Having regard to the importance
of these problems, a restrictive interpretation which would include
only the material and individual interests of a State Member must
take a secondary and indeed insignificant place.

As to the actual existence of a dispute in the present cases be-
tween the Applicants and the Mandatory, this has, in my opinion,
been clearly established by the record and particularly by the
officia1documents of the League of Nations and the United Nations
which appear among the annexes. From these it can be seen that
for several years the two Applicant States, in their capacity as
members of certain organs and committees of the United Nations,
have maintained points of view fundamentally opposed to those
of the Mandatory with regard to the interpretztion of various
provisions of the Mandate and with regard to the application of
the Mandate by the Mandatory in a series of concrete cases. A
dispute could not have been more clearly established.
Sincethe members of delegations accredited to the United Nations
are the officia1representatives of their respective governments, no

66doubt can remain as to the fact that these differences of opinion
with regard to law and fact have arisen between the Governments
of Liberia and Ethiopia on the one hand, and the Government of
the Republic of South Africa on the other. It follows that the dis-

putesubmitted to the Court satisfies the conditions of substance and
of form referred to in Article 7 of the Mandate agreement.
There remains a further objection to be answered: "It could
not be said that the dispute-even if one should be admitted to
exist--is one which has arisen between the Mandatory and two
'other Members of the League of Nations' since, after the dissolu-
tion of the League, the Applicants lost their status as present
Members and are merely two former Members of that Organiza-
tion. They are consequently not within the framework provided for
by Article 7."
This objection has already been met in the consideration of the
Second Preliminary Objection. Following the scheme of al1
conventions, in the Mandate agreements provision is made in
such a way as to guarantee the functioning of the system dztring
thewholeperiod of its dztration.The right to take legal action confer-
red, by Article 7,on other States Members, is inherent in the Man-
date itself and inseparable from its exercise, so long as it lasts.
The right is iricorporated-1 must repeat it- inthe juridical heritage
of Member States and there it remains latent and alive with no
limits upon its duration until the expiry of the Mandate, in the
absence of any conventional modification of the agreement.
When the text of Article 7 refers to the States enjoying the

benefit of the compromissory clause, the reference to the status of
States Members of the League of Nations must be interpreted as a
means for theindividual identification of those States and not as a
permanent condition required for the role of applicant in legal pro-
ceedings.In other words, Article 7 means, in my opinion: "States
belonging to the League of Nations and identified with the pur-
poses of the League shall individually have the right to require
before the Permanent Court the faithful execution of the Mandate
during its entire duration." But the intention of the Article was
not to Say that: "The States Members of the League, so long as it
continues to exist, shall individually have the rights ...", etc.
That latter interpretation would render ineffective the judicial
security in the Mandate in the event of the disappearance of the
League of Nations; and that cannot have been the intention of the
authors of the agreement because the effect would be to prejudice
the peoples under tutelage.
The interpretation which 1 prefer raises the question ahether a
State which has lost the status of a Member of the League of Na-
tions, either by resigning or asthe result of a disciplinary measure,
would have the right to invoke Article 7 of the Mandate after the
dissolution of the League in order to institute legal proceedings.
In my opinion there can be no doubt that the answer must be in

67the negative; for the voluntary or disciplinary separation from a
body or institution i~~pliesrenunciation or loss of al1 those rights
which the former State Member had individually acquired by virtue

of its status as a Member.
This reasoning has given rise to an argument intended to destroy
the possibility of applying Article 7. Al1 the States Members of
the League of Nations voluntarily agreed-it is said-to dissolve
that body (Resolution of 18 April 1946). After that voluntary
dissolution none of the former Members retained the right to
invoke Article 7, for al1 of them renounced the rights and pre-
rogatives which were the consequences of their status as Members.
It is not possible, however, to ignore the historical facts which
determined the disappearance of the League of Nations. That
Organization-already greatly weakened .before the Second World
War-remained paralyzed for the whole period of the War and the
results of the conflict completely upset international realities by

profoundly modifying the former conformation and distribution
of States on which the League of Nations had been based. In fact,
the League was already dead, despite the wishes of its Members,
when its Assembly adopted the Resolution of April1946 to place its
disappearance on record. At the same time its Members, in agree-
ment with the majority of the other States of the international
community, were greatly concerned that certain principles and
certain institutions which were conspicuous by their social and
humane progress and which had been put into effect by the League
which had disappeared, should remain unaffected by the world
:risis. It was then that they founded the United Nations, the reguIa-
tions of which devoted special emphasis to the institution of trus-
teeship and provide means for transforming the former "MandatesJ'

into modernised tutelary systems. Article 77 (paragraph 1, sub-
paragraph (a)), 79 and 80 of the Charter established the compulsory
character of that transformation where the Mandatory is a Member
of the United Nations. The wording of Article 79 appears to me to
be eloquent :

"The terms of [the new] trusteeship ...shall [in the imperative]
be agreed upon by the States directly concerned, including the
Member of the United Nations..."(Italics added.) under mandatby a

The philosophy of this provision is that the Mandatory State

which accepted and signed the Charter of the United Nations accept-
ed the new trusteeship system and must incorporate itself in it
compulsorily.
The corollary is that the Republic of South Africa, a Member
of the United Nations, which has not concluded a new trusteeship
agreement with that Organization, is in the transitional situation
provided for by Article 80, paragraph 1,of the Charter, which must
68be strictly applied; consequently, the former Mandate convention
of 17 December 1920 must remain unchanged and its Article 7
must necessarily be applied. The "other States Members" of the

former League of Nations are thus fully entitled to invoke the
jurisdiction of the Court (Article 37 of the Statute).

Fourth Objection

In its Fourth and final Preliminary Objection-which is closely
linked with the Third Objection-the Respondent asserts that the
conflict or disagreement-the existence of which is alleged by
the Applicants-is not a dispute which "cannot be settled by nego-
tiation" in the sense of Article 7 of the Mandate.
In the development of its argument, the Respondent has con-
tended :

(1)that there has been no exchange of views or direct discussion
between the Parties through the diplomatic channel on the points
which constitute the subject of the dispute;
(2)that account cannot be taken of administrative discussion
or negotiation within the United Nations because these took place
between the Organization itself and the Mandatory and not between
the latter and the Applicant States individually;

(3) that the administrative negotiation in the various organs
of the United Nations took place in circumstances not conducive
to arriving at an agreement since the General Assembly conferred
restricted powers on those organs, which constituted an element
limiting the free exchange of views between the negotiators. On
the other hand, the presence of plenipotentiaries in direct diplomatic
negotiations would, in principle, allow of greater flexibility in
seeking points of agreement in a wider field of discussion.

Itis true that the record contains no reference to direct diplomatic
negotiations between the Parties, that is to say, negotiations carried
out in the traditional way of Ministries for Foreign Affairs and
reciprocallyaccredited representatives. But the wording of Article 7
of the Mandate in no way indicates that negotiations must take
any particular external form. Any negotiation is adequate if not
in conflict with international custom.
A Member of the Court has wisely said that the field of diplomatic
activity is now much wider than formerly, and that negotiations

between Member States within the organs of the United Nations
also undoubtedly constitute diplomatic negotiations. The delega-
tions of States accredited to the Organization possess a diplomatic
status and act as representatives of their respective governments.
It might further be added that no better place could have been
69chosen'in this case for negotiations than the United Nations since
that Organization has the best specialists in the field and possesses
in its archives al1 the necessary historical and legal information
for the necessary documentation of the discussions.

111 the present case, the voluminous documentation put in by
the Parties and especially the annexes relating to the activities
of the United Nations in this case constitute, in my opinion, over-
whelming proof not only of the fact that repeated and reiterated
negotiations took place, in which the Applicants and the Respond-
ent participated, but also that al1 the efforts niade to find a con-
ciliatory solution resulted in failure. The problems of the Mandate
for South West Africa were deaIt with by the Fourth Committee,
by the Ad Hoc Committee, by the Good Offices Committee, by
the Committee on South West Africa and finally by the General

Assembly. Each of the Applicants took part, on a number of oc-
casions, in the discussion which took place with the Mandatory
in these organs on the legal aspects of the exercise of the Mandate.
Furthermore, the documents show that on a number of occasions
it was pointed out to the Mandatory that it was necessary for it to
amend its contentions or modify its activities in relation to the
peoples under tutelage. For fifteen consecutive years this funda-
mental opposition of points of view, this unyielding opposition of
the Mandatory in the face of the virtual unanimity of Member
States as to the limits and obligations flowing from the Mandate,
have maintained a situation of permanent deadlock. The votes
of the Applicants, in their capacity as States, against the admini-
strative policy of South Africa are to be found in the documents and
minutes of these meetings. In short: the most categoric legal and
moral conviction emerges from this examination to the effect that
no negotiation is possible and that any further negotiation based on
the rules of the Mandates System would be ineffective to settle

the dispute.
The administrative or political course having been exhausted,
the Applicants.have had resort to the second course provided for-
by way of a wise reserve-by Article7 of the Mandate: the course
of resort to international justice. If the Mandate Agreement is
carefully read, it is easy to see that Articles 6 and7 relate to two
different and successive aspects or stages in the exercise of the Man-
date, which, far from being incompatible, are natural complements
to each other. Mutual understanding between the League and the
Mandatory is presumed as to the way in which the trust of the
Mandate is to be performed (Articles 2-6), but in the event of a
disagreement arising between the States Members which offers
no prospect of settlement, resort to judicial decision will re-establish
the harmonious functionning of the sytsem.There isnothing strangein the abandonment of administrative negotiations when the
nature ofthe dispute makes the intervention ofa tribunal preferable.
The Respondent has contended that the failure of the admini-
strative negotiation carried out within the United Nations was
caused by the restrictions placed upon the powers granted to the
negotiating organs by the General Assembly. These organs-says
the Respondent--did not enjoy the freedom of action necessary
to decide upon the various formulae put forward in the debates by
seeking approximations in a flexible way or by possibly agreeing
to partial concessions.It seemsto me, however, that this restriction
of powers was inevitable and still more necessary. The General
Assembly could only delegate its powers on the condition that it
indicated as bases for negotiation the fundamental des of the
Mandate institution and of the Mandate Agreement for South
West Africa. Anything beyond this compass would have been
contrary to the spirit of the Charter andwould,have exceeded the
lions by the Good OfficesCommittee were not successful when the-
General Assembly rejected the partition formula which it had
proposed.
These reasons, in my opinion, justify the overruling of the
Fourth Preliminary Objection.

Conclusion
For the reasons expressed above and alsoon the relevant grounds
referred to in that part of the Advisory Opinion of II July 1950
which coincideswith the reasoningwhich 1have just set out, 1corne
to the conclusion:

That the two Preliminary objections (First and Second) raised
by the Respondent to the jurisdiction of the Court are not well-
founded in law;
That the two other Objections (Third and Fourth) which relate
to the admissibility of the Applications of Liberia and Ethiopia,
must likewisebe held to be iil-founded;
That, consequently, the Court has jurisdiction to proceed to
adjudication upon the merits of the applications.

(Signed) J. L. BUSTAMANR T.E

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. BUSTAMANTE

Bien qu'étant d'accord sur les motifs et les conclusions de l'arrêt
prononcé par la majorité de la Cour, je fais appel à la faculté
reconnue aux juges par l'article57 du Statut de la Cour internatio-
nale de Justice pour développer dans une opinion individuelle
quelques arguments additionnels fondés sur l'interprétation inté-
grale et personnelle que je fais du système de Mandat international
àla lumière des circonstances historiques où il fut institué. Je pense
en outre que ce procédépermet d'établir plus nettement la respon-
sabilité du juge dans l'ensemble d'une décision prise par la Cour.

La présente instance a étéintroduite dans des requêtes séparées
par les agents des Gouvernements du Libériaet de l'Éthiopie contre
la République sud-africaine en tant que mandataire du territoire
du Sud-Ouest africain, au sujet de divers faits et situationsvisant

l'exercice du Mandat. Par disposition de la Cour, les deux requêtes
ont étéréunies en une seule procédure. L'agent de la République
sud-africaine, sans aller au fond des demandes, a formulé quatre
exceptions préliminaires, dont les deux premières contestent la
compétence de la Cour et les deux autres soutiennent l'irrecevabilité
des requêtes vu le manque de certaines conditions. La procédure
orale étant terminée, la Cour doit se prononcer sur les exceptions
prqposées.
Etant donné que les fondements des exceptions ont trait à
l'interprétation de l'accord de Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain, il me
semble nécessaire d'examiner d'abord quelles sont, à la lumière du
droit international, la nature et les caractéristiques du système
juridique des Mandats créépar le Pacte de la Société desXations
de 1919; système dont le Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain n'est qu'une
application individuelle.

La cvc.'ationesMandats i~ttev~zationaz~x

A la fin de la première guerre mondiale, un des problèmes à
trancher était la définition du destin des territoires coloqiaux
lesquels,à la suite du conflit, avaient cesséd'appartenir aux Etats
vaincus et étaient habités par des peuples non encore capables de
se diriger eux-mêmes.En vertu de l'article 119 du traité de Ver-
sailles- 28 juin 1919 - l'Allemagne renonGa à tous ses droits et
titres sur ses possessions d'outre-mer en faveur des Principales
Puissances alliées et associées, lesquelles les avaient déjà occupées
militairement. Ces Puissances, néanmoins, n'assumèrent pas di-

34 SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE BUSTAMANTE

[Tralzslation]
Although 1 am in agreement with the reasoning and conclusions
of the Judgment of the majority of the,Court, 1 am availing myself
of the right granted by Articl57 of the Statute of the International
Court of Justice to develop in aseparate opinion certain additional
arguments based on my full persona1 interpretation of the inter-
national MandatesSystem in the light ofthe historicalcircumstances
of its creation. 1 believe, moreover, that this process makes it
possible to establish more clearly the responsibility of a Judge in
the totality of a decision of the Court.

The present proceedings were instituted by two separate Appli-
cationsfiledby the Agents of the Governments of Liberia and Ethio-
pia against the Republic of SouthAfricain its capacity as Mandatory
for the territory of South West Africa, concerning various facts and
situations related to the exercise of the Mandate. By a decision of
the Court, the proceedings under the two Applications were joined.
The Agent of the Republic of South Africa, without going to the
merits of the claims, submitted four preliminary objections, the
first two denying the jurisdiction of the Court, and the other two
maintaining that the Applications are inadmissible owing to lack
of fulfilment of certain conditions. The oral proceedings being over,

the Court has to decide on the objections.
Since the bases of the objections are connected with the inter-
pretation of the Mandate agreement for South West Africa, it seems
to me necessary to examine first of al1what, in the light of inter-
national law, are the nature and characteristics of the legal system
of Mandates established by the Covenant of the League of Nations
in 1919 .he Mandate for South West Africa is but one example of
the application of this system.

The creationof the international Mandates

At the end of the First World War, one of the problems to be
dealt with was the determination ofthe fate of the colonialterritories
which, as a result of the war, had ceased to belong to the defeated
States and were inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by them-
selves. Under Article 119of the Treaty of Versailles-28 June 1919
-Germany renounced in favour of the Principal Allied and Asso-
ciated Powers al1her rights and titles over her oversea possessions,
which they had already militarily occupied. These Powers did not
themselves directly take over sovereignty over these possessions,

34rectement la souveraineté sur ces possessions mais s'accordère,,,
le 6 mai 1919 - peu avant la signature dy traité de Paix - à les

attribuer, à titre de Mandat, à certains Etats alliés qui s'étaient
chargés de l'occupation l. Le moment venu de signer la paix, les-
dites Puissances donnèrent corps à leur résolution de confirmer les
((Mandats ))répartis, mais décidèrent, en mêmetemps, de les in-
corporer dans un nouveau système juridique placé sous l'autorité

et tutelle de la Société desNations. Telle fut l'origine de l'article 22
du Pacte.
Cet historique révèleque la figure du ((Mandat ))est apparue
pour la première fois en dehors du cadre de la Société desNations
et mêmeavant la fondation de celle-ci. Au commencement, tout
se bornait à une attribution directe des territoires faite par les

Puissances au mandataire; mais le régime juridique auquel cette
attribution devait se conformer n'avait pas encore étédéterminé.
Ce ne fut qu'au moment de la signature du Pacte que lesPuissances
réalisèrelitlevraitransfert desMandats, en leur qualitéde mandants,
en faveur de la Sociétédes Nations et - en collaboration avec les

autres États Membres fondateurs de cette entité - exprimèrent
dans le texte de l'article 22 les concepts et normes basiques du
Mandat international, dont l'énoncépourrait se résumer ainsi:
a) Reconnaissarice de certains droits fondamentaux aux habi-

tants des territoires sous-développé- -
b) Établissement d'un système de tutelle pour ces peuples à
la charge d'une nation dkveloppéequi agit en qualitéde mandataire
et ((au nom de la Sociétéiles Nations n;

c) Attribution aux États Membres de la Sociétéde la ((mission
sacréede civilisation ))consistant à procurer le bien-êtreet à aider
au développement desdits peuples et à sauvegarder leurs droits.

L'inter+rétationsociologiquedes Mandats internationaux

Les événementsqui viennent d'êtrementionnés n'ont été,certes,
que l'expression de l'influence d'un état d'esprit collectif dans le
monde de l'après-guerre. A cette époque, la conscience générale

anticolonialiste, déjà réveilléedepuis longtemps, s'était montrée
particulièrement forte et la préservation et la protection des droits
de l'homme se révélaientde plus en plus incompatibles avec la
survivance de la conquêteet le maintien des régimes coloniaux. Le
président Wilson, avec ses (14 Points D, a étéle ((leader )) de ce
mouvement à la Conférencede la Paix réunie par les Puissances

victorieuses pour l'élaboration du traité de paix. Il a proclamé le
((principe des nationalités ))qui, en définitive, a servi de critère
aux décisionsde la Conférenceet dont un des principaux postulats

1919.A.Millot,((LesMandats internationaux)),p.36,Paris, 192É.Larose, éditeur.
J. O. dela S. d. N., juin 1920. but, on 6 May 1919 ,hortly before the signature of the Treaty
of Peace, agreed to allot them, as Mandates, to certain allied
States which had occupied theml. When the time came for
the signature of the Peace Treaty, those Powers gave substance to
their decision to confirm the Mandates which had been allotted, but

decided at the same time to embody them in a new legal system
placed under the authority and guardianship of the League of Na-
tions. This was the origin of Article 22 of the Covenant.

This historical background shows that the idea of the Mandate
appeared for the first time outside the ambit of the League of Na-
tions, and even before its foundation. At the beginning, it was
confined to a direct allocation of the territories to the Mandatory

by the Powers, but the legal regime governing this allocation had
not yet been defined. It was only at the time of the signature of the
Covenant that the Powers operated the real transfer ofthe Mandates,
as Mandators, to the League of Nations and-in collaboration with
the other founder Members of that organization-embodied in the
text of Article 22 the basic concepts and rules of the international
Mandates, which might be summed up as follows:

(a) recognition of certain fundamental rights as belonging to the
inhabitants of the underdeveloped territories;
(b) establishment of a system of tutelage for such peoples under
an advanced nation acting in the capacity of Mandatory and "on
behalf of the League of Nations";

(c) attribution to States Members of the League of the (sacred
trust of civilization »,namely, the promotion of the well-being and
development of the peoples concerned and the safeguard of their
rights.

The sociologicalinterpretation of the international Mandates

The events referred to above were indeed but the expression of

the inflqence of a collective state of mind in the post-war world.
At that time the general anti-colonialist conscience, which had
been at work for some time, became particularly active and the
preservation and protection of human rights appeared more and
more incompatible with the survival of conquest and the mainte-
nance of colonial regimes. President Wilson, with his "14 Points",
was the leader of this movement at the Peace Conference called by
the victorious Powers to draft the Peace Treaty. He proclaimed the
''
nationalities principle" which was used in the last resort by the
Conference as the criterion for its decisions. One of the main asser-
tions of this principle was the right of every underdeveloped people

l Communiqué of the Supreme Council of the Peace Conference,6Maye1919.
A. Millot: Les Mandats internationp.36, ÉLarore, Paris1924.Officia1Journal
of the League of Nations, Ju1920.
35 est le droit qu'a chaque peuple sous-développépour accomplir son

propre destin et d'aspirer à son indépendance politique sous la
protection, et avec le respect et l'aide de la communauté inter-
nationale l.
Les Puissances alliées et associées se sont sagement ralliées à
ces conceptions dans le Pacte de la Sociétédes Nations. Cette
entité, dont les buts attribués ont une portée universelle, assume
- selon l'avis généraldes commentateurs du droit - la signification
d'une première expression organisée de la communauté internatio-
nale. En effet, il n'y a qu'à lire l'introduction et les articles3, 24

et 25 du Pacte, ainsi que le préambule de la Partie XII1 du traité
de Versailles visant l'organisation mondiale du Travail, pour se
rendre compte qu'une nouvelle conception humaine a présidéà la
fondation de la Société desNations en tant qu'entité destinée à
donner une structure organique et à doter d'une discipline juridique
générale l'ensemble desnations du monde. Ceci était la réalisation
tangible des idées déjà perçues par Vitoria et Grotius quand ils
songeaient à une grande communauté de buts solidaires qui .prési-
deraient à la coexistence des nations sous le signe du droit. En ce

qui concerne les populations sous-développées,l'article 22 du Pacte
traduit la nouvelle exigence idéologique du monde en précisant les
deux notes caractéristiques de la tutelle internationale: le bien-être
et le développement du peuple sous tutelle et la coopérationsolidaire
de la communauté des États à l'obtention de ces buts.
Il me semble que la considération de ces facteurs sociologiques,
intervenus dès l'origine du système de tutelle créé en 1919, doit
avoir une importance capitale pour l'interprétation de la nature et
de la portée dudit système. Étant donné que le droit est un phéno-

mène vivant qui traduit les exigences et les nécessités collectives
de chaque moment historique et dont l'application répond à la
réalisation d'une fin sociale, il est évident que les événements
sociaux de chaque époque constituent une des sources les plus
remarquables de l'interprétation du droit, de mêmeque l'examen
des travaux préparatoires des techniciens et la recherche des pré-
cédents judiciaires. Le droit n'est pas seulement une abstraction
mentale ni le résultat de l'application réitéréede la jurisprudence
écrite, mais il est, de préférence,une norme de conduite qui trouve

ses racines dans les profondeurs de la vie sociale.
C'est à la lumière de ce critère qu'il faut, à mon avis, étudier
les éléments constitutifs et les notes distinctives du système de
mandats internationaux.

Les élémentd su Mandat international

Trois sortes d'éléments doivent êtreconsidéréescomme s'inté-
grant dans le système des mandats internationaux: les éléments
fiersonnelset rkelsqui interviennent et les buts de l'institution.

l A.MillotaLesMandatsinternationauxn,pp. 5 et ss., Paris,Émile Larose,
éditeur.

36to fulfil its own destiny and aspire to political independence under
the protection and with the respect and assistance of the interna-
tional community l.

The Allied and Associated Powers, in their wisdom, endorsed
these concepts in the Covenant ofthe League ofNations.The League,
whose assigned purposes were of universal scope, is generallyagreed
by legal writers to have acquired the significance of being the first
organized expression of the international community. Indeed, one
has only to read the introduction and Articles 23, 24 and 25 of the
Covenant, together with the Preamble of Part XII1 of the Treaty of

Versailles concerning the International Labour Organisation, to
realize that the creation of the League of Nations as a body designed
to give organic structureand a general legal framework tothe nations
of the world as a whole was inspired by a new humane approach.
This was a positive realization of ideas already perceived by Vitoria
and Grotius in their thoughts concerning a joint community of
purpose inspiring the coexistence of nations in a framework of law.
In respect of the underdeveloped peoples, Article 22 of the Covenant
reflects the new ideological requirements of the world in its state-
ment of the two characteristic features of international tutelage:
the well-being and development of the people under tutelage and

the joint CO-operation of the community of States in the achieve-
ment of these purposes.
In my view, consideration of the sociological factors which
operated from the beginning of the 1919 system of tutelage must be
of prime importance for the interpretation of the nature and sig-
nificance of that system. Since the law is a living phenomenon
which reflects the collective demands and needs of each stage of
history, and the application of which is designed to achieve a social
purpose, it is clear that the social developments of the period con-
stitute one of the outstanding sources for the interpretation of law,

alongside examination of the preparatory work of the technicians
and research into judicial precedents. The law is not just a mental
abstraction, nor the result of repeated applications of judicial
decisions, but is first and foremost a rule of conduct which has its
roots in the deepest layers of society.

Itis in the light of this criterion that the constituent elements
and distinguishing features of the sÿstem of international mandates
must, in my view, be studied.

The elementsof the international Mandate

Three kinds of elemenimust be regarded as making up the system
of international mandates: the operative personaland reulelements,
and the fizi~poseson the institution.

1 A. hfillot, op.cit.,ff..15 Quant aux buts, ils ont déjà étémentionnés dans les paragraphes
précédents: le bien-être et le développement des populations sous

Mandat, pour les conduire vers des stades supérieurs de civilisation
età l'indépendance politique. Ces buts sont obtenus au moyen d'un
système juridique complexe qui présente des analogies assez proches
- selon les opinions des auteurs - avec les figures juridiques de la
tutelle, le fidéicommiset le mandat du droit privéet avec le régime
du protectorat dans le droit public. 11me semble que, sans suresti-
mer ces analogies, il faudrait adapter au mandat international -
dans la mesure raisonnable où la condition souveraine des Etats le
permet - les normes qui régissent d'autres institutions similaires.
Dans un sens objectif, la réalisation des buts du Mandat est

confiée,comme une commission fiduciaire de responsabilité, à une
nation développéeen qualité de mandataire. L'extension du Mandat
diffère selon le degré de développement du peuple sous tutelle et
selon plusieurs autres circonstances (Mandats A, B, et C) mais,
dans aucune de ces catégories, le mandataire n'acquiert la souve-
raineté du peuple sous Mandat (art. 22, par. 3 à 6).

