Dissenting Opinion by M. Caicedo Castilla (translation)

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007-19501120-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
007-19501120-JUD-01-00-EN
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DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA
[Translation]

I. Diplomatic asylum is an institution which is characteristic of
Latin America. As a result of the frequency with which political
upheavals occur (civil wars, coz~psd'état,etc.),and of the intensity
of the struggle between the various parties or groups, the aim of
asylum in that part of the world is twofold. Firstly, to protect the
life, liberty and safety of perçons prosecuted for political offences
by the local authorities, taking this expression in its wider meaning
to include the various organs of the government. In accordance
with this aim, diplomatic asylum has rendered great services, for,
generally speaking, it is statesmen, politicians, intelfectuals and
outstanding personalities who request asylum. Asylum protects the
persecuted individual, whose merits may be recognized later on,
thus enabling him to render outstanding services to his country
and to the American continent. In Latin America we have not
such an abundance of men of ability and culture that we can afford

to contemplate with an indifferent eye their sacrifice on the altar
of unbridled political passion. One glance at the list of persons
to whom asylum has been granted will show no less than twenty
heads of States. The list of writers, journalists, parliamentarians
and jurists who have at one time or another sought refuge could be
prolonged indefinitely, which goes to show that by protecting this
category of persons the State granting asylum is rendering a valii-
able service to the territorial State in that it prevents biased legal
proceedings, unjust persecution or a decision based on the result
of a triumphant revolution from creating irreparable situations and
sowing the seeds of future discord and implacable hatred between
the nationals of the same State.
The second aim of asylum is in keeping with the ideal which
has always inspired Latin America, that of ensuring respect for
fundamental human rights.
In spite of governments which have, on more than one occasion,

violated these rights, the ideal aspiration has always been the
establishment of a democratic and republican régimein al1American
States. For this reason, asylum has always been accepted on the
international plane as a means of guaranteeing political liberty.
2. An obvious conclusion may be drawn from the preceding
considerations : in studying the problems of diplomatic asylum
and in reaching a decision, account must be taken of the Latin-

American spirit and environment, as well as of the special inter-
pretation of American international law regarding asylum, which
is very different from the European interpretation.
3. The Judgment of the Court refrains from considering the
institution of asylum as it appears in Latin America. Basing itself DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 360

on such grounds, the Judgment of the Court was necessarily bound
to arrive at very debatable conclusions with which 1 cannot agree.

Indeed, the Judgment imposes such limitations on the institution
of asylum that its practice becomes difficult, if not impossible.
Thus, for instance, the recognized right of the territorial State to
question the qualification made by the State granting asylum
implies a legal insecurity concerning the grant of asylum as well
as the possibility.of lengthy litigation.With the theory of urgency,
it would be impossible to justify asylum ; with such an interpre-
tation, none of the hundreds of cases of asylum which occurred
in America during the last few years would be justified. IVith an
iilterpretationthat the State of refuge may request the necessary

guarantees enabling the refugee to leave the country only if the
local government has requested his departure, asylum may be
indefinitely prolonged and this would obviously be prejudicial to
both countries.
4. The Court rejects the contention of Colon-ibia that the State
granting asylum has the unilateral and definitive right to qualify
the nature of the offence of which the refu~ee is accused. At the
sarne time, the Court agrees that Colombia w%sentirely right in her
qualification ofM. Haya de la Torre as a politïcal offender.

This last point is of great importance, for the whole dispute
between the two Governments, as will be seen from a mere reading
of the diplomatic correspondence between the Ambassador of
Colombia in Lima and the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Peru,
referred to the insistence of the Peruvian Government in consider-
ing that well-known intellectual and eminent political leader,
81.Victor Rahl Haya de la Torre, as a vulgar common criminal. In
spite of the fact that, during this case, the Peruvian Government
broaght new and abundant eGidence in an attempt to prove its
views, the Court unanimously decided that it has not been estab-
lished that M. Haya de la Torre was a common criminal.

Itis thus evident that the attitude of Colornbia \vas unimpehch-

able, since she gave asylum to a political refugee. In accordance
with the legal principles and the jurisprudence in force in America,
the Colombian Ambassador could not act otherwise.

5. In iny opinion, the State which grants asylum must have the
right to qualifyunilaterally and definitively the nature of theoffence
of the refugee. 1base this view on :

(1)the Havana Convention of 1928 and the Bolivarian Agree-
ment of 1911, both in force and binding upon Coloinbia and
Peru ; DISSENTING OPIKIOh: BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 361

f2) the very nature of the American institution of asylum ;
(3) the obligations deriving from the international custom
esisting in the American coritinent.
6. The Havana Convention provided that asylum was to be
determined by the laws of the country of refuge. This is clearly
stated in Article 2 of the Convention, and may be also deduced

from the history of that Convention.
The draft was prepared at the 1927 meeting of jurists in Rio de
Janeiro and submitted as a basis of discussion at the Havana
Conference. Article 2,however, was modified with the definite aim
of referring to the customs, conventions and laws of the country
granting asylum.
The documents of the Havana Conference and of its Second
Committee enable us to follow the various steps in the elaboration

of the Convention. As the United States delegation opposed the
right of asylum, the Mexican delegate, Dr. Gonzalez Roa, undertook
to find a formula which would enable al1American States, including
the United States of America, to sign the proposed Convention in
spite of their different viems regarding the right of asylum and the
extent of its application. In this formula of the Mexican delegate,
which became Article 2 of the Havana Convention, two main points
stand out

(1) No effort is made to find a definite basis for asvlum from the
legal point of view, so that some contracting States may consider
asylum as an institution based strictly on law, whilst others may
consider it as a custom or merely a humanitarian toleration. Within
the framework of the Havana Convention, this point isofnointerest.

(2) Apart from the provisions laid down in this Convention, the
conditions of asylum are also determined by the law of the country
of refuge.

The United States, nevertheless, did not accept the Havana
Convention, which did not achieve the desired unanimity. Article 2,
however, retained the definiiive form proposed by the Mexican
delegate with the scope and extent already mentioned. By virtue
of this article, according to the explanation given by the Mexican
delegate in his report to the Mexican Government, "contracting
States remain free to pursue their own policy in matters of asylum".
It is for this reason that the Argentinian writer, 1LI .ollini Shaw,
maintains in his important work on the right of asylum that the

Havana Convention is restrictive in that it does not lay down one
general rule but refers to the particular legislation of each of the
signatory States.
In view of the scope of Article 2 of the Havana Conveiltioii, the
Rapporteur of the 1939 M0nte.i-ide0 Convention \vas able to state
99 DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CrlICEDO CASTILL.4 363

again. In cases of asylum in foreign embassies or legations, the
Colombian Government has always respected the qualification of
the respective diplomatic agents.
Colombian usage has been amply proved. Almost twenty cases
of asylum occurred since 1928 in the foreign embassies and legations
accredited in Colombia. In al1 these cases, asylum was respected
and safe-conducts granted. There were eleven cases in which the
Colombian Government did not agree with the qualification made
by the foreign diplomatic agent, but in al1these cases the Govern-

ment yielded to the unilateral qualification. Al1 these cases have
been listed in detail either in the LVritten Pleadings or in the oral
statements (see Mernorial of Colombia, p. 82 ; Rejoinder, p. 34 ;Oral
Statements, p. 44).

1 do not think that it is possible to submit more complete or
more convincing proof without a single contradictory case and
without it beiilg possible to argue that the countries concerned
were signatories of the Montevideo Convention of 1933 ; for several
of these cases of asylum involved Venezuela, which has not ratified
either the Havana or the Montevideo Convention and, consequently,
has no bond with Colombia other than that derived from the

Bolivarian Agreement of 1911 and from the principles of American
international law.
S. As regards Colombian laws and conventions, we must quote
law No. Ij of 1936 approving the 1933 Montevideo Convention on
political asylum. This Convention contains an article under which

"the judgment of political delinquency concerns the State which
offers asyliim".
Law No. Ij of 1936 is a Colombian law enacted with the same
formalities as the ordinary laws, it was approved by the Chamber
of Deputies and the Senate of the Republic, and duly confirmed
by the executive organ of the government. It proves the adherence
of Colombia, of the executive and legislative organs of Colombia to
the theory of unilateral qualificat'ion.

q. In an effort to invalidate the views expressed above, reference
has been made to a report by BI. Raimundo Rivas, which was
approved by the Committee of Legal Advisers to the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs. It should be pointed out in this connexion that the
Committee in question is inerely a consultative body and that its
opinions arenot binding on the Government which may well depart
from them. The Committee's opinion is at most a piece of inform-
ation supplied to the Government. By requesting it, the Govern-

ment did not pledge itself in advance to approve it. Consequently,
M. Rivas's report mcrcly expresses the private opinion of a writer
and can in no sensc be considercd an official Colombian document.
Furtherinore, somc of thc iiiforinatioii it coiitaii~s is false, as, for
example, his referencc to thc Spailish Civil \Val-\vheil he states that DIÇÇESSIXG OPINOS EY 31. CAICEDO CASTILL--1 364

Colombia did not grant asylum to one single person, n-hereas, on
the contrary, she granted it on several occasions. On the otlier hand,
on page 182 cf the Counter-Memorial may be found a fragment of
a declaration by the Colombian Government showing the attitude
and opinion of Colombia in the case of Spain, which n-erein absolute

agreement with the generous and liberal views so brilliantly
defended by Chile at the time.

IO. There is another aspect of the question. The right to clualify
the nature of an offence must necessarily lie with the State granting
asylum, otherwise the very institution of asylum could no longer
exist. For asylum is granted precisely to protect those persons who
are proiecuted by the local government, usually at difficult moments
in the life of the country, moments of great upheaval n-henpolitical
passions lead to the diminution or disappearance, even in verv
highly cultured statesmen, of that sercnity of mind which is indis-
pensable for an impartial judgment of political oppon'cnts. To

recognize the right of the local State to qualify the nature of the
offence would be equivalent to allosving this qualification to depend
upon the opinion of the government, whose interests would urge
it to act against the refugee. Asylum in these circumstances would
be absurd. Unilateral qualification is in fact inherent in the very
nature of the asylum itself ;it is essential for the continued existence
of this institution as it is understood in Latin America.
In this respect there can be no better quotation than a passage
from Professor Scelle in his commentaries on cases occurring in

South America in 1911, which appeared in the Revzle géné~~adle e
Droit international public.
The first case was the dispute between the Argentine Republic
and Paraguay, and Professor Scelle wrote, ider dia :

"The Treaty of Montevideo (of 1889) states tllat the Iist of
refugeesshould be submitted to the local government before asylum
may definitely be granted and the refugees transported to foreigil
or neutral territory. This does not signify that the local authority
has the right either to oppose this transfer or to insist that such and
such a refugee should be surrendered to it, for this wouldrender the
right of asylum illusory. In doubtful or disputed cases, a definiti1-e
decision can only be made by the authorities granting asylum l."
(Rezluegénéralede Droit i?zter?zatiolplublic, 1912, pp.623-634.)

The concl~~sionscould not be more final or more opportune :
asylum svould be illusory if the territorial State could demand
the surrender of the refugee or oppose his departure froni thc
country ; in case of douht the decision can only be made bj7the
aut horities granting asylum.

1 Translationby the Registry. DISSENTIXG OPINION BY M. C.SICED0 CASTILL-4 365
In his analysis of the dispute which arose in 1911 between the

Governments of Ecuador and Great Britain regarding the asylum
granted to a number of refugees on board a merchant ship (the
case in which the Jlinister for Foreign Affairs of Ecuador, Dr. Tovar,
attempted to assimilate internal and external asylum), Professor
Scelle makes the following general observations on the problems
of asylum :

"This assimilation of external and internal asylum made by the
MinisterofEcuador wasrather clever. It isjuridical, and, in practice,
it would appear that asylum on territory properly speaking is more
difficult to grant than diplomatic asylum. It would also appear
thorough in the case of external asylum, and this is understand-
able as it is easier. In both cases, however, the right of decision
lies entirely with the government granting asylum 1."

Professor Scelle's opinion is categorical. As regards the examin-
ation of political refugees, whether in a case of territorial asylum
or in a case of diplomatic asylum, "the right of decision lies entirely
with the government granting asylum".

II. Similarlv 1 can refer to the Dutch writer, II. Sa-,~elberg,
cited in the Counter-Memorial of Peru as an authority in matters
of American international law. M. Savelberg has, in several
passages of his book, insisted on the need for unilateral qualifi-

cation. He says that this qualification "is necessary in order to
prevent a State which recognizes the right of asylum on its
territory from rendering its exercise impossible by means of an
arbitrary interpretation of the expression 'political offence' 1''
(p. 359). He says elsewhere that unilateral qualification "is
indispensable, since the State in which asylum has been granted,
having received the qualification of the political offence, could
by an arbitrary interpretation of that expression render illusive
any exercise of that right". (P. 284.)

12. As regards practice, 1 would point out that -it has been
favourable to unilateral qualification and that the Havana Con- '
vention has been constantly interpreted in this manner. This is
not a persona1 statement, it is an assertion by one of the most
authoritative international jurists of America, M. Hildebrand0

Accioly. This eminent Brazilian author and diplomat who is at
present his country's representative on the Council of the Organ-
ization of American States, writing on the question of "who
shall decide whether the motives justifying the asylum are purely
political or whether they contain an element of common crimin-
ality" States that "in practice and, as is only reasonable, the
solution was left to the discretion of the diplomatic agent granting

l Translationby the Registry.
103 DISSESTISG OPISIOS BY JI. C.IICEDO C.ISTILL.I 366

asylum, just as, in the case of extradition, it is the requested
State which has the right to determine the nature of the fact
which justifies estradition". (Accioly, Vol. II, p. 351.)

13. As for the tendencies of American law, an eloquent illus-
tration is providecl by the fact that tnelve countries ratified
the tn-O Conventions of 3lontevideo ~vhich expressly confirm the
ride of unilateral qualification, namelj-, Brazil, Colombia, Chile,
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, hiexico, Sicaragiia, Panama,
Paraguay, the Dominican Republic and Vruguay. Three countries
which had ratified the Havana Convention, namely, Costa Rica,
Cuba and Ecuador, also accepted the above rule, by ineans of
declarations of a public character. Finally, two countries, the

Argentine Republic and T7enezuela, which did not ratifj- the
treaties, also recognize the above rule. In all. seventeen out of
twenty Latin-American countries are in favour of unilateral
qualification. The Colombian vie~v is thus the very espression
of ilnierican law.

14. The theory according to nhich the qualification should be
made jointly, that is, provisionally by theState of asylum and then
ratifiecl or rejected with objections by the territorial State, practic-
ally amounts to this : that qualification ~rould be the attribut? of
the territorial State. For n-ith this joint qualification, the terri-
torial State can at ni11 prevent the institution of asylum from
functioning. It n-ould be strange, but true, that on the pretest of
a\-oiding iinilateral qualification xveshould arrive at a confirmation
of that practice-in favour however of the territorial State.

