Separate opinion by Judge Alvarez

Document Number
001-19490409-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
001-19490409-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ.

[Translation.]
1 am in agreement with the Judgment delivered by the Court,
but 1feel that it is desirable to give prominence to certain consider.
ations of a legal character in support of that Judgment.

The cataclysm through which we have just passed opens a new
ern in the history of civilization;it is of greater importance than
al1those that preceded it : more important than that of the Renais-
sance, than that of the French Revolution of 1789 or than that

which followed the first World War ; that is due to the profound
changes which have taken place in every sphere of human activity,
and above all in international affairs and in international law.

It is therefore necessary to consider what is the present state of
that law. We must examine it in connexion with the questions
raised by the dispute submitted to the Court. That does not
mean that this Court should pronounce on al1 the legal issues
which those questions connote ; but it seems desirable that one
of the judges, at least, should examine them, and that is the task
T have set myself in this individual opinion.

II.

Among the different legal issues relating to the present dis-
pute, 1 shall concern myself with the following seven :

A.-The law which the Court has to apply.
B.-The importance of politics, of force and of public opinion
in regard to the exercise of the rights of States.
C.-The sovereignty of States. The new conception of that
sovereignty.
D.-The responsibility of States. The different aspects of that
responsibility presented in the dispute before the Court.
E.-The passage of merchant ships and warships of one State
through the territorial waters of another State, and also
through straits. Present position of this question.
F.-Intervention, acts of force, violations of sovereignty.

G.-Misuse of right.

Al1 of the above are either old subjects presented under new
aspects, or entirely new subjects. They al1 belong to what has
been termed the new international law. IKDIVIDUAI.OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 4O
1 will now examine these different points on broad lines, but
without indicating their respective application. to the present
dispute, for that has been adequately dealt with in the Judgment.

III.
In the individual opinion which 1 appended to the Advisor'.
Opinion delivered by the International Court of Justice on hlay
28th, 1gq8,1 pointed out that, in consequence of profound changes
that had taken place in international relations, a nelv interna-
tional law had arisen ; it is founded on social interdepe~tde~tce.

In that opinion 1 described the characteristics of this new law.
Briefly, it is the realization of social justice1t.i~entirely different
from the old law, which \ras strictly juridical ; it approaches
nearer to the notion of e'quity, without hoivever being merged in it.
This new international law is not a 2e.rferewdn,as is often believed ;
it has a real esistence and it has essential and actual foundations-
for instance, in the new régime of social interdependence ~vhich
is coming into being, in the Charter of the United Nations and in
other spheres which need not be enumerated. It often comes
into collision ivith the old international lair.
What is the laiv that the Court should apply ? 1s it that ivhich
esisted until the cataclysm of 1939 ? Or must the Court remodel
that la~v,bring it-so to speak-up to dateand into harmony with
the new conditions of social and international relations ? (New
international la\\-.)
It is generally believed that the function of the Court is simply
to apply the existing international la~v,\vithout considering whether

or not it corresponds to these new conditions, and that if the Court
were to remodel the lan- it would be really assuming the task of a
legislator.
But the present Court has a neiv mission n-hich \\-asnot conferred
-at least not expressly-on the Court ivhich preceded it. For the
Charter of the United Sations has instructed the General Assembly
in ,Article 13 to "encourage the progressive development of inter-
national lair and its codification". And, with a view to obtaining
these results, the Assembly in its Resolution 171 of 1917 expressed
the desire that the International Court of Justice should develop
this law, in other words should bring it up to date.
The Court has thus, at the present moment, three functions :
(a) the former function, ivhich consisted in elucidating the

esisting law, and in defining and confirming it ;
(b) that of modifying, in conformity ivith the existing conditions
of internatio~zal relations, provisions which, though in force, have
become out of date ;
(c) that of creating and formulating new precepts, both for old
problems where no rules esist and also for neii7problems. INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 4I
The two latter functions of the Court have their origin in the

fact that international life is in a state of constant evolution, and
that international law must always be a reflection of that life. In
exercising these functions the Court must not proceed arbitrarily,
but must gain its inspiration from the great principles of the new
international law.
The following two examples may serve to illustrate the correct-
ness of what 1have just said. Suppose that the Security Council
of the U.N.O. decided to take measures of coercion against a State
and, with that object, despatched warships, belonging to different
countries-for the U.N.O. has no naval forces of its own. If this
international squadron desired to pass through the territorial
waters of certain States, the latter cannot do anything to impede
its passage, under any pretext, not even if their national laws requi-

red a previous authorization, or other formalities. Here we have
something new, the passage of an international force, which is
surely entitled to pass freely everywhere. If a dispute arising out
of this factwere referred to the Court, it would be quite inadmissible
for it to rule that this internation;rl force must comply with the
national legislation of the coastal States.
Coming next to the second example, also of a decisive character :
ureare al1familiar with the well-established doctrine in international
law of the clause known as rebz~ssic stantibzu, according to which
a Statc-:may refuse to execute a treaty if the conditions which
prevailed at the time of signature have substantially changed.
That doctrine is so just that it has begun to find its way intoprivate
law. But the power of the Court to remodel international law is

merely the application in every branch of that law of the doctrine
of the clause rebus sic stantibus; the principle at the root of it is
the same :it is a principle of social justice.
The Court is therefore confronted with this dilemma : should
it strictly apply the rules of the existing law, even if they are
obsolete and might lead to injustices or to settlements which might
be found unacceptable, or should it review these rules, as has just
been explained ? In my opinion there is only one ansu-er.

IV.

The law of social interdependence does not place law in opposi-
tion to politics, as has been done hitherto; on the contrary, it

admits that there are close relations between them.
Jurists, imbued with traditional law, have regarded international
law as being of a strictly juridical character ; they only consider
what they describe as pure law, to the entire exclusion of politics
as something alien to law. But pure law does not exist :law is the
result of social life and evolves with it ; in other words, it is, to a
large extent, the effect of politics-especially of a collective kind
-as practised by the States. We must therefore beware of INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 42
considering law and politics as mutually antagonistic. Each of
them should be permeated by the other.
Politics and public opinion exercise. a great influence on the
excevcise of the rights of States. Different cases may anse; some

of them have ansen in the present dispute :
A.-A State possesses an unquestionable nght vis-à-vis another
State, but is unwilling to exercise it for different political reasons,
perhaps because it wishes to maintain good relations with the said
State.
B.-A State possesses a right vis-à-vis another State, but the

latter disputes it. May it support its nght by the use of force ?
And may the other State, for its part, resist by employing force
in its turn ?
C.-A State has a right which it is entitled to exercise in the
temtory of another State, e.g., the nght of passage. May it
support that right by force if it is disputed ? And rnay the other
State, in its turn, resist by force ?-
D.-The rights of two States are in conflict ; this results, to a

large extent, from the individualist régime which adrnits hardly
any limitations to the rights which it recognizes. How are such
conflicts to be resolved ?
E.-A State does not possesç the right to perform certain acts
in the temtory of another State, but its vital interests, or the
general interest, impel it to perform these acts, thus violating the
sovereignty of the other State and international law.
F.-A State fears that it may be the victim of aggression by

another State, or entertains a legitimate fear that the latter intends
to prevent it from exercising one of its rights. May it employ the
threat of force, or even force itself, as a precautionary measure, to
prevent this aggression or the violation of its right ?
G.-A State acts in legitimate self-defence.

In al1 these situations, political considerations will play a very
important part in the attitude of the States concerned. These
States will have to show great regard for public opinion.
The Charter of the U.N.O. (para. 4 of Art. 2)forbids the employ-
ment of force except in case of legitimate self-defence (Art. 51).
Consequently, a State which is in one of the situations mentioned
above-except in those mentioned in paragraphs A and E-must
have recourse, not to force but to the Secunty Council or to
the International Court of Justice.
Here we see clearly the difference between the old and the new
international law.
It may be observed, incidentally, that in spite of the prohibition

of the use of force in the Charter of the United Nations, it is still
possible, in certain cases, for force to produce juridical effects :
for example, acquisitions made by the victor after a war, the inde- INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 43
pendence of colonies, the secession of States, such secession being
subsequently recognized by the mother countries or by U.N.O.
1willnot dwell longer onthis subject, which is so largely ofa psycho-

logical character, as it is outside the scope of these observations.