Comme élémentr;el du système on doit citer le territoire physique
où habite la population sous Mandat. Mais il faut prendre note que
ce territoire est inséparable de la population elle-mêmeet constitue

un instrument à utiliser à son service. La livraison du territoire
au mandataire n'est que provisoire aux fins d'administration et ne
signifie jamais, dans aucune catégorie de Mandat, un transfert de
souveraineté.
En ce qui concerne les élémentspersonnels du Mandat inter-
national, on doit citer - à mon avis -, en premier lieu, les popu-
lations sous Mandat; deuxièmement, la Société,desNations et les
Etats qui y sont intégrés; et, troisièmement, 1'Etat mandataire.
Je ne fais pas mention ici des Puissances alliéeset associéesqui,
avant la fondation de la Société desNations, avaient attribué
directement les possessions coloniales acquises du fait de la guerre

à certains Etats, à titre de mandataires. Ces attributions, qui en-
traînaient évidemment des actes juridiques, constituèrent, à vrai
dire, une espèce d'étape préalable vers le fonctionnement du véri-
table système international créé par le Pacte. La Société desNations
a trouvé les nominations des mandataires et la livraison des terri-
toires ex-coloniaux déjà faites. Elle a reçu ce legs des Puissances et,
sur cette base, a commencé ses fonctions d'institution tutélaire
internationale. L'historique de cette période préparatoire est tout
à fait démonstratif.
La première démarche du Conseil de la Sociétédes Nations a été

- conformément à l'avis du délégué belge, M. Hymans, exprimé
dans un rapport que le Conseil approuva le 5 août 1920 - de de-
mander aux Principales Puissances alliées et associées :
a) de lui désigner lesÉtats auxquels elles avaient décidéd'attri-

buer les Mandats prévus par l'article 22 du Pacte; The fiurposes have already been mentioned in the foregoing
paragraph: they are the well-being and development of the manda-
ted peoples, so as to lead them on to higher stages of civilization
and to political independence. These purposes are sought to be
obtained through a complex legal system, which has fairly close

similarities-in -the views of writers--with the legal concepts of
guardianship, trust andmandate in privatelaw, and with the protec-
torate regime in public law. It seems to me that, without exagger-
ating these analogies, the rules governing other similar institutions
should be adapted to international mandates to the extent that is
reasonable, and that the sovereign nature of States permits.
In an objective sense the achievement of the purposes of the
Mandate is entrusted, as a fiduciary attribution of responsibility,
to an advanced nation in the capacity of Mandatory. The extent of
the Mandate differs according to the degree of development of the
people under tutelage, and a number of other circumstances (A,
B, and C Mandates), but in none of those categories does the Man-
datory acquire sovereigrity over the mandated people (Art. 22,
paras. 3 to 6).
As a real element of the system, mention must be made of the

physical territory inhabited by the people under mandate. But it
must be noted that this territory is inseparable from the population
and constitutes an instrument to be used in its service. The territory
is handed over to the Mandatory only temporarily for administra-
tive purposes, and in no category of mandate can this be taken to
signify a transfer of sovereignty.
Among the personal elements of an international mandate
mention must, in my view, first be made of the populatio~s under
mandate; secondly, of the League of Nations and the States of
which it is made up; and thirdly, the Mandatory State.
I do not here mention the Principal Allied and Associated Powers
which, before the foundation of the League of Nations, had directly
allocated the colonial possessions acquired as a result of the war to
certain States as Mandatories. This allocation, which clearly in-
volved legal acts, in reality represented a stage prior tothe operation

of the true international system created by the Covenant. The
League of Nations found the appointment of the Mandatories and
the handing over of the ex-colonial territories already accomplished.
It received this heritage from the Powers and, on that basis, began
its functions as an international tutelary institution.
The history of this preparatory period is quite conclusive.

The first step by the Council of the League of Nations was-in
accordance with the advice of the Belgian Representative, M.
Hymans, expressed in a report adopted by the Council on 5 AU~US~
1920--to request the Principal Allied and Associated Powers:

(a) to name the States to which they had decided to allocate the
Mandates provided for in Article- 22 of the Covenant ;353 AFF. S.-O. AFRICAIN (OPIN. INDIV. If.BUSTAMANTE)

b) de lui faire connaître les limites des territoires soumis à ces
Mandats;
c) de lui communiquer les termes et conditions des Mandats

qu'ellesproposaient àl'adoption du Conseilsuivant les prescriptions
de l'article 22.
Selon le mêmerapport Hymans, le Conseil - après que les
Puissances eurent répondu à ces questions - prendrait acte de la
désignation des mandataires, examinerait les projets de Mandats
qui lui avaient étécommuniquésafin de vérifier s'ilsétaient confor-
mes aux prescriptions de l'article ai et notifierait à chaque État,
désignécomme mandataire, qu'il était investi du Mandat l.

Ce fut à l'occasion de cette démarche que les Puissances ont fait
part au Conseil de l'attribution des Mandats aux pays qu'elles
avaient déjà désignéscomme mandataires depuis le 6 mai 1919 et
lui ont également envoyé les projets contenant les termes et
conditions de chaque Mandat. Parmi ces projets se trouvait celui
du Gouvernement de Grande-Bretagne, concerté directement avec
le Gouvernement de l'union sud-africaine, au sujet du Mandat du

Sud-Ouest africain. (Ce projet est connu sous le nom de (Projet
Balfour D~.) Le Conseil approuva le projet a\:ec des modifications
non essentielles 3, lesquelles ne furent jamais l'objet de réservesou
de réclamations ni de la part de la Grande-Bretagne ni de l'Union
sud-africaine.
Il faut mentionner ces détails pour mettre en valeur le fait
que la ((Déclaration de Mandat n du Sud-Ouest africain formulée
par le Conseilde la Société des Nations le 17 décembre1920-jointe

à plusieurs autres déclarations similaires - a été,dès son origine,
une convention bilatérale directe - y compris la clause compro-
missoire de l'article 7 - entre la Grande-Bretagne et 1'Cnion
sud-africaine ;convention qui a reçu confirmation du Conseilconfor-
mément à l'article 22, paragraphes 2 et 8, du Pacte de la Société
des Nations.
Après ces événementsde la période initiale des activités du
Conseil, l'intervention des Puissances alliées, en tant que telles,

s'efface- du moins ostensiblement - de la scènepolitico-juridique
où le nouveau système des Mandats va jouer son rôle. Lesdites
Puissances continuent, en tant que Membres de la Sociétédes
Nations, à prendre part aux délibérationsdu Conseil et de l'As-
semblée,mais toute action individuelle en leur qualité de Mandants

' A. Millot, ((Les Mandats internationaD,pp. 36 et 55, Paris,1924.Émile
Larose, éditeur.
Copie photostatiquedistribuée par le Greffe aux juges de la Cour en octobre
1962,contenant le document envoy6 de Genève par le Secrétariat des Nations
Unies sous le titre de((Mandate for German South West Africa-Submitted for
Approval (9596) ».
A. Millot, Œuvre citée,61.
38 S. W. SFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 353

(b) to inform it as to the frontiers of the territories to come
under those Mandates;
(4 to communicate to it the terms and the conditions of the

Mandates that they proposed should be adopted by the Council
following the prescriptions of Article 22.
According to the Hymans report, when the Powers had replied
to those questions the Council would take cognizance of the Man-
datory Power appointed and would examine the draft Mandates
communicated to it, in order to ascertain that they conformed to
the prescriptions of Article 22 of the Covenant; it would then

notify each State appointed as Mandatory that it was invested
with the Mandate l.
It was in connection with this approach that the Powers in-
formed the Council of the allocation of the Mandates to the countries
which they had already appointed as Mandatories on 6 May 1919,
and also sent it the drafts containing the terms and conditions of
each Mandate. These drafts included that which the Government

of Great Britain had directly agreed upon with the Government
of the Union of South Africa for the Mandate for South West
Africa. (This draft is known as the "Balfour Draft" 2.)The Council
approved it with some non-essential changes 3,which were never
the subject of reservations or complaints by either Great Britain
or the Union of South Africa.

These details have to be mentioned to bring out the fact that

the "Mandate Declaration" for South West Africa made by the
Council of the League of Nations on 17 December 1920-at the
same time as several other similar declarations-was in origin a
direct bilateral convention, including the compromissory clause in
Article 7, between Great Britain and the Union of South Africa.
This convention was confirmed by the Council in accordance with
Article 22, paragraphs 2 and 8, of the Covenant of the League of

Nations.
After these events in the initial period of activity of the Council,
the intervention of the Allied Powers as such, at least as far as
appearances are concerned, vanished from the legal and political
setting in which the new Mandates system was to operate. Those
Powers continued, as Members of the League of Nations, to take

part in debates inthe Council and the Assembly, but any individual
activity by them as Mandators or virtual sovereigns of the Man-

A. Millotop.citpp. 36 and jj.
Photostatcopy distributeto Judges of the Court by the Registry in October
1962, containinthe document received from the Secretof the United Nations
in Geneva entitled "Mandate for GerSouth West Africa--Submittefor Appro-
val (9596)".
-4hlilloop. cit., pp. 61. ou souverains virtuels des territoires sous Mandat disparaît.
D'autre part, l'article 22 du Pacte ne mentionne pas siles Puissances

conserveront à l'avenir le pouvoir de nommer - le cas échéant -
les mandataires ou si ce pouvoir doit êtreconféréà la Sociétédes
Nations par l'intermédiaire du Conseil. Pour ma part j'opterais
pour cette dernière présomption car, à mon avis, l'intention des
Puissances a été de renoncer définitivement aux ex-colonies.
D'ailleurs, la question n'a plus d'importance dès le moment où la
promulgation de la Charte des Nations Unies a été faite et dont
l'article 81 confère à l'organisation la faculté de faire les nomi-
nations.
Les populations sous Mandat constituent, à mon avis, un élément

essentiel du système parce que l'article 22 du Pacte leur a reconnu
divers droits, tels que la libertépersonnelle (prohibition de l'escla-
vage), les libertés de conscience et de religion, un traitement équi-
table de la part du mandataire et l'accès à l'instruction, au dévelop-
pement économique et à l'indépendance politique (autodétermina-
tion). On leur reconnaît donc la qualité de sujets de droit et c'est
pour cela que dans les accords de Mandat, lesdites populations sont
- je le crois- des parties possédant un intérêtjuridique direct,
bien que leur capacité limitée leur impose la présence d'un repré-
sentant ou tuteur.
Des dispositions du mêmearticle 22 et spécialement des para-

graphes 1, 2, 7, 8 et g, apparaît la mission tutélaire de la Société
des Nations, dont le Conseil est l'organe de règlement et de sur-
veillance des conditions du Mandat.
Le mandataire exerce sa fonction au nom ou comme délégué de
la SociétédesNations (art. 22, par. 2). Tant que, par l'intermédiaire
du Conseil, il incombe à la Sociétéde (statuer »sur le degréd'auto-
rité, de contrôle ou d'administration à exercer par le mandataire
(art. 22, par. 8), celui-ci donne son consentement et accepte la
fonction ourenonce (art. 22, par. 2).Donc, une des caractéristiques
du Mandat international est que le mandataire exerce cette fonction

tout à fait volontairement.
A mon avis, il n'existe pas de raison valable pour méconnaître
l'applicabilité des principes juridiques qui régissent certaines
institutions de droit privé dans le domaine du droit international.
Au cours de l'élaboration de la doctrine du droit on a eu recours
quelquefois - cela est bien connu - aux sources du droit civil
pour établir et configurer, selon le principe d'analogie, desnouveaux
systèmes destinés à réglerles relations juridiques entre les peuples.
Un de ces cas est celui de la tutelle internationale où la frappante
analogie avec la tutelle civile est perceptible dans l'article 22 du
Pacte de la Sociétédes Nations, ainsi qu'aux chapitres XI à XII1

de la Charte des Nations Unies. Si cela est vrai, je ne perçois pas
quel motif pourrait êtreinvoquépour ne pas reconnaître aux popu-
lations sous Mandat international le ((statut » de sujets de droit
et pour ne pas leur appliquer le principe de la nécessitéde leur S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 354

dated temtories disappeared. Article 22 of the Covenant does not
mention whether the Powers were to preserve for the future the
power to appoint Mandatories where necessary, or whether that
power was to be conferred on the League of Nations through the
Council. 1 would personally opt for the latter presumption since,
in my view, the intention of the Powers was to renouncefinally any
rights to the former colonies. Moreover, the question was no longer

of any importance from the time of the promulgation of the Charter
of the United Nations, Article 81 of which confers on the Organi-
zation the right to make such appointments.

The populations under Mandate are in my view an essential
element of the system, because Article 22 of the Covenant recog-
nized them as having various rights, such as persona1 freedom
(prohibition of slavery), freedom of conscience and religion, equitable
treatment by the Mandatory, and access to education, economic
development and political independence (self-determination).They
were thus recognized as having the capacity of legal persons, and

this is why in the Mandate agreements those populations are, as 1
believe, parties possessed of a direct legal interest, although their
limited capacity requires that they should have a representative
or guardian.
The tutelary function of the League of Nations, of which the
Council was the organ to define and supervise the conditions of the
Mandate, derives from the provisions of Article 22, particularly
paragraphs 1, 2,7, 8 and g.
The Mandatory exercises its function on behnlf ofor as delegated
by the League of Nations (Article 22, paragraph 2).While, through
the Council, it is for the League to "define" the degree of authority,

control or administration to be exercised by the Mandatory (Ar-
ticle 22, paragraph 8),the latter gives its consent and accepts or
refuses the function (Article 22,paragraph 2). Therefore one of the
features of an international Mandate is that the Mandatory per-
forms its function completely willingly.
In my view there is no valid reason for disregarding the applic-
ability of the legal principles governing certain private law in-
stitutions in the field of international law. During the elaboration
of legal doctrine recourse has sometimes been had-and this is
well known-to municipal legal sources to establish and shape, on
the principle of analogy, new systems to regulate the legal relation-

ships between peoples. One such case is that of international
tutelage, where the striking analogy with municipal guardianship
can be seen in Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations
and in Chapters XI-XII1 of the Charter of the United Nations.
If that is true, 1 cannot see any reason for not recognizing the
populations under international Mandate as having the status of
legal persons and for not applying to them the principle of the
necessity oftheir legal representation by "third parties" since thesereprésentation juridique par tiers », étant donné que ces popula-
tions ont des droits reconnus par le Pacte ainsi qu'une certaine

capacité, bien que diminuée, comme dans le cas de pupilles dans
le droit civil, et compte tenu qu'un pouvoir international organisé
(laSociétédes Nations) personnifiant la communauté internationale
prend en charge, conformément au Pacte lui-même,la tutelle et la
protection desdites populations. La fonction que le Pacte attribue
à la Société des Nations, comme une ((autorité tutélaire 1)bien
caractérisée de ces territoires, se démontre particulièrement dans

le texte de l'article 22, paragraphe z, selon lequel le mandataire
doit exercer ses fonctions «au nom de la Société desNations 1).
Il me semble que ce point a une importance vitale pour le juge-
ment de cette affaire parce que, en partant de la reconnaissance de
l'intérêtjuridique direct que les populations sous tutelle possèdent
dans le régime de leur Mandat et compte tenu de leur qualité de
sujets de droit - dont la Sociétédes Nations est l'autorité tutélaire
- de nombreuses conséquencesjuridiques en découlent.En premier

lieu, les populations sous Mandat sont, en fait, parties aux accords
de Mandat et représentéespar la Sociétédes Nations. Deuxième-
ment, l'obligation du mandataire de se subordonner au contrôle de
l'organisation tutélaire pour lui rendre compte de l'exercice du
Mandat est évidente. Enfin, il ressort de cette conception une
responsabilité conjointe et solidaire de tous les Membres de l'Orga-
nisation pour accomplir ((la mission sacrée ))et de veiller sur les

populations dont la destinée a étémise sous leur patronage. Une
despreuves de cette solidarité est le fait que l'article 22, paragraphe
2, du Pacte permet de conférer la qualité de mandataire à un quel-
conque des États Membres de la Société,ce qui veut dire que tous
doivent êtreprêtspour accepter la commission. De plus, le para-
phe 4 du mêmearticle prescrit l'audition des communautés ex-

membres de l'empire Ottoman pour exprimer leurs vŒux au sujet
de la désignation d'un mandataire choisi parmi les nations dévelop-
pées.Cette liaison solidairede tous les États Membres avec les pays
sous-développésest l'effet naturel de la ((mission sacrée ))dictée
par le Pacte. A la lumière de ces déductions, aucun étonnement
n'est explicablelorsque l'article 7 du Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain
confère aux Etats Membres le droit de mettre en application la

clause compromissoire vis-à-vis du mandataire. Ces États ne sont
pas des ((tiers États )) étrangers au Mandat, mais des associés
solidaires de la Sociététutélaire chargée de soigner la juste applica-
tion du Mandat.
C'est pour ces mêmesraisons qu'il n'est plus question, à mon
avis, de qualifier comme simples recommandations humanitaires 1)
ou (morales ))les dispositions du Pacte de la Sociétédes Nations et
celles de la Charte des Nations Unies dans lesquelles la ((mission

sacrée D des États Membres est décrite et établie à l'égard des
populations des territoires sous Ma.ndat ou sous tutelle. Cette maniè-
re de voir réduit indûment le champ d'activité et d'application du
40 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 355
peoples have the rights recognized by the Covenant together with
a certain capacity, although a diminished one, as in the case of

wards under municipal law, and having regard to the fact that an
organized international power (the League of Nations), personifying
the international community, takes over, in accordance with the
Covenant itself, the tutelage and protection of the populations
concerned. The function assigned by the Covenant to the League
of Nations, as a clearly characterized "tutelary authority" for such
territories, comes particularly clearly out of the text of paragraph2
of Article 22, according to which the Mandatory is required to
exercise its functions "on behalfof the League".
It seems to me that this point is of prime importance for the
decision in this case because, starting from the recognition of the
direct legalinterest which the populations under tutelage possess in

their mandate regime and having regard to their capacity as legal
persons-for whom the League of Nations is the tutelary authority
-many legal consequences flow therefrom. In the first place, the
populations under Mandate are in fact ,parties to the Mandate
agreements and represented by the League of Nations. Secondly,
the Mandatory's obligation to submit to the supervision of the
tutelary authority and account for the exercise of the Mandate is
obvious. Finally, from this concept it follows that al1the Members
of the Organization are jointly and severally responsible for the
fulfilment of the "sacred trust" and for watching over the popula-
tions whose destiny has been put under their aegis. Evidence of
this joint and several responsibility is the fact that paragraph 2
of Article 22 of the Covenant enables the capacity of Mandatory

to be conferred on any Member of the League whatever, which
means that al1must be prepared to accept such a mission. Moreover,
paragraph 4 of the same Article stipulates that the wishes of the
communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire must be
heard in the selection of the Mandatory from among the advanced
nations. This link of responsibility between al1the States Members
and the underdevelopedcountries is the natural effect of the "sacred
trust" prescribed by the Covenant. In the light of these inferences
it cannot be a matter for surprise if Article 7 of the Mandate for
South West Africa grants States Members the right to apply the
compromissory clause with regard to the Mandatory. These States
are not "third parties" outside the Mandate but jointly and

severally responsible associates of the tutelary organization en-
trusted with ensuring the proper application of the Mandate.
For these same reasons there can be no question, in my view, of
qualifying as mere "humanitarian" or "moral" recommendations
the provisions of the Covenant of the League of Nations and of the
Charter of the United Nations in which the "sacred trust" of the
States Members is described and established in respect of the pop-
lations of the Mandated or Trusteeship territories. This approach
unjustifiably reduces the scope for the operation and application

40 droit et maintient dans le domaine des simples options d'équitéce
qui constitue en réalitédes droits bien caractériséset fécondsen
conséquences sociales.La « mission sacrée » n'a pas seulement trait
à des devoirs d'ordre moral mais aussi à des obligations juridiques
qui sont corrélatives aux droits reconnus aux habitants de cesterri-
toires-là par les articles22 du Pacte et 76 de la Charte. Par ces dis-
positions laloiinternationalea revendiquépour cesgensla qualité de
personneshumaines et de sujets de droit. C'est le mêmeprocessus
de progrès juridique en vertu duquell'abolition de l'esclavage a été
préalablement déclarée et qui, par la suite, a abouti àlapromulgation

de la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme l. Par une intéressante
coïncidence tous les droits énoncésaux articles 22 et 76, en faveur
des populations sous-développées,sont consignés - en dehors de
beaucoup d'autres - dans cette Déclaration.

Notes caractéristiquesduMandat international

De tout ce qui a été ditjusqu'ici, on peut déduire que le système
de Mandat institué par le Pacte de la Société des Nations a les

notes caractéristiques suivantes :
I. Le Mandat est une institution complexe qui - quant au fond
- présente des similitudes avec d'autres figures juridiques de droit
privéet public mais qui - en substance - constitue une'forme de
tutelle où certaines populations ex-coloniales, compte, tenu de leur
incapacité partielle, font l'objet de la protection des Etats civilisés

réunisdans une entité - la Sociétédes Nations - qui représente,
en fait, la communauté internationale.
2. Le Mandat, quant à sa forme externe et sous un aspect
général,estuneinstitution juridique incorporée àla loi internationale
(art. 22 du Pacte de la Sociétédes Nations). Celle-ciétablit tous les
caractéristiques, organes, conditions et garanties du système et,

dans ce sens,le Mandat fait partie intégrante du traité de Versailles,
auquel le Pacte est inclus. Pour chaque cas particulier, le Mandat
ajoute certaines données et conditions spécialesqui font référenceà
un territoire et à un mandataire déterminés; et l'instrument dans
lequel ces particularités sont statuées reçoit le nom de «Déclaration
de Mandat »ou « Accord de Mandat D.Les accords ou conventions
de Mandat constituent la phase exécutive ultérieure, l'aspect con-
cret ou objectif du système, son application à un cas particulier.
Maisaucune dislocationne peut êtrefaiteentre l'accordet le système :

en fait, le premier s'inspire des principes du second et ces principes
font partie intégrante de l'accord. Le système et l'accord fonction-
nent comme un ensemble inséparable dont les éléments, réciproque-
ment conditionnés, forment une unité organique.

Ass. gén. Documents officiel3mesess., Résolutions, Part.21,septembre1
12décembre 1948.
41 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE)
356
of the law, and confines within an ambit of mere equitable choice
what in fact are clearly characterized rights pregnant with social
implications. The "sacred trust" relates not only to duties of a

moral order but also to legal obligations correlative with the rights
recognized as belonging to the inhabitants of those territories by
Articles22 of the Covenant and 76 of the Charter. By these provi-
sions international law claimed for such peoples the quality of
human and legal persons. This is the same process of legal advance
under which the abolition of slavery was first proclaimed and which
then led to the promulgation of the Declaration of Human Rights 1.
By an interesting coincidence aZZthe rights set forth in Articles

22 and 76 for the benefit of the under-developed populations are
embodied-as well as many others-in this Declaration.

Characteristicfeatures of the international Mandate

From al1 of the foregoing, it may be inferred that the Mandate
System instituted by the Covenant of the League of Nations has
the following characteristic features:

I. The Mandate is a complex institution which-at base-has
similarities with other private and public law concepts but which-
in suBstance-constitutes a form of tutelage in which certain ex-
colonial populations, having regard to their partial incapacity,
are the subject of protection by the civilized States assembled in
a body-the League of Nations-which in fact represents the in-

ternational community.
2. The Mandate, in respect of its external forms and general
a,spect, is a legal institution incorporated in international legislation
(Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations). The latter
prescribes al1 the features, organs, conditions of and securities for

the system and, in this sense, the Mandate is an integral part of the
Treaty of Versailles, in which the Covenant is included. For each
particular case the Mandate adds certain special details and condi-
tions relating to a specific territory and Mandatory. The instru-
ment in which these details are defined is given the name of "Man-
date Declaration" or "Mandate Agreement". The Mandate agree-
ments or conventions constitute a subsequent phase of implementa-
tion, and represent the concrete or objective aspect of the system,

its application to a particular case. But there can be no disjoining
of the agreementfrom the system: the former takes its inspiration
from the principles of the latter, and those principles are an integral
part of the agreement. The system and the agreement operate as
an inseparable whole whose elements, which are conditional one
upon the other, form an organic unit.