Itmay be argued that in the event of a difference of opinion the
States concerned must resort to arbitration or to legal proceedings.
That would mean that each case of asylum would become a la\\-suit,
a lengthy lan-suit, for it is understandable that international
proceedings should require several months to examine and decide
upon a case. Asylum would then become an ineshaustible source
of litigation and hence of dispute among States, with the result
that the t\vo countries jvould have to examine the domestic situa-
tion of the territorial State, thus rendering the dispute bitter and
embarrassing and probably giving rise to a disagreement n-hich
~vould hnrnpcr and neaken understanding between the tno coun-

tries.
Ij. On thc othcr hand, n-hat is there to justify the conclusion
thnt the Ha\.aiia Coiivcntion recognizes such a prerogative as

appertaining to thc territorial State ? Nowhere is this stated in the
Havana Co~-i\.~ntion.It has been said that \\-e should abide strictlj-
by the letter of th? tests ;ivhcre are such tests to be foiind which
speak of two clualificatioiis. oiirLpro\.isio~inl niont.final. or \vliich
provide thlit th<. rislit of clualitication must 1~ cscrciçed both b~. DISSENTING OPINIOS BY RI. CAICEDO C-4STILLA 367

the territorial State and by the State of refuge ? On the contrary,
instead of express rules, there is a reference to the usages, conven-
tions and laws of the country of refuge. This reference, which
completely supports .the Colombian view, is an express and literal
reference contained in the Convention.

16. Peru has on several occasions accepted the American practice
as obligatory, including the principle of unilateral qualification.
In 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, the Peruvian Govern-
ment, in an officia1declaration by its Minister for Foreign Affairs,
expressed its solidarity with other American countries, stating that
it was "in entire agreement with the theories maintained in Madrid
by diplomatic representatives of the Argentine Republic, Chile and
other countries".
But the theories put forward by these countries were precisely
the legality of diplomatic asylum, the right of the State granting

asylum to qualify the nature of the refugee's offence, and the duty
of the territorial State to give the necessary guarantees to enable
the refugees to leave the country freely.
Explaining the attitude of the Latin-American States towards
Spain, the Chilean delegate to the League of Nations summed up
the opinions of the said States in these words :
"Al1refugees, at least those in embassies and legations of Latin-
American States, have been received in accordance with the rules
regarding the right of asylum laid down by the 1933Montevideo
Convention."

On October 26th, 1948, the Peruvian Government published an
official statement on asylum,from which we shall quote the follow-
ing paragraph :

"Under the relevant international conventions in force, the State
granting asylum iscompetent to qualify the act whichhas motivated
asylum, either to decide that it isa criminal offence, or that it is
a political offen...For its part, Peru has previously claimed that,
when a diplomatic representative refuses to surrender a refugee
because he does not consider him as a common criminal offender,
extradition is granted only when the refugee has left the country,
and according to the procedure established by international agree-
ments on the matter. This thesis is accepted and recognized by al1
American States." (Memorial of the Government of Colombia,
p. 28.)

An analysis of this statement shows that :

(1) The Peruvian Government agreed by virtue of treaties in
force in America, including the Havana Convention, that the right
to qualify the nature of the offence belonged to the State granting
asylum.
(2) Peru had already maintained on previous occasions that,
if a diplomatic agent did not surrender a refugee on the grounds DISSENTING OPINIOX BY hi. C.4ICEDO CASTILL.4 368

that he was not a common criminal, the Peruvian Government
would respect the decision of the foreign diplomatic agent, reserving
its right to request extradition once the refugee had left Peruvian
territory. In other words, Peru had already declared itself in favour
of unilateral qualification by the foreign diplomat and the obligation
to provide a safe-conduct without, however, prejudicing its rigfits
to make a subsequent request for extradition.
(3) According to the official statement, the foregoing doctrine

is at the present time not merely a Peruvian doctrine but has
been accepted and recognized by al1 American States.
The foregoing declaration is not that of a mere official but of
the Peruvian Government itself. Moreover, it was made after the
October revolution, precisely with the object of defining the
attitude of the Peruvian Government towards the numerous cases
of asylurn which had arisen. It was in force on January 3rd, 1949,
as the expression of the rules which the Government of Peru
accepted at that date in matters of asylum. In such circum-
stances, the declaration has a very definite legal significance.

17. Apart from the Havana Convention of 1923, there exists
another agreement binding on both Colombia and Peru, namely,
the Bolivarian Agreement on Extradition of 1911, Article 18
of which recognizes the institution of asylum'in confornïity with
the principles of international law.
The argument that, because the Caracas Agreement is an extra-
dition treaty, it has nothing to do with'the regulation of asylum,
has a certain force which 1 cannot denv in so far as there is anv
intention to apply the rules of a treaty on extradition to the

institution of asylum. But it is quite inadmissible to seek to deny
the value of Article 18. For the argument that asylum and extra-
dition are different institutions leads precisely to the conclusion
that Article 18 has a very definite significance, namely that it
makes it quite clear that, apart from the stipulations regarding
extradition, the contracting States have agreed to recognize
another institution, asylum, and have admitted that that insti-
tution should be governed by legal principles. Thus the Agreement
regulates two institutions-extradition in al1 clauses of the Agrée-
ment except one, and asylum in one clause, Article 18. It may be
argued that it is inconvenient and unusual to regulate two dif-
ferent institutions in the same treaty ; but this criticism, even if

it were valid, would not deprive Article 18 of its legal value or
render it inapplicable. On the other hand, it is obvious that the
plenipotentiaries of1911 were of opinion that the two institutions
were similar and that they could, consequentlj~, be included, from
a iormal point of view, in a single treaty. This view may be crit-
icized, but it must in any case be respected ; it \vas after al1adopted
by the said plenipotentiaries. Furthermore, it had already been
adopted in the Treaty of Rlontevideo of 1889, which included
both institutions in the same treaty under different headings. DISSESTIXG OPIKIOS ET 31. C.lICED0 C.1ST:LL.l 369

To contend, as the Rejoinder does, that the article is del-oid of
effect because it confines itself to an obvious statement-a simple
allusion to international law-amounts to a unilateral denial of
a contractual obligation. Article 38 of the Statute of the Inter-
national Court of Justice says that the latter will apply the general
principles of law ; it cannot be argued that, because these prin-
ciples have not been detcrmined and because the article makes
a simple refercnce to law, this provision of the Statute is nul1 and

void. Yet this is practically the claim that is macle regardinç
Article 18 of the Bolivarian Agreement.
The most reasonable thing to do would be to examine Article IS
of the agreement and ascertain what juridical effects it could hai-e.
It would then be found, in the first place, that the signatory ~~~~~~s
recognize asylum as a right ; it is r,ot a practice, neither is it 2
simple act of humanitarian toleration, but an institution governcd
by the principles of lan-. III the second place, this institution is
recognized in accordance with the (principles of internaticnal law ;
namely, in accordance with those principles accepted bu ~Anlerican
States, bot11in their international conferences and in their collective
declarations. These pi-incip1i.sof international law cannot be other
than those nhich have heen stated in the varicus treaties on asylum
whicli wre co~lcludedin -hierica, n-hetlier or not they n-ere ratifiecl

by the "Eolivarian" coiintries; for we are not conceriied n-ith the
determination of a contractual obligation, but n-ith the determina-
tion of tl-iosc priiiciples \.i-hiare generally adopted in America in
mattcrs of asylunl. For esample, according to the Bolivarian
Agreement of 1911, asylum rnay only be granted to political
offenders. \I'h>-?Sirnply because this is the principle that isgenerali>-
acccpted in -%rncrican international law. The same thing should
hold good as 1-egarclçthe clualification of the offence. This clualifica-
tion appertaiils to the State granting asylum, since the principle is
specially meiltioncd in the Montevideo Convention of 1933 ;accord-
ing to thc Hal-ûca Coilvcr-ition, it is applied when the ian- of a
countïy grantiiig asyliim recogilizes it ; ar.d furthermore, this
constitiitc~s thc pïacticc of ilrnerican States.

A fiirther concliision ixay be drann from this article, name!>-.
that ncccptailce of th^ application of the principles of international
lanl cntails a rccogilition of principles which may be derived fron
international custoin. If tliis is the cas?, this article in the Eoliva-
rian Agreement lias n spccial nleaniiig as rcçards custonl in mattcrs
of asylum, naincly, thcit it (1ciilonstratc.s the existence in bot11
C~oloinbiaantl 1'c.r~of one of thc clcincnts n.i;icli nr-c,i~cx-essn;-f-i-
the csistcilcc~ of a custoin-tiie ~)s~-~liolo~icrc~llemciit, thcoliiilio
fz~rissi.ile~~ecessitnii.hc. Bolil-ririail :lçrec~ncnt rccognizes as>-lum,
recognizcs tl-ic 7-aliic of tlic. l)ïiiicil)lcs applicd in -4mcri;licncc
107 DISSESTING OPINION BY 11. C.%ICEDO ColSTILLA 37O

it includes these principles as binding. Consequently, their accept-
ance by governments or by one individual government implies
their acceptance by that government as "being the law", that is
to Say, that they are the applicable law.
This is a matter of the utmost importance, since the psychological
element of custom, which is always so difficult to prove, is here
entirely proved.

18. In my opinion, diplomatic asylum is an international
custom of Latin America.
American Republics have practised asylum, have respected the
unilateral qualification exercised by the State granting asylum,
and have furnished the indispensable safe-conducts to enable the
refugees to leave the territory.
The custom has been continuous since it arose as early as the
middle of last century. Thus we see that we are dealing with a
custom one century old and consequently much earlier in date
than any treaties that exist on the matter.
The custom was general ; al1 the Latin-American Republics
recognized and practised diplomatic asylum and al1 exercised the
right to unilateral qualification of theoffence when circumstances
required it. Mexico, the Republics of Central America, Cuba,

and the South American Republics are al1 in the same position.
Finally, by recognizing the practice of asylum, the American
Republics accepted it as obligatory. Nothing is more remarkable
in this respect than the case of the Republic of Venezuela. It
offers asylum in its embassies and legations and respects asylum
in foreign legations and embassies without having ratified either
the Montevideo Convention or the Havana Convention. That is
to Say, it recognizes asylum as an American right, as a practice
which is obligatory throughout the continent. In the same way,
it also accepts the unilateral qualification of the offence.
There is a recent case in which several countries were involved
and which demonstrates the general feeling of American countries
regarding the obligatory character of asylum. With reference to
the asylum of ex-President Bétancourt in the Colombian Embassy

at Caracas, the Chilean Government, supported by the Guatemalan
Government, lodged a protest with the Council of the Organisation
of American States against the Venezuelan Government "for its
delay in delivering the safe-conduct". Thus we see that a country
like Chile, which had no treaty with Venezuela regarding asylum,
considered that it had the right to lodge a complaint against the
latter in order to obtain the necessary guarantees to enable the
refugee to leave Venezuelan territory. This is not al1! Chile then
claimed that the refugee in question was at the embassy of a third
State. Such a claim could not have been made by a country so
highly respected in America as Chile, had it not been for the
conviction that the practice of asylum, with its various conse-
quences, is juridically obligatory. Tt must furthermore be noted DISSEKTIXG OPINIOS BY 31. CAICEDO CASTILLX 37I

that il2 the incident in questioii, the Kepublic of Venezuela did
not put forward as an excuse or as a reply to the Chilean protest
the non-existence of treaties on asylum. Neither did it deny the
juridical obligations resulting from this custom. On the contrary,
it proved that it had respected American practice and American
law by showing that the safe-conduct had already been granted
when the complaint was lodged. Thus we have the example of
three American States, Chile, Guatemala and Venezuela, recog-
nizing the practice of asylum as obligatory, together with its conse-
quences, such as the qualification by the country grantingasylum

and the right of the said country to demand a safe-conduct for
the refugee.
Another American country noted for its outstanding culture,
üruguay, has also maintained the opinion in question on several
occasions. It will be sufficient to mention the memorandum
presented by the Uruguayan Embassj- in Lima to the Peruvian
Minister for Foreign Affairs and Public IVorship regarding the
asylum granted to MM. hlanuel Gutierrez Aliaga and Luis Felipe
Rodriguez. One of the paragraphs of the hlemorandum states :

"In accordance with the preceding facts, the Acting Chargg
d'Affaires received instructions from his Government to impress
upon the Peruvian Government the necessity for a speedy delivery
of safe-conducts which cannot be delayed on the pretext of an
alleged implication of the refugees in comrnon crimes or political
offences related thereto, by virtue of the principle by which the
country granting asylum has the right to decidewhether the offence
is of a political nature or is a common crime."

In the case of Paraguay of 1922, other countries, the Argentine
Kepublic, Brazil, Uruguay, Bolivia, Cuba and even Peru collectively
drew upthe following declaration as a rule of conduct and embodied
it in an officia1document :

"ilny person who shall request asyluin in the residence of a
foreign delegation for reasons of a political nature shall make a
statement of the facts which led him to request asylum, and the
appreciation of the circumstances shall be left to the head of the
legation."

In the case of Spain, the Argentine and Domiriican Republics
maintained that Spain, in spite of the fact that it had no treaties
regarding the right of asylum, should nevertheless respect this
practice, and also that the head of the legation or embassy had the
right to qualify the offence and to request the delivery of safe-
conducts in every case.
The Government of Cuba declared in a recent statement :

"The principle that the qualification of the offenceconcerns tlie
St:ite gi-antingasvliiisn general ruleoflaw confirmed by custom." DISSENTISG OI>INIOh I3Y JI.CAICEDO CASTII,L.\ 372

In Chile, the instructions of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs to
its diplomats of November 26th, 1935 ,ay :
"The right to qualify the political offenceappertains to the State
granting asylum." (Quoted by Antokoletz.)

In a recent declaration, Costa Rica has expressed itself in favour
of the theory according to which the State granting asylum has
the right to qualify the nature of the offence.
Ecuador also has very definitely stated its opinion as follows :

"The Goi-ernment of Ecuador considers that Article IS of the
13olivarianAgreement and Article 2 of the Convention on Asylum
of February zoth, 1928, which are valid instruments for Ecuador,
should be interpreted as meaning that the qualification of the nature
of the offence appertains to the country granting asylilni ...Tlie
Government of Ecuador bases this vicw on the very nature of the
institution of asylum :this institution would lose al1 vali~eif the
localgovernment weregranted the right to qualify the nature of the
offence, thus rendering inoperative the international agreements
on the matter. On the other hand, American customary law also
attributes the right of qualification to the country granting asylum.
This interpretation was expressly confirmed by the Convention on
Asylum signed at the Seyenth American International Conference
at hioiltevideo in December 1933 1.''
19. As regards the question of a safe-conduct, the Judgment
maintains that Article 2, 53, of the Havana Convention should be
interpreted as meaning that the State granting asylum may only

request the necessary guarantees to enable the refugee to leave
the country, after the territorial State has requested the refugee
to leave the national territor-.
1 cannot accept this interpretation for several reasons, but
chiefly because 1 believe that the Havana Convention recognizes
two separate rights :

(a) firstlv, the right of the territorial State to require the removal
of the refugee from the territory as rapidly as possible, that is to
Say that, as asylum is a transitory situation which cannot be
prolonged indefinitely, the State granting asylunl should respect
this request. This is an obligation on the State granting asylum.
The sojourn of the refugee on national territory cannot be prolonged
against the will of the territorial State ;
(b) the second right is that, which is conferred by the above-
mentioned text upon the State granting asylum, to require that

the refugee should leave the country with the necessary guarantees.
This right is a necessary consequence of asylum.
The unanimous practice of American States is in accordance
with this interpretation. In al1 cases of asylum, the diplomatic
agent has requested and obtained the departure of the refugee

1 Sraiisiatb ionthe Registry.
II0 DISSENTING OPINIOX BY M. CAICEDO CASTILL.4 373

without waiting for the territorial government to takethe initiative.
This practice has been amply proved in the documents annexed to
the Pleadings of this case. They include a note dated October zoth,
1944, from the Minister of Peru in Guatemala to the Honour-
able Members of the Revolutionary Junta of Guatemala ;another,
dated October Ath, 1948, from the Peruvian Legation in Panama
to the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Panama, and two other
communications, dated Xovember 2nd and 5th, 1948,respectively,
from the Uruguayan Embassy in Lima to the Minister for Foreign
-4ffairs of Peru. Al1these notes announce the grant of asylum and
simultaneously request the delivery of safe-conducts ; in none of
these cases has the State of refuge waited for the territorial State
to express any wishes on the subject.

