Dissenting opinion by Judge Azevedo (translation)

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001-19490409-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
001-19490409-JUD-01-00-EN
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DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO.

[Translation.]
1.-The purpose of the following observations is to explain

the reasons which compel me, to my regret, to differ from certain
of the grounds and certain of the findings of the Judgment.

Taking as a starting-point for considering the facts of this case
the month of October 1944, it "11 be remembered that at that
time Italy had been beaten andthe Allies' advance in the Mediter-
ranean gave them free play to follow after the Germans in the
Mediterranean.
At this time the situation in the Balkans was very chaotic ;
there were intestinal disputes of great complexity and there was no
unity among the different groups of resistance to the Axis, which
were also fighting one another.
In Albania, one of these groups assured the direction of public
affairs and contact with the Allies, mainly the British and Amer-
icans, who had military missions attached to this Provisional
Government. But after the general elections in December 1945,
relations between the Government, which the popular vote had
confirmed, and the military missions were not always harmonious.

However, steps were taken with a view to the esta,blishment of
diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Albania
in May 1946, in spite of the postponement of Albania's admission
to the United Nations asthe result of the vote of certain countries,
among them Great Britain.

2.-At the. end of1944, one of the chief problems of the Allies
was the clearance of maritime routes in order to facilitate the

advance of the naval forces; in the Adriatic this was mainly, if not
entirely, the task of the British. The minesweeping forces were
moving southward, and at the beginning of October they proceeded
to clear the Corfu Channel while the Germans were making their
last efforts by laying a minefield at Salonika as late as October 23rd.

The end of2hostilities led to a need for intensifying work on
opening up sea communications, and certain international bodies
were created for that purpose.

Thus, in May 1945, the Central International Mine Clearance
Board and the Mediterranean MineClearance Board (Medzon)were
formed, and this was followed in Ju1y by the creation of the Inter-
national Routeing and Reporting Authority.

78 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 79
The work of these various bodies led to the publication, beginning
in October 1945, of two series of navigational documents, the Medri
pamphlets and charts.
It should on the other hand be remembered that Albania knew

of the existence of the Medri channel, No. 18/32, at any rate as
shown in the charts and pamphlets supplied up to a certain date by
the general who was head of the British military mission at Tirana.
It has been alleged that in October 1944 the United Kingdom
had merely reswept a former German channel. However, it was
only in May 1945 that the German charts were available, and these
only gave the direction and not the boundaries of the channel. It
must be said that subsequent verification has not shown that there
was much difference between the two channels, though it must be
admitted that the new channel keeps somewhat closer to the coast.

It is also noteworthy that the green line of the channel on almost
each successive edition of the Medri charts was gradually moved.
though the pamphlets retain the CO-ordinates mentioned in the

radiotelegram of November 7th, 1944, which is said to have been
intercepted by chance. It is not clear why these changes were
made, for there is no allusion to minesweepings after February I94j.
It is further to be regretted that more exact details of the mine-
sweeping had not been kept for the Court to see, though it is
understandable that the urgency of the work led to its being
regarded as more important than the preparation of reports.

It must be added that during the rninesweeping operation on
November 13th an error was noted in the position of the Albanian
coastline South of Cape Kiephali on the Admiralty chart No. 206 ;
this error was at once marked on the map.

3.-More than a year after the minecleareance operations,

two British cruisers, coming from the North, passed through the
Channel ; they were fired on by a coastal battery, but they were
not hit by the projectiles and continued on their way towards
Corfu.
A controversy arose on this subject ; it remained at first in the
legal sphere. It was interrupted between June z~st and the third
British note on August end. However, relations betweefi the two
countries did not improve. Albania considered even the United
Kingdom to be an ally, or at least a faithful friend of a neighbouring
nation which had announced to the United Nations its intention to
claim a part of Albanian territory.
But, in reply to the United Kingdom's assertion of a right of
innocent passage, Albania had said that she was opposed to the
passage of any vesse1 through the Corfu Channel without previous
request and without her authorization. Furthermore, on May 17th,

1946, Alhania informed the United Kingdom and certain other DISSENTIXG OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 80
countries at the same time that its Government prohibited the
passage under the conditions mentioned above.
Briefly, the United Kingdom was not content with a platonic
attitude clnd &th mere reservations. -4lthough the commander of

the naval forces had not replied to the shots on May 15th as he
might have done in legitimate defence, the United Kingdom took
energeticaction as soon as the strange prohibition was made known.
It should be noted that Greece, which was the country most
concerned in free navigation in a channel which led chiefly to its
ports and to waters over which it had rights, had preferred the
course of keeping away from the passage so as to avoid increasing
the frontier incidents.
Great Britain had given a similar order, but it was cancelled,
at first, on August zrst, and was then limited so as to allow of a
passage if it should be found necessary. Another change resulted
from the Admiralty telegrams of September 15th and aend ; though
indirectly, they invited the Commander of the Mediterranean Fleet
to try to make a passage through the North Lorfu Channel, even
if it was not necessary.
The last words in the previous British note of August 2nd was a

threat to return fire. How could a test be made of a change of
attitude of the party to whom this challenge was directed ? In
order to ascertain whether the Albanian authorities had acquired
a certain standard of diplomatic conduct, they were to be warned
of the experiment, at any rate so that they might understand the
steps taken expressly to give the appearance of a friendly passage,
such as the direction in which guns were to be trained, etc.

4.-The autumn cruise of the Alediterranean Fleet was ending.
As early as. August rjth, the commander had arranged the
programme which \vas to terminate with an assembly of al1 the
units at Argostoli on October 23rd ;this programme had therefore
to be changed;in order that four of the ships might pass through
the Channel.
The result of this experiment was most lamentable ;the explosion
of two mines led to the pi-actical destruction of one destroyer, which

Ead to be abandoned, and serious damage to another, besides
killing44 men and \vounding 42.
Ir,regard to the circumstances of this passage, a certain number
of divergencies haïe been gradually smoothed out, after explan-
ations and ~erifications, aiid still more after the correction of a
number of errors some of which were rather serious. Even the
logs, which are uniïersally considered trustn-orthy, contained some
serious inaccuracies.
In regard to the spot where the accidents occurred, there were
errors which led to discussion, and in regard to the time of the
second esplosion,there were ~.ariousdata xhich required additi0ri.a:
i~formation before the!- could hc rec-nciied. One lad circurnstance

So DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 81
must be noted :the order to change course in front of Denta Point
was given a little late, and this led to a departure from the axis of

the Channel and a closer approach to the coast.

The combination of al1 these errors, and of other circumstances
already referred to, would have left a residuum of serious doubts
if one fact had not been incontestable and if the details could have
obscured the main picture. We are therefore compelled to admit
that the two explosions occurred within the limits of the Channel.
Rut we cannot be sure that at that time Albania had al1the inform-
ation necessary for reaching the same conclusion.

5.-Once cèrtainty was arrived at in regard to the damage
-which is the first element to be considered-it is necessary to
ascertain the fact that produced the damage by determining the
indispensablelink of causation between antecedent and consequence,

so that the two may not merely be connected in time by a relation
of simple contiguity.
What caused the damage in this case ? It is to be observed,
first, that the Germans had already laid some mines ;on the other
hand, the view of the Court's Experts must be accepted that a sweep
of moored mines, when properly executed, gives an assurance that
the mines were cleared IOO%. For technical reasons the hypothesis
that the mines were laid by submarines or by aeroplanes, or that
they were magnetic mines, had to be abandoned. One must also
reject the hypothesis that they were floating mines, owing to the
striking coincidence of the two explosions occurring practically in
the same circumstances of time and place, without these facts
being attenuated by the circumstance that other vessels passed
through without injury.

Lastly, eloquent evidence was provided by the nature of the
damage, showing considerable violence, as is definitely proved by
the documents filed in the case, although we do not know what
explosive charge was used in the Italian mines which were employed
in the enemy minefields.
We have thus eliminated al1other possibilities than the explan-
ation that a minefield was laid after the end of enemy action : we
thus succeed, by a process of elimination, in isolating a single
antecedent, which is thus transformed into a veritable cause,
according to the classical rules ofJOHB STUART MILL.
This solution is impressive in itself. It was decisively supported
hy the discovery of a new minefield on November 13th, 1946.

However, while admitting, at the last, that a new minefield was
laid, Albania only changed her position ;for she still denies that it
was these mines that caused the damage. She demands, in fact,
that it shall be proved that the minefield was laid before
Octoher 22nc1,and she puts forward the hypothesis that they were DISSESTIXG OPINION BY JUDGE .\ZEVEDO 82

only laid after the events in order to make difficultiesfor the coastal
State.
But, if the laying of a minefield in time of peace is almost
inconceivable, the Albanian suggestion would involve the successive
laying of two minefields at short intervals, and that ~vouldbe even
more extraordinary.

6.-When one has to appreciate the unlawful character of
the act causing the damage, one is obliged to take into account
certain considerations by which a judge must be guided in this
connexion and also in the problem relating to imputability, which
is so closely linked to it. This preliminary statement seems to be
called for when one is taking a different road to arrive at the same
goal ; because in such a case a previous exposition of a definitely
doctrinal character becomes unavoidable.
For instance, the Parties strongly emphasized the necessity of
demonstrating, in this case, the existence of a breaeh of an inter-
national obligation. That notion is of such importance .that many
writers have accorded it the foremost place in a theory of respons-
ibility, now in such high favour.

7.-But this formula, though so greatly lauded by its adherents,
does not help to eliminate difficulties which are also encountered
in municipal law.
Though operating solely on a limited plane, such as the infraction
of a rule of positive law, this doctrine seeks to claim advantages
which could only be gained bythe application of another principle.
Thus, the divergencies as to the necessity of specific clauses con-

cerning preexisting obligations have nothing in common with the
parallel action of another principle which makes, or does not make,
imputability conditional on the moral element of culpability.

It follows that the doctrine of a breach of international obliga-
tions can only claim to be regarded as objective by a confusion of
terms, except in so far as it reinforces its basic principle byanother
principle, involving the exclusion of the notion of culPa.
But the fact that the doctrine cannot derive support from the
latter element is proved by the fact that its champions are them-
selves divided into three different groups : one which does not
discard the requirement of culpa. one which sees no need for that
requirement ;and a third which maintains both possibilities, accord-
ing as international law, in a given case, does or does not require

recourse to the notion of culpa (omission, indirect responsibil-
ity, etc.).
The weak point is found in the very core of this theory, Le.,
in the foremost place accorded to the nature of the violation. The
result is a restriction of the practical application of responsibility. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO ss
In endeavouring to judge of the conduct of States, this concep-
tion leads to an alternative, towardç two opposing tendencies :
either definite obligations must be laid down, or on the contrary
a general line of conduct without precise marks must be admitted.

And the choice between these two forces of expansion or contrac-
tion may be fatal to the doctrine itself.
If, for instance, it was required that the violation of an obliga-
tion shall be previously established in each case, the drawing up of
a complete catalogue of cases of responsibility becomes inevitable.
But this would correspond to a less advanced phase, the limitative
enumeration of the sources of delicts and quasi-delicts, in accord-
ance with the general tradition of Roman law. We should then be
approaching the criminal law and end by accepting the principle
nullunz crinzen sine lege.
But if, on the other hand, we prefer to abandonthis rigidity, we
may expose ourselves to another danger. Setting aside conven-
tions and custom, and accepting the influence of general principles
of law, we lose al1 control and are unable to stop halfway. We
are compelled to go as-far as the fundamental trilogy and to estab-
liçh civil responsibility bythe simple violation of neminem ladere,or

else to draw, arbitrarily, precise corollaries from vague principles.

At this point, the new doctrine will have lost al1 purpose and
will collapse.

8.-This criticism, which indeed is w-eknown (see ROBERTO AGO,
Recueil des Cours, Vol. 68,p. 483, GEORGES SCELLEC , ours de Dvoit
international, publ. Paris, 1948, p. 912), rnay continue on the sanle
footing if we examine in detail the pre-existence of a duty, disregai-d
of which must involve responsibility, pecuniary or moral.

We observe first that the determination of these positive inter-
national obligations as sources of responsibility leads to difficulties
which are not easy to overcome, especially when a judge is faced

with a new case, not clearly foreseen.

If there is no convention or custom directly governing the
question, must the judge pronounce a non liquet and thus hamper
al1 progress in the theory of responsibility ? Custom is made up
of recognized precedents, and we must not prevent the formation
of new precedents ;an international lawsuit may give opportunities
for such formation and for putting an end to uncertainties that
previously prevailed.

9.-The existence of a conventional rule is not enough to
dispose of the difficulties, and the present case is an eloquent

83 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 84

example of the need for departure from a very rigid mle. The
facts considered are not in accord with any known precedents ;
there is no custom that can be relied on, nor can the difficultybe
overcome by reference to a convention.
It is interesting to note that the United Kingdom did not merely
invoke Hague Convention No. VI11 of 1907, but recognized that
it was also necessary to rely on general prînciples of international
law and even on simple reasons of humanity.

For, indeed, the convention ia question is not really applicable
in this case, unless by an interpretation which would be carrying
the method of analogy to an extreme limit. It had to be pointed

out that it is declaratory, which would be equivalent to regarding
it as superfluous. According to its text, the convention relates only
to war and not to peace time ; and it only deals with the direct
laying of mines and not with their laying by a thirdparty. Albania
was not a signatory and never acceded to the convention.
Nevertheless, Albania admits strictly that it is forbidden to lay
mines in peace time, so that it is sufficient to argue n foviiovi.

But in spite of repeated assertions to this effect,.it was at one
moment put forurard in Court that it was for the author of the
minelaying, and not for a third party who learnt of it, to give
the notification, so that if the latter party failed to do so he would
not be disregarding an international obligation.

It is true on the other hand that an agreement between the
parties on the facts is valid, even though an international court,
having more freedom in regard to evidence than a municipal judge,
might make reservations ;such an agreement would be quite inad-
missible in regard to the law to be applied.
Thus, even if an accession by Albania to the convention in
question might certainly be considered as reasonable, this accession
could not retroactivelyrender unlawful an act already accomplished.

IO.-The limitation of responsibility to the contractual sphere
is also in line with the claim which has already been mentioned :

that this doctrine abolishes the subjective element in responsibility ;
i.e., the non-execution of a contractual obligation connotes, by
itself, the existence of culpa, so that a debtor can only clear himself
if he can prove the existence of an external cause ; yet one may
still consider that culpa itself is absent.
But that is not the right road. We must re-establish in inter-
national law the two sources which are essentially one : contractual
culpa and delictual culpa, even if we continue to distinguish, in
both sectors, between cases of conduct definitely indicated in

84 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 85
advance and cases depending sirnply on a general rule of prudence

(HENRIand LÉONMAZEAUDT ,raitéde la Resp. civil earis, 1948).

Attempts to reconcile these two criteria-that of precise rules
and that of a general standard of conduct-will never succeed, as
became evident at the Hague Conference in 1930, in spite of the
interminable discussions which took place in the Third Committee.

Codes of obligations make no attempt to enumerate prejudicial
acts;but it must be recognized that men are subject to a standard
of conduct and are responsible if it is disregarded. In the same
way, States must respect a certain level of conduct among them-
selves, determined by the conditions of international life at any
particular period of history.

Even in the absence of any convention one could not admit that
such an act as secret minelaying in time of peace does not involve

the responsibility of the State concerned, for it is an abnormal and
extraordinary act which would even constitute a crimewhen a world
criminal jurisdiction has been organized. The community could
not continue to exist if an act so definitely characteristic of
criminality-whatever may be its conventional definition-were
to go unpunished.
It would constitute a forma1 infringement resulting from the
actual danger, and any country could demand the condemnation
of the author of such an act, dangerous to shipping, even if it could
not claim reparation for damage actually sustained. At the very
least, in order to defend the interests virtually endangered, the
judginent should order the clearance of the mines at the cost of the
author, just as in domestic law a judge would order the demolition
of a \val1built in the wrong place.

II.-Again, one must take account of the subjective element,
even if one is disposed to push international responsibility to the
point of risk by giving it a truly objective character.
It is indisputable that a condemnation iounded on moral elements
of culpability, coexisting with the breach of ari obligation, would
be more in accordance with the promptings of man's conscience,
and the conscience of humanity.

The notion of culpa is always changing and undergoing a slow
process of evolution ; moving away from the classical elements of
imprudence and negligence, it tends to draw nearer to the system
of objective responsibility ; and this has led certain present-day
authors to deny that ctrlpn is definitely separate, in regard to a
theory based solely on risk. By departing from the notions of DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 86

choice and of vigilance, we arrive, in practice, at a fusion of the
solutions suggested by contractual culfia and delictual culpa.

And so, without prejudice to the maintenance of the traditional
import of the word culpa and to avoid the difficulty of proving a'
subjective element, an endeavour has been made to establish
presumptions that would simply shift the burden of proof as in the
theory of bailment in which a mere negative attitude-a simple
proof of absence of culpa on the part of a bailee-is not sufficient.
The victim has only to prove damage and the chain of causation ;
and that is enough to involve responsibility, unless the defendant

can prove czdpa in a third party, or in the victim, or forcemajez4ue ;
only these can relieve him from responsibility.

This tendency has already invaded administrative law (notion
of faute de s~rvice)and a fortiori must be accepted in international
law, in which objective responsibility is much more readily
admitted than in private law.

Accordingly, on the subject of territorial seas, even if a State
is not bound to remove natural difficulties due to the accidents of
geography, it is contended thatit must have regard to what relates
to human intervention, e.g., the maintenance of lighthouses, Save
in the exceptional cases mentioned above. On the other hand,
it is for the defendant to show that the burden of proof has been
shifted.

In spite of some doctrinal remarks in the opposite sense, the
Italian Court of Cassation, reversing the decision of the Savona
Court in its judgment of December rqth, 19c6, held the State to be
responsible for the imperfect functioning of the lights which it
provides for shipping (Rev. id. de Dr. marit., 1907, pp. 466
and 711).

12.-AS regards imputability, in the present case one must begin
by considering the hypothesis of a deliberate action, inspired by
malicious intent, though it must be emphasized at the outset that,
in spite of the gravity of the offence, it is not the penal law which
is being applied.
It often happens in municipal law that a judge in a civil case

has to find facts which are also of a criminal nature, without
imposing penalties ; this accounts for the anxiety of legislators to
reconcile the action of parallel tribunals, the criminal factor always
prevailing over the civil factor. In the sphere of international
law, there is no danger of encountering this contradiction.

Since the mines could not ha.ve been spontaneouslÿ produced,
they must have been laid either by the Parties, alone or with the
86 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 87
help of others, or by otherStatesacting on their own initiative and

for purposes favourable or unfavourable to the Parties.

The United Kingdom accused Albania of having laid the mines
and has never really abandoned this hypothesis. On the other
hand, Albania at times made vague insinuationsagainst the Uiiited
Kingdom, but at the last moment abandoned any accusation of
that nature.
The suggestion that the United Kingdom laid the mines, put
fonvard without much conviction, was devoid of substance.

Next we have the suggestion, often made, that the mines were
laid by a third State, an enemy of Albania which uras trying to
involve her in difficulties with a great Power.

This insinuation cannot find any explanation that satisfies the
most modest requirements of common sense. Even if it be taken
in a concrete way as referring to a country which was an enemy or
adversary of Albania, the insinuation is no more comprehensible.
There 5snot a single indication of the sort ;not the slightest rumour.
But on the contrary, counter-indications such as the British super-
vision of the squadron of that country and the moral impossibility
that that country should desire to cause serious damage to an ally
or friend.
The imputation that the mines were laid by Albania would also,
in principle, behard to accept, although despair, or the desire for
vengeance on the part of inexperienced perçons, groups or peoples
may lead them to forget their own interests and to adopt desperate
methods, if such methods seem to them the only way of securing
respect formeasures which they regard themselves as free to adopt.

Daily struggles against neighbours would certainly tend to increase
the desire to take such action.

An act that endangered the shipping of the whole world, merchant
and war vessels, friends or enemies, and that might affect
nationals, would almost resemble self-mutilation. Perhaps, in
view of the facts, the danger to coastal shipping or fishing boats
would not be great, for only ships of 12 feet draught could hit
the mines; but al1 the possibilities of every-day life can never
be imagined.

13.-We must however reject the theory that Albania laid the

mines herself because she not only lacked the means but also th
mines. In the Security Council it was not believed that she could
have done so ; the majority of the Members thought that the mines DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 88

had been laid with Albania's knowledge.

But the impossibility of laying the mines would not exclude al1
consideration of culpable intention, for the act may have been
carried out by another country bound by ties of friendship to the
Parties and acting as mandatory.
True, it is very difficult to accept the theory that a mandator
can be responsible unless the mandatory is identified, especially
when the number of possible authors of theact is extremelylimited.

Yet, such a suggestion was made as against Albania and during
the proceedings was transformed into an accusation : first, in the
Reply, in the form of a question, then before the plenary Court

with detailed particulars.

14.-Thus, it was alleged that the mines had been laid by a
third State, not on its own initiative but in theinterest of Albania.

Towards the end of the hearings, the United Kingdom considered
a number of possibilities, but none of them would justify us in
thinking that in doing so it admitted, even conditionally, that
Albania was exculpated by the fact that her neighbours had laid
the mines without her request, her connivance, or even her know-
ledge.
The situation of a country regarded as the protégé of another,

and in its debt, owing to treaties and agreements, would no1 suffice
to interchange the parts played by them if it were suggested that
the mines were laid to serve the interest of the nation which,
although the weaker State, would in this operation continue to
be the mandator and never the mandatory.
A radical change in the presentation of the facta \vas brought
about by the evidence of a former naval officerwho emigrated in
October 1947. He alleged that the mines had been loaded in a
certain port on two small minesweeping vessels which were sent to
Corfu a few days before October send, 1946. This story, considered
t$zabstracto,would be very relevant to the facts calling for explan-
atioil; for GY
mines are not a form of merchandise that could
be ordinarily transported in the neighbourhood of Corfu.

However, the substance of the documents in which this accusation
was made was brought to the knowledge of the third State, and
the latter was content to publish a communiqué the text of which
%vasfiled with the Court by Albania. This downright refusa1
\{.as not accepted by the United Kingdom, which proceeded to
furnish new arguments and evidence in support of the witness's
statement ; this made Albania periodically produce a number of
other documents.

88 DISSEKTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZET'EDO f9
Of course, a State which abstains from intervening in a case and
thus escapes the possibility of a decision adverse to itself could

not thereby claim to be declared innocent ; nor even to enjoy a
privileged position vis-à-vis the parties investing it with a right
of veto in regard to the examination of documents which were
in truth documents of the accused party.
True, the assertions made by States parties to the case or eveii
by third States must be accepted whether supported by documents
or not, provided that there is no proof to the contrary, for such
assertions do not enjoy absolute immunity ; if they possessed
an intangible character, international justice could not advance.

For instance, it must be considered regrettable that the esistence
of certain vessels was denied, though aftenvards it \vas acknow-

ledged that they existed, though with different names.

The introduction of such subtle denials is calculated to weaken
the strongest arguments. A complete denial is always preferable
to a series of statements giving partial explanations with a risk
of contradictions ; as for instance, the evidence that certain ships
were not in a condition to navigate at a particular date.

Moreover, the searching criticism to which the es-officer's
statement was subjected brought out, on the one hand, the
improbability of almost al1 its elements : the contradiction
between the details related and the ordinary data omitted ;and
on the other hand the general explanation of the operation, coin-

ciding with the possibilities of its accomplishment.
We are bound in any case to recognize the inadequacy of a proof
based almost entirely on one witness whose statements were
inadequate on many main points.
Other grounds for the rejection of this version were for example
the insufficiency of evidence as to the possession of GY mines
by the Power supposed to have been the mandatory. The state-
ment made regarding the swastika mark on the mines is also
not of a decisive character, because the Germans themselves
may have made use of this mark, which was not as a fact mentioned
in the reports of the British authorities and was only revealed
by a photograph, without convincing evidence in its support.

Finally, it must be observed that a State with great experience
would not likely risk provoking a casus belli with a great Power ;
even if it felt resentment against the latter, it would have chosen
more acceptable methods than that of allou7ingitself to be used for
such a serious purpose, so easily discovered, for hundreds of perçons
would have been in the secret ; and advantage there would have
been none, as is shown from the allusions of the Parties to the old
saying cuip trodest.

s9 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 9"
15.-And even if the participation of a third country was
evident, the condemnation of the respondent could still .net be

founded on that fact.
A municipal court has jurisdiction over every citizen and can
declare that a certain act has been committed by a third party, a
stranger to the proceedings, though it is bound to act With caution
and must always reserve the economic and moral rights of such a
third party, as the decision will not affect him except in the case
of complicity.
But an international judge cannot act in the same way ;for his
jurisdiction is based on the will of the parties, either directly or
indirectly,in virtue ofArticle 36 of theo-urt'sStatute ;this renders
a mere allusion to the acts of a third State inadmissible. A country
which is not a party to the case and has not been summoned
remains unaffected not only by the judgment itself, but by an
incidental mention of it as mandator-7 or as performing an
unlawful act.
No doubt the United Kingdom's position was difficult, for she
could not, either at the beginning or during the case, bring before

the Court a country which had not accepted the Optional Clause
and was not at all in the same position as Albania, who was bound
by the Security Council's decision to accept the Court's jurisdiction.
It was also useless to suggest a special agreement to the third State,
in the course of the procedure, especially if the said State, having
obtained communication of the documents, took no steps to
intervene in the proceedings.
In any case, the Court could not extend the limits of its jurisdic-
tion, nor could it do so implicitly by expressing opinions inconcret0
regarding the conduct of a third State, no matter in what sense.

16.-Accordingly, after eliminating all the conceivable hypo-
theses, we are obliged to conclude that the laying of the mines was
the work of an unknown author. But Albania could nevertheless
have been aware of the existence of the mines, and a State which is
informed of a prejudicial act committed by another and does
nothing to prevent it incurs the same responsibility on the ground

of the unlawful act, without any attenuation ; even if it was unable
to prevent the dangerous consequences it was none the less obliged
to make known the danger.
But how can we satisfy ourselves as to a fact which cannot be
directly verified ?
A condemnation, even to the death penalty, may be well-founded
on indirect evidence and may nevertheless have the same value
as a judgment by a court which has founded its conviction on the
evidence of witnesses.
It would be going too far for an international court to insist
on direct and visual evidence and to refuse to admit, after
rèflection, a reasonable amount of human presumptions with a DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 9I
view to reaching that state of moral, human certainty with which,
despite the risk of occasional errors, a court of justice must be
content.

17.-Certain other presumptions have been raised against
Albania which are dehite, though not of equal force. First,
her passive attitude after the discoverv of the mines, which ought
to have led her to protest energetically. But she declared that
these facts had nothing to do with her, and her immediate and
reiterated complaints to the U.N.O. were a reasonable counter-
indication ; those who have something to fear do not generally
ask help from the authorities.
The absence of signals on October 22nd may also be explained

by the uselessness of a warning which had already been rejected
in advance by the note of August end.
In the same way, her opposition to the sweeping cannot be
exaggerated into fear of discovery of the corpzrsdelicti, Albania
having raised objections only to protect her sovereignty over her
territorialwaters.
Here nTecome to an argument which the Parties had used for
directly contrary purposes :the possibility that Albania might get
rid of the mines before the operation of November 13th. But
such a hypothesis is not admissible, for, besides the great uproar
caused by the events of October zznd throughout the whole world
there would certainly have been the discreet watchfulness of the
United Kingdom. Besides, the operation would have been much
more difficult than the laying of mines, even if the exact number to
be swept were exactly knoÜm.

18.-There are however other indications which can be regarded
as definite, certain and concordant.
Thus, there is the possibility of the minelaying having inevitably
been seen from the land ; the Experts' last report has much
increased the probability of this, whether there was a look-out
post at Denta Point at the time, or even if there was not.

On the other hand; Albania claimed to prohibit strictly an'

passage of a foreign shipin the zone where the minefield \va; and it
might be admitted that the incident of May Ijth was, by anticipa-
tion, an application of the doctrine publicly announced a fen-
days afterwards, and applicable even to merchant ships, e.g., the
U.N.R.R.A. tug. The application of the United States to send
destroyers to take away its military mission which \vas leaving
Albania Ras made the subject of a cornplaint by the latter to the
U.N.O.

The existence of secret military orders, not communicated to
the Court, might be considered as supporting this view ; so
might also the somenlhat inexplicable remark in the note of

9= DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 92
October 29th : "The Albanian Government will take no respons-
ibility if this operation is carried out in its territorial waters."

Strictly speaking, it might be held that under ordinary circum-
stances, the Albanian Government could not have had no part in
the laying of the mines, or at any rate could not have been unaware
of the fact.
In spite of all, though the conclusions of the Expert enquiry
covered a number of hypotheses, the aiithor, the time and the
method of the minelaying continue to be unknown.

The absence of any. such explanations makes it very difficult to
express a definite opinion regarding Albania's cognizance of facts
of such uncertainty ; we cannot therefore be regarded as over-
prudent if we hesitate to declare that in this case Albania mani-
festly acted in bad faith.
The existence of similar doubts was revealed in the Security
Council when that body accepted the proposa1 of the French
representative to replace the words "with the knowledge" by the

words "without the knowledge" ; although this was not a judicial
decision, the alteration was something more than mere courtesy
(12znd Meeting-March 25th, 1947, p. 596).
19.-Moreover, a declaration of such gravity is in no way essen-
tial for the success of a claim of an exclusively pecuniary character.

Once the inadequacy of the evidence enables us to refrain from

stating that Albania was indisputably cognizant of the laying of the
mines, the same rule of relativity applies as regards a statement
that Albania was unaware of the fact. True, it is not possible to
prove it, but nevertheless one can examine whether Albania ought
to or could have had cognizance of the matter.
Even if it is not possible to clear up the mystery and to discover
the authors of the act, or those who were aware of it but did not
warn shipping, one must not give up hope of compensating the
victim without having first considered every other method of
giving him satisfaction, except on the ground of an intended wrong,
first on the ground of unintentionalculpa and finally on the ground
of presumed or merely objective responsibility.
The victim retains the right to submit a claim against one only
of the responsible parties,in solidunz, in accordance with the choice
which is always left to the discretion of the victim, in the purely

economic field ; whereas a criminal judge cannot, in principle,
pronounce an accomplice or a principal guilty without at the same
time establishing the guilt of the main author or the actual per-
petrator of the offence.
20.-In examinirig the case from the standpoint of c~tlpa,whether
by action or omission, one is struck in the first place by the weakness

92 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 93
of the Albanian defences dong a deserted coastline many kilo-
metres in length, with a few centres of population which are
unprovided with easy means of communication.

A long and detailed discussion took place on the efficiency of
the coastguard and the possibility of minelaying being unobserved
by the population and especially by the guards. Much was said
of the facility of such an operation, the methods and the time take;
but it would be difficult to reconstitute al1the details of an event
which might have taken place on an unknown day, or rather night.

The Experts endeavoured to clear up matters by trying to
indicate conditions similar to those that might have been found in
the district at that time;but in the realm of the conditional there
is always a risk of error.
To sum up, the slender arguments of the defence have in no way
excluded the fact of a jealous and mistrustful watch over all that
happened in the Channel ; events of minor importance were the
subject of reports and international denunciation. Ifinelaying,
however rapidly done, and however skilful the crew, would very
probably have been observed.