' GeneralAssembly-, Oscial Documents, 3rd Session, ResolutionsPart 1,
21 September-12 December 1948.
41 3. La fonction de mandataire est une res$onsabilitéplutôt qu'un
droit (art. 22,par. 2,du Pacte). Cette responsabilité est plus lourde
dans la mesure où la population sous Mandat est moins développée,
comme dans les cas du Mandat C (art. 22, par. 6).C'est précisément
pour cela que l'acceptation du Mandat doit êtrevolontaire de la part
du mandataire (art. 22, par. 2): c'est à lui de déclinerla mission

s'il ne peut pas en supporter la charge. Ici apparaît une des notes les
plus caractéristiques du système: le mandataire qui donne son
acceptation la donne non pas en tant que partie intéresséeaux
perspectives du contrat mais comme un collaborateur de la commu-
nauté internationale dans la mission de civiliser certaine population
sous-développée. C'estun des cas où l'apparence bilatérale de l'ac-
cord ne cherche ni ne suppose un équilibre proprement dit entre les
obligations et les droits des parties. La figure juridique est plus
proche de celle des contrats unilatéraux au droit privé, plutôt que
de celle des contrats synallagmatiques. Les droits qui sont accordés

au mandataire ne servent qu'à mieux accomplir ses obligations en-
vers le pays sous tutelle. Le concept de l'obligation prédomine. Une
foisle Mandat accepté, la mission du mandataire devient une niission
qui, sur une échelle variable, doit toujours aller au-delà de ses
intérêtsparticuliers et servir, de préférence, lesintérêtsde la popu-
lation sous tutelle. Les cas du Mandat (C )ne constituent pas une
exception à cette règle. Il est vrai que le mandataire y dispose dc
pouvoirs plus importants; il peut mêmelégitimement atteindre de
plus hauts avantages économiques par l'exploitation du territoire
ex-colonial; mais quant à lui - le mandataire -, ce territoire est

res aEienacomme dans tous les Mandats, et ses habitants sont des
sujets de droit qui auront un jour la capacité de décider d'eux-
mêmes.

4. Le Mandat international est, par sa nature même,temporaire
et de durée indéterminée. Cette durée est limitéepar l'accomplisse-
ment du but essentiel du Mandat, à savoir par la terminaison du
processus de développement du peuple sous tutelle jusqu'à la pleine
acquisition de sa capacité humaine et politique. Il s'ensuit que tout
accord de Mandat reste en vigueur jusqu'au moment où le peuple a
atteint le (desideratum 1)de l'organisation de sa structure nationale.

5. Le corollaire des deux paragraphes qui précèdent est que le
Mandat international, au moyen duquel la tutelle est exercée,
n'implique pas et ne peut jamais impliquer un transfert de souve-
raineté en fayeur du mandataire ou une annexion du territoire sous
Mandat à 1'Etat tutélaire. Ce n'est qu'à la fin du Mandat que le
peuple peut choisirlui-mêmeentre l'indépendanceou l'incorporation

à l'État administrateur. Il est vrai que le Mandat C (art. 22, alin.6,
du Pacte) rapproche plus étroitement le territoire sous tutelle du
mandataire par le fait que celui-ci applique ses propres lois sur 3. The function of the Mandatory is a resPonsibility rather
than a right (Article 22, paragraph z of the Covenant). The less

developed the population under Mandate, the heavier the respon-
sibility of that Mandatory, asin the case of CMandates (Article 22,
paragraph 6).It is for this very reason that the Mandatory must
be willing to accept the Mandate (Article 22, paragraph z); it is
for the Mandatory to refuse the trust if it cannot bear the burden.
This is one of the most characteristic features of the system:
the Mandatory signifies its acceptance not as a party with an
interest in the prospects flowing from the contract but as a colla-
borator of the international community in its trust of civilizing
a certain under-developed people. It is one of those cases where
the bilateral aspect of the agreement does not seek to establish
or suppose any real balance between the obligations and the rights
of the parties. The legal concept is nearer that of the unilateral
contracts of private law rather than that of synallagmatic contracts.
The rights granted to the Mandatory are for the purpose only
of the better fulfilment of its obligations towards the country
under tutelage. The concept of obligation predominates. Once
the Mandate has been accepted, the mission of the Mandatory

becomes a mission which, to a varying extent, must always surpass
the Mandatory's own interests and, first and foremost, serve the
interests of the population under tutelage. The C Mandates do
not constitute an exception to this rule. It is true that under them
the Mandatory enjoys wider powers and may even 1egitimateIy
obtain greater economic benefits by the use made of the ex-colo-
nia1territory; but as far as the Mandatory is concerned, the terri-
tory is res aliena as in al1 the Mandates, and its inhabitants are
legal persons who will one day have the capacity to decide for
themselves.

4. An international Mandate is, by its'very nature, temporary
and of indeterminate duration. Its duration is limited by the ful-
filment of the essential purpose of the Mandate, that is to say,
by the completion of the process of development ofthe people under
tutelage through their acquisition of full human and political
capacity. It follows that any Mandate agreement remains in force
until such time as the people concerned attains the desired degree
of structural organization as a nation.

5. The corollary to the two foregoing paragraphs is that an
international Mandate, through which tutelage is exercised, does
not and can never imply a transfer of sovereignty to the Mandatory
or the annexation of the mandated territory by the tutelary State.
It is only at the conclusion of the Mandate that the people can
choose for itself between independence or incorporation in the ad-
ministering State. It is true that C Mandates (Article 22, para-
graph 6 of the Covenant) brought the mandated territory into a
closer relationship with the Mandatory by the fact that the latterledit territoire; mais cette sorte d'extension du pouvoir législatif
du mandataire n'implique pas, de sa part, un acte de souveraineté,
mais simplement l'application d'une autorisation administrative
préalable contenue dans l'accord de Mandat pour adapter le terri-
toire à la législationd'un pays plus développé.

6. Le droit de contrôle sur l'exercice du Mandat par l'organisme
tutélaire est une norme constitutionnelle du système de Mandats,
expressément prévueàl'article 22 du Pacte (alin. 7, 8 et9). Ce droit
ne représente pas seulement une formalité adjective ou de simple
procédure, mais un élément essentielduquel dépendent la fidélité
aux buts du système et l'efficacité de sonapplication. On ne doit pas
oublier que dans les accords de Mandat, une des parties, le béné-
ficiaire de la tutelle, n'a pas - compte tenu de son manque de
capacité légale - la possibilité de discuter à des conditions égales
avec l'autre partie, le mandataire. Donc, le seul moyen de garantir
les droits du peuple sous Mandat est celui de confier le contrôle des

actes du mandataire à l'entité mandante ou tutélaire qui, d'uncôté,
représente le pupille et, de l'autre, personnifie l'intérêtdes Etats
mondiaux réunis en association. L'absence d'un organe de contrôle
équivaudrait àl'exercice unilatéral et arbitraire du Mandat et tom-
berait fatalement à l'annexion. En conséquence, un Mandat ainsi
mutilé serait un Mandat dénaturé, essentiellement différent de
celui qui est prévu à l'articl22 du Pacte.

7. Une autre particularité du système de Mandats est la trans-
cendance de ses effets sur tous les Etats Membres de la Sociétédes
Nations comme une conséquencede la (mission sacrée de civilisa-
tion » que l'article22 du Pacte leur a conféré.Cet aspect transcen-
dant se traduit par des responsabilités et obligations de protection
envers les populations sous Mandat, soit dans le domaine interne ou
administratif de la Société,soit dans le domaine judiciaire lorsque
les accords de Mandat contiennent la clause compromissoire.

Les accordsde Mandat

En essayant de rechercher la nature des accords de Mandat, on
ne doit pas hésitersur le fait qu'ils constituent des actes où l'élément
conventionnel se fait présent. Il y a des volontés en jeu. Je ne ferai
pas état du « pré-accord » par lequel une ou plusieurs Puissances
confient à un autre Etat le Mandat d'un territoire: c'est une
question étrangère à la sphère de la Sociétédes Nations. Mais ce

« pré-accord 1étant venu entre les mains de la Société desNations,
la formulation de l'accord va commencer: on présuppose, à
priori, l'acceptation du mandataire parce qu'il a déjàexprimécette
acceptation directement à la Puissance intéressée. Sicette Puis-
sance a également défini lesconditions du Mandat, il ne reste plus
43 S.W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 358 .

applied its own laws to the temtory in question; but this exten-
sion of the legislative powers of the Mandatory does not imply
an act of sovereignty on its part, but simply the application of a
prior authorization with regard to administration contained in the
Mandate agreement, with a view to adapting the territory to the
legislation of a more advanced country.
6. The tutelary organization's right of supervision over the
exercise of the Mandate is an institutional rule in the Mandates
System, expressly provided for by Article 22 of the Covenant

(paragraphs 7, 8 and 9). This right is not just an adjectival or
procedural formality, but an essential element on which adherence
to the purposes of the system and the efficiency of its application
depend. It should not be forgotten that in the Mandate agreements
one of the parties, the beneficiaryunder tutelage, has no possibility
of entering into discussion with the other party, the Mandatory,
on an equal footing, having regard to its lack of legal capacity.
Thus, the only way of safeguarding the rights of the people under
Mandate is to entrust the supervision of the Mandatory's acts to
the Mandator or tutelary organization which, on the one hand,
represents the ward and, on the other, personifies the interest of
the States of the world assembled in an association. Absence of a
supervisoryorgan would be tantamount to unilateral and arbitrary

exercise of the Mandate and would inevitably lead to annexation.
A Mandate so mutilated would be of an essentially different nature
from that provided for in Article 22 of the Covenant.
7. Another special feature of the Mandates System is that its
effects extend to al1 the States Members of the League of Nations
as a consequence of the "sacred trust of civilization" conferred on
them by Article 22 of the Covenant. This extension is reflected in
responsibilities and obligationswith a view to the protection of the
peoples under Mandate, either in the interna1 or administrative
activities of the League, or on the judicial plane when the Mandate

agreements contain a compromissory clause.

The Mandate Agreements

In seeking to establish the nature of the Mandate agreements
there should be no hesitation over the fact that they areinstruments
in which a contractual element is present. There is a combination
of intentions. 1 shall not deal with the "pre-agreement" by which

one or more Powers allocated the Mandate for a particular territory
to another State: this is a matter outside the League of Nations.
But once this "pre-agreement" came into the hands of the League
of Nations, the formulation of the agreement began: the Manda-
tory's acceptance is a firioripresupposed because it had already
expressed that acceptance directly to the Power concerned. If
that Power had also defined the conditions of the Mandate, there
43 qu'à obtenirla confirmation du Conseilde la Sociétét,out en faisant
état que le Mandat sera exercé par le mandataire au nom de la
Sociétédes Nations. L'accord est ainsi conclu. Mais si le degré
d'autorité, de contrôle ou d'administration à exercer par le man-
dataire n'a pas fait l'objet d'une convention directe entre la Puis-
sance et l'État Membre désigné commemandataire, le Conseil

statuera expressément sur ces points (art. 22, par. 8, du Pacte).
Voici la «Déclaration de Mandat 1)que, dans le langage courant,
on a toujours et partout connue sousle nom d'aaccord de Mandat ».
L'acceptation de cette Déclaration par le mandataire pourrait
certainement êtreexpresse, mais elle a toujours étéimplicite non
pas seulement parce que la Déclaration était communiquée ou
notifiée à tous les Etats Membres - le mandataire compris et

sans objection de sa part - mais surtout parce que, en fait, l'exer-
cice mêmedu Mandat était la preuve objective de l'accord du
mandataire. On peut ajouter que cette apparence presque unilaté-
rale de la ((Déclaration ))du Conseil n'a rien de surprenant, compte
tenu de la nature - déjà expliquée - de l'institution du Mandat
international. Plus qu'un contrat, il est unstatut dont les conditions
basiques sont données d'avance par l'article 22 du Pacte et à

l'égard desquelles il ne reste au mandataire que le dilemme de
l'acceptation ou du renoncement. La partie strictement convention-
nelle de 1'«accord de Mandat » ne se réfèrequ'aux détails concrets
de chaque cas à propos du degréd'autorité du mandataire et des
conditions auxquelles son administration doit se conformer. Mais
il va sans dire que, dans ce cas, la cDéclaration ))n'est que le
résultat d'une entente préalable entre le Conseil et le mandataire.

On doit ajouter'qu'en ce qui concerne ces matières, le Conseil ne
pactise pas avec le mandataire: conformément aux termes de
l'article 22, paragraphe 8, du Pacte, le Conseil « statue ))et c'est
au mandataire d'en accepter ou non la responsabilité. Il faut le
répéter,le Mandat international est, avant tout, une responsabilité
et non pas un échangede prestations équivalentes comme dans les
contrats bilatéraux courants.
Aucune indication n'est donnée à l'article22, paragraphe 8, du

Pacte, permettant de déduire que les règlements statués par le
Conseil pour établir les conditions de chaque Mandat devaient
prendre la forme d'un traité solennel. En fait, la norme coutumière
adoptée dans le cas du Sud-Ouest africain, et dans d'autres cas, a
étécelle de la Déclaration du Conseil dont allusion a étéfaite. En
outre,la partie finale du texte de ce genre de déclaration du Conseil
dispose que l'original soit déposéaux archives de la Société des

Nations, après l'envoi des copies certifiées au Secrétariat et aux
Puissances signataires du traité de Versailles. Considérant que ladite
<(Déclaration ))du Conseil est un acte officielet public de la Société
des Nations, cet acte - à mon avis - implique ou renferme en lui-
mêmel'enregistrement formel du Mandat auquel il fait référence,
sans qu'aucune autre formalité ne soit requise. Cette forme d'en-remained only to obtain the confirmation of the Council of the
League and to specify that the Mandate would be exercised by the
Mandatory on behalf of the League of Nations. The agreement was
then concluded. But if the degree of authority, control or admini-
stration to be exercised by the Mandatory had not been the subject

of direct agreement between the Power and the State Member
appointed as Mandatory, the Council was to define such matters
explicitly (Article22, paragraph 8,of the Covenant). This was the
"Mandate Declaration", which has currently always and every-
where been known as the "Mandate agreement". Acceptance of
this Declaration by the Mandatory might certainly be explicit,
but it was always implied, not only because the Declaration was
transmitted or notified to al1 the States Members-including the
Mandatory and without objection on its part-but, above all,
because in fact the very exercise of the Mandate was objective evi-
dence of the agreement of the Mandatory. It may be added that
this almost unilateral appearance of the Council's "Declaration"
is not in any way surprising, having regard to the nature-explained
above-of the international Mandate institution. More than a

contract, it is a statute the basic conditions of which are laid down
in advance by Article 22 of the Covenant; in regard to these, the
Mandatory has only the alternatives of acceptance or refusal.
The strictly contractual part of the "Mandate agreement" is
represented only by the practical details in each case relating to
the Mandatory's degree of authority and the conditions with which
its administration must comply. But it is self-evident that in this
case the "Declaration" is but the result of a prior understanding be-
tween the Council and the Mandatory. It should be added that as
regards these details, the Council does not negotiate with the Man-
datory :under paragraph 8of Article22 of the Covenant, theCouncil
"defines" and it is for the Mandatory to accept the responsibility
or not. It must be reiterated that an international Mandate is first
and foremost a responsibility and not an exchange of balancing

services as in ordinary bilateral contracts.
There is no indication inparagraph 8of Article22 of the Covenant
from which it may be inferred that the rules defined by the Council
to establish the conditions of each Mandate were to take the form
of a solemn treaty. In fact, the customary rule adopted in the case
of South West Africa, and in other cases, was that it took the form
of a Declaration by the Council, as referred to above. Moreover,
the final terms of thetext of this kind of declaration by the Council
provides for deposit of the original in the archives of the League
of Nations, after forwarding of certified copies to the secretariat
and to the Powers Signatories of the Treaty of Versailles. Con-
sidering that the "Declaration" by the Council is an officia1public
instrument of the League of Nations, in my view that instrument

implies or contains of itself the forma1 registration of the Mandate
to which it refers, without need of any other formality. This
44 registrement et de publicité des instruments déclaratifs du Conseil
à l'égard des accords de Mandat signale une procédure spéciale
un peu différente - mais tout aussi efficace - de celle que, en ce
qui concerne les traités, prescrit l'artic18 du Pacte. D'autre part,
étant donné que le système des Mandats internationaux est une
institution touchant l'administration interne de la Société des
Nations, il ne paraît nullement étrange que la forme solennelle ait
étéécartée.

La clausecomfiromissoire

Dans les textes des (Déclarations » ou ((accords de Mandat n,
statués aussitôt après la création de la Société des Nations, on
remarque l'existence d'une clause qui ne figure pas dans le texte de
l'article22 du Pacte, bien qu'il faille la considérer, selon l'esprit
dudit Pacte, comme une garantie indispensable du système. Je me
réfèreà la cclause compromissoire » en vertu de laquelle le man-
dataire (accepte de soumettre àla juridiction obligatoirede la Cour
permanente de Justice internationale, les différends - quels qu'ils
soient - relatifs à l'interprétation ou à l'application des dispo-

sitions du Mandat qui s'élèvententre lui et un autre Membre de
la Sociétédes Nations et qui ne sont pas susceptibles d'être réglés
par voie de négociations ».(Voir, à titre d'exemple, l'article 7 de
l'accord de Mandat de la République sud-africaine sur le territoire
du Sud-Ouest africain, en date du 17 décembre 1920, mémoiredu
Libéria, annexe B, p. 172.) Etant donnéson contenu, l'article 7 du
Mandat du 17 décembre 1920 n'étaitqu'une stipulation équivalente
à la «clause facultative 1)inséréedans l'article 36, paragraphe 2,
du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, ce

Statut ayant étératifiépar l'Union sud-africaine neuf mois après,
le 4 août 1921 l.
D'ailleurs, cette stipulation de l'article7 n'est que l'application
de I'article 14 du Pacte de la Sociétédes Nations qui établit le
recours à la Cour permanente comme le moyen définitif,bien que
volontaire, de trancher les différends internationaux entre États.
Dans ce cas, l'appel à la compétence judiciaire était convenable et
mêmeurgent, compte tenu des possibles frictions qui pourraient
se produire entre l'organisme tutélaire ou ses Membres et le man-

dataire. Un régimedecontrôle, comme celuidu systèmedesMandats
où l'entitécontrôlée est un État souverain, est susceptible de créer
des situations et de susciter descontroversesextrêmement délicates,
la solution de droit restant la seule adéquate. D'ailleurs, l'insertion
de cette clause dans l'accord de Mandat ne faisait qu'exaucer les

1 Cour permanente de Justice internationa5me rapport annuel 1928-1929,
p.371.Collection detextes régissant la compétence de la Cour permanente, série D,
no 6,p. 18.
45 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 360

form of registration of and publicity for the declaratory instruments
of the Council in respect of the Mandate agreements constitutes
a specialproceduresomewhatdifferent from but just as effective as
that prescribed in Article 18 of the Covenant fortreaties. Moreover,
as the International Mandates system is an institution related
to the interna1 administration of the League of Nations, it is not

at al1odd that solemn forms should not have been used.

The Compromissory Clame

The texts of the "Declarations" or "Mandate agreements"
which were issued immediately after the establishment of the
League of Nations contain a clause which does .not appear in the
text of Article 22 of the Covenant, although it must in the spirit
of the Covenant be regarded as a neceçsary security for the system.
This is the "compromissory clause" under which the Mandatory

"agrees that, if any dispute whatever should arise between the
Mandatory and another Member of the League of Nations relating
to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the
Mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by negotiation, shall
be submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice".
(Seefor example Article 7 of the Mandate for German South West
Africa, dated 17 December 1920, Memorial submitted by Liberia,
annex B, page 172.) Having regard to its content, Article 7 of the
Mandate of 17 December 1920 was but a provision equivalent to
the "optional clause" in Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of

the Permanent Court of International Justice, this Statute having
been ratified by the Union of South Africa nine months later, on
4 August 1921 l.

Moreover this provision of Article 7 is but the implementation
of Article 14of the Covenant of the League of Nations which estab-
lished recourse to the Permanent Court as the final, although
voluntary, means of settling international disputes between States.
In this case, recourse to judicial jurisdiction was desirable and even

urgent, having regard to possible frictions which might arise
between the tutelary body or its members and the Mandatory.
A supervisory regime, like that of the Mandate System where the
supervised entity is a sovereign State, can create situations and
cause controversies of an extremely delicate nature, settlement by
law being the only appropriate form. Moreover, the insertion of this
clause in the Mandate agreement merely satisfied the wishes expres-

Fifth Annual Report of the PermaneCourt of International Jus(1928-
1929)page 390.Collection of texts governing the jurisdiction of the Court, P.C.I.J..
Series D, No6,page 18.
45vŒux exprimésdans l'article 14du Pacte en faveur de la juridiction
de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale. De plus, cette
garantie du recours à la compétencejudiciaire est universellement
admise pour réglertoutes sortes de situations litigieuses ou d'inter-
prétation légale,sans que son inclusion dans un accord de Mandat
n'implique aucune anomalie.
Ces considérationspermettent de conclure que la clause compro-
missoire est- autant que lereste de l'accord -une des stipulations

plus importantes du système des Mandats.
On a discuté dans le cours de la procédure pour savoir si la
iuridiction de la Cour internationale constitue ou non, dans le
régime des Mandats, une forme de contrôle sur l'exercice des
fonctions du mandataire ou - plus exactement - un élément
faisant partie intégrante du système de contrôle des Mandats dont
une autre phase est le contrôle administratif assignéau Conseil de
la Sociétédes Nations.
Il est évident qu'une décision dela Cour dans un cas de ce genre
implique, en fait,une forme de contrôle des actes du mandataire,
dans le sens qu'elle produit des effets régulateurs visant à fixer le
vrai concept et la vraie portée de l'institution légaledu Mandat et
à corriger les possibles déviations d'une partie quelconque quant à
son application. Mais on ne peut pas dire que la Cour soit un organe
de contrôle de l'exercice des Mandats parce que sa mission est
strictement juridique et non pas administrative ou politique et
parce qu'un tribunal ne pourrait pas prendre de sa propre initiative

des mesures de contrôle, ses fonctions n'étant exercées qu'à la
demande des parties, ce qui annule virtuellement l'efficacité du
contrôle. A mon avis, la vraie signification de la clause de recours
à la Cour est celle d'une garantie dont bénéficient les deux parties
en leur assurant une juste application du Mandat, ainsi qu'un
correct exercice des contrôles.
Les accords de Mandat contenant dans leur texte la clause
compromissoire, introduisent dans la convention un élément per-
sonnel nouveau: les «autres États Membres de la Sociétédes
Nations D.C'est à eux qu'il appartient de faire partie de la contro-
verse judiciaire, vis-à-vis de l'État mandataire. Étant donné que
cette stipulation a soulevé des discussions et des doutes, quant à
son interprétation, il me semble nécessaired'étudierle point.
J'ai déjàdit que la nouvelle institution du Mandat international,
incorporéeau Pacte comme une conquête juridique et baséesur le
concept de la tutelle, intéressepar ses buts de droit humain chacun
des Membres de la Société des Nations et, en général,toute la
communauté internationale dont ladite Sociétéétait, sans doute,

la première expression organisée. Au cas où un différend se pro-
duirait entre la Sociétéet un mandataire, tous les États Membres
auraient le mêmeintérêtjuridique que la Sociétéau différend
soulevé,et seraient affectésau même degrépar les infractions des
accords, un ou plusieurs de ces États ayant le droit d'ester en
46sed in Article 14 of the Covenarit in favour of the jurisdiction of
the Permanent Court of International Justice. Again, this safe-

guard of recourse to judicial jurisdiction is universally accepted
for the settlement of all sorts of litigious situations or situations
subject to legal interpretation, so that its inclusion in a Mandate
agreement does not involve any anomaly.
From the foregoing considerations it may be concluded that the
compromissory clause,just as much asthe rest of the agreement, is
one of the major provisions of the Mandate system.
During the proceedings there has been discussion as to whether,
in the Mandate regime, the jurisdiction of the International Court
constitutes a form of supervision over the Mandatory's exercise of
its functions or, more correctly, an integral part of the Mandate
supervisionmachinery, another phase of which isthe administrative
supervision for which the Council of the League of Nations was
made responsible.
It is clear that a decision by the Court in a case of thjs kind
implies, in facta form of supervision over the acts ofthe Mandatory,

in the sense that it acts as a regulator to define the true meaning
and scope of the Mandate as a legal institution and to correct possible
deviations by any party in its application. But it cannot be said'
that the Court is a supervisory organ with regard to the exercise
of the Mandates, because its function is strictly legal and not ad-
ministrative or political, and because a Court cannot on its own
initiative institute supervisory measures, its functions being
exercised only at the request of the parties, which virtually negatives
the effectiveness of the supervision. In my view, the true signi-
ficance of the clause providing for recourse to the Court is that of
a secz~ritfor bothpartiesas to the proper application of the Mandate
and the proper exercise of supervision.

The Mandate agreements which contain the compromissory
clause introduce a new persona1 element into the convention:
that of "another Member of the League of Nations". It is for the
other Members of the League of Nations to act as a party in the

judicial controversy, against the Mandatory State. Since this
provision has given rise to discussion and to doubt as to its inter-
pretation, it seems to me necessary to go into the point.
1 have already said that the new international Mandate institu-
tion, incorporated into the Covenant as a legal advance and based
on the concept of tutelage, was one in which, by reason of itshuman
rights objectives, each of the Members of the League of Nations
and, in general, the entire international community of which the
League was probably the first organized expression, had an interest.
Should a dispute arise between Che League and a Mandatory, al1
the States Memberswould have the same legal interest as the League
in the dispute, and would be affected to the same extent by viola-
tions of the agreements, one or more of those States having the

46 justice pour défendre la cause commune. Mais il y a en plus une
autre raison que, évidemment, le Conseil de la Société des Nations

a eu le soinde prévoir dansla clause compromissoire. Conformément
aux articles 34 et 35 du Statut de la Cour permanente, seuls les
États et les États Membres de la Sociétéont qualité pour se pré-
senter devant la Cour en ce qui concerne les affaires contentieuses.
La Société,qui n'est pas un État, ne peut que demander des « avis
consultatifs ))(art. 14 du Pacte). Par conséquent, dans le cas d'une
divergence insoluble avec le mandataire, l'intervention des États
Membres, éléments solidaires de la Société,comme parties à la
procédure judiciaire, devenait indispensable.