It would be impossible to quote a single diplomat'ic communi-
cation contrary to this practice. And as far as Peru is concerned.
apart from the above-cited documents of the Peruvian Legations in
Guatemala and Panama, there is an officia1 Government com-
muniqué of October ~zth, 1948, which states :"The Government,
respectful of its international agreements and of the established
practice, has granted the respective safe-conducts." In other
words, the Peruvian Government admits that, in accordance both
with the treaties in force and with American practice, it is compelled
to deliver safe-conducts.
It has also been maintained that American practice is contrary
to the text of the Convention and that, consequently, it cannot
prevail. It should be argued in reply :

(1)that authors such as Accioly consider that the Convention
conforms with practice on this point ;
(2)that practice shows what interpretation has been put upon
the Convention by the countries which signed and ratified it.

If there has been no other interpretation, why search for an
interpretation of the Havana provision outside American custom ?

On the other hand, why disregard the interpretation which
had been accepted by Peru ? It may be said, to meet this argument,
that States are entitled to change their minds. 1 recognize that
right as far as purely political questions are concerned, but as
regards legal questions, such as the interpretation or application

of treaties, a change of opinion is scarcely admissible except
for the future. Othernisc an element of uncertainty would be
introduced into international relations. It is hardly admissible
in law that a country, after maintaining a given interpretation
of a treaty and making it known to other contracting parties
by declaring its intention to apply that interpretation to cases
involving given circumstances, should be able to disregard its
own interpretation in cases and circumstanccs arising nrhilst
that riile was still considered to bv in forcc. DISSENTING OPINIOX BY 11. CAICEDO CASTILLA 374

Any other practice would create a new element of insecurity
in international relations.
Furthermore, there have been cases in wl-iich the opinion of
the State granting asylum prevailed. We may, for example, quote
the case of the parliamentarian Rodriguez Araya, who took refuge
in the Uruguayan Embassy in Buenos Aires in 1949. The Argentine
Government declared that the local authorities were not prosec-
uting him and that the latter enjoyed al1 necessary guarantees
to reside freely on the national territory.In spite of this declaration
by the territorial State, Uruguay insisted that the refugee should

be allowed to leave the territory of the Argentine Republic. In
face of this insistence, the Argentine Republic, which has so
many noble juridical traditions in matters of asylum, immediately
granted the necessary safe-conduct.
Consequently, it must be admitted that the interpretation put
by Colombia upon Article 2 of the Havana Convention is entirely
in accordance with the general principles of laur, as well as with
the spirit of the text and the provisions of the Convention taken
as a whole. Colombia has thus respected the uniform and con-
tinuous practice of the American nations, including Peru.

20. In my opinion the second basis of the counter-claim (case of
urgency) of the Government of Peru presented on March z~st, 1950,
does not come within the jurisdiction of the Court and is not
directly connected with the subject-matter of the Application. My
grounds for this opinion are that Peru, during the controversy
which preceded the signature of the Act of Lima, made no claim
whatsoever concerning the existence of urgency ; and consequently,
this consideration was not a part of the existing dispute ;it was not

referred to by Colombia in connexion with the question of the grant
of a safe-conduct, the latter question being based upon the essen-
tially political nature of the offence attributed to the refugee, the
grant of the safe-conduct constituting an obligation for the terri-
torial State. There was no other subject of dispute between the
Parties.
21. As regards the condition of urgency, it is sufficient to recall

that M. Haya de la Torre was threatened in his life or liberty due
to the fact that he was being prosecuted for political reasons,
and this consideration justifies the conclusion that he was entitled
to invoke in his favour the institution of diplomatic asylum in
Latin America.
Furthermore, there is abundant evidence to show that at that
time Peru was passing through an abnormal situation. One of the
first decrees promulgated by the Military Junta u7asthat of Y ovem-
ber znd, 1948, under which "the Jlilitary Junta of the Government
assumes al1the powers which the Constitution of the State confers

upon the executive and legislative branches of the Government" l.
' Translationby the Registry.
TI2 DISSESTISG OPISIOS Bi' hl. C.AICED0 CASTILLA 375

In other mords, the de jacto military government conferred upon
itself the right to make new laws and modify or abrogate existing
lams, without regard to the rules of the Constitution. In the exercise
of the rights which it had conferred upon itself, the Junta enacted

decrees as grave as that of Kovember 4th, ~vhich providecl for
Oral Courts-Ilartial and authorized the application of the death
sentence, whilst suspending appeal to the Supreme Court against
the judgment. The decree-law fastened those accused of inilitary
rebellion, siich as M.Haya de la Torre, in a grip of iron : the members
of the Courts-Martial urere soldiers 11-hodepeilded upon the pn7ein-
ment, the defence for the accused mas to be appointed by the
government, the penalty imposed might be death, hi ch na5 not
accepted under the Code of Military Justice, and there nas to be no
appeal against the judgment ;al1the foregoing measures supersedecl

the Peruvian Code of Jlilitary Justice which had provided for a11
appcal to the Supreme Court on the gi-ounds of nullitj., naturally
restricted to alleged irregularities of form.
Subsequently, on Yovembcr 17th, a new decree-la~v n as enacted
concerning the composition of the Supreme Court of Justice, n-hich
stated as follows :

"1. Law No. 9654 of Kovember qth, 1942, is abrogated: the
positions whicli are at present provided on the Supreme Court of
Justice of the Republic under law No. 9654 are vricailt as from the
date of the present decree.
2. The x-acanciesresulting froni the application of the preseilt
decree as well as tlie positions of Judges and General ddvocates
of the Supreme Court of Justice shall be filledby direct appointment
of the llilitary Junta of the Government z."

It is true that the Agent of the Government of Peru dcclarcd
that the decree of November 4th does no1 have rctroactix-î cfîcct.
But this declaration in no way modifies the problem in so iar as
M. Haya de la Torre is concerned. For this problem müst be
envisaged as it existed on January ;rd, 1949, the date of the grai::

of asylum :at that time the decree \vas in force and there was no
reason to believe that it would 11othave retroactive effects for :
1) no declaration had been made by the Go\-ernment in this
connexion, 2) thcre esiçted at that tii-ne a de jncto Go~.erninent
whose powers were founded, not on constifutional provisions but
on the success of a cozlpd'étai :andthat Govcrnment Iiad conferrecl
upon itself the right to promulgate lan-s reçardless of the îonstitu-
tion, and 3) it was not ltnown ho~vthis decree u-ould De interpreteci
by the Oral Courts-Martial.
On the other hand, the Peruvian Government duriiig those

same days of October and Kovember 1948 had prnmulgated
decrees of a retroactive character, such as that of October 4th

l Translationby the Registry.

113 DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 376

concerning the outlawing of the ,4prist Party which established
the collective criminal responsibility of the Aprist leaders for
the events of October 3rd. In other words, there was established
ex post facto a penal responsibility attributable to a whole category
of perçons. A further retroactive decree was that of the Military
Junta concerning the suspension of proceedings for military
rebellion which had been instituted against Colonel Llosa and
others for the abortive revolution of July 1948. This decree
intervened in the operation of military justice, and suspended
the action of the latter.

In making these remarks, 1 in no way intend to criticize the
Peruvian Government, for it is evident that it could judge, better
than anyone, what measures should be taken for the country.
My sole reason for referring to al1 these laws is because, in my
opinion, they prove clearly that there existed an unstable domestic
situation characterized by political disturbances, precisely the
kind of situation constituting the urgency of diplomatic asylum.
This abnormal situation is confirmed by the existence of a
state of siege. By a supreme decree of January znd, 1949, published
on January 3rd, i.e. the very day asylum was granted to M. Haya

de la Torre, the state of siege was extended for 30 days. In its
recitals, the decree states that "the reasons which have led to
the decree providing for the suspension of individual guarantees,
continue to exist ....".In other words, the 'abnormal situation
continues to exist. The decree adds "that it is necessary that
the authority should have extraordinary powers in order to
maintain public order and tranquillityl".
It has been pointed out that Haya de la Torre sought refuge
only on January 3rd, whereas the revolution had occurred on
October 3rd. For me, the time factor has no importance, for the
important question here is whether on January 3rd the abnormal
situation still existed:and irrefutable proof of this fact is furnished

by the above-quoted decree. pn the other hand, if the Callao
revolution occurred on October 3rd, it was only at the end of
that month that the military uprising occurred which aggravated
the situation of IYtH.aya de la Torre, since the second revolution
which led to the fa11 of President Bustamante took place m-ith
the avowed intention of punishing ilpra. Consequently, the policy
of the new government consisted of the exclusion and repression
of Aprism (note of February zznd, from the Peruvian Minister
for Foreign Affairs : "It was for that reason that the armed forces
of the Republic, by a unanimous impulse, took action to put
an end to al1 this crime and wickedness, and to Save Peru." P. Ijo

of the Counter-Rlemorial). Furthermore, 31. Haya de la Torre,
prosecuted as a criminal, his personal assets having been seques-
trated, and in the face of a declaratioil of a state of siege tvliich
-
l Translatioby the Registry.
114 DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 377

facilitated search without a warrant from a competent judge,
and at a time when foreign embassies and legations were under
the surveillance of the police, M. Haya de la Torre, we Say, was
not really in a position to choose the date of his asylum. Itmight
be said that he sought refuge when he could.
The existence of the condition of urgency was so evident that
it was accepted without hesitation bythe Diplomatic Corps accred-
ited in Lima. For, following the revolution of October 3rd,
M.Haya de la Torre was not the only person obliged to seek asylum.
There were many refugees who had sought and obtained asylum
in eight embassies ; al1 of them were -4prist leaders involved in
the same proceedings as M. Haya de la Torre. It is possible to

deduce from the foregoing that the Ambassadors considered that
there existed a situation implying serious danger for-the security
of the refugee Aprist leaders. The case of M. Haya de la Torre
is identical with that of the other refugees.
On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that M. Haya de
la Torre was reputed to have given orders for the extermination
of his adversaries. There is no proof of this order, but the rumour
uras spread (Counter-Memorial, p. 7). In moments of such con-
fusion and passion when a complete change in the political situation
had just taken place, it was quite conceivable that there should
be some danger of reprisais against the Aprists, and more especially
against their leader. The leaders of a victorious revolutionary
movement, even when they have assumed total power, are not
always able to control the activities of the extremist elements
among their siibordinates and supporters. The very fact that the

Colombian Embassy in Lima has been provided with a continuous
police guard, is evidence of the anxiety of the local authorities
lest the political opponents of Haya de la Torre might take action
to seize him and endanger his life. If that happened while he was
in the Embassy, how much greater would the possibilities have
been and how much greater the danger for his persona1 safety,
had he been in another place.

Furthermore, in judging the conduct of the Ambassador, Ive
must consider :

I.That the two officia1communiqués of the Peruvian Govern-
ment-one of the 12th andthe other of26th October 1948-accepted
the existence of a situation which might justify the urgency of
asylum, as well as the principle of unilateral qualification and that
of the grant of a safe-conduct. These communiqués were in force on
January 3rd, 1949, for it was only in a note of February zznd, that
the Peruvian Government showed any desire to change its attitude.

2. The Ambassador had granted asylum to M. Pulgar Vidal, an
Aprist deputy, who obtained a safe-conduct on November zgth,
in other words, after the summons had been issued regarding DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 37%

M. Haya de la Torre and his friends, and without any remarks being
made by the Peruvian Government on the matter of urgency. Thus,
in the case of M. Pulgar Vidal, the theories set forth in the two
officia1communiqués were put into application.
3. Other Ambassadors had granted asylum without any observa-
tions being made by the Peruvian Government.
4. Officia1declarations by the Head of a State, published in the
official gazette El Peruano on January 3rd, 1949, recognizing that
the situation of the country at the time was abnormal.
5. The de facto situation which has already been described
actually existed.

Having regard to the foregoing elements of fact and of law, 1
consider that the Colombian Ambassador acted correctly :he could
not do othenvise than grant asylum ;he conformed to international
law and American practice ;he granted the asylum in strict conform-
ity with the stipulations of the Havana Convention.

22. Finally, we have further recognition by Peru of the abnormal
nature of conditions existing in January 1949, namely, the modifica-
tion of her counter-claim. To maintain that present conditions are
different from those that obtained in 1949, amounts to an admission
that the conditions in 1949 were abnormal, that is, if it is claimed
that present conditions are not abnormal.

23. Asylum, such as is recognized in America, has never been
regarded as a form of intervention. It is not intervention in the
sense that a government may interfere in the domestic affairs of a
country by favouring the members of a certain party ; indeed,
asylum has always been exercised generously and nobly, in favour
of al1types of persons without discrimination and regardless of the
political views of the refugee. This point must be stressed because
it is to the crédit of the Latin-American countries.

In the case of Colombia and Peru, it is sufficient to point out
that the same Ambassador granted asylum, first to M. Julio
C. Villegas, who, as Minister of the Interior, wrote the letter provid-
ing for the application of certain measures in the proceedings
against M. Haya de la Torre, and later, to Haya de la Torre himself.
24. Nor is diplomatic asylurr~contrary to the principle of non-

intervention, which is fundamental in American law. The historical
origins of this principle are to be found in the relations between the
United States of America and the Latin-American nations, and
it was put forward by the latter as an affirmation of their independ-
ence against interventions, even armed interventions, which had
occurred but which need not be recalled here. At the hlontevideo
Conference of 1933, the principle was accepted by the Vnited
116 DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 379
States of America following the development of the policy of
President Franklin Roosevelt ;and pursuant to the confirmation of
the juridical equality of American States, their subsequent mutual

relations developed in an atmosphere of complete solidarity, for
the feelings of distrust which had existed theretofore now
disappeared.
That is why it has never been believed in America that asylum
is related to intervention or to non-intervention. These are entirely
different situations which have never been confused. That is why
countries like. the Argentine Republic and Mexico which have
always most enthusiastically supported non-intervention, have also
supported with the same enthusiasm the institution of asylum.
In so doing, they were not being inconsistent, but were rather
taking American reality into account.