It has been suggested on the other hand that the minelaying
might have been carried out by a ruse, with al1 lights on. But
that would surely have attracted attention ; on October 22nd the
lights of the vessels were followed for a long time.
Even if we exclude al1 possibility for Albania to increase her
defences in men or material, it ought to have been recognized
that Albania, in any case, failed to place look-out posts at the
spots considered most suitable when the coast defences were
organized about May 1946. Albania must therefore bear the
consequences. The Experts' last report made clear to the Court
the accessibility ofDenta Point from the sea, at any rate, and thus
did away with the reasons for the absence of the look-outs which
has been commented on.

The assertion by Xlbania that the watch was insufficient or
ineffective or badly kept goes against herself, even if the purpose

of this watch was something quite different, namely to stop incur-
sions by neighbours. It should be noted, also, that this aim would
be incompatible with the prohibition of passage to al1 other coun-
tries; the general character of this announcement has certainly
aggravated Albania's responsibility towards third States.

In this connexion, we must not risk contradiding ourselves ;
the fact that the watch was normal, or even exceptional, was justly
invoked as an argument favourable to the existence of culfia,Le.,
cognizance of the mines ; but this circumstance would also serve
as aproof ofmere negligence ifthe presumptions were not sufficiently
strong to warrant a more serious charge.

93 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 94

21.-This being so, the possibility of negligence on the part of
the coastal Power, involving that Power's responsibility, cannot

be set aside ; this responsibility would even be increased if we
consider the facts in the light of the new principles concerning
culpa referred to above.
Thus, for example, though the laying of the mines might be
regarded as an event that could not be foreseen bythe coastal State,
it would certainly not fulfil the other condition that is requisite to
comply with the description of force majeureor an act of God, that
of inevitability.
It matters little that the guard maintained may have had other
objects in view, once it is admitted that it would have sufficed to
discover the operation and to drive off the perpetrators by the
same means which were uced with the object of driving off the
British ships on May 15th, namely by firing with the guns facing
the spot where the minefields were discovered.

No doubt Albania might have put fonvard one solid argument
when confronted with the theory of culfia or even of risk :the fact
that she had been excluded from the work of mineclearance in her
territorial waters when she was refused a seat on the mineclearance
boards and this security tark was transferred to others. That was
tl?;eground for the vote of the Çyrian reprecentative in the Security
Council, refusing to admit the responsibility of Albania which seven
ciher Members had admitted. He stated that, in the particular
case, the duty that every sovereign Statehad to possess the means
2r.à the capacity to protect itç territory and to make its channelç
cfcommunication secure was non-existent owing to the war.

Eut the case was presented to the Court under a different aspect,
f;: Aibania agreed that a new minefield had been laid. There
\,as rio longer a responsibiiity for failing to sweep mines-a task
f-ul-iwhich Albania had been excluded- but for the laying of a new
rlinefield at a time when AiDania was exercising full sovereignty
: :ci was herself parding her own coastline.

1ccordingiy, in this case, there is no need to speak of risk ; the
presumption of culpa is sufficient and is quite in its place in a
case of recognized and admitted vigilance. If looked at in concreto
c.:from the average standpoint of bonares publicathe conclusion is

the same.
?he-f&egoing considerations lead us to conclude, although this
is a case in which the author is uncertain, that, in international
law, Albania is responsible.
22.-It is of small importance that this is a case of a quasi-delict;
for the argument majus ad minus would fully justifv a conclusion DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE -4ZEVEDO 95
(quite in conformity with the litis contestatio, or rather special

agreement) in lvhich the purpose of the claim is compensation ;
this becomes even clearer when we compare it with the counter-
claim.
No inisinterpretation of the causa petendi could cause it to be
given another legal name than that proposed by the Parties. The
Court might give this name to the same facts as have been alleged
and proved in these proceedings, either to reach the same conclusion
as the Parties have proposed or, for instance, to reduce the amount
of damages or of the penalty. Only if it kept to a form more
rigid than that of the legis actiones,or similar system now aban-
doned, could the Court think of prohibiting such a solution.

The principles which, at this moment, goveril the system of
every procedure could only be interfered with if che applicant laid
dou-n, as a co?tditiosi.nequa non for the success of his suit, a finding
of criminal intent. In that case, the exceptio res jlrdicata would
not operate in regard to a new claim founded exclusively on culpn.

In this case, on the contrary, Great Britain has not failed to
allude to the doctrine of simple risk and has even claimed its
application.

23.-If the existence of a culpable intention had been admitted,
there would be no room for justification or attenuating circum-
stances ;such a brutal act could not be justified on any pretext.

The disproportion observable in the reaction would persist
even if something like a praeterintentional delict were involved,
e.g., the author could not expect that the vesselswould pass that
n-ay perhaps because he thought the minefield was outside the
swept channel., Nor can much attention be paid to the fact that
the rnines would have been laid to damage particular individuals,
while the risk of damage to a third party esisted, as would be

the case. Cnminal law does not admit of a reduction of sentence
in the case of nberratio ictus.

24.-But whether cdpa or risk is tbe criterion, the conduct of
the victim can be taken into account by reducing the degree of
responsibility and consequently apportioning the damages.

Needless to say, damages are not in any way a penaity and
cannot therefore be increased or diminished according as the
conduct is estimated as gravissinta or leclissinra cldpn. Courts
of justice always arrange to examine the ciilpa in concrtto, in esti-
iiiating the loss to be made good. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO g6
International justice also is subject to this moral influence
which GEORGESRIPTIIT mentions several times.

As J. PERSOSS;~~points out (La Réfiaratiolzdzi Préjudicenzr
Droit ifttevltntio~lafliriblic,Par1938, pp. 106et sqq.)international
tribunals have ofte11taken into consideration the degree of gral-ity
of offences,negligence or the czdpaof the victim, and have modified
the damages accordingly. Arbitrators have several times made
very clear declarations of principle on the point :e.g., the British
Commissioner in the .-ilabaîiiacase (Rec. LAPRADELLa End POLITIS,
II. Fizj), who considered that reparation should not only be
proportionate to the loss caused by the culpa, but also to the
grab ity of the ctilpn itsel;or the arbiter in the Delagoa Bay case,
who held that the czrlpaof the victim justified a reduction of the
compensation (LA FOSTAINE,Pasicr. ilzt.,p. 307).

In this case, several circumstances mentioned above or recorded
in the counter-claim might, if the case arose, reduce, to a certain
estent, the amount of the reparation. This would no doubt be
inc~mpatible with a condemnation based on the wrongfulness
of the act, but it would be applicable to any one guilty of an act in
the nature of an error.

2j.-;1~ regards the assess~nent of the reparation, it must be
remembered that the application \vas replaced by a kind of novation
in the Special Agreement, which modified the normal course of
procedure.
It is true that a renunciation cannot be presumed ; but in a
case of novation, an espress reservation must almays be made,
as in the case of a guarantee for a debt.

.\foreo~.er,the United Kingdoin knenythe two possible solutions
esactly :the solution ~vhichit had proposed in the Security Couricil :
a simple declaration of responsibility, reserving a subsequent
settlement ; and that n-hich it preferred in bringing the matter
before the Court : a claim for a fixed sum in damages. Nour,
when drafting the Special Agreement, Great Britain chose the
first method, and therefore cannot claim to come back to the
second, and to rely on a mental reservation supported by vague
references in the other docum-nts, and set up again, at the last
moment, b-- a definite allusion to the assessment of damages.
Itis not esactly a question of competence, but of determining
the content of the petitrrnz.

-1comparison between the claims set out in the SpecialAgreement
also shows that, in both cases, a reference was made to respons-
ibility and to reparation, on!y in order to point out the difference
in their nature. The United Kingdom had in view only a monetary
reparation, and Albania a different reparation of a purely moral
character. Thus, the clause \vas not purposeless, but the giving
96 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
97
of a definite indication Ras deliberately avoided, both as regards
the nature of the moral satisfaction, and as regards the amount
of the material compensation.
Moreover, if any doubt subsisted, it would not be dispelled by
an interpretation unfavourable to the debtor and in favour of the
negligent creditor.

26.-One might also emphasize the necessity of adding something

to the declaration of responsibility, in order to avoid an inter-
pretation that would render the Special Agreement ineffective. In
other words, an endeavour would be made to give practical effect
to the clauses adopted by the Parties.
But it must be pointed out that the Special Agreement consists
of a simultaneous iîling of two claims, mutually submitted by the
Parties, and of a purely declaratory nature.
In municipal law, awards are as a general rule executed by
compulsion, and formerly a decision void of such etiect would not
be admitted-campana sine pistillo. But as procedure has
developed, the existence of purely declaratory awards has come
to be admitted, especially in Germany and the United States :
tlie applicant is content-for some reason-to have his right
declared, without desiring that it shall subsequently be rendered
effective ;at the same time, however, he retains the right to bring
another action of a purely executory nature :actio de jzddicato.
But what is exceptional in municipal law is normal in inter-

national law. Decisions against sovereign States were not directly
executory, and were founded only on their high moral value, cal-
culated to secure a voluntary submission. It was the SanFrancisco
Charter which first provided for giving etiect to decisions of the
International Court of Justice by a procedure sui generis, the
extent of which will be determined in each case by the Security
Council.
The adoption of a special agreement must not therefore be con-
sidered exceptional, or useless, or as involving merely the abandon-
ment of a claim. Naturally, it presupposes mutual renunciations,
limiting the effect of the Court's decision to the main fact of
recognition of responsibility, and regarding essentially the purpose
of international justice as being to declare the right.
Additional matters, such as the estimation of the loss and the
method of payment, have been left by the Parties to other proce-
dures, more favourable to their interests, and to be determined in
the future.

27.-The origin of the counter-claim is Albania's contention in
regard to passage through the North Corfu Channel. This claim
concerns two different issues : the passage of a squadron through
the Channel, and the subsequent minesweeping. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUPGE AZEVEDO g8
The fundamental nature of such a prohibition was certainly
disavowed in the discussion in the Security Council ; and Albania
asserts that she never intended to exclude merchant ships ;this
would, however, involve a literal interpretation of the note, and

even the incidents already mentioned.
After this withdrawal, it must still be considered whether the
measure was lawful or not as regards warships.
The right of passage of foreign vessels through the territorial
sea is founded on freedom of trade, which presupposes freedom of
navigation as the principal means of its accomplishment. But an
opposition between these two conceptions of freedom cannot be
envisaged, even to justify the difference which certain wnters
proposed between a simple passage and an entry into ports. No
doubt, any passage leads up to an entry into a port of some country.
But it is undeniable that the two acts are treated differently, and
involve greater or less restrictions on the riparian State. But this
does not do away with the postulate that freedom of navigation
flows from freedom of trade, a much wider economic concept.

From the time of the League of Nations, this problem has been
of exceptional importance owing to the references to it in Articles 16
and 23 of the Covenant, and the setting up of the Committee on

Communications and Transit, and the holding of the Conferences
of Barcelona in 1921 and Geneva in 1923. The idea of the transit
of merchandise is thus of special importance. In the present
system, it is less important ; but it is undeniable that, since the
San Francisco Charter, it has not been essentially modified.
But the position is quite different as regards the passage of
warships, both as concems the principle and, in many cases, its
application.
No doubt, this transitis also founded on freedom of navigation ;
but here the same means serves different ends. And in conse-
quence we arrive at different conclusions. We must mistrust any
hasty analogy, and reject explanations such asthat of FAUCHILLE,
who considered a navy as an accessory to a merchant fleet, just as
in the days of corsairs and piracy.

28.-A number of writers hold that the right only amounts to
what may be described as a tolerance, subject to regulations
somewhat wider than those usually goveming technical, health,
and customs matters, and which are also applicable to merchant
ships.
Others, however, favour the view that equality of treatment has
to be accorded. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
99
On the other hand, the United Kingdom, founding itself on
Article 38 of the Court's Statute, has contended thît custom
prevails over doctrine, though it admits that this Article does not
establish an order of precedence for the different sources of law.
But it is very doubtful whether a customary practice in this
matter can be shown to exis-t,owing to the vagueness of the prece-

dents. As in the case of possession, these uncertainties are a bar
to the causative and confirmative action of time. And the mere
lapse of time, according to customary law, does not suffice to
establish a title by prescription :in facultativis non datur Pr@-
scriptio.
A "lateral passage" through the narrow belt of territorial waters
-as distinct from a passage through such waters on the way to or
from the ports adjacent to them-is not a common occurrence even
for merchant ships, and is exceedingly rare in the case of warships.
Indeed, it may be said to arise only in canals or straits, a subject
which will be examined separately. The notification of an intended
visit to a port is not infrequently additional to the notification of
a simplepassage through territorial waters. Indeed,in the present
case, we observe that, in the programme for the Mediterranean
Fleet, separate notice of the intended movements was to be gi~en,
both to Greece and Egypt, while it was indicated that a simple
visit to certain Egyptian ports might be paid by the Commander-

in-Chief.
There would be no valid reason for imposing greater restrictions
on the rights of the coastal State in the case of warships. It would
of course be an abuse of this right if their passage were prohibited
without proper reason, when no danger threatened, simply from a
desire to injure, or even out of caprice or levity.
Permission to pass, something far more useful, which neutral
countries almost invariably grant to warships in war time, has its
origin mainly in the desire to be impartial towards belligerents
and not to forbid acts which are harmless, on condition that they
retain that character. The precarious nature of such permission
is confirmed by the fact that, even in peace time, the passage of
warships through certain straits in which transit is regulated by
multilateral treaties is prohibited or limited.

In short, there are no significant or constant facts which could

justify the assumption that States have agreed to recognize a
customary right of freedom of passage for warships through the
temtorial sea. Thus, the vitalizing quality of repeated action,
by means of which such a custom is established, is lacking.
The tendency towards freedom could not be admitted without
reservation in the case of territorial waters, especially fordefence
reasons. Reference may be made to the extension of the rights of
neutrals (Annuaire de l'lnstit. de Dr. int., Paris, 1910, pp. 37, 91,
etc.), the creation by equidivision of adjacent or contiguouswaters,

99 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO0

the protected zone under the Alcohol Laws, and the laws relating
to oilfields(sBUSTAMANTE, La Merterritoriale,Paris, 1930,p. 156).

In its Opinion of December rrth, 1931, in the case conceming
access or anchorage in the Port of Danzig of Polish war vessels,
the Permanent Court of International Justice declined to admit
an extensive interpretation of provisions-including those of the
Treaty of Versailles-that were in derogation of general interna-
tional law ; it refused to read a right of free accessand sojourn for
trafFic,imports and exyorts, matters which fall exclusively within
the sphere of merchant shipping. And the Court declared in its
finding that the Polish claim had not been established. (P.C.I.J.,
SeriesA./B. 43, pp. 145 et sqq.)

29.-The United Kingdom invoked the proceedings of the Hague
Conferencefor the Codificationof Intemational Law ;but in doing
so, it was obliged to minimize a large part of the results of that
Conference, on which Albania also relied.
Thus, the United Kingdom contended that the bases of discus-
sion, approved by the Conference purely for the purposes of legal
science, represented a sort of compromise, necessary for the future
interpretation of the rule, and that, on the contrary, a simple
observation, adopted at the last moment, had more weight than
the "bases of discussion" to which it related. Whatever may be
the justice of these conclusions, a study of the discussions and
documents in the valuable Reports of that distinguished Inter-
national Law Conference might lead to conclusions of a different
character. The preliminary report, for instance, emphasized the
confusioninthe repliesconcerning existing lawand those conceming
lex ferenda(L.N., C.74, M.39, 1929, p. 7).
The first drafts prepared in 1926 by SCH~CKING f,rmer Judge
at the Permanent Court, and an upholder ofthe right offree passage
for warships, might leave doubts, when we compare Articles 7
and 12. The first of these reserves only the right of sojourn for
warships, and Article 12 deals with all matters of passage
(L.N., C.196,M.70, 1927,pp. 59, 62 and 72) ; the result of a second
consultation of States by means of a questionnaire adopted by a
Revision Committee, was the same (IX and X, L.N., C.74, M.39,
1929, p. 105). Only after further replies had been received was
the clear difference between these two cases (bases 19 and 20)
recognized (L.N., C.74, M.39,1929,pp. 71to 75). It was retained
and accentuated during the discussion and approval of the draft
by the Second Committee.
A study of al1the replies to the two series of questions would
not justify usin concluding, outright, in favour of equal treatment
for both categories of ships. For very few States replied definitely
in favour of that view. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO1
For instance, there were not only two countries, Bulgaria and

Latvia, that opposed the right of free passage of warships ; other
States also expressed a similar opinion in their replies, or during
the discussion. Great Britain felt it was necessary to destroy the
radical and coherent attitude adopted by the United States at this
Conference. Yet it is difiicult to see how the written and spoken
arguments of the American representatives, founded on the notior,
of menace put fonvard by ELIHUROOTand upheld in the prelimi-
nary studies of the Harvard Law School, could be demolished by
third parties, however excellent their arguments.

Great Britain's attitude was not very clear either :in the pre-
liininary replies (doc. cit., pp. 67 and 74), Great Britain alluded

to rules submitted to the Conference, the non-publication of which
is regretted by GIDEL (Dr. znt. publ. de la Mer, Paris, 1934, t. 3,
p. 283) ; and in the discussion she asserted that the proposa1 for
a mere tolerance, submitted by the United States, did not differ
from the British proposa1 for the maintenance of the status quo
(L.N., C.351, M.145 b, 1930, pp. 62-3). Such is the impression
left in the minds of the writers who commented on the discussions
at The Hague : e.g. BALDONI(Il Mare territoriale,Padova, 1934,
p. 94, n. I), and JAURÉGUIBERRY (La Jiev territoriale,Paris,1932,
P. 92)-
Differentiation between the two cases continued to be the basis
of the Conference'swork, and it reappears as a leitmotiv in the draft

proposa1 ; the difference between the French and the English tests,
though often referred to, was disregarded.
The rapporteur himself pointed out that Article 12, concerning
the passage of warships, corresponded to what was generally
recognized as the law at that time.

30.-Similarly, a study of the domestic laws of various States
-although most of them makea distinction between simplepassage,
sojoum in territorial waters and entry into ports--does not convey
an impression clearly in favour of freedom of passage for warships,
even if a large r,argin is allowed for the alwaysdangerous argument
a contrario sensu.

To sum up, it is evident that al1 the arguments invoked are
clouded in confusion, at any rate sufficiently to bar the recognition
of a ciistom in accordance with traditional requirements.
In short, the passage of warships through territorial waters is
subject to 3.precarious régimewhich may be modified, in a reason-
able manner, by the coastal State.
It is a régime analogous to that adopted for air traffic, in which
a passage over foreign territory, although more dangerous, is
infinitely more necessary than a passage through a stnp of terri-

IO1 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO2

tonal sea of three miles. The tendency is to allow free passage
for commercial aircraft, but to deny any such right to military
planes, in regard to which the territorial State may act as it
thinks fit.

31.-The terms of the basis of discussion approved at The Hague
in 1930 also retain the reservation for exceptional circumstances,
which is admitted by those who claim an actual right of passage
for warships, or who place them on the same footing as merchant,
by circumstances.e an abuse in normal times is made lawful
Thus, insistence on authorization or prior notification, which is,
in general, excluded from the text, would be justifiable in cer-
tain circumstances ;for instance, in a state of war, which in fact
is a great handicap to the movements of merchant ships, as
BRUELhas mentioned several times.
Shen there are the cases of tension between neighbouring coun-
tries, to which GIDELalludes, when frontier incidents are con-
stantly occurring ;and these may welljustify the action ofa weaker
State, alarmed by the territorial claims of another.
Similarly, absence of diplomatic relations must be recognized
as sufficient ground for refusing leave of passage; since this pre-
supposes the existence of good relations. BUSTAMANTh Eas
specially emphasized this point (op. cit., para. 173). GIDEL
supports him, in spite of the silence of the Hague Conference on
this subject (O*. cit.p,. 285).
The laws of certain countries only grant passage to countries
at peace (France, October zgth, 1929, Art. 1), to ships of friendly
countries (Bulgaria, November 4th, 1922,Art. 1), or even to vessels
of recognized foreign Powers (Belgium, December 3oth, 1923,
Art. 2).
The United States established by proclamation a general
prohibition of passage for French and English vessels, Save in
distress or with special permission, following on the rupture of
diplomatic relations with France in 1793, and with England in
1815.
In the Landwarow-Kaisiadorys railway case, the Permanent
Court of International Justice, inivingits Opinion ofOctober 15th,
1931 (P.C.I.J., Series A./B. 42, pp. 108 et sqq.),took account
of the existing abnormal nature of political relations between
Poland and Lithuania in time of peace, having regard to the terms
of the Barcelona Convention on the subject of the safety or vital
interests of the countries which were bound to facilitate transit.

Belgian law (Art. II)and Netherlands law (October 3oth, 1909,
Art. 14) aiiude to any other exceptional circumstance.
The United Kingdom stated that it would be willing to admit
that certain events might prejudice what it regarded as an
IO2 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO3

undoubted customary right ; but at any rate it refuses to admit
that the coastal State should be the sole judge of the soundness
of these reasons.
But the Belgian law (Art. II) states definitely that the country
entitled to benefit by the reservation is alone entitled to regulate
its application; and the Italian law (May 28th, 1928, renewed in
1933) and that of Yugoslavia (June aoth, 1924) provided for
abolition of the tolerance without reason given. BALDON(Iop.
cit., p. 93) alludes to revocation ad nutum, and RÆSTAD (La
Mer territoriale,1913, p. 173) considers revocation as an unfriendly
act, but not contrary to international law.
It does not matter that insistence on authorization is equivalent
to prohibition ; this is a consequence provided for in the laws
that have been examined, in doctrine, and in Article 12 of the
Hague draft. Regulation exists normally at all times, and it is
opposed to the pnnciple of exception, to which may be added
previous permission ; on the other hand, it would be useless to
provide for modifications in abnormal circumstances.
Abuses may no doubt occur ; but there are methods of judicial
settlement of international disputes to overcome them.

In the present case, it is beyond dispute that Albania was not
on friendly relations with her neighbours to the South, and that
no diplomatic relations existed between her and Great Britain.
But if Albania acted wrongly, it was a fait accmnplithe withdrawal
of which could only be sought by peacefd means.

Lastly, we need not concern ourselves with the form of the
regulation ; for it is not subject to any rule;only the Italian law
(cit. Art. g) indicates the method of publication. But if exception
were taken to an anticipated application of the measure, an
objection could only be made after the notification of the prohibition
and its receipt. The same applies to the absence of grounds in
the notification itself ; for the grounds were made clear in the
diplomatic correspondence, and were not disputed.

32.-Are the above conclusions affected by the fact that the
territorial waters form part of a strait ?
In the conflict between the interests of the community and those

of special groups-a conflict which underlies maritime law-the
balance has frequently wavered between argument and counter-
argument : the controversy between mareZiberum and mareclausum
is not yet closed. And certain points have been left behind in the
course of the evolution, such as the King's Chambers in the Stuart
period, and, in Our day, what are known as historic bays.
The predominance of the general interest weighs down the
balance against the coastal State, when, by some geog~aphical DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO4

accident, a part of its maritimeterritory constitutes a straitFor the
advantage of the world as a whole, it has to suffer a sort of expro-
priation, for which no compensation is offered,but which is of course
limited to what is essential for the public good. BRUELspeaks of
an international mandate or of negotioruwzgestio. (International
Straits, Copenhagen-London, 1947 ,ol. 1,p. 254 ;Vol. 2, p. 424.)
Law constitutes a çystem of adjustment, and in it motives are
appraised by the same process within a single country and between
different countries. As a result, there are frequent appeals from
international law to the rules of private law, which are more precise
and are technically very rigorous.
For instance, there has been much controversy in regard to this
transfer of principles from the theory of rights in real property,

and especially from the notion of servitudes. Butthe extension of
their fundamental rules is not to be doubted. Take, for instance,
the right of ownership; it is only subject to limitations in cases of
necessity (enclave, etc.). Consequently, the settlement of other
cases-relating not only to the superfluous, but also to the useful-
is left for agreement between the parties concemed. The field
of exception, and consequently that of interpretation ciz*iliteruti,
still remains.
Similarly, one cannot with impunity restrict the rights of a
State without adequate grounds, whether such rights are derived
from the principle of sovereignty or not. The existence of public
necessity cannot be deduced from the private interests of third
States, whose requirements may be above the average-as has
happened in history-but it must be founded on an impartial
balancing of advantage and disadvantage in general, by which the

burdens thrown upon the coastal State, by reason of a mere geo-
graphical accident, may be assessed.

33.-This shows the extreme imp6rtance of the problem of
straits. Some writers consider that the wide differences between
one strait and another prevent the adoption of any general rule.
The situation of the chief straits and artificial channels is already
governed by special conventions, and new measures will have to be
framed to deal with cases that may be found to he of importance
in the future. According to this theory, often referred to at The
Hagiie, al1other straits will be subject to the normal riiles applicable
to the territorial sea. Opposed to this is another rule, equally
radical, that al1 sti-aits are subject to common rules forming part
of a general régime applicable to straits-a régime that is only
supplemented by more detailed rules for individual straits in the

nlore important cases.
The most reasonable solution is nearly always to be found in a
middle course. The ideal would be the adoption of a general
régime for straits of a certain kind, supplemented by special rules
for individual cases ;while ordinary straits would be dealt with in
104 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 1'35
accordance with the general principles for the use of the territorial

sea.

34.-But before reaching a conclusion, we must emphasize the
connexion between the question of straitsand that of the territorial
sea. The passage of merchant ships through any strait is merely
a particular case covered by the mle for the territorial sea,
and no problem arises. Merchant ships can use a strait without
having to show that they obtain advantages from the use of thai
route.

Decisive proof may be found in the fact that straits were not
dealt with in the preparatory work of the Hague Conference, Save

as regards the method of dividing territorial waters between two
coastal States. It is only when the distinction came to be drawn
between merchant ships and warships that the need of settling
the problem regarding the latter arose.
The question iç not only one for warships. Here we are no
longer dealing with the simple application of a general principle ;
for the notion of freedom of transport is divorced from the commer-
cialpurpose with which it is normally related. And as this notion
of freedom loses much of its significance and prestige when invoked
for requirements of a different kind, we shall have to find some
other criterion by which to measure it. The place of economic
criteria wiil have to be taken by geographical considerations, and
an endeavour must be made to find means of communication that
are of reasonable utility.

For this reason, mention is generally made of Gibraltar, Boni-
facio, Hongkong, etc., as being under a special régime,apart from
the straits subject to conventional rules, differing from the ordinary
rules applying to territorial waters.
First, it will be observed that the essential condition for placing
a strait in an international category is that it should be used for
international traffic; but it would be over-simplifying the problem
to consider only the fact that thestrait gives access to the open sea,
and not merely to places in interior waters.

It is essential to examine the circumstancesin order to appreciate
the intrinsic importance of each individual route.
Of course, every strait offers a passage that shipping may make
use of
;but conversely, it might be argued that no strait was indis-
pensable for shipping ; for it is always possible to find some other
route connecting two seas, as happened, for example, before the
Suez and Panama Canals were opened.
But we could not approve unreservedly a restriction of the
rights of the coastal State in order to satisfy al1the military require-
ments of third States, even if these requirements were ordinary
105 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 106
manoeuvres or mere courtesy voyages in which warships might
economize a few hours' steaming. No other view could be admitted

unless the closing of the strait rendered navigation impossible or
very difficult-conditions which have led to the regulation of the
more important straitsand have justified certain other exceptions.

The notion of an international strait is always connected with
a minimum of special utility, sufficient to justify the restriction
of the rights of the coastal State-which rights must be assumed
to be complete and equal to those of other States. To PILLET'S
doctrine of least sacrifice, we might a<d SÉFÉRIADÈS'maxim :
"The greater the use of the passage ...the more extensive become
the infringements of the rights of the coastal States." (Rec. des
Cours, Vol. 34, p. 439.)
A classification of straits in the order of their importance may
therefore be considered as irrefutable. This is shown in several
ways by BRUEL,and a study of other writers leads to similar conclu-
sions, expressed very clearly : main highway, independent route,
shortest and most necessary way, communication between two

free seas, two high seas, highways, only way, etc.

35.-At The Hague, in 1930, this problem was dealt with on
current lines ; but care must be taken lest, by a too hasty perusal
of the terms there adopted, we should be led to include any and
every strait-even those which would render the passage longer or
more difficult-under the second observation relating to Basis 12.
The adoption of the observation to Basis 12 without opposition
gives great weight to it ; but we cannot forget the unexpected
manner in which the question was put at the last moment. Stress
must be laid on the words "serving for international navigation",
added to the terms previously employed in a number of documents
that referred merely to communication between two parts of the
open sea.
At this point, SCH~CKING referred to the exceptional case of
ships which entered a strait and then found it impossible to return

to their country ! (Proceedingsof the Conference, Vol. III, 1930,
P. 171.1
BRUEL,who is otherwise favourable to the passage of warships,
refers to the fluctuation that prevents any definite statement on
the one side or the other (op.cit.Vol. 1, pp. 202-5).
But the notion of international strait and also the expression
"highway", dear to great writers like Oppenheim, and introduced
at the beginning of these proceed.ings by the United Kingdom,
might be inserted in the 1930 clause.

36.-Can the Corfu Channel be deemed to be a "highway" ? DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO7
A mere glance at the chart shows how difficult it would be to
include it in such a classification, and indeed no qualified author
has yet attempted to do so.
This Channel cannot serve the needs of international shipping,

because it does not shorten the route, and offers no facility for
manoeuvring. So far as the Port of Saranda is concerned, it is of
no use, even for voyages southward. True, it is of value to the
Port of Corfu for northward traffic ; but the distance saved by
using it is less thaIOOmiles. In a fewhours, the Leader steamed
almost round the island, whose southem shore is still fringed with
mines round which çhe had to pass.
One of the British experts quite naturally told the Court of
important international routes, particularlythose leading to the
Dardanelles and coming from Alexandria or Suez and the eastem
Mediterranean.
The artificialCorinth Canal, which unites the Ionian and Ægean
Seas, thereby saving a considerable détour, would be of far greater
importance ; nevertheless, al1 the authors who deal with it have
described it as a secondary route in the few lines they devote toit.
After October zznd, proposals were submitted to the Medzon
Board for the establishment of new routes to Corfu, either by
sweeping a channel to the North or by the clearance of minefield

No. 530 to the South ; and in point of fact, the North Channel has
remained closed for more than two years without any serious
prejudice to international traffic.

37.-NTe must examine whether one last consideration might
not turn aside the normal line to be followed.
There is a sort of condominium over the waters of the Channel,
because one of its shores is Greek and the other Albanian-though
it is not the existence of one or of several coastal States which
confers upon a strait an international status: the Sound is between
two Statesand the Belts and the Dardanelles are between the coast-
lines of a single State.

The method of dividing the waters of narrow straits is of small
importance, for it does not concem third Powers. On the contrary,
in this particular case, the situation of the Strait, on the frontier
between two States, would justify further restrictions as against
third Powers, unless the latter were able to prove the existence of

special navigational interests.
A reference has been made to a statement by a North-American
technical expert on the Mining Board in regard to the Corfu
Channel; but it must be remembered that the United States
declared at The Hague that they and Great Britain were the only
States concerned in establishing the régime forthe Strait of Juan de
Fuca (which is certainly of greater importance than that of Corfu), DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 108
whereas they regarded the Strait of Magellan as essentially inter-
national.