La dissolutiondela Société deN sations et le nouveau régimedetutelle
de la ChartedeSan Francisco

Évidemment, les dispositions du Pacte qui avaient institué le
système international des Mandats n'envisagèrent pas l'hypothèse
d'une dissolution de la Sociétédes Nations et ne prévoyèrent pas
non plus ses effets possibles sur les accords de Mandat en vigueur.
Mais, en fait, la dissolution s'est produite au mois d'avril 1946 et le
problème se pose de savoir si cet événementa eu pour conséquence
la caducité totale ou partielle des Mandats institués conformément
au Pacte de 1919.
Cette question conduit à rappeler, une fois de plus, la nature
du système des Mandats, ainsi que le rôle des parties aux accords
individuels établis pour chaque cas.
Dans les accords de Mandats, les peuples sous tutelle, frappés

d'incapacité partielle, étaient représentéspar la Sociétédes Nations
qui devait assumer la protection de leurs intérêts.Donc, la question
est de savoir si la disparition d'un tuteur dans le domaine inter-
national suffit pour altérer ou rendre caduque la survivance des
accords qu'il avait conclus en faveur du pays sous Mandat avec des
États tiers agissant comme mandataires.
Je ne trouve aucune justification à cette caducité. Après la
dissolution, les deux parties principalement intéressées - le pays
sous tutelle et le mandataire - restaient les mêmes;et les buts du
Mandat devaient continuer leur processus d'exécution, car les po-
pulations sous tutelle avaient encore besoin, de façon pressante,
d'êtreassistées et guidées. Donc, si les deux parties survivaient
comme telles et si les buts de l'accord étaient encore en voie d'exé-

cution quand la Sociétéa étédissoute, la continuation du Mandat
paraît indiscutable. Il faut souligner qu'en principe la durée d'un
Mandat international s'étend sur une périodeindéfinieet fréquem-
ment longue, jusqu'au moment où la capacité totale - morale,
civique et politique - du sujet sous tutelle ait étéréalisée.Le point
de savoir si la disparition de la Société desNations, comme entiti:right to appear before the Court to defend the common cause.
But there is a further reason which obviously the Council of the

League of Nations took care to provide for in the compromissory
clause. Under Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute of the Permanent
Court, only States and the States Members of the League could
be parties in cases before the Court in contentious proceedings.
The League, which was not a State, could only request "advisory
opinions" (Article 14 of the Covenant) ; thus should an insoluble
difference of view with the Mandatory arise, the intervention of
the States Members, the jointly responsible constituent elements
of the League, became indispensable as parties to the proceedings.

The dissolution of the Leagzseof Nations and the new
Trusteeship System of theSan Francisco Charter

Obviously the provisions of the Covenant which had instituted
the international Mandates System did not envisage the possibility
of the dissolution of the League of Nations and did not foresee
its possible effects on the Mandate agreements in force. In fact,

however, the dissolution occurred in April 1946 and the question
arises whether that event had as a consequence the total or partial
lapsing of the Mandates instituted in accordance with the Covenant
of 1919.
In connection with this question, it is desirable, once more, to
recall the nature of the Mandates system and the role of the parties
to the separate agreements concluded in each case.
In the Mandate agreements, the peoples under tutelage, lacking
a full capacity, were represented by the League of Nations which
was to assume the protection of their interests. The question there-
fore is whether the disappearance of a guardian on the international
plane is sufficient to alter or to cause to lapse agreements which
it had concluded in favour of the country under Mandate with
third States acting as Mandatories.
1 can find no justification for this argument concerning lapse.
After the dissolution, the two parties principally concerned-the
country under tutelage and the Mandatory-remained the same;

andthe purposes of the Mandate had to continue to be implemented,
forthe peoples under tutelage still had an urgent need of assistance
and guidance. If, therefore, the two parties survived as such and
if the purposes of the agreement were still in course of implemen-
tation when the League was dissolved, the continuance of the Man-
date would appear to be beyond question. It has to be stressed that
in principle the duration of an international Mandate extends over
an indefinite and frequently long period, up to the moment when
the full'capacity-moral, civic and political-of the subject under
tutelage is achieved. The question whether the disappearance of tutélaire, soulève un obstacle insurmontable pour la survivance du
Mandat, reste à examiner.

Cette allégation repose sur la prémisse que la Sociétéétant

partie principale ou directe à l'accord de Mandat, la disparition de
cette partie rend le Mandat caduc. Mais la thèse a déjàétéexposée
que l'intervention de la Société,outre sa qualité de haute auto-
rité internationale, n'était que celle d'un représentant, à titre
d'organisme protecteur ou tutélaire, de la partie vraiment inté-
ressée et qui est le pays sous tutelle. Dans de telles conditions,
la disparition d'un tuteur dans le domaine du droit civil privé ne
poserait aucune difficulté, car la législation interne des Etats a
prévules moyens de remplacer le tuteur disparu, empêchéou démis-
sionnaire, sans que la tutelle soit perturbée ou interrompue. Cne
analogie parfaite ne peut pas se faire dans le domaine international,
mais je pense que précisémentle manque de normes législatives
dans ce terrain donne beaucoup plus de souplesse au système,

compte tenu de l'élémentdu pouvoir souverain des États lesquels
créent leur droit au fur et à mesure de leurs nécessités.Ce qui in-
téresse surtout dans le cas d'espècec'est de maintenir en activité
le mécanismedu Mandat afin de prêterassistance aux peuples sous
tutelle. En fait, on serait en présence d'une situation où le seul
élémentmanquant au fonctionnement intégral du système serait
l'organisme chargédu contrôle par la Sociétédes Nations. Bien des
événements immédiatement antérieurs ou simultanés à la disso-
lution de la Sociétésont venus ouvrir la porte pour combler ce
vide et fournir cet élément.

Étant donné la nouvelle situation crééedans le monde par la
guerre, l'ancienne Sociétédes Nations ne pouvait pas survivre. Dans

ces circonstances, un grand nombre d'États, parmi lesquels se
comptaient les Principales Puissances alliées et associées et la
plupart des États qui avaient assistéen 1919 à la fondation de la
Société des Nations, se réunirent à San Francisco en avril 1945,
aussitôt après la fin de la deuxième guerre mondiale, pour créer
l'Organisation des Nations Unies, dont la Charte porte la date du
26 juin de la mêmeannée. Les principes et buts essentiels de cette
nouvelle entité coïncidaient, dans l'ensemble, avec ceux de la
Société des Nations. En ce qui concerne l'institution des Mandats,
la Charte des Nations Unies maintenait, en principe, la doctrine
de la tutelle insérée telle qu'ellefigure dans le Pacte de 1919, bien
que beaucoup plus développéedans le nouvel instrument où le nom
de ((Mandat » était substitué à celui de «Régimeinternational de

tutelle» (art. 75 et ss.). La Charte prévoyait d'une façon explicite
la transformation des anciens «Mandats » de la Société desNations
en «accords de tutelle » soumis au nouveau régime, suivant les
règles et conditions indiquées dans ses articles 76, 77, alinéa Ia),
79, 80, 81 et85. L'analyse de ces articles sera faite plus tard; ce qui
48 ' the League of Nations, as the tutelary body, raises an insurmount-
able obstacle to the survival of the Mandate remains to be consi-
dered.
This contention is based on the premise that the League being a
principal or direct party to the Mandate agreement, the disappear-
ance of that party causes the Mandate to lapse. But the view has
already been advanced that the intervention of the League,
apart from its quality as a high international authority, was
no more than that of a representative, in the role of a protecting

or tutelary body, of theparty really concerned, which is the country
under tutelage. In such circumstances, the disappearance of a
guardian in the realm of municipal private law would raise no
difficulty since the legal systems of States have provided means
of replacing a guardian who has died or is prevented from or
unwilling to continue as guardian, without any disturbance or
interruption of the guardianship. There can be no perfect analogy
on the international plane, but 1 think that just because there is
an absence of legislative rules on the subject the system is a great
deal more flexible, having regard to the element of the sovereign
power of States which create their law as and when the need arises.
What is of principal importance in the present case is to maintain
in action the machinery of the Mandate in order to render assistance
to peoples under tutelage. In fact, the situation would be one where
the only element lacking for the entire working of the system would
be the body entrusted with supervisory power by the League of
Nations. But a number of events occurred immediately before or

simultaneously with the dissolution of the League which opened
the way to filling that gap and providing that element.
The situation created in the world by the war made it impossible
for the old League of Nations to survive. In these circumstances, a
considerablenumber of States, which included the Principal Allied
and Associated Powers and the majority of the States which in
1919 had participated in the foundation of the League of Xations,
met at San Francisco in April 1945, immediately after the Second
World War, to create the United Nations, the Charter of which is
dated 26 June 1945. The principles and essential purposes of
this new body coincided, in the main, with those of the League of
Nations. So far as the institution of Mandates was concerned, the
Charter of the United Nations maintained, in principle, the concept
of tutelage as it had appeared in the Covenant of 1919, although
in a much more developed form in the new instrument in which
the expression "International Trusteeship System" replaced the
name "Mandate" (Articles 75 et seq.). The Charter expressly

provided for the transformation of the old "Mandates" of the
League of Nations into "Trusteeship Agreements" subject to the
new system, in accordance with the rules and conditions, indicated
in Articles 76, 77, paragraph I (a),79, 80, 81 and 85.These Articles
will be analysed hereafter; what is relevant to my reasoning is
48 pour lemoment intéresse mon raisonnement est la constatation des
faits suivants:a) que la Charte des Nations Unies avait prévu le
maintien des anciens Mandats en fournissant les moyens pour leur

transformation en ((accords de tutelle » conformes au nouveau
régime; et b) qu'en conséquence, selon l'avis des fondateurs des
Nations Unies, la dissolution de la Société des Nations ne devait
pas affecter dans son essence, mais seulement dans sa forme, le
fonctionnement normal desdits Mandats.
D'autre part, l'Assemblée de la Société desNations énonça un
critère semblable dans une de ses résolutions finales, en date du
,18 avril 1946, à la veille de sa dissolution. Le texte de cette réso-.
lution est le suivant:

((L'Assemblée reconnaît que la dissolution de la Société des
Nations mettra finà ses fonctions en ce qui concerneles territoires
sous Mandat; mais note que desprincipescorrespondant à ceux que
déclarel'artic22 du Pacte sont incorporésdans les chapitresXI,
XII et XIII de la Charte des Nations Unies.
Note que les Membres de la Sociétéadministrant actuellement
des territoires sous Mandat ont exprimé leurintention de continuer
à les administrer, en vue du bien-êtreet du développement des
peuplesintéressésc,onformémentaux obligationscontenuesdans les
divers Mandats, jusqu'àcequedenouveauxarrangementssoientpris
entreles Nations'Uniesetles diversesPuissancesmandataires.» (Les
italiques sont de nous.) (S. d., J. O., suppl. spéc.n194,pp. 58.
278-2794

Tout cela démontre bien que selon l'avis des fondateurs de
l'organisation des Nations Unies et aussi selon le critère de l'As-

semblée de la Société des Nations, la dissolution de cette dernière
entité ne devait pas mettre fin ni à la continuité, ni au fonctionne-
ment des Mandats institués sur la base de l'article 22 du traité de
Versailles. «L'existence persistante » du Mandat, mentionnée aux
requêtes, ressort de la Charte elle-mêmeet de la résolution du
18 avril 1946.
Les constatations précédentes n'impliquent nullement l'intention
d'établir ou de donner comme établi le principe de la succession
automatique ou ex ofirio de l'organisation des Nations Unies à
l'égard de la Sociétédes Nations. La preuve a étésuffisamment
faite, pendant les procédures écrite et orale de cette affaire, que la
thèse de la succession automatique n'est pas conforme à l'historique

des discussions et résolutions des deux grandes entités durant la
période de transition de 1945-1946. Ce que je veux souligner, c'est
que la Charte de San Francisco a prévu le mécanisme nécessaire
pour rendre viable la continuité des Mandats après avoir rempli,
pour chaque cas particulier, certaines formalités.
Maintenant le moment est venu d'étudier les dispositions posi-
tives de la Charte des Nations Unies concernant les Mandats ins-
titués pendant le régimede la Société des Nations.

49the noting of the following facts: (a) that the Charter of the United

Nations made provision for the maintenance of the old Mandates
and provided means for their transformation into "Trusteeship
Agreements" in conformity with the new system; (b) that conse-
quently, according to the opinion of the founders of the United
Nations, the dissolution of the League was not to affect the normal
functioning of the Mandates in essence but only in form.

Moreover, the Assembly of the League of Nations expressed a
similar criterion in one of its final resolutions, the resolution dated
18 April 1946, on the eve of its dissolution. That resolution read as
follows :

"The Assembly ...recognizes that, on the termination of the
League's existence, its functions with respect to the mandated
territories will cometo an end, but notes thatafitersXI, XII and
XIII of the Charterof the United Nations embody firinciples corre-
s9onding to thosedeclaredin Articl22of theCovenantof the League.
Takes note of the expressed intentions of the Members of the
League now administeringterritories under Mandate to continueto
administer them for the well-beingand development of the peoples
concerned in accordance with the obligations contained in the
respective Mandates, until other arrangenzentshave been agreedbe-
tween the United Nations and the respective Mandatory Powers."
(Italics added.) (L. ofN.,O. J., Spec.Sup.No. 194,pp. 58,278-279.)

Al1this shows clearly that in the opinion of the founders of the
United Nations and also according to the criterion of the Assembly
of the League of Nations, the dissolution of that latter body was
not intended to put an end to the continuity or the functioning of
the Mandates instituted under Article 22 of the Treaty of Versailles.
The "continued existence" of the Mandate, referred in the Appli-
cations, follows from the Charter itself and from the resolution of
18 April 1946.
The above findings do not in any way imply an intention to
establish or to regard as established the principle of automatic or
ex oficio succession of the United Nations to the League of Nations.

It has been sufficiently clearly shown, in the course of the written
and oral proceedings in this case, that the theory of automatic
succession is inconsistent with the historical background of the
discussions and resolutions of the two great bodies during the
transitionalperiodin 1945-1946. What 1 wish to emphasize is that
the San Francisco Charter provided for the necessary machinery
to render viable the continuance of Mandates after compliance, in
each particular case, with certain formalities.
The time has now come to consider specific provisions of the
Charter of the United Nations regarding the Mandates instituted
during the period of the League of Nations.

49 La Charte de San Francisco représente un progrès très net sur le
Pacte de la Sociétédes Nations quant au développement de l'ins-
titution protectrice des pays non indépendants, sous-développés
ou ex-coloniaux. On reconnaît d'abord d'une façon explicite le

principe de la primauté des intérêtsdes-habitants de ces territoires,
et on confirme l'acceptation par les Etats Membres des Nations
Unies de la « mission sacrée » consistant à aider les populations qui
ne s'administrent pas encore complètement elles-mêmes(art. 73
de la Charte). A ces fins, on institue un ((Régimeinternational de
tutelle » au sujet duquel l'article 76 énonce les buts essentiels:
promotion du progrès social, économiqueet politique, préparation
à l'indépendarice, respect des libertés fondamentales de l'homme
sans distinction de race, de sexe, de langue ou de religion.

Quant à la situation des anciens Mandats à l'égarddu nouveau
régimede tutelle de la Ch-arte,l'article 77, paragraphe 1, alinéa a),
de celle-ci prescrit d'une façon impérative («s'appliquera )))l'ap-
plication du nouveau régimede tutelle aux territoires actuellement
sous Mandat, bien que le deuxième paragraphe du mêmearticle,
ainsi que l'article 79, renvoient àun accord ultérieurladétermination
des termes et conditions dans lesquels la tutelle sera établie. Dans
l'intervalle, c'est-à-dire entre la promulgation de la Charte et la

mise en vigueur de l'accord, les nouvelles dispositions de la Charte
ne seront pas interprétées « comme modifiant directement ou in-
directement les droits quelconques d'aucun État ou d'aucun peuple
ou les dispositions d'actes internationaux en vigueur auxquels des
Membres de l'organisation peuvent êtreparties ». (Art. 80, par. 1,
de la Charte.) Mais, tout de suite, le paragraphe 2 du mêmearticle 80
établit que le paragraphe I cne doit pas être interprétécomme
motivant un retard ou un ajournement de la négociation et de la
conclusion d'accords destinés à placer sous le régime de tutelle des

territoires sous Mandat.. .».

A mon avis, ce texte du paragraphe 2, qui est liéavec celui des
articles 77 (par. I a) et Sr, définit clairement l'obligation - pres-
sante dirait-on - des Etats mandataires d'arriver sans retard
à la mise en vigueur du nouvel accord de Mandat. Le raisonnement
logique autorise pleinement cette interprétation, car l'intention des
auteurs de la Charte ne peut pas avoir étécelle d'abaridonner in-
définiment à la seule discrétion du mandataire - sans aucun
contrôle - les territoires sous Mandat. Cela aurait dénaturé ce

régimejuridique, ainsi que les intentions de ceux qui l'ont établi.
C'est ce qu'on a appelé la ((congélation )) du Mandat, laquelle
pratiquement se confond avec l'annexion. La meilleure preuve que
cette interprétation est correcte, c'est que tous les Etats manda-
taires qui exerçaient des Mandats avant l'établissement de la S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 365

The San Francisco Charter reveals definite progress beyond the
Covenant of the League of Nations in respect of the development
of the institution for the protection of dependent, under-developed
or former colonial countries. There is, in the first place, specific
recognition of the principle that the interests of the inhabitants of
these territories are piiramount, and confirmation of the acceptance
by the Member States of the United Nations of the "sacred trust"
of assisting the peoples who have not yet attained a full measure of

self-government (Article 73 of the Charter). To this end there was
instituted an "international Trusteeship System" the basic ob-
jectives of which are laid down in Article 76: the promotion of
social, economic and political advancement, preparation for in-
dependence, respect for fundamental human freedoms without
distinctionas to race, sex, language or religion.
As to the position of old Mandates in relation to the new Trustee-
ship System under the Charter, Article 77, paragraph 1, sub-
paragraph (a), provided in a mandatory manner ("shall apply")
for the application of the new Trusteeship System to territories
now held under Mandate, although the second paragraph of the
same Article, as well as Article 79, refer to subsequent agreements
for the determination of the terms and conditions in which trustee-
ship shall be established. In the interval, that is to say between the
promulgation of the Charter and the entry into force of an agree-

ment, nothing in the new provisions of the Charter shall be con-
strued "in or of itself to alter in any manner the rights whatsoever
of any States or any peoples or the terms of existing international
instruments to which Members of the United Nations may respec-
tively be parties" (Article 80, paragraph 1, of the Charter). But,
immediately thereafter, paragraph 2 of the same Article provides
that paragraph I "shall not be interpreted as giving grounds for
delay or postponement of the negotiation and conclusion of agree-
ments for placing mandated and other territories under the
Trusteeship System ..."
In my opinion, this wording of paragraph 2,which is connected
with that of Articles 77 (para. I (a)) and 81, clearly defines the
obligation-the urgent obligation it might be said-of Mandatory
States without delay to put into force a new Mandate agreement.

This interpretation is fully warranted by a logical reasoning since
the intention of the authors of the Charter cannot have been to
leave the mandated territories indefinitely to the unfettered dis-
cretion of the Mandatory alone. To have done so would have been
to distort the character of this legal system as well as the intentions
of its founders. It would have amounted to what has been called
the "freezing" of the Mandate, which would practically be equiv-
alent to annexation. The best proof that this interpretation is
correct, is that al1 the Mandatory States which held Mandates

50366 AFF. S.-O.AFRICAIN (OPIN. INDIV. M. BUSTAMAXTE)

Charte - à l'exception de la République sud-africaine -- ont
ratifié de nouveaux accords avec l'approbation des Kations Cnies.
L'Assemblée générale qui,dans ce cas, constitue l'organisme officiel
d'interprétation authentigue, a estimé invariablement que l'obli-
gation de lapart desdits Etats d'adapter leurs Mandats au nouveau
régime de tutelle existe et, de leur côté, les Etats mandataires se
sont ralliés à ce critère. On est donc en présence d'un cas très net

de coïncidence interprétative qui n'admet pas raisonnablement
d'objections.
On a objecté que si l'article 81 de la Charte doit être interprété
- à la lumière des articles 77 (par. I, alinéa a) et 80 (par. 2) -
comme une disposition conzp~~lsiva rfin que les mandataires éta-
blissent obligatoirement des accords de tutelle, cela impliquerait
l'absurdité juridique d'admettre que quelqu'un puisse être contraint
à conclure un contrat dont la caractéristique est - au contraire -
la (volzlntariedad 11,c'est-à-dire la liberté de décision pour dire

((oui 1)OU ((non ))Aucun pouvoir législatif ou judiciaire ne saurait,
en principe, exiger légalement cette aberration. Mais ce raisonne-
ment n'a pas de pertinence à l'égard du point discuté: la vraie
figure juridique qui surgit, à propos des articles de la Charte qui
ont été mentionnés, est tout à fait différente. Chacun des Etats
devenus Membres des Nations Unies ont, en vertu du fait d'avoir
accepté et signévolontairement la Charte, assumé toutes les pbli-
gations qui en découlent; et, par conséquent, si un de ces Etats
Membres est un mandataire, il a accepté au préalable et librement

l'obligation de renouveler ou de transformer le Mandat en accord
de tutelle. La négociation d'un nouvel accord n'est nullement un
acte imposé par la force: c'est un fiacte qui resta conclu à partir
du moment où la Charte fut signéepar le mandataire.
On a soutenu qu'après la dissolution de la Société desNations
il n'était pas indispensable - comme étant la seule solution -
d'aboutir à la transformation des accords de Mandat en accords de
tutelle dans les termes prévus aux chapitres XII et XII1 de la
Charte parce que le chapitre XI, et particulierement l'article 73,
indique la voie naturelle au fonctionnement des Mandats de la

Sociétédes Nations sans recourir au système des accords de tutelle
introduit par l'Organisation des Nations Unies. Le seul cbstacle -
dit-on - pour que le Mandat puisse continuer son exercice normal,
après la dissolution de la Société des Xations, serait le manque du
pouvoir contrôleur confiéau Conseil conformément à l'article 22,
paragraphe 8, du Pacteet l'article 6 de l'accord du 17 décembre1920.
Le Conseil ayant disparu, le mécanisme du contrôle s'arrête.Riais
cette lacune a étécomblée,en ce qui concerne la nouvelle situation,
par l'article 73, alinéa e), qui établit une nouvelle méthode moins

exigeante de contrôle - mais contrôle quand même - et complète
à nouveau le cadreinstitutionnel du système dans ses deux aspects:
obligations du mandataire (préambule et alinéas a) à dl)et contrôle
de ses actes (alinéae)).before the drawing up of the Charter-except the Repubric of South
Africa-ratified new agreements with the approval of the United
Nations. The General Assembly, which in this case is the officia1
body for authoritative interpretation, has invariably considered
that an obligation exists for those States to adapt their Mandates
to the new Trusteeship System, and for their part the Mandatory
States have subscribed to this view. There is thus a very clear
concurrence of interpretation to which no reasonable objection can
be raised.
The objection has been raised that if Article 81 of the Charter
is to be interpreted-in the light of Articles 77 (para.ub-para. (a))
and 80 (para. 2)as a mandatoryprovision imposing upon Mandatory
States an obligation to conclude Trusteeship agreements, this
would involve the legal absurdity of compulsion to conclude a

contract the characteristic feature of which is "voluntariedad", that
isa freedom of decision to accept or reject. No legislative or judicial
power could, in principle, legally require such an aberration. But
that reasoning has no relevance to the point under discussion: the
true legal concept which arises, in connection with the articles of
the Charter to which reference has been made, is quite different.
Each of the States which became Members of the United Nations,
by virtue of their voluntary acceptance and signature of the
Charter, assumed al1 the obligations flowing therefrom, and,
consequently, if one of those Member States is a Mandatory. it at
the same time freely accepted the obligation to renew or to trans-
form the Mandate into a Trusteeship agreement. The negotiation
of a new agreement is in no sense an act imposed by force: it is a
eact which was concluded at the time when the Charter was signed
by the Mandatory.
It has been maintained that after the dissolution of the League of
Nations it was not indispensable-as being the only solution-to
effect the transformation of the Mandate Agreements into Trustee-
ship Agreements in accordance with Chapters XII and XII1 of the

Charter, since Chapter XI and, in particular, Article 73, indicates
the normal coursefor the functioning of League of Nations Mandates
without having to have recourse to the system of Trusteeship
Agreements introduced by the United Nations. The only obstacle-
it is said-tothe continuance of the normal exercise of the Mandate,
afterthe dissolution of the League,is the absence of the supervisory
power entrusted to the Council under Article 22, paragraph 8, of
the Covenant and Article 6 of the Agreement of 17 December 1920.
The Council having disappeared, the machinery for supervision
comes to a stop. But this gap is filled, so far as the new situation
is concerned, by Article 73, paragraph (4 ,hich lays down a new
and lessdemanding form of supervision-but still a form of super-
vision-and again completes the institutional framework of the
system in both its aspects: obligations of the Mandatory (Preamble
and paragraphs (a)to (d))and supervision ofits action (paragraph (e)). Je ne saurais me rallier à cette opinion, car elle n'est pas conforme
au texte ni à la méthode de la Charte. Le chapitre XI constitue
une déclaration large et généraledes principes, des devoirs et des
lignes politiques qui comprend en réalitétoutes les catégories des
territoires non autonomes (anciens protectorats et colonies des
Puissances qui venaient de gagnerJa deuxième guerre mondiale, les
territoires coloniaux séparésdes Etats vaincus, les territoires sous
Mandat nésde la première guerre et les territoires qui seront volon-

tairement placés sous tutelle dans l'avenir). Mais c'est aux chapi-
tres XII et XII1 que l'on règle d'une façon concrète le nouveau
régimede tutelle dont les fins essentielies sont décritesà l'articl76
et dont le procédéde transformation des Mandats en tutelle est
spécifiéaux articles 77,paragraphe 1,alinéaa), 79, 80 et 81. Ceux-ci
sont, par conséquent, les articles pertinents de la Charte se rappor-
tant aux Mandats et non pas les articles 73 et 74 du chapitre XI.
Comme l'a si bien exposé un des Membres de la Cour, ce dernier
chapitre a eu pour objet d'incorporer dans une certaine mesure au
nouveau régime généralde protection établi par la Charte les
territoires,que les Puissances victorieuses maintenaient sous leur

souveraineté avant le conflit et de leur garantir - quoique exercé
avec une grande souplesse - ,un certain contrôle international.