Questions which concern the sovereignty of States deserve special
consideration, for the main issues in the present dispute have
their primary origin in that notion or will affect it.

By sovereingty, we understand the whole body of rights and
attributes which a State possesses in its temtory, to the exclusion
of al1other States, and also in its relations with other States.
Sovereignty confers rights upon States and imposes obligations
on them.
These rights are not the same and are not exercisedin the same
way in every sphere of international law. 1 have in mind the four
traditional spheres-terrestrial,maritime, fluvial and lacustrine-
to which must be added three new ones-aerial, polar and floating
(floating islands). The violation of these rights is not of equal
gravity in al1these different spheres.
Some jurists have proposed to abolish the notion of the sover-
eignty of States, considenng it obsolete. That is an error. This
notion has its foundation in national sentiment and in the psycho-
logy of the peoples, in fact it isvery deeplyrooted. The constituent
instrument of the International Organization has especially
recognized the sovereignty of States and has endeavoured to bring
it into harmony with the objects of that Organization (No. I of

Art. 2).
This notion has evolved, and we must now adopt a conception
of it which will be in harmony with the new conditions of social
life. We can no longer regard sovereignty as an absolute and
individual right of every State, as used to be done under the old
law founded on the individualist régime,according to which States
were only bound by the rules which they had accepted. To-day,
owing to social interdependence and to the predominance of the
general interest, the States are bound by many rules which have
not been ordered by their will. The sovereignty of States has
now become an institution,an international social functionof a
psychological character, which has to be exercised in accordance
with the new international law.

VI.

Like sovereignty, the responsibility of States is an ancient con-
ception a.ndholds a very important place in international law. It INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 44

is a delicate matter, and is a constant subject of controversies,
because it is not regulated by an7 well-established precepts. That
was very evident at the Codification Conference at The Hague
in 1930.
It is therefore necessary that this question of responsibility
should be more closely defined, in its most essential features, and
that it should even be restated.
In undertaking such a restatement, in regard to the matters at
issue in the present dispute, the Court might be guided by the
following considerations,based on the law of social interdependence:
Every State is bound to preserve inits territory such order
as is indispensable for the accomplishment of its intemational
obligations : for othenvise its responsibility will be involved.

(2) Every State is bound to exercise proper vigilance in its
territory. This vigilance does not extend to uninhabited areas ;
and it is not of the same nature in the terrestrial part of the terri-
tory as in the maritime, aerial or other parts.
This obligation of vigilance varies with the geographical con-
ditions of the countries and with other circumstances : a State
exercises greater vigilance in certain areas than in others, according
to its interests. Moreover, this vigilance depends on the means
available to a given State. In America this question has become
very important : the United Statesand many of the Latin countries
are unable to exercise effective vigilance over the whole vast extent
of their coasts. As has been very rightly laid down in Article 25
of the Hague Convention XII1 of 1907, a Power is not obliged to

exercise greater vigilance than is consistent with the means at its
disposal.
A State which fails to exercise this vigilance, or is negligent in
its exercise, will find its responsibility involved in case of injury
caused in its territory to other States or to their nationals.

(3) As a consequence of the foregoing, every State is considered
as having known, or as having a duty to have known, of prejudicial
acts committed in parts of its territory where local authorities are
installed ;that is not a presumption, nor is it a hypothesis, it is the
consequence of its sovereignty. If the State alleges that it was
unaware of these acts, particularly if they occurred in circumstances

in which vigilance was unavailing-eg., by the action of sub-
marines, etc.-it must prove that this was the case, for othenvise
its responsibility is involved.
(4) Every State is bound to take preventive measures to fore-
atall the execution in its territory of criminal or prejudicial acts
to the detriment of other States or of their nationals ; and if such
acts are committed it is bound to punish the offenders.
(j) Every State is bound to elucidate immediately the circum-
stancesin which a criminal or prejudicial act was committed in its
territory, and in particular to institute enquiries. INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 45
The State is bound to give immediate information to coun-
tries that are concemed regarding the existence in its territory of
dangers, resulting from the action of other States, that have been
brought to its knowledge, and which might cause injury to the

said countries ; if it fails to do so it becomes guilty of complicity.
There are at present in international law three notions of major
importance, which are quite distinct but have points in common
and apt to be confused with one another, as they al1 relate to
damage suffered by a State generally in the territory of another
State owing to the negligence of thelatter, for which compensation
is claimed. These three notions are international delinquencies,
prejudicial acts and unlaw/zd acts.
The charactenstics of an intevnational delinquency are that it is
an act contrary to the sentiments of humanity. In consequence
of the demands of the juridical consciousness of the peopies, there
is now a tendency to introduce the notion of delinquency as a
fundamental precept of international law.
The following acts are to be considered as international delin-
quencies :
(a) acts contrary to the sentiments of humanity commitied by

a State in its temtory, even with the object of defending its security
and its vital interests; for instance, the laying of sabmarine mines
without notifying the countries concerned ;
(b) acts contrary to the sentiments of humanit y committed
by a State, and causing damage in the temtory of another State
with the latter's consent. The latter State is considered as an
accomplice ;
(c) acts contrary to the sentiments of humanity committed in
the territory of a State by another country, without the consent
of the first named State but of which that State knew, or had the
duty of knowing, and which resulted in damage to a third State.
Such knowledge does not suffice to constitute a delinquency :
that ter~ xvould only be applicable if the State had failed to
notify the countries concerned of the act in question.
X prejztdicial act is one which causes prejudice to a State or to

its nationals, but which does so by means of acts mt constituting
an international delinquency, cg., as a consequence of an insurrzc-
tion, civil war, etc. This act does not involve the responsibility
of the State in whose territory it ~7ascornmitted, unless the latter
State failed to take the necessary action to prevent its execution
or to punish the offenders.
-111 zrizla.c~~uclt is one which disregards or violates the rights
of a State, or which is contrary to international law, to a treaty,
etc. :e.g., the violation of frontiers, the non-execution of a conven-
tion, etc. The responsibility of the State which committed it
varies acc~rding to the nature of the act.
Special attention must be drawn to five categories of unlawful
acts, or acts contrary to international law, which are related to the INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 46

present dispute : intervention, presszoreor threat of force, demon-
strationof force,with a view to intimidation, oiolationof so:*ereignty,
and misuse of rigltt to which 1 will return later.
The responsibility of a State may be limited. It may also be
ntteftuakd by certain circumstances, e.g., by the fact that the
State was acting in the general interest, or that it tookal1 proper
precautions to prevent other States or their nationals from suffering
injury inits territory. But in the case of international delinquency
there cannot be extenuating circumstances.
In the preceding examples we see clearly the difference between
the former individualistic law and the new law of social inter-
dependence.

VII.