HYDE held this doctrine to be abundantly justified, in comparing
the Kiel Canal, which is clearly international owing to its vital
interest to trade, with Long Island Sound or the Strait of Juan
de Fuca, which are reserved for the interests of one or two States
(Int. Law, Boston, 1947, Vol. 1, paras. 150 and 155). Sweden
also, in the reply to the Hague questionnaires, claimed similar
situations to that of the Kalmar Strait (L.N., C.74, M.39, 1929,
P. 55).
JVemust not lose sight of proportion. We may, however, conclude
that even the fact of its being a strait cannot be an argument for
the United Kingdom claim ; but on the contrary is in support
of the prohibition of passage ordered by Albania, unless special
permission be granted after notice, and having regard to the
abnormal circumstances at the moment.
And as regards the facts-even well separated in point of time-
any tolerance in times past might, by a sort of prescription, create

a right against Albania.
It goes without saying that this solution could not be applied
in the case of warships of the Power which possesses sovereignty
over the opposite shore of the strait, since there is complete
equality between the States directly interested in the passage of
shipping-even of a non-commercial kind-through the strait.

38.-Even if we regard Albania's conduct as wholly or partly
unjustifiable, we must disapprove of any intervention designed
to end it, and oi any employment of force against force, except in
the heat of violent action as on May 15th.

As such a method of enforcing an erroneous doctrine was abnor-
mal, one might have hoped that those who refused to tolerate it
would refrain from acting in the same way. To answer : vim vi
repellere,would amount to referring the solution of a purely juridi-

cal problem to the arbitrament of force. As the reason of urgency
had ceased to apply, the praper course would manifestly have been
to refrain from effecting the passage.
Apart from legitimate defence, a counter-stroke confestint,
"hot pursuit", or an emergency, nothing justifies the use of force,
not even the pretext of reprisals. One violation does not justify
another, outside the lex tirlionis.
It would be absolutely contrary to the spirit of the San Fran-
cisco Charter and to several of its articles for a country to become
judge in its own case. The coastal State also exercises power over
its maritime territory ;and if it adopts a new measure, this cannot
be set aside by violence, even under the pretext of re-establishing
the rtatzts quo. The passivity of the party that announced the
prohibition constitutes a fait accompli and is under the protection

1os DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
IOg
of the old rule : in dubio melior est conditiopossidentis.

The forcing of an entry into the ports of a country would not ,
be justified in the present day, although trade or civilization
might profit thereby, as was the case in the nineteenth century ;
still less is the forceful passage of a strait justifiable, as in the

case of Shimonoseki, in 1864.
The toleration of an act of violence, on condition that its law-
fulness were considered a posteriori,would lead to anarchy in
international life.
On the other hand, a state of necessity, or even an irreparable
injury, could not be invoked, merely because of the difficulty of
carrying out naval exercises which, incidentally, had been arranged
to take place elsewhere.

39.-National regulations often lay down restrictions as to the
number and tonnage of ships, the repetition of visits, etc. ; this is
evidence of the menacing character of warships, and serves to
controvert the erroneous argument that if one ship is admitted,
a second must also be allowed and then a third and a fourth, ad
infinitum.
Moreover, if it is recognized that the right of admission to a port
is influenced by the number of ships employed, we are led to con-

clude that the simple passage may be influenced by the same
consideration.
Even in the case of Straits, writers most favourable to warships,
likeFAUCHILL Ee,limits on the right of passage, e.g. concentration
of a powerful squadron (Tr. deDr.int.publ.,Paris, 1925,t. 1,Vol. II,
para. 5071).
No doubt the memory of the first incident justified certain
precautions ; but in any case there was a manifest disproportion
between the forces employed and the object in view. That was
the characteristic feature of this passage, from a purely objective
standpoint, and without having knowledge of the instructions sent
by the Commander-in-Chief.
Moreover, we cannot disregard the subjective aspect of the
passage as several authors recommend, especially in cases where
documentary evidence has been produced by the party accused

of a passage not inermis et innoxia. In this case, there was a
naval demonstration, which would not be admissible even as
reprisals, as was said at the meetings of the Institut de Droit
international at Paris in 1934.

40.-Turning now to the second operation, we note, to begin
with, that Albania was not admitted to the Medzon Board when
the latter was constituted, and that proposals for her admission, DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO II0

merely as an observer, were unsuccessfuily made on several
occasions.
In spite of the predominant part naturally played by the United
Kingdom on this Board, and on the Central Mine Clearance Board,
owing to her greater experience and large navy, the failure of these
proposals cannot be laid entirely at her door, though the reasons
given, and repeated during the proceedings, cannot be regarded as
satisfactory and are sometimes contradictory.

The assignment of Sector 18 A to Greece may be regarded as an
unfriendly act on the part of the Board, seeing that this Sector
(like Sector 17, which had not been allotted to any country) had
already been swept, and Greece had not at the moment the means

of carrying out the task, and even asked for assistance from the
United Kingdom.
It has already been observed that at a critical moment the
British had operied a channel which they thought to be in the same
position as that maintained by the Germans during the war. In
order to avoid undertaking larger sweeping operations, it was
preferred to foilow what was considered the easiest course, rather
than the normal route, equidistant from both coasts ;though it
must not Be assumed that the enemy chose the easiest solution ;
on the contrary, he preferred a route which would be the most
difficult for his adversaries to observe.

But when, a year and a half later, a dispute had arisen between
Great Britain and Albania, it would have been the duty of the

former, if she was still interested in the passage after the end of
hostilities, to restore the Channel to its normal pre-war condition.
Though the enemy had disturbed the former equilibrium, there
was no reason for persisting in a prejudicial course, after peace
had been re-established. The exact situation of the mines was
already knowvn, and a sweep would only have required a few
hours' work, as in the case of Operation Retail.
After the explosion, the United Kingdom Government did not
delay a decision to sweep, and notified Albania.
Meanwhile, however, it endeavoured to obtain the support or
consent of the Mine Clearance Boards, by proposing that it should
itself undertake the operation, as a natural sequel to the sweep

in 1944.
But, on October &th, the Medzon Board did not approve,
although it thought the sweep desirable, owing to the political
character which such an operation would assume in case of a
refusa1 by Albania. The Central Mine Clearance Board was also
réticent : on October 31st, it recommended the sweep, subject,
however, to suitable conditions, including the agreement of the
coastal State. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO III
41.-It had been said that the purpose of Operation Retail was
to protect shipping and provide access to local ports, including
Saranda, or even to relieve from responsibility the State that had

carried out the first sweep.
But the requirements of navigation were not satisfied, and
access to Saranda is not assured ; for the sweep was not finished.

But the main object of the United Kingdom is clearly defined
in the Reply : collection of evidence, to ascertain the cause of the
explosions and to reveal the guilty parties.
On the other hand, it was feared that any measure asked for
from the United Nations and decided on by that body would be
ineffective and slow.
But none of these reasons could justify such a unilateral action,
the gravity of which would have been more evident if the results
had been negative. Action for self-protection, decided on in cold
blood, in contrast with the inactivity at the time of the explo-
sions, would also be out of place. The publicity given to the
case would have been sufficient to discourage any audacious
attempt to get rid of the material evidence of the outrage.

42.-Instead of taking the law into its own hands in a case that

\vas neither urgent nor, unfortunately, susceptible of adequate
reparation, it would have been easier and certainly more appro-
priate for the United Kingdom to resort to a procedure of concilia-
tion, or even to have had recourse to the United Nations, especially
in view of the fact that Albania, though not a member, had already
appealed to that body. One could not assume in advance that
such a step would be met by a flat refusa1 by a country which
subsequently had to accept an invitation with much graver conse-
quences, e.g. that of entrusting the settlement of the whole dispute
to the Security Council, although it later raised an objection to
a reference to the Court. The minesweeping should have been
done under the auspices of the United Nations, impartially and
swiftly, inorder to forestall any change in the state of the Channel.
If international justice does not yet possess satisfactory machin-
ery, the responsibility rests on the Powers, the majority of whom
do not consider the moment arrived to invest the Court with
compulsory jurisdiction.

The Court cannot be blamed for the limited means at its disposal,
nor for provisions such as that which allows a State to refuse to
produce a document, as has happened in the present case.

In spite of its imperfections, we must not give up hope of seeing
all disputes of a legal character finding their way to the Inter-
national Court. In that connexion, we cannot fail to notice the
anxiety which Great Britain has displayed on several occasions DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO II2

to bring before the Court cases which, not long ago, would have
perhaps been settled in another manner.
Be that as it may, the collection of evidence can never justify

an act of intervention, such as has at last been frankly and finally
admitted ; such an act is repugnant to the letter and the spirit of
the San Francisco Charter. The world of to-day will no longer
tolerate a practice which has never been sincerely regarded as
lawful, and one which allows the noblest aims of humanity to be
used, al1 too easily, as a cloak for the worst abuses.

A further use of force must be avoided, especially one carried
out in spite of discreet hints conveyed by the international bodies
immediately concerned-a use of force without great regard for
the other party, which was not even invited to send observers or
to enter into negotiations, after an initial protest by it, and a sug-
gestion of a mixed commission.

The argument based on the absence of any claim in 1944 is
insufficient, having regard to the conditions already mentioned,
which prevailed in war time. Moreover, up to the end of 1945
at least, there was no stable government, recognized by other
Powers, in Albania.
Albania might therefore claim to participate in the marking out
of the Channel, which was to tecome the definitive route ; for she
had regained her independence, which could not be presumed to
be subject to conditions incompatible with acquired sovereignty.
On the other hand, Albania never showed a sincere intention of
approaching Great Britain with a view to settlement, as was
required by the fundamental duty of every State to CO-operatein

the interests of justice and international harmony, by means of
direct negotiations. On the contrary, the more or less evasive
tone of Albania's replies, though supported by legal arguments,
makes it possible to attenuate the United Kingdom's responsibility
and to lay less stress on her attitude of November 13th, than on
that of October zznd.

43.-In addition to the illegality of the operation, the means
used were excessive ;so that at first even the Admiralty anticipated
accusations of duplicity and ofoffence against Albania's sovereignty.

Nor can the method used to carry out the operation be forgotten,
so far as the destruction of the mines was concerned ; for most of
them were left to drift.
Itis true that the Hague Convention lays down, as an essential
condition of the use of such weapons, the adoption of an appliance
rendering them harrnless as soon as they have broken loose from
their moorings. In any case, this legal guarantee does not entirely
satisfy us, and everyone believes that there still remains a certain
coefficient of danger. It is of small importance that experts in

II2 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO II3
general reduce the danger. We are entitled to mistrust even the
most accurate scientific instruments, and this case has furnished

many occasions of observing errors in apparatus and errors of the
men in charge of such apparatus, or who rely on indications given
by it; cases of mines that have remained dangerous have also been
mentioned, and others in which the release springs have ceased
to operate, because of rust.
The mere desire of the United Kingdom to explain the measures
taken to destroy the mines would show the desirability of such
action, which however has been abandoned for other reasons.

These mines might be swept along by the current and found
elsewhere, thus justifying complaints against Albania, as happened
when an American destroyer, on November 14th, 1946, located
a dridting mine off Durazzo, and reported it by signal, although it

could not be established that the mine had been released by the
sweep carried out some distance away the day before.

44.-IYe are thus led to conclude that the United Kingdom
\vas responsible for the operations of October zznd and Novem-
ber 13th, 1946, which involved violations of Albania's sovereignty.
No doubt, Albania does not clairn reparaticn for material
damage ; what she has in view is merely the application of a moral
sanction.
In this domain, even more caution is required than in municipal
law. Although premeditation has been found in the decision to
cany out, 2cd in the execution of the two measures held to be

illegal, it would be difficult to draw a definite conclusion of evil
intent, especially in regard to the second operation : there had been
the previous incidents, and, more particularly, the recent memory
of what was almost a massacre. Further, some hesitation is
observed as to the method that the United Kingdom would take in
order to reach a settlement which she considered as urgent ;whereas
Albania took refuge in an unyielding attitude which only served
to increase Great Britain's suspicions, founded as they were on the
gravest presumptions.
On the other hand, we cannot lose sight of the unusual manner in
which the above measures were carried out : even persons who
claim to have had no intention to injure, who invoke the qui juri
suo utitttr mmimm ledit, or even Saytheyare not acting by caprice,

are sometimes bound by the consequences of a wrongful act, to
which the measure or standard of conduct required by a bonus
pater familias (an old conception, still in favour) cannot be applied.

Albania did not specify any particular sanction. In the course
of the hearing, she confined herself to an allusion to the French DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
II4
practice of sometimes awarding a token payrnent of one franc.

But under the Speciai Agreement rupecuniary sanction has not
been asked for and cannot be granted, even syrnbolically.

On the other hand, the Court shouldbreak away from the familiar
mediaeval procedure, which is not employed nowadays even in
schools, such as apologies, flagsaluting, etc.Al1this isreminiscent

of ultimata,which are becoming more and more obsolete.

45.-There remains only one moral sanction that can be applied
without disregarding the absence of a claim for the assessment of
damages.
The matter cannot be left to the future ; for the sanction must
reipsa be found in the Judgment. This will be purely declaratory,
and will state that the United Kingdom's conduct was contrary
to international law and in every way abnormai.

Within these limits, 1 give satisfaction to Albania and hold that
the counter-claim put forward by her in the Special Agreement of
March 25th, 1948, is well founded.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE BE M. AZEVEDO

I. - Les observations qui suivent ont pour objet d'exprimer les
raisons par lesquelles je suis obligé,tout en le regrettant, de me
séparerde l'arrêtsur quelques points, soit de simples motifs, soit
même à l'égardde certaines conclusions.
En fixant, comme point initial pour l'examen des faits qui
intéressent l'affaire, le mois d'octobre1944, on voit que, l'Italie
déjà abattue, l'avance des Alliésleur donnait'liberté d'action en
Méditerranée,dans la poursuite de l'ennemi.

A cette époque,la situation dans les Balkans offrait une grande
confusion ; étant donné la complexité des luttes intestines, il

n'y avait pas d'unité entre les différents groupes de résistants qui,
forméscontre l'Axe, se combattaient.
En Albanie, un de ces groupes assumait la direction des affaires
publiques en contact avec les Alliés,principalement les Anglais et
les Américains, qui avaient établi des missions militairesuprèç de
ce gouvernement provisoire. Mais, après les élections généralesen
décembre 1945, les relations entre le gouvernement confirmépar
le vote populaire, et les missions militaires, n'ont pas toujours
témoignéd'une parfaite entente. Quoi qu'il en soit, des démarches
ayant pour objet l'établissement de relations diplomatiques entre
l'Angleterre et l'.Albanie étaient entreprises au mois de mai1946,
malgré l'ajournement de. l'admission de l'Albanie à l'Organisation
des Nations Unies à'la suite du vote de quelques pays, parmi les-
quels la Grande-Bretagne.

2. - A la fin de 1944, l'un des premiers soucis des Alliésétait
le nettoyage de routes, afin de faciliter la progression des forces
maritimes ;dans l'Adriatique, c'était pratiquement aux Anglais
qu'en incombait la tâche principale sinon exclusive. Les forces de
déminage descendaient vers le Sud et, au co~nmencement du mois
d'octobre, elles procédèrent au nettoyage du chenal de Corfou,
tandis que les Allemands faisaient leurs derniers efforts, en posant
le 23 de ce mois encore un champ de mines à Salonique.

Avec la fin des hostilités s'est fait sentir le besoin d'intensifier
ce travail de réouverture des voies de communicationç maritimes,
et,à cette finont étécréésquelques organismes de caractère inter-
national.
Ainsi se sont formés, au mois de mai 1945, le Comité inter-
national central de déminage et le Comité:de déminage pour la
Méditerranée (Medzon), et au mois de juillet le Service interna-
tional des itinéraires et informations.

78 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO.

[Translation.]
1.-The purpose of the following observations is to explain

the reasons which compel me, to my regret, to differ from certain
of the grounds and certain of the findings of the Judgment.

Taking as a starting-point for considering the facts of this case
the month of October 1944, it "11 be remembered that at that
time Italy had been beaten andthe Allies' advance in the Mediter-
ranean gave them free play to follow after the Germans in the
Mediterranean.
At this time the situation in the Balkans was very chaotic ;
there were intestinal disputes of great complexity and there was no
unity among the different groups of resistance to the Axis, which
were also fighting one another.
In Albania, one of these groups assured the direction of public
affairs and contact with the Allies, mainly the British and Amer-
icans, who had military missions attached to this Provisional
Government. But after the general elections in December 1945,
relations between the Government, which the popular vote had
confirmed, and the military missions were not always harmonious.

However, steps were taken with a view to the esta,blishment of
diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Albania
in May 1946, in spite of the postponement of Albania's admission
to the United Nations asthe result of the vote of certain countries,
among them Great Britain.

2.-At the. end of1944, one of the chief problems of the Allies
was the clearance of maritime routes in order to facilitate the

advance of the naval forces; in the Adriatic this was mainly, if not
entirely, the task of the British. The minesweeping forces were
moving southward, and at the beginning of October they proceeded
to clear the Corfu Channel while the Germans were making their
last efforts by laying a minefield at Salonika as late as October 23rd.

The end of2hostilities led to a need for intensifying work on
opening up sea communications, and certain international bodies
were created for that purpose.

Thus, in May 1945, the Central International Mine Clearance
Board and the Mediterranean MineClearance Board (Medzon)were
formed, and this was followed in Ju1y by the creation of the Inter-
national Routeing and Reporting Authority.

78 79 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

Du travail conjoint de ces organismes a résulté, à partir du
mois d'octobre 1945, la publication de deux sériesde documents à
l'usage de la navigation, les brochures et les cartes Médri.
On peut, d autre part, retenir que l'Albanie connaissait l'existence
du chenal Médrino 18/32 ,,u moins tel qu'il était indiqué sur les
cartes et brochures remisesà une certaine date par le général,chef
de la mission militaire anglaise à Tirana.
On a soutenu qu'en octobre 1944 le Royaume-Uni avait simple-
ment procédéau redragage d'un ancien chenal allemand. Toutefois,
c'est seulement au mois de mai 1945 qu'on a connu les cartes
allemandes, et celles-ci n'indiquaient que la direction et non les
limites de ce chenal. La vérification ultérieure, il faut le remarquer,
n'a pas démontréun écartfort considérable entre les deux chemins,

bien que l'on doive admettre que le nouveau chenal serre un peu
plus la côte.
L'attention est encore frappée par le déplacement graduel de
la ligne verte du chenal presque à chaque édition des cartes Médri,
quoique les brochures conservent toujours les coordonnéesindiquées
dans le radiogramme du 7 novembre 1944, qu'on a dit capté par
hasard. On ne comprend pas la raison de ces changements, puis-
qu'on n'a signaléaucun travail de déminage après février 1945.
On peut regretter d'autre part que des détails plus précis de
l'opération de déminagen'aient pas étéconservéspour que la Cour
puisse les examiner, bien que l'on comprenne très bien que l'urgence
de l'opération ait conduit à donner plus d'importance au travail
effectif qu'à la préparation de rapports.
Il faut ajouter que, pendant l'opération de déminagedu 13 no-
vembre, on a constaté une erreur dans la position sur la carte de
l'Amirauté britannique no 206 de la côte albanaise au sud du cap

Kiephali, erreur qui a été immédiatementreportée sur le tracé.

3. - Plus d'un an après les travaux de nettoyage,deux croiseurs
anglais passèrent par ledit chenal en venant du Nord; ils essuyèrent
le feu d'une batterie côtière,ne furent pas atteintspar lesprojectiles
et continuèrent leur route vers Corfou.

Une discussion s'est élevéeà ce sujet demeurant d'abord sur le
terrain juridique; une pause a pu êtreconstatée entre le 21 juin
et la troisième note britannique, leoût. L'état desrelations entre
les deux pays n'a pas cependant connu de progrès. L'Albanie consi-
dérait même leRoyaume-Uni comme un alliéou du moins comme
un ami fidèled'une nation voisine, quimanifestait devant l'ON. U.
l'intention de revendiquer une partie de son territoire.
Mais, à l'affirmation britannique d'un droit de passage innocent,
l'Albanie avait répondu qu'elle s'opposait au passage de n'importe

quel navire par le chenal de Corfou sans demande préalable et sans
autorisation de sa part. De plus, le17 mai 1946, l'Albanie faisait
savoir simultanément au Royaume-Uni et à quelques autres pays
79 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 79
The work of these various bodies led to the publication, beginning
in October 1945, of two series of navigational documents, the Medri
pamphlets and charts.
It should on the other hand be remembered that Albania knew

of the existence of the Medri channel, No. 18/32, at any rate as
shown in the charts and pamphlets supplied up to a certain date by
the general who was head of the British military mission at Tirana.
It has been alleged that in October 1944 the United Kingdom
had merely reswept a former German channel. However, it was
only in May 1945 that the German charts were available, and these
only gave the direction and not the boundaries of the channel. It
must be said that subsequent verification has not shown that there
was much difference between the two channels, though it must be
admitted that the new channel keeps somewhat closer to the coast.

It is also noteworthy that the green line of the channel on almost
each successive edition of the Medri charts was gradually moved.
though the pamphlets retain the CO-ordinates mentioned in the

radiotelegram of November 7th, 1944, which is said to have been
intercepted by chance. It is not clear why these changes were
made, for there is no allusion to minesweepings after February I94j.
It is further to be regretted that more exact details of the mine-
sweeping had not been kept for the Court to see, though it is
understandable that the urgency of the work led to its being
regarded as more important than the preparation of reports.

It must be added that during the rninesweeping operation on
November 13th an error was noted in the position of the Albanian
coastline South of Cape Kiephali on the Admiralty chart No. 206 ;
this error was at once marked on the map.

3.-More than a year after the minecleareance operations,

two British cruisers, coming from the North, passed through the
Channel ; they were fired on by a coastal battery, but they were
not hit by the projectiles and continued on their way towards
Corfu.
A controversy arose on this subject ; it remained at first in the
legal sphere. It was interrupted between June z~st and the third
British note on August end. However, relations betweefi the two
countries did not improve. Albania considered even the United
Kingdom to be an ally, or at least a faithful friend of a neighbouring
nation which had announced to the United Nations its intention to
claim a part of Albanian territory.
But, in reply to the United Kingdom's assertion of a right of
innocent passage, Albania had said that she was opposed to the
passage of any vesse1 through the Corfu Channel without previous
request and without her authorization. Furthermore, on May 17th,

1946, Alhania informed the United Kingdom and certain other80 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE JI. AZEVEDO

que son Gouvernement interdisait le passage, dans les conditions
ci-dessus indiquées.
Bref, le Royaume-Uni ne se contentaitpas d'adopter une attitude
platonique et de proclamer de simples réserves. Sile commandant
de la force navale, leIj mai, n'avait pas riposté au feu, étant dans
un cas de légitimedéfense,leRoyaume-Uni,une foisconnue l'étrange
prohibition, a préféré agir énergiquement.
Il faut remarquer que la Grèce, pays le plus intéresséà la libre
navigation d'un chenal, qui desservait surtout ses ports et sur

les eaux duquel elle possédait des droits, avait préféré la solution
de s'abstenir du passage pour éviter que les incidents frontaliers
ne devinssent plus graves.
La Grande-Bretagne avait donné un ordre semblable, mais il
fut levéd'abord le 21 août, dans le sens restreint d'un passage dont
la nécessitéapparaîtrait. Une autre modification a résulté des télé-
grammes de l'Amirauté du 15 et du 22 septembre, qui, quoique
sous une forme indirecte, engageaient le commandant de la flotte
de la Méditerranée à tenter un passage par le chenal nord de Corfou,
mêmesi cela n'était pas nécessaire.
Le dernier mot dela note britannique précédentedu 2août était
la menace de répondre au feu par le feu. Comment pouvait-on
faire un sondage sur lesmodifications de l'attitude de celui qui avait
reçu ce défi ? Pour savoir.si les autorités albanaises avaient déjà

acquis une certaine tenue diploinatique, elles devaient être averties
de l'épreuve, au moins pour pouvoir comprendre les mesures com-
binées tout exprès pour donner l'apparence d'un passage amiable,
telles que la direction des canons, etc.

4. - Les exercices d'automne de la flotte de la Méditerranée
se terminaient. Dès le 15 août, le commandement avait prévu un
programme qui finirait par une réunion à Argostoli où toutes les
unités avaient rendez-vous le 23 octobre ;il a donc fallu modifier ce
programme, pour que quatre navires puissent emprunter le chenal.

Le dénouement de cette expérience a étéle plus douloureux pos-
sible:deux explosions de mines ont entraînéla destructionpratique

d'un destroyer abandonné, et de graves avaries à un autre, 44 morts
et 42 blessés.
-4 propos des circonstances de ce passage, un certain nombre
de divergences se sont graduellement aplanies après les explications
et vérifications, après surtout la correction de nombreuses erreurs,
dont quelques-unes présentaient une certaine gravité. Mêmeles
jourilaux de bord, dont la valeur est universellement estimée, ont
présentéde sérieuses inexactitudes.
A propos de la localisation des accidents, on a dû arguer des
erreurs, et quant à l'heure de la deuxième explosion, on a rencontré
plusieurs données différentes,qui ont exigé desexplications supplé-
mentaires afin de les ramener à un seul chiffre.Une dernière circons-

80 DISSENTIXG OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 80
countries at the same time that its Government prohibited the
passage under the conditions mentioned above.
Briefly, the United Kingdom was not content with a platonic
attitude clnd &th mere reservations. -4lthough the commander of

the naval forces had not replied to the shots on May 15th as he
might have done in legitimate defence, the United Kingdom took
energeticaction as soon as the strange prohibition was made known.
It should be noted that Greece, which was the country most
concerned in free navigation in a channel which led chiefly to its
ports and to waters over which it had rights, had preferred the
course of keeping away from the passage so as to avoid increasing
the frontier incidents.
Great Britain had given a similar order, but it was cancelled,
at first, on August zrst, and was then limited so as to allow of a
passage if it should be found necessary. Another change resulted
from the Admiralty telegrams of September 15th and aend ; though
indirectly, they invited the Commander of the Mediterranean Fleet
to try to make a passage through the North Lorfu Channel, even
if it was not necessary.
The last words in the previous British note of August 2nd was a

threat to return fire. How could a test be made of a change of
attitude of the party to whom this challenge was directed ? In
order to ascertain whether the Albanian authorities had acquired
a certain standard of diplomatic conduct, they were to be warned
of the experiment, at any rate so that they might understand the
steps taken expressly to give the appearance of a friendly passage,
such as the direction in which guns were to be trained, etc.

4.-The autumn cruise of the Alediterranean Fleet was ending.
As early as. August rjth, the commander had arranged the
programme which \vas to terminate with an assembly of al1 the
units at Argostoli on October 23rd ;this programme had therefore
to be changed;in order that four of the ships might pass through
the Channel.
The result of this experiment was most lamentable ;the explosion
of two mines led to the pi-actical destruction of one destroyer, which

Ead to be abandoned, and serious damage to another, besides
killing44 men and \vounding 42.
Ir,regard to the circumstances of this passage, a certain number
of divergencies haïe been gradually smoothed out, after explan-
ations and ~erifications, aiid still more after the correction of a
number of errors some of which were rather serious. Even the
logs, which are uniïersally considered trustn-orthy, contained some
serious inaccuracies.
In regard to the spot where the accidents occurred, there were
errors which led to discussion, and in regard to the time of the
second esplosion,there were ~.ariousdata xhich required additi0ri.a:
i~formation before the!- could hc rec-nciied. One lad circurnstance

So 81 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

tance est à relever : l'ordre de changer de route devant la pointe
Denta a étédonnéavec un petit retard, ce qui a entraîné un écart
par rapport à l'axe du chenal et par conséquent un plus grand
rapprochement de la côte.
La réunion de toutes ces erreurs et d'autres circonstances déjà
remarquées aurait laissé un résidu de doutes sérieux, si l'on ne
se trouvait devant un fait incontestable et où le détail ne peut
chasser un ensemble imposant. On est donc obligéd'accepter que
les deux explosions se sont produites dans les limites du chenal.

Mais on ne peut pas être sûr que l'Albanie eût eu àl'époquetous
les élémentsnécessairespour arriver à la mêmeconviction.

5. - Une fois acquise la certitude quant au dommage, premier
élément à considérer, il faut indiquer le fait générateur dece dom-
mage en fixant le lien de causalité indispensable entre l'antécédent
et le conséquent, de telle sorte qu'ils ne soient pas liés dans le
temps par une relation de pure contiguïté.

Qu'est-ce qui a produit le dommage dans l'espèce ? On constate
tout d'abord qu'il y avait auparavant des mines mouilléespar les
Allemands, mais d'autre part, il faut accepter, avec les experts de

la Cour, qu'un nettoyage bien exécutépermet la conviction d'une
garantie àIOO % pour des mines amarrées. Des raisons techniques
' ont fait abandonner l'hypothèse de mines poséespar sous-marin
ou par avion et aussi celle des mines magnétiques. On doit aussi
Ccarter l'hypothèse de mines flottantes, d'abord par la coïncidence
frappante des deux explosions, qui se sont produites presque dans
les mêmescirconstances de temps et de lieu, sans que ces circons-
tances soient atténuées par le fait que d'autres bâtiments sont
passéssains et saufs.
Ensuite, parlait très éloquemment la nature des avaries, qui
présentent une violence extraordinaire, selon la preuv,e décisive,

qui se trouve dans le dossier, bien qu'on ne connaisse pas la charge
d'explosif des mines italiennes dont étaient formés les champs
ennemis.
Il ne resterait ainsi dans le creuset que l'explication de la pose
d'un champ de mines après la cessation de l'action ennemie :on
arrivait, par éliminationà isoler un antécbdent unique, transformé
en véritable cause, d'après les règles classiques deJOHN STUART
MILL.
Cette solution impressionnante par elle-mêmea trouvé un appui
d6cisif dans la découverte d'un nouveau champ de mines, le 13 no-
vembre 1946.

En acceptant à la fin qu'un nouveau champ de mines ait été
posi., l'Albanie n'a fait pourtant que changer de position, car elle
continue ànier que ce soient ces mines qui aient causéle dommage.
Elle exige en somme la preuve que ce champ avait étéposéavant
le 22 octobre, tout en soulevant l'hypothèse que le mouillage
81 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 81
must be noted :the order to change course in front of Denta Point
was given a little late, and this led to a departure from the axis of

the Channel and a closer approach to the coast.

The combination of al1 these errors, and of other circumstances
already referred to, would have left a residuum of serious doubts
if one fact had not been incontestable and if the details could have
obscured the main picture. We are therefore compelled to admit
that the two explosions occurred within the limits of the Channel.
Rut we cannot be sure that at that time Albania had al1the inform-
ation necessary for reaching the same conclusion.

5.-Once cèrtainty was arrived at in regard to the damage
-which is the first element to be considered-it is necessary to
ascertain the fact that produced the damage by determining the
indispensablelink of causation between antecedent and consequence,

so that the two may not merely be connected in time by a relation
of simple contiguity.
What caused the damage in this case ? It is to be observed,
first, that the Germans had already laid some mines ;on the other
hand, the view of the Court's Experts must be accepted that a sweep
of moored mines, when properly executed, gives an assurance that
the mines were cleared IOO%. For technical reasons the hypothesis
that the mines were laid by submarines or by aeroplanes, or that
they were magnetic mines, had to be abandoned. One must also
reject the hypothesis that they were floating mines, owing to the
striking coincidence of the two explosions occurring practically in
the same circumstances of time and place, without these facts
being attenuated by the circumstance that other vessels passed
through without injury.