La comfiétence de la Cour
dans cetteagaire selonles reqztBes

Les requêtes présentéespar les Gouvemements du Libéria et de
l'Éthiopie fondent la compétence de la Cour sur l'article 7 de
l'accord de Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain et l'article 37 du Statut
de la Cour internationale de Justice, compte tenu de l'article 80,
paragraphe 1, de la Charte des Nations Unies.
Le second paragraphe de l'article 7 de l'accord de Mandat du
17 décembre 1920, accepté par l'ynion sud-africaine comme man-
dataire, dispose ce qui suit:

((Le Mandataire accepte que tout différend,quel qu'il soit, qui
viendraità s'éleverentre lui et un autre Membrede la Société des
Nations, relatià l'interprétationouà l'applicationdes dispositions
du Mandat et qui ne soit pas susceptibled'êtréglépar desnégocia-
tions, soit soumisà la Cour permanente de Justice internationale
prévuepar l'article14 du Pacte de la Sociétéde4Nations. »

Le Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice, duquel les de-
mandeurs et le défendeur sont signataires, dispose en son article 37
que :

(Lorsqu'untraitéou une convention en vigueur prévoitle renvoi
àune juridiction que devait instituer la Société ds ations ouà la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale, la Cour internationale
de Justice constituera cette juridiction entre les parties au présent
Statut.»
52 1am unable to agree with this view because itis not in conformity
with either the wording or the system of the Charter. Chapter XI
constitutes a broad and general statement of principles, duties and
policies which, in reality, cover all categories of non-self-governing

territories (the old Protectorates and Colonies of the Powers which
had just been victorious in the Second World War, the detached
Colonies of the defeated States, the Mandated temtories born of
the First War and temtories which will voluntarily be placed under
trusteeship in the future). But it is Chapters XII and XII1 which
govern in a concrete way the new Trusteeship System the basic
objectives of which are described in Article 76 and of which the
transformation of Mandates into Trusteeship Agreements is spe-
cified in Articles 77, paragraph I, sub-paragraph (a), 79, 80 and 81.
These are, consequently, the relevant Articles of the Charterrelating
to Mandates and not Articles 73 and 74 of Chapter XI. As was so
well said by a Member of the Court, that latter Chapter was
designed to incorporate to some extent inthe new general protective
regime established by the Charter those territories which the
victorious Powers held under their sovereignty before the conflict
and to guarantee to those territories some international supervision,
though one exercised with great flexibility.

The Jurisdiction of the Court
in the Case,according to theAfiplications

The Applications submitted by the Governments of Liberia and
Ethiopia found the jurisdiction of the Court on Article '7 of the
Mandate for Gerrnan South West Africa and Article 37 of the
Statute of the International Court of Justice, having regard to
Article 80, paragraph 1,of the United Nations Charter.
The second paragraph of Article 7 of the Mandate agreement of
17 December 1920 accepted by the Union of South Africa as Man-
datory, provides as follows :
"The Mandatory agrees that, if any dispute whatever should
arise between the Mandatory and another Memberof the Leagueof
Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the
provisions of the Mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by
negotiation, shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant of the
League of Nations."

The Statute of the International Court of Justice, of which the
Applicants and the Respondent are signatories, provides in Ar-
ticle37 that :
"Whenever a treâty or convention in forceprovides for reference
of a matter to a tribunal to have been instituted by the League of
Nations, or to the Permanent Court of International Justice, the
matter shall, as between the parties to the present Statute, be
referred to the International Court of Justice."
52 Le paragraphe I de l'article 80 de la Charte établit que:

«A l'exception de ce qui peut être convenu dans les accords
particuliers de tutelle... et jusqu'à ce que ces accordsaiert été
conclus,aucune disposition du présentchapitrene sera interprétée
commemodifiant directement ouindirectement en aucune manière les
droits quelconquesd'aucunÉtat oud'aucunpeupleoulesdispositions
d'actesinternationauxen vigueur auxqueZsdes Membresde I'Orga-
nisationpeuventêtrp earties.»(Lesitaliques sont de nous.)
En partant de ces données, leraisonnement des demandeurs peut
êtreexprimécomme suit :l'accord de Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain,
en incluant l'article 7 qui contient la clause compromissoire, est

une convention en vigueur. Etant donné qu'un difféfendinsoluble
par la voie directe s'est produit entre le Libéria et 1'Ethiopie d'une
part, et la République sud-africaine en tant que mandataire du
Sud-Ouest africain de l'autre, il a fallu demander une solution à
la justice internationale. La Cour permanente de Justice inter-
nationale ayant disparu, il ne reste qu'à appliquer l'article 37 du
Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice dans lequel la juridiction
de celle-ci est spécifiquement prévue pour ce genre de cas.
En examinant le contenu des requêtes,on voit que les questions
à définirsont les suivantes:

I. L'accord de Mandat est-il ou non iine con.ziention?
2. Si oui, est-elle une convention en vigueur?
3. Dans l'affirmative, l'article 37 du Statut de la Cour est-il

applicable ?
La réponse à ces questions découlera de l'analyse critique que
je -ferai des exceptions préliminaires formulées par l'agent de la
République sud-africaine.

Les exceptionsfiréliminair<s

En termes très sommaires, le contenu des exceptions peut se
résumer comme suit :
I. L'accord de Mandat n'est pas une convention en vigueur.

2. L'accord de Mandat, ou Déclaration du Conseil de la Société
des Nations en date du 17 décembre 1920, n'est mêmepas en soi
une convention, mais seulement un acte préparatoire ou une es-
quisse de ce qui aurait dû êtrele vrai accord de Mandat. (Conclusion
modifiéedu défendeurprésentéedans la dernièreaudiencepublique.)
3. La clause compromissoire contenue dans l'accord de Mandat
(xt. 7) ne réunit pas les conditionsde validité que la nature spéciale

de cette clause exige.
4. Le différend qui est l'objet de la controverse ne réunit pas
non plus les conditions déterminées par l'article 7 de l'accord de
Mandat. Paragraph I of Article 80 of the Charter provides:
"Except as may be agreed upon in individual trusteeship agree-
ments, made under Articles 77, 79 and 81, placing each territory
under the trusteeship system, and until such agreements have been
concluded,nothing in this Chapter shall be construed in or of itself
to alter in any manner the rights whatsoever of any States or any
peoples or the terms of existinginternational instruments to which
Members of the United Nations may respectively be parties."

On the basis of these provisions, the reasoning of the Applicants
may be expressed as follows: the Mandate for South West Africa.
including Article 7 which contains the compromissory clause, is a
convention in force. Since a dispute which cannot be settled by
direct means has arisen between Liberia and Ethiopia on the one
hand and the Republic of South Africa as Mandatory for South
West Africa on the other, the solution must be sought by recourse
to international justice. The Permanent Court of International
Justice having disappeared, there remains only to apply Article 37
ofthe Statute of the International Court of Justice which specifically
provides for the jurisdiction of the Court in this kind of circumstance.
From an examination of the content of the Applications, it may

be seen that the questions requiring definition are as follows:
I. 1s the Mandate a conventionor not ?
2. If yes, is it a conventionin force?

3. If so, is Articl37 of the Statute of the Court applicable?

The reply to these questions will follow from the critical analysis
which 1 shall make of the Preliminary Objections presented by the
Agent for the Republic of South Africa.

The Preliminary Objections

Succinctly the content of the objections can be summarized as
follows :
I. The Mandate is not a convention in force.

2. The Mandate agreement, or Declaration b;i the Council of the
League of Nations dated 17 December 1920, is not even a conven-
tion, but simply a preparatory document or outline of what should
have been the true Mandate agreement (amended Submission by
the Respondent read at the last public hearing).
3. The compromissory clause contained in the Mandate agree-
ment (Article 7) does not fulfil the conditions required for validity

by the special nature of thiç clause.
4. The dispute which is the subject of the controversy does not
fulfil the conditions laidown in Article 7 of the Mandate agreement. 5. En conséquence, l'article 37 du Statut de la Cour n'est pas
applicable. La compétence de la Cour n'est pas ouverte pour cette
affaire.

Première exceptionprélimijiaire

Le Gouvernement de la République sud-africaine conteste la
juridiction de la Cour pour connaître de cette affaire, en alléguant
que « le Mandat pour le Sud-Ouest africain allemand sur l'article 7
duquel les demandeurs fondent la compétence, est expiré en ce sens
qu'il n'est plus un traité ou convention en vigueur au sens de
l'article37 du Statut de la Cour ».
Les fondements sur lesquels cette exception s'appuie peuvent

êtreénoncés commesuit:
a) L'accord de Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain était une conven-
tion entre la Société desNations et l'Union sud-africaine en qualité
de mandataire. Mais la Sociétédes Nations ayant étédissoute en
avril 1946, une des Parties contractantes disparut et, par consé-
que~t, la convention comme telle devint caduque. Il n'est restéen
vigueur que lefaitobjectif ou réelde l'existence d'un territoire et

d'une population qui, depuis 1920, étaient tenus sous un statut
spécialde Mandat par l'État défendeur. Avec la disparition de la
Sociétédes Nations, l'ancienne stipulation conventionnelle attri-
buant le contrôle du Mandat au Conseil de la Sociétééteinte (art. 6
de l'accord de Mandat) était devenue une clause d'exécution
impossible et il ne restait au mandataire que l'accomplissement
unilatéral des obligations constitutionnelles de caractère général
prévues à l'article 22, paragraphes 1, 2, 3 et 6, di1 Pacte de 1919
et reproduites dans les articlesI à 5de la ((Déclaration » du Conseil
en date du 17 décembre 1920. En somme: le défendeur soutient
qu'il continue à exercer le Mandat dans le sens d'institution objec-
tive soumise aux normes fondamentales prévues à l'article 22 du
Pacte, mais qu'il est exempt du contrôle prévu comme obligation

contractuelle non essentielle ou simplement procédurale aux para-
graphes 7 et 9 de l'article22 (art. 6 de l'accord de Mandat), étant
donné que l'organe de contrôle - le Conseil de la Sociétédes
Nations - n'existait plus. Le Mandat, en tant que convention,
était caduc.
Mais je crois avoir démontré dans des paragraphes précédents
que la dissolution de la Société desNations ne constitue pas, en soi,
à mon avis, un fait suffisant pour déterminer la caducité de l'accord
de Mandat, étant donné que les véritables parties intéressées à cet
accord, à savoir la population sous Mandat et le mandataire, de-
meurent inchangées. La Société des Nations, en tant que représen-

tant tutélaire de cette population, pourrait enfin êtreremplacée
dans cette fonction; et, en fait, elle l'a étépar les Nations Unies
dans tous les cas oii le mandataire s'était inscrit comme Etat
Membre de cette nouvelle Organisation en signant la Charte de
San Francisco. Dèslors, c'était auxorganes compétents des Nations
54 5. Consequently, Article 37 of the Statute of the Court is not
applicable. The Court has no jurisdiction in this case.

First Preliminary Objection

The Government of the Republic of South Africa denies the juris-
diction of the Court to hear and to determine this case, alleging that
"the Mandate for German South West Africa, upon Article 7 of
which the Applicants' claim to jurisdiction is founded, has lapsed,
in the sense ...that it is no longer a treaty or convention in force
within the meaning of Article 37 of the Statute of the Court".
The grounds supporting this objection may be put as follows:

(a) The Mandate agreement for South West Africa was a con-
vention between the League of Nations and the Union of South
Africa as Mandatory. But the League of Nations having been dis-
solved in Aprilrg46, one of the contracting parties disappeared and,
therefore, the convention as such lapsed. Al1that remained in force
was the objective or real fact of the existence of a territory and a
population which, since 1920, had been held by the Respondent
State under a special Mandate status. With the disappearance of the
League of Nations, the former contractual provision assigning super-
vision over the Mandate tothe Council of the extinct League (Article
6 of the Mandate Agreement) became impossible of implementation
and it remained for the Mandatory only to perform unilaterally the
institutional obligations of a general nature provided in Article 22,
paragraphs 1, 2,3 and 6, of the Covenant of 1919 and reproduced in
Articles I to5 of the Council's "Declaration" of 17 December 1920.

To sum up, the Respondent maintains that it continues to exercise
the Mandate as an objective institution subject to the basic des of
Article 22ofthe Covenant, but that it is exempt from the supervision
provided for as a non-essential or merely procedural contractual
obligation in paragraphs 7 and 9 of Article 22 (Article6 of the
Mandate agreement) since the supervisory organ-the Council of
the League of Nations--had ceased to exist. The Mandate, in the
sense of a convention, had lapsed.

But 1 think 1 have shown in the foregoing paragraphs that the
dissolution of the League of Nations does not in itself constitute,
according to my view, a suficient reason for declaring the Mandate
agreement to have lapsed, since the real parties to the agreement,
namely the population under Mandate and the Mandatory, remain
unchanged. The League of Nations, as tutelary representative of that
population, could be replaced in that function; and it has been in

fact by the Vnited Nations in every case where the Mandatory
became a Member of the new Organization by signing the San
Francisco Charter. It was then for the competent organs of the
Cnited Nations to take over the supervisory authority which the
54Unies qu'il incombait d'assumer l'autorité de contrôle que le Pacte
attribuait au Conseil de la Société desNations: il ne fallait que la
souscription préalable d'un nouvel accord de Mandat avec le
mandataire comme l'article 79 de la Charte le prévoit.
D'ailleurs la Sociétédes Nations dans sa résolution du 18 avril
1946, ainsi que les Nations Unies dans la Charte, ont reconnu la
survivance des Mandats après la dissolution de la première desdites
entités. Après cette dissolution, les anciens Mandats ont maintenu
leur ((existencepersistante », c'est-à-dire, leur caractère de con-
ventions internationales en vigueur ».
La Cour doit se prononcer à ce stade préliminairede la procédure
au sujet du point capital suivant: la vigueur actuelle de l'Accord
de Mandat du Sud-Ouest Africain. En effet, sa compétence ou

non-compétence pour connaître de la présente affaire dépend
du fait que ledit Accord est ou non en vigueur au sens des articles
36 et 37 du Statut. Pour tout ce que je viens d'exposer, une réponse
affirmative n'admet pas de doute à mon avis: l'Accord de Mandat
persiste, il est en pleine vigueur.
L'allégationa étéfaite par le défendeur que le titre de manda-
taire reçu par la République sud-africaine procédait de l'ancien
régimede Mandats de la Sociétédes Nations et que, partant, ce
mandataire n'avait aucune obligation de se soumettre au nouveau
régimedes Nations Unies, étant donné qu'il n'existe pas un lien
juridique de succession automatique entre les deux organismes
mondiaux. Si la République sud-africaine était restéeen dehors de
l'organisation des Nations Unies sans s'incorporer à elle, probable-
ment que l'argument aurait pu apparaître comme bien fondé.Mais

l'Union sud-africaine a été undes Etats fondateurs des Nations
Unies; elle a pris part à toutes les démarches concernant la disso-
lution de la Société desNations et à la discussion de la Charte de
San Francisco; elle a souscrit à la Charte sans formuler aucune
réserve au moment de la signer (chose qui d'ailleurs aurait été
inusitée et inacceptable); par conséquent, elle a accepté dans sa
totalité cet instrument avec ses principes et ses obligations, parmi
lesquels se trouvait l'inclusion desanciensMandats dans le nouveau
régimede tutelle (art. 80, par. 2, de la Charte joint aux art.,77,
par. 1, alinéa a),79 et 81). L'ensemble de ces articles oblige 1'Etat
mandataire de négocier et de conclure aussitôt que possible un
accord de tutelle en substituant l'ancien accord de Mandat. En
résumé: l'inscriptionde la Républiquesud-africaine comme Membre

des Nations Unies a étéle mailloj nuridiqz qiieétablit à son égard
la continuité entre les deux organisations mondiales et entre les
deux systèmes protecteurs des anciennes colonies allemandes.
On a également argumenté que le système de contrôle de la
Charte est différentet plus exigeant que celui du Pacte de la Société
des Nations; que les organes chargésdu contrôle conformément à
la Charte ont une composition et un fonctionnement différents de
ceux de la société dissouteet que l'État mandataire ne peut pas
être obligé de souscrire un acte conventionnel qui aggrave etCovenant assigned to the Council of the League of Nations: al1that
was required was the prior conclusion of a neu7Mandate agreement
with the Mandatory as provided for in Article 79 of the Charter.

Moreover the League of Kations inits resolution of 18 April1946,
and the Cnited Nations in the Charter, recognized the survival of
the Mandates after the dissolution of the League. After that
dissolution, the former Mandates maintained their "continued ex-
istence", that is to Say, their quality of "internationalconventions
in force".
In this preliminary phase of the proceedings the Court has to
decide on the following vital matter: the present force of the
Mandate Agreement for South West Africa; for whether it has or
has not jurisdiction to hear the present case depends on whether or
not that Agreement is in force within the meaning of Articles 36
and 37 of the Statute. In the light of al1of the foregoing consider-
ations there can in my view be no doubt that the answer is in the
affirmative: the Mandate Agreement continues and is in full force.
The Respondent has contended that the Republic of South
Africa'stitle as Mandatory was received under the former League of

Nations Mandate regime and that, therefore, the Mandatory had no
obligation to submit to the new United Nations regime, since there
is no legal link of automatic succession between the two world
organizations. If the Republic of South Afnca had remained outside
the United Nations and not become a Member of it, the argument
might probably ha1.e seemed to be well founded. But the Union of
South Africa was one of the Founder Members of the Vnited Na-
tions; it took part inal1 the proceedings for the dissoliition of the
1-eague of Nations and in the discussion of the San Francisco
Charter; it subscribed tothe Charter without making any reservation
at the time of signing it (which would moreover have been unusual
and unacceptable); therefore it accepted that instrument in its
entirety with its principles and obligations, among which were the
inclusion of the former Mandates in the new trusteeship regime
(Article 80, paragraph 2,of the Charter taken in conjunction with
Articles 77, paragraph I (a), 79 and 81). These Articles taken
together obliged the Mandatory State to negotiate and conclude

as soon as possible a trusteeship agreement in replacement of the
former Mandate agreement. To sum up, the fact of the Republic of
South Africa becoming a Member of the United Nations was the
legal linkwhich as far as it was concerned established continuity
between the two world organizations and between the two systems
for the protection of the former German colonies.
It has alsobeen argued that the supervisory system of the Charter
is different from and more exigent than that of the Covenant of the
League ;that the supervisory organs under the Charterare composed
and operate differently from those of the dissolved League, and that
the Mandatory State cannot be compelled to sign a contractual in-
strument which would render its obligations to the supervisory

55 AFF. S.-O. AFRICAIN (OPIN. INDIV. M. BUSTAMANTE)
371
alourdit ses obligations à l'égard de l'organisme contrôleur. Cet
argument est discutable en principe ou sur le terrain spéculatif,
car le contrôle constituant - cela a déjà été dit - une partie
essentielle du régime des Mandats, il y a de bonnes raisons pour

croire que ledit contrôle remplira mieux son rôle et ses objectifs au
fur et àmesure qu'il sera plus parfait et sévère,en dépitdes réticen-
ces du mandataire. Mais en mettant de côté cet aspect, le fait
certain est - selon ce qui a étédit dans le paragraphe précédent -
que la République sud-africaine, en tant que Membre des Nations
Cnies, avait accepté comme norme nouvelle le régimede contrôle
de la Charte. Le seul moyen d'obtenir un adoucissement de ce
régimeou le maintien des moyens de contrôle établispar les anciens
Mandats serait de négocierun nouvel accord de tutelle avec l'organe
compétent des Nations Unies, comme l'article 79 de la Charte le
prévoit. Si ceci avait été la première démarche de l'Union sud-
africaineen 1945, le problème serait dès longtemps résoluen termes
équitables. Malheureusement, le dossier démontreque la République
sud-africaine a refuséinvariablement cette solution.

Entre temps, l'État défendeur a choisi une position plus libérale:
celle d'exercer un Mandat sans contrôle en s'appuyant sur l'affir-
mation que le contrôle est simplement une ((conditionprocédurale »
et non pas essentielle du régime des Mandats. A mon avis, cette
affirmation est inexacte et mêmearbitraire parce qu'elle est contre-
dite par le caractère substantiel ou constitutionnel que le Pacte
attribue au droit de surveillance du Conseil (art. 22,par. 7, 8 et 9).
Je dois insister sur ce que j'ai déjàdit d'autre part: un Mandat sans
contrôle n'est plus un Mandat parce que cette mutilation signifierait
l'exercice unilatéral de la fonction par le mandataire, ce qui au
fond ressemble beaucoup à une annexion déguisée.On ne peut pas
attribuer aux auteurs du Pacte et encore moins à ceux de la Charte
une telle intention.A part la nécessitéde surveiller tout le processus

de l'exercice du Mandat, il est inclispensable qu'il y ait quelqu'un
qui, le cas échéant, puisse impartialement juger si le degré de
développement acquis par la population sous Mandat est tel
qu'une déclaration d'indépendance doive intervenir; quelqu'un qui
possède l'autorité suffisante pour demander au mandataire l'arrêt
de ses fonctions. On peut ajouter que dès le premier moment le
mandataire a accepté cette condition de contrôle laquelle figurait
déjà à l'époquede la fondation de la Société des Nations dans le
projet de Mandat préparépar M. Balfour et envoyé au Conseil de
ladite Sociétépar le Gouvernement de la Grande-Bretagne, repré-
sentant de l'Union sud-africaine.

b) Une autre raison sur laquelle le défendeur appuie sa première

exception préliminairè est que l'accord de Mandat n'a pas pris
1a.forme d'un traité tel que l'a prévu l'article 18 du Pacte de la
Sociétédes Nations.En effet, l'accord est simplement contenu dans
la Déclaration du Conseil en date du 17 décembre 1920. Mais j'ai
exposéplus haut que les accords de Mandat constituent une con-
56organ more burdensome and onerous. The contention is arguable in
principle or on speculativegrounds, since as supervision-as has been

said--was an essential part of the Mandate system, there are good
reasons for believing that such supervision would the better fulfil
its role and objectives to the extent that it became severer and more
perfected, despite the reticence of the Mandatory. But leaving aside
this aspect, the certain fact is, as has been said in the preceding
paragraph, that the Republic of South Africa, as a Member of the
United Nations, had accepted as a new norm the supervisory regime
of the Charter. The only way of obtaining mitigation of that regime
or the maintenance of the supervisory machinery established by the
former Mandates would be to negotiate a new trusteeship agreement
with the competent organ of the United Nations as provided for in
Article 79 of the Charter. If this had been the first step taken by
the Union of South Africa in 1945, the problem wodld long ago
have been settled on equitable terms. Unfortunately the record
shows that the Republic of South Africa has consistently declined

to entertain such a solution.
In the meantirne, the Respondent State has chosen a more liberal
position: that of exercising a Mandate without supervision on the
basis of the assertion that supervision is merely a "procedural
condition" and not essential to the Mandate regime. In my view
this assertion is incorrect and even arbitrary, because it is contra-
dicted by the substantive or institutional character assigned by the
Covenant to the Council'sright of supervision (Article 22, paragraphs
7, 8 and 9). 1must underline what 1 have already said elsewhere: a
Mandate without supervision is no longer a Mandate because such
mutilation would signify the unilateral exercise of the Mandatory
function, which at base greatly resembles disguised annexation. It
is not possible to attribute such an intention to the authors of the
Covenant or even less to those of the Charter. Apart from the need
for supervision of the whole process of the exercise of the Mandate,
it is essential that there should be some body tvhich, if necessary,

can act as impartial judge of whether the degree of development
acquired by the Mandated population is such that there should be a
declaration of independence; some body possessed of sufficient
authority to reqiiest that the Mandatory cease its functions. It may
be added that from the beginning this condition of supervision was
accepted bythe Mandatory, as it figured at the time ofthe foundation
of the League of Nations in the Balfour draft Mandate presented to
the Council of the League by the British Government representing
the Union of South Africa.