25. The Havana Conference of 1928 had before it the institution
of asylum which was intended to assist political refugees' in the
event of domestic disturbance. The Conference never chose at any
moment to modify the essential character of the institution of
asylum, but sought rather to maintain and strengthen it. Nor did
it express a desire to put an end to alleged abuses in the matter
of asylum. The precedents of the Convention are very clear in this
connexion. The principal one was the meeting of jurists at Rio

de Janeiro in 1927, whose purpose was merely to attempt to
codify public international law and private international law in
accordance with the systems adopted by the Fifth Pan-American
Conference of Santiago (Chile) of 1923, namely, the elaboration
of a code of private international law and the preparation of
partial agreements for public international law. The criterion
applied in selecting the questions of public international law at
Rio was that preference should be given to questions in which
there were no wide divergencies of view, and upon which there
was general agreement. These were so to speak subjects which
were ripe for insertion in a treaty following a generally favourable
consensus, a kind of juridical conscience that had already been
formed in this respect among the American countries. We may

therefore assume that if the subject of asylum was chosen at Rio
it was because this was doubtless a question which enjoyed general
support and sympathy, a matter in which agreement was possible,
as was the case for the other topics adopted on that occasion
(diplomatic officiais, consuls, treaties, literary copyright, etc.).
The same spirit may be noted in the acts and deliberations at
Havana. There was no resistance to asylum except the opposition
in principle of the United States of America. With this exception,
the matter presented no difficulty and raised no objections.

26. The grant of asylum and the maintenance of asylum are
different phenomena. The former is instantaneous, the latter
extends in time. This was Peru's understanding in presenting its DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 380

counter-claim concerning the grant of asylum as well as the addition,
which was not examined bythe Court, concerning the maintenance
of asylum. For this reason 1 believe that al1 that relates to the
grant of asylum can only be examined by considering one date
and one date alone, January 3rd, 1949.
To pass judgment on the maintenance of asylum is to go beyond
the limits of the Peruvian claim as it was expressed bythatGovern-
ment, and in my capacity as Judge, 1 consider that 1 must confine
myself to resolving the questions which have been put by the

Parties.
Nevertheless, the maintenance of asylum is fully justified in the
case of Colombia on the following grounds :
I. At no moment has Peru requested the surrender of.the refugee.

2. Peru opposed the asylum on the grounds that M. Haya de la
Torre was a common criminal, a fact which Peru has not been able
to establish.
3. On the very day after the grant of asylum, namely January
4th, 1949 ,olombia requested a safe-conduct to enable M. Haya de
la Torre to leave Peru with the necessary guarantees,thus bringing
the stage of diplomatic asylum to a close.

4. This request on the part of Colombia was not entertained.

5.Following the Act of Lima, the question is sub judice and the
two countries have agreed upon their obligations to respect the
existing situation.

27. It has been stated that Colombia, following the day on
which the counter-claim was presented and during the oral
proceedings, chose to transfer her defence to a plane on which
the Havana Convention could provide it with no foundation.
This refers to the fact that the spokesmen for Colombia have
exanlined the circumstances in which proceedings were instituted
against M. Haya de la Torre. In my opinion, this examination

did not depend upon the will of Colombia, but rather upon the
policy adopted by Peru in presenting a counter-claim which, in
contrast to the Colombian Application, does not submit purely
legal questions to the Court but rather questions of fact and
accusations against the conduct of the Colombian Ambassador
in Lima. Throughout thc diplomatic correspondence, Colombia
has consistently refused to enter into a discussion concerning
Peruvian politics or the domestic situation in Peru. This refusa1
is to be found in al1 the Colombian notes, in spite of the repeated
invitations of the Peruvian Minister for Foreign Affairs. But con-
fronted with the counter-claim, Colombia was obliged to change
her attitude and to examine the documents and facts which were
raised in that counter-claim. DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 381

Evidence of the change which was introduced by the counter-
claim is found in the fact that the point which was most discussed
in the last stage of the proceedings was the condition of urgency,
a question which had not even been mentioned during the diplo-
matic discussions.
Among the documents presented by Peru, the letter of
October 5th, 1948, from the Minister of the Interior, M. Villegas,
who subsequently sought refuge in the Colombian Embassy, is
worthy of special attention. It has been contended that this
letter constitutes a denunciation, although it does not fuifil the
requirements of Peruvian legislation in this respect. This lettcr
is a very serious document because it orders the Examining
Magistrate to follow a certain procedure in respect of M. Haya
de la Torre, which procedure that judge actually adopted. This
constitutes irrefutable evidence of the influence and intervention
of the Government in military justice.

28. In view of the foregoing considerations, it is possible to
conclude that the conduct of Colombia was beyond reproach. It
must further be emphasized that it is abundantly clear from the
whole proceedings that the Colombian Ambassador at Lima had
urgent grounds to grant asylum to M. Victor Rahl Haya de la
Torre, and it is equally clear that the refugees a political offender.
This proves that Colombia's actions were inspired by the most
respectable considerations.

Colombia has not sought to defend a particular interest, but
rather the legal principles which are generally accepted in Latin
America. Colombia has considered that, as a member of the American
community, she is bound to work for the integrity of these principles
which, along with many others, are effectively in force on the
American continent, thus ensuring that international relations in
that part of the world develop pn the basis of noble doctrines and
not on grounds which are purely utilitarian or materialistic. In
this case Colombia has remained faithful to her own traditions as
well as to the juridical traditions of the continent. In stating
resolutely and unselfishly the tendencies which are common to the
other American Republics, Colombia actually becomes the spokes-
man of the free peoples of America.
In defending a political refugee, Colombiadefends a fundamental
human right, and in so doing not only honours her contractual
obligations, but also undertakings of another order, the force of
which cannot be disregarded.

1 am referring to the essential principles which have inspired
not only the Charter of the United Nations, but also the declara-
tions which have been adopted by the IXth Pan-American Confer-
ence, andby the General Assembly of the United Nations.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA

I. L'asile diplomatique est une institution caractéristique de
l'Amériquelatine. Par suite de la fréquence des troubles politiques
(guerres civiles, coups d'Etat, etc.) et de l'intensité de la lutte
entre les divers partis ou groupes, l'asile a étéreconnu dans cette
partie du monde avec un double but. D'abord, protéger la vie, la
liberté ou la sécurité des personnes poursuivies pour des délits
politiques par les autorités locales, en prenant cette expression
dans un sens large, qui comprend les divers organes du pouvoir
public. En accord avec ce but, l'asile diplomatique a rendu d'im-
menses services ;car, généralement, ceux qui demandent asile sont

des hommes dJEtat, des intellectuels, des personnalités de choix.
L'asile défend une personne persécutée, dont les mérites peuvent
plus tard être reconnus, et lui permettre de rendre des bien-
faits à sa patrie ou au continent américain. Nous n'avons pas,
en Amérique latine, une abondance telle d'hommes de valeur et
de culture, pour pouvoir nous permettre de voir avec indifférence
leur sacrifice sur l'autel de la passion partisane incontrôlée. Si l'on
jette un coup d'Œil sur une liste de personnes à qui l'asile a été
accordé, pas moins de vingt chefs d'Etat y apparaissent. Et on
pourrait dresser d'interminables listes d'écrivains, journalistes,
parlementaires, juristes, qui ont trouvé refuge. On voit par là
qu'en protégeant cette catégorie de personnes, on rend un service
à 1'Etat territorial lui-même, car on évite qu'un procès partial,
qu'une persécution injuste, qu'une décision baséesur les résultats

d'une révolution triomphante, puissent créerdes situations irrépa-
rables, des raisons de diyision profonde et de profondes haines
entre les nationaux de 1'Etat.
Le second but de l'asile est en rapport avec l'aspiration, qui
a toujours existé en Amérique latine, d'assurer le respect des droits
fondamentaux de l'homme.
Malgréles gouvernements qui, en plus d'une occasion, ont violé
ces droits, l'aspiration idéalea étéd'établir, danstoutes les nations
de l'Amérique, un régime démocratique et républicain. C'est pour
cela que, dans le domaine international, l'asile a étéaccepté comme
un moyen de garantir la liberté politique.

2. Des considérations précédentes découle une conclusion évi-
dente : les questions sur l'asile diplomatique doivent être étu-
diéeset résolues en tenant compte de l'esprit et du milieu latino-
américains, ainsi que de l'orientation spéciale en matière d'asile,
très différente de l'européenne, du droit international américain.

3. L'arrêt de la Cour s'abstient de considérer l'institution de
l'asile telle qu'elle se présente en Amérique latine. Partant de DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA
[Translation]

I. Diplomatic asylum is an institution which is characteristic of
Latin America. As a result of the frequency with which political
upheavals occur (civil wars, coz~psd'état,etc.),and of the intensity
of the struggle between the various parties or groups, the aim of
asylum in that part of the world is twofold. Firstly, to protect the
life, liberty and safety of perçons prosecuted for political offences
by the local authorities, taking this expression in its wider meaning
to include the various organs of the government. In accordance
with this aim, diplomatic asylum has rendered great services, for,
generally speaking, it is statesmen, politicians, intelfectuals and
outstanding personalities who request asylum. Asylum protects the
persecuted individual, whose merits may be recognized later on,
thus enabling him to render outstanding services to his country
and to the American continent. In Latin America we have not
such an abundance of men of ability and culture that we can afford

to contemplate with an indifferent eye their sacrifice on the altar
of unbridled political passion. One glance at the list of persons
to whom asylum has been granted will show no less than twenty
heads of States. The list of writers, journalists, parliamentarians
and jurists who have at one time or another sought refuge could be
prolonged indefinitely, which goes to show that by protecting this
category of persons the State granting asylum is rendering a valii-
able service to the territorial State in that it prevents biased legal
proceedings, unjust persecution or a decision based on the result
of a triumphant revolution from creating irreparable situations and
sowing the seeds of future discord and implacable hatred between
the nationals of the same State.
The second aim of asylum is in keeping with the ideal which
has always inspired Latin America, that of ensuring respect for
fundamental human rights.
In spite of governments which have, on more than one occasion,

violated these rights, the ideal aspiration has always been the
establishment of a democratic and republican régimein al1American
States. For this reason, asylum has always been accepted on the
international plane as a means of guaranteeing political liberty.
2. An obvious conclusion may be drawn from the preceding
considerations : in studying the problems of diplomatic asylum
and in reaching a decision, account must be taken of the Latin-

American spirit and environment, as well as of the special inter-
pretation of American international law regarding asylum, which
is very different from the European interpretation.
3. The Judgment of the Court refrains from considering the
institution of asylum as it appears in Latin America. Basing itself360 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA
cette base, la Cour devait nécessairement parvenir à des conclu-

sions très discutables, et auxquelles je ne puis donner mon assen-
timent.
En réalité,l'arrêt impose des entraves si grandes à l'institution
de l'asile, que le fonctionnement en devient difficile, sinon impos-
sible. Ainsi, par exemple, la faculté reconnue à 1'Etat territorial
de contester la qualification faite par 1'Etat accordant l'asile, com-
porte l'insécuritéjuridique quant à l'octroi de l'asile et en outre
la possibilité d'un long litige. Avec la théorie de l'urgence, il
serait impossible de justifier l'asile avec une telle interprétation,
aucun des centaines de cas d'asile survenus en Amérique au cours

des dernières années ne pourrait se justifier. Avec l'interprétation
selon laquelle 1'Etat qui accorde l'asile ne peut demander les
garanties nécessaires pour que le réfugié puissesortir du territoire,
s'il n'y a pas eu d'abord une pétition du gouvernement local à ce
sujet, l'asile peut se prolonger indéfiniment, avec un préjudice
manifeste pour les deux pays.
4. La Cour rejette la thèse colombienne qui consiste à affirmer

que 1'Etat qui accorde l'asile possède la faculté unilatérale et
impérative de qualifier la nature du délit du réfugié.En même
temps, la Cour donne entièrement raison à la Colombie sur la quali-
fication, faite par elle, de. Haya de la Torre comme délinquant
politique.
Ce dernier point est d'une grande importance, car toute la contro-
verse entre les deux Gouvernements, comme le prouve la simple
lecture de la correspondance diplomatique échangéeentre l'ambas-
sadeur de la Colombie àLima et le ministre desAffaires étrangèresdu
Pérou, a porté sur l'insistance du Gouvernement péruvien àvouloir

considérer l'illustre intellectuel et prestigieux chef politique,
M. Victor Raul Haya de la Torre, comme un vulgaire criminel de
droit commun. Iionobstant le fait que, au cours du procès, le
Gouvernement péruvien a apporté de nouvelles et innombrables
pièces pour essayer de démontrer sa thèse, la Cour a décidé à
l'unanimité qu'il n'a pas été prouvéque M. Haya de la Torre soit
un criminel de droit commun.
Il est ainsi démontré que l'attitude de la Colombie fut sans
reproche, puisqu'elle donna asile à un persécuté politique. Confor-
mément aux principes juridiques et à la jurisprudence en vigueur

en Amérique, l'ambassadeur colombien ne pouvait pas agir autre-
ment.
5. A mon avis, l'État qui accorde l'asile doit avoir le droit de
qualifier unilatéralement et impérativement la nature du délit du
réfugié.Pour cela, je m'appuie sur :

IO la Convention de La Havane de 1928 et l'Accord bolivarien
de 1911, tous deux en vigueur et obligatoires pour la Colom-
bie et le Pérou ; DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 360

on such grounds, the Judgment of the Court was necessarily bound
to arrive at very debatable conclusions with which 1 cannot agree.

Indeed, the Judgment imposes such limitations on the institution
of asylum that its practice becomes difficult, if not impossible.
Thus, for instance, the recognized right of the territorial State to
question the qualification made by the State granting asylum
implies a legal insecurity concerning the grant of asylum as well
as the possibility.of lengthy litigation.With the theory of urgency,
it would be impossible to justify asylum ; with such an interpre-
tation, none of the hundreds of cases of asylum which occurred
in America during the last few years would be justified. IVith an
iilterpretationthat the State of refuge may request the necessary

guarantees enabling the refugee to leave the country only if the
local government has requested his departure, asylum may be
indefinitely prolonged and this would obviously be prejudicial to
both countries.
4. The Court rejects the contention of Colon-ibia that the State
granting asylum has the unilateral and definitive right to qualify
the nature of the offence of which the refu~ee is accused. At the
sarne time, the Court agrees that Colombia w%sentirely right in her
qualification ofM. Haya de la Torre as a politïcal offender.

This last point is of great importance, for the whole dispute
between the two Governments, as will be seen from a mere reading
of the diplomatic correspondence between the Ambassador of
Colombia in Lima and the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Peru,
referred to the insistence of the Peruvian Government in consider-
ing that well-known intellectual and eminent political leader,
81.Victor Rahl Haya de la Torre, as a vulgar common criminal. In
spite of the fact that, during this case, the Peruvian Government
broaght new and abundant eGidence in an attempt to prove its
views, the Court unanimously decided that it has not been estab-
lished that M. Haya de la Torre was a common criminal.

Itis thus evident that the attitude of Colornbia \vas unimpehch-

able, since she gave asylum to a political refugee. In accordance
with the legal principles and the jurisprudence in force in America,
the Colombian Ambassador could not act otherwise.