Lastly, eloquent evidence was provided by the nature of the
damage, showing considerable violence, as is definitely proved by
the documents filed in the case, although we do not know what
explosive charge was used in the Italian mines which were employed
in the enemy minefields.
We have thus eliminated al1other possibilities than the explan-
ation that a minefield was laid after the end of enemy action : we
thus succeed, by a process of elimination, in isolating a single
antecedent, which is thus transformed into a veritable cause,
according to the classical rules ofJOHB STUART MILL.
This solution is impressive in itself. It was decisively supported
hy the discovery of a new minefield on November 13th, 1946.

However, while admitting, at the last, that a new minefield was
laid, Albania only changed her position ;for she still denies that it
was these mines that caused the damage. She demands, in fact,
that it shall be proved that the minefield was laid before
Octoher 22nc1,and she puts forward the hypothesis that they were 82 OPINION DISSIDEXTE DE $1.AZEVEDO

n'aurait étéeffectuéqu'après les événements,pour créer des dif-
ficultésau pays riverain.
Mais, si la pose d'un champ de mines en temps de paix constitue
sans doute un fait presque inconcevable, l'hypothèse présentéepar
l'Albanie conduirait à la pose successive des deux champs à un
intervalle rapproché, ce qui serait encore plus insolite.

6. - Lorsqu'on apprécie ensuite la caractère illicite du fait
générateurdu dommage, on est obligéde faire état des points de
vue qui doivent orienter le juge à ce propos, ainsi que dans le
problème qui est lié trop étroitement à celui-là et qui a trait à
l'imputabilité. Cette constatation préliminaire devient nécessaire
lorsqu'on emprunte un chemin différent pour arriver cependant
au mêmebut ; alors s'impose une explication préalable de caractère
nettement doctrinal.
Les Parties ont, par exemple, beaucoup insisté sur le besoin de

démontrer, en l'espèce,l'existence d'un manquement à une obliga-
1 tion internationale. Cette notion est si forte qu'elle a incité bon
nombre d'auteurs à lui accorder la première place dans une théorie
de la responsabilité, qui est aujourd'hui en grande faveur.
7. - Mais la formule, quoique sans cesse vantée par ses parti-

sans, ne contribue pas utilement à éliminer des difficultésqui sont
d'ailleurs connues du droit interne.
En agissant exclusivement sur un plan restreint, comme celui
de l'infractionà une norme du droit positif, ladite doctrine s'efforce,
cependant, de s'attribuer des avantages que seulement l'applica-
tion d'un autre principe pourrait procurer. Ainsi les divergences
relativesà l'exigence de textes spéciaux concernant des obligations
préexistantes n'ont rien à voir avec l'action parallèle d'un autre
principe qui conditionne, ou non, l'imputabilité à l'exigence d'un
élément moral de culpabilité.
De sorte que la doctrine du manquement à l'obligation inter-
nationale ne peut prétendre au titre d'objective que par une confu-
sion des mots, à moins qu'elle n'ajoute àson principe fondamental

un autre principe lié à l'écartement de la notion de faute.
Mais, le fait que la doctrine ne saurait invoquer en sa faveur
ce dernier élément est démontrépar la circonstance que lespartisans
de cette formule se divisent en trois groupes différents : celui qui
n'abandonne pas l'exigence d'une faute, celui qui se dispense d'un
tel élémentet enfin celui qui maintient les deux positions, selon
que le droit internationalimpose ou non, suivant le cas, un recours
à la notion de faute (omission, responsabilité indirecte, etc.).

Le point faible se trouve d'ailleurs dans le noyau mêmede la
théorie, c'est-à-dire dans la primauté attribuée à la nature de la
violation ; il en résulte un rétrécissementdu champ d'application

pratique de la responsabilité. DISSESTIXG OPINION BY JUDGE .\ZEVEDO 82

only laid after the events in order to make difficultiesfor the coastal
State.
But, if the laying of a minefield in time of peace is almost
inconceivable, the Albanian suggestion would involve the successive
laying of two minefields at short intervals, and that ~vouldbe even
more extraordinary.

6.-When one has to appreciate the unlawful character of
the act causing the damage, one is obliged to take into account
certain considerations by which a judge must be guided in this
connexion and also in the problem relating to imputability, which
is so closely linked to it. This preliminary statement seems to be
called for when one is taking a different road to arrive at the same
goal ; because in such a case a previous exposition of a definitely
doctrinal character becomes unavoidable.
For instance, the Parties strongly emphasized the necessity of
demonstrating, in this case, the existence of a breaeh of an inter-
national obligation. That notion is of such importance .that many
writers have accorded it the foremost place in a theory of respons-
ibility, now in such high favour.

7.-But this formula, though so greatly lauded by its adherents,
does not help to eliminate difficulties which are also encountered
in municipal law.
Though operating solely on a limited plane, such as the infraction
of a rule of positive law, this doctrine seeks to claim advantages
which could only be gained bythe application of another principle.
Thus, the divergencies as to the necessity of specific clauses con-

cerning preexisting obligations have nothing in common with the
parallel action of another principle which makes, or does not make,
imputability conditional on the moral element of culpability.

It follows that the doctrine of a breach of international obliga-
tions can only claim to be regarded as objective by a confusion of
terms, except in so far as it reinforces its basic principle byanother
principle, involving the exclusion of the notion of culPa.
But the fact that the doctrine cannot derive support from the
latter element is proved by the fact that its champions are them-
selves divided into three different groups : one which does not
discard the requirement of culpa. one which sees no need for that
requirement ;and a third which maintains both possibilities, accord-
ing as international law, in a given case, does or does not require

recourse to the notion of culpa (omission, indirect responsibil-
ity, etc.).
The weak point is found in the very core of this theory, Le.,
in the foremost place accorded to the nature of the violation. The
result is a restriction of the practical application of responsibility.$3 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE ?VI.AZEVEDO

En tâchant decaractériserla conduite des États, cette conception
est amenée à une alternative, orientée vers deux tendances oppo-
sées: ou bien fixer des obligations déterminées ou, au contraire,
admettre une règle générale deconduite sans marques précises.Et
le choix entre ces deux forces d'expansion ou de contraction peut
devenir funesteà la doctrine elle-même.
Si, par exemple, on en vient à exiger que soit préalablement
établie dans chaque cas la violation d'une obligation, on ne peut
se dispenser de dresser un catalogue complet des cas de responsabi-
lité. Cependant, cela correspondrait à une phase moins avancée,
celle de l'énumérationlimitative des sources des délits et des quasi-
délits,selon la tradition généraledu droit romain. On se rapproche-

rait mêmedu droit criminel en finissant par se rallier au nzrllzt~tr
crimen sine lege.
Mais si, au contraire, on préfère renoncer à une telle rigidité,
on risque de s'exposer à un autre danger. En mettant de côté les
conventions et la coutume pour accepter l'influence des principes
généraux dedroit, on perd tout contrôle, sans pouvoir s'arrêter à
mi-chemin. On se voit mêmecontraint d'aller jusqu'à la trilogie
fondamentale pour établir la responsabilité civile par la simple
violation du principe neminem ladere, sinon de tirer arbitraire-
ment des corollaires précis de principes vagues.
A ce moment, toute utilité de l'innovation aura disparu et la
doctrine elle-mêmeéchouera.

8.- Cette critique, d'ailleurs bien connue (v. g. ROBERTAGO,
Recueil des Cours, v. 68,p. 483, GEORGES SCELLE,COUIS de Droit
international,publ. Paris,1948, p.912) ,eut continuer sur le même
plan, si l'on examine en détail la préexistence d'un devoir, dont la
méconnaissance doit entraîner la responsabilité péc~niair~t ou
morale.
On constate d'abord que la détermination de ces obligations
internationaIes positives, sources de la responsabilité, soulève des
difficultés délicateà surmonter, surtout lorsque le juge se trouve
en présence d'un cas nouveau qui n'a pas étéclairement prévu
auparavant.
Si l'on ne peut invoquer ni de convention ni de coutume réglant
déjà directement la question, le juge devra-t-il prononcer le non
liquet, entravant ainsi tout progrès dans la théorie de la respon-
sabilité? La coutume est faite de précédents reconnus,et il ne faut

pas entraver la formation de précédents nouveaux ;un litige inter-
national peut aussi la favoriser en mettant fin à l'incertitude qui
régnait jusque-là.

g. - L'esisteiice d'une règle conventio~inelle ne suffit non plus
pour écarter les difficultés, et le cas présent sert d'exemple le plus
83 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO ss
In endeavouring to judge of the conduct of States, this concep-
tion leads to an alternative, towardç two opposing tendencies :
either definite obligations must be laid down, or on the contrary
a general line of conduct without precise marks must be admitted.

And the choice between these two forces of expansion or contrac-
tion may be fatal to the doctrine itself.
If, for instance, it was required that the violation of an obliga-
tion shall be previously established in each case, the drawing up of
a complete catalogue of cases of responsibility becomes inevitable.
But this would correspond to a less advanced phase, the limitative
enumeration of the sources of delicts and quasi-delicts, in accord-
ance with the general tradition of Roman law. We should then be
approaching the criminal law and end by accepting the principle
nullunz crinzen sine lege.
But if, on the other hand, we prefer to abandonthis rigidity, we
may expose ourselves to another danger. Setting aside conven-
tions and custom, and accepting the influence of general principles
of law, we lose al1 control and are unable to stop halfway. We
are compelled to go as-far as the fundamental trilogy and to estab-
liçh civil responsibility bythe simple violation of neminem ladere,or

else to draw, arbitrarily, precise corollaries from vague principles.

At this point, the new doctrine will have lost al1 purpose and
will collapse.

8.-This criticism, which indeed is w-eknown (see ROBERTO AGO,
Recueil des Cours, Vol. 68,p. 483, GEORGES SCELLEC , ours de Dvoit
international, publ. Paris, 1948, p. 912), rnay continue on the sanle
footing if we examine in detail the pre-existence of a duty, disregai-d
of which must involve responsibility, pecuniary or moral.

We observe first that the determination of these positive inter-
national obligations as sources of responsibility leads to difficulties
which are not easy to overcome, especially when a judge is faced

with a new case, not clearly foreseen.

If there is no convention or custom directly governing the
question, must the judge pronounce a non liquet and thus hamper
al1 progress in the theory of responsibility ? Custom is made up
of recognized precedents, and we must not prevent the formation
of new precedents ;an international lawsuit may give opportunities
for such formation and for putting an end to uncertainties that
previously prevailed.

9.-The existence of a conventional rule is not enough to
dispose of the difficulties, and the present case is an eloquent

83 84 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

éloquent pour démontrer la nécessitéd'un éloignement pur et
simple d'un cadre très rigide. Les faits examinés s'écartent des
précédents connus, et, en l'absence d'une coutume, l'appel à une
convention ne parvient pas à supprimer tout embarras.
11est curieux de constater que le Royaume-Uni ne s'est pas fié
à la simple invocation de la Convention VI11 de La Haye, de 1907,
mais qu'il a reconnu le besoin de faire aussi appel aux principes
généraux du droit international et même à de simples raisons
d'humanité.
En effet, leditpacte ne trouveraitpas à juste titre son application
en l'espècesauf par une interprétation quipousse trèsloin laméthode

dite par analogie. Il a fallu accentuer son caractère déclaratif, ce
qui équivaudrait à le tenir pour superflu. Laditexonvention ne vise
textuellement que le temps de guerre et non le temps de paix, ne
vise que la pose directe demines et non celle par personneinterposée,
lJAlbanie.n'en a pas été signataireet n'y a jamais adhéré.

Néanmoins, l'Albanie admet strictement qu'il est interdit de
mouiller des mines en temps de paix ;en effet, un simple raisonne-
ment a fortiori suffirait.
Mais les affirmations répétés dans ce sens n'ont pas pourtant
empêchéqu'à un certain moment on ait, par exemple, présenté à
la Cour une allégation selon laquelle la notification de mouillage
incomberait seulement à son auteur et non à un tiers qui en aurait
eu connaissance, de telle sorte que l'abstention de ce dernier ne

constituerait aucun manquement à une obligation internationale.
D'autre part, il ne faut pas oublier que si à l'égard des faits
l'accord des parties est valable, encore qu'une cour internaticnale,
plus libre que les juges internes en matière de preuve, pourrait faire
des réserves,il serait tout à fait irrecevable en ce qui est du droit
à appliquer.
Ainsi, même en considérant comme hors de doute raisonnable
une adhésion éventuelle de l'Albanie à ladite convention, ceci ne
pourrait prévaloir, pour attribuer à titre rétroactif un caractère
illicite à un fait déjà accompli.

IO.- La limitation de la responsabilité au domainecontractuel
répond aussi à la prétention déjà remarquée que cette doctrine

s'anoge de supprimer l'élément subjectif de la responsabilité : c'est
que l'inexécution d'une obligation contractuelle porte en soi-
mêmela marque de la faute de telle sorte que le débiteur ne se
libère que dans le cas où il prouve une cause étrangère; on peut
avoir pourtant l'impression que la faute mêmeest absente.
Mais là n'est pas le bon chemin ; il faut rétablir dans le droit
international les deux sources qui, d'ailleurs, présentent une unité
foncière, la faute contractuelle et la faute déliduelle, quand bien
mêmeon continue à distinguer dans les deux secteurs les cas de

84 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 84

example of the need for departure from a very rigid mle. The
facts considered are not in accord with any known precedents ;
there is no custom that can be relied on, nor can the difficultybe
overcome by reference to a convention.
It is interesting to note that the United Kingdom did not merely
invoke Hague Convention No. VI11 of 1907, but recognized that
it was also necessary to rely on general prînciples of international
law and even on simple reasons of humanity.

For, indeed, the convention ia question is not really applicable
in this case, unless by an interpretation which would be carrying
the method of analogy to an extreme limit. It had to be pointed

out that it is declaratory, which would be equivalent to regarding
it as superfluous. According to its text, the convention relates only
to war and not to peace time ; and it only deals with the direct
laying of mines and not with their laying by a thirdparty. Albania
was not a signatory and never acceded to the convention.
Nevertheless, Albania admits strictly that it is forbidden to lay
mines in peace time, so that it is sufficient to argue n foviiovi.

But in spite of repeated assertions to this effect,.it was at one
moment put forurard in Court that it was for the author of the
minelaying, and not for a third party who learnt of it, to give
the notification, so that if the latter party failed to do so he would
not be disregarding an international obligation.

It is true on the other hand that an agreement between the
parties on the facts is valid, even though an international court,
having more freedom in regard to evidence than a municipal judge,
might make reservations ;such an agreement would be quite inad-
missible in regard to the law to be applied.
Thus, even if an accession by Albania to the convention in
question might certainly be considered as reasonable, this accession
could not retroactivelyrender unlawful an act already accomplished.

IO.-The limitation of responsibility to the contractual sphere
is also in line with the claim which has already been mentioned :

that this doctrine abolishes the subjective element in responsibility ;
i.e., the non-execution of a contractual obligation connotes, by
itself, the existence of culpa, so that a debtor can only clear himself
if he can prove the existence of an external cause ; yet one may
still consider that culpa itself is absent.
But that is not the right road. We must re-establish in inter-
national law the two sources which are essentially one : contractual
culpa and delictual culpa, even if we continue to distinguish, in
both sectors, between cases of conduct definitely indicated in

84 8.5 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

conduite nettement indiquée d'avance et les cas dépendant simple-
ment d'une norme générale de prudence (HENR It LÉONMAZEAUD,
Traitéde In resp. civile, Paris, 1948).
Les tentatives de conciliation de ces deux critères, de règles
précises et d'un standard général de conduite, ne pourront jamais
aboutir, comme on a pu le constater à la Conférencede La Haye, de
1930, en dépit de discussions sans fin qui se sont dérouléesau sein
de la troisième comnlission.
Les codes des obligations ne cherchent pas à énumérer les
faits dommageables, et cependant on doit reconnaître que les

hommes sont assujettis à un standardde vie, dont l'oubli entraîne
leur responsabilité. De même, les Etats doivent respecter un
certain étalon de conduite entre eux, déterminépar les conditions
de coexistence internationale, vérifiéesà un moment donné de
l'histoire.
Abstraction faite de toute convention, on ne peut pas admettre
qu'un acte tel que le mouillage en secret de mines, en temps de
paix, n'entraîne pas la responsabilité de 1'Etat auteur, car il
présente un caractère anormal, insolite, et il constituerait même
un crime lorsqu'on organise une juridiction pénale dans le monde.
La communauté universelle ne pourrait pas subsister, si l'on
ne punissait pas un acte si pleinement caractéristique de dol,
indépendamment de toute définition conventionnelle.
Il s'agirait mêmed'une infraction de nature formelle, résultant
du simple danger, et ainsi n'importe quel pays pourrait demander
la condamnation de l'auteur d'un tel acte, préjudiciable à la

navigation, même alors qu'il ne pourrait réclamer réparation
d'un dommage vérifié in casu. Tout au moins la sentence ordon-
nerait-elle, pour défendre l'intérêtdéjà virtuellement lésé,le
déminage aux frais de l'auteur, de même qu'en droit interne
le juge ordonne la démolition d'un mur mal placé.

II.- D'autre part, on doit tenir compte de l'élément subjectif,
mêmesi l'on est disposéà pousser la responsabilitéinternationale
jusqu'au risque, en lui rendant un caractère vraiment objectif.
Il est indéniable qu'une condamnation fondée sur des éléments
moraux de culpabilité coexistant avec le manquement à une
obligation répond mieux à des exigences de sensibilité qui sont
encore aujourd'hui présentes dans la conscience de l'homme et
dans celle de l'humanité.

La notion de faute est soumise de sa part à un devenir constant
et obéit à une lente évolution qui, en se départissant des éléments
classiques d'imprudence et de négligence, tend à se rapprocher
du système de la respoilsabilitéobjective, ce qui a autorisé certains
auteurs à nier aujourd'hui une séparation foncière de la faute,
par rapport à une théorie fondée exclusivement sur le risque. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 85
advance and cases depending sirnply on a general rule of prudence

(HENRIand LÉONMAZEAUDT ,raitéde la Resp. civil earis, 1948).

Attempts to reconcile these two criteria-that of precise rules
and that of a general standard of conduct-will never succeed, as
became evident at the Hague Conference in 1930, in spite of the
interminable discussions which took place in the Third Committee.

Codes of obligations make no attempt to enumerate prejudicial
acts;but it must be recognized that men are subject to a standard
of conduct and are responsible if it is disregarded. In the same
way, States must respect a certain level of conduct among them-
selves, determined by the conditions of international life at any
particular period of history.

Even in the absence of any convention one could not admit that
such an act as secret minelaying in time of peace does not involve

the responsibility of the State concerned, for it is an abnormal and
extraordinary act which would even constitute a crimewhen a world
criminal jurisdiction has been organized. The community could
not continue to exist if an act so definitely characteristic of
criminality-whatever may be its conventional definition-were
to go unpunished.
It would constitute a forma1 infringement resulting from the
actual danger, and any country could demand the condemnation
of the author of such an act, dangerous to shipping, even if it could
not claim reparation for damage actually sustained. At the very
least, in order to defend the interests virtually endangered, the
judginent should order the clearance of the mines at the cost of the
author, just as in domestic law a judge would order the demolition
of a \val1built in the wrong place.

II.-Again, one must take account of the subjective element,
even if one is disposed to push international responsibility to the
point of risk by giving it a truly objective character.
It is indisputable that a condemnation iounded on moral elements
of culpability, coexisting with the breach of ari obligation, would
be more in accordance with the promptings of man's conscience,
and the conscience of humanity.

The notion of culpa is always changing and undergoing a slow
process of evolution ; moving away from the classical elements of
imprudence and negligence, it tends to draw nearer to the system
of objective responsibility ; and this has led certain present-day
authors to deny that ctrlpn is definitely separate, in regard to a
theory based solely on risk. By departing from the notions of86 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

En s'éloignant mêmedes notions de choix et de vigilance, on
arrive pratiquement à une fusion des solutions suggéréespar la
faute contractuelle et la faute délictuelle.
Ainsi, sans préjudice du maintien du noyau traditionnel de la
faute, et pour parer aux difficultés de la preuve d'un élément
subjectif, on a tâché d'établir des présomptions déplaçant sim-
plement la charge de la preuve, comme dans la théorie de la

garde, qui ne se contente pas d'une attitude négative ou de simple
démonstration d'une absence de faute de la part de celui qui a
le devoir de garder la chose. A la victime incombe seulement
de prouver le dommage et le lien de causalité, et cela suffit à
entraîner la responsabilité, sauf, pour le défendeur, à prouver la
faute d'un tiers, celle de la victime ou la forde majeure, seuls
motifs conduisant à une exemption de responsabilité.
Cette tendance a déjà envahi le droit administratif au moyen
de la notion de faute de service, et à plus forte raison elle doit
être acceptée dans le domaine du droit international, où l'on
constate d'ailleurs une propension beaucoup plus nette qu'en
droit privé à admettre la responsabilité objective.
Ainsi, en ce qui est de la mer territoriale, si l'État n'a pas

l'obligation d'écarter les difficultés naturelles apportées par des
accidents géographiques, on prétend qu'il lui incombe de prendre
soin des aspects liés à l'intervention humaine, tels que le fonc-
tionnement des phares, etc., sauf la démonstration des cas excep-
tionnels ci-dessus indiqués, le renversement du fardeau de la
preuve, étant d'autre part adopté, et la preuve restant alors à
la charge du défendeur.
En dépit de quelques observations doctrinales en sens opposé,
la Cour de cassation italienne, renversant la décision du tribunal
de Savona par arrêt du 19 décembre 1906, a considéré1'Etat
comme responsable du mauvais fonctionnement des feux dont
il assure le service aux navigateurs (Rev. ifztde Dr. mnrit., 1907,
pp. 466 et 711).

12. - En ce qui est de l'imputabilité dans le cas présent, on
doit donc commencer par envisager l'hypothèse de l'action volon-
taire commandéepar une intention maligne, mais non sans souligner
au préalable que, malgré la gravité du fait offensif, on n'est pa5
en train d'appliquer une loi pénale.
En droit interne, il arrive souvent que le juge civil aità établir
des faits qui présentent également un caractère pénal, mais sans
appliquer des peines, d'où le souci des législateurs de concilier
l'activité des juridictions parallèles, l'élément criminell'emportant
toujours sur l'élément civil.Dans le domaine du droit international,
il n'y aurait mêmepas le danger qu'on se heurte à une contradic-
tion.

Puisque des mines ne pourraient êtreengendrées spontanément,
il faut admettre que leur pose a dîi êtreattribuée soit aux Parties,
86 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 86

choice and of vigilance, we arrive, in practice, at a fusion of the
solutions suggested by contractual culfia and delictual culpa.

And so, without prejudice to the maintenance of the traditional
import of the word culpa and to avoid the difficulty of proving a'
subjective element, an endeavour has been made to establish
presumptions that would simply shift the burden of proof as in the
theory of bailment in which a mere negative attitude-a simple
proof of absence of culpa on the part of a bailee-is not sufficient.
The victim has only to prove damage and the chain of causation ;
and that is enough to involve responsibility, unless the defendant

can prove czdpa in a third party, or in the victim, or forcemajez4ue ;
only these can relieve him from responsibility.

This tendency has already invaded administrative law (notion
of faute de s~rvice)and a fortiori must be accepted in international
law, in which objective responsibility is much more readily
admitted than in private law.

Accordingly, on the subject of territorial seas, even if a State
is not bound to remove natural difficulties due to the accidents of
geography, it is contended thatit must have regard to what relates
to human intervention, e.g., the maintenance of lighthouses, Save
in the exceptional cases mentioned above. On the other hand,
it is for the defendant to show that the burden of proof has been
shifted.

In spite of some doctrinal remarks in the opposite sense, the
Italian Court of Cassation, reversing the decision of the Savona
Court in its judgment of December rqth, 19c6, held the State to be
responsible for the imperfect functioning of the lights which it
provides for shipping (Rev. id. de Dr. marit., 1907, pp. 466
and 711).

12.-AS regards imputability, in the present case one must begin
by considering the hypothesis of a deliberate action, inspired by
malicious intent, though it must be emphasized at the outset that,
in spite of the gravity of the offence, it is not the penal law which
is being applied.
It often happens in municipal law that a judge in a civil case

has to find facts which are also of a criminal nature, without
imposing penalties ; this accounts for the anxiety of legislators to
reconcile the action of parallel tribunals, the criminal factor always
prevailing over the civil factor. In the sphere of international
law, there is no danger of encountering this contradiction.

Since the mines could not ha.ve been spontaneouslÿ produced,
they must have been laid either by the Parties, alone or with the
86S7 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

seules ou aidéespar des tiers, soit par d'autres États qui auraient
agi de leur propre initiative, celle-ci étant déterminée cependant
par des mobiles favorables ou contraires auxdites Parties.
Le Royaume-Uni a accusél'Albanie d'avoir mouillédirectement
les mines et n'a jamais clairement écarté cette hypothèse. En
revanche, l'Albanie, qui a parfois émis des insinuations vagues
contre le Royaume-Uni, a, au dernier moment, renoncé à toute
accusation de ce genre.
L'imputation du mouillage des mines au Royaume-Uni, imputa-
tion présentée d'ailleurs sans grande conviction, n'avait guère

de consistance.
On rencontre ensuitel'hypothèse souvent insinuéed'un mouillage
de mines par un pays tiers, qui serait l'ennemi de l'Albanie et qui
aurait cherché à lui créerdes difficultésavec une grande Puissance.
En aucune façon cette insinuation ne trouve d'explication qui
satisfasse aux moindres exigences du sens commun. Mêmesi 1'011
confère à la formule un caractère concret en visant un pays ennemi
ou adversaire de l'Albanie, on n'arrive pas à mieux comprendre
cette insinuation. Il n'y a pas un seul indice en ce sens, pas la plus
faible rumeur; mais, au contraire, des contre-indices tels que le
contrôle britannique sur l'escadre de ce pays, ou l'impossibilité
morale, pour celui-ci, de vouloir causer de graves dommages à un
allié ou ami.

L'imputation du mouillage des mines à l'Albanie serait aussi
peu acceptable en principe. Cependant, le,désespoir, l'esprit de ven-
geance chez des personnes, des groupes ou des peuples de peu d'expé-
rience peuvent en arriver à leur faire oublier leurs propres intérêts
et les conduire à adopter des moyens désespérés,si ces moyens
leurparaissent les seuls dont ils puissent disposer pour fairerespecter
une mesure qu'ils se considéraient seuls maîtres d'adopter. La lutte
journalière contre des voisins ne ferait qu'accroître, principalement
irleur encontre, l'envie de recourir à de tels procédés.
Un tel acte menaçant les navires du monde entier, marchands
ou bâtiments de guerre, amis comme ennemis, et pouvant atteindre
les nationaux, présenterait même un certain aspect d'auto-

mutilation. Peut-être, les conditions de fait écarteraient-elles le
danger pour le cabotage ou la pêche,puisque les mines ne pouvaient
heurter que des bâtiments ayant un tirant d'eau de douze pieds,
mais on ne saurait jamais imaginer toutes les possibilités que peut
offrir la vie réelle.

13.- On doit cependant écarter le fait que l'Albanie ait mouillé
elle-même les mines, car elle était dépourvue non seulement des
moyens d'effectuer le mouillage, mais encore de mines. Déjà, le
Conseil de Sécuriténe l'avait pas cru : la majorité de ses Membres DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 87
help of others, or by otherStatesacting on their own initiative and

for purposes favourable or unfavourable to the Parties.

The United Kingdom accused Albania of having laid the mines
and has never really abandoned this hypothesis. On the other
hand, Albania at times made vague insinuationsagainst the Uiiited
Kingdom, but at the last moment abandoned any accusation of
that nature.
The suggestion that the United Kingdom laid the mines, put
fonvard without much conviction, was devoid of substance.

Next we have the suggestion, often made, that the mines were
laid by a third State, an enemy of Albania which uras trying to
involve her in difficulties with a great Power.

This insinuation cannot find any explanation that satisfies the
most modest requirements of common sense. Even if it be taken
in a concrete way as referring to a country which was an enemy or
adversary of Albania, the insinuation is no more comprehensible.
There 5snot a single indication of the sort ;not the slightest rumour.
But on the contrary, counter-indications such as the British super-
vision of the squadron of that country and the moral impossibility
that that country should desire to cause serious damage to an ally
or friend.
The imputation that the mines were laid by Albania would also,
in principle, behard to accept, although despair, or the desire for
vengeance on the part of inexperienced perçons, groups or peoples
may lead them to forget their own interests and to adopt desperate
methods, if such methods seem to them the only way of securing
respect formeasures which they regard themselves as free to adopt.

Daily struggles against neighbours would certainly tend to increase
the desire to take such action.

An act that endangered the shipping of the whole world, merchant
and war vessels, friends or enemies, and that might affect
nationals, would almost resemble self-mutilation. Perhaps, in
view of the facts, the danger to coastal shipping or fishing boats
would not be great, for only ships of 12 feet draught could hit
the mines; but al1 the possibilities of every-day life can never
be imagined.

13.-We must however reject the theory that Albania laid the

mines herself because she not only lacked the means but also th
mines. In the Security Council it was not believed that she could
have done so ; the majority of the Members thought that the mines88 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

a simplement estimé que les mines avaient étéposéesavec la con-
naissance de l'Albanie.
La constatation de l'impossibilité matérielledu mouillage n'évite-
rait pourtant pas tout examen de l'action dolosive, parce que
l'acte a pu êtreexécutépar un autre pays, liépar une étroite amitié

aux Parties et en agissant à titre de mandataire.
Sans doute, il est très difficile d'admettre la thèse de la responsa-
bilité-d'un mandant, sans identifier la personne du mandataire,
surtout lorsque le nombre des auteurs éventuels de l'acte est extrê-
mement limité.
Mais une telle version a étédonnée à l'encontre de l'Albanie et
même transformée,au cours de la procédure, en accusation :d'abord
dans la Réplique, sous forme d'interrogation, puis devant la Coiir
plénière,avec des précisions de détail.

14. - C'est ainsi que l'on a déclaréque le champ de mines avait
étémouillé par une Puissance tierce, non de sa propre initiative,
mais dans l'intérêtde l'Albanie.

Au cours des dernières plaidoiries, le Royaume-Uni a examiné
une séried'hypothèses, mais rien n'autorise àpenser qu'en le faisant
il ait admis, même conditionnellement, que l'Albanie soit mise hors
de cause par le fait que des voisins auraient mouillé les mines sans
sa demande, sa connivence ou tout au moins sa connaissance.