The passage of the merchant ships or warships of a State through

the territorial waters of another State, or through straits situated
therein and afTording communication between two areas of open
sea, is a matter of high importance. We are concerned only
with passage in time of peace, for in regard to passage in war time
there must be special rules adapted to the new juridical status
of war.
In the present dispute, the Parties have admitted, in conformity
with current doctrine, that the passage of the merchant ships of
one State through the temtorial waters of another State, including
the waters of straits uniting two portions of open sea, is freeBut
the question whether the same rule applied to the passage of
warships was keenly dehated : the Albanian Government's Agent
maintained that the coastal States might regulate the passage of
+heseships,a view which was contested bythe Pgent for the United
Kingdom.
The Atlantic Charter of 1941 laid down the freedom of the seas
and oceans as a fundamental principle. On January ~st, 1942 he
united nations signed a Declaration in which they accepted the

principle. Article 3 of the Charter of the United Nations alludes
to that Declaration. Public opinion, also, is favourable to the
freedom of the seas ;it may therefore be said to form part of the
new international law.
Consequently, it may be accepted that, to-day, the passage
through the territorial sea of a State, or through straits situated
therein, and also through straits of an international character, is
not a simple tolerance but is a right possessed by merchant ships
belonging to other States. For these ships are discharging a peace-
ful mission and are contributing to the development of good reIa-
tions between peoples.
The position is not the same in the case of warships. As )var
has been outlawed hencefonvard, the mission of these ships can
only be to ensure the legitimate defence of the countries to'which

46 ISDIVIDU.IL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 47
they belong. Therefore, although they may effect an innocent
passage through Straits forming an international highway between

two free seas, in other cases the coastal States are entitled to
regulate the passage, especially with a view to the protection
of their own security or interests, but they are not entitled to
forbid it.
Warships only enjoy an unrestricted right of passage when they
are engaged in an international mission assigned to them by the
United Nations, as was stated above.

VIII.

In connexion with the passage of the British warships through
the Albanian territorial waters on October mnd, 1946, and on

November 12-13th of that year, the subjects of intervention, demon-
strations of force with a view to intimidation, violation of sover-
eignty, etc., were debated at some length, and it seemed at times
that these notions were confused with one another.
The intervention of a State in the interna1 or external affairs of
another-i.e., action taken by a State with a view to compelling
another State to do, or to refrain from doing, certain things-has
long been condemned. It is expressly forbidden by the Charter of
the United Nations. The same applies to other acts of force, and
even to a threat of force.
The Agent for the United Kingdom contended that the mine-
sweeping operation known as "Retail", undertaken by the British
ships in the Corfu Strait, was a justifiable act of self-help. That
is not correct ; the operation was in fact a violation of Albanian

sovereignty.
The Court must reaffirm, as often as the occasion arises, that
intervention and al1other kinds of forceable action are not permis-
sible, in any form or on any pretest, in relations between States ;
but the Court may excuse such acts in exceptional circumstances.

IX.

Formerly, the ?nisuse of a right had no place in law. Anyone
could exercise his rights to their fullest extent, even if the effect
\vas prejudicial to others ;in such cases there was no duty to make
reparation.
That is no longer the case : some civil codes, especially those of

most recent dates, expressly forbid the misuse of right in private
relations. The German Civil Code lays down in Article 226 :"The
exercise of a right is forbidden when it can have no other object
than to cause injury to others." And the Swiss Civil Code, in
.Article2 of the preliminary chapter, declares :"Everyone is bound
to exercise his rights and to discharge his obligations according to IKDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ
qs
the rules of good faith. The inanifest misuse of a right is not
protected by the law."
1 consider that in virtue of the law of social interdependence this
condemnation of the misuse of a right should be transported into
international law. For in that law the unlimited exercise of a right

by a State, as a consequeilce of its absolute sovereignty, may
sometimes cause disturbances or even conflicts which are a danger
to peace. Clashes of rights and interests are causes of social unrest
and even of wars.
In this matter there are two questions to be determined : (a) when
is there a misuse of a right ; and (b) what should be the penalty ?
In regard to the former point, the facts must be evaluated in any
given case ; and in regard to the penalty, this may consist, accord-
ing to the circumstances, of an apology, a rebuke or even compens-
ation for the injury caused.
The misuse of a right-in the same n-ay as responsibility-admits
of extenuating circumstances, for instance, if the misuse of the
right \vas committed for the general advantage, etc.

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALEJANDRO ALVAREZ

Je me rallie à l'arrêt rendupar la Cour, mais je considère qu'il

y a lieu de mettre en relief certaines considérations de caractère
juridique à l'appui dudit arrêt.

Le cataclysme que nous venons de traverser ouvre une nouvelle
époquedans l'histoire de la civilisation ; elle est plus importante
que toutes les précédentes : plus importante que celle de la
Renaissance, que celle de la Révolution française de 1789, que
celle qui a suivi la première guerre mondiale ; et cela par suite des
profondes modifications qui se sont produites dans tous les ordres
de l'activité, surtout dans la vie internationale et dans le droit des
gens.
IIest donc nécessairede connaître l'état actuel de ce droit ; il

faut le faire dans les matières se rapportant au litige soumis à la
Cour. Cela ne veut pas dire que ce tribunal devait se prononcer sur
tous les points de droit que ces matières comportent ; mais il m'a
sembléutile que l'un des juges, au moins, les examine. C'est ce que
je me propose de faire dans la présenteopinion individuelle.

II.

Des divers points de droit concernant le différend actuel, je
retiendrai les sept suivants :

A. - Quel droit doit appliquer la Cour ?
B. - Importance de la politique, de la force et de l'opinion
publique sur l'exercicedes droits des Etats.
C. - La souveraineté des Etats. Sa nouvelle conception.

D. - La responsabilitédes États. Diversaspects qu'elle présente
en ce qui concerne le litige actuel.
E. - Le passage des navi~es de commerce et de guerre d'un
Etat dans les eaux territoriales d'un autre Etat, ainsi que
dans les détroits. Sa situation actuelle.
F. - L'intervention, les actes de force, les violations de souve-
raineté.
G. - L'abus du droit.

Toutes ces matières sont soit anciennes mais revêtantdes aspects
nouveaux, soit entièrement nouvelles. Toutes font partie de ce
qu'on appelle le droit international rcouveazb. INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ.

[Translation.]
1 am in agreement with the Judgment delivered by the Court,
but 1feel that it is desirable to give prominence to certain consider.
ations of a legal character in support of that Judgment.

The cataclysm through which we have just passed opens a new
ern in the history of civilization;it is of greater importance than
al1those that preceded it : more important than that of the Renais-
sance, than that of the French Revolution of 1789 or than that

which followed the first World War ; that is due to the profound
changes which have taken place in every sphere of human activity,
and above all in international affairs and in international law.

It is therefore necessary to consider what is the present state of
that law. We must examine it in connexion with the questions
raised by the dispute submitted to the Court. That does not
mean that this Court should pronounce on al1 the legal issues
which those questions connote ; but it seems desirable that one
of the judges, at least, should examine them, and that is the task
T have set myself in this individual opinion.

II.

Among the different legal issues relating to the present dis-
pute, 1 shall concern myself with the following seven :

A.-The law which the Court has to apply.
B.-The importance of politics, of force and of public opinion
in regard to the exercise of the rights of States.
C.-The sovereignty of States. The new conception of that
sovereignty.
D.-The responsibility of States. The different aspects of that
responsibility presented in the dispute before the Court.
E.-The passage of merchant ships and warships of one State
through the territorial waters of another State, and also
through straits. Present position of this question.
F.-Intervention, acts of force, violations of sovereignty.

G.-Misuse of right.

Al1 of the above are either old subjects presented under new
aspects, or entirely new subjects. They al1 belong to what has
been termed the new international law.4O OPINION IXDIVIDUELLE DE hi. ALVAREZ

Je vais examiner, dans leurs grandes lignes, ces différentssujets,
sans indiquer l'application de chacun d'eux au litige actuel, car elle
ressort suffisamment du texte de la sentence.

III.

Dans l'opinion individuelle que j'ai émiseau. sujet de l'Avis
consultatif rendù par la Cour internîtionalede Justice le28mai 1948,
j'ai indiquéque, par suite des profondes transformations survenues
dans la vie internationale, un nouveau droit des gens s'est fait jou;
il est fondésur l'interdépendawcesociale.J'y ai exposé lescaractéris-
tiques de ce nouveau droit ;il est, en somme, la réalisation de la
justice sociale. Il est tout autre chose que l'ancien droit strictement
juridique; il se rapproche de la notion d'équité, sansse confondre
avec elle. Ce nouveau droit international n'est pas une lex ferendn,

comme on le croit ordinairement :il existe réellement et il a des
assises essentiellement positives, notamment, dans le nouveau
régimed'interdépendance sociale qui se fait jour, dans la Charte des
Nations Unies, ainsi que d'autres éléments qu'iln'y a pas lieu
d'indiquer ici. Il se heurte souvent avec l'ancien droit des gens.