(b) Another reason by which the Respondent supports its first
preliminary objection is that the Mandate agreement did not take
the form of a treaty as provided for in Article 18 of the Covenant of
the League of Nations. The agreement is indeed simply contained
in the Council'sDeclaration of 17December 1920. But 1have already
explained earlier that the Mandate agreements are conventions sui

56 vention sui generis, un circuit de volontés qui se déroule en actes
successifs où les conditions proposées d'abord par les Puissances,
avec l'assentiment du mandataire, sont enfin statuéespar le Conseil
de la Sociétédes Nations. Il n'y a dans l'article 22 du Pacte aucune
indication quant à la forme instrumentaire des accords de Mandat,
bien qu'une pratique coutumière ait existé - étant donné la

nature toute spéciale du système des Mandats - dans le sens
d'inclure ces accords dans des ((Déclarations ))du genre de celle
du 17 décembre 1920 à l'égard du Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain.
J'ai déjàdit qu'à mon avis l'instrument officiel,où la (Déclaration))
du Conseil est contenue, renferme, en lui-même,un acte d'enregis-
trement du Mandat, sans qu'aucune autre forme d'enregistrement
soit nécessaire.Le défendeur ne nie pas que cette Déclaration a tou-

jours étéconsidéréepar la Partie défenderesse comme la vraie
convention du Mandat. Les écritures de la première partie de cette
procédure confirment ce consensus.D'ailleurs, la forme de publicité
et d'enregistrement de ces ((Déclarations ))ou ((accords ))prescrite
dans le paragraphe final de l'accord de Mandat du Sud-Ouest afri-
cain (annexe B), et d'autres similaires, est une forme quelque peu
différente mais très semblable à celle que prévoit pour les traités

l'article 18 du Pacte. Je suis persuadé que la différence avec les
formes solennelles prévues à l'article 18 du Pacte n'affecte pas la
validité des accords ou conventions de Mandat pour les raisons
suivantes :
I. Parce que ledit article 18 se réfèreaux ((traités ou engage-

ments internationaux » et que les accords de Mandat, bien que com-
pris dans ce genre de traités ou engagements internationaux, ont
une note caractéristique spéciale, en,ce sens qu'ils ne sont pas des
pactes entre Etats mais entre un Etat et une institution inter- '
nationale.

2. Parce que les accords de Mandat constituent des actesinternes
d'administration de la Société desNations.
3. Parce que la forme de publication et d'enregistrement des
accords de Mandat est tout à fait semblable à celle que l'article 18
du Pacte a prévue pour les traités.

4. Parce que le sens exact de la disposition de l'article 18 du
Pacte ne va pas, à mon avis, jusqu'à annuler ipso jure les traités
non enregistrés, mais simplement à établir en faveur d'une des
parties le droit d'opposer si elle le veut l'exception de la non-ad-
mission de l'obligation d'exécuter le traité. Toute autre interpré-

tation équivaudrait à détruire le principe de la bonnefoi qui régit,
comme norme fondamentale, la théorie juridique des actes conven-
tionnels et qui a reçu dans le droit international une consécration
explicite à l'article 2, paragraphe 2, de la Charte des Nations
Unies. Dans le présent cas, l'Union sud-africaine a reconnu et a
exercé pendant plusieurs années le Mandat du 17 décembre 1920
comme un accord ou conventionvalide, et le principe de la bonne foi

ne lui permettrait pas de modifier cette norme de conduite.
57generis, a chain of intentions expressed in successive acts in which
the conditions originally proposed by the Powers, with the consent
of the Mandatory, are finally defined by the Council of the League
of Nations. There is no indication in Article 22 of the Covenant as
to the instrumental form of the Mandate agreements, although a
general practice existed, in view of the very special nature of the
Mandates System, of including these agreements in "Declarations"
of the same kind as that of 17 December 1920 for the Mandate for
South West Africa. 1 have already said that in my view the officia1
instrument in which the Council's "Declaration" is contained in-
cludes of itself an act of registration of the Mandate without any
other form of registration being necessary. The Respondent does not
deny having always regarded this declaration as the real Mandate

convention. The pleadings in the first part of the proceedings con-
firm this consensus. Moreover, the form of publicity given to and
registration of these "declarations" or "agreements" laid down in
the final paragraph of the Mandate agreement for South West
Africa (Annex B) and in other similar agreements, is somewhat
different from but very similar to that provided for by Article 18
of the Covenant in the case of treaties. 1 am convinced that this
divergence from the solemn forms provided for in Article 18 of the
Covenant does not affect the validity of the Mandate agreements or
conventions for the following reasons :

I. Because Article 18 refers to "treaty or international engage-
ment" and the Mandate agreements, although included among such
treaties or international engagements, have a special characteristic
inthat they are not covenants between States but between a State
and an international organization.

2. Because the Mandate agreements are interna1 administrative
instruments of the League of Nations.

3. Because the form of publication and registration of the Man-
date agreements is entirely similar to that laid down by Article 18
of the Covenant in the case of treaties.
4. Because the exact meaning of Article 18 of the Covenant does
not in my view extend to nullifying unregistered treaties ipso jzrre,
but simply creates for one of the parties the right if it wishes of
raising the objection of inadmissibility of the obligation to perform
the treaty. Any other interpretation would tend to destroy the

principle ofgoodfaith which governs, as a basic rule, the legal theory
of conventional instruments and which has received explicit con-
firmation in international law in Article2,paragraph 2, of the Charter
of the United Nations. In the present case South Africa recognized
and exercized the Mandate of 17 December 1920 for a number of
years as a valid agreement or convention, and cannot by the prin-
ciple ofgood faith be allowed to alter that course of conduct. c) L'agent de la République sud-africaine, au cours de la dernière
audience de la procédure orale, a modifiéla première de ses conclu-
sions présentéesà la fin des plaidoiries dans un sens qui renverse
entièrement sa position traditionnelle. En effet, 1'Etat défendeur
a toujours reconnu l'existence de I'accord de Mandat consistant
à la ((Déclaration » du 17 décembre 1920. II a en outre reconnu
la vigueur intégrale de cet accord jusqu'à la date de la dissolution
de la Sociétédes Nations, c'est-à-dire pendant plus de vingt-cinq
ans (1920-1946), en acceptant qu'après cette date le Mandat, bien

qu'à son avis caduc en tant que convention, survive comme une
réalitédérivéede l'institution établie par l'article 22 du Pacte.
Mais au dernier moment, le défendeur affirme qu'il n'y a jamais
eu un véritable accord de Mandat parce que la (Déclaration 1)
du 17 décembre 1920 n'a étéqu'un document unilatéral émispar
le Conseil de la Sociétédes Nations, lequel, tout au plus, représente
une esquisse préparatoire de ce qui devrait êtrele futur accord de
Mandat.
Je trouve mal fondéecette conclusion avec la plus grande certi-
tude morale et juridique. En premier lieu, 1'Etat défendeur a con-
sidéréinvariablement comme une véritéde bonne foi que l'accord
de Mandat s'identifiaitavec la Déclaration. Deuxièmement,

j'ai démontré dansles pages précédentes que l'élément convention-
nel de l'acceptation du mandataire est présent dans tous les para-
graphes du préambule de ladite Déclaration où mention est faite
de l'agrément donné par le Gouvernement de l'Union sud-afri-
caine pour exercer le Mandat. Troisièmement, la Déclaration a
étécommuniquée et connue dudit Gouvernement, sans que celui-ci
n'ait jamais opposé devant le Conseil la moindre allégation ou
réserveà l'égardde la portée de l'accord. Quatrièmement, I'Ynion
sud-africaine, devenue République sud-africaine, a exercépendant
quarante-deux ans le Mandat sur le Sud-Ouest africain sur la base
du document de décembre 1920. Cinquièmement, durant les pre-

miers stades de cette procédure, la République sud-africaine a
présenté la Déclaration comme étant le document constitutif
de l'accord (annexe B des exceptions préliminaires).
En conséquence, cette conclusion du défendeur doit, à mon avis,
êtrerejetée.
d) Comme autre fondement de sa première exception contre la
compétence de la Cour, le défendeur allègue que la clause compro-
missoire inséréedans l'article7 de l'accord de Mandat de décembre
1920 est une espèced'incrustation bâtarde, une véritable anomalie

introduite dans ce document par le Conseil de la Société des Na-
tions. En le faisant, ce Conseil - dit-on - a dépassél'exercice
de ses fonctions, car l'article22 du Pacte n'inclut pas parmi les
conditions du Mandat la clause compromissoire. De plus, quant
àsaformeexterne,la clause compromissoire de l'article 7 du Mandat
ne constitue pas un véritable traité dans le sens de l'article8 du
Pacte de la Société desNations.
58 (c) The Agent for the Republic of South Africa, at the last public
hearing, amended the first of the submissions read at the end
of the oral arguments in a way which entirely alters the position
taken up till then. The Respondent State has in fact always recog-

nized the existence of the Mandate agreement constituted by the
"Declaration" of 17 December 1920.It has moreover recognized that
this agreement remained fully in force until the date of dissolution
of the League of Nations, that is to say for more than 25 years
(1920-1946),by admitting that after that date the Mandate, although
in its view having lapsed as a convention, survives as a reality
derived from the institution created by Article 22 of the Covenant.
But at the last moment the Respondent asserts that there never
was a true Mandate agreement because the "Declaration" of 17
December 1920 Kas only a unilateral document issued by the
Council of the League of Nations and which, at the most, represents
a preparatory outline of what was to have been the future Mandate
agreement.
\Vit11the greatest moral and legal conviction 1 find that this
submission is not well founded. In the first place, the Respondent
has consistently regarded it as established in good faith that the
Mandate agreement was identical with the Declaration. Secondly,

1 have shown in the foregoing pages that the contractual element
of acceptance by the Mandatory is present in al1the paragraphs of
the preamble of that Declaration, where reference is made to the
Government of the Union of South Africa having agreed to accept the
exercise of the Mandate. Thirdly, the Declaration was forwarded to
that Government and brought to its knowledge without it ever
having raised in the Council any allegation or the slightest reserva-
tion with regard to the siçnificance of the agreement. Fourthly, the
lTnion of South Africa, now the Republic of South Africa, has exer-
cized the Mandate for South West Africa for 42 years on the basis
of the document of December 1920. Fifthly, during the early stages
of these proceedings, the Republic of South Africa filed the Decla-
ration as being the document constituting the agreement (Annex B
to the Preliminary Objections).
In my view, therefore, this submission of the Respondent must be
dismissed.

(d) As another ground for its first objection to the jurisdiction
of the Court the Respondent contends that the compromissory
clause inserted in Article 7 of the December 1920 Mandate agree-
ment is a sort of bastard accretion, an anomaly introduced into the
the document by the Council of the League of Nations. In doing so,
it is argued, the Councilexceeded its powers, since Article 22 of the
Covenant did not include the compromissory clause among the
conditions of the Mandate. Moreover, in respect of its external form,
the compromissory clause in Article 7 of the Mandate does not
constitute a true treaty within the meaning of Article 18 of the
Covenant of the League of Nations.

58 J'ai déjà abordé cette matière dans une autre section de la pré-
sente opinion.
S'il est évident que l'appel à la juridiction de la Cour permanente
n'était pas prévu à l'article22 du Pacte comme une des conditions

originaires des accords de Mandat, il est aussi vrai que selon le
paragraphe 8 de l'article22 du Pacte le Conseil de la Société des
Nations était investi d'autorité pour «statuer »sur les conditions
d'administration et de contrôle de chaque Mandat. J'ai fait état
auparavant des nombreuses raisons pour lesquelles le Conseil a
dû, comme un acte de bonne administration du Mandat, inclure la
$ause compromissoire dans les accords conclus avec plusieurs
Etats mandataires à l'égard de divers territoires. De leur côté,
ces mandataires - parmi lesquels la République sud-africaine -,
loin de refuser l'insertion de cette clause l'ont acceptée expressé-
ment ou tacitement. Jamais l'article7 n'a étéle sujet d'une dé-

nonciation de la part de l'Afrique du Sud. Mais, au contraire, cet
Etat a expressément pactisé avec la Grande-Bretagne au sujet
de la clause compromissoire au moment d'accepter le Mandat,
d'après leprojet Balfour dont le texte a été labase de la Déclara-
tion du Conseil du 17 décembre 1920
La clause compromissoire est, en outre - je l'ai déjà dit-, le
moyen juridique de trouver une solution définitive aux différends
qui peuvent se produire entre la Société desNations ou ses Etats
Membres et le mandataire dans le domaine administratif ou poli-
tique à l'occasion de l'exercice des pouvoirs de contrôle dont men-
tion est faite dans le paragraphe g de l'article 22 du Pacte et

dans l'article 6 de l'accord de Mandat. Dans la vie internationale
- il faut en prendre note - la procédure institutionnelle ou admi-
nistrative ne disposent pas de recours suffisants pour toujours
aboutir au règlement des conflits. Il faut dans certains cas en appeler
à l'autorité d'un tiers pouvoir impartial qui donne, au nom du
droit, un prononcé décisif.La Sociétédes Nations, comme telle,
n'a pas la possi)ilité d'utiliser la voie de la controverse litigieuse
vis-à-vis d'un Etat, le concept de la souyeraineté ne concordant
pas avec cette attitude. Ce sont donc les Etats Membres possédant
le mêmeintérêtjuridique que la Sociétéqui sont appelés à cette
fonction par l'article 7 du Mandat.

Si la clause compromissoire, n'était pas appelée à fonctionner à
la demande d'un des (autres Etats Membres », tout le système du
.Mandat international pourrait échouer, étant donné qu'il n'y
aurait aucun moyen juridique décisif capable de trancher les
«impasses » entre le mandataire et la Sociétédes Nations, au sujet
du contrôle administratif. L'exemple nous en a étédonnéprécisé-
ment dans cette affaire où, depuis nombre d'années, le fonction-
nement normal du Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain est troublé et
son contrôle paralysé, vu l'impuissance ou l'inefficacitéd'une solu-
tion administrative ou politique pour mettre fin au différend

existant. 1 have already touched upon this subject in another section of
this opinion.
While it is clear that recourse to the jurisdiction of the Permanent
Court \vas not included in Article22 of the Covenant as one of the
original conditions of the Mandate agreements, it is also true that
under paragraph 8 of Article 22 of the Covenant the Council of the
League of Xations was empowered "to define" the conditions of
administration and control of each Mandate. 1 have already set out
the man'- reasons for which the Council had, as an act of good
Mandate administration, to include the compromissory clause in the
agreements with a number of Mandatory States for various terri-
tories. For their part the Mandatories, including the Republic of
South Xfrica, far from refusing the insertion of this clause, accepted
it explicitly or tacitly. Artic7e\vas never the subject of a denun-

ciation bj- South Africa. On the contrary, South Africa expressly
agreed with Great Britain concerning the compromissory clause
when accepting the Mandate, according to the Balfour draft the
text of \?.hich was the basis for the Council's Declaration of17 De-
cember 1930.

Moreover, as 1 have already said, the compromissory clause
is the legal means of providing a final settlement for disputes arising
between the League of Nations or its Members and the Mandatory
inthe administrative or political fieldin connection with the exercise
of the supervisory powers referred to in paragraph g of Article22
of the Covenant and in Article 6 of the Mandate agreement. It
must be noted that in international life sufficientpowers are lacking
in institutional or administrative procedures for a settlement of
conflicts always to be possible by those means. In some cases it is
necessary to have recourse to the authority of an impartial third
Pov-er which gives a final legal decision. The League of Nations

as such had not the possibility of bringing contentious proceedings
against a State, the concept of sovereignty forbidding such an
approach. It was thus the States Members, possessed of the same
legal interest as the League, which were endowed with that function
by Article 7 of the Mandate.

If the compromissory clause could not be brought into opera-
tion at the request of "another Member", the whole international
Mandate system might fail because there would be no decisive
legal means of settling deadlocks between the Mandatory and the
League of Nations with regard to administrative supervision.
An example of this is afforded by the present case, the normal
operation of the Mandate for South West Africa having been upset
and supervision paralyzed for many years, owing to the power-
lessness or ineffectiveness of an administrative or political solution
to put an end to the existing dispute.375 AFF. S.-O.AFRICAIK (OPIN. IXDIV. M. BUSTAMANTE)

En ce qui concerne la forme instrumentaire, j'ai déjà expliqué
qu'en vertu du caractère spécial des accords de Mandat, la forme
solennelle d'un traité international n'était pas yiable parce que
cela n'avait pas trait à une convention entre deux Etats, mais entre
la Société desNations et 1'Etat mandataire, aux fins d'administra-
tion interne de ladite entité. En revanche, l'article final de l'accord

du 17 décembre 1920 a régléla publicité et l'enregistrement de
la convention, y compris la clause compromissoire, en prescrivant le
dépôtde la (Déclaration de Mandat D,document officieldu Conseil,
dans les archives de la So~iétéet l'envoi des copies certifiées au
Secrétaire généralet aux Etats signataires du traité de Versailles.
C'est à peu près la mêmeforme d'enregistrement qui est prescrite

à l'article 18 du Pacte pour les traités internationaux. Toutes les
précautions concernant la diffusion et la garantie de l'authenticité
des accords étaient prises.
La clause compromissoire contenue dans l'article 7 de l'instru-
ment de Mandat n'était pas soumise aux règles de la clause fa-
cultative prévues à l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente

de Justice internationale parce que ce Statut n'est entréen vigueur
que plus tard. En effet, le Statut, dont le protocole de signature
porte la date du 16 décembre 1920, n'a étés ,igné que graduelle-
ment pendant les mois suivants par les Etats Membres de la
Sociétédes Nations. La résolution de l'Assembléedu 13 décembre
1920, citéedans le protocole de signature, prévoyait que le Statut

entrerait en vigueur (dès que ce protocole aurait étératifié par
la majorité des Membres de la Société n. L'Union sud-africaine
ne l'a ratifié que le 4 août 1921~. Les ratifications prévues dans
la résolution du 13 décembre 1920 n'ayant pas atteint immédia-
tement la majorité requise, ce n'est que le I~~septembre 1921 que
le Statut est entré en vigueur2, c'est-à-dire plus de huit mois après

la date du Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain contenant l'article 7
de la clause compromissoire. Ce n'est qu'après le I~~ septembre
1921 que l'on a procédé à la préparation de la première élecrion
de juges3. Ainsi, au moment de l'approbation du Mandat du Sud-
Ouest africain l'article 36 du Statut n'avait pas encore force de
loi; et, par la suite, aucun défaut formel n'a pu être imputé à la

clause comproniissoire de l'instrument de Mandat.
Mais il y a d'autres aspects très importants à ce sujet:
I. L'Union sud-africaine a ratifié, le 4 août 192~, le protocole
du 16 décembre 1920 qui ouvra à la signature des Etats Membres

de la Société desNations le Statut de la Cour permanente de
de Justice internationale 4.

liste, Genève, 1944.de la Société des YatioSupplément spécial no 193, 21me
Manley O. Hudson, (La Cour permanente de Justice internationa»,Paris,
Pédone, éditeur, 1936, pp. à3138.
Op. cit., pp. 116-120.
Cour permanente de Justice international5me rapportannuel (1928-1929),
p. 371. Collection de textes régissant la compétence de la Cour pSérieD,te,
no 6, p. 18.
60 As regards the form of the instrument, 1 have already explained
that because of the special nature of the Mandate agreements
the solemn form of an international treaty was not workable
because what was involved was not a convention between two
States, but one between the League of Nations and the Mandatory
Çtate for the purpose of the interna1 administration of the League.

However, the final article of the Agreement of 17 December 1920
provided for the publicity to be given to and the registration of
the convention, including thc compromissory clause, by prescribing
that the "Mandate Declaration", an officia1document of the Coun-
cil, should be deposited in the archives of the League of Nations
and that certified copies should be sent to the Secretary-General
and to al1the sjgnatoires oftheTreaty of Versailles. This is much the

same form ofregistrationas isprescribed inArticle 18of the Covenant
for international treaties. The necessary safeguards concerning the
dissemination and authenticity of the agreements were provided for.
The compromissory clause contained in Article 7 of the Mandate
instrument was not subject to the rules governing the optional
clause laid down in Article 36 of the Statute of the Permanent
Court of International Justice, since that Statute only came into
force later. Indeed, the Statute, the Protocol of Signature of which

is dated 16 December 1920, was signed only gradually during the
following months bythe States Members of the League of Nations.
The Assembly's resolution of 13 December 1920, mentioned in the
Protocol of Signature, provided that the Statute would come into
force "as soon as this Protocol has been ratified by the majority
of the Members of the League". The Union of South Afnca ratified
it only on 4 August 1921 l. The ratifications provided for in the
resolution of 13 December 1920 not having reached the required

majority immediately, the Statute entered into force only on
I September 1921 2, that is to Say, more than eight months after
the date of the Mandate for South West Africa containing the
compromissory clause in Article 7. It was not until after I Septem-
ber 1921 that preparations were set on foot for the first election of
judges 3.Thus, at the date of the approval of the Mandate for
South Africa, Article 36 of the Statute had not yet acquired
binding force and, subsequently, no forma1 defect could be imputed

to the compromissory clause of the Mandate instrument.
But there are other very important aspects of the subject.
I. The Union of South Africa ratified, on 4 August 1921, the
Protocol of 16 December 1920 which opened the Statute of the
Permanent Court of International Justice for signature by States

Members of the League of Nations4.
1 League of Nations, Oficzal Jounzal, Special Supplement No. 193, Twenty-first
List, Geneva, 1944.
Manley O. Hudson, Permanent Court of Internatzonal Justzce, New York, 1934,
PP. 134-135
HU~SOI, op czt , pp 116-120
4 ThePermanent Court of InternatioJust~e, 5th Annual Report (1928-I~ZQ),
No. 6, page 18.tion of Texts governing the jurisdicof the Court, Series D,

60 2. En date du 19 septembre 1929,l'Union sud-africainea souscrit
pour dix ans (susceptibles de prorogation) la disposition facultative

de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour permanente,
et l'a ratifiée le 7 avril 1930 l.Cette adhésion à la clause facultative
a étérenouvelée le 7 avril 1940 ((jusqu'à notification de l'abro-
gation »2.

3. .AUsens de l'article 93, paragraphe 1, de la Charte des Nations
Unies, les Etats qui prennent part à la présente controverse, par
le fait mêmequ'ils sont Etats Membres de l'organisation, sont
également Parties au Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice.
L'acceptation en 1945 de ce Statut entraîne par conséquent l'ac-

ceptation de son article 37, qui établit le transfert à la Cour in-
ternationale de Justice de la juridiction de la Cour permanente
dans les cas prévus par ledit article. On peut donc conclure que
la République sud-africaine a, depuis son acceptation du Statut de
la nouvelle Cour, accepté par acte volontaire le remplacement

de la Cour permanente par la Cour internationale de Justice dans
le cas concret prévu par l'article 7 du Mandat pour le Sud-Ouest
africain, qui était pour ladite République ((une convention en vi-
gueur ),au sens de l'article 37 du Statut. Jamais, ni à la date de
l'adhésion au Statut ni après cette date, la République sud-afri-
caine n'a formulé aucune réserve ni énoncéaucune exception ten-

dant à exclure le cas de l'article 7 du Mandat de son acceptation
de l'article 37 du Statut de la Cour internationale. Il est donc légi-
time de cozlclure que l'acceptation de l'article 37 a étésimple,
totale et sans restriction. Le cas de l'article 7 du Mandat est auto-
matiquement inclus dans la disposition statutaire de l'article 37.

D'ailleurs, l'article 35 du Statut-de la Cour internationale dispose
que (la Cour est ouverte aux Etats parties au présent Statut »;
le Liberia, 1'Ethiopie et la République sud-africaine ont, en tant
que telles, bénéficié de cette disposition.