5. In iny opinion, the State which grants asylum must have the
right to qualifyunilaterally and definitively the nature of theoffence
of the refugee. 1base this view on :

(1)the Havana Convention of 1928 and the Bolivarian Agree-
ment of 1911, both in force and binding upon Coloinbia and
Peru ;361 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA

2' la nature même de l'institution américaine de l'asile ;
3' les obligations qui dérivent de la coutume internationale
existant sur le continent américain.
6. La Convention de La Havane a voulu que l'asile soit régipar
le droit du pays qui l'accorde. C'est ce qu'exprime clairement son
article 2, et c'est ce qu'on peut déduire de l'histoire de cette

convention.
En effet, le projet élaboré à la réunion de jurisconsultes de Rio-
de-Janeiro de 1927 a étéprésentéà la Conférence de La Havane
comme base de discussion. Mais l'article 2 dudit projet fut modifié
pour, précisément,se référeraux usages, conventions et lois du pays
accordant l'asile.

Les pièces de la Conférence de La Havane et de sa Deuxième
Commission permettent de suivre le? travaux de l'élaboration de
la convention. La délégation des Etats-Unis d'Amérique ayant
manifesté son opposition au droit d'asile, le déléguédu Mexique,
DI Gonzalez Roa, entreprit de rédiger une formule destinée à
permettre à tous les Etats américains, y compris les États-unis
d'Amérique, de signer la convention projetée, malgré les opinions
différentes de chacun d'eux sur le droit d'asile et sur l'étendue de
son application. Dans cette formule du délégué mexicain, devenue
l'article2 de la Convention de La Havane, se détachent deux

questions principales :
1) On s'abstient demarquer un fondement déterminé à l'asile, du
point de vue juridique. Ainsi, certains Etats contractants peuvent
considérer l'asile comme une institution strictement basée sur le
droit, d'autres peuvent le considérer comme une coutume, ou,
simplement, comme une tolérance humanitaire. A l'intérieur du
mécanisme de la Convention de La Havane, le point en question

manque d'intérêt.
2) En dehors des conditions fixées par cette convention, les
modalités de l'asile sont déterminées par le droit du pays qui
l'accorde.
Les États-Unis, néanmoins, n'acceptèrent pas la Convention
de La Havane, qui ne put réunir l'unanimité désirée.Mais l'ar-
ticle 2 demeure définitivement, comme l'avait proposé le délégué
mexicain, avec la portée et l'étendue déjà mentionnées. Confor-

mément à cet article, d'après l'explication du même détégué
dans son rapport au Gouvernement du Mexique, ((les Etats
contractants conservent la liberté de poursuivre leur politique
propre en matière d'asile ». C'est pour cela que l'auteur argentin,
hl. Bollini Shaw, soutient, dans son important ouvrage sur le
droit d'asile, que la Convention de La Havane est restrictive,
car elle ne consacre pas un traitement général, mais se réfère
à la législation particulière de chacun des Etats signataires.

L'article 2 de la Convention de La Havane ayant la portée
indiquée, on a pu dire, dans une pièce aussi importante que le DISSENTING OPIKIOh: BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 361

f2) the very nature of the American institution of asylum ;
(3) the obligations deriving from the international custom
esisting in the American coritinent.
6. The Havana Convention provided that asylum was to be
determined by the laws of the country of refuge. This is clearly
stated in Article 2 of the Convention, and may be also deduced

from the history of that Convention.
The draft was prepared at the 1927 meeting of jurists in Rio de
Janeiro and submitted as a basis of discussion at the Havana
Conference. Article 2,however, was modified with the definite aim
of referring to the customs, conventions and laws of the country
granting asylum.
The documents of the Havana Conference and of its Second
Committee enable us to follow the various steps in the elaboration

of the Convention. As the United States delegation opposed the
right of asylum, the Mexican delegate, Dr. Gonzalez Roa, undertook
to find a formula which would enable al1American States, including
the United States of America, to sign the proposed Convention in
spite of their different viems regarding the right of asylum and the
extent of its application. In this formula of the Mexican delegate,
which became Article 2 of the Havana Convention, two main points
stand out

(1) No effort is made to find a definite basis for asvlum from the
legal point of view, so that some contracting States may consider
asylum as an institution based strictly on law, whilst others may
consider it as a custom or merely a humanitarian toleration. Within
the framework of the Havana Convention, this point isofnointerest.

(2) Apart from the provisions laid down in this Convention, the
conditions of asylum are also determined by the law of the country
of refuge.

The United States, nevertheless, did not accept the Havana
Convention, which did not achieve the desired unanimity. Article 2,
however, retained the definiiive form proposed by the Mexican
delegate with the scope and extent already mentioned. By virtue
of this article, according to the explanation given by the Mexican
delegate in his report to the Mexican Government, "contracting
States remain free to pursue their own policy in matters of asylum".
It is for this reason that the Argentinian writer, 1LI .ollini Shaw,
maintains in his important work on the right of asylum that the

Havana Convention is restrictive in that it does not lay down one
general rule but refers to the particular legislation of each of the
signatory States.
In view of the scope of Article 2 of the Havana Conveiltioii, the
Rapporteur of the 1939 M0nte.i-ide0 Convention \vas able to state
99362 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE ;LI. CAICEDO CASTILLA
compte reildu du rapporteur de la Convention de Montevideo
de 1939, que, dans la Convention de La Havane, cl'asile est

laissé aux coutume, conventions ou lois du pays de refuge N.
L'auteur de ce rapport est le professeur chilien Julio Escudero
Guzmhn, ancien membre du Comité juridique interaméricain, et
le rapport, avant d'être soumis à la considération du Congrès de
Montevideo, fut approuvé par tous les membres de la commission,
où étaient représentés tous les pays qui assistaient au Congrès,
y compris la Colombie et le Pérou.
Je ne prétends pas soutenir que cette pièce implique une obli-
gation juridique quelconque pour les Parties en présence à ce
procès, mais j'affirme avec force que c'est un document d'une

importance indiscutable pour connaître l'interprétation et la
portée de l'article 2 de la Convention de La Havane. Car il s'agit
d'un document élaboréet approuvé par des jurisconsultes amé-
ricains bien connus, qui n'avaient à trancher aucun litige, qui
n'étaient pas en présence d'un cas particulier, mais qui s'occu-
paient de rédiger un rapport de caractère exclusivement juridique.
Cette inter~rétatioil de l'article 2 de la Conx~ention de La
Havane est siLévidenteque les deux Parties à ce procès l'acceptent:
la Colombie, expressSment, dans toutes ses allégations ; le

Pérou, bien qu'il la contredise en plusieurs endroits, l'adopte,
en réalité, quand il expose sa conception de la Convention de
La Havane. En effet, page IO de la Duplique péruvienne, il est
dit :(iDésormais, un asile ne sera pas considérécomme respectable,
et, par conséquent, ne devra pas êtrerespecté, lorsqu'il sera prouvé
que le diplomate qui l'a accordé ou le gouvernement qui lui
rescrit de le maintenir. n'a"issent Das en conformité. à tout
ie moins, des de leur dro'it interne, légal, coutumier
OU conventionnel. 1)

Cette intéressante opinion de la Duplique, rédigéeen termes
positifs, revient à dire que, désormais, l'asile est considérécomme
respectable, et, par conséquent, devra êtrerespecté lorsqu'il sera
prouvé que le diplomate qui l'a accordé ou le gouvernement qui
lui prescrit de le maintenir agissent conformément, à tout le
moins, aux prescriptions de leur droit interne, légal, coutumier
ou conventionnel.

7. La Convention de La Havane n'exige pas les trois éléments :
coutume, conventions et lois, puisqu'elle parle de coutumes ou

conventions ou lois, ce qui veut dire que l'existence de l'un quel-
conque de ces élémentsest suffisante. Néanmoins, en ce qui concerne
la Colombie, les trois élémentssont uniformément en faveur de la
qualification unilatérale.
Dans les cas d'asile dans les ambassades ou légations de la Colom-
bie, celle-ci a toujours revendiqué et obtenu le droit de qualifier.
Au cours du procès, on a cité de nombreux cas qui le prouvent :
je ne crois pas nécessaire de les répéterici. Dans les cas d'asile dans363 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA
les ambassades ou légationsétrangères,le Gouvernement colombien
a toujours respecté la qualification faite par l'agent diplomatique

respectif.
La coutume colombienne a étélargement prouvée. Près de vingt
cas d'asile se sont présentés à partir de 1928 dans les ambassades
ou légations étrangères accréditées en Colombie. Dans tous ces
cas, l'asile a étérespecté, les sauf-conduits ont étéoctroyés. Il y
a eu onze cas pour lesquels le Gouvernement colombien n'a pas
étéd'accord avec la qualification faite par l'agent diplomatique
étranger, et, pour tous ces cas, le Gouvernement s'est incliné
devant ladite qualification unilatérale. Tous les cas ont étécités,
avec les détails,soit dans la procédure écrite, soitdans les plaidoiries
(cf. p.82 du Mémoirecolombien; p. 34 de la Duplique ; p. 44 des

plaidoiries).
Je ne crois pas qu'on puisse en présenter une preuve plus com-
plète, plus convaincante, sans un seul cas contradictoire, et sans
qu'on puisse alléguerqu'il s'agit de pays signataires de la Conven-
tion de Blontevideo de 1933, car plusieurs de ces cas d'asile se sont
produits avec le Venezuela, pays qui n'a ratifié ni la Convention
de La Havane, ni celle de Montevideo, et, par conséquent, qui n'a
d'autres liens avec la Colombie que ceux qui résultent de l'Accord
bolivarien de 1911et des principes du droit international américain.

8. En ce qui concerne les lois et conventions de la Colombie, il
faut citer la loi no 15 de 1936 qui a approuvé la Convention de
Montevideo de 1933 sur l'asile politique. Or, cette convention
contient un article en vertu duquel «la qualification du délitpoli-
tique appartient à 1'Etat qui prêteasile )).
La loi no 15 de 1936est une loicolombienne édictée avec lesmêmes
formalités que les lois ordinaires, approuvée par la Chambre des

Députéset par le Sénat de la République, dûment sanctionnée par
l'organe exécutif du pouvoir public. Elle prouve l'adhésion de la
Colombie, des organes exécutif et législatif du pouvoir public
colombien, à la thèse de la qualification unilatérale.
9. Pour infirmer les vues qui viennent d'êtreexposées,il est fait
allusion à un rapport de M. Raimundo Rivas, approuvé par la

Commission d'assesseurs des Affaires étrangères. A cela, il faut
faire remarquer que la commission en question est simplement
consultative ;ses opinions n'obligent pas le Gouvernement, qui
peut s'en écarter. L'opinion de la commission est à peine un élément
d'information pour le Gouvernement. Le fait de le demander ne
veut pas dire approbation anticipée. Par conséquent, le rapport
de RI. Rivas exprime seulement l'opinion particulière d'un publi-
ciste ;ce n'est pas un document officielémanant du Gouvernement
colombien. D'autre part, il contient des renseignements inexacts,
comme ceux concernant la guerre civile d'Espagne, à propos de
laquelle il affirme que la Colombie n'a pas accordé d'asile, n'en DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CrlICEDO CASTILL.4 363

again. In cases of asylum in foreign embassies or legations, the
Colombian Government has always respected the qualification of
the respective diplomatic agents.
Colombian usage has been amply proved. Almost twenty cases
of asylum occurred since 1928 in the foreign embassies and legations
accredited in Colombia. In al1 these cases, asylum was respected
and safe-conducts granted. There were eleven cases in which the
Colombian Government did not agree with the qualification made
by the foreign diplomatic agent, but in al1these cases the Govern-

ment yielded to the unilateral qualification. Al1 these cases have
been listed in detail either in the LVritten Pleadings or in the oral
statements (see Mernorial of Colombia, p. 82 ; Rejoinder, p. 34 ;Oral
Statements, p. 44).

1 do not think that it is possible to submit more complete or
more convincing proof without a single contradictory case and
without it beiilg possible to argue that the countries concerned
were signatories of the Montevideo Convention of 1933 ; for several
of these cases of asylum involved Venezuela, which has not ratified
either the Havana or the Montevideo Convention and, consequently,
has no bond with Colombia other than that derived from the

Bolivarian Agreement of 1911 and from the principles of American
international law.
S. As regards Colombian laws and conventions, we must quote
law No. Ij of 1936 approving the 1933 Montevideo Convention on
political asylum. This Convention contains an article under which

"the judgment of political delinquency concerns the State which
offers asyliim".
Law No. Ij of 1936 is a Colombian law enacted with the same
formalities as the ordinary laws, it was approved by the Chamber
of Deputies and the Senate of the Republic, and duly confirmed
by the executive organ of the government. It proves the adherence
of Colombia, of the executive and legislative organs of Colombia to
the theory of unilateral qualificat'ion.

q. In an effort to invalidate the views expressed above, reference
has been made to a report by BI. Raimundo Rivas, which was
approved by the Committee of Legal Advisers to the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs. It should be pointed out in this connexion that the
Committee in question is inerely a consultative body and that its
opinions arenot binding on the Government which may well depart
from them. The Committee's opinion is at most a piece of inform-
ation supplied to the Government. By requesting it, the Govern-

ment did not pledge itself in advance to approve it. Consequently,
M. Rivas's report mcrcly expresses the private opinion of a writer
and can in no sensc be considercd an official Colombian document.
Furtherinore, somc of thc iiiforinatioii it coiitaii~s is false, as, for
example, his referencc to thc Spailish Civil \Val-\vheil he states thata accordé à personne, alors qu'au contraire elle l'a accorde à 13111-
sieurs reprises. D'un autre côté, page 182 du Contre-Némoire, il y

a le fragment d'une déclaration du Gouvernement colombien qui
montre quelle fut l'opinion, quelle fut l'attitude de la Colonibic.
dans le cas de l'Espagne :une solidarité absolue a.i.ec les thtses
généreuses et libérales, alors brillamment défendues par la Répu-
blique du Chili.

IO. Il y a iin autre aspect de la question. La faculti. de ,qualifier
la nature du clélit doit nécessairement être le fait de I'Etat qui
accorde l'asile, car s'il n'en était pas ainsi, I'iiistitution mêmede
l'asile ne pourrait subsister. Car l'asile est accordéprécisémentpour
protéger des personnes poursuivies par le gouvernement local,
généralement à des moments difficiles de la vie de leur pays, dans
des moments de trouble profond, quand les passions ,politirlues
diminuent ou font disvaraître. même chez deshommes d'Etat d'une

grande culture, la sérénitéindispensable pour juger avec impartia-
lité des adversaires politiques. Reconnaître à 1'Etat local la faculté
de qualifier la nature du délit équil~audrait tout simplement à
permettre à cette qualification de dépendre de l'avis du gouveriie-
ment qui est intéressé à agir contre le réfugié. Alors,l'asile serait
dérisoire. En réalité, la qualification unilatérale est la nature
même del'asile ;elle est essentielle pour quecette iilstitution esistc,
de la manière dont elle est admise en Amérique latine.
Il n'y a pas de meilleure citation à cet égard que celle du profes-
seiir Scelle, dans ses cominentaires parus dans la Revue générale
de Droit internntional pziblic, sur des cas survenus en Amérique
du Sud en 1911.