La situation d'un pays considéré commeprotégéet obligéd'un
autre,du fait de traités et accords, ne suffirait pasà renverser les
rôles jouésdans l'hypothèse suggéréed'un mouillage de mines pour
servir l'intérêtde la nation qui, quoique la plus faible, resterait
toujours, dans cette opération, la Puissance mandante sans jamais
devenir mandataire.
Une si profonde modification dans la présentation des faits a
étédéterminéepar la déposition d'un ancien officier de marine qui

a émigré enoctobre 1947. 11a exposé la version que des mines
auraient étéchargées à us certain port sur deux petits bateaux
dragueurs de mines, à destination de Corfou, quelques jours avant
le22 octobre 1946. Cette version, appréciéein abstracto,se placerait
très près des faits expliquer, car des mines GY ne seraient pas une
marchandise à transporter couramment dans le voisinage de
Corfou.
Mais la teneur des pièces dans lesquelles ,est exprimée cette
accüsation a étéportée à la connaissance de 1'Etat tiers, et celui-ci
s'est borné à publier un communiqué dont le texte a étéverséau
dossier par l'Albanie. Le Royaume-Uni n'a pas accepté ce refus
radical et s'est misà fournir de nouveaux arguments et preuves à
l'appui des dires du témoin, ce qui a engendré, de la part de 1'Alba-

nie, la production périodique d'autres documents. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 88

had been laid with Albania's knowledge.

But the impossibility of laying the mines would not exclude al1
consideration of culpable intention, for the act may have been
carried out by another country bound by ties of friendship to the
Parties and acting as mandatory.
True, it is very difficult to accept the theory that a mandator
can be responsible unless the mandatory is identified, especially
when the number of possible authors of theact is extremelylimited.

Yet, such a suggestion was made as against Albania and during
the proceedings was transformed into an accusation : first, in the
Reply, in the form of a question, then before the plenary Court

with detailed particulars.

14.-Thus, it was alleged that the mines had been laid by a
third State, not on its own initiative but in theinterest of Albania.

Towards the end of the hearings, the United Kingdom considered
a number of possibilities, but none of them would justify us in
thinking that in doing so it admitted, even conditionally, that
Albania was exculpated by the fact that her neighbours had laid
the mines without her request, her connivance, or even her know-
ledge.
The situation of a country regarded as the protégé of another,

and in its debt, owing to treaties and agreements, would no1 suffice
to interchange the parts played by them if it were suggested that
the mines were laid to serve the interest of the nation which,
although the weaker State, would in this operation continue to
be the mandator and never the mandatory.
A radical change in the presentation of the facta \vas brought
about by the evidence of a former naval officerwho emigrated in
October 1947. He alleged that the mines had been loaded in a
certain port on two small minesweeping vessels which were sent to
Corfu a few days before October send, 1946. This story, considered
t$zabstracto,would be very relevant to the facts calling for explan-
atioil; for GY
mines are not a form of merchandise that could
be ordinarily transported in the neighbourhood of Corfu.

However, the substance of the documents in which this accusation
was made was brought to the knowledge of the third State, and
the latter was content to publish a communiqué the text of which
%vasfiled with the Court by Albania. This downright refusa1
\{.as not accepted by the United Kingdom, which proceeded to
furnish new arguments and evidence in support of the witness's
statement ; this made Albania periodically produce a number of
other documents.

88Sg OPIKION DISSIDEXTE DE M. AZEVEDO

Certes, un État qui, en s'abstenant d'intervenir dans l'affaire,
écarte ainsi la possibilitéd'une décision qui lui soit opposable, ne
pourra non plus prétendre êtreabsous ;ni mêmeavoir une position
privilégiée vis-à-vis des parties, lui conférant un droit de veto
àl'égardde l'examen de documents qui sont en véritédes documents
de la partie en cause.
On doit sans doute accepter les affirmations des États parties
à l'affaire, ou mêmetiers, qu'elles soient ou non appuyées par des
documents, mais sous réserve de toute démonstration en sens
contraire, car ses affirmations ne bénéficientpas d'une immunité
absolue ; si elles avaient un caractère intangible, la justice inter-
nationale ne pourrait pas se mouvoir.
On ne peut par exemple échapper à considérer comme fâcheuse
la négation de l'existence de certains bateaux, alors que, par la
suite, cette existence a dû être reconnue, sous des indicatifs
nouveaux.
L'insinuation de coiltestations si subtiles est de nature à affaiblir

les meilleurs arguments. Une négation absolue est toujours préfé-
rable S.une série d'all6gations qui fournissent des explications
partielles et risquent d'être en contradiction; ainsi en ce qui est
de la preuve que certains navires seraient hors d'état de naviguer
à une telle date.
D'un autre côté, la profonde critique à laquelle a étésoumise
la déposition de l'ancien officier a constaté un contraste, d'une
part, entre l'invraisemblance de presque tous les détails, l'opposi-
tion entre les minuties rapportées et les données courantes omises,
et, d'autre part, l'explication généralede l'opérationqui coïnciderait
avec les possibilités de sa réalisation.
On serait tout de mêmeconduit à reconnaître l'insuffisance d'une
preuve fondée presque sur un seul témoignage, défectueux sur
plusieurs poiritz principaux.
D'autres élémentsseraient encore contraires à l'acceptation de
cette version, par exemple l'insuffisance depreuves quant àla posses-

sion des rnines du type GY par la Puissance tenue pour mandataire.
L'observation relative à la croix gammée apposée sur les mines
n'a pas non plus un caractère décisif,étant donné que les Allemands
auraient pu adopter également cette marque, qui d'ailleurs n'a
pas étésignalée dans les rapports des autorités anglaises et a été
seulement relevée sur une photographie, sans apporter une sùre
conviction.
Finalement, on doit remarquer qu'un État expérimenté ne se
risquerait pas facilement àprovoquer un casus bellavec une grande
Puissance. Mêmes'il avait des ressentiments envers celle-ci, il
aurait choisi des moyens plus acceptables que ceiui qui consistait
à se faire l'instrument d'une action si grave, facilement découverte,
parce que le secret dépendrait de centaines de personnes, et sans
avantage possible, comme on le constate après les allusions des
deux Parties au vieil adage czip ivodest.

89 DISSEKTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZET'EDO f9
Of course, a State which abstains from intervening in a case and
thus escapes the possibility of a decision adverse to itself could

not thereby claim to be declared innocent ; nor even to enjoy a
privileged position vis-à-vis the parties investing it with a right
of veto in regard to the examination of documents which were
in truth documents of the accused party.
True, the assertions made by States parties to the case or eveii
by third States must be accepted whether supported by documents
or not, provided that there is no proof to the contrary, for such
assertions do not enjoy absolute immunity ; if they possessed
an intangible character, international justice could not advance.

For instance, it must be considered regrettable that the esistence
of certain vessels was denied, though aftenvards it \vas acknow-

ledged that they existed, though with different names.

The introduction of such subtle denials is calculated to weaken
the strongest arguments. A complete denial is always preferable
to a series of statements giving partial explanations with a risk
of contradictions ; as for instance, the evidence that certain ships
were not in a condition to navigate at a particular date.

Moreover, the searching criticism to which the es-officer's
statement was subjected brought out, on the one hand, the
improbability of almost al1 its elements : the contradiction
between the details related and the ordinary data omitted ;and
on the other hand the general explanation of the operation, coin-

ciding with the possibilities of its accomplishment.
We are bound in any case to recognize the inadequacy of a proof
based almost entirely on one witness whose statements were
inadequate on many main points.
Other grounds for the rejection of this version were for example
the insufficiency of evidence as to the possession of GY mines
by the Power supposed to have been the mandatory. The state-
ment made regarding the swastika mark on the mines is also
not of a decisive character, because the Germans themselves
may have made use of this mark, which was not as a fact mentioned
in the reports of the British authorities and was only revealed
by a photograph, without convincing evidence in its support.

Finally, it must be observed that a State with great experience
would not likely risk provoking a casus belli with a great Power ;
even if it felt resentment against the latter, it would have chosen
more acceptable methods than that of allou7ingitself to be used for
such a serious purpose, so easily discovered, for hundreds of perçons
would have been in the secret ; and advantage there would have
been none, as is shown from the allusions of the Parties to the old
saying cuip trodest.

s9go OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZES'EDO
15. - Et si la participation d'un pays tiers était évidente, on
ne pourrait quand mêmefonder sur ce fait la condamnation du
défendeur.
Un tribunal national possède juridiction sur n'importe quel

citoyen et peut admettre qu'un certain acte a étécommis par un
tiers étranger à l'instance, bien qu'il doive agir avec précaution
et toujours sous réserve des intérêtséconomiques et moraux d'un
tel tiers, car la décision n'est pas opposable à celui-ci, sauf dans
le cas de solidarité.
Mais le juge international ne peut procéder de la mêmemanière,
car sa juridiction se fonde sur la volonté des parties, soit d'une
façon directe, soit indirectement par application de la clause de
l'article36 du Statut de la Cour, ce qui exclut la simple allusion
aux faits et gestes d'un Etat tiers. Un pays qui n'est pas partie
à l'affaire et n'a pas reçu de citation resteà l'abri non seulement
des effets du jugement, mais d'une mention incidentelle comme
mandataire ou exécuteur d'un acte illicite.
Certes, la position du Royaume-Uni était difficile, puisque,
ni au coinmencement ni au cours de l'affaire, il ne pouvait citer

devant la Cour un pays n'ayant pas souscrit à la clause facultative
et ne se trouvant pas dutout dans la mêmesituation que l'Albanie,
tenue par la décisiondu Conseil de Sécuritéd'accepter la juridiction
de la Cour. Il était également inutile-de lui proposer un compromis,
en cours de procédure, surtout si 1'Etat tiers après la communica-
tion de pièces demandée par lui n'a pas voulu intervenir à
l'instance.
De toute manière, la Cour ne pourrait pas élargir les limites
de sa compétence, ni même implicitement, par des appréciations
in concret0sur la conduite d'un pays tiers, n'importe dans quel sens.

16. - Ainsi, par l'élimination de toutes les hypothèses conce-
vables, on est obligéde conclure que le mouillage serait l'Œuvred'un
auteur inconnu. Mais l'Albanie pourrait quand mêmeavoir connu
l'existence de mines, et 1'Etat qui connaît l'action dommageable

d'un autre et ne fait rien pour l'empêcher, encourt la même
responsabilité, du fait de l'acte illicite, sans aucune atténuation.
S'il lui était impossible d'éviter les conséquënces dangereuses, il
n'en avait pas moins l'obligation de faire connaître le danger.

Mais comment s'assurer d'un fait qui échappe à la vérification
directe ?
Une condamnation, mêmeàla peine demort,peut êtresolidement
fondéesur des preuves indirectes, et cependant elle aura la même
valeur qu'uiie sentence dont l'auteur a fondésa conviction sur des
témoignages.
Il serait donc exagéré qu'une cour internationale se cantonnât
dans le champ de la preuve directe et visuelle pour écarter l'admis-
sion réfléchied'une raisonnable dose de présomptions de l'homme

90 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 9"
15.-And even if the participation of a third country was
evident, the condemnation of the respondent could still .net be

founded on that fact.
A municipal court has jurisdiction over every citizen and can
declare that a certain act has been committed by a third party, a
stranger to the proceedings, though it is bound to act With caution
and must always reserve the economic and moral rights of such a
third party, as the decision will not affect him except in the case
of complicity.
But an international judge cannot act in the same way ;for his
jurisdiction is based on the will of the parties, either directly or
indirectly,in virtue ofArticle 36 of theo-urt'sStatute ;this renders
a mere allusion to the acts of a third State inadmissible. A country
which is not a party to the case and has not been summoned
remains unaffected not only by the judgment itself, but by an
incidental mention of it as mandator-7 or as performing an
unlawful act.
No doubt the United Kingdom's position was difficult, for she
could not, either at the beginning or during the case, bring before

the Court a country which had not accepted the Optional Clause
and was not at all in the same position as Albania, who was bound
by the Security Council's decision to accept the Court's jurisdiction.
It was also useless to suggest a special agreement to the third State,
in the course of the procedure, especially if the said State, having
obtained communication of the documents, took no steps to
intervene in the proceedings.
In any case, the Court could not extend the limits of its jurisdic-
tion, nor could it do so implicitly by expressing opinions inconcret0
regarding the conduct of a third State, no matter in what sense.

16.-Accordingly, after eliminating all the conceivable hypo-
theses, we are obliged to conclude that the laying of the mines was
the work of an unknown author. But Albania could nevertheless
have been aware of the existence of the mines, and a State which is
informed of a prejudicial act committed by another and does
nothing to prevent it incurs the same responsibility on the ground

of the unlawful act, without any attenuation ; even if it was unable
to prevent the dangerous consequences it was none the less obliged
to make known the danger.
But how can we satisfy ourselves as to a fact which cannot be
directly verified ?
A condemnation, even to the death penalty, may be well-founded
on indirect evidence and may nevertheless have the same value
as a judgment by a court which has founded its conviction on the
evidence of witnesses.
It would be going too far for an international court to insist
on direct and visual evidence and to refuse to admit, after
rèflection, a reasonable amount of human presumptions with a OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEI'EDO
9I
tendant à arriver à cette certitude morale et humaine que les rares
cas d'erreurs judiciaires ne réussissent pasà chasser du Palais.

17. - A ce propos on a encoreinvoqué contre l'Albanie quelques
présomptions précisesquoique de forceinégale. D'abord son attitude
passive, après la découverte des mines, qui aurait di1 au contraire
conduire à une protestation énergique. Mais elle se déclare tout à
fait étrangèreà ces faits, et sa réclamation immédiate et réitérée à
l'O.N. U. constitue un contre-indice raisonnable :qui a à craindre
ne demande en généralpas l'appui de l'autorité.

L'absence de signaux, le 22 octobre, s'explique aussi bien par
l'inutilité d'un mode d'avertissement refusé d'avance par la note
du 2 août.
De même, l'opposition au déminage ne peut êtreexagéréeau
point de n'y voir qu'une manifestation de la crainte que soit
découvert le corps du délit,l'Albanie ayant présentédesobjections
pour la défensede sa souveraineté sur ses eaux territoriales.
Ici se greffe un argument, que d'ailleurs les deux Parties ont
utiliséà des fins contraires, celui de la possibilité, pour l'Albanie,
de faire disparaître les mines avant l'opération du 13 novembre.

Mais cette éventualité n'est pas admissible, car, au grand reten-
tissement des événements du 22 octobre devant l'opinion mondiale,
s'ajouterait la vigilance discrète que sans doute le Royaume-Uni
aurait pu exercer ; d'aut;e part, il s'agirait d'une opération bien
plus complexe que le mouillage, même si l'on connaissait exacte-
ment le nombre des mines à draguer.

18. - Il y a cependant d'autres indices qu'on peut tenir pour
nets, sûrs et concordants.
Ainsi, la possibilité que le mouillage ait éténécessairement
observéde la terre, et, à cet égard, le dernier rapport des experts
a beaucoup accru les probabilités, soit qu'à la pointe Denta fonc-
tionnât à l'époqueun poste de garde, soit mêmedans l'hypothèse
contraire.
D'autre part, l'Albanie prétendait interdire rigoureusement le
passage de tout navire étranger dans la zone où se trouvait le
champ, et l'on pourrait mêmeadmettre que l'incident du Ij mai

a constitué une application anticipée de la doctrine qu'elle a
quelques jours après exposée clairement et publiquement et
appliquée même à des navires marchands, par exemple. .dans
le cas d'un remorqueur de 1'U. N. R. R. A. La demande des Etats-
Unis, tendant à l'envoi de destroyers pour transporter sa mission
militaire, en se retirant de l'Albanie, a fourni à celle-ci l'occasion
d'adresser une plainte à l'O. Y. U.
t'existence d'ordres militaires secrets, non comnluniqués à
la Cour, pourrait être -considérée comme renfor~ant cette
supposition, ainsi que la remarque peu explicable de la note du

91 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 9I
view to reaching that state of moral, human certainty with which,
despite the risk of occasional errors, a court of justice must be
content.

17.-Certain other presumptions have been raised against
Albania which are dehite, though not of equal force. First,
her passive attitude after the discoverv of the mines, which ought
to have led her to protest energetically. But she declared that
these facts had nothing to do with her, and her immediate and
reiterated complaints to the U.N.O. were a reasonable counter-
indication ; those who have something to fear do not generally
ask help from the authorities.
The absence of signals on October 22nd may also be explained

by the uselessness of a warning which had already been rejected
in advance by the note of August end.
In the same way, her opposition to the sweeping cannot be
exaggerated into fear of discovery of the corpzrsdelicti, Albania
having raised objections only to protect her sovereignty over her
territorialwaters.
Here nTecome to an argument which the Parties had used for
directly contrary purposes :the possibility that Albania might get
rid of the mines before the operation of November 13th. But
such a hypothesis is not admissible, for, besides the great uproar
caused by the events of October zznd throughout the whole world
there would certainly have been the discreet watchfulness of the
United Kingdom. Besides, the operation would have been much
more difficult than the laying of mines, even if the exact number to
be swept were exactly knoÜm.

18.-There are however other indications which can be regarded
as definite, certain and concordant.
Thus, there is the possibility of the minelaying having inevitably
been seen from the land ; the Experts' last report has much
increased the probability of this, whether there was a look-out
post at Denta Point at the time, or even if there was not.

On the other hand; Albania claimed to prohibit strictly an'

passage of a foreign shipin the zone where the minefield \va; and it
might be admitted that the incident of May Ijth was, by anticipa-
tion, an application of the doctrine publicly announced a fen-
days afterwards, and applicable even to merchant ships, e.g., the
U.N.R.R.A. tug. The application of the United States to send
destroyers to take away its military mission which \vas leaving
Albania Ras made the subject of a cornplaint by the latter to the
U.N.O.

The existence of secret military orders, not communicated to
the Court, might be considered as supporting this view ; so
might also the somenlhat inexplicable remark in the note of

9= OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
g2
29 octobre : ((Le Gouvernement albanais ne prend aucune respon-
sabilité au cas que cette opération aurait lieu' dans ses eaux
territoriales.))

A la rigueur, on pourrait donc considérer que, suivant le cours
ordinaire des choses, le Gouvernement albanais ne saurait être
étranger au mouillage de mines ou, tout au moins, à la connaissance
de ce fait.
Malgré tout, les conclusions de l'expertise ont tourné autour
de plusieurs hypothèses, et l'on continue à ignorer quel est l'auteur
du mouillage et à ne pas savoir ni quand ni comment les mines
ont été mouillées.
L'absence de telles explications rend très difficile une affirma-

tion péremptoire sur la connaissance d'un fait si flou ; ainsi, l'on
ne doit pas être tenu pour faire preuve d'une prudence excessive,
si l'on hésite à constater qu'en l'espèce la conduite de I'Albacie
ait été nettement dolosive.
L'existence de doutes semblables s'est révéléa eu sein di1Conseil
de Sécurité, lorsque celui-ci a accepté le remplacement proposé
par 'le représentant de la France des termes (<au su x par les
ternies ((à l'insue ; quoiqu'il ne s'agit pas d'une décision judi-
ciaire, le changement ne relèverait pas de la simple courtoisie
(rzzme Séance - 25 mars 1947, p. 596).

19.- D'ailleurs, une constatation d'une telle gravité n'est
nullement nécessaire au succès d'une demande de nature exclu-
sivement pécuniaire.
Dès le moment où l'insuffisance des élémentspermet d'écarter

l'affirmation irréfragable de la connaissance par l'Albanie du
mouillage des mines, la même relativité joue A l'égard d'une
affirmation de l'ignorance qu'elle a eue de ce fait. Certes, on ne
peut pas l'établir, mais, en revanche, on peut chercher si, nonob-
stant, l'Albanie devait ou pouvait en avoir eu connaissance
Si l'on n'arrive pas à éclaircir le mystère et à décoiivrir les
auteurs du fait ou ceux qui l'ont connu sans avertir les intéressés,
il n'y aurait pas lieu de désespérerde fournir le dédommagement
à la victime, sans avoir préalablement examiné tout autre moyen
qui aurait pu le justifier en dehors dudo1 ; d'abord, en recherchant

la faute non intentionnelle et, à la fin, une responsabilité présumée
ou mêmesimplement objective.
La victime conserve la faculté de présenter la demande contre
un seul des responsables in solidum, d'après un choix qui est
toujours laissé à sa discrétion, dans le domaine purement écono-
mique, tandis qu'un magistrat criminel ne doit pas, en principe,
se prononcer sur la responsabilité d'un complice ou d'un mandant,
sans établir en mêmetemps l'imputabilité par rapport à l'auteur
principal ou à l'exécutant matériel de l'infraction.

20. - En examinant l'espèce sous l'angle d'une faute par
action ou omission, on constate d'abord la faiblesse de la défense DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 92
October 29th : "The Albanian Government will take no respons-
ibility if this operation is carried out in its territorial waters."

Strictly speaking, it might be held that under ordinary circum-
stances, the Albanian Government could not have had no part in
the laying of the mines, or at any rate could not have been unaware
of the fact.
In spite of all, though the conclusions of the Expert enquiry
covered a number of hypotheses, the aiithor, the time and the
method of the minelaying continue to be unknown.

The absence of any. such explanations makes it very difficult to
express a definite opinion regarding Albania's cognizance of facts
of such uncertainty ; we cannot therefore be regarded as over-
prudent if we hesitate to declare that in this case Albania mani-
festly acted in bad faith.
The existence of similar doubts was revealed in the Security
Council when that body accepted the proposa1 of the French
representative to replace the words "with the knowledge" by the

words "without the knowledge" ; although this was not a judicial
decision, the alteration was something more than mere courtesy
(12znd Meeting-March 25th, 1947, p. 596).
19.-Moreover, a declaration of such gravity is in no way essen-
tial for the success of a claim of an exclusively pecuniary character.

Once the inadequacy of the evidence enables us to refrain from

stating that Albania was indisputably cognizant of the laying of the
mines, the same rule of relativity applies as regards a statement
that Albania was unaware of the fact. True, it is not possible to
prove it, but nevertheless one can examine whether Albania ought
to or could have had cognizance of the matter.
Even if it is not possible to clear up the mystery and to discover
the authors of the act, or those who were aware of it but did not
warn shipping, one must not give up hope of compensating the
victim without having first considered every other method of
giving him satisfaction, except on the ground of an intended wrong,
first on the ground of unintentionalculpa and finally on the ground
of presumed or merely objective responsibility.
The victim retains the right to submit a claim against one only
of the responsible parties,in solidunz, in accordance with the choice
which is always left to the discretion of the victim, in the purely

economic field ; whereas a criminal judge cannot, in principle,
pronounce an accomplice or a principal guilty without at the same
time establishing the guilt of the main author or the actual per-
petrator of the offence.
20.-In examinirig the case from the standpoint of c~tlpa,whether
by action or omission, one is struck in the first place by the weakness

9293 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE 31.AZEVEDO

albanaise, sur une côte déserte pendant des kilomètres, avec
quelques centres de population qui ne sont pas desservis par
des moyens de communications faciles.
Un long et minutieux débat a étésoulevéau sujet de l'efficacité
de la surveillance côtière et de la possibilité qu'un mouillage de
mines passât inaperçu de la population et spécialement des gardes-
côtes. On a beaucoup parlé de la facilitéd'une telle opération, des
moyens et de la durée de son exécution, mais il serait dificile de
reconstituer toutes les donnéesd'un fait qui aurait eu lieu un jour,

ou mieux une nuit inconnue.
Les experts se sont efforcésd'éclaircirles choses en cherchant à
indiquer des conditions approchant de celles qu'on aurait pu espé-
rer voir réunies à cette époquedans la région,mais il y a toiijours
un risque d'erreur dans le domaine du conditionnel.
De toute manière, les médiocres moyens invoqués de défense
n'ont pas du tout écartéle fait d'une surveillance jalouse du chenal,
dominéepar la méfiance ; des menus faits ont constitué l'objet de
rapports et de dénonciations internationales. Une opération de
mouillage de mines, mêmela plus rapide et exécutéepar leshommes
les plus expérimentés, risquerait fort d'êtredécouverte.
On a soulevé, d'autre part, l'hypothèse qu'une opération de

mouillage aurait pu être effectuéepar ruse, tous feux allumés, mais
cela n'aurait pas non plus manqué d'attirer l'attention ; l22 octo-
bre, les feux des bateaux ont été suivis très longtemps.
Et si l'on ne devait pas tenir compte des possibilités, pour
l'Albanie, d'augmenter ses moyens de défensematériels ouhumains,
on aurait dû reconnaître qu'elle a au moins négligéde placer des
postes de guet aux endroits reconnus comme les plus indiqués, lors
de l'organisation de la défense des côtes, vers le mois de mai 1946,
et par suite elle doit en supporter les conséquences. Le dernier
rapport des experts a bien éclairéla Cour en ce qui est de l'accessi-
bilité de la pointe Denta tout au moins par la voie maritime, en
écartant ainsi les raisons qui pourraient avoir justifié le défaut
remarqué.
L'allégation de l'Albanie, selon laquelle la surveillance était

insuffisante et inefficace ou exercéed'une manière défectueusejoue
aussi à l'encontre du défendeur, mêmesi cette surveillance visait
un but tout à fait distinct, celui d'éviter les incursions de voisins.
11 faudrait encore signaler que ce but serait incompatible avec
l'interdiction de passage édictée envers tous les autres pays ; cette
généralisationa sans doute aggravé la responsabilité de l'Albanie
à l'encontre de ces tiers.
A .cet égard, ilfaut prévenir le reproche qu'une contradiction
puisse s'insinuer dans la constatation d'une vigilance normale, ou
mêmeextraordinaire, qui a étéjustement invoquée comme argu-
ment favorable à l'existence du dol, savoir la connaissance des

mines ; une telle circonstance resterait quand mêmevalable pour
la démonstration d'une simple faute, dans le cas où l'on n'arriverait DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 93
of the Albanian defences dong a deserted coastline many kilo-
metres in length, with a few centres of population which are
unprovided with easy means of communication.

A long and detailed discussion took place on the efficiency of
the coastguard and the possibility of minelaying being unobserved
by the population and especially by the guards. Much was said
of the facility of such an operation, the methods and the time take;
but it would be difficult to reconstitute al1the details of an event
which might have taken place on an unknown day, or rather night.

The Experts endeavoured to clear up matters by trying to
indicate conditions similar to those that might have been found in
the district at that time;but in the realm of the conditional there
is always a risk of error.
To sum up, the slender arguments of the defence have in no way
excluded the fact of a jealous and mistrustful watch over all that
happened in the Channel ; events of minor importance were the
subject of reports and international denunciation. Ifinelaying,
however rapidly done, and however skilful the crew, would very
probably have been observed.

It has been suggested on the other hand that the minelaying
might have been carried out by a ruse, with al1 lights on. But
that would surely have attracted attention ; on October 22nd the
lights of the vessels were followed for a long time.
Even if we exclude al1 possibility for Albania to increase her
defences in men or material, it ought to have been recognized
that Albania, in any case, failed to place look-out posts at the
spots considered most suitable when the coast defences were
organized about May 1946. Albania must therefore bear the
consequences. The Experts' last report made clear to the Court
the accessibility ofDenta Point from the sea, at any rate, and thus
did away with the reasons for the absence of the look-outs which
has been commented on.

The assertion by Xlbania that the watch was insufficient or
ineffective or badly kept goes against herself, even if the purpose

of this watch was something quite different, namely to stop incur-
sions by neighbours. It should be noted, also, that this aim would
be incompatible with the prohibition of passage to al1 other coun-
tries; the general character of this announcement has certainly
aggravated Albania's responsibility towards third States.

In this connexion, we must not risk contradiding ourselves ;
the fact that the watch was normal, or even exceptional, was justly
invoked as an argument favourable to the existence of culfia,Le.,
cognizance of the mines ; but this circumstance would also serve
as aproof ofmere negligence ifthe presumptions were not sufficiently
strong to warrant a more serious charge.

9394 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

pas à tenir pour satisfaisantes les présomptions destinées à sup-
porter la conclusion plus grave.

21. - Déjà devant ces raisons, on ne pourrait aucunement
écarter l'hypothèse d'une négligence de la part de la Puissance
côtière entraînant sa responsabilité; celle-ci s'accroîtrait davantage
si on apprécie les faitsà la lumière des nouveaux principes sur la
faute, ci-dessus rappelés.
Si, par exemple, le mouillage des mines pouvait êtreconsidéré
comme un fait imprévisible pour 1'Etat riverain, il ne présenterait
certainement pas l'autre condition exigéepour la qualification de
force majeure ou de cas fortuit, celle de l'inévitabilité.

Il importe peu que la surveillance ait viré d'autres buts, dès
le moment qu'elle aurait suffi à découvrir l'opération et à chasser
les auteurs par le même moyen que celui auquel on a recouru
pour éloigner les navires anglais le 15 mai, à savoir la batterie
postée devant la zone où le champ de mines a étédécouvert.

Sans doute l'Albanie aurait pu invoquer une raison solide en
présence de la théorie de la faute ou même'de celle du risque :
le fait qu'elle a étéécartée dela tâche de nettoyer ses eaux terri-
toriales, lorsqu'on lui a refusé une participation aux comités de

Céminage et que cette fonction de sécurité a ététransférée à
des tiers. Tel fut le fondement du vote du représentant de la
Ç:~:ie au Conseil de Sécurité,rejetant la responsabilité de l'Albanie,
cze sept autres Membres avaient reconnue. Pi remarquait que
CES fait? de guerre auraient écarté,en l'espèce,le devoir incombant
? tout Etat sou\-erain d'avoir les moyens, la capacité et le devoir
Ce protéger son territoire et d'assurer la sécurité de ses voies
de coinmunication.

%Isis, devant la Cour, 1affaire s'est présentée sous un jour
?.^1érent, depuis que la pose d'url nouveau champ de mines a
i~e acceptée par l'Albanie. Il ne s'agit plus d'une responsabilité
FGI- défaut de déminage, déminage dont 1Albanie avait été
déchargée, mais du mouillage d'un champ nomreau, au cours
C?me période pendant laquelle ce pays exerçait pleinement sa
souveraineté et sun-eillnit seule ses côtes.
Xinsi, en l'espèce, on n'est pas obligé d'aller jusqu'au risque,
la présomption de faute est suffisante, et elle trouve tout à fait
sa place dans un cas de vigilance reconnue et avouée ;tant I'appré-
ciation in co?zcretoque celle par rapport à un critère moyen de

bona res fiublicn conduisent au mêmerésultat.
Tout cela autorise donc à conclure, nonobstant la constatation
qu'on se trouve en face d'un cas d'ail-teur incertain, à la res-
ponsabilité de l'Albanie selon le droit international.
22. - Peu importe qu'on se place sur le plan quasi délictuel,
car l'argument de wujus ad nzinzcsjustifierait pleinement une

94 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 94

21.-This being so, the possibility of negligence on the part of
the coastal Power, involving that Power's responsibility, cannot

be set aside ; this responsibility would even be increased if we
consider the facts in the light of the new principles concerning
culpa referred to above.
Thus, for example, though the laying of the mines might be
regarded as an event that could not be foreseen bythe coastal State,
it would certainly not fulfil the other condition that is requisite to
comply with the description of force majeureor an act of God, that
of inevitability.
It matters little that the guard maintained may have had other
objects in view, once it is admitted that it would have sufficed to
discover the operation and to drive off the perpetrators by the
same means which were uced with the object of driving off the
British ships on May 15th, namely by firing with the guns facing
the spot where the minefields were discovered.

No doubt Albania might have put fonvard one solid argument
when confronted with the theory of culfia or even of risk :the fact
that she had been excluded from the work of mineclearance in her
territorial waters when she was refused a seat on the mineclearance
boards and this security tark was transferred to others. That was
tl?;eground for the vote of the Çyrian reprecentative in the Security
Council, refusing to admit the responsibility of Albania which seven
ciher Members had admitted. He stated that, in the particular
case, the duty that every sovereign Statehad to possess the means
2r.à the capacity to protect itç territory and to make its channelç
cfcommunication secure was non-existent owing to the war.