Quel droit doit appliquer la Cour ? Celui qui existait jusqu'au
cataclysme de 1939 ? Ou doit-elle renouveler ce droit, le mettre,
en quelque sorte, à jour, en harmonie avec les nouvelles conditions
de la vie sociale et internationale ? (Droit international nouveau.)

On croit généralement que le rôle de la Cour est seulement
d'appliquer le droit international existant, sans se préoccuper de
savoir s'il correspond ou non à ces nouvelles conditions et que, si
elle le renouvelait, elle se transformerait en véritable législateur.

Or, la Cour actuelle a maintenant une nouvelle mission qui
n'appartenait pas, au moins de façon formelle, àla Cour précédente.
En effet, la Charte des Nations Unies, dans son article 13,a chargé
l'Assemblée généraled'« encourager le développement progressif
du droit international et sa codification D. Et, afin d'obtenir ces
résultats, cette Assemblée, dans sa Résolution 171 de 1947, a
manifesté le désirque la Cour internationale de Justice développe
ce droit, c'est-à-dire le mette à jour.
La Cour a ainsi, actuellement, trois attributions :
a) l'ancienne, qui consiste à dégager ledroitexistant, à le préciser

et le confirmer ;
b) celle de modifier, conformément aux conditions actuelles de
la vie internationale, les préceptes en vigueur mais devenus désuets;

:) celle de créer, formuler des préceptes nouveaux pour les
matières anciennes où il n'en existe pas, ainsi que pour les matières
nouvelles. IKDIVIDUAI.OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 4O
1 will now examine these different points on broad lines, but
without indicating their respective application. to the present
dispute, for that has been adequately dealt with in the Judgment.

III.
In the individual opinion which 1 appended to the Advisor'.
Opinion delivered by the International Court of Justice on hlay
28th, 1gq8,1 pointed out that, in consequence of profound changes
that had taken place in international relations, a nelv interna-
tional law had arisen ; it is founded on social interdepe~tde~tce.

In that opinion 1 described the characteristics of this new law.
Briefly, it is the realization of social justice1t.i~entirely different
from the old law, which \ras strictly juridical ; it approaches
nearer to the notion of e'quity, without hoivever being merged in it.
This new international law is not a 2e.rferewdn,as is often believed ;
it has a real esistence and it has essential and actual foundations-
for instance, in the new régime of social interdependence ~vhich
is coming into being, in the Charter of the United Nations and in
other spheres which need not be enumerated. It often comes
into collision ivith the old international lair.
What is the laiv that the Court should apply ? 1s it that ivhich
esisted until the cataclysm of 1939 ? Or must the Court remodel
that la~v,bring it-so to speak-up to dateand into harmony with
the new conditions of social and international relations ? (New
international la\\-.)
It is generally believed that the function of the Court is simply
to apply the existing international la~v,\vithout considering whether

or not it corresponds to these new conditions, and that if the Court
were to remodel the lan- it would be really assuming the task of a
legislator.
But the present Court has a neiv mission n-hich \\-asnot conferred
-at least not expressly-on the Court ivhich preceded it. For the
Charter of the United Sations has instructed the General Assembly
in ,Article 13 to "encourage the progressive development of inter-
national lair and its codification". And, with a view to obtaining
these results, the Assembly in its Resolution 171 of 1917 expressed
the desire that the International Court of Justice should develop
this law, in other words should bring it up to date.
The Court has thus, at the present moment, three functions :
(a) the former function, ivhich consisted in elucidating the

esisting law, and in defining and confirming it ;
(b) that of modifying, in conformity ivith the existing conditions
of internatio~zal relations, provisions which, though in force, have
become out of date ;
(c) that of creating and formulating new precepts, both for old
problems where no rules esist and also for neii7problems.41 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ

Ces deux dernières attributions de la Cour dérivent du fait
que la vie internationale est en évolution constante et que le droit
des gens doit toujours la refléter. Dans leur exercice, la Cour ne
doit pas procéderarbitrairement mais s'inspirer des grands principes
du droit international nouveau.

Deux considérations, entre autres, vont montrer l'exactitude
de ce qui vient d'être dit.Supposons que le Conseil de Sécurité de
l'O. N. U. décidede prendre des mesures de coercition contre un
État et envoie, dans ce but, des navires de guerre appartenant à
différents pays, puisque l'O. N. U. ne dispose pas de force navale
propre. Si cette escadre, internationale veut traverser les eaux

territoriales de certains Etats, ceux-ci ne pourront mettre aucune
entrave à ce passage, sous quelque prétexte que ce soit, mêmesi
leurs lois nationales ,exigent une autorisation préalable ou d'autres
formalités. Il s'agit ici d'un cas nouveau, du passage d'une force
internationale ; or, celle-ci doit avoir le droit de passer librement
partout. Si un litige était soumis à la Cour à ce sujet, il serait
inadmissible qu'elle déclarât que ladite force internationale doit
se soumettre à la législationdes États riverains.
La deuxième considération est, elle aussi, décisive. On connaît
la doctrine bien établie dans le droit international de la clause dite
vebussicstantibus,d'après laquelleun Etat peut se refuser àexécuter
un traité si les conditions dans lesquelles il l'a signéont substan-
tiellement changé. Cette doctrine est si juste qu'elle commence à
passer dans le droit privé.Or, la faculté qu'a la Cour de renouveler

le droit international n'est que l'application dans tout ce droit de
la doctrine relative à la clause rebus sic stantibus ; le principe qui
l'anime est le même :c'est un principe de justice sociale.

La Cour se trouve donc en présence de ce dilemme : ou bien
appliquer strictement les préceptes du droit existant, mêmes'ils
sont surannéset peuvent conduire à des injustices ou à dessolutions
inacceptables ;ou bien renouveler ces préceptes, comme il vient
d'êtredit. A mon sens le choix n'est pas douteux.

IV.

Le droit d'interdépendance sociale n'oppose pas, comme on l'a
fait jusqu'ici, le droit à la -politiqu; au contraire, il admet qu'il
existe des rapports étroits entre eux.

Les juristes imbus du droit traditionnel ont considéréle droit
international comme ayant un caractère strictement juridique ;
ils n'envisageaient que ce qu'ils appelaient le droit pur, en excluant
entièrement la politique comme étrangère au droit. Or, le droit
pur n'existe pas : le droit est le résultat de la vie sociale et évolue
avec elle, c'est-à-dire est, en grande partie, l'effet de la pratique,
de la politique, surtout collective, des États. Il ne faut donc pas

41 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 4I
The two latter functions of the Court have their origin in the

fact that international life is in a state of constant evolution, and
that international law must always be a reflection of that life. In
exercising these functions the Court must not proceed arbitrarily,
but must gain its inspiration from the great principles of the new
international law.
The following two examples may serve to illustrate the correct-
ness of what 1have just said. Suppose that the Security Council
of the U.N.O. decided to take measures of coercion against a State
and, with that object, despatched warships, belonging to different
countries-for the U.N.O. has no naval forces of its own. If this
international squadron desired to pass through the territorial
waters of certain States, the latter cannot do anything to impede
its passage, under any pretext, not even if their national laws requi-

red a previous authorization, or other formalities. Here we have
something new, the passage of an international force, which is
surely entitled to pass freely everywhere. If a dispute arising out
of this factwere referred to the Court, it would be quite inadmissible
for it to rule that this internation;rl force must comply with the
national legislation of the coastal States.
Coming next to the second example, also of a decisive character :
ureare al1familiar with the well-established doctrine in international
law of the clause known as rebz~ssic stantibzu, according to which
a Statc-:may refuse to execute a treaty if the conditions which
prevailed at the time of signature have substantially changed.
That doctrine is so just that it has begun to find its way intoprivate
law. But the power of the Court to remodel international law is

merely the application in every branch of that law of the doctrine
of the clause rebus sic stantibus; the principle at the root of it is
the same :it is a principle of social justice.
The Court is therefore confronted with this dilemma : should
it strictly apply the rules of the existing law, even if they are
obsolete and might lead to injustices or to settlements which might
be found unacceptable, or should it review these rules, as has just
been explained ? In my opinion there is only one ansu-er.