Le premier fut un conflit entre la Républiclue argentine et le
Paraguay, sur lequel le professeur Scelle dit, entre autres, cc
qui suit :

aLe Traité de Montevideo (de 1889) prévoit, en effet, que la
liste des réfugiésdoit êtresoumise au gouvernement local, avant
que l'on puisse accorder définitivement l'asileet les transporter eii
territoire étranger ou neutre. Cela ne signifie pas que l'autorité
locale a le droit de s'opposerà ce transport ni celui d'esiger que
tel ou tel réfugié luisoit rendu, car le droit d'asile deviendrait
appartenir, en définitive,qu'aux autorités qui accordent l'asile.u))
(Revue gé~zéraldee Droit i~zternatio~zalublic, 1912, pp. 023-634.)

Les conclusions ne peuvent pas être plus définitives ni plus
opportunes :l'asile serait illusoire si 1'Etat local pouvait exiger la

remise du réfugiéou s'opposer à sa sortie du pa',s; la décisiondes
cas douteux doit appartenir aux autorités qui accordent l'asile. DIÇÇESSIXG OPINOS EY 31. CAICEDO CASTILL--1 364

Colombia did not grant asylum to one single person, n-hereas, on
the contrary, she granted it on several occasions. On the otlier hand,
on page 182 cf the Counter-Memorial may be found a fragment of
a declaration by the Colombian Government showing the attitude
and opinion of Colombia in the case of Spain, which n-erein absolute

agreement with the generous and liberal views so brilliantly
defended by Chile at the time.

IO. There is another aspect of the question. The right to clualify
the nature of an offence must necessarily lie with the State granting
asylum, otherwise the very institution of asylum could no longer
exist. For asylum is granted precisely to protect those persons who
are proiecuted by the local government, usually at difficult moments
in the life of the country, moments of great upheaval n-henpolitical
passions lead to the diminution or disappearance, even in verv
highly cultured statesmen, of that sercnity of mind which is indis-
pensable for an impartial judgment of political oppon'cnts. To

recognize the right of the local State to qualify the nature of the
offence would be equivalent to allosving this qualification to depend
upon the opinion of the government, whose interests would urge
it to act against the refugee. Asylum in these circumstances would
be absurd. Unilateral qualification is in fact inherent in the very
nature of the asylum itself ;it is essential for the continued existence
of this institution as it is understood in Latin America.
In this respect there can be no better quotation than a passage
from Professor Scelle in his commentaries on cases occurring in

South America in 1911, which appeared in the Revzle géné~~adle e
Droit international public.
The first case was the dispute between the Argentine Republic
and Paraguay, and Professor Scelle wrote, ider dia :

"The Treaty of Montevideo (of 1889) states tllat the Iist of
refugeesshould be submitted to the local government before asylum
may definitely be granted and the refugees transported to foreigil
or neutral territory. This does not signify that the local authority
has the right either to oppose this transfer or to insist that such and
such a refugee should be surrendered to it, for this wouldrender the
right of asylum illusory. In doubtful or disputed cases, a definiti1-e
decision can only be made by the authorities granting asylum l."
(Rezluegénéralede Droit i?zter?zatiolplublic, 1912, pp.623-634.)

The concl~~sionscould not be more final or more opportune :
asylum svould be illusory if the territorial State could demand
the surrender of the refugee or oppose his departure froni thc
country ; in case of douht the decision can only be made bj7the
aut horities granting asylum.

1 Translationby the Registry.3% OPINION DISSIDENTE DE N. CAICEDO CASTILLA
Analysant le différendsurgi en 1911 entre les Gouvernements de

l'Équateur et de la Grande-Bretagne, au sujet de l'asile de quelques
réfugiés à bord d'un navire marchand, cas à propos duquel le
ministre des Affaires étrangères de l'Equateur, le Dr Tovar, pré-
tendit assimiler l'asile interne à l'asile externe, le professeur Scelle
fait les considérations générales suivantes sur les problèmes de
l'asile:

((Cette assimilation de l'asile internà l'asile externe que faisait
ainsi le ministre équatorien était assez habile. Elle est juridique,
et, en pratique, il semble que l'asile sur le territoire proprement
dit soit plus difficilement accordé que l'asile diplomatique. II
semble également quel'examen des réfugiéspolitiques soit d'ordi-
naire plus rigoureux dans le cas d'asile externe, et cela se conçoit,
puisqu'il est plus aisé.En tout cas, dans les deux hypothèses, le
droit de déciderdemeure entier pour le gouvernement qui accorde
le refuge.))

L'opinion du professeur Scelle est catégorique :aussi bien dans
l'asile territorial que dans l'asile diplomatique, en ce qui concerne
l'examen des réfugiéspolitiques, le droit de décider «demeure entier
pour le gouvernement qui accorde le refuge ».

II. Dans le même sens,je peux aussi me référerau Hollandais.
11. Savelberg, cité comme une autorité en matière de droit inter-
national américain par le Contre-Mémoire péruvien. M. Savelberg,
dans plusieurs parties de son ouvrage, insiste sur la nécessitéde la
qualification unilatérale. Il ditquecette qualification ((est nécessaire
pour empêcher que 1'Etat qui reconnaît le droit d'asile dans son

territoire en puisse rendre l'exercice impossible par une interpréta-
tion arbitraire du terme «délit politique » »(p. 359). Ailleurs il dit,
dans un même ordre d'idé,es,que la qualification unilatérale (est
indispensable, puisque 1'Etat où l'asile est accordé, ayant en
mains la qualification des délits comme politiques, pourrait, par
une interprétation arbitraire de ce terme, rendre tout exercice
dudit droit illusoire ». (P. 284.)

12. Quant à la pratique, je dois faire remarquer qu'elle a été
favorable à la qualification unilatérale, et qu'on a continuellement
interprétk de cette manière la Convention de La Havane. Ce n'est

pas moi qui l'affirme, c'est un des plus autorisés internationa-
listes d'Amérique qui l'affirme, 1:.Hildebrand0 Accioly . Cet
éminent auteur et diplomate brésilien, représentant actuel de son
pays au Conseil de l'Organisation des Etats américains, au
sujet du problème de savoir cqui doit décider si les motifs
de poursuite justifiant l'asile sont purement politiques ou
contiennent un élémentde droit commun ))déclare que (dans la
pratique, et, comme il est raisonnable de le faire, la solution a

étélaisséeau jugement de l'agent diplomatique qui accorde l'asile, DISSENTIXG OPINION BY M. C.SICED0 CASTILL-4 365
In his analysis of the dispute which arose in 1911 between the

Governments of Ecuador and Great Britain regarding the asylum
granted to a number of refugees on board a merchant ship (the
case in which the Jlinister for Foreign Affairs of Ecuador, Dr. Tovar,
attempted to assimilate internal and external asylum), Professor
Scelle makes the following general observations on the problems
of asylum :

"This assimilation of external and internal asylum made by the
MinisterofEcuador wasrather clever. It isjuridical, and, in practice,
it would appear that asylum on territory properly speaking is more
difficult to grant than diplomatic asylum. It would also appear
thorough in the case of external asylum, and this is understand-
able as it is easier. In both cases, however, the right of decision
lies entirely with the government granting asylum 1."

Professor Scelle's opinion is categorical. As regards the examin-
ation of political refugees, whether in a case of territorial asylum
or in a case of diplomatic asylum, "the right of decision lies entirely
with the government granting asylum".

II. Similarlv 1 can refer to the Dutch writer, II. Sa-,~elberg,
cited in the Counter-Memorial of Peru as an authority in matters
of American international law. M. Savelberg has, in several
passages of his book, insisted on the need for unilateral qualifi-

cation. He says that this qualification "is necessary in order to
prevent a State which recognizes the right of asylum on its
territory from rendering its exercise impossible by means of an
arbitrary interpretation of the expression 'political offence' 1''
(p. 359). He says elsewhere that unilateral qualification "is
indispensable, since the State in which asylum has been granted,
having received the qualification of the political offence, could
by an arbitrary interpretation of that expression render illusive
any exercise of that right". (P. 284.)

12. As regards practice, 1 would point out that -it has been
favourable to unilateral qualification and that the Havana Con- '
vention has been constantly interpreted in this manner. This is
not a persona1 statement, it is an assertion by one of the most
authoritative international jurists of America, M. Hildebrand0

Accioly. This eminent Brazilian author and diplomat who is at
present his country's representative on the Council of the Organ-
ization of American States, writing on the question of "who
shall decide whether the motives justifying the asylum are purely
political or whether they contain an element of common crimin-
ality" States that "in practice and, as is only reasonable, the
solution was left to the discretion of the diplomatic agent granting

l Translationby the Registry.
103 OPISIOS DISSIDEXTE DE 31.CXICEDO CASTILLA
; 6G
de la mêmemanière, que dans l'extradition, c'est à l'État requis
de l'accorder que revient le droit de déterminer la nature du fait
q~i justifie l'extradition». (Accioly, t. II, p.351.)

13.En ce qui concerne l'orientation du droit américain, il y a
une démonstration éloquente : douze pays ont ratifié les deux
Coiiventions de Montevideo, qui coi:sacrent expressément la règle
de la qualification uni!aiérale,à savoir, le Brésil, la Colombie, le

Chili, le Salvador, le Guatemala, le Honduras, le Mexique, le Nicara-
gua, le Panama, le Paraguay, la République dominicaine et l'vru-
guaIy. Trois pays qui ont ratifié 1%Convention de La Havane, à
savoir le Costa-Rica, Cuba et llEquateur, acceptent aussi cette
ri1glc par des déclarations d'un caractère public. Enfin, deux
pays, la République argentine et le Venezuela, qui n'ont pas ratifié
les traités, reconnaissent également la règle citée. Au total,
dix-sept pays latino-américains sur vingt sont favorables à la
qualification unilatérale. La thèse colombienne est donc l'expres-
sion mêmedu droit américain.

14. La thèse selon laquelle la qualification doit êtrefaite conjoin-
tement, provisoirement exercée par 1'Etat qui accorde l'asile, puis
ratifiée ou rejetée avec des objections par l'État territorial, conduit

pr~tiquement à ce résultat : la qualification serait attribuée à
1'Etat territorial. Car, avec lqualification conjointe, 1'Etat territo-
rial peut empêcher à volonté le fonctionnement de l'institution de
l'asile. Il est ciirieux, mais certain, que,sous prétexte d'éviter la
qualification unilatérale, on,arriveà la consécration de cette pra-
tique, mais en faveur de 1'Etat territorial.
On dira qu'en cas d'appréciation- différente, les États intéressés
devront recourir à l'arbitrage ouà la solution judiciaire. Cela voudra
dire que chaque cas d'asile se transforme en un procès, en un long
procès, car il est explicable que les juridictions internationales
mettent plusieurs mois à examiner et décider un litige. Alors,

l'asilesera une source inépuisable de procès, et donc de conflits
entre lesEt3ts. Avec ce résulfatque les deux pays devront examiner
la situation intérieure de 1'Etat territorial, ce qui, naturellement,
rendra la controverse aiguë, désagréable, et, probablement, créera
un désaccord qui gênera et affaiblira la bonne entente entre les
deux pays.

15, D'autre part, d'où peut-on déduire ,que la Convention de
La Havane reconnaît une telle faculté à 1'Etat territorial? Nulle
part il n'est dit cela dans ladite Convention de La Havane. On
dit qu'il faut s'en tenir strictement aux textes exprès : où sont
donc ceux qui parlent de deux qualifications, une provisoire et une
définitive, ou qui disent que la faculté de qualification doit être
exercée et par l'État territorial et par 1'Etat qui accorde l'asile ? DISSESTISG OPISIOS BY JI. C.IICEDO C.ISTILL.I 366

asylum, just as, in the case of extradition, it is the requested
State which has the right to determine the nature of the fact
which justifies estradition". (Accioly, Vol. II, p. 351.)

13. As for the tendencies of American law, an eloquent illus-
tration is providecl by the fact that tnelve countries ratified
the tn-O Conventions of 3lontevideo ~vhich expressly confirm the
ride of unilateral qualification, namelj-, Brazil, Colombia, Chile,
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, hiexico, Sicaragiia, Panama,
Paraguay, the Dominican Republic and Vruguay. Three countries
which had ratified the Havana Convention, namely, Costa Rica,
Cuba and Ecuador, also accepted the above rule, by ineans of
declarations of a public character. Finally, two countries, the

Argentine Republic and T7enezuela, which did not ratifj- the
treaties, also recognize the above rule. In all. seventeen out of
twenty Latin-American countries are in favour of unilateral
qualification. The Colombian vie~v is thus the very espression
of ilnierican law.

14. The theory according to nhich the qualification should be
made jointly, that is, provisionally by theState of asylum and then
ratifiecl or rejected with objections by the territorial State, practic-
ally amounts to this : that qualification ~rould be the attribut? of
the territorial State. For n-ith this joint qualification, the terri-
torial State can at ni11 prevent the institution of asylum from
functioning. It n-ould be strange, but true, that on the pretest of
a\-oiding iinilateral qualification xveshould arrive at a confirmation
of that practice-in favour however of the territorial State.

Itmay be argued that in the event of a difference of opinion the
States concerned must resort to arbitration or to legal proceedings.
That would mean that each case of asylum would become a la\\-suit,
a lengthy lan-suit, for it is understandable that international
proceedings should require several months to examine and decide
upon a case. Asylum would then become an ineshaustible source
of litigation and hence of dispute among States, with the result
that the t\vo countries jvould have to examine the domestic situa-
tion of the territorial State, thus rendering the dispute bitter and
embarrassing and probably giving rise to a disagreement n-hich
~vould hnrnpcr and neaken understanding between the tno coun-

tries.
Ij. On thc othcr hand, n-hat is there to justify the conclusion
thnt the Ha\.aiia Coiivcntion recognizes such a prerogative as

appertaining to thc territorial State ? Nowhere is this stated in the
Havana Co~-i\.~ntion.It has been said that \\-e should abide strictlj-
by the letter of th? tests ;ivhcre are such tests to be foiind which
speak of two clualificatioiis. oiirLpro\.isio~inl niont.final. or \vliich
provide thlit th<. rislit of clualitication must 1~ cscrciçed both b~.367 OPINION DISSIDEKTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA

En échange, en fait de normes expresses, il y a la référence aux
usages, conventions ou lois du pays de l'asile. Cette référence,qui
favorise complètement la thèse colombienne, est une référence
expresse, littérale, de la convention.

16. Le Pérou, à plusieurs reprises, a accepté la pratique améri-
caine comme. obligatoire, y compris la qualification unilatérale.
En 1936, lors de la guerre civile d'Espagne, le Gouvernement
péruvien, par déclaration officielle de son ministre des Affaires

étrangères, s'est déclaré solidaire des autres pays d'Amérique et
((en parfaite communauté d'idéesavec lesthèses défendues àMadrid
par les représentants diplomatiques de la République argentine,
du Chili et d'autres pays 1).
Or, les thèses défendues par ces pays concernaient précisément
la légalité de l'asile diplomatique, le droit de 1'Etat accordant
I'?sile de qualifier la nature du délit du réfugiéet l'obligation de
1'Etat territorial de donner toute la sécuriténécessaire pour que

les réfugiés quittent librement le,pays.
Pour expliquer l'attitude des Etats latino-américains dans le
cas de l'Espagne, le déléguédu Chili auprès de la Société des
Nations résumait ainsi les thèses desdits États :
((Tous les asilés,au moins ceux des ambassades et légationsde

l'Amériquelatine, ont étéaccueillis dans le cadre des règles du
droit d'asile fixéespar la Convention de Montevideo de 1933. ))

Le 26 octobre 1948, le Gouvernement du Pérou publia une
information officielle sur l'asile.