Eut the case was presented to the Court under a different aspect,
f;: Aibania agreed that a new minefield had been laid. There
\,as rio longer a responsibiiity for failing to sweep mines-a task
f-ul-iwhich Albania had been excluded- but for the laying of a new
rlinefield at a time when AiDania was exercising full sovereignty
: :ci was herself parding her own coastline.

1ccordingiy, in this case, there is no need to speak of risk ; the
presumption of culpa is sufficient and is quite in its place in a
case of recognized and admitted vigilance. If looked at in concreto
c.:from the average standpoint of bonares publicathe conclusion is

the same.
?he-f&egoing considerations lead us to conclude, although this
is a case in which the author is uncertain, that, in international
law, Albania is responsible.
22.-It is of small importance that this is a case of a quasi-delict;
for the argument majus ad minus would fully justifv a conclusion 95 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE LI.AZEVEDO

conclusioii qui ne sort nullement du cadre de la litis contestatio
ou mieux du compromis, où l'objet de la demande principale
est resté dans le domaine pécuniaire, ce que l'opposition avec
celui de la reconvention ne fait que mettre plus en relief.
Aucune offense à la causa petendi ne pourrait d'ailleurs entraîner
une qualification juridique différente de celle qu'ont proposée
les Parties, qualification qu'une Cour peut toujours attribuer aux
mêmesfaits, alléguéset prouvés en l'instance, soit pour arriver
à la même conclusion envisagée par lesdites Parties, soit pour
réduire, par exemple, la somme demandée ou la peine réclamée.
Ce n'est qu'en s'attachant à la forme plus rigide que celle qu'ins-
piraient les legis actiones ou d'autres systèmes analogues déjà

abandonnés que l'on pourrait songer à interdire une telle solution.
Les principes qui orientent aujourd'hui l'économie de toute
procédure devraient seulement s'arrêter là où le demandeur
poserait comme conditio sine qua non du succès de l'action la
constatation du dol. Dans ce cas, l'exceptiores jzdicda ne jouerait
pas à l'égard d'une nouvelle demande fondée exclusivement sur
la faute.
En l'espèce, au contraire, la Grande-Bretagne n'a pas laissé
de faire allusion à la doctrine du simple risque et mêmed'en
demander l'application.

23.- Si l'on avait admis l'existence d'une intention coupable,
celle-ci ne laisserait pas de place à des faits justificatifs ou à

des circonstances atténuantes ; aucun prétexte n'aurait d'ailleurs
justifié un acte aussi brutal.
La disproportion de la réaction persisterait, même si l'on
envisageait quelque chose de semblable à un délit préterinten-
tionnel, supposant par exemple que l'auteur ne pourrait espérer
le passage de bateaux par cet endroit, persuadé peut-être que
le champ de mines se trouvait en dehors du chenal déminé. On
ne peut davantage tenir grand compte du fait que les mines
auraient étéposéespour nuire à des personnes déterminées, alors
que subsiste le risque de frapper un tiers, ainsi que ce serait le
cas. La loi criminelle même n'accepte pas de, réduire la peine
dans l'hypothèse de l'aberratio ictus.

24.- Mais, selon le système de la faute ou même selon celuidu
risque, on peut tenir compte de la conduite de la victime, en visant
une certaine déchargede responsabilité et par conséquentle partage
de la réparation.
Il est inutile de rappeler que le dédommagement ne correspond à
aucune espècede peine et ne peut, partant, souffrir ni augmentation
ni réduction par rapport à ilne évaluation de la conduite, en allant
de la faute lourde à la culpa lee~issiLes cours de justice trouvent
toujours les moyens de faire examen in concreto de la faute,
lorsqu'elles.estiment les pertes à réparer.

95 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE -4ZEVEDO 95
(quite in conformity with the litis contestatio, or rather special

agreement) in lvhich the purpose of the claim is compensation ;
this becomes even clearer when we compare it with the counter-
claim.
No inisinterpretation of the causa petendi could cause it to be
given another legal name than that proposed by the Parties. The
Court might give this name to the same facts as have been alleged
and proved in these proceedings, either to reach the same conclusion
as the Parties have proposed or, for instance, to reduce the amount
of damages or of the penalty. Only if it kept to a form more
rigid than that of the legis actiones,or similar system now aban-
doned, could the Court think of prohibiting such a solution.

The principles which, at this moment, goveril the system of
every procedure could only be interfered with if che applicant laid
dou-n, as a co?tditiosi.nequa non for the success of his suit, a finding
of criminal intent. In that case, the exceptio res jlrdicata would
not operate in regard to a new claim founded exclusively on culpn.

In this case, on the contrary, Great Britain has not failed to
allude to the doctrine of simple risk and has even claimed its
application.

23.-If the existence of a culpable intention had been admitted,
there would be no room for justification or attenuating circum-
stances ;such a brutal act could not be justified on any pretext.

The disproportion observable in the reaction would persist
even if something like a praeterintentional delict were involved,
e.g., the author could not expect that the vesselswould pass that
n-ay perhaps because he thought the minefield was outside the
swept channel., Nor can much attention be paid to the fact that
the rnines would have been laid to damage particular individuals,
while the risk of damage to a third party esisted, as would be

the case. Cnminal law does not admit of a reduction of sentence
in the case of nberratio ictus.

24.-But whether cdpa or risk is tbe criterion, the conduct of
the victim can be taken into account by reducing the degree of
responsibility and consequently apportioning the damages.

Needless to say, damages are not in any way a penaity and
cannot therefore be increased or diminished according as the
conduct is estimated as gravissinta or leclissinra cldpn. Courts
of justice always arrange to examine the ciilpa in concrtto, in esti-
iiiating the loss to be made good.g6 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

La justice internatioiiale, elle non plus, n'a pas échappéà cette
influence d'ordre moral, que GEORGESRIPERT a bien signalée à
plusieurs reprises.
Comme le rappelle J. PEKSONN.~(La RéparatiolzduPvéjzcdice-au
Droit international public, Paris1938, pp. 106 et S.),la jurisprudence
internationale a souvent pris en considération le caractère plus ou
moins grave des faits reprochés, la négligence ou la faute de la
victime pour faire varier en conséquence l'indemnité. Les arbitres
ont plusieurs fois fait des déclarations de principe très nettes siir
ce point, par exemple le commissaire britannique dans l'affaire de
I'Alabanza (Rec. LAPRADELLEet POLITIS,II, 825), pour qui la
réparation doit être proportionnée non seulement à la perte,

conséquence de la faute, mais encore à la gravité de cette iaute
elle-même, oul'arbitre qui, en statuant dans l'affaire de la baie de
Delagoa, justifie, par les fautes de la victime, une réduction de
l'indemnité allouée (Pasicr. id., LA FONTAINEp , . 307).
En l'espèce, plusieurs des circonstances ci-dessus rapportées
ou relevéesdans la reconvention permettraient, le cas échéant, de
réduire le montant de la réparation dans une certaine proportion.
Cette considération est sans doute incompatible avec une condam-
nation fondée sur l'action coupable, mais elle s'imposerait à celui
qui est resté dans le domaine de la faute.

En ce qui est de la fixation du montant de l'indemnité à
verser, il faudra rappeler quela requête aétéentièrement remplacée

par une sorte de novation engendrée par le compromis, modifiant
le cours normal de la procédure.
Certes, les renonciations ne se présument pas, mais, dans les
cas de novation, il faut toujours faire une réseme expresse, comme
au sujet des garanties d'une dette.
Au surplus, le Royaume-Uni connaissait exactement les deux
positions possibles: celle qu'il avait proposéeau Conseil de Sécurité,
savoir, une simple constatation de responsabilité, réservant un
règlement ultérieur, et celle qu'il avait préféréen portant l'affaire
devant la Cour, savoir, demander une somme déterminée à titre de
dommages et intérêts.Or, au moment de rédiger lecompromis, il
a choisi 12 première voie, et par conséquent il ne peut prétendre
revenir à la deuxième, en invoquant une réserve mentale soutenue
par de vagues références,dans les autres piècesécrites,et rétablie au

dernier moment par une allusion nette à la fixation des dommages.
Il ne s'agit pas exactement d'une question de compétence, mais
de la fixation du contenu du petitum.
Leparallélisme desdemandes exposéesdans le compromis démon-
tre encore ? ie l'on n'a-prévu,dans les deux cas, et la responsabilité
et la réparation, que pour signaler une différence de nature : le
Royaume-Uni envisageait simplement une réparation pécuniaire
et 1Albanie une autre reparütion de caractère purement n~orai.
Ainsi la clause ne se révéleraitpas inutile, mais, de toute manière,

96 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO g6
International justice also is subject to this moral influence
which GEORGESRIPTIIT mentions several times.

As J. PERSOSS;~~points out (La Réfiaratiolzdzi Préjudicenzr
Droit ifttevltntio~lafliriblic,Par1938, pp. 106et sqq.)international
tribunals have ofte11taken into consideration the degree of gral-ity
of offences,negligence or the czdpaof the victim, and have modified
the damages accordingly. Arbitrators have several times made
very clear declarations of principle on the point :e.g., the British
Commissioner in the .-ilabaîiiacase (Rec. LAPRADELLa End POLITIS,
II. Fizj), who considered that reparation should not only be
proportionate to the loss caused by the culpa, but also to the
grab ity of the ctilpn itsel;or the arbiter in the Delagoa Bay case,
who held that the czrlpaof the victim justified a reduction of the
compensation (LA FOSTAINE,Pasicr. ilzt.,p. 307).

In this case, several circumstances mentioned above or recorded
in the counter-claim might, if the case arose, reduce, to a certain
estent, the amount of the reparation. This would no doubt be
inc~mpatible with a condemnation based on the wrongfulness
of the act, but it would be applicable to any one guilty of an act in
the nature of an error.

2j.-;1~ regards the assess~nent of the reparation, it must be
remembered that the application \vas replaced by a kind of novation
in the Special Agreement, which modified the normal course of
procedure.
It is true that a renunciation cannot be presumed ; but in a
case of novation, an espress reservation must almays be made,
as in the case of a guarantee for a debt.

.\foreo~.er,the United Kingdoin knenythe two possible solutions
esactly :the solution ~vhichit had proposed in the Security Couricil :
a simple declaration of responsibility, reserving a subsequent
settlement ; and that n-hich it preferred in bringing the matter
before the Court : a claim for a fixed sum in damages. Nour,
when drafting the Special Agreement, Great Britain chose the
first method, and therefore cannot claim to come back to the
second, and to rely on a mental reservation supported by vague
references in the other docum-nts, and set up again, at the last
moment, b-- a definite allusion to the assessment of damages.
Itis not esactly a question of competence, but of determining
the content of the petitrrnz.

-1comparison between the claims set out in the SpecialAgreement
also shows that, in both cases, a reference was made to respons-
ibility and to reparation, on!y in order to point out the difference
in their nature. The United Kingdom had in view only a monetary
reparation, and Albania a different reparation of a purely moral
character. Thus, the clause \vas not purposeless, but the giving
9697 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE hl. AZEVEDO

on a écarté délibérément une indicationprécise :soit l'espèce de
satisfaction morale, soit la quantité du dédommagement matériel.

D'ailleurs, si quelques doutes subsistaient, ils ne pourraient être
dissipés par une interprétation contraire au débiteur et favorable
:LU créancier négligent.

26. - On pourrait encore souligner la nécessitéde chercher un

complément à la reconnaissance de responsabilité, pour éviter une
interprétation qui rendrait inefficace le compromis ;on viserait,
en d'autres terines, à donner un effet pratique dux clauses adoptées
par les Parties.
Mais, à ce point de vue, il faudra remarquer que le comproinis
révèlele dépôt simultané de deux demandes, présentées récipro-
quement par les Parties, avec un caractère purement déclaratoire.
En droit interne, les sentences sont, en règle générale,exécutables
par coercition et anciennement on refusait même d'admettre une
décision p-ivée d'un tel effet - caf~zpanasine pistillo. Mais la doc-
trine de la procédure, qui a évolué,admet l'existence de sentences

purement déclaratoires, connues spécialement en Allemagne et ails
Etats-Unis ; le demandeur se résigne, pour une raison quelconque,
à faire constater son droit sans voi1.loirle rendre efiectif, par la
suite, tout en sergservant néximoiris le droit d'introduire une autre
action dite purement exécutoire : actin de jdicat ).
Mais ce qui est exceptionnel en droit interne correspond à la
normalité en droit international. On sait que les décisions rendues
contre des Etats soriverains n'étaient pas directement exécutoires
et ne se fondaient que sur une haute valeur morale pour obtenir
une soumission x-olontaire: c'est la Charte de San-Francisco q~li
a commencé à assurer l'efficacitédes décisions de la Cour inter-

nationale de Justice par une procédure szrigeneris, dont l'étendue
sera graduée, dans chaque cas, par le Conseil de Sécurité.
On ne doit donc pas tenir pour exceptionnel, inutile, ou eiitrai-
nant un pur désistement, l'adoption d'un conlpromis, qui d'ailleurs
présuppose naturellrment des renonciations réciproques, pour
limiter l'effet de la décisionde la Cour au fait principal de la recoii-
naissance de responsabilité, en visant le rôle essentiel de la justice
internationale, qui est celui de déclarer le droit.
Les questions con~plémentaires, comme celles qui bnt trait à
la fixation du montant des pertes et à la manière de le régler, ont
dû êtrelaisséespar les Parties à d'autres formulesplus favorables

à leurs intérêtset que l'avenir pourra mieux indiquer.

27. - La demande reconventionnelle tire son origine de la
prétention soutenue par l'Albanie au sujet de la navigation par le
chenal nord de Corfou et se présente sous deux aspects distincts :
le passage d'une escadre par le chenal et le déminageultérieurement
effectué.

97 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
97
of a definite indication Ras deliberately avoided, both as regards
the nature of the moral satisfaction, and as regards the amount
of the material compensation.
Moreover, if any doubt subsisted, it would not be dispelled by
an interpretation unfavourable to the debtor and in favour of the
negligent creditor.

26.-One might also emphasize the necessity of adding something

to the declaration of responsibility, in order to avoid an inter-
pretation that would render the Special Agreement ineffective. In
other words, an endeavour would be made to give practical effect
to the clauses adopted by the Parties.
But it must be pointed out that the Special Agreement consists
of a simultaneous iîling of two claims, mutually submitted by the
Parties, and of a purely declaratory nature.
In municipal law, awards are as a general rule executed by
compulsion, and formerly a decision void of such etiect would not
be admitted-campana sine pistillo. But as procedure has
developed, the existence of purely declaratory awards has come
to be admitted, especially in Germany and the United States :
tlie applicant is content-for some reason-to have his right
declared, without desiring that it shall subsequently be rendered
effective ;at the same time, however, he retains the right to bring
another action of a purely executory nature :actio de jzddicato.
But what is exceptional in municipal law is normal in inter-

national law. Decisions against sovereign States were not directly
executory, and were founded only on their high moral value, cal-
culated to secure a voluntary submission. It was the SanFrancisco
Charter which first provided for giving etiect to decisions of the
International Court of Justice by a procedure sui generis, the
extent of which will be determined in each case by the Security
Council.
The adoption of a special agreement must not therefore be con-
sidered exceptional, or useless, or as involving merely the abandon-
ment of a claim. Naturally, it presupposes mutual renunciations,
limiting the effect of the Court's decision to the main fact of
recognition of responsibility, and regarding essentially the purpose
of international justice as being to declare the right.
Additional matters, such as the estimation of the loss and the
method of payment, have been left by the Parties to other proce-
dures, more favourable to their interests, and to be determined in
the future.

27.-The origin of the counter-claim is Albania's contention in
regard to passage through the North Corfu Channel. This claim
concerns two different issues : the passage of a squadron through
the Channel, and the subsequent minesweeping. 98 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE $1.AZEVEDO
Le caractère radical d'une telle interdictiona étécertainement
désavouédèsles débats au Conseil de Sécurité,et l'Albanie affirme

qu'elle n'a jamais eu l'intention d'exclure le passage des navires
marchands, cequ'impliquerait cependant une interprétationlittérale
de la note et mêmeles incidents déjàindiqués.
Après ce repli, il faut néanmoins examiner le point de savoir
si la mesure était ou non légitime à l'égard des navires de guerre.
Le droit de passage des navires étrangers à travers la mer
territoriale se fonde sur la liberté du commerce, qui elle-mêmepré-
suppose la liberté de navigation comme moyen principal de sa
réalisation, mais on ne peut envisager une opposition entre ces deux
conceptions de liberté,ni mêmepour justifier la différenceentre un
simple passage et l'entrée dans les ports, comme le proposent
certains auteurs. Certes, tout passage tend à une entrée, but du
voyage, dans un port de n'importe quel pays, mais la différence de
régime,pour les deux cas, qui est néanmoinsindiscutable et entraîne
des effets plus ou moins restrictifs pour'Etat riverain, n'exige pas
du tout le renversement du postulat selon lequel la liberté de navi-

gation découle de la liberté de commerce, idée plus large dans
le domaine économique.
Du temps de la Sociétédes Nations, le problème a tenu une
place exceptionnelle, étant donné les référencesdu Pacte (art. 16
et 23), la création de la Commission des Communications et du
Transit et la tenue des Conférencesde Barcelone en 1921, de Genève
en 1923. L'idéedu transit marchand a donc un relief bien marqué.
Elle n'a pas tenu une place aussi importante dans le systèmeactuel,
mais il est cependant indéniable que, depuis la Charte de San-
Francisco, elle n'a pas subi de réduction essentielle de fond.
Mais la position ne peut être que profondément différente en
ce qui est du passage des navires de guerre, soit quant au fond,
soit dans maintes applications.
Sans doute, ce transit se fonde aussi sur la liberté de navigation,
mais ici le même moyen sert à atteindre des buts entièrement

différents, de sorte que l'on peut naturellement arriver à des
conclusions différentes.Il faudra donc se méfierde toute analogie
hâtive et, partant, refuser des explications telles que celle de
FAUCIIILLE q, i considéraitla marine de guerre comme un accessoire
de celle de commerce, exactement comme au temps des corsaires
et de la piraterie.

28. - Bon nombre d'auteurs soutiennent queprévaut seulement
une espèce de tolérance, accompagnée d'une réglementation qui
dépasse les bornes d'un standard généralrelatif aux mesures tech-
niques, sanitaires ou douanières applicables aussi aux navires
de commerce.
D'autres se prononcent cependant dans le sens d'une égalité
des positions. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUPGE AZEVEDO g8
The fundamental nature of such a prohibition was certainly
disavowed in the discussion in the Security Council ; and Albania
asserts that she never intended to exclude merchant ships ;this
would, however, involve a literal interpretation of the note, and

even the incidents already mentioned.
After this withdrawal, it must still be considered whether the
measure was lawful or not as regards warships.
The right of passage of foreign vessels through the territorial
sea is founded on freedom of trade, which presupposes freedom of
navigation as the principal means of its accomplishment. But an
opposition between these two conceptions of freedom cannot be
envisaged, even to justify the difference which certain wnters
proposed between a simple passage and an entry into ports. No
doubt, any passage leads up to an entry into a port of some country.
But it is undeniable that the two acts are treated differently, and
involve greater or less restrictions on the riparian State. But this
does not do away with the postulate that freedom of navigation
flows from freedom of trade, a much wider economic concept.

From the time of the League of Nations, this problem has been
of exceptional importance owing to the references to it in Articles 16
and 23 of the Covenant, and the setting up of the Committee on

Communications and Transit, and the holding of the Conferences
of Barcelona in 1921 and Geneva in 1923. The idea of the transit
of merchandise is thus of special importance. In the present
system, it is less important ; but it is undeniable that, since the
San Francisco Charter, it has not been essentially modified.
But the position is quite different as regards the passage of
warships, both as concems the principle and, in many cases, its
application.
No doubt, this transitis also founded on freedom of navigation ;
but here the same means serves different ends. And in conse-
quence we arrive at different conclusions. We must mistrust any
hasty analogy, and reject explanations such asthat of FAUCHILLE,
who considered a navy as an accessory to a merchant fleet, just as
in the days of corsairs and piracy.

28.-A number of writers hold that the right only amounts to
what may be described as a tolerance, subject to regulations
somewhat wider than those usually goveming technical, health,
and customs matters, and which are also applicable to merchant
ships.
Others, however, favour the view that equality of treatment has
to be accorded. OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
99
En tout cas, le Royaume-Uni a revendiqué la primauté de la
coutume sur la doctrine, conformément à l'article 38 du Statut de
la Cour, tout en reconnaissant d'ailleurs que ce texte n'a pas établi
une hiérarchie des sources de droit international.
Mais il est très douteux qu'à cet égard on puisse discerner l'exis-
tence d'une coutume, à cause du manque de netteté des précédents;

car, comme dans le cas de la possession, l'équivoque empêche I'ac-
tion génératriceet confirmatrice du temps : àlui seul, celui-ci ne
suffit pas, d'après le droit traditionnel, à réaliser par exemple
l'usucapion : in jactlltativis non datztr pr@scrifitio.

Or, le passage latéral ))dans l'étroite bandedes eaux temtoriales,
en dehors de l'entrée ou de la sortie des ports voisins, qui n'est
pasun fait courant pour les bateaux de commerce, devient extrême-
ment rare en matière de navigation des navires de guerre. On peut
mêmeconstater qu'il ne se produit presque que dans le cas des
canaux ou détroits, que nous devons envisager séparément. Les
notifications visant l'entrée dans les ports se greffent 'souvent sur
celles qui ont trait au simple passage par les eaux temtoriales ;
ici même on peut constater, dans le programme de la flotte
méditerranéenne, qu'onavait prévu lacommunication distincte des

mouvements envisagés, tant à la Grèce qu'à l'Égypte, touC en
prévoyant une simple visite éventuelle du commandant en chef
dans certains ports égyptiens.
Aucune raison valable ne justifierait une restriction plus large
du droit de l'État riverain au bénéficedes navires de guerre. Il
va de soi qu'un abus serait créé par l'interdiction de passage sans
aucun intérêt,vu l'absence de tout danger, interdiction provoquée
par le seul désirde nuire ou mêmepar caprice ou simple légèreté.
L'autorisation de passage, bien plus utile, qu'en temps de guerre
les pays neutres accordent presque invariablement aux navires de
guerre, s'explique par d'autres raisons, par exemple, le souci
d'impartialité dans la manière de traiter les belligérants ou le
scrupule de ne pas défendre un acte indifférent à condition que
celui-ci conserve ce caractère. La nature précairede la pratique est
confirméepar la défenseou la limitation de passage des navires de
guerre, mêmeen temps depaix, par certains détroits, dont le transit
est réglépar des traités multilatéraux.

Il n'y a en somme pas de faits significatifs et constantspermettant
de considérer que les Etats ont accepté de reconnaître un droit
coutumier de libre passage dans la mer territoriale pour les navires
de guerre. 11n'existe donc pas la force vivifiante de la répétitionqui
est à la base dela coutume.
La tendance favorable à la libertédela mer ne pourrait êtreaccu-
eillie sans réserve au sujet des eaux territoriales, surtout du point
de vue des exigences militaires : il suffirait de rappeler l'extension
desdroits des neutres (Anntcaire de Z'lnstitde Dr. int.,Paris, 1910,
pp. 37, 91, etc.), la création par scissiparité des eaux adjacentes ou

99 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
99
On the other hand, the United Kingdom, founding itself on
Article 38 of the Court's Statute, has contended thît custom
prevails over doctrine, though it admits that this Article does not
establish an order of precedence for the different sources of law.
But it is very doubtful whether a customary practice in this
matter can be shown to exis-t,owing to the vagueness of the prece-

dents. As in the case of possession, these uncertainties are a bar
to the causative and confirmative action of time. And the mere
lapse of time, according to customary law, does not suffice to
establish a title by prescription :in facultativis non datur Pr@-
scriptio.
A "lateral passage" through the narrow belt of territorial waters
-as distinct from a passage through such waters on the way to or
from the ports adjacent to them-is not a common occurrence even
for merchant ships, and is exceedingly rare in the case of warships.
Indeed, it may be said to arise only in canals or straits, a subject
which will be examined separately. The notification of an intended
visit to a port is not infrequently additional to the notification of
a simplepassage through territorial waters. Indeed,in the present
case, we observe that, in the programme for the Mediterranean
Fleet, separate notice of the intended movements was to be gi~en,
both to Greece and Egypt, while it was indicated that a simple
visit to certain Egyptian ports might be paid by the Commander-

in-Chief.
There would be no valid reason for imposing greater restrictions
on the rights of the coastal State in the case of warships. It would
of course be an abuse of this right if their passage were prohibited
without proper reason, when no danger threatened, simply from a
desire to injure, or even out of caprice or levity.
Permission to pass, something far more useful, which neutral
countries almost invariably grant to warships in war time, has its
origin mainly in the desire to be impartial towards belligerents
and not to forbid acts which are harmless, on condition that they
retain that character. The precarious nature of such permission
is confirmed by the fact that, even in peace time, the passage of
warships through certain straits in which transit is regulated by
multilateral treaties is prohibited or limited.

In short, there are no significant or constant facts which could

justify the assumption that States have agreed to recognize a
customary right of freedom of passage for warships through the
temtorial sea. Thus, the vitalizing quality of repeated action,
by means of which such a custom is established, is lacking.
The tendency towards freedom could not be admitted without
reservation in the case of territorial waters, especially fordefence
reasons. Reference may be made to the extension of the rights of
neutrals (Annuaire de l'lnstit. de Dr. int., Paris, 1910, pp. 37, 91,
etc.), the creation by equidivision of adjacent or contiguouswaters,

99IO0 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
contiguës, la zone pour la protection des lois anti-alcooliques ou

desgisementspétrolifères, etc. (v. BUSTAMANT E, Mer territoriale,
Paris, 1930, p. 156).
Dans l'avis délivré le II décembre1931, à propos de l'affaire de
l'accèset du stationnement des navires de guerre polonais dans le
port de Dantzig, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale s'est
refusée à admettre une interprétation extensive des textes, y
compris ceux du Traité de Versailles, dérogeant au droit interna-
tional général,et à inclure le libre accès et séjour des navires de
guerre dans une formule qui ne visait que le trafic commercial, les
importations et les exportations, fonction remplie par les seuls
navires marchands ; elle a conclu finalement au mal-fondé des
prétentions polonaises. (C.P. J. I., SérieA/B 43, pp. 145 et S.)

29. - Le Royaume-Uni a invoqué les travaux de la Conférence
de La Haye pour la codification du droit international, maisil a dû
faire effort pour minimiser une bonne part des résultats de cette
réunion, sur lesquels s'appuie aussi l'Albanie.

En effet, il a soutenu que les bases approuvées par ce Congrès
à titre purement scientifique avaient présentéun caractère de
compromis nécessaireà1'Stablissement de la règlepour l'avenir, et
qu'au contraire une simpleobservation adoptée au dernier moment
avait plus de force que la base à laquelle elle se rattachait. Quelque
bien fondées que puissent être ces affirmations, la lecture des
travaux très utiles accomplis à ce moment brillant du droit inter-
national, oralement ou par écrit, pourrait autoriser d'autres
conclusions : le rapport initial a soulignépar exemple la confusion
insinuéedans lesréponses àpropos de points devue du droit existant
et du droit à créer (S. D. N., C.74, M.39, 1929, p. 7).

Les premiers projets rédigésen 1926 par SCH~CKING a,ncien
juge de la Cour permanente et partisan du libre passage des
navires de guerre, pourraient laisser quelques doutes, si l'on
compare leurs articles 7 et 12 : celui-là réservant seulement le
séjour des navires de guerre et celui-ci réglant tous les aspects

du passage (S.D. N., C.196, M.70, 1927, pp. 59, 62 et 72) ; de
mêmepour la seconde consultation des Etats, se fondant sur
un questionnaire adopté par un comité de revision (IX et X,
S. D. N., C.74, M.39, 1929, p. 105). C'est seulement à la suite
des nouvelles réponses que l'on a reconnu la nette différence
entre les deux cas (bases 19 et 20 - S. D. N., C.74, M.39, 1929,
pp. 71 à 75) conservéeet accentuée dans la discussion et l'appro-
bation du projet par la Deuxième Commission.
La lecture de toutes les réponses aux deux sériesde questions
n'autorise nullement à conclure sans équiyoque dans le sens de
l'égalité desituation des deux catégorie de navires ; très peu
d'États ont en effetrépondudans cesensd'u e1anièrepéremptoire.

IO0 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO0

the protected zone under the Alcohol Laws, and the laws relating
to oilfields(sBUSTAMANTE, La Merterritoriale,Paris, 1930,p. 156).

In its Opinion of December rrth, 1931, in the case conceming
access or anchorage in the Port of Danzig of Polish war vessels,
the Permanent Court of International Justice declined to admit
an extensive interpretation of provisions-including those of the
Treaty of Versailles-that were in derogation of general interna-
tional law ; it refused to read a right of free accessand sojourn for
trafFic,imports and exyorts, matters which fall exclusively within
the sphere of merchant shipping. And the Court declared in its
finding that the Polish claim had not been established. (P.C.I.J.,
SeriesA./B. 43, pp. 145 et sqq.)

29.-The United Kingdom invoked the proceedings of the Hague
Conferencefor the Codificationof Intemational Law ;but in doing
so, it was obliged to minimize a large part of the results of that
Conference, on which Albania also relied.
Thus, the United Kingdom contended that the bases of discus-
sion, approved by the Conference purely for the purposes of legal
science, represented a sort of compromise, necessary for the future
interpretation of the rule, and that, on the contrary, a simple
observation, adopted at the last moment, had more weight than
the "bases of discussion" to which it related. Whatever may be
the justice of these conclusions, a study of the discussions and
documents in the valuable Reports of that distinguished Inter-
national Law Conference might lead to conclusions of a different
character. The preliminary report, for instance, emphasized the
confusioninthe repliesconcerning existing lawand those conceming
lex ferenda(L.N., C.74, M.39, 1929, p. 7).
The first drafts prepared in 1926 by SCH~CKING f,rmer Judge
at the Permanent Court, and an upholder ofthe right offree passage
for warships, might leave doubts, when we compare Articles 7
and 12. The first of these reserves only the right of sojourn for
warships, and Article 12 deals with all matters of passage
(L.N., C.196,M.70, 1927,pp. 59, 62 and 72) ; the result of a second
consultation of States by means of a questionnaire adopted by a
Revision Committee, was the same (IX and X, L.N., C.74, M.39,
1929, p. 105). Only after further replies had been received was
the clear difference between these two cases (bases 19 and 20)
recognized (L.N., C.74, M.39,1929,pp. 71to 75). It was retained
and accentuated during the discussion and approval of the draft
by the Second Committee.
A study of al1the replies to the two series of questions would
not justify usin concluding, outright, in favour of equal treatment
for both categories of ships. For very few States replied definitely
in favour of that view. IO1 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

On peut par exemple constater que non seulement deux pays,
la Bulgarie et la Lettonie, se sont élevéscontre un droit de $bre
passage des navires de guerre, mais encore que d'autres Etats
ont exprimé une opinion semblable dans leursréponsesou pendant
la discussion. La Grande-Bretagne a senti par exemple lebesoin de
détruirel'attitude radicale et cohérente adoptéepar les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique, lors de cette réunion.Il est difficile d'imaginer, pour-
tant, que les déclarations écrites et orales de leurs représentants
fondéesd'ûilleurs sur l'idée demenace suggéréepar ELIHUROOT
et reprise dans les travaux préliminaires réaliséspar la Harvard
Law School, puissent être détruites par des tiers, même s'ils
s'appuient sur d'excellents arguments.
L'orientation de la Grande-Bretagne n'a pas éténon plus très

claire, soit dans les réponses préalables (doc. cit., pp. 67 et 74),
faisant mêmealrusion à un règlement présentéà la Conférenceet
dont la non-publication est regrettée par GIDEL (Dr. int. fiubl.de la
Mer, Paris, 1934, t. 3, p. 283), soit dans la discussion où elle a
affirmé que la proposition dans le sens d'une simple tolérance,
présentéepar les États-Unis, ne différait pas de la proposition
britannique pour le maintien du statuquo (S.D. N.,C.351, M.145 b,
1930, pp. 62-3). Telle est l'impression laisséedans l'esprit d'auteurs
qui ont commenté les travaux de La Haye, comme BALDONI
(n Mare territorialePadova, 1934, p. 94, n. 1) et JAURÉGUIBERRY
(La Mer territoriale,Paris, 1932, p. 52).
La différenciation des deux cas est restée à la base des travaux
de la Conférenceet revient comme un leitmotiv dans la rédaction
du projet, même enlaissant de côtél'écart souvent mis en relief,
entre les textes français et anglais.
Le rapporteur lui-même a souligné à la fin que l'article 12,
relatif au passage des navires de guerre, correspondait à ce qui

(itait reconnu dans le présent.