4. Le 12 septembre 1955 1'Cnion sud-africaine a adhéré à la
juridiction de la Cour internationale de Justice, en acceptant la
clause facultative inséréeau paragraphe 2, article 36 du Statut 3.
Il me semble hors de doute qu'à la base de cette attitude la dispo-

sition chronologiquement antérieure de l'article 7 du Mandat du
Sud-Ouest africain a été confirmée comme étant du domaine de
la juridiction de la Cour internationale de Justice.
Il J-a eu alors deux actes de volonté par lesquels la République
sud-africaine a accepté le transfert de juridiction de la Cour per-

1 Premier addendum à la quatrième édition de la collection des textes régissant
la compétence de la Cour permanente. Leyde, 1932, p. 7.Bme Rapport annuel de
la Cour permanente, 1932.
16me Rapport de la Cour permanente de Justiceinternationale,p. 326.--
Annuaire de la Cour internationalde Justice, 1946-1947, p. 217.
Cour internationalede Justice, ilnnuairergjj-1956, p. 178; id.1gj9-1960,
p. zj?;id. 1960-1961, p. 216. 2. On 19 September 1929 the Union of South-Africa subscribed
for IO years (susceptible of prolongation) to the optional clause in
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Permanent Court,
and ratified the declaration on 7 April 1930~. This acceptance of
the optional clause was renewed on 7 April 1940 "until such time

as notice may be given to terminate the acceptance" 2.
3. Under Article 93, paragraph 1, of the Charter of the United
Nations, the States participating in the present controversy
are, by reason of the fact that they are States Members of the
Organization, also parties to the Statute of the International Court
of Justice. Acceptance of the Statute in 1945 consequently involved

acceptance of its Article 37 which provides for the transfer to the
International Court of Justice of the jurisdiction of the Permanent
Court in the cases covered by that Article. It may therefore be
concluded that the Republic of South Africa lias, since its acceptance
of the Statute of the new Court, voluntarily accepted the replace-
ment of the Permanent Court by the International Court of Justice
in the concrete case provided for by Article 7 of the Mandate for
South West Africa, which was for the Republic "a convention

in force" within the meaning of Article 37 of the Statute. At no
time, neither at the date of adherence to the Statute nor since
that date, has the Republic of South Africa made any reservation
or formulated any exception to exclude the case of Article 7 of
the Mandate from its acceptance of Article 37 of the Statute of
the International Court. It is therefore legitimate to conclude that
its acceptance of Article 37 was simple, complete and unrestricted.
The case of Article 7 of the Mandate is automatically included in
the statutory provision of Article 37. Moreover, Article 35 of the

Statute of the International Court provides that "the Court shall
be open to the States parties to the present Statute". Liberia,
Ethiopia and the Republic of South Africa have, in their capactiy
as such, the benefit of that provision.
4. On 12 September 1955 the Union of South Africa recognized

the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, by accepting
the optional clause in paragraph 2 of Article 36 of the Statute3.
It seems to me to be beyond doubt that on the basis of that attitude
the chronologically earlier provision of Article 7 in the Mandate
for South IlTest Africa was confirmed as being within the domain
of the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice.
There were then two voluntary acts by which the Republic
of South Africa accepted the transfer of jurisdiction from the

First addendum to the fourth edition of the Collection of Texts governing the
jurisdiction of the Court.en, 1932, page 7. Eigth Annual Report of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justi1932.
2 SixteenthReport of the Permanent Court of InternationaJustice, p. 334.
I'earbookof the InternationCourt of Justice, 1946-1947, p. 21j.
InternationaCourt of Justice, Yearbook 195j-1956, page 184; 1959-1960,
page 253; 1960-1961, page 215.
61 manente à la Cour internationale: en premier lieu, la souscription

à l'article 37 du Statut; et en second lieu, l'adhésion à la clause
facultative de1955. Ces actes réalisésalors que l'accord de Mandat
du 17 décembre 1920 était en vigueur renforcent, confirment et
rendent inamovible l'article 7 dudit accord qui contient la clause
comprornissoire.
e) Il y a un autre vice de validité que le défendeur attribue à
la clause compromissoire de l'article 7 de l'accord de Mandat, à
savoir que dans ladite clause sont mentionnés comme parties

capables d'invoquer la juridiction de la Cour ((d'autres Etats
Membres de la Société desNations », nonobstant que les parties
à l'accord sont seulement la Sociétédes Nations et le manda-
taire. De l'avis du défendeur, ces (autres États Membres ))sont
des tierces personnes juridiques indûment appelées à prendre
partie dans les questions judiciaires, dérivéesdes Mandats. En
outre, actuellement, il n'y a plus d'Etats Membres de la Société
des Nations, laquelle fut dissoute il y a seize ans; donc la clause
compromissoire est d'exécution impossible. Elle n'est plus en
vigueur.
En réalité,cette observation vise la matière de la deuxième

exception préliminaire, et c'est pour cela que je m'en occuperai
lorsque j'examinerai ladite exception. Je puis dire d'avance qu'à
mon avis l'observation n'est pas fondée.

Il s'ensuit de tout ce qui a étédit que l'accord de Mandat du
Sud-Ouest africain est une convention en vigueur et qu'en vertu
de la stipulation contenue dans l'article7 dudit accord, l'article37
du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice est applicable à
la présente controverse. A mon avis, la première exception préli-
minaire est mal fondée.

Deuxièmeexceptionpréliminaire

L'énoncéde la deuxième exception préliminaire formulée par
le défendeur est, à peu près, le suivant: conformément à l'article7
de l'accord de Mandat, le différend duquel devrait connaître la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale viendrait s'éleverentre
le mandataire et ((un autre Etat Membre de la SociétédesNations )).
Mais dans le différend actuel ne figure aucun « Etat Membre 1)
de ladite entité, laquelle n'existe plus depuis, avril 1946. Ceux
qui figurent en demandeurs, le Libéria et llEthiopie, sont des

ex-Membres de la Sociétédissoute et ne conservent pas, par consé-
quent, la qualité active de Membres que l'article 7 exige. Les
demandeurs n'ont donc pas de ((locus standi)>pour ester devant
la Cour. En outre, on ne comprend pas pourquoi le Conseil de
la Société desNations a pu faire intervenir comme parties à l'ac-
62Permanent Court to the International Court: in the first place,
the subscribing to Articl37 of the Statute; and secondly, adherence
tothe optional clause in 1955.These acts,undertaken at a time when
the Mandate Agreement of 17 December 1920 was in force, rein-
force, confirm and render irremovable Article 7 of that Agreement
which contains the compromissory clause.

(e) There is another defect vitiating its validity which the
Respondent attributes to the compromissory clause in Article 7
of the Mandate agreement, which is that that clause refers to
"another Member of the League of Nations" as the definition
of the partieswith capacityto invoke the jurisdiction of the Court,
notwithstanding the fact that the parties to the agreement are
only the League of Nations and the Mandatory. In the Respondent's
view, such "another Member" is a third legal person improperly
invited to be a party to judicial questions deriving from the Man-
dates. Furthermore, there are not now any more Members of the
League of Nations, which was dissolved sixteen years ago, therefore
the compromissory clause cannot be implemented. It is no longer
in force.
In fact, this observation relates to the subject-matter of the
Second Preliminary Objection, and that is why 1 shall deal with it
in my consideration of that Objection. 1can Say in advance that in
my view the observation is not well founded.

It follows from the foregoing that the Mandate Agreement
for South West Africa is a convention in force, and that by virtue
of the provision contained in Article 7 of that Agreement, Ar-
ticle 37 of thetatute of the International Court of Justice is appli-

cable to the present controversy. In my view the First Preliminary
Objection is not well founded.

Second Preliminary Objection

The Second Preliminary Objection is formulated bythe Respond-
ent more or less as follows: according to Article7 of the Mandate
Agreement, a dispute to be heard and determined bythe Permanent
Court of International Justice would be one arising between the
Mandatory and "another Member of the League of Nations".
But in the present dispute there is no "Member" of the League
involved, the League having ceased to exist in April 1946. The
States which are Applicants, Liberia and Ethiopia, are ex-Members
of the dissolved League and have not therefore preserved the active
membership required by Article 7. The Applicants have therefore
no "locus standi" to appear before the Court. Moreover, it is
incomprehensible that the Council of the League of Nations should
have brought in as a party to the Mandate Agreement "another

62cord de Mandat les ((autres États Membres de la Société )) qui
sont des tierces personnes sans aucun intérêtjuridique direct dans
l'exécution du Mandat. (Exceptions préliminaires, texte français,

P. Pour apprécier si cette exception est ou non bien fondée, il
faut, une fois de plus, prendre note de la nature de l'institution

du Mandat international créépar l'article 22 du Pacte de 1919.
Je dois me référersurtout aux chapitres ((Les élémentsdu Mandat
international 1)et Notes caractéristiques du Mandat internatio-
nal », paragraphe 7, de la présente opinion.
En synthèse, l'interprétation doctrinaire du système des Mandats
introduit par le Pacte peut s'énoncerainsi: une (mission sacrée »
au bénéfice des peuples sous-développésdes anciennes colonies a été
confiéeaux Membres de la Société des Nation: qui représentent

la communauté internationale. Chacun de ces Etats Membres est
lié, de ((mancomum et in solidum 1)avec la Société, à l'obliga-
tion et à la responsabilité de réaliser les buts d'aide, de pro-
grès et de protection desdits peuple: que l'article 22 du Pacte
envisage. En conséquence, chaque Etat Membre a un intérêt
juridique individuel pour que les Mandats confiés par la Société
aux divers mandataires soient dûment exécutés et accomplis.
Dans les accords de Mandat, les Etats Membres ne sont donc pas

des élémentsétrangers ou des cctiers))indifférents à la relation
contractuelle, mais des parties conjointes avec la Société des
Nations pour l'obtention de ses fins.

C'est ainsi qu'on explique la participation des États iclembres,
au côté de la Société,dans ,la clause compromissoire des accords
de Mandat. Chacun de ces Etats acquiert un droit d'intervention
judiciaire pour défendre les intérêtsde la population sous Mandat;

et ce droit - qui est à la fois une responsabilité - s'étend fitout le
temps que dure le Mandat. A partir de l'entrée en vigueur de l'ac-
ord conclu avec le mandataire, ce droit d'intervention des autres
Etats Membres s'incorpore au patrimoine juridique de cizacztn
d'eux, non pas en fonction de la durée de la Société desSations,
mais en fonction de la duréedzcMandat lai-mime. La possession
de ce droit par les Etats qui l'ont acquis dépasse alors la vie de
la Société desNations, même sielle est dissoute avant l'expiration

du Mandat.
Le Conseil de la Société desNations n'a donc pas commis d'excès
de pouvoir quand - à l'article7 du Mandat - il a reconnu aux
Etats Membres de la Sociétédes Nations le droit de prendre part
aux affaires concernant l'exercice du Mandat. Tout l'ensemble de
l'article22 du Pacte, examiné à la lumière des antécédentshisto-
riques déjà rappelés, et principalement ses paragraphes I et 2,
permet de découvrir le but poursuivi par ses auteurs de faire parti-

ciper tous les Etats Membres de la communauté internationale
incorporés à la Sociétéà la «mission sacrée de civilisation 1)conçue
63 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 378

Member of the League of Nations", such a State being a third
person without any direct legal interest in the implementation
of the Mandate (Preliminary Objections, p. 149).

To judge whether this Objection is well founded or not, it is
necessary once again to have regard to the nature of the interna-
tional Mandate institution created by Article 22 of the Covenant
of 19191 . refer in particular to the sections headed "The elements
of the international Mandate" and "Characteristic features of the
international Mandate", paragraph 7 of the present Opinion.
In summary form, the doctrinal interpretation of the Mandates
System instituted by the Covenant may be stated as follows: a
"sacred trust" for the benefit of the under-developed peoples of
the former colonies was entrusted to the Members of the League

of Nations, which represented the international community.
Each of those States Members is bound, jointly and severally
with the League, by the obligation and by the responsibility to
promote the purposes envisaged ,in Article 22 of the Covenant,
namely, to assist, advance and protect the peoples concerned.
In consequence, each State Member has an individual legal interest
in seeing that the Mandates entrusted by the League of Nations
to the various Mandatories are properly performed and fulfilled.
In the Mandate agreements the States Members are thus not alien
elements or "third persons" having no connection with the con-
tractual relationship, but joint parties with the League of Nations
for the achievement of its objectives.
This is the explanation of the participation of the States Members,
alongside the League, in the compromissory clause of the Mandate

agreements. Each of these States acquires a right of legal inter-
vention to protect the interests of the mandated population; and
this right-which is at the same time a responsibility-extendç
to the wholeduration of the Mandate. From the entry into force of
the agreement with the Mandatory-, this right of intervention of
other States Members becomes #art of the legal heritageof each one
of them, not for the duration of the League of Nations, but for
the duration of the Mandate itself. Possession of this right by the
States which acquired it thus extends beyond the life of the League
of Nations, even if the League is dissolved before the expiry of the
Mandate.
The Council of the League of Nations was therefore certainly
not acting ultra viveswhen-in Article7 of the Mandate-it granted

to States Members of the League of Nations the right to participate
in cases relating to the exercise of the Mandate. The whole of Ar-
ticle22 of the Covenant, considered in the light of the historical
background, previouslyreferred to, and in particular its paragraphs
I and 2, makes it possible to see the aim pursued by the authors
to enable al1 the States Members of the international community
incorporated in the League to participate in the "sacred trust of
63379 AFF. S.-O. AFRICAIN (OPIN. INDIV. M. BUSTAMANTE)

et établie pour le bien-être et le développement des peuples non
capables de se diriger eux-mêmes.Si les paragraphes 7 et 8 de l'ar-
ticle22 confèrent au Conseil, représentant la Sociétédes Nations,
des attributions spécifiquesau sujet de la surveillance du Mandat,
cela ne prive pas les Etats Membres de leur intérêtjuridique pour
l'accomplissement des conditions au moyen desquelles le Mandat
se développe. Les Etats Membres sont, dans ce sens, des colla-
borateurs inséparables de l'action de la Société.

Tout cela conduit à conclure que l'allusion aux ((autres États
Membres ))faite par l'article7 du Mandat du Sud-Ouest africain
doit êtreinterprétéecomme se référantaux États qui ont appartenu
en qualité de Membres à la Sociétédes Nations jusqu'à sa dissolu-
tion. Ladite ,qualité les a pourvus d'un pouvoir inhérent à leur
condition d'Etats pour jouer le rôle de parties conformément à
l'article7 du Mandat pendant tout le temps que le Mandat sera
exercépar le mandataire. C'est seulement de cette façon que l'on
peut servir les buts de l'institution.
Si l'on n'admettait pas cette interprétation et étant donné

que la Sociétédes Nations comme telle fut dissoute, on arriverait
à la conclusion - juridiquement inacceptable - que les popula-
tions sous mandat n'auraient pas eu la possibilité de recourir au
pouvoir judiciaire international à cause d'abus ou déviations
possibles du mandataire. Et il faut bien se rappeler que le droit
de défense devant la justice est expressément mentionné dans la
déclaration des Droits de l'homme.
Etant donné que le Libéria et l'Éthiopie ont étéMembres de la
Sociétédes Nations jusqu'à sa dissolution, ces deux Etats ont -
à mon avis - le droit d'invoquer la juridiction de la Cour confor-
mément à l'article 7 du Mandat pour le Sud-Ouest africain et à

l'article37 du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice.

Troisièmeexception

De l'avis du défendeur, ((le désaccord entre les demandeurs t.r
la République sud-africaine n'est pas un différend ))ainsi qu'il
est prévu par l'article 7 du Mandat ))A la lumière de cet article,
les différends susceptibles d'êtresoumis à la Cour devront remplir
certaines conditions ou qualités qui n'apparaissent pas dans la
présente affaire. La requête des demandeurs serait donc irrecevable.
En poussant son raisonnement, le défendeur fait remarquer que

selon les mémoires des demandeurs, l'objet de la controverse con-
siste à définirs'iy a eu violation des obligations imposéesau man-
dataire par les articles2 à 6 du Mandat en faveur du peuple soumis
au Mandat. Mais de l'avis du défendeur, cette démarche des de-
mandeurs ne s'accorde pas avec le principe selon lequel le règle-
ment judiciaire n'est ouvert que si un droit ou un intérêtjuridique
direct de la Partie demanderesse est en cause. La défensedes po-

54 civilization" conceived and established for the well-being and
development of peoples not yet able to stand by themselves.

If paragraphs 7 and 8 of Article22 confer upon the Council, re-
presenting the League of Nations, specific functions with regard
to supervision of the Mandate, that does not deprive Member
States of their legal interest in the performance of the conditions
by means of which the Mandate is carried out. The Member States
are, in this sense, inseparable collaborators in the action of the
League.
Al1 this leads to the conclusion that the reference to "another
Member of the League of Nations" in Article 7 of the Mandate
for South West Africa must be interpreted as referring to States
which were Members of the League of Nations up to its dissolution.
That membership gave them a power inherent in their status as
States to act as parties in accordance with Article7 of the Mandate
during the whole of the time that the Mandate is exercized by the
Mandatory. It is only in this way that the purposes of the institu-
tion can be served.
If this interpretatiowere not accepted, and since the League of

Nations as such has been dissolved, the legally unacceptable
conclusion would be reached that the mandated populations would
not have had the possibility of recourse to international judicial
authority in respect of possible abuses or deviations by the Manda-
tory. And it must be recalled that the right of defence before the
law is expressly mentioned in the Declaration of Human Rights.

Since Liberia and Ethiopia were Members of the League of
Nations up to its dissolution, those two States have, in my view,
the right to invoke the jurisdiction of the Court in accordance with
Article 7of the Mandate for South West Africa and Article 37 of the
Statute of the International Court of Justice.

Third Objection

In the opinion of the Respondent, "the disagreement between
the Applicants and the Republic of South Africa is not a 'dispute'
as envisaged in Article7 of the Mandate". In view of the provisions

of that Article disputes capable of being referred to the Court must
satisfy certain conditions, or be of certain kinds, which is not so
in the present case. The Applications of the Applicants are therefore
said to be inadmissible.
Pursuing its reasoning, the Respondent points out that according
to the Memorials of the Applicants, the subject of the controversy
is concerned with whether there was a violation of the obligations
imposed on the Mandatory by Articles 2-6 of the Mandate for the
benefit of the peoples of the Mandated Territory. But, in the sub-
mission of the Respondent, the action of the Applicants does not
comply with the principle that a legal remedy is only available

64 pulations sous tutelle n'est pas de la compétence individuelle des
États Membres, car elle est une mission du Conseil de la Société
des Nations comme organe de contrôle du Mandat. Donc le tri-
bunal n'a pas à connaître d'une requête du genre de celle du
Libéria et de l'Éthiopie où les droits et les intérêtsdirects de
ces deux États ne sont pas mis en cause. Les États Membres de la
Sociétédes Nations pouvaient avoir sans doute certains intérêts
particuliers au sujet des territoires sous Mandat, par exemple dans
le cas du principe économique de la cporte ouverte » ou de la dé-

fense de leurs ressortissants en face d'actes abusifs dans l'exercice
du Mandat; mais aucun intérêtjuridique direct n'est attribuable
aux demandeurs en ce qui concerne la défense des droits ou des
intérêts de tiers, autrement dit, des populations placées, sous
Mandat. Dans ce domaine, les demandeurs n'ont pas de locus standi
pour recourir à la Cour.
Cette thèse du défendeur a étédéjà réfutée par l'argument
!ondésur la nature et les buts de l'institution des Mandats. Depuis
ie traité de Versailles, le Mandat a apporté au droit international

un principe nouveau qui traduit une exigence de la conscience
internationale: celui de la tutelle juridique pour le bien-êtreet le
développement des populations ex-coloniales. Les droits humains,
civiques, culturels et économiques de ces populations, ainsi que la
prohibition des abus qui pourraient être commis à leur propre
détriment, on étéexpressément proclamés par l'article 22 du Pacte
de la Société des Nations, celui-ci concordant dans son esprit avec
le ,préambule de cet instrument. A partir de ce moment-là, la
((mission sacrée » conféréeà la Sociétéet, par conséquent, à tous

et à chacun de ses Membres, n'est plus une mission ((morale » ou
« humanitaire »,mais clairement une mission d'une portée juridique
indéniable, proclamée par la loi internationale. Depuis lors, les
États Membres possèdent, en tant que parties intégrantes de la
Société,un intérêtjuridique direct dans la protection des peuples
sous-développés.C'est sans doute sur la base de ceç principes que
l'accord de Mandat a, en son article 7, conféréaux Etats Membres,
en leur qualité individuelle, le droit d'invoquer la clause compro-
missoire pour exiger du mandataire la juste application du Mandat.

Le Conseil de la Société des Nations avait autorité pour faire état
de ce droit parce que celui-ci découlenaturellement de la ((mission
sacrée n instituée par le Pacte et parce que le paragraphe 8, ar-
ticle22 de cet instrument donne au Conseil la faculté de c(statuer ))
sur les conditions du Mandat. Ladite disposition est d'ailleurs
parfaitement explicable étant donné que les articles 34 et 35 du
Statut de la Cour permanente ne donnaient pas à la Société des
Nations la possibilité d'exercer elle-même, en tant qu'entité,

un recours à la Cour, lequel était réservéaux États Membres et
aux États en général. Tous ces raisonnements sont confirméspar
le préambule et ;jar les articlesI (par. 2 et 3) et 2 (par. 5) de la
Charte des Natic~ns hies.
65 S. W. AFRICA CASES (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE BUSTAMANTE) 380

where a direct legal right or interest on the part of the Applicant
is in issue. The defence of the peoples under tutelage is not within
the individual competence of Member States since it is a function
of the Council of the League of Nations as supervisory organ under
the ;Ilandate. The Court therefore cannot deal with an application
such as those of Liberia and Ethiopia, dere no direct rights and
interests of the two States are involved. States Nembers of the
League of Kations might no doubt have certain interests of their
own with regard to Mandated territories, such asin the case of the
economic principle of the "open door", or the defence of their
nationals against acts which constituted an abuse of the Mandate;

but no direct legal interest can be attributed to the Applicants
in respect of the defence of the rights or interests of third parties,
in other words, the peoples of the Mandated territories. In this
domain, the Applicants have no locm standi before the Court.
This contention of the Respondent has already been refuted
by the argument based on the nature and purposes of the institu-
tion of Mandates. Since the Treaty of Versailles, Mandates have
introduced a new principle into intercational law, one which re-
flects a need of the international conscience: that of legal tutelage
for the well-being and development of former colonial peoples.
The human, civic, cultural and economic rights of these peoples,
and the prohibition of abuses which might be committed to their
prejudice, are expressly laid down in Article 22 of the Covenant of

the League of Nations which in its spirit is in harmony with the
Preamble of that instrument. From that moment, the "sacred
trust" conferred on the League and consequently on each and every
one of its Members, was no longer a "moral" or "humanitarian"
trust, but clearly one of an undeniably legal scope, laid down by
international law. Since that time, Member States, as integral
parts of the League itself, have possessed a direct legal interest
in the protection of underdeveloped peoples. It is no doubt on
the basis of these principles that the Mandate Agreement, in its
Article 7,conferïed upon Member States, in their individual capaci-
ty-, the right to invoke the compromissory clause to require of
the Ilandatory a correct application of the Mandate. The Council
of the League of Nations was authorized to include this right
because it is one which flows naturally from the "sacred trust"

instituted in the Covenant and because paragraph 8 of Article 22
of that instrument gives the Council the right to "define" the condi-
tions of the Mandate. The provision in question is indeed very
easy to understand since Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute of the
Permanent Court did not make it possible for the League of Nations
itself to have recourse, as a body, to the Court which was open
only to Member States and States in general. Al1 this reasoning
is confirmed by the Preamble and by Articles I (paras. 2 and 3)
and 2 (para. j) of the Charter of the Knited Nations.381 AFF. S.-O.AFRICAIN (OPIN. INDIV. M. BUSTAMANTE)

Sous un autre aspect, le texte littéral de l'article 7 du Mandat
constitue, à mon avis, le meilleur guide pour arriver à une interpré-
tation correcte. Selon ce texte, le mandataire accepte qu'un autre
Membre (quelconque) de la Société desNations puisse soumettre
à la Cour permanente tout différend, quel qu'il soit, visant l'inter-
prétation ou l'application des dispositions du Mandat. Ce texte ne
contient aucune limitation se rapportant à la qualité de l'intérêt

juridique en jeu, qu'il soit particulier ou général, qu'ilvise directe-
ment l'État demandeur ou qu'il concerne d'autres personnes juridi-
quement proches de celui-ci. Dans le cas d'espèce,j'ai déjà expliqué
qu'à mon avis, on ne peut pas qualifier - comme le défendeur l'a
fait - les populations sous Mandat de (tierces personnes )étran-
gères à la convention du Mandat, car ces populations sont une des
parties de la convention, la partie bénéficiairedont les intérêtssont,
dans un certain point, solidaires de ceux des Etats Membres, en
vertu des principes et des buts de l'institution du Mandat. Cela
étant, personne ne pourrait s'appuyer sur le texte de l'article 7 pour
soutenir qu'il a rvoulu prévoir, d'une façon exclusive, les recours

judiciaires des Etats qui font appel à la compétence de la Cour
pour défendre leurs intérêtsparticuliers directs (par exemple: le
droit de la porte ouverte ou les plaintes des ressortissants), sans-que
ledit article puisse comprendre les possibles requêtes d'un Etat
quelconque pour défendre les intérêts générauxdes populations sous
Mandat. Il faut considérerque le texte de l'article 7 du Mandat est
large, clair et précisil ne donne lieu àaucune ambiguïté, il ne men-
tionne aucune exception. On ne saurait donc exclure de son contenu
les actions judiciaires qui visent, précisément,les problèmes princi-
paux du Mandat, c'est-à-dire les questions d'interprétation sur la
portée des facultés du mandataire et sur l'application pratique de
ces facultés aux populations mises sous tutelle. Compte tenu de

l'importance de ces problèmes, l'interprétation restrictive qui,vise
uniquement les intérêtsmatériels et individuels d'un des Etats
Membres prend, certes, une place toute secondaire et mêmeinsigni-
fiante.
Qyant à l'existence réelled'un différenddans le cas d'espèceentre
les Etats demandeurs et le mandataire, la preuve a étébien établie
- à mon avis - dans le dossier, et très spécialement dans les docu-
ments officielsde la SociétédesNations et des Nations Unies figurant
parmi les annexes. On peut yconstater que pendant plusieursannées
les deux Etats demandeurs, en leur qualité de membres intégrants
de certains organes et commissions des Nations Unies, ont soutenu

despoints de vue fondamentalement opposésà ceux du mandataire
à propos de l'interprétation de diverses dispositions du Mandat et
aussi de son application par le mandataire dans des cas concrets et
successifs. Le différendn'aurait pu êtreplus nettement établi.