IV.

The law of social interdependence does not place law in opposi-
tion to politics, as has been done hitherto; on the contrary, it

admits that there are close relations between them.
Jurists, imbued with traditional law, have regarded international
law as being of a strictly juridical character ; they only consider
what they describe as pure law, to the entire exclusion of politics
as something alien to law. But pure law does not exist :law is the
result of social life and evolves with it ; in other words, it is, to a
large extent, the effect of politics-especially of a collective kind
-as practised by the States. We must therefore beware of42 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE Al. ALVAREZ
établir un antagonisme entre le droit et la politique ; ces deux

élémentsdoivent s'interpénétrer.
La politique et l'opinion publique exercent une grande influence
sur ~'E.ËEYC~C~des droits des E tats. Divers caspeuvent se présenter,
quelques-uns desquels apparaissent dans le litige actuel :
A. - Un État a un droit indiscutable envers un autre État
mais ne veut pas l'exercer pour diverses considérations politiques,

notamment pour maintenir de bonnes relations avec ledit État.

8 - Un Etat a un droit envers un autre État mais celui-ci le
conteste. Peut-il appuyer son droit par la force ? Et l'autre Etat
peut-il, de son côté, résister en employant, aussi, la force ?

C. - Un État a un droit à exercer sur le territoire d'un autre
État, par exemple, le droit de passage. Peut-il appuyer ce droit
par la force s'il est contesté ? Et, à son tour, l'autre Etat peut-il
résister par la force également ?
D. - Les droits de deux États se heurtent, ce qui est, en grande
partie, le résultat du régimeindividualiste qui n'admet presque pas
de limitations aux droits qu'il consacre. Comment résoudre ces
conflits ?

E. - Un État n'a pas le droit d'accomplir certains actes sur le
territoire d'un autre État, mais ses intérêts vitaux ou l'intérêt
généralle poussent à agir ainsi, en violant, par suite, la souveraineté
de l'autre État, et le droit international.
F. - Un État craint d'êtrevictime d'une agression de la part
d'un autre État ou a des craintes légitimes que celui-ci veuille
l'empêcherd'exercer un de ses droits. Peut-il employer la menace

de force, ou mêmela force, comme précaution, pour empêcherladite
agression ou la violation de son droit ?
G. - Un État se trouve en cas de légitime défense.

Dans toutes ces situations, les considérations politiques joiierorit
un rôle très important dans l'attitude des États intéressés ; ceux-ci
devront tenir grand compte de l'opinion publique.
La Charte de 1'0. N. U. (art.2, no 4) interdit l'emploi de la force,
sauf en cas de légitime défense art. 51). Par suite, l'État qui se
trouve dans les situations précédentes, à l'exception de celles indi-
quées sousles lettres A et E, doit avoir recours non pas à la force
mais au Conseil de Sécuritéou à la Cour internationale de Justice.

Ici apparaît clairement la différenceentre l'ancien et le nouveau
droit international.
Il y a lieu de remarquer, en passant, que malgré la prohibition
par la Charte des Nations Unies de l'emploi de la force, celle-ci
peut encore, dans certains cas, produire des effets juridiques : par
exemple les acquisitions faites par le vainqueur à la suite d'une

47 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 42
considering law and politics as mutually antagonistic. Each of
them should be permeated by the other.
Politics and public opinion exercise. a great influence on the
excevcise of the rights of States. Different cases may anse; some

of them have ansen in the present dispute :
A.-A State possesses an unquestionable nght vis-à-vis another
State, but is unwilling to exercise it for different political reasons,
perhaps because it wishes to maintain good relations with the said
State.
B.-A State possesses a right vis-à-vis another State, but the

latter disputes it. May it support its nght by the use of force ?
And may the other State, for its part, resist by employing force
in its turn ?
C.-A State has a right which it is entitled to exercise in the
temtory of another State, e.g., the nght of passage. May it
support that right by force if it is disputed ? And rnay the other
State, in its turn, resist by force ?-
D.-The rights of two States are in conflict ; this results, to a

large extent, from the individualist régime which adrnits hardly
any limitations to the rights which it recognizes. How are such
conflicts to be resolved ?
E.-A State does not possesç the right to perform certain acts
in the temtory of another State, but its vital interests, or the
general interest, impel it to perform these acts, thus violating the
sovereignty of the other State and international law.
F.-A State fears that it may be the victim of aggression by

another State, or entertains a legitimate fear that the latter intends
to prevent it from exercising one of its rights. May it employ the
threat of force, or even force itself, as a precautionary measure, to
prevent this aggression or the violation of its right ?
G.-A State acts in legitimate self-defence.

In al1 these situations, political considerations will play a very
important part in the attitude of the States concerned. These
States will have to show great regard for public opinion.
The Charter of the U.N.O. (para. 4 of Art. 2)forbids the employ-
ment of force except in case of legitimate self-defence (Art. 51).
Consequently, a State which is in one of the situations mentioned
above-except in those mentioned in paragraphs A and E-must
have recourse, not to force but to the Secunty Council or to
the International Court of Justice.
Here we see clearly the difference between the old and the new
international law.
It may be observed, incidentally, that in spite of the prohibition

of the use of force in the Charter of the United Nations, it is still
possible, in certain cases, for force to produce juridical effects :
for example, acquisitions made by the victor after a war, the inde-43 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ

guerre, l'indépendance de colonies, la sécessiond'États, ces der-
nièresétant ensuite reconnues par les métropoles ou par l'O. N. U.
Je ne m'attarderai pas sur ce sujet d'un grand caractère psycholo-
gique, car il sort du cadre de ce travail.

Il convient de considérer particulièrement ce qui a trait à la
souveraineté des Etats, car les grandes questions qui dominent le
litige actuel ont toutes leur origine première dans cette notion
ou l'affectent.
Par souveraineté, il faut entendre l'ensemble des droits et des
attributions que 1'Etat a sur son territoire; à l'exclusion de tous
autres Etats, ainsi que dans ses rapports avec ceux-ci.
La souveraineté confère des droits aux Etats et leur impose des
obligations.
Ces droits ne sont pas les mêmes etne s'exercent pas de la même
manière dans tous les domaines du droit international : les quatre
traditionnels - terrestre, maritime, fluvial et lacustre- auxquels
il faut ajouter les trois nouveaux - aérien, polaire et flottant

(îles flottantes) ; d'autre part, la violation de ces droits n'a pas la
mêmegravité dans tous ces domaines.
Quelques juristes ont proposé d'abolir la notion de souveraineté
des États, la considérant caduque. C'est une erreur : cette notion
a son fondement dans le sentiment national et dans la psychologie
des peuples, c'est-à-dire a des racines profondes. Le Pacte consti-
tutif de l'Organisation internationale a reconnu expressément la
souveraineté des Etats et s'est efforcéde la mettre en harmonie
avec les fins de cette Organisation (art. 2, no 1).

Cette notion a évolué,et actuellement il faut en avoir une
conception qui s'accordeavecles nouvelles conditionsde la viesociale.
On ne doit plus considéref la souveraineté comme un droit absolu
et individuel de chaque Etat, ainsi qu'on ie faisait dans l'ancien
droit fondé sur le régime individualiste, d'après lequel les Etats
n'étaient liés quepar les préceptes qu'ils avaient acceptés. Aujour-
d'hui, en raison de l'interdépendance sociale,ainsi que de la prédo-

minance de l'intérêtgénéral,les Etats sont liéspar bien des pré-
ceptes sans que leur volonté intervienne. La souveraineté des
Etats est devenue actuellement une inst,itutioune fonctionsociale
internationale de caractère psychologique et devant s'exercer
conformément au droit international nouveau.