A cette information appartient le paragraphe suivant :
aConformément aux conventions internationales en vigueur
dont il s'agit, il appartientà 1'Etat accordant l'asile de qualifier
le fait qui a donné lieuà celui-ci, c'est-à-dire de déciders'il s'agit
d'un délitde droit commun ou d'un délit politique.... Le Pérou,
de son côté, a déjà soutenu auparavant qu'au cas où un repré-
sentant diplomatique ne livrerait pas un réfugiéparce qu'il ne le
considèrepas comme un accusé dedroit commun, il ne sera procédé
à l'octroi de l'extradition qu'une fois que le réfugiéaura quitté
le pays et conformémentaux procéduresétablies par les conven-
tions internationales réglant cette matière. Cette thèseest acceptée
et reconnue par tous les pays d'Amérique. 1)(Mémoiredu Gouver-
nement de la République de Colombie, p. 28.)

Il ressort de l'analyse de cette déclaration ce qui suit :

1) Le Gouvernement péruvien a accepté que, conformément aux
conventions en vigueur en Amérique, y compris la Convention de
La Havane, il appartient à 1'Etat accordant l'asile de déterminer la
qualification de la nature du délit.
2) Le Pérou a déjà soutenu auparavant que, si un agent diplo-
matique ne livre pas un rélugié, considérant qu'il n'est pas un DISSENTING OPINIOS BY RI. CAICEDO C-4STILLA 367

the territorial State and by the State of refuge ? On the contrary,
instead of express rules, there is a reference to the usages, conven-
tions and laws of the country of refuge. This reference, which
completely supports .the Colombian view, is an express and literal
reference contained in the Convention.

16. Peru has on several occasions accepted the American practice
as obligatory, including the principle of unilateral qualification.
In 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, the Peruvian Govern-
ment, in an officia1declaration by its Minister for Foreign Affairs,
expressed its solidarity with other American countries, stating that
it was "in entire agreement with the theories maintained in Madrid
by diplomatic representatives of the Argentine Republic, Chile and
other countries".
But the theories put forward by these countries were precisely
the legality of diplomatic asylum, the right of the State granting

asylum to qualify the nature of the refugee's offence, and the duty
of the territorial State to give the necessary guarantees to enable
the refugees to leave the country freely.
Explaining the attitude of the Latin-American States towards
Spain, the Chilean delegate to the League of Nations summed up
the opinions of the said States in these words :
"Al1refugees, at least those in embassies and legations of Latin-
American States, have been received in accordance with the rules
regarding the right of asylum laid down by the 1933Montevideo
Convention."

On October 26th, 1948, the Peruvian Government published an
official statement on asylum,from which we shall quote the follow-
ing paragraph :

"Under the relevant international conventions in force, the State
granting asylum iscompetent to qualify the act whichhas motivated
asylum, either to decide that it isa criminal offence, or that it is
a political offen...For its part, Peru has previously claimed that,
when a diplomatic representative refuses to surrender a refugee
because he does not consider him as a common criminal offender,
extradition is granted only when the refugee has left the country,
and according to the procedure established by international agree-
ments on the matter. This thesis is accepted and recognized by al1
American States." (Memorial of the Government of Colombia,
p. 28.)

An analysis of this statement shows that :

(1) The Peruvian Government agreed by virtue of treaties in
force in America, including the Havana Convention, that the right
to qualify the nature of the offence belonged to the State granting
asylum.
(2) Peru had already maintained on previous occasions that,
if a diplomatic agent did not surrender a refugee on the grounds36r3 OPIXIOY DISSIDE'YTE DE II. CAICEDO C.4STILL.4

délinquant de droit commun, le Gouvernement péruvien respectera
la décision de l'agent diplomatique étranger, se réservant le droit
de réclamer l'extradition une fois que le réfugiéaura abandonné le
territoire péruvien. Cela signifie, en dlautres.termes, que le Pérou
a déjà soutenu la qualification unilatérale faite par le diplomate
étranger, et l'oblisation de délivrer un sauf-conduit sans préjudice
d'une demande postérieure d'extradition.
3) Selon l'information officielle, la doctrine précédenten'est pas
seulement aujourd'hui une doctrine péruvienne, mais une thèse
acceptée et reconnue par tous les pays d'Amérique.
La précédente déclaration émane du Gouvernement péruvien
lui-même, non d'un simple fonctionnaire. De plus, elle fut faite

après la révolution d'octobre précisément pour définir la position
du Gouvernement péruvien à l'égard des nombreux cas d'asile qui
se présentaient. Elle était en vigueur le 3 jan-13er 1949, comme
l'expression des normes que le Gouvernement péruvien acceptait à
cette date en matikre d'asile. Dans de telles circonstances, la
déclaration possède une signification juridique bien définie.

17. Outre la Convention de La Havane de 1928, il existe un

autre accord obligatoire entre la Colombie et le Pérou : l'Accord
holivarien sur l'extradition de IQI,. ,ont l'article 18 reconnaît
l'institution de l'asile conformément aux principes du droit inter-
national.
L'argumentation qui dit que, parce que c'est un traité d'extra-
dition, l'Accord de Caracas n'a rien à voir avec la réglementation
de l'asile, a une force que je ne méconnais point tant qu'il s'agit
de prérendre appliquer à l'institution de l'asile des normes du pacte
concernant l'extradition. Mais elle est absolument inadmissible
pour prétendre méconnaître la valeur même de l'article 18. Car,
précisément,l'argumentation disant que l'asile et l'extradition sont
des institutions différentes, entraîne la conclusion que l'article 18

a une signification bien définie; celle d'exprimer qu'outre les stipu-
lations sur l'extradition, les Etats contractants se sont accordés
pour reconnaître une autre institution, celle de l'asile, et ont admis
que ladite institution doit êtrerégie par des principes juridiques.
Ainsi, l'accord règle deux matières : l'extradition, dans toutes les
dispositions de l'accord, sauf une ;l'asile, dans une disposition,
celle de l'article 18. On pourrait avancer cet argument qu'il est
anti-technique et incommode de régler des matières différentes
dans un mêmetraité ; mais cette critique, même au cas où elle
serait vraie, ne priverait pas de sa valeur juridique l'article 18 et
ne pourrait pas le rendre inapplicable. D'un autre côté, il est

visible que les plénipotentiaires de 1911 pensèrent que les deux
matières étaient analogues et que, par conséquent, elles pourraient
êtreincluses, quant à la forme, dans un seul pacte. C'est un point
de vue critiquable, peut-être, mais, en tout cas, respectable, et, de
toutes manières, il a étéadoptépar lesditsplénipotentiaires. Comme,
d'ailleurs, il a étéadopté par le Traité de Montevideo de 1889 qui, DISSENTING OPINIOX BY hi. C.4ICEDO CASTILL.4 368

that he was not a common criminal, the Peruvian Government
would respect the decision of the foreign diplomatic agent, reserving
its right to request extradition once the refugee had left Peruvian
territory. In other words, Peru had already declared itself in favour
of unilateral qualification by the foreign diplomat and the obligation
to provide a safe-conduct without, however, prejudicing its rigfits
to make a subsequent request for extradition.
(3) According to the official statement, the foregoing doctrine

is at the present time not merely a Peruvian doctrine but has
been accepted and recognized by al1 American States.
The foregoing declaration is not that of a mere official but of
the Peruvian Government itself. Moreover, it was made after the
October revolution, precisely with the object of defining the
attitude of the Peruvian Government towards the numerous cases
of asylurn which had arisen. It was in force on January 3rd, 1949,
as the expression of the rules which the Government of Peru
accepted at that date in matters of asylum. In such circum-
stances, the declaration has a very definite legal significance.

17. Apart from the Havana Convention of 1923, there exists
another agreement binding on both Colombia and Peru, namely,
the Bolivarian Agreement on Extradition of 1911, Article 18
of which recognizes the institution of asylum'in confornïity with
the principles of international law.
The argument that, because the Caracas Agreement is an extra-
dition treaty, it has nothing to do with'the regulation of asylum,
has a certain force which 1 cannot denv in so far as there is anv
intention to apply the rules of a treaty on extradition to the

institution of asylum. But it is quite inadmissible to seek to deny
the value of Article 18. For the argument that asylum and extra-
dition are different institutions leads precisely to the conclusion
that Article 18 has a very definite significance, namely that it
makes it quite clear that, apart from the stipulations regarding
extradition, the contracting States have agreed to recognize
another institution, asylum, and have admitted that that insti-
tution should be governed by legal principles. Thus the Agreement
regulates two institutions-extradition in al1 clauses of the Agrée-
ment except one, and asylum in one clause, Article 18. It may be
argued that it is inconvenient and unusual to regulate two dif-
ferent institutions in the same treaty ; but this criticism, even if

it were valid, would not deprive Article 18 of its legal value or
render it inapplicable. On the other hand, it is obvious that the
plenipotentiaries of1911 were of opinion that the two institutions
were similar and that they could, consequentlj~, be included, from
a iormal point of view, in a single treaty. This view may be crit-
icized, but it must in any case be respected ; it \vas after al1adopted
by the said plenipotentiaries. Furthermore, it had already been
adopted in the Treaty of Rlontevideo of 1889, which included
both institutions in the same treaty under different headings. 369 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA

en les séparant en différents chapitres, comprit les deux matières
en un seul pacte.
Prétendre, comme le dit la Duplique, que l'article est de ((portée ))
nulle, parce qu'il se limite à une constatation d'évidence, à une
sim~le allusion au droit international. revient à méconnaître
unifatéralement une obligation contractuille. L'article 38 du Statut
de la Cour internationale de Justice dit que celle-ci appliquera les
principes générauxdu droit ; on ne saurait soutenir que, parce qu'on

ne détermine pas quels sont ces principes et parce qu'on fait une
simple allusion au droit, cette disposition du Statut est nulle.
Pratiquement, c'est ce qu'on prétend en ce qiii concerne l'art cle 18
de l'Accord bolivarien.
Le plus raisonnable, c'est d'examiner l'article 18 de l'accord
et de se demander quels effets juridiques il peut créer. On trouve
alors, en premier lieu, que les Etats signataires reconnaissent
l'asile comme un droit ; ce n'est pas une pratique, ce n'est pas
un acte de simple tolérance humanitaire, c'est une institution
régie par des principes de droit. En second lieu, cette institution

est reconnue conforme aux principes du droit international ;
c'est-à-dire en accord avec les principes acceptés par les pays
américains dans leurs conférences internationales. dans leurs
déclarations collectives. Ces principes de droit international ne
peuvent être autres que ceux énoncésdans les différents traités
sur l'asile conclus en Amérique, qu'ils aient étératifiés ou non
par les pays (bolivariens ); car il ne s'agit pas de déterminer
une obligation contractuelle, mais de déterminer quels sont les
principes qui, en matière d'asile, jouissent, en Amérique, d'une

acceptation générale.Par exemple : d'après le système de l'Accord
bolivarien de 1911, l'asile ne pourra être accordé qu'à des délin-
quants politiques. Pourquoi ? Simplement parce que c'est là le
principe généralement adopté par le droit international américain.
La mêmechose doit se produire en ce qui concerne la qualification
du délit. Cette qualification correspond à 1'Etat qui accorde
l'asile, car le principe se trouve spécialement insérédans la Con-
vention de Montevideo de 1933 ; il a son application dans le
système de La Havane lorsque le droit du pays accordant l'asile

le reconnaît, et, de plus, ceci constitue la pratique des pays
d'Amérique.
On déduit de l'article une autre conclusion, à savoir qu'en
acceptant l'application des principes du droit international, on
admet ceux dérivant de la coutume internationale. S'il en est
ainsi, cet article de l'Accord bolivarien a un sens spécial en ce
qui concerne la coutume en matière d'asile, c'est-à-dire qu'il
démontre l'existence, pour la Colombie et le Pérou, d'un de ces
éléments nécessaires de la coutume : l'élément psychologique,
obigzio iuris sive necessitatis. L'Accord bolivarien reconnaît
I
l'asile, reconnaît la valeur des principes appliqués en Amérique,
donc, il inclut, en tant que droit obligatoire, ces principes. Par DISSESTIXG OPIKIOS ET 31. C.lICED0 C.1ST:LL.l 369

To contend, as the Rejoinder does, that the article is del-oid of
effect because it confines itself to an obvious statement-a simple
allusion to international law-amounts to a unilateral denial of
a contractual obligation. Article 38 of the Statute of the Inter-
national Court of Justice says that the latter will apply the general
principles of law ; it cannot be argued that, because these prin-
ciples have not been detcrmined and because the article makes
a simple refercnce to law, this provision of the Statute is nul1 and

void. Yet this is practically the claim that is macle regardinç
Article 18 of the Bolivarian Agreement.
The most reasonable thing to do would be to examine Article IS
of the agreement and ascertain what juridical effects it could hai-e.
It would then be found, in the first place, that the signatory ~~~~~~s
recognize asylum as a right ; it is r,ot a practice, neither is it 2
simple act of humanitarian toleration, but an institution governcd
by the principles of lan-. III the second place, this institution is
recognized in accordance with the (principles of internaticnal law ;
namely, in accordance with those principles accepted bu ~Anlerican
States, bot11in their international conferences and in their collective
declarations. These pi-incip1i.sof international law cannot be other
than those nhich have heen stated in the varicus treaties on asylum
whicli wre co~lcludedin -hierica, n-hetlier or not they n-ere ratifiecl

by the "Eolivarian" coiintries; for we are not conceriied n-ith the
determination of a contractual obligation, but n-ith the determina-
tion of tl-iosc priiiciples \.i-hiare generally adopted in America in
mattcrs of asylunl. For esample, according to the Bolivarian
Agreement of 1911, asylum rnay only be granted to political
offenders. \I'h>-?Sirnply because this is the principle that isgenerali>-
acccpted in -%rncrican international law. The same thing should
hold good as 1-egarclçthe clualification of the offence. This clualifica-
tion appertaiils to the State granting asylum, since the principle is
specially meiltioncd in the Montevideo Convention of 1933 ;accord-
ing to thc Hal-ûca Coilvcr-ition, it is applied when the ian- of a
countïy grantiiig asyliim recogilizes it ; ar.d furthermore, this
constitiitc~s thc pïacticc of ilrnerican States.