Étant donné que les membres des délégations accréditéea suprès
de l'organisation des Nations Unies ont la représentation officielle
66 Looking at the matter from another aspect, the literal text

of Article 7 of the Mandate provides, in my opinion, the best
guide to a correct interpretation. According to its wording, the
Mandatory agrees that (any) other Member of the League of Na-
tions may submit to the Permanent Court any dispute whatever
relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions
of the Mandate. This text contains no limitations as regards the
kind of legal interest in issue, be it particular or general, whether
it directly relates to the Applicant State or whetherit is concerned
with other perçons legally close to the latter. In the present case,
1 have already explained that, in my opinion, one cannot describe-
asthe Respondent has done--the peoples of the Mandated territory
as "third parties" not parties to the Mandate convention since
these peoples are one of the parties under the convention, the bene-
fitting party whose interests are, to a certain extent, joint interests
with those of Member States, in view of the principles and purposes
of the Mandate institution. That beine so. nobodv can relv on the
wording of Article 7 to contend thatit kas intinded toJprovide

exclusively for recourse to the Court by States seeking the exercise of
the Court's jurisdiction in defence of their direct private interests
(for instance, the right to the open door or complaints of their
nationals), and that the Article cannot cover applications by any
Statein defence of the general interests of the peoples of the Man-
dated territory. Regard must be had to the fact that the wording
of Article 7 of the Mandate is broad, clear and precise: it gives rise
to no ambiguity, it refers to no exception. It is therefore not possible
to exclude from its content legal action concerned with what indeed
constitute the principal problems of the Mandate, that is to say
questions of interpretation with regard to the scope of the Manda-
tory's rights and the practical application of those rights to the
peoples placed under tutelage. Having regard to the importance
of these problems, a restrictive interpretation which would include
only the material and individual interests of a State Member must
take a secondary and indeed insignificant place.

As to the actual existence of a dispute in the present cases be-
tween the Applicants and the Mandatory, this has, in my opinion,
been clearly established by the record and particularly by the
officia1documents of the League of Nations and the United Nations
which appear among the annexes. From these it can be seen that
for several years the two Applicant States, in their capacity as
members of certain organs and committees of the United Nations,
have maintained points of view fundamentally opposed to those
of the Mandatory with regard to the interpretztion of various
provisions of the Mandate and with regard to the application of
the Mandate by the Mandatory in a series of concrete cases. A
dispute could not have been more clearly established.
Sincethe members of delegations accredited to the United Nations
are the officia1representatives of their respective governments, no

66de leur gouvernement respectif, aucun doute ne subsiste sur le fait
que ces divergences de droit et de fait se sont produites entre les.

Gouvernements du Libériaet de l'Éthiopie d'une part, et le Gouver-
nement de la République sud-africaine de l'autre. Donc, le différend
soumis àla Cour réunitles qualités de fond et de forme signaléespar
l'article7 de l'accord de Mandat.
Ilreste encore à répondre à une autre objection: (On ne saurait
pas dire que le différend - en admettant provisoirement son exis-
tence - se soit produit entre le mandataire et deux autres Mem-
bres dela Sociétédes Nations )parce que, après la dissolution de cel-
le-ci, les demandeurs ont perdu leur qualité de membres actuelset
ne sont plus que deux ex-membres de ladite entité. Ils sont, par
conséquent, en dehors du cadre prévu par l'article 7.»

Il a déjà étérépondu à cette objection au moment d'examiner la
deuxième exceptionpréliminaire. En suivant la technique de toutes

les conventions, dans les accordsde Mandat lesprévisionssont prises
de façon à garantir le fonctionnement du système Pendant toutle
temps desa durée.Le droit reconnu par l'article 7 aux autres États
Membres d'exercer leur action judiciaire est inhérentau Mandat lui-
mêmeet inséparable de l'exercice de celui-ci, tant qu'il dure. Ledit
droit estincorporé - je dois lerépéter - au patrimoinejuridique des
États Membres et il s'y maintient latent et vivant sans limitation de
durée jusqu'à l'expiration du Mandat, à moins qu'une modification
conventionelle de l'accord n'intervienne.
Lorsque le texte de l'article 7 fait référenceaux États qui jouis-
sent de la clause compromissoire, la mention de la qualité d'États
Membres de la Société desNations doit être interprétée commeun
moyend'identificationindividuelledesditsEtats et non pas commeune

condition Permanenterequise Par le rôle dedemandeur dans l'action
judiciaire. En d'autres termes, l'article 7 a, à mon avis, voulu dire
que: KLes États appartenant à la Société desNations et identifiés
auxbuts de celle-ci auront individuellement le droit d'exiger devant
la Cour permanente l'exécution fidèledu Mandat pendant toute sa
durée. ))Mais l'intention de l'article n'a pas étéde dire que: ((Les
États Membres de la Société,tant que celle-ci existera, auront
individuellement le droit ...», etc. Cette dernière interprétation
laisserait sans effet la garantie judiciaire du Mandat en cas de dis-
parition de la Société desNations; et telle n'a pu être l'intention
des auteurs de l'accord, parce que cela serait préjudiciable aux in-
terêtsdes populations sous tutelle.

L'interprétation en fav~ur de laquelle je me prononce a soulevé
le point de savoir si un Etat, qui a perdu le caractère de Membre
de la Sociétédes Nations soit en donnant sa démission, soit par
mesure disciplinaire, aura le droit d'invoquer l'article 7 du Mandat
après la dissolutionde la Sociétéafin d'intenterune action judiciaire.
Une réponsenégative n'est pas douteuse à mon avis; car la sépara-
67doubt can remain as to the fact that these differences of opinion
with regard to law and fact have arisen between the Governments
of Liberia and Ethiopia on the one hand, and the Government of
the Republic of South Africa on the other. It follows that the dis-

putesubmitted to the Court satisfies the conditions of substance and
of form referred to in Article 7 of the Mandate agreement.
There remains a further objection to be answered: "It could
not be said that the dispute-even if one should be admitted to
exist--is one which has arisen between the Mandatory and two
'other Members of the League of Nations' since, after the dissolu-
tion of the League, the Applicants lost their status as present
Members and are merely two former Members of that Organiza-
tion. They are consequently not within the framework provided for
by Article 7."
This objection has already been met in the consideration of the
Second Preliminary Objection. Following the scheme of al1
conventions, in the Mandate agreements provision is made in
such a way as to guarantee the functioning of the system dztring
thewholeperiod of its dztration.The right to take legal action confer-
red, by Article 7,on other States Members, is inherent in the Man-
date itself and inseparable from its exercise, so long as it lasts.
The right is iricorporated-1 must repeat it- inthe juridical heritage
of Member States and there it remains latent and alive with no
limits upon its duration until the expiry of the Mandate, in the
absence of any conventional modification of the agreement.
When the text of Article 7 refers to the States enjoying the

benefit of the compromissory clause, the reference to the status of
States Members of the League of Nations must be interpreted as a
means for theindividual identification of those States and not as a
permanent condition required for the role of applicant in legal pro-
ceedings.In other words, Article 7 means, in my opinion: "States
belonging to the League of Nations and identified with the pur-
poses of the League shall individually have the right to require
before the Permanent Court the faithful execution of the Mandate
during its entire duration." But the intention of the Article was
not to Say that: "The States Members of the League, so long as it
continues to exist, shall individually have the rights ...", etc.
That latter interpretation would render ineffective the judicial
security in the Mandate in the event of the disappearance of the
League of Nations; and that cannot have been the intention of the
authors of the agreement because the effect would be to prejudice
the peoples under tutelage.
The interpretation which 1 prefer raises the question ahether a
State which has lost the status of a Member of the League of Na-
tions, either by resigning or asthe result of a disciplinary measure,
would have the right to invoke Article 7 of the Mandate after the
dissolution of the League in order to institute legal proceedings.
In my opinion there can be no doubt that the answer must be in

67383 AFF. S.-O. AFRICAIN (OPIN. INDIV. M. BUSTAMANTE)
tion volontaire ou disciplinaire du sein d'une entité ou institufion

implique le renoncement ou la perte de tous les droits que 1'Etat
Membre séparé avait acquis individuellement eu égard à son
caractère de Membre.
Ce raisonnement a donné lieu à un argument pour annihiler la
possibilité d'application de l'article 7.Tous les Etats Membres des
Nations Unies se sont mis volontairement d'accord - dit-on -
pour dissoudre cette entité (résolutiondu 18 avril 1946).Après cette
dissolution volontaire, aucun des anciens Membres n'a conservé le
droit d'invoquer l'article 7,car tous ont renoncéaux droits et préro-

gatives qui étaient la conséquence de leur qualité de Membres.
Cependant on ne peut pas ignorer les faits historiques qui ont
déterminé la disparition de la Sociétédes Nations. Cette entité
- déjà très ébranléeavant la deuxième guerre mondiale - est
restée paralysée pendant toute la duréedu conflit, dont les résultats
ont entièrement bouleversé la réalité internationale en modifiant
d'une façon profonde l'ancienne conformation et distribution des
Etats sur lesquelles la Sociétédes Nations avait étéfondée.En fait,
cette Sociétéétaitdéjà morte, en dépitde la volontéde sesMembres,

quand son Assemblée a adopté la résolution d'avril 1946 faisant
etat de sa disparition. Mais en mêmetemps lesdits Membres, en
accord avec la majorité des autres Etats de la communauté inter-
nationale, se sont vivement intéressés à ce que certains principes et
certainesinstitutions remarquables par leur progrès socialet humain
qui avaient étémis en pratique par la Sociétédisparue puissent
échapper à la crise mondiale. C'est alors qu'ils ont fondél'organi-
sation des Nations Cnies, dont les prescriptions soulignent d'une
manière très spéciale l'institution de la tutelle et fournissent les

moyens de transformer les anciens «Mandats n en régimestutélaires
modernisés. Les articles 77 (par.1, alinéa a), 79 et 80 de la Charte
établissent le caractère obligatoire de cette transformation sile man-
dataire est Membre des Nations Unies. Le texte de l'article 79 me
semble très éloquent :

Les termes du [noiiveau] régimede tutelle ... feront l'objet
[sensimpératifid'un accord entre les Etat- directement intéressés,
y cornfiris la Puissance mandataire dans le cas de territoires sous
mandat d'm Membre des Nations Unies... » (Les italiques sont de
nous.)

La philosophie de cette disposition est que l'État mandataire
qui a accepté et signéla Charte des Kations Unies s'est rallié au
nouveau système de tutelle et doit s'y incorporer d'une façon obliga-
toire.
Le corollaire est que la République sud-africaine, Membre des
Nations Unies, qui n'est pas arrivée à souscrire avec cette Organi-

sation un nouvel accord de tutelle, se trouve dans la situation
transitoire prévue par l'article 80, paragraphe 1, de la Charte, dont
68the negative; for the voluntary or disciplinary separation from a
body or institution i~~pliesrenunciation or loss of al1 those rights
which the former State Member had individually acquired by virtue

of its status as a Member.
This reasoning has given rise to an argument intended to destroy
the possibility of applying Article 7. Al1 the States Members of
the League of Nations voluntarily agreed-it is said-to dissolve
that body (Resolution of 18 April 1946). After that voluntary
dissolution none of the former Members retained the right to
invoke Article 7, for al1 of them renounced the rights and pre-
rogatives which were the consequences of their status as Members.
It is not possible, however, to ignore the historical facts which
determined the disappearance of the League of Nations. That
Organization-already greatly weakened .before the Second World
War-remained paralyzed for the whole period of the War and the
results of the conflict completely upset international realities by

profoundly modifying the former conformation and distribution
of States on which the League of Nations had been based. In fact,
the League was already dead, despite the wishes of its Members,
when its Assembly adopted the Resolution of April1946 to place its
disappearance on record. At the same time its Members, in agree-
ment with the majority of the other States of the international
community, were greatly concerned that certain principles and
certain institutions which were conspicuous by their social and
humane progress and which had been put into effect by the League
which had disappeared, should remain unaffected by the world
:risis. It was then that they founded the United Nations, the reguIa-
tions of which devoted special emphasis to the institution of trus-
teeship and provide means for transforming the former "MandatesJ'

into modernised tutelary systems. Article 77 (paragraph 1, sub-
paragraph (a)), 79 and 80 of the Charter established the compulsory
character of that transformation where the Mandatory is a Member
of the United Nations. The wording of Article 79 appears to me to
be eloquent :

"The terms of [the new] trusteeship ...shall [in the imperative]
be agreed upon by the States directly concerned, including the
Member of the United Nations..."(Italics added.) under mandatby a

The philosophy of this provision is that the Mandatory State

which accepted and signed the Charter of the United Nations accept-
ed the new trusteeship system and must incorporate itself in it
compulsorily.
The corollary is that the Republic of South Africa, a Member
of the United Nations, which has not concluded a new trusteeship
agreement with that Organization, is in the transitional situation
provided for by Article 80, paragraph 1,of the Charter, which must
68l'application stricte s'impose ;par conséquent l'ancienne convention

de Mandat du 17 décembre 1920 doit rester inchangée et son arti-
cle 7 doit êtreforcément appliqué. Les (autres Etats Membres ))
de l'ancienne Sociétédes Nations ont donc toute liberté de faire
appel à la juridiction de la Cour (art. 37 du Statut).

Quatri2meexception

Dans sa quatrième et dernière exception préliminaire - liée
étroitement à la troisième - le défendeur affirme que le conflit ou
différend - dont l'existence est alléguéepar les demandeurs -
n'est pas un différendqui ((ne peut pas être tranché par négocia-

tions »,selon le sens de l'article7 de l'accord de Mandat.
En développant sa thèse, le défendeur a soutenu:

IO qu'il n'y a eu aucun débat ou discussion directe entre les
Parties par la voie diplomatique sur les points qui constituent le
sujet du différend;

2' qu'on ne peut pas tenir compte des discussions ou négociations
administratives menéesau sein des Nations Unies parce qu'elles ont
eu lieu entre l'organisation elle-mêmeet le mandataire mais non
pas entre celui-ci et les États demandeurs considérés individuelle-
ment ;

3' que les négociations administratives ouvertes dans les divers
organes des Nations Unies se sont dérouléesdans des conditions
défavorables pour arriver àun accord parce que l'Assembléegénérale
donnait auxdits organes des pouvoirs tout à fait restreints, ce qui
constituait un élément limitatifdu libre échange de vues entre les
négociateurs. Au contraire, la présence des plénipotentiaires dans
les négociationsdiplomatiques directespermet, en principe, une plus
grande souplesse pour rechercher les points de coïncidence dans un
champ de discussion plus élargi.

Certes, on ne trouve dans le dossier aucune trace de négociations
diplomatiques directes entre les Parties, c'est-à-dire menées par
la voie traditionnelle des ministères des Affaires étrangèreset des
représentants réciproquement accrédités.Mais le texte de l'article 7
du Mandat n'indique nullement que lesnégociationsdoivent prendre
une forme extérieure déterminée.Toute négociation est adéquate si
elle ne contrarie pas les coutumes internationales.
Un Membre de la Cour a judicieusement dit que le domaine de
l'activité diplomatique est aujourd'hui beaucoup plus large qu'au-

paravant et que les négociations menéesau sein des organes des
Nations Unies entre les États Membres sont aussi, sans aucun doute,
desnégociations diplomatiques. Les délégations desEtats accrédités
auprès de l'organisation possèdent l'investiture diplomatique et
agissent en représentation des gouvernements respectifs. On pour-

69be strictly applied; consequently, the former Mandate convention
of 17 December 1920 must remain unchanged and its Article 7
must necessarily be applied. The "other States Members" of the

former League of Nations are thus fully entitled to invoke the
jurisdiction of the Court (Article 37 of the Statute).

Fourth Objection

In its Fourth and final Preliminary Objection-which is closely
linked with the Third Objection-the Respondent asserts that the
conflict or disagreement-the existence of which is alleged by
the Applicants-is not a dispute which "cannot be settled by nego-
tiation" in the sense of Article 7 of the Mandate.
In the development of its argument, the Respondent has con-
tended :

(1)that there has been no exchange of views or direct discussion
between the Parties through the diplomatic channel on the points
which constitute the subject of the dispute;
(2)that account cannot be taken of administrative discussion
or negotiation within the United Nations because these took place
between the Organization itself and the Mandatory and not between
the latter and the Applicant States individually;

(3) that the administrative negotiation in the various organs
of the United Nations took place in circumstances not conducive
to arriving at an agreement since the General Assembly conferred
restricted powers on those organs, which constituted an element
limiting the free exchange of views between the negotiators. On
the other hand, the presence of plenipotentiaries in direct diplomatic
negotiations would, in principle, allow of greater flexibility in
seeking points of agreement in a wider field of discussion.

Itis true that the record contains no reference to direct diplomatic
negotiations between the Parties, that is to say, negotiations carried
out in the traditional way of Ministries for Foreign Affairs and
reciprocallyaccredited representatives. But the wording of Article 7
of the Mandate in no way indicates that negotiations must take
any particular external form. Any negotiation is adequate if not
in conflict with international custom.
A Member of the Court has wisely said that the field of diplomatic
activity is now much wider than formerly, and that negotiations

between Member States within the organs of the United Nations
also undoubtedly constitute diplomatic negotiations. The delega-
tions of States accredited to the Organization possess a diplomatic
status and act as representatives of their respective governments.
It might further be added that no better place could have been
69rait ajouter aussi qu'aucun autre siègen'aurait pu êtremieux choisi
dans cette affaire pour les négociations que celui de l'organisation
des Nations Unies parce que cette Organisation comptait les meil-
leurs spécialistes en la matière et contenait dans ses archives tous

les renseignementshistoriques et légauxindispensables pour fournir
la documentation nécessaireaux discussions.
Dans le cas d'espèce, la volumineuse documentation offerte par
les Parties et s~écialement les annexes relatives aux activités des
Nations Unies dans cette affaire constituent, àmon avis, une preuve
écrasante, non seulement du fait que des négociations successiveset
réitéréesont eu lieu, avec l'intervention des demandeurs et du
défendeur, mais que tous les efforts déployéspour trouver une
solution conciliatoire ont aboutiàun échec. Le problèmedu Mandat
du Sud-Ouest africain a été abordépar la Quatrième Commission,
par le Comitéad hoc,par le Comité des bonsoffices,par le Comitédu
Sud-Ouest africain et enfin par l'Assemblée généraleL .'un et l'autre
demandeur ont pris part, à plusieurs reprises, aux discussions en-

gagéesdans ces organes avec le mandataire sur les aspects juridiques
de l'exercice du Mandat. De plus, les documents prouvent qu'en
certaines occasions ona exposéau mandataire la nécessité d'amender
ses thèses ou de modifier son procédé àl'égard dela population sous
tutelle. Pendant quinze ans consécutifscette opposition radicale de
points de vue, cette position irréductible du mandataire en face de
l'unanimité virtuelle des États Membres quant aux limites et aux
obligations découlantdu Mandat, ont maintenu une situation d'cc im-
passe n permanente. Les votes des demandeurs, en tant qu'États,
contre la politique administrative de l'Afrique du Sud figurent dans
les actes et comptes rendus des séances.En résumé:la plus catégo-
rique conviction légaleet morale ressort de cet examen en ce sens
qu'aucune négociationn'est possible et que toute nouvelle négocia-

tion, baséesur les normes du système des Mandats, serait inefficace
pour trancher le différend.

La voie administrative ou politique étant épuisée,les demandeurs
ont fait appel à la deuxième voie prévue - à la manière d'une sage
réserve - à l'articl7 du Mandat: la voie de recours à la justice
internationale. Si on lit attentivement l'accord de Mandat, il est
facile de percevoir que les articles6 et 7 signalent dans l'exercice
du Mandat deux aspects ou deux étapes différentes et successioes
lesquelles, loin d'êtreincompatibles, se complètent naturellement
l'une l'autre. La compréhension mutuelle entre la Sociétéet le
mandataire est présuméequant à la façon d'accomplir la mission

du Mandat (art. 2 à6), mais au cas où un désaccordse produit entre
les Etats Membres sans perspectives de règlement, l'appel à la
décision judiciaire rétablira le fonctionnement harmonieux du
système. Il n'y a rien d'étrangedans le fait d'abandonner des négo-chosen'in this case for negotiations than the United Nations since
that Organization has the best specialists in the field and possesses
in its archives al1 the necessary historical and legal information
for the necessary documentation of the discussions.

111 the present case, the voluminous documentation put in by
the Parties and especially the annexes relating to the activities
of the United Nations in this case constitute, in my opinion, over-
whelming proof not only of the fact that repeated and reiterated
negotiations took place, in which the Applicants and the Respond-
ent participated, but also that al1 the efforts niade to find a con-
ciliatory solution resulted in failure. The problems of the Mandate
for South West Africa were deaIt with by the Fourth Committee,
by the Ad Hoc Committee, by the Good Offices Committee, by
the Committee on South West Africa and finally by the General

Assembly. Each of the Applicants took part, on a number of oc-
casions, in the discussion which took place with the Mandatory
in these organs on the legal aspects of the exercise of the Mandate.
Furthermore, the documents show that on a number of occasions
it was pointed out to the Mandatory that it was necessary for it to
amend its contentions or modify its activities in relation to the
peoples under tutelage. For fifteen consecutive years this funda-
mental opposition of points of view, this unyielding opposition of
the Mandatory in the face of the virtual unanimity of Member
States as to the limits and obligations flowing from the Mandate,
have maintained a situation of permanent deadlock. The votes
of the Applicants, in their capacity as States, against the admini-
strative policy of South Africa are to be found in the documents and
minutes of these meetings. In short: the most categoric legal and
moral conviction emerges from this examination to the effect that
no negotiation is possible and that any further negotiation based on
the rules of the Mandates System would be ineffective to settle

the dispute.
The administrative or political course having been exhausted,
the Applicants.have had resort to the second course provided for-
by way of a wise reserve-by Article7 of the Mandate: the course
of resort to international justice. If the Mandate Agreement is
carefully read, it is easy to see that Articles 6 and7 relate to two
different and successive aspects or stages in the exercise of the Man-
date, which, far from being incompatible, are natural complements
to each other. Mutual understanding between the League and the
Mandatory is presumed as to the way in which the trust of the
Mandate is to be performed (Articles 2-6), but in the event of a
disagreement arising between the States Members which offers
no prospect of settlement, resort to judicial decision will re-establish
the harmonious functionning of the sytsem.There isnothing strangeciations administratives quand la nature du différendrend préfé-

rable l'intervention du tribunal.
Le défendeur a soutenu que l'échecdes négociations administra-
tives développéesau sein de l'organisation des Nations Unies a eu
pour cause l'extrême limitation des pouvoirs concédés par lJAssem-
bléegénéraleaux organes de négociations. Ces organes - dit le
défendeur - ne jouissaient pas de la liberté d'action nécessaire
pour décider des diverses formules présentSesaux débats en cher-
chant des approximations avec souplesseou - le cas 6chéant - en
acceptant des concessions partielles. Néanmoins, il me semble que
cette limitation de facultésétaitinévitableet encore plus nécessaire.
L'Assemblée générale nedevait déléguer sespouvoirs qu'à la
condition d'indiquer comme base des négociations les normes fon-
damentales de l'institution du Mandat et de l'accord du Mandat du

Sud-Ouest africain. Tout ce qui pourrait dépasser ce cadre serait
contraire à l'esprit de la Charte et dépasserait les pouvoirs de
l'Assemblée. Cela a étéprécisémentla raison pour laquelle les
négociations du Comité des bons offices n'ont pas abouti quand
l'Assemblée généralerejeta la formule du partage qu'il avait
proposée.
Ces motifs justifient, à mon avis, le rejet de la quatrième ex-
ception préliminaire.

Conclusion

Pour les raisons exposées ci-dessus et aussi pour les motifs
pertinents mentionnésdans la partie de l'avis consultatif du II juil-
let 1950 où une coïncidence existe avec les raisonnements que
je viens d'exposer, je conclus:

Que les deux exceptions préliminaires (~re et zme) opposées
par le déjendeur à la compétence de la Cour, ne sont pas fondées
en droit ;
Que les deux autres exceptions (3me et qme) qui visent la receva-
bilité des requêtesdu Libéria et de l'Éthiopie, doivent également
êtredéclarées mal fondées;
Que, par conséquent, la Cour est compétente pour aborder le
jugement du fond des requêtes.

(Signé) J. L. BUSTAMANR T.Ein the abandonment of administrative negotiations when the
nature ofthe dispute makes the intervention ofa tribunal preferable.
The Respondent has contended that the failure of the admini-
strative negotiation carried out within the United Nations was
caused by the restrictions placed upon the powers granted to the
negotiating organs by the General Assembly. These organs-says
the Respondent--did not enjoy the freedom of action necessary
to decide upon the various formulae put forward in the debates by
seeking approximations in a flexible way or by possibly agreeing
to partial concessions.It seemsto me, however, that this restriction
of powers was inevitable and still more necessary. The General
Assembly could only delegate its powers on the condition that it
indicated as bases for negotiation the fundamental des of the
Mandate institution and of the Mandate Agreement for South
West Africa. Anything beyond this compass would have been
contrary to the spirit of the Charter andwould,have exceeded the
lions by the Good OfficesCommittee were not successful when the-
General Assembly rejected the partition formula which it had
proposed.
These reasons, in my opinion, justify the overruling of the
Fourth Preliminary Objection.

Conclusion
For the reasons expressed above and alsoon the relevant grounds
referred to in that part of the Advisory Opinion of II July 1950
which coincideswith the reasoningwhich 1have just set out, 1corne
to the conclusion:

That the two Preliminary objections (First and Second) raised
by the Respondent to the jurisdiction of the Court are not well-
founded in law;
That the two other Objections (Third and Fourth) which relate
to the admissibility of the Applications of Liberia and Ethiopia,
must likewisebe held to be iil-founded;
That, consequently, the Court has jurisdiction to proceed to
adjudication upon the merits of the applications.

(Signed) J. L. BUSTAMANR T.E

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Bustamante (translation)

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