VI.

De même quela souveraineté, la responsabilité des États est une
matière ancienne et qui occupe une place très importante dans le
43 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 43
pendence of colonies, the secession of States, such secession being
subsequently recognized by the mother countries or by U.N.O.
1willnot dwell longer onthis subject, which is so largely ofa psycho-

logical character, as it is outside the scope of these observations.

Questions which concern the sovereignty of States deserve special
consideration, for the main issues in the present dispute have
their primary origin in that notion or will affect it.

By sovereingty, we understand the whole body of rights and
attributes which a State possesses in its temtory, to the exclusion
of al1other States, and also in its relations with other States.
Sovereignty confers rights upon States and imposes obligations
on them.
These rights are not the same and are not exercisedin the same
way in every sphere of international law. 1 have in mind the four
traditional spheres-terrestrial,maritime, fluvial and lacustrine-
to which must be added three new ones-aerial, polar and floating
(floating islands). The violation of these rights is not of equal
gravity in al1these different spheres.
Some jurists have proposed to abolish the notion of the sover-
eignty of States, considenng it obsolete. That is an error. This
notion has its foundation in national sentiment and in the psycho-
logy of the peoples, in fact it isvery deeplyrooted. The constituent
instrument of the International Organization has especially
recognized the sovereignty of States and has endeavoured to bring
it into harmony with the objects of that Organization (No. I of

Art. 2).
This notion has evolved, and we must now adopt a conception
of it which will be in harmony with the new conditions of social
life. We can no longer regard sovereignty as an absolute and
individual right of every State, as used to be done under the old
law founded on the individualist régime,according to which States
were only bound by the rules which they had accepted. To-day,
owing to social interdependence and to the predominance of the
general interest, the States are bound by many rules which have
not been ordered by their will. The sovereignty of States has
now become an institution,an international social functionof a
psychological character, which has to be exercised in accordance
with the new international law.

VI.

Like sovereignty, the responsibility of States is an ancient con-
ception a.ndholds a very important place in international law. It 44 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ
droit international. Elle est délicate et sujette à controverses du
fait qu'il n'y a pas de préceptes bien établis qui la réglementent.
Cela est appam clairement à la Confkrence de codification de
La Haye de 1930.
Il est donc nécessaireque cette matière soit préciséedans ses
parties essentielles et mêmerenouvelée.

Pour ce renouvellement dans les matières concernant le litige
actuel, la Cour pourrait s'inspirer des donnéessuivantes basées
sur le droit*d'interdépendance sociale :
IO Tout Etat est tenu d'assurer sur son territoire l'ordre indis-

pensable pour l'accomplissement des obligations internationales :
autrement, il engage sa responsabilité.
2" Tout État esttenu d'exercer une surveillancediligente sur son
territoire. Cette surveillance ne s'étend pas aux régionsdésertes ;
elle n'est pas la mêmepour la partie terrestre que pour les parties
maritime, aérienne,etc.
Cette obligation de surveillancevarie selon les conditions géogra-
phiques et autres du pays :un Etat surveille certaines régionsplus
que d'autres, suivant ses intérêts. D'autrepart, cette surveillance
dépend des moyensdont dispose chaque État. En Amérique,cette
question est trèsimportante :les Etats-Unis et bien des payslatins
ne peuvent pas surveiller efficacement toute l'énormeétendue de
leurs côtes. Commel'aétablitrèsjustement l'article 25dela Conven-
tion XII1 de La Haye de 1907, une Puissance n'est pas tenue
d'exercerd'autres surveillancesque cellesquicomportent lesmoyens
dont elle dispose.

L'État qui n'exerce pas cette surveillance ou qui est négligent
dans son exercice engage sa responsabilitédans le cas où des dom-
mages sont causéssur son territoire à d'autres États ou à leurs
ressortissants.
3" Commeconséquencede ce qui précède,tout État est considéré
comme ayant connu ou ayant d.ûavoir connaissancedes actes dom-
mageablescommis dans les régionsde son territoire où il a desauto-
ritéslocales ;cen'est pas une présomption, ce n'est pas une hypo-
thèse :c'estla conséquencede sa souveraineté. Siledit État prétend
qu'iln'a pas eu connaissancede ces actes, notamment par suite de
circonstances que sa vigilance ne pouvait déceler,par exemple
l'action desous-marins,etc., il doit leprouver: autrementsa respon-
sabilité est engagée.
4'Tout État doit prendre des mesures préventives en vue
d'empêcher l'exécutionsur son territoire d'actes délictueux ou
dommageables à l'égardd'autres Etats ou de leurs ressortissants,
et si de telseactes sont commis, il est tenu de les réprimer.
5" Tout Etat est tenu d'éclaircirimmédiatementlescirconstances
dans lesquelles a étécommissur son territoire un acte délictueux ou
dommageable, notamment de procéder à des enquêtes. INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 44

is a delicate matter, and is a constant subject of controversies,
because it is not regulated by an7 well-established precepts. That
was very evident at the Codification Conference at The Hague
in 1930.
It is therefore necessary that this question of responsibility
should be more closely defined, in its most essential features, and
that it should even be restated.
In undertaking such a restatement, in regard to the matters at
issue in the present dispute, the Court might be guided by the
following considerations,based on the law of social interdependence:
Every State is bound to preserve inits territory such order
as is indispensable for the accomplishment of its intemational
obligations : for othenvise its responsibility will be involved.

(2) Every State is bound to exercise proper vigilance in its
territory. This vigilance does not extend to uninhabited areas ;
and it is not of the same nature in the terrestrial part of the terri-
tory as in the maritime, aerial or other parts.
This obligation of vigilance varies with the geographical con-
ditions of the countries and with other circumstances : a State
exercises greater vigilance in certain areas than in others, according
to its interests. Moreover, this vigilance depends on the means
available to a given State. In America this question has become
very important : the United Statesand many of the Latin countries
are unable to exercise effective vigilance over the whole vast extent
of their coasts. As has been very rightly laid down in Article 25
of the Hague Convention XII1 of 1907, a Power is not obliged to

exercise greater vigilance than is consistent with the means at its
disposal.
A State which fails to exercise this vigilance, or is negligent in
its exercise, will find its responsibility involved in case of injury
caused in its territory to other States or to their nationals.

(3) As a consequence of the foregoing, every State is considered
as having known, or as having a duty to have known, of prejudicial
acts committed in parts of its territory where local authorities are
installed ;that is not a presumption, nor is it a hypothesis, it is the
consequence of its sovereignty. If the State alleges that it was
unaware of these acts, particularly if they occurred in circumstances

in which vigilance was unavailing-eg., by the action of sub-
marines, etc.-it must prove that this was the case, for othenvise
its responsibility is involved.
(4) Every State is bound to take preventive measures to fore-
atall the execution in its territory of criminal or prejudicial acts
to the detriment of other States or of their nationals ; and if such
acts are committed it is bound to punish the offenders.
(j) Every State is bound to elucidate immediately the circum-
stancesin which a criminal or prejudicial act was committed in its
territory, and in particular to institute enquiries. 45 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ

6" 11est tenu d'informer immédiatement les pays intéressésde
l'existence sur son territoire de dangers dont il a connaissance, qui
pourraient leur causer des dommages et qui sont l'Œuvre d'autres
pays ; autrement, il se rend complice.

11 y a actuellement dans le droit international trois notions
de grande importance, bien distinctes, qui ont des points communs
et qu'on tend à confondre, car toutes se réfèrent à des dommages
subis par un État ordinairement sur le temtoire d'un autre Etat,
par la faute de celui-ci, et pour lesquels des indemnités sont récla-
mées. Ces trois notions sont celles du délit internatiogzal, de l'acte
dommageable et de l'acte illicite.