30.- De même, l'examen des textes des lois internes dans
les différents pays, quoique la plupart établissent une distinction
entre le simple passage, le séjour dans les eaux territoriales et
l'entrée dans les ports, n'oriente pas suffisamment l'esprit du
lecteur dans le sens de la liberté du passage, pour les navires de
guerre, même si l'on fait une large place à l'argumentation a
contrnviosensu, toujours dangereuse.
On constate, en finde compte, que l'équivoque plane sur tous
les éléments invoqués,assez tout au moins pour écarter la recon-
naissance d'une coutume satisfaisant aux exigences classiques.
Bref, le transit des navires de guerre par les eaux territoriales
se trouve soumis à un régime précaire et qui peut donc être
modifié de manière raisonnable par l'État côtier.
c'est un régimeacalogue àcelui quia ét6adoptépour réglementer

l'usage de l'air, où le passage sur le territoire étranger, quoique
plus dangereux, est infiniment plus nécessaire que le transit par DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO1
For instance, there were not only two countries, Bulgaria and

Latvia, that opposed the right of free passage of warships ; other
States also expressed a similar opinion in their replies, or during
the discussion. Great Britain felt it was necessary to destroy the
radical and coherent attitude adopted by the United States at this
Conference. Yet it is difiicult to see how the written and spoken
arguments of the American representatives, founded on the notior,
of menace put fonvard by ELIHUROOTand upheld in the prelimi-
nary studies of the Harvard Law School, could be demolished by
third parties, however excellent their arguments.

Great Britain's attitude was not very clear either :in the pre-
liininary replies (doc. cit., pp. 67 and 74), Great Britain alluded

to rules submitted to the Conference, the non-publication of which
is regretted by GIDEL (Dr. znt. publ. de la Mer, Paris, 1934, t. 3,
p. 283) ; and in the discussion she asserted that the proposa1 for
a mere tolerance, submitted by the United States, did not differ
from the British proposa1 for the maintenance of the status quo
(L.N., C.351, M.145 b, 1930, pp. 62-3). Such is the impression
left in the minds of the writers who commented on the discussions
at The Hague : e.g. BALDONI(Il Mare territoriale,Padova, 1934,
p. 94, n. I), and JAURÉGUIBERRY (La Jiev territoriale,Paris,1932,
P. 92)-
Differentiation between the two cases continued to be the basis
of the Conference'swork, and it reappears as a leitmotiv in the draft

proposa1 ; the difference between the French and the English tests,
though often referred to, was disregarded.
The rapporteur himself pointed out that Article 12, concerning
the passage of warships, corresponded to what was generally
recognized as the law at that time.

30.-Similarly, a study of the domestic laws of various States
-although most of them makea distinction between simplepassage,
sojoum in territorial waters and entry into ports--does not convey
an impression clearly in favour of freedom of passage for warships,
even if a large r,argin is allowed for the alwaysdangerous argument
a contrario sensu.

To sum up, it is evident that al1 the arguments invoked are
clouded in confusion, at any rate sufficiently to bar the recognition
of a ciistom in accordance with traditional requirements.
In short, the passage of warships through territorial waters is
subject to 3.precarious régimewhich may be modified, in a reason-
able manner, by the coastal State.
It is a régime analogous to that adopted for air traffic, in which
a passage over foreign territory, although more dangerous, is
infinitely more necessary than a passage through a stnp of terri-

IO1102 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

la bande de mer territoriale de trois milles. La tendance est
d'assurer le libre passage des avions commerciaux et, d'autre
part, d'exclure tout dfoit au profit des avions militaires, assujettis
au bon plaisir de l'Etat territorial.

31. - La base approuvée à La Haye en 1930a aussi bien consa-
cré la réserve des cas exceptionnels, admise mêmepar ceux qui
reconnaissent un véritable droit de passage aux navires de guerre
ou les placent sur le mêmeplan que les navires marchands. Ce qui

peut être abusif dans les temps normaux devient légitime par la
force des circonstances.
Ainsi les exigences d'autorisation ou de notification préalable,
en règle générale écartéep sar le texte, deviendraient justifiées en
certaines conditions, à commencer par l'état de guerre, qui, d'ail-
leurs, gênebeaucoupla navigation desnavires de commerce, comme
l'a remarqué BRUELà différentes reprises.
Mais il y a aussi les cas de tension entre pays voisins, auxquels
fait allusion GIDEL,lorsquelesincidents de frontière sont fréquents,
et cela justifie facilement la conduite d'un État plus faible alarmé
par les revendications temtoriales d'un autre.
De même,l'absence de relations diplomatiques doit être tenue
pour une raison suffisante du refus de la faculté de passage qui

présuppose de bonnes relations. BUSTAMANTE a spécialement
soulignél'hypothèse (op. cit.,par. 173). GIDEL l'appuie, malgré
le silence gardésur ce point par la Conférencede La Haye (op. Mt.,
P. 285).
Quelques lois internes n'accordent le passage qu'aux pays en
paix (France, 29 octobre 1929, art. 1), aux navires des pays amis
(Bulgarie, 4 novembre 1922, art. 1) ou mêmeaux bâtiments de
Puissances étrangères reconnues (Belgique, 30 décembre 1923,
art. 2).*
Les Etats-Unis, par des proclamations, ont établi une interdic-
tion générale depassage visant les navires français et anglais, sauf
en cas de détresse ou d'autorisation spéciale,à la suite de rupture
desrelations diplomatiquesavec la France en 1793, et l'Angleterre,

en 1815.
Dans l'affaire du chemin de fer de Landwarow-Kaisiadorys, la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale, en émettant son avis,
le 15 octobre 1931 (C. P. J. I.,SérieA/B 42, pp. 108 et S.), a tenu
compte de la nature anormale des relations politiques existant, en
temps de paix, entre la Pologne et la Lithuanie, par rapport aux
termes de la Convention de Barcelone visant à la sûreté ou les
intérêts vitaux des Etats auxquels il incomberait de faciliter le
transit.
Les lois belge (cit. art. II) et néerlandaise (30 octobre 1909,
art. 14) font allusion à toute autre considération exceptionnelle.
Le Royaume-Uni s'est déclaré d'accord à accepter que le jeu

de certains événementspuisse porter atteinte à ce qu'il considère
102 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO2

tonal sea of three miles. The tendency is to allow free passage
for commercial aircraft, but to deny any such right to military
planes, in regard to which the territorial State may act as it
thinks fit.

31.-The terms of the basis of discussion approved at The Hague
in 1930 also retain the reservation for exceptional circumstances,
which is admitted by those who claim an actual right of passage
for warships, or who place them on the same footing as merchant,
by circumstances.e an abuse in normal times is made lawful
Thus, insistence on authorization or prior notification, which is,
in general, excluded from the text, would be justifiable in cer-
tain circumstances ;for instance, in a state of war, which in fact
is a great handicap to the movements of merchant ships, as
BRUELhas mentioned several times.
Shen there are the cases of tension between neighbouring coun-
tries, to which GIDELalludes, when frontier incidents are con-
stantly occurring ;and these may welljustify the action ofa weaker
State, alarmed by the territorial claims of another.
Similarly, absence of diplomatic relations must be recognized
as sufficient ground for refusing leave of passage; since this pre-
supposes the existence of good relations. BUSTAMANTh Eas
specially emphasized this point (op. cit., para. 173). GIDEL
supports him, in spite of the silence of the Hague Conference on
this subject (O*. cit.p,. 285).
The laws of certain countries only grant passage to countries
at peace (France, October zgth, 1929, Art. 1), to ships of friendly
countries (Bulgaria, November 4th, 1922,Art. 1), or even to vessels
of recognized foreign Powers (Belgium, December 3oth, 1923,
Art. 2).
The United States established by proclamation a general
prohibition of passage for French and English vessels, Save in
distress or with special permission, following on the rupture of
diplomatic relations with France in 1793, and with England in
1815.
In the Landwarow-Kaisiadorys railway case, the Permanent
Court of International Justice, inivingits Opinion ofOctober 15th,
1931 (P.C.I.J., Series A./B. 42, pp. 108 et sqq.),took account
of the existing abnormal nature of political relations between
Poland and Lithuania in time of peace, having regard to the terms
of the Barcelona Convention on the subject of the safety or vital
interests of the countries which were bound to facilitate transit.

Belgian law (Art. II)and Netherlands law (October 3oth, 1909,
Art. 14) aiiude to any other exceptional circumstance.
The United Kingdom stated that it would be willing to admit
that certain events might prejudice what it regarded as an
IO2Io3 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

comme un droit coutumier hors de doute, mais en tout cas il refuse
d'admettre que l'État riverain soit le seul juge de la valeur de ces
raisons.
Mais la loi belge (artII) déclare précisément que lepays bénéfi-
ciaire de la réservedoit seul en régler l'application, et les lois ita-
lienne (28 mai 1928,renouvelée en1933)et yougoslave (20 juin 1924)
prévoient la suppression sans motif de la tolérance. BALDONI
(op.cit.,p. 93) fait allusion à la révocation ad nutum et RÆSTAD
(La Mer territoriale, 1913, p. 173)considèrela cessation comme un
acte peu amical, mais non contraire au droit international.

Peu importe que l'exigence de l'autorisation équivaille en fait
à une interdiction, c'est la conséquenceprévuepar les lois exami-
nées,par la doctrine et par l'article 12 du projet de La Haye. La
réglementation, normalement, existe toujours et s'oppose donc au
régime de l'exception, dans lequel peut venir s'ajouter le permis
préalablement accordé ;d'autre part, il serait inutile de prévoir
une modification pour les situations anormales.
Les abus pourront sans doute se présenter, mais pour les com-
battre il y aura les moyens de règlement des litiges internationaux
de caractère juridique.
En l'espèce,il est indiscutable que l'Albanie n'entretenait pas
des relations amicales avec ses voisins du Sud et qu'il n'existait
pas de relations diplomatiques entre elle et la Grande-Bretagne,

mais si l'Albanie avait agi à tort, il s'agirait d'un fait accompli
dont.-e retrait ne pourrait être recherché que par des moyens
pacifiques.
Finalement, il n'y avait pas lieu de tenir compte de la forme
de la réglementation, car celle-ci n'est assujettie à aucune règle,
et, seule, la loi italienne (cit. art. g) indique la manière de publica-
tion. Mais si l'on pouvait blâmer toute application anticipée de la
mesure, ce reproche ne saurait êtreformuléaprès la notification et
la réception de celle-ci. De même, en ce qui est du manque de
motivation dans la note elle-même,alors que les motifs ressortant
clairement de la correspondance diplomatique en cours n'étaient
pas contestés.

32. - Ces conclusions sont-elles modifiées par le fait que les

eaux territoriales sont comprises dans un détroit ?
Dans le conflit entre les intérêtsde la collectivité et ceux des
groupes particuliers, qui est sous-jacent au droit maritime, la
balance a beaucoup oscilléentre la thèse et l'antithèse : la querelle
entre le mareliberam et lemareclausum n'est pas encore terminée,
et certains points sont restés en arrière de l'évolution générale.
tels, au temps des Stuarts, les King's Chambers et, aujourd'hui,
ce qu'on appelle les baies historiques.
La prédominance de l'intér6t généralfait pencher la balance
contre l'État côtier si, par une fatalité géographique, une partie

103 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO3

undoubted customary right ; but at any rate it refuses to admit
that the coastal State should be the sole judge of the soundness
of these reasons.
But the Belgian law (Art. II) states definitely that the country
entitled to benefit by the reservation is alone entitled to regulate
its application; and the Italian law (May 28th, 1928, renewed in
1933) and that of Yugoslavia (June aoth, 1924) provided for
abolition of the tolerance without reason given. BALDON(Iop.
cit., p. 93) alludes to revocation ad nutum, and RÆSTAD (La
Mer territoriale,1913, p. 173) considers revocation as an unfriendly
act, but not contrary to international law.
It does not matter that insistence on authorization is equivalent
to prohibition ; this is a consequence provided for in the laws
that have been examined, in doctrine, and in Article 12 of the
Hague draft. Regulation exists normally at all times, and it is
opposed to the pnnciple of exception, to which may be added
previous permission ; on the other hand, it would be useless to
provide for modifications in abnormal circumstances.
Abuses may no doubt occur ; but there are methods of judicial
settlement of international disputes to overcome them.

In the present case, it is beyond dispute that Albania was not
on friendly relations with her neighbours to the South, and that
no diplomatic relations existed between her and Great Britain.
But if Albania acted wrongly, it was a fait accmnplithe withdrawal
of which could only be sought by peacefd means.

Lastly, we need not concern ourselves with the form of the
regulation ; for it is not subject to any rule;only the Italian law
(cit. Art. g) indicates the method of publication. But if exception
were taken to an anticipated application of the measure, an
objection could only be made after the notification of the prohibition
and its receipt. The same applies to the absence of grounds in
the notification itself ; for the grounds were made clear in the
diplomatic correspondence, and were not disputed.

32.-Are the above conclusions affected by the fact that the
territorial waters form part of a strait ?
In the conflict between the interests of the community and those

of special groups-a conflict which underlies maritime law-the
balance has frequently wavered between argument and counter-
argument : the controversy between mareZiberum and mareclausum
is not yet closed. And certain points have been left behind in the
course of the evolution, such as the King's Chambers in the Stuart
period, and, in Our day, what are known as historic bays.
The predominance of the general interest weighs down the
balance against the coastal State, when, by some geog~aphical IO4 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

de son territoire maritime forme un détroit. Il doit supporter le
préjudice d'unesorte d'expropriation pour cause d'utilitémondiale,
qui serait sans indemnité,mais bien entendu limitée à ce qu'exige
cette utilité. BRUELparle d'un mandat international ou de la
~zegotiorumgestio. (International Straits, Copenhague - Londres,
1947,t. 1,p. 254 ;t. 2, p. 424.)
Le droit constitue une norme decompensation où l'évaluation des
motifs se fait par les mêmes procédés à l'intérieur d'unseul pays et
entre les nations.Il en résulteun fréquent appel du droit intema-
tional aux règlesdu droit prive, plus nettes et d'une grande rigueur
technique.
Ainsi, l'on a discuté beaucoupsur cette transposition deprincipes
àl'égard dela théoriedes droits réelset spécialement dela notion
de servitudes foncières,mais l'extension de leurs normes fondamen-
tales reste cependant indiscutable : prenons par exemple le droit
de propriétéet constatons qu'il ne supporte des limitations que
dans le cas de nécessité (enclave,etc.). On laisse par conséquent à
hypothèsesvisant non seulement le superflu, mais la simple utilité ;
le domaine de l'exception et, partant, celui de l'interprétation
civiliter uti y subsiste toujours.
De même,on ne peut impunément restreindre les droits d'un
État sans raison suffisante,qu'ils découlent ou non du principe de
la souveraineté. La mesurede la nécessitépublique nesaurait donc
sefonder sur lesintérêts particuliers'Etats tiers qui ont desbesoins
plus grands que la moyenne d'entre eux, comme ce fut historique-
ment le cas, mais sur un bilan impartial des avantages et despréju-
dices d'ordre général,qui permettra de fixer les charges découlant
d'un simple accident géographiqueet que l'État côtier sera tenu de
supporter.

33. - D'où l'extrêmeimportance du problèmedesdétroits.Cer-
tains auteurs considèrent que les grandes différencesque présente
chaque détroitempêchentd'adopter une règlegénérale ;desconven-
tions spéciales règlent déjà la situation des principaux détroits
ou des canaux artificiels, et de nouvelles dispositions s'imposeront
pour régir lescas dont l'importance se révéleradans l'avenir. Cette
théorie, souvent rappelée àLa Haye, soumet tous lesautresdétroits
aux principes normaux régissant la mer territoriale. A l'opposé,
il en est une autre, tout aussi radicale et selon laquelle tous les
détroits obéissent à des règles communes, caractéristiques d'un
régimegénéralinhérent aux détroits, qui n'est complétépar des
règlesplus détaillées pour chaquedétroit que dans les cas les plus
importants.
La solution raisonnable se trouve presque toujours,dans une voie
médiane. Une bonne synthèseexige l'adoption d'une règlegénérale
pour certains détroits caractérisés, à côté d'une réglementation
particulière des cas spéciaux et, d'autre part, du renvoi des
104 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO4

accident, a part of its maritimeterritory constitutes a straitFor the
advantage of the world as a whole, it has to suffer a sort of expro-
priation, for which no compensation is offered,but which is of course
limited to what is essential for the public good. BRUELspeaks of
an international mandate or of negotioruwzgestio. (International
Straits, Copenhagen-London, 1947 ,ol. 1,p. 254 ;Vol. 2, p. 424.)
Law constitutes a çystem of adjustment, and in it motives are
appraised by the same process within a single country and between
different countries. As a result, there are frequent appeals from
international law to the rules of private law, which are more precise
and are technically very rigorous.
For instance, there has been much controversy in regard to this
transfer of principles from the theory of rights in real property,

and especially from the notion of servitudes. Butthe extension of
their fundamental rules is not to be doubted. Take, for instance,
the right of ownership; it is only subject to limitations in cases of
necessity (enclave, etc.). Consequently, the settlement of other
cases-relating not only to the superfluous, but also to the useful-
is left for agreement between the parties concemed. The field
of exception, and consequently that of interpretation ciz*iliteruti,
still remains.
Similarly, one cannot with impunity restrict the rights of a
State without adequate grounds, whether such rights are derived
from the principle of sovereignty or not. The existence of public
necessity cannot be deduced from the private interests of third
States, whose requirements may be above the average-as has
happened in history-but it must be founded on an impartial
balancing of advantage and disadvantage in general, by which the

burdens thrown upon the coastal State, by reason of a mere geo-
graphical accident, may be assessed.

33.-This shows the extreme imp6rtance of the problem of
straits. Some writers consider that the wide differences between
one strait and another prevent the adoption of any general rule.
The situation of the chief straits and artificial channels is already
governed by special conventions, and new measures will have to be
framed to deal with cases that may be found to he of importance
in the future. According to this theory, often referred to at The
Hagiie, al1other straits will be subject to the normal riiles applicable
to the territorial sea. Opposed to this is another rule, equally
radical, that al1 sti-aits are subject to common rules forming part
of a general régime applicable to straits-a régime that is only
supplemented by more detailed rules for individual straits in the

nlore important cases.
The most reasonable solution is nearly always to be found in a
middle course. The ideal would be the adoption of a general
régime for straits of a certain kind, supplemented by special rules
for individual cases ;while ordinary straits would be dealt with in
104105 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
cas banals aux principes générauxqui régissent l'usage de la mer

territoriale.

34. - Mais avant d'arriver à une conclusion, il faut mettre en
relief la connexité qui subsiste entre la question des détroits et
celle des eaux territoriales. En ce qui est du passage des bateaux
marchands par n'importe quel détroit, on se trouve simplement
en présence d'un cas particulier, couvert par la règle sur la mer
temtoriale, et en vérité il n'existeaucun autre problème.Lesnavires
de commerce peuvent emprunter les détroits sans qu'ils soient
obligésde démontrer les avantages que de telles routes peuvent
leur procurer.
Une preuve décisivepeut êtretrouvée dans le fait qu'on n'a pas
traité des détroits dans les travaux préparatoires de la Conférence
de La Haye, sauf en ce qui est des moyens de diviser les eaux
territoriales entre deux États riverains ; seulement au moment de
la distinction entre navires de commerce et navires de guerre le
besoin s'imposa de réglerle problème à l'égardde ceux-ci.
La question ne se pose doncque pour les navires de guerre. Alors,

on n'est plus en face d'une simple application d'un principegénéral,
car la notion de liberté de transit vient à s'écarter du but écono-
mique, auquel elle s'attache ordirairement. Et comme cette liberté
perd beaucoup de sens et de prestige lorsqu'elie sert à des besoins
d'une autre nature, faudra-t-il, pour la mesurer,recourir à d'autres
étalons?Au critèred'ordre économiqueon préférera doncles aspects
géographiques,tont en yisant la recherchedes moyens de communi-
cation qui puissent présenter une utilité raisonnable.

C'est pourqr:oi l'on cite géngralement, à côtédes détroits soumis
à une réglem~ntaticnconventionnelle,ceux de Gibr+tar, Bonifacio,
Hong-Kong, efc., comme étant placés sous un régime spécial,
diffèrentdes règlesordinairesqui s'appliquent aux eaux temtoriales.
On remarque d'abord que l'élément essentiel pourqu'un détroit
entre dans la catégorie internationale résidedans le fait qu'il sert
à la navigation inter~ationale, mais il serait trop simple de tenir
compte exclnsiueïnent du fait qirele détroit donne accèsà la haute
mer et non pas seulement à des lieux enclavés dans les eaux inté-
rieures.

Il est indispensable de procéder à un examen d'opportunité pour
apprécierla valeur intrinsèque de chaque voie de communication.
Evidemment, tout détroit offre passage dont la navigation peut
profiter, mais, inversement, on pourrait ainsi admettre qu'aucun
détroit ne lui est indispensable, car il serait toujours possible de
trouver un autre mcj-en d'aller d'une mer à l'autre, comme cela
se passait avant l'ouverture des canaux de Suez et de Panama.
Mais on ne pourrait soutenir sans féserve une restriction aux
droits de 1'Etat riverain, destinée à satisfaire à tous les besoins
militaires des États tiers, mêmes'il s'agissait de simples exercices

10.5 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 1'35
accordance with the general principles for the use of the territorial

sea.

34.-But before reaching a conclusion, we must emphasize the
connexion between the question of straitsand that of the territorial
sea. The passage of merchant ships through any strait is merely
a particular case covered by the mle for the territorial sea,
and no problem arises. Merchant ships can use a strait without
having to show that they obtain advantages from the use of thai
route.

Decisive proof may be found in the fact that straits were not
dealt with in the preparatory work of the Hague Conference, Save

as regards the method of dividing territorial waters between two
coastal States. It is only when the distinction came to be drawn
between merchant ships and warships that the need of settling
the problem regarding the latter arose.
The question iç not only one for warships. Here we are no
longer dealing with the simple application of a general principle ;
for the notion of freedom of transport is divorced from the commer-
cialpurpose with which it is normally related. And as this notion
of freedom loses much of its significance and prestige when invoked
for requirements of a different kind, we shall have to find some
other criterion by which to measure it. The place of economic
criteria wiil have to be taken by geographical considerations, and
an endeavour must be made to find means of communication that
are of reasonable utility.

For this reason, mention is generally made of Gibraltar, Boni-
facio, Hongkong, etc., as being under a special régime,apart from
the straits subject to conventional rules, differing from the ordinary
rules applying to territorial waters.
First, it will be observed that the essential condition for placing
a strait in an international category is that it should be used for
international traffic; but it would be over-simplifying the problem
to consider only the fact that thestrait gives access to the open sea,
and not merely to places in interior waters.

It is essential to examine the circumstancesin order to appreciate
the intrinsic importance of each individual route.
Of course, every strait offers a passage that shipping may make
use of
;but conversely, it might be argued that no strait was indis-
pensable for shipping ; for it is always possible to find some other
route connecting two seas, as happened, for example, before the
Suez and Panama Canals were opened.
But we could not approve unreservedly a restriction of the
rights of the coastal State in order to satisfy al1the military require-
ments of third States, even if these requirements were ordinary
105 106 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
ou de voyages de pure courtoisie où des navires de guerre pour-
raient économiserquelques heures de marche. 11n'en serait autre-
ment que si la fermeture du détroit entraînait l'impossibilitépra-
tique d'y naviguer ou rendait la navigation très difficile,ce qui a
provoquéla réglementation spécialedes grands détroits et justifié
certaines autres exceptions.
La notion de détroit international reste toujours liéeà.un mini-
mum,d'utilité spéciale,propre à justifier la restriction des droits
de 1'Etat côtier, que l'on doit présumer completset égaux à ceux
des autres détroits. A la doctrine du moindre sacrifice de PILLET
pourrait se rallier l'affirmation de SÉFÉRIADÈS ((plus est grande
l'utilitédu passage .... plus les atteintes aux droits des Etats rive-
rains s'élargissentet s'agrandissent».(Rec.des Cours, v. 34, p. 439.)

On peut donc considérer commeirréfutable toute classification
des détroits qui repose sur leur importance.. L'ouvrage de BRUEL
le démontre de différentes manières,et la lecture d'autres travaux
amène à des constatations semblablespar des termes trèsexpressifs:
voieprincipale, route indépendante, cheminplus court et nécessaire,
communication entre deux mers libres, deux hautes mers, grandes
routes, voie unique, etc.

35. - A La Haye, en 1930, ce problème a ététraité selon les
principes courants, mais il faut se garder d'un examen hâtif des
termes y adoptés conduisant à faire entrer n'importe quel détroit
dans la deuxièmeobservation àla base 12,mêmeceux qui rendraient
le transit plus long ou plus difficile.
L'adoption sans opposition de l'observation à l'article12 lui
confèreun grand prestige, mais, d'autre part, on ne peut oublier la
manihe inespéréedont la question a étéposéeau dernier moment.
Il faut surtout faire état de la clause ((servant à la navigation
internationale )qui a étéajoutéeaux expressions qui, auparavant,
étaient adoptées dansquelques textes se référantsimplement à la
communication entre deux régionsde la haute mer.
C'est à ce moment que SCH~CKINr Gappelait le cas exceptionnel
de navires qui, entrés dans un détroit, ne pourraient pas rentrer
dans leur patrie ! (Actes de la Conférence,v. III, 1930, p. 171-)

BRUEL,d'ailleurs favorable au passage des navires de guerre,
signale le zigzag empêchanttoute affirmation nette dans un sens
quelconque (op. cit.t. 1, pp. 202-5).
Mais on pourrait rattacher à ladite clause de 1930 la notion
de détroit international et aussi l'expression highway, chère à
des grands auteurs comme OPPENHEIM e,t introduite dèsle début
de cette affaire par le Royaume-Uni.

36. - Le Détroit de Corfou peut-il êtreconsidérécomme un
highwny ?
106 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 106
manoeuvres or mere courtesy voyages in which warships might
economize a few hours' steaming. No other view could be admitted

unless the closing of the strait rendered navigation impossible or
very difficult-conditions which have led to the regulation of the
more important straitsand have justified certain other exceptions.

The notion of an international strait is always connected with
a minimum of special utility, sufficient to justify the restriction
of the rights of the coastal State-which rights must be assumed
to be complete and equal to those of other States. To PILLET'S
doctrine of least sacrifice, we might a<d SÉFÉRIADÈS'maxim :
"The greater the use of the passage ...the more extensive become
the infringements of the rights of the coastal States." (Rec. des
Cours, Vol. 34, p. 439.)
A classification of straits in the order of their importance may
therefore be considered as irrefutable. This is shown in several
ways by BRUEL,and a study of other writers leads to similar conclu-
sions, expressed very clearly : main highway, independent route,
shortest and most necessary way, communication between two

free seas, two high seas, highways, only way, etc.

35.-At The Hague, in 1930, this problem was dealt with on
current lines ; but care must be taken lest, by a too hasty perusal
of the terms there adopted, we should be led to include any and
every strait-even those which would render the passage longer or
more difficult-under the second observation relating to Basis 12.
The adoption of the observation to Basis 12 without opposition
gives great weight to it ; but we cannot forget the unexpected
manner in which the question was put at the last moment. Stress
must be laid on the words "serving for international navigation",
added to the terms previously employed in a number of documents
that referred merely to communication between two parts of the
open sea.
At this point, SCH~CKING referred to the exceptional case of
ships which entered a strait and then found it impossible to return

to their country ! (Proceedingsof the Conference, Vol. III, 1930,
P. 171.1
BRUEL,who is otherwise favourable to the passage of warships,
refers to the fluctuation that prevents any definite statement on
the one side or the other (op.cit.Vol. 1, pp. 202-5).
But the notion of international strait and also the expression
"highway", dear to great writers like Oppenheim, and introduced
at the beginning of these proceed.ings by the United Kingdom,
might be inserted in the 1930 clause.

36.-Can the Corfu Channel be deemed to be a "highway" ? DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO IO7
A mere glance at the chart shows how difficult it would be to
include it in such a classification, and indeed no qualified author
has yet attempted to do so.
This Channel cannot serve the needs of international shipping,

because it does not shorten the route, and offers no facility for
manoeuvring. So far as the Port of Saranda is concerned, it is of
no use, even for voyages southward. True, it is of value to the
Port of Corfu for northward traffic ; but the distance saved by
using it is less thaIOOmiles. In a fewhours, the Leader steamed
almost round the island, whose southem shore is still fringed with
mines round which çhe had to pass.
One of the British experts quite naturally told the Court of
important international routes, particularlythose leading to the
Dardanelles and coming from Alexandria or Suez and the eastem
Mediterranean.
The artificialCorinth Canal, which unites the Ionian and Ægean
Seas, thereby saving a considerable détour, would be of far greater
importance ; nevertheless, al1 the authors who deal with it have
described it as a secondary route in the few lines they devote toit.
After October zznd, proposals were submitted to the Medzon
Board for the establishment of new routes to Corfu, either by
sweeping a channel to the North or by the clearance of minefield

No. 530 to the South ; and in point of fact, the North Channel has
remained closed for more than two years without any serious
prejudice to international traffic.

37.-NTe must examine whether one last consideration might
not turn aside the normal line to be followed.
There is a sort of condominium over the waters of the Channel,
because one of its shores is Greek and the other Albanian-though
it is not the existence of one or of several coastal States which
confers upon a strait an international status: the Sound is between
two Statesand the Belts and the Dardanelles are between the coast-
lines of a single State.