La caractéristique du délit international est qu'il est un acte
contraire aux sentiments d'humanité. Par suite des exigences de la
conscience juridique des peuples, on tend actuellement à introcluire
cette notion de délit comme précepte fondamental du droit
international.
On doit considérer comme délits internationaux :

a), les actes contraires aux sentiments d'humanité commis par
un Etat sur son temtoire, mêmepour défendre sa sécurité ouses
intérêts vitaux :par exemple, la pose de mines sous-marines, sans
en aviser les pays intéressés;
6)-les actes contraires aux sentiments d'humanité commis par
un Etat et ayant causédes dommages sur le territoire d'un autre
État, avec le consentement de celui-ci. Ce dernier est considéré
comme complice ;
c) les actes contraires aux sentiments d'humanité commis sur le
temtoire d'un Etat par un autre pays sans le consentement dudit

État mais que celui-ci a connus ou di connaître, et qui ont causé
des dommages à un tiers. Cette onn naissa necsuffit pas pour
constituer un délit : il faut que 1'Etat ait négligéd'informer dudit
acte les pays intéressés.

L'actedommageableest celui qui cause un préjudice à un État ou
à ses ressortissants, mais par suite de faits ne constituant pas un
délit international :par exemple, comme conséquence d'une insur-
rection, d'une guerre civile, etc. Cet acte n'engage la responsabilité
de 1'Etat sur le territoire duquel il a étécommis que s'il n'avait pas
pris les mesures nécessaires pour empêcher sonexécution ou pour
le réprimer.
L'acte illicite est celui qui méconnaît ou viole les droits d'un
État ou qui est contraire à la loi internationale, à un traité, etc:
par exemple, la violation de frontières, la non-exécution d'une
convention, etc. La responsabilité de 1'Etat qui l'a commis varie

selon la nature dudit acte.
Il convient d'attirer spécialerilentl'attention sur cinq catégories
ci'actesillicites ou contraires au droit international, qui se rapportent
45 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 45
The State is bound to give immediate information to coun-
tries that are concemed regarding the existence in its territory of
dangers, resulting from the action of other States, that have been
brought to its knowledge, and which might cause injury to the

said countries ; if it fails to do so it becomes guilty of complicity.
There are at present in international law three notions of major
importance, which are quite distinct but have points in common
and apt to be confused with one another, as they al1 relate to
damage suffered by a State generally in the territory of another
State owing to the negligence of thelatter, for which compensation
is claimed. These three notions are international delinquencies,
prejudicial acts and unlaw/zd acts.
The charactenstics of an intevnational delinquency are that it is
an act contrary to the sentiments of humanity. In consequence
of the demands of the juridical consciousness of the peopies, there
is now a tendency to introduce the notion of delinquency as a
fundamental precept of international law.
The following acts are to be considered as international delin-
quencies :
(a) acts contrary to the sentiments of humanity commitied by

a State in its temtory, even with the object of defending its security
and its vital interests; for instance, the laying of sabmarine mines
without notifying the countries concerned ;
(b) acts contrary to the sentiments of humanit y committed
by a State, and causing damage in the temtory of another State
with the latter's consent. The latter State is considered as an
accomplice ;
(c) acts contrary to the sentiments of humanity committed in
the territory of a State by another country, without the consent
of the first named State but of which that State knew, or had the
duty of knowing, and which resulted in damage to a third State.
Such knowledge does not suffice to constitute a delinquency :
that ter~ xvould only be applicable if the State had failed to
notify the countries concerned of the act in question.
X prejztdicial act is one which causes prejudice to a State or to

its nationals, but which does so by means of acts mt constituting
an international delinquency, cg., as a consequence of an insurrzc-
tion, civil war, etc. This act does not involve the responsibility
of the State in whose territory it ~7ascornmitted, unless the latter
State failed to take the necessary action to prevent its execution
or to punish the offenders.
-111 zrizla.c~~uclt is one which disregards or violates the rights
of a State, or which is contrary to international law, to a treaty,
etc. :e.g., the violation of frontiers, the non-execution of a conven-
tion, etc. The responsibility of the State which committed it
varies acc~rding to the nature of the act.
Special attention must be drawn to five categories of unlawful
acts, or acts contrary to international law, which are related to the46 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ

au litige actuel : l'intemention, la pressiogzou nzegzacede force, la
ma.izifestatiolzde force dans un but d'intimidation, la violation de
soztverainetéet l'abus dzhdroit dont je parlerai plus loin.
La responsabilité d'un Etat peut être linzitée.Elle peut être
aussi atténzrépear certaines circonstances, par exemple le fait d'avoir
agi au bénéficede l'intérêtgénéral,le fait d:avoir pris toutes les
mesures nécessaires pour éviter que d'autres Etats ou leurs ressor-
tissants subissent des dommages sur son territoire. Mais en cas de

délit international, il ne peut y avoir de circonstances atténuantes.
Dans les matières précédentes, on voit clairement la différence
qui existe entre l'ancien droit individualiste et le nouveau droit
d'interdépendance sociale.

VII.

Le passage des navires de commerce ou de guerre d'un État dans
les eaux territoriales d'un autre État ou dans les détroits qui s'y
trouvent et font communiquer deux mers libres est une question de
grande importance. Il s'agit du passage en temps de paix, car pour
le passage en temps de guerre, il doit y avoir des règles spéciales
conformes à la nouvelle condition juridique de la guerre.

Dans le litige actuel, les Parties ont admis, conformément à la
doctrine courante, que le passage des navires de commerce d'un
Etat dans les eauxterritorialesd'un autre Etat, y compris celles des
détroitsqui unissent deux mers ouvertes, étaitlibre ;maisla question
de savoir s'il en était de mêmepour le passage des navires de guerre
a été très contr~versée : l'agent du Gouvernement albanais a
soutenu que les Etats riverains pouvaient réglementer le passage
de ces navires, ce qui a éténiépar l'agent du Royaume-Uni.

La Charte de l'Atlantique de 1941 a posé comme principe
fondamental la liberté des mers et des océans. Les nations unies
ont signé, le I??janvier 1942, une déclaration par laquelle elles

acceptaient ce principe. L'article 3 de la Charte des Nations Unies
fait allusionà cette déclaration. L'opinion publique est, elle aussi,
favorable à cette liberté des mers ; on peut donc dire qu'elle fait
partie du nouveau droit international.
On doit, par suite, considérer qu'actuellement le passage dans la
mer territoriale d'un Etat ou dans les détroits qui s'y trouvent,
ainsi que dans ceux de caractère international, n'est pas une simple
tplérance mais un droit pour les navires de commerce des autres
Etats. Cesnavires, en outre, ont une mission pacifique et contribuent
au développement de bonnes relations entre les peuples.

Il n'en est pas de mêmepour les navires de guerre. La guerre
étant désormais mise hors la loi, la mission de ces navires doit être

principalement d'assurer la légitime défensedes pays auxquels ils
46 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 46

present dispute : intervention, presszoreor threat of force, demon-
strationof force,with a view to intimidation, oiolationof so:*ereignty,
and misuse of rigltt to which 1 will return later.
The responsibility of a State may be limited. It may also be
ntteftuakd by certain circumstances, e.g., by the fact that the
State was acting in the general interest, or that it tookal1 proper
precautions to prevent other States or their nationals from suffering
injury inits territory. But in the case of international delinquency
there cannot be extenuating circumstances.
In the preceding examples we see clearly the difference between
the former individualistic law and the new law of social inter-
dependence.

VII.

The passage of the merchant ships or warships of a State through

the territorial waters of another State, or through straits situated
therein and afTording communication between two areas of open
sea, is a matter of high importance. We are concerned only
with passage in time of peace, for in regard to passage in war time
there must be special rules adapted to the new juridical status
of war.
In the present dispute, the Parties have admitted, in conformity
with current doctrine, that the passage of the merchant ships of
one State through the temtorial waters of another State, including
the waters of straits uniting two portions of open sea, is freeBut
the question whether the same rule applied to the passage of
warships was keenly dehated : the Albanian Government's Agent
maintained that the coastal States might regulate the passage of
+heseships,a view which was contested bythe Pgent for the United
Kingdom.
The Atlantic Charter of 1941 laid down the freedom of the seas
and oceans as a fundamental principle. On January ~st, 1942 he
united nations signed a Declaration in which they accepted the

principle. Article 3 of the Charter of the United Nations alludes
to that Declaration. Public opinion, also, is favourable to the
freedom of the seas ;it may therefore be said to form part of the
new international law.
Consequently, it may be accepted that, to-day, the passage
through the territorial sea of a State, or through straits situated
therein, and also through straits of an international character, is
not a simple tolerance but is a right possessed by merchant ships
belonging to other States. For these ships are discharging a peace-
ful mission and are contributing to the development of good reIa-
tions between peoples.
The position is not the same in the case of warships. As )var
has been outlawed hencefonvard, the mission of these ships can
only be to ensure the legitimate defence of the countries to'which

4647 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ

appartiennent. De ce fait, s'ilspeuvent effectuer un passageinnocent
dans les détroitsconstituant uneroute internationale de navigation
entre deux mers libres, dans les autres cas, les États riverains
peuvent réglementer ce passage, notamment pour défendre leur
sécuritéou leurs intérêts, mais ils ne peuvent pas l'interdire.

Les navires de guerre n'ont un droit de passage sans aucune
restriction que lorsqu'ils effectuent une mission internationale
confiéepar l'O.N. U., comme il a étédit précédemment.

VIII.

Au sujet du passage des navires de guerre britanniques dans
les eaux territoriales albanaises le 22 octobre 1946 et les
12-13 novembre suivants, on a beaucoup discuté sur l'interven-
tion, les manifestations de force dans un but d'intimidation, la

violation de souveraineté, etc., et parfois en confondant ces notions.

L'intervention d'u,n État dans les affaires intérieures ou exté-
rieures d'un autre Etat, c'est-à-dire son action en vue d'obliger
celui-ci à faire ou à ne pas faire quelque chose, a étécondamnée
depuis longtemps ;elle esi;formellement prohibée par la Charte des
Nations Unies. Il en est de mêmepour les autres actes de force et
mêmepour la menace de force.
L'agent du Royaume-Uni a soutenu que l'opération de dragage

dite ((Retail ))effectuéepar les navires britanniques dans le Détroit
de Corfou constituait une intervention ou auto-défense justifiée.
Cela n'est pas exact :cette opération était, en réalité,une violation
de la souveraineté albanaise.
La Cour doit réaffirmer, chaque fois qu'il y a lieu, que l'inter-
vention, ainsi que tout acte de force, ne sont permis sous aucune
forme et sous aucun prétexte dans les rapports internationaux ;
mais elle peut admettre des circonstances atténuantes dans des
cas exceptionnels.

IX.

L'abus du droit n'existait pas autrefois dans le droit. Chacun
pouvait exercer ses droits dans toute leur étendue, mêmes'il en
résultai?un préjudice pour autrui ; il n'y avait, dans ce cas, aucune
obligation d'indemnité.
Actuellement, il n'en est plus ainsi :certaines législations civiles,
surtout les plus récentes, prohibent expressément l'abus du droit
dans les rapports privés. Le Code civil allemand établit dans son

article 226 :« L'exercice d'un droit n'est pas permis lorsqu'il ne
peut avoir d'autre but que de causer des dommages à autrui. ))
Et le Code civil suisse, dans son article 2 du Titre préliminaire,
déclare : ((Chacun est tenu d'exercer ses droits et d'exécuter ses ISDIVIDU.IL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 47
they belong. Therefore, although they may effect an innocent
passage through Straits forming an international highway between

two free seas, in other cases the coastal States are entitled to
regulate the passage, especially with a view to the protection
of their own security or interests, but they are not entitled to
forbid it.
Warships only enjoy an unrestricted right of passage when they
are engaged in an international mission assigned to them by the
United Nations, as was stated above.

VIII.

In connexion with the passage of the British warships through
the Albanian territorial waters on October mnd, 1946, and on

November 12-13th of that year, the subjects of intervention, demon-
strations of force with a view to intimidation, violation of sover-
eignty, etc., were debated at some length, and it seemed at times
that these notions were confused with one another.
The intervention of a State in the interna1 or external affairs of
another-i.e., action taken by a State with a view to compelling
another State to do, or to refrain from doing, certain things-has
long been condemned. It is expressly forbidden by the Charter of
the United Nations. The same applies to other acts of force, and
even to a threat of force.
The Agent for the United Kingdom contended that the mine-
sweeping operation known as "Retail", undertaken by the British
ships in the Corfu Strait, was a justifiable act of self-help. That
is not correct ; the operation was in fact a violation of Albanian

sovereignty.
The Court must reaffirm, as often as the occasion arises, that
intervention and al1other kinds of forceable action are not permis-
sible, in any form or on any pretest, in relations between States ;
but the Court may excuse such acts in exceptional circumstances.

IX.

Formerly, the ?nisuse of a right had no place in law. Anyone
could exercise his rights to their fullest extent, even if the effect
\vas prejudicial to others ;in such cases there was no duty to make
reparation.
That is no longer the case : some civil codes, especially those of

most recent dates, expressly forbid the misuse of right in private
relations. The German Civil Code lays down in Article 226 :"The
exercise of a right is forbidden when it can have no other object
than to cause injury to others." And the Swiss Civil Code, in
.Article2 of the preliminary chapter, declares :"Everyone is bound
to exercise his rights and to discharge his obligations according to48 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ

obligations selon les règles de la bonne foi. L'abus manifeste d'un
droit n'est pas protégépar la loi. ))
J'estime qu'en vertu du droit d'interdépendance sociale, cette
condamnation de l'abus du droit doit êtretransportée dans le droit
international. Dans celui-ci, eneffet, l'exercice intégral d'un droit
par un Etat, conséquence de sa souveraineté absolue, peut causer
parfois des troubles et mêmedes conflits qui menacent la pais.
Les heurts de droits et d'intérêtssont des causes de malaises
sociaux et mêmede guerres.
Dans cette matière, il y a deux choses à déterminer : a) quand
il y a abus du droit ; b) quelle doit êtresa sanction. Pour ce qui

concerne la première, il faut apprécier les faits dans chaque cas
qui se présente et, pour ce qui concerne la sanction, elle pourra
consister, selon le cas, en excuses, admonestation ou mêmeindem-
nité pour le préjudice causé.
L'abus du droit admet - de mêmeque la responsabilité - des
circonstances atténuantes, par exemple si l'abus du droit a eu lieu
au bénéficede l'intérêtgénéral,etc.

(Signé) ALE JANDRO ALVAREZ. IKDIVIDUAL OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ
qs
the rules of good faith. The inanifest misuse of a right is not
protected by the law."
1 consider that in virtue of the law of social interdependence this
condemnation of the misuse of a right should be transported into
international law. For in that law the unlimited exercise of a right

by a State, as a consequeilce of its absolute sovereignty, may
sometimes cause disturbances or even conflicts which are a danger
to peace. Clashes of rights and interests are causes of social unrest
and even of wars.
In this matter there are two questions to be determined : (a) when
is there a misuse of a right ; and (b) what should be the penalty ?
In regard to the former point, the facts must be evaluated in any
given case ; and in regard to the penalty, this may consist, accord-
ing to the circumstances, of an apology, a rebuke or even compens-
ation for the injury caused.
The misuse of a right-in the same n-ay as responsibility-admits
of extenuating circumstances, for instance, if the misuse of the
right \vas committed for the general advantage, etc.

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