The method of dividing the waters of narrow straits is of small
importance, for it does not concem third Powers. On the contrary,
in this particular case, the situation of the Strait, on the frontier
between two States, would justify further restrictions as against
third Powers, unless the latter were able to prove the existence of

special navigational interests.
A reference has been made to a statement by a North-American
technical expert on the Mining Board in regard to the Corfu
Channel; but it must be remembered that the United States
declared at The Hague that they and Great Britain were the only
States concerned in establishing the régime forthe Strait of Juan de
Fuca (which is certainly of greater importance than that of Corfu), 108 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVED3

de Magellan comme essentiellement international.

HYDE a justifié abondamment cette doctrine, en comparant
le canal de Kiel, nettement international par l'intérêtvital qu'il
apporte au commerce, et le Long-Island Sound ou le détroit de
Juan-de-Fuca, réservés aux intérêtsd'un seul ou de deux pays
(Int Law, Boston, 1947, t.I, par. 150 et 155). La Suède a aussi
-revendiqué, dans la réponse aux questionnaires de La Haye,
des situations analogues à celle du détroit de Kalmar (S. D. N.
C.74, M.39, 1929, P. 58).
Il y a toujours une question de proportions. On peut, partant,
conclure que mêmela situation dedétroit ne peut servir d'argument
à la p=étention du Royaume-Uni, et au contraire vient à l'appui
de l'interdiction de passage décrétéepar l'Albanie sous réserve
d'une autorisation accordée après notification, étant donné les
circonstances anormales qui régnaient à l'époque.
Et n'importe quelle tolérance ancienne à l'égard de faits tou-
jours bien séparés dans le temps pourrait créer, par une sorte

d'usucapion, un droit contre l'Albanie.
Il va sans dire que cette solution ne peut prévaloir, à l'égard
des navires de guerre de la Puissance qui a la souveraineté sur
l'autre rive des eaux du détroit, vu la pleine égalitéqui existe
entre ceux qui ont un intérêt direct dans le transit, mêmede
caractère non commercial, par le détroit.

38. - Mêmedans le cas où l'on considérerait comme injustifiée,
en tout ou en partie, la pratique adoptée par l'Albanie, il faudrait
déconseiller toute intervention tendant à y mettre fin, toute
réplique à la force par la force, en dehors de la chaleur d'une
action violente, comme celle du 15 mai.
Siune telle manière d'imposer une doctrine erronée était anor-
male, il aurait fallu espérer que ceux qui la critiquaient si vivement
n'adopteraient pas la même conduite. La réponse vim vi repellere
équivaudrait à remettre à la force des armes la solution d'un
problème purement juridique. Comme la considération d'urgence
n'existait plus, l'abstention de passage était tout indiquée.

En dehors de la légitime défense, d'une riposte cortfesti~it,de
la hot purszbitou d'un état de nécessité,rien ne justifie l'emploi
de la violence, même le prétexte de représailles : une violation
ne justifie une autre violation en dehors de la loi du talion.
Il serait formellement contraire à l'espiit de la Charte de San-

Francisco et à plusieurs articles de celle-ci qu'un pays devienne
arbitre dans ses propres affaires. é état riverain exerce aussi la
possession sur son territoire maritime, et s'il introduit une nou-
veauté, celle-ci ne pourra être écartée par la violence, même
sous prétexte de rétablir le statu quo - la situation passive de
celui qui a proclamé l'interdiction constitue un fait accompli et
108 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 108
whereas they regarded the Strait of Magellan as essentially inter-
national.

HYDE held this doctrine to be abundantly justified, in comparing
the Kiel Canal, which is clearly international owing to its vital
interest to trade, with Long Island Sound or the Strait of Juan
de Fuca, which are reserved for the interests of one or two States
(Int. Law, Boston, 1947, Vol. 1, paras. 150 and 155). Sweden
also, in the reply to the Hague questionnaires, claimed similar
situations to that of the Kalmar Strait (L.N., C.74, M.39, 1929,
P. 55).
JVemust not lose sight of proportion. We may, however, conclude
that even the fact of its being a strait cannot be an argument for
the United Kingdom claim ; but on the contrary is in support
of the prohibition of passage ordered by Albania, unless special
permission be granted after notice, and having regard to the
abnormal circumstances at the moment.
And as regards the facts-even well separated in point of time-
any tolerance in times past might, by a sort of prescription, create

a right against Albania.
It goes without saying that this solution could not be applied
in the case of warships of the Power which possesses sovereignty
over the opposite shore of the strait, since there is complete
equality between the States directly interested in the passage of
shipping-even of a non-commercial kind-through the strait.

38.-Even if we regard Albania's conduct as wholly or partly
unjustifiable, we must disapprove of any intervention designed
to end it, and oi any employment of force against force, except in
the heat of violent action as on May 15th.

As such a method of enforcing an erroneous doctrine was abnor-
mal, one might have hoped that those who refused to tolerate it
would refrain from acting in the same way. To answer : vim vi
repellere,would amount to referring the solution of a purely juridi-

cal problem to the arbitrament of force. As the reason of urgency
had ceased to apply, the praper course would manifestly have been
to refrain from effecting the passage.
Apart from legitimate defence, a counter-stroke confestint,
"hot pursuit", or an emergency, nothing justifies the use of force,
not even the pretext of reprisals. One violation does not justify
another, outside the lex tirlionis.
It would be absolutely contrary to the spirit of the San Fran-
cisco Charter and to several of its articles for a country to become
judge in its own case. The coastal State also exercises power over
its maritime territory ;and if it adopts a new measure, this cannot
be set aside by violence, even under the pretext of re-establishing
the rtatzts quo. The passivity of the party that announced the
prohibition constitutes a fait accompli and is under the protection

1osIOg OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

reste sous la protection de la vieille règle in dubio melior est
colzditiopossidentis.
L'ouverture par la force des ports d'un pays ne se justifierait
pas aujourd'hui, encore que le commerce ou la civilisation puissent
en profiter, comme cela s'est passé au xrxme siècle; moins encore
le passage par la force d'un détroit, comme dans l'exemple de
Shimonoseki, en 1864.
La tolérance envers une action de force sous condition d'un
examen a fiosterioride sa légitimitéconduirait à l'anarchie dans la
vie internationale.
D'autre part, on ne pourrait invoquer un état de nécessité,ni
mêmeun dommage irréparable, en présence de la simple difficulté
d'exécuter des exercices navals, qui avaient d'ailleurs étéprévus
dans une autre direction.

39. - On trouve souvent, dans les règlements nationaux, des
restrictions relativesau nombre et au tonnage des navires, à la
répétition des visites, etc., ce qui fait constater le caractère au
fond menaçant des navires de guerre et amène à écarter le para-
logisme selon lequel, si un navire est admis, il faut en admettre
aussi un et plus un, et trois et quatre, jusqu'à l'infini.
En outre, sil'on considèreque l'admission aux ports est influencée
par le nombre des navires, on est amené à conclure que le simple
passage peut êtreaggravé par le mêmefait.

Mêmeen ce qui est des détroits, des auteurs les plus favorables
aux bateaux de guerre comme FAUCHILLE consacrent des limita-
tions au passage v. g. la concentration d'une escadre puissante
(Tr. de Dr. int. publ., Paris, 1925, t1,V. II, par. 5071).
Sans doute le souvenir du premier incident justifiait-il des pré-

cautions, mais de toute manière ily a eu une disproportion évidente
des forces par rapport aux buts envisagés. C'estlà la caractéristique
de ce passage sous le simple angle objectif, surtout si l'on ignore
les instructions envoyées par le commandant en chef.

On ne peut d'ailleurs laisser entièrement de côté l'aspect siib-
jectif du passage, recommandé par plusieurs auteurs, surtout
lorsque l'on se trouve en présence de documents versés par la
partie mêmequi a étéaccuséede faire un passage non inertnis et
innoxia. On a fait en l'espèceune démonstration navale qui même
à titre de représailles ne serait pas admise, comme on l'a observé
dans les séancesde l'Institut de Droit internationalà Paris, en1934.

40. - Si l'on en vient à la deuxième opération, il faut d'abord
remarquer que l'Albanie n'a pas étéadmise au Comité llIedzon

lors de la constitution de ce Comité,et que les propositions tendant DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
IOg
of the old rule : in dubio melior est conditiopossidentis.

The forcing of an entry into the ports of a country would not ,
be justified in the present day, although trade or civilization
might profit thereby, as was the case in the nineteenth century ;
still less is the forceful passage of a strait justifiable, as in the

case of Shimonoseki, in 1864.
The toleration of an act of violence, on condition that its law-
fulness were considered a posteriori,would lead to anarchy in
international life.
On the other hand, a state of necessity, or even an irreparable
injury, could not be invoked, merely because of the difficulty of
carrying out naval exercises which, incidentally, had been arranged
to take place elsewhere.

39.-National regulations often lay down restrictions as to the
number and tonnage of ships, the repetition of visits, etc. ; this is
evidence of the menacing character of warships, and serves to
controvert the erroneous argument that if one ship is admitted,
a second must also be allowed and then a third and a fourth, ad
infinitum.
Moreover, if it is recognized that the right of admission to a port
is influenced by the number of ships employed, we are led to con-

clude that the simple passage may be influenced by the same
consideration.
Even in the case of Straits, writers most favourable to warships,
likeFAUCHILL Ee,limits on the right of passage, e.g. concentration
of a powerful squadron (Tr. deDr.int.publ.,Paris, 1925,t. 1,Vol. II,
para. 5071).
No doubt the memory of the first incident justified certain
precautions ; but in any case there was a manifest disproportion
between the forces employed and the object in view. That was
the characteristic feature of this passage, from a purely objective
standpoint, and without having knowledge of the instructions sent
by the Commander-in-Chief.
Moreover, we cannot disregard the subjective aspect of the
passage as several authors recommend, especially in cases where
documentary evidence has been produced by the party accused

of a passage not inermis et innoxia. In this case, there was a
naval demonstration, which would not be admissible even as
reprisals, as was said at the meetings of the Institut de Droit
international at Paris in 1934.

40.-Turning now to the second operation, we note, to begin
with, that Albania was not admitted to the Medzon Board when
the latter was constituted, and that proposals for her admission,3.10 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

à l'y faire admettre à simple titre d'observateur ont échouéà
plusieurs reprises.
Malgréle rôle prédominant que le Royaume-Uni a très naturelle-
ment jouédans ce Comité,comme dans le Comitécentral de démi-
nage, du fait de sa plus grande expérience et de son abondant
matériel, l'échecde ces initiatives ne peut êtremis à son compte
exclusif, bien que les raisons qui en ont étédonnéeset qui ont été
répétéesau cours de l'affaire ne puissent êtreconsidéréescomme

satisfaisantes et parfois mêmese contredisent.
L'attributionàla Grècedu secteur 18A peut aussi êtreconsidérée
comme un acte peu amical du Comité, puisque ce secteur était
déjàdragué,comme le secteur no 17 qu'on avait laissésans attribu-
tion à aucun pays, et que la Grèce n'avait pas; à ce moment, des
moyens à sa disposition pour remplir la tâche et réclamait même
l'aide du Royaume-Uni.
On a déjà remarqu6 que les Britanniques avaient, à un moment
critique, ouvert un chenal qu'ils supposaient occuper le même
emplacement que celui du chenal maintenu par les Allemands
pendant la guerre. Pour se dispenser d'un travail plus important
de dragage de champs de mines existants, on a préférésuivre le
chemin considérécomme le plus facile, au lieu de prendre la route

normale qui serait à équidistance des deux côtes ;encore que l'on
ne doive pas présumer un choix de l'ennemi pour l'hypothèse la
plus simple, mais au contraire une préférencepour une route que
les adversaires aient plus de difficultéà découvrir.
Mais quand, un an et demi après, le différend entre l'Albanie
et la Grande-Bretagne s'était élevé, celle-ciaurait dû, si elle
avait intérêtau passage après la cessation des hostilités, replacer
la route dans les conditions normales d'avant guerre. Si l'ennemi
avait modifié l'ancien équilibre, pourquoi persister dans une
voie dommageable une fois le calme rétabli ? On connaissait déjà
l'emplacement exact des mines, et un dragage n'aurait demandé
que quelques heures de travail, comme dans l'opération Retail.

Après l'explosion, le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni n'a pas
tardé à décider le déminage et à le notifier à l'Albanie.
En attendant, il a toutefois cherché à obtenir l'appui ou l'as-
sentiment des Comités de déminage, en se proposant pour
assurer l'exécution de l'opération, comme suite naturelle à celle
qu'il avait accomplie en 1944.
Cependant, le 28 octobre, le Comité Medzon n'a pas donné
son accord, bien qu'il estimât l'opération recommandable, à cause
du caractère politique de celle-ci en cas de refus de l'Albanie.
L'attitude du Comité central témoigne également de réticences :
dès le 31 octobre, il conseillait le déminage, mais cous réserve
de conditions d'opportunité, y compris l'accord de l'État riverain. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO II0

merely as an observer, were unsuccessfuily made on several
occasions.
In spite of the predominant part naturally played by the United
Kingdom on this Board, and on the Central Mine Clearance Board,
owing to her greater experience and large navy, the failure of these
proposals cannot be laid entirely at her door, though the reasons
given, and repeated during the proceedings, cannot be regarded as
satisfactory and are sometimes contradictory.

The assignment of Sector 18 A to Greece may be regarded as an
unfriendly act on the part of the Board, seeing that this Sector
(like Sector 17, which had not been allotted to any country) had
already been swept, and Greece had not at the moment the means

of carrying out the task, and even asked for assistance from the
United Kingdom.
It has already been observed that at a critical moment the
British had operied a channel which they thought to be in the same
position as that maintained by the Germans during the war. In
order to avoid undertaking larger sweeping operations, it was
preferred to foilow what was considered the easiest course, rather
than the normal route, equidistant from both coasts ;though it
must not Be assumed that the enemy chose the easiest solution ;
on the contrary, he preferred a route which would be the most
difficult for his adversaries to observe.

But when, a year and a half later, a dispute had arisen between
Great Britain and Albania, it would have been the duty of the

former, if she was still interested in the passage after the end of
hostilities, to restore the Channel to its normal pre-war condition.
Though the enemy had disturbed the former equilibrium, there
was no reason for persisting in a prejudicial course, after peace
had been re-established. The exact situation of the mines was
already knowvn, and a sweep would only have required a few
hours' work, as in the case of Operation Retail.
After the explosion, the United Kingdom Government did not
delay a decision to sweep, and notified Albania.
Meanwhile, however, it endeavoured to obtain the support or
consent of the Mine Clearance Boards, by proposing that it should
itself undertake the operation, as a natural sequel to the sweep

in 1944.
But, on October &th, the Medzon Board did not approve,
although it thought the sweep desirable, owing to the political
character which such an operation would assume in case of a
refusa1 by Albania. The Central Mine Clearance Board was also
réticent : on October 31st, it recommended the sweep, subject,
however, to suitable conditions, including the agreement of the
coastal State. III OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

41. - On avait alléguéque le but de l'opération Retail aurait
étéle souci de protéger la navigation ou d'assurer l'accès aux
ports locaux, y compfis celui de Saranda, ou même de dégager
la responsabilité de 1'Etat qui avait procédéau premier déminage.
Or, les besoins de la navigation n'ont pas été satisfaits, et
l'accèsà Saranda n'est pas assuré, puisque l'opération de déminage
n'a pas ététerminée.
Dans la Réplique, cependant, on a clairement défini son but
principal : récolter des preuves pour déterminer l'origine des
explosions et indiquer les coupables.
D'autre part, on craignait le manque d'efficacitéet de rapidité
de n'importe quelle mesure demandée à 1'0. N. U. et décidée
par celle-ci.
Mais aucune de ces raisons ne justifierait une telle action unila-
térale, dont la gravité aurait pris beaucoup plus de relief si ses
résultats avaient été négatifs. Une action d'auto-protection,
décidéede sang-froid, en contraste avec l'inaction au moment
où les destroyers ont sauté, serait aussi déplacée.Le retentissement

de l'affaire aurait suffià lui seul à écarter une tentative auda-
cieuse de faire disparaître les témoins muets du délit.

42. - Au lieu de se fâire justice de ses propres mains, dans
un cas qui n'était ni urgent ni malheureusement susceptible de
réparation adéquate, il eût été très facile et plus indiqué de
chercher un procédé de conciliation ou même de recourir à
l'O.N. U., surtout après que l'Albanie, bien que non-membre,
lui avait déjà fait appel. On ne pouvait pas envisager d'asance
un refus radical de la part d'un pays qui, ensuite, a dû accepter
une invitation entraînant des conséquences bien plus graves,
par exemple celle de confier au Conseil de Sécuritéle règlement
de toute la querelle, quoiqu'il s'est opposé plus tard au renvoi
de l'affaire à la Cour. C'est sous les auspices de N.OU. qu'aurait
dû être effectué le déminage, impartial et immédiat, afin de
prévenir tout changement dans l'état du chenal.

Si la justice internationale n'offre pas encore des moyens satis-

faisants, la responsabilité en incombe aux Puissances qui, en
majorité, n'ont pas considéré que soit venu le moment de lui
accorder une juridiction obligatoire.
On ne peut reprocher à la Cour le caractère limité de ses moyens,
ni des dispositions comme celle qui autorise un Etat à refuser la
production d'un document, ainsi qu'on vient d'en avoir des
exemples dans la présente affaire.
Malgré ses imperfections, il ne faut pas désespérerd'acheminer
vers le tribunal international la solution de toutes les contestations
d'ordre juridique, et, ce propos, on ne peut manquer de souligner
le souci témoigné plusieurs fois par ia Grande-Bretagne de porter

III DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO III
41.-It had been said that the purpose of Operation Retail was
to protect shipping and provide access to local ports, including
Saranda, or even to relieve from responsibility the State that had

carried out the first sweep.
But the requirements of navigation were not satisfied, and
access to Saranda is not assured ; for the sweep was not finished.

But the main object of the United Kingdom is clearly defined
in the Reply : collection of evidence, to ascertain the cause of the
explosions and to reveal the guilty parties.
On the other hand, it was feared that any measure asked for
from the United Nations and decided on by that body would be
ineffective and slow.
But none of these reasons could justify such a unilateral action,
the gravity of which would have been more evident if the results
had been negative. Action for self-protection, decided on in cold
blood, in contrast with the inactivity at the time of the explo-
sions, would also be out of place. The publicity given to the
case would have been sufficient to discourage any audacious
attempt to get rid of the material evidence of the outrage.

42.-Instead of taking the law into its own hands in a case that

\vas neither urgent nor, unfortunately, susceptible of adequate
reparation, it would have been easier and certainly more appro-
priate for the United Kingdom to resort to a procedure of concilia-
tion, or even to have had recourse to the United Nations, especially
in view of the fact that Albania, though not a member, had already
appealed to that body. One could not assume in advance that
such a step would be met by a flat refusa1 by a country which
subsequently had to accept an invitation with much graver conse-
quences, e.g. that of entrusting the settlement of the whole dispute
to the Security Council, although it later raised an objection to
a reference to the Court. The minesweeping should have been
done under the auspices of the United Nations, impartially and
swiftly, inorder to forestall any change in the state of the Channel.
If international justice does not yet possess satisfactory machin-
ery, the responsibility rests on the Powers, the majority of whom
do not consider the moment arrived to invest the Court with
compulsory jurisdiction.

The Court cannot be blamed for the limited means at its disposal,
nor for provisions such as that which allows a State to refuse to
produce a document, as has happened in the present case.

In spite of its imperfections, we must not give up hope of seeing
all disputes of a legal character finding their way to the Inter-
national Court. In that connexion, we cannot fail to notice the
anxiety which Great Britain has displayed on several occasions112. OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

devant la Cour des affaires qui quelque temps auparavant auraient
peut-être ététranchées d'une autre façon.
De toute manière, la recherche des preuves ne saurait jamais
justifier un acte d'intervention, qui finalement été franchement
reconnu, mais qui se heurte aussi aux textes et à l'esprit de la
Charte de San-Francisco. Le monde d'aujourd'hui ne tolère plus
cne pratique à laquelle on n'a jamais pu sincèrement reconnaître
un caractère juridique, et où les plus nobles propos d'humanité
risquent d'être faussés par des abus qui s'insinuent facilement
sous leur manteau.
Il faudrait éviter ainsi une nouvelle opération de force, surtout
à la suite des avertissements discrets des organes internationaux
qui s'occupaient particulièrement de l'affaire, opération conduite
sansgrands égards pour l'autre partie, qui n'a mêmepas étéinvitée
à observer ou à entrer en pourparlers, après sa protestation initiale
et la suggestion faite par elle relativement à une commission mixte.

L'observation relativeà l'absence de réclamation, en 1944 ,'est
pas sufisante, étant donné les conditions ci-dessus rappelées, qui
prévalaient en pleine guerre. Au surplus, il n'y a pas eu en Albanie,
au moins jusqu'à la fin de 1945 , e gouvernement stable reconnu
par d'autres Puissances.
L'Albanie pourrait donc prétendre à intervenir dans la déter-
mination du chenal, qui deviendrait définitif, car elle avait regagné
son indépendance, sans que celle-ci fût présuméeêtre socmise à
des conditions portant atteinte à la souveraineté acquise.
D'un autre côté, l'Albanie n'a pas démontréQu'elleeût l'inten-
tion sincère de se rapprocher de la Grande-Bretagne pour arriver
à une solution qu'exigerait le devoir, fondamental pour tout Etat,
de collaborer à des buts de justice et d'harmonie internationales
par la voie mêmedes négociationsdirectes. Au contraire, des répon-
ses quelque peu évasives,quoiquefondéessur desraisonsjuridiques,
permettent d'atténuer la responsabilité du Royaume-Uni et d'at-

tribuer moins de gravité à l'attitude adoptée leng novembre qu'à
celle qui fut adoptée le 22 octobre.

43. - A l'illégitimitéde l'opération est venu se joindre l'excès
des moyens, de telle sorte qu'au premier moment l'Amirauté même
a prévu des accusations de duplicité et d'offense à la souveraineté
albanaise.
On ne peut davantage oublier la manière dont a étéexécutée
l'opération, en ce qui est de la destruction des mines, puisque la
plupart ont étélaissées à la dérive.
Certes, la Convention de La Haye a posécomme condition essen-
tielle de l'usage de ces engins l'adoption d'un dispositif qui les
désamorce automatiquement, dès qu'elles sont détachéesde leurs
orins. En tout cas, cette garantie juridique ne nous apaise pas
entièrement, et tout le monde croit qu'il reste toujours un certain
coefficient de danger. Peu importe que les experts en général DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO II2

to bring before the Court cases which, not long ago, would have
perhaps been settled in another manner.
Be that as it may, the collection of evidence can never justify

an act of intervention, such as has at last been frankly and finally
admitted ; such an act is repugnant to the letter and the spirit of
the San Francisco Charter. The world of to-day will no longer
tolerate a practice which has never been sincerely regarded as
lawful, and one which allows the noblest aims of humanity to be
used, al1 too easily, as a cloak for the worst abuses.

A further use of force must be avoided, especially one carried
out in spite of discreet hints conveyed by the international bodies
immediately concerned-a use of force without great regard for
the other party, which was not even invited to send observers or
to enter into negotiations, after an initial protest by it, and a sug-
gestion of a mixed commission.

The argument based on the absence of any claim in 1944 is
insufficient, having regard to the conditions already mentioned,
which prevailed in war time. Moreover, up to the end of 1945
at least, there was no stable government, recognized by other
Powers, in Albania.
Albania might therefore claim to participate in the marking out
of the Channel, which was to tecome the definitive route ; for she
had regained her independence, which could not be presumed to
be subject to conditions incompatible with acquired sovereignty.
On the other hand, Albania never showed a sincere intention of
approaching Great Britain with a view to settlement, as was
required by the fundamental duty of every State to CO-operatein

the interests of justice and international harmony, by means of
direct negotiations. On the contrary, the more or less evasive
tone of Albania's replies, though supported by legal arguments,
makes it possible to attenuate the United Kingdom's responsibility
and to lay less stress on her attitude of November 13th, than on
that of October zznd.

43.-In addition to the illegality of the operation, the means
used were excessive ;so that at first even the Admiralty anticipated
accusations of duplicity and ofoffence against Albania's sovereignty.

Nor can the method used to carry out the operation be forgotten,
so far as the destruction of the mines was concerned ; for most of
them were left to drift.
Itis true that the Hague Convention lays down, as an essential
condition of the use of such weapons, the adoption of an appliance
rendering them harrnless as soon as they have broken loose from
their moorings. In any case, this legal guarantee does not entirely
satisfy us, and everyone believes that there still remains a certain
coefficient of danger. It is of small importance that experts in

II2II3 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

amoindrissent ce danger, on peut cependant se méfierdes instru-
ments scientifiques même de haute précision, et cette affaire a
fourni maintes occasions de relever les erreurs des appareils et des
hommes qui les surveillent ou qui interprètent leurs données ; au
surplus, on a cité des cas de mines restant dangereuses et d'autres
cas.où, à la longue, la rouille paralyse les ressorts de déclanchement.

Le simple souci du Royaume-C'ni d'expliquer les mesures adop-
tées pourdétruire les mines démontrerait l'utilité d'une telle acti;n
d'autres circonstances ont conduit cependant à abandonner cette
intention.
Ces mines pouvaient être entraînées par le courant et relevées
à d'autres endroits, justifiant des reprochesà l'Albanie, ainsi qu'il

est advenu lorsqu'un destroyer américain a repéréle 14 novembre
1946 une mine flottante aux abords de Durazzo et l'a signaléepar
un hydrolant, bien que l'on ne puisse affirmer que cette mine ait
étélibéréepar l'opération de déminage effectuée la veille à une
certaine distance.

44. - On est ainsi amené à conclure à la responsabilité du
Royaxime-Uni pour les opérations du 22 octobre et du 13 novembre
1946, entraînant des violations à la souveraineté albanaise.
Sans doute, l',Albanie ne réclame-t-elle pas la réparation d'un
dommage matériel, ayant seulement en vue l'application d'une
sanction d'ordre morztl.
Sur ce terrain, il faut 6tre encore plus prudent que ne l'est le
droit interne. Bien que l'on ait constaté une préméditationdans la
décisionet l'exécutiondes deux mesures tenues pour illégitimes, il
serait difficile de conclure nettement à une mauvaise intention,
surtout en ce qui concerne la deiixième opération: il y avait les

incidents antérieurs et surtout le souvenir récent d'une quasi-
hécatombe. D'autre part, on a constaté une certaine hésitation
sur la voie que prendrait le Royaume-Uni afin d'arriver à une solu-
tion qii'il considérait comme urgente, tandis que l'Albanie se
retranchait dans nne xttitude très raide qui ne faisait qu'accroître
les soupçors de la Grande-Bretagne, fondés d'ailleurs sur des
présomptions très graves.
D'un autre côté,on ne peut perdre de vue la manière anormale
dont ont étéexéciitéeslesdites mesures :même ceuxqui se targuent
de ne pas avoir l'intention de nuire, invoquant lequi jure suo utztur
neminem ledit, ou même de ne pas agir par simple caprice, se
trouvent néanmoinstenus par les conséquencesd'une action abusive
à laquelle on ne peut appliquer l'étalon ou standard de conduite
exigéd'un bon père de famille, selon de vieilles conceptions d'ail-
leurs toujours en faveur.
L'Albanie n'a pas pr6ciséquelle serait la sanction à appliquer,
tout en se limitant, au cours des plaidoiries, à une aiIusion à la DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO II3
general reduce the danger. We are entitled to mistrust even the
most accurate scientific instruments, and this case has furnished

many occasions of observing errors in apparatus and errors of the
men in charge of such apparatus, or who rely on indications given
by it; cases of mines that have remained dangerous have also been
mentioned, and others in which the release springs have ceased
to operate, because of rust.
The mere desire of the United Kingdom to explain the measures
taken to destroy the mines would show the desirability of such
action, which however has been abandoned for other reasons.

These mines might be swept along by the current and found
elsewhere, thus justifying complaints against Albania, as happened
when an American destroyer, on November 14th, 1946, located
a dridting mine off Durazzo, and reported it by signal, although it

could not be established that the mine had been released by the
sweep carried out some distance away the day before.

44.-IYe are thus led to conclude that the United Kingdom
\vas responsible for the operations of October zznd and Novem-
ber 13th, 1946, which involved violations of Albania's sovereignty.
No doubt, Albania does not clairn reparaticn for material
damage ; what she has in view is merely the application of a moral
sanction.
In this domain, even more caution is required than in municipal
law. Although premeditation has been found in the decision to
cany out, 2cd in the execution of the two measures held to be

illegal, it would be difficult to draw a definite conclusion of evil
intent, especially in regard to the second operation : there had been
the previous incidents, and, more particularly, the recent memory
of what was almost a massacre. Further, some hesitation is
observed as to the method that the United Kingdom would take in
order to reach a settlement which she considered as urgent ;whereas
Albania took refuge in an unyielding attitude which only served
to increase Great Britain's suspicions, founded as they were on the
gravest presumptions.
On the other hand, we cannot lose sight of the unusual manner in
which the above measures were carried out : even persons who
claim to have had no intention to injure, who invoke the qui juri
suo utitttr mmimm ledit, or even Saytheyare not acting by caprice,

are sometimes bound by the consequences of a wrongful act, to
which the measure or standard of conduct required by a bonus
pater familias (an old conception, still in favour) cannot be applied.

Albania did not specify any particular sanction. In the course
of the hearing, she confined herself to an allusion to the FrenchII4 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

pratique française, qui accordeparfois le paiement symbolique d'un
franc.
Mais, aux termes du compromis, une sanction de caractère
pécuniaire n'a pas étédemandéeet elle ne peut êtreaccordéemême
à titre symbolique.
D'autre part, la Cour doit se départir des solutions connues et
qui présentent un caractère médiéval,aujourd'hui incompatibles
mêmeavecdes procédés pédagogiques,tels que demandes d'excuses,
salut au pavillon, etc. Tout celarappelle le ton des ultimata, chaque
jour plus en désuétude.

45. - Ilne reste qu'une seule sanction d'ordre moral qu'on peut

ainsi appliquer sans tomber en contradiction avec l'abstention
préféréeà l'égardde la demande quant àla fixation des dommages.
Tout choix laissé à l'avenir serait impossible, car la sanction se
trouvera re ipsadans le jugement même.Celui-ci aura une portée
purement déclaratoire, en considérant la conduite suivie par le
Royaume-Uni comme contraire au droit international et, de toute
manière, anormale.
C'est dans ces limites que je donne satisfaction à l'Albanie,
en tenant pour fondée la demande reconventionnelle qu'elle a
présentéedans le compromis du ZJ mars 1948. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
II4
practice of sometimes awarding a token payrnent of one franc.

But under the Speciai Agreement rupecuniary sanction has not
been asked for and cannot be granted, even syrnbolically.

On the other hand, the Court shouldbreak away from the familiar
mediaeval procedure, which is not employed nowadays even in
schools, such as apologies, flagsaluting, etc.Al1this isreminiscent

of ultimata,which are becoming more and more obsolete.

45.-There remains only one moral sanction that can be applied
without disregarding the absence of a claim for the assessment of
damages.
The matter cannot be left to the future ; for the sanction must
reipsa be found in the Judgment. This will be purely declaratory,
and will state that the United Kingdom's conduct was contrary
to international law and in every way abnormai.

Within these limits, 1 give satisfaction to Albania and hold that
the counter-claim put forward by her in the Special Agreement of
March 25th, 1948, is well founded.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion by Judge Azevedo (translation)

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