A fiirther concliision ixay be drann from this article, name!>-.
that ncccptailce of th^ application of the principles of international
lanl cntails a rccogilition of principles which may be derived fron
international custoin. If tliis is the cas?, this article in the Eoliva-
rian Agreement lias n spccial nleaniiig as rcçards custonl in mattcrs
of asylum, naincly, thcit it (1ciilonstratc.s the existence in bot11
C~oloinbiaantl 1'c.r~of one of thc clcincnts n.i;icli nr-c,i~cx-essn;-f-i-
the csistcilcc~ of a custoin-tiie ~)s~-~liolo~icrc~llemciit, thcoliiilio
fz~rissi.ile~~ecessitnii.hc. Bolil-ririail :lçrec~ncnt rccognizes as>-lum,
recognizcs tl-ic 7-aliic of tlic. l)ïiiicil)lcs applicd in -4mcri;licncc
10737O OPIXION DISSIDENTE DE 31. CA41CED0 CASTILLA

conséquent, son acceptation par les gouvernements ou par un:
gouvernement déterminé, implique pour celui-ci leur acceptation
comme ((étant le droit11,c'est-à-dire qu'ils sont le droit applicable.

C'est une question d'une importance incalculable, car l'élément
psychologique de la coutume, toujours si difficile à établir,
trouve ici une preuve absolue.

18. A mon avis, l'asile diplomatique est une coutume inter-
nationale de l'Amérique latine.
Les Républiques américaines ont pratiqué I'açiIe, elles ont
respecté la qualification unilatéralement faite par 1'Etat accordant
l'asile, elles ont accordé le sauf-conduit indispensable pour que
le réfugiéabandonne le territoire.
L'usage a étécontinuel et il s'est produit sans interruption au
il s'agit d-nc d'un
moins depuis le milieu du siècle dernier :
usage centenaire, par conséquent bien antérieur aux traités sur
cette matière.
L'usage a étégénéral : les Républiques latino-américaines ont
reconnu et pratiqué l'asile diplomatique et elles ont exercéoppor-
tunément le droit de qualifier unilatéralement le délit. Le Mexique,
les Républiques de l'Amérique centrale, Cuba, les Républiques
sud-américaines, se trouvent dans cette situation.
Enfin, en reconnaissant la pratique de l'asile, les Républiques

américaines l'ont acceptée comme obligatoire. Rien de plus remar-
quable à cet égard que le cas de la République du Venezuela. Elle
offre l'asile dans ses ambassades et légations et le respecte dans les
légations et ambassades étrangères, sans avoir ratifiéni la Conven-
tion de Montevideo, ni celle de La Havane. C'est-à-dire qu'elle
reconnaît l'asile comme un droit américain, comme une pratique
obligatoire sur le continent. Et, de la mêmemanière, elle accepte la
qualification unilatérale du délit.
Il y a un cas collectif récent qui montre quel est le sentiment

général despays américains sur le caractère obligatoire de l'asile.
A propos de l'asile de l'ex-président Bétancourt à l'ambassade de
Colombie à Caracas, le Gouvernement du Chili, secondépar celui
du Guatemala, présenta contre le Gouvernement vénézuélienune
plainte auprès du Conseil de l'Organisation des États américains
((pour le retard apporté à accorder le sauf-conduit ».Ainsi, un pays
comme le Chili, qui n'a aucun traité avec le Venezuela concernant
l'asile, considéraqu'il avait le droit de réclamer les garanties néces-
saires pour que le réfugiépût abandonner le territoire vénézuélien.

Plus encore ! Le Chili a réclamé alors qu'il s'agissaitd'un réfugié à
l'ambassade d'un troisième Etat. Une réclamation de cette nature
n'aurait pu être faite par un pays aussi respectable en Amérique
que le Chili, sans l'existence de la conviction que la pratique de
l'asile, avec sesdiverses conséquences, estjuridiquement obligatoire.
Il faut, de plus, remarquer que, dans l'incident en question, la
République du Venezuela n'invoqua pas comme excuse ou comme DISSESTING OPINION BY 11. C.%ICEDO ColSTILLA 37O

it includes these principles as binding. Consequently, their accept-
ance by governments or by one individual government implies
their acceptance by that government as "being the law", that is
to Say, that they are the applicable law.
This is a matter of the utmost importance, since the psychological
element of custom, which is always so difficult to prove, is here
entirely proved.

18. In my opinion, diplomatic asylum is an international
custom of Latin America.
American Republics have practised asylum, have respected the
unilateral qualification exercised by the State granting asylum,
and have furnished the indispensable safe-conducts to enable the
refugees to leave the territory.
The custom has been continuous since it arose as early as the
middle of last century. Thus we see that we are dealing with a
custom one century old and consequently much earlier in date
than any treaties that exist on the matter.
The custom was general ; al1 the Latin-American Republics
recognized and practised diplomatic asylum and al1 exercised the
right to unilateral qualification of theoffence when circumstances
required it. Mexico, the Republics of Central America, Cuba,

and the South American Republics are al1 in the same position.
Finally, by recognizing the practice of asylum, the American
Republics accepted it as obligatory. Nothing is more remarkable
in this respect than the case of the Republic of Venezuela. It
offers asylum in its embassies and legations and respects asylum
in foreign legations and embassies without having ratified either
the Montevideo Convention or the Havana Convention. That is
to Say, it recognizes asylum as an American right, as a practice
which is obligatory throughout the continent. In the same way,
it also accepts the unilateral qualification of the offence.
There is a recent case in which several countries were involved
and which demonstrates the general feeling of American countries
regarding the obligatory character of asylum. With reference to
the asylum of ex-President Bétancourt in the Colombian Embassy

at Caracas, the Chilean Government, supported by the Guatemalan
Government, lodged a protest with the Council of the Organisation
of American States against the Venezuelan Government "for its
delay in delivering the safe-conduct". Thus we see that a country
like Chile, which had no treaty with Venezuela regarding asylum,
considered that it had the right to lodge a complaint against the
latter in order to obtain the necessary guarantees to enable the
refugee to leave Venezuelan territory. This is not al1! Chile then
claimed that the refugee in question was at the embassy of a third
State. Such a claim could not have been made by a country so
highly respected in America as Chile, had it not been for the
conviction that the practice of asylum, with its various conse-
quences, is juridically obligatory. Tt must furthermore be noted 371 OPINIOX DISSIDENTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA

réponse à la réclamation chilienne, la non-existence de traitks sur
l'asile, ni ne méconnut les obligations juridiques résultant de la
coutume. Au contraire, elle montra qu'elle avait respecté la
pratique américaine, le droit américain, en prouvant que le sauf-
conduit était déjà accordé à la date de la réclamation. Voilà donc
un cas où trois pays américains, le Chili, le Guatemala et le Vene-
zuela, reconnaissent comme obligatoire la pratique de l'asile, ainsi

que les conséquences qui en dérivent, comme la qualification par le
pays accordant l'asile, et le droit,pour ce mêmepays, d'exiger un
sauf-conduit pour le réfugié.

L-nautre pays d'Amérique, d'une culture remarquable, l'L7ruguay,
a soutenu aussi, à plusieurs reprises les thèses en question. Qu'il
suffise de citer le mémorandum présenté par l'ambassade de 1'Uru-

guay à Lima au ministère des Affaires étrangères et du Culte du
Pérou, à propos de l'asile de RIM. Manuel Gutierrez Aliaga et
Luis Felipe Rodriguez. LTn des paragraphes du mémorandum
déclare :
((En rapport avec les faits qui précèdent, le chargécl'affaira. i.
de l'Uruguay a reçu, pour instructions de son Gouvernement,
l'ordre d'insister auprès du Gouvernement du Pérousur la nécessité
de hâter la remise de sauf-conduits, qui ne peut pas êtreretardée
sous préteste d'invoquer une prétendue connexion des réfugiesavec
des délits de droit commun ou des délits politiques connexes des
délits de droit commun, en vertu du principe selon lequel c'est le
pays accordant l'asile qui qualifie la nature, politique ou de droit
commun, du délit. ))

D'autres pays, comme la République argentine, le Brésil, 1'Uru-
guay, la Bolivie, Cuba, le Pérou même, dans le cas du Paraguay
de 1922, ont soutenu collectivement comme une règle de conduite
et ont fait,dans un document officiel, la déclaration suivante :

« Toute personne qui, invoquant des raisons d'ordre politique,
demandera asile dans la rZsidence d'une légation étrangère,expo-
sera les circonstances de fait l'ayant déterminéeà demander asile,
le chef de la légation étant chargé d'apprécier lesdites circons-
tances.))

Dans le cas de l'Espagne, la République argentine et la Répu-
blique dominicaine soutinrent que l'Espagne, pays qui n'avait pas
de traités sur le droit d'asile, devait, cependant, respecter cette
pratique et que c'était au chef de la légation ou ambassade à
qualifier le délit et à exiger la remise des sauf-conduits respectifs.

Le Gouvernement de Cuba, dans une déclaration récente, a dit :
«Le principe selon lequel la qualification du délit appartient à
l'ctat qui accorde l'asile est une règle généralede droit consacrée
par l'usage.))

109 DISSEKTIXG OPINIOS BY 31. CAICEDO CASTILLX 37I

that il2 the incident in questioii, the Kepublic of Venezuela did
not put forward as an excuse or as a reply to the Chilean protest
the non-existence of treaties on asylum. Neither did it deny the
juridical obligations resulting from this custom. On the contrary,
it proved that it had respected American practice and American
law by showing that the safe-conduct had already been granted
when the complaint was lodged. Thus we have the example of
three American States, Chile, Guatemala and Venezuela, recog-
nizing the practice of asylum as obligatory, together with its conse-
quences, such as the qualification by the country grantingasylum

and the right of the said country to demand a safe-conduct for
the refugee.
Another American country noted for its outstanding culture,
üruguay, has also maintained the opinion in question on several
occasions. It will be sufficient to mention the memorandum
presented by the Uruguayan Embassj- in Lima to the Peruvian
Minister for Foreign Affairs and Public IVorship regarding the
asylum granted to MM. hlanuel Gutierrez Aliaga and Luis Felipe
Rodriguez. One of the paragraphs of the hlemorandum states :

"In accordance with the preceding facts, the Acting Chargg
d'Affaires received instructions from his Government to impress
upon the Peruvian Government the necessity for a speedy delivery
of safe-conducts which cannot be delayed on the pretext of an
alleged implication of the refugees in comrnon crimes or political
offences related thereto, by virtue of the principle by which the
country granting asylum has the right to decidewhether the offence
is of a political nature or is a common crime."

In the case of Paraguay of 1922, other countries, the Argentine
Kepublic, Brazil, Uruguay, Bolivia, Cuba and even Peru collectively
drew upthe following declaration as a rule of conduct and embodied
it in an officia1document :

"ilny person who shall request asyluin in the residence of a
foreign delegation for reasons of a political nature shall make a
statement of the facts which led him to request asylum, and the
appreciation of the circumstances shall be left to the head of the
legation."

In the case of Spain, the Argentine and Domiriican Republics
maintained that Spain, in spite of the fact that it had no treaties
regarding the right of asylum, should nevertheless respect this
practice, and also that the head of the legation or embassy had the
right to qualify the offence and to request the delivery of safe-
conducts in every case.
The Government of Cuba declared in a recent statement :

"The principle that the qualification of the offenceconcerns tlie
St:ite gi-antingasvliiisn general ruleoflaw confirmed by custom."372 OPINIOS 1~ISSII)E~TE DE 31. CA1CEL)O CASTILLd
Au Chili, les instructions du ministère des Affaires étrangères
5 ses diploinates en date du 26 novembre 1935 disent :

(<La qualification du délitpolitique appartient à l'État qui prête
l'asile))(Cité par Antolioletz.)
Costa-Rica, dans une déclaration récente, se déclare en faveur

(le la thèse selon laquelle 1'Etat qui accorde l'asile a le droit de
qualifier la nature du délit.
L'Equateur aussi a émis trt's concrètement son opinion de
la manière suivante :
(1Le Gouvernemerit de l'Équateur considère que l'article 18 de
1'Accorclbolivarien, et l'article 2 de la Convenfion sur l'asile du
20 février 1928, instrunients en vigueur pour llEquateur, doivent
Etre interprétés dansle sens que c'est au pays qui accorde l'asile
clu'appartient la qualification de la nature du délit....Le Gouver-
nement équatorieii fonde son critère sur la nature mêmede l'insti-
tution c!e l'asil: cette institution perdrait toute valeur si l'on
accordait au gouvernement local la faculté de qualifier le caractère
(lu clélit,ce qui rendrait inopérants les accords internationaux sur
cette matière. D'un autre côté, le droit coutumier américain, lui
aussi, a attribué à 1'Etat qui accorde l'asile cette faculté de quali-
ficatiori. Cette interprétation a été expressément consacrép ear la
Convention sur l'asile, signéelors de la VIIillcConference inter-
nationale américaine de Montevideo, en décembre 1933. ))

19. Sur la question du sauf-conduit, l'arrêt soutient que l'arti-
cle 2, S 3, de la Convention de La Havane doit être interprété
dans le sens que c'est seulement après que 1'Etat territorial aura
exigéla sortie du réfugiédu territoirenational que 1'Etat accordant
l'asile pourra demander les garanties nécessaires pour que le
réfugiéait la possibilité de passer à l'étranger.
Je ne saurais me rallier à cette interprétation pour plusieurs

raisons. En particulier, parce que je pense que la Convention
de La Hax~ane reconnaît deux facultés différentes :
a) l'une, pour l'État territorial, d'exiger que le réfugié soit
mis hors du territoire le plus rapidement possible, c'est-à-dire
que, l'asile, étant une institution qui ne peut se prolonger indéfi-
niment, I'Etat qui accorde l'asiJe doit respecter cette exigence.

Il y a là une obligation pour 1'Etat accordant l'asile. Ida prolon-
gation clu séjour du réfugiédans-le territoire national ne saurait
avoir lieu contre la volonté de 1'Etat territorial ;
h),la seconde faculté est celle, conférée par le teste mentionné
à 1'Etat accordant l'asile, d'exiger que le réfugié sorte du pays
avec les garanties nécessaires. Cette faculté cst une conséquence
nécessaire de l'asile.

La pratique unanime des fitats américains est conforme à
cette interprétation. Dans tous les cas d'asile, l'agent diplomatique
a toujours demandé et obtenu la sortie du réfugie sans attendrc DISSENTISG OI>INIOh I3Y JI.CAICEDO CASTII,L.\ 372

In Chile, the instructions of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs to
its diplomats of November 26th, 1935 ,ay :
"The right to qualify the political offenceappertains to the State
granting asylum." (Quoted by Antokoletz.)

In a recent declaration, Costa Rica has expressed itself in favour
of the theory according to which the State granting asylum has
the right to qualify the nature of the offence.
Ecuador also has very definitely stated its opinion as follows :

"The Goi-ernment of Ecuador considers that Article IS of the
13olivarianAgreement and Article 2 of the Convention on Asylum
of February zoth, 1928, which are valid instruments for Ecuador,
should be interpreted as meaning that the qualification of the nature
of the offence appertains to the country granting asylilni ...Tlie
Government of Ecuador bases this vicw on the very nature of the
institution of asylum :this institution would lose al1 vali~eif the
localgovernment weregranted the right to qualify the nature of the
offence, thus rendering inoperative the international agreements
on the matter. On the other hand, American customary law also
attributes the right of qualification to the country granting asylum.
This interpretation was expressly confirmed by the Convention on
Asylum signed at the Seyenth American International Conference
at hioiltevideo in December 1933 1.''
19. As regards the question of a safe-conduct, the Judgment
maintains that Article 2, 53, of the Havana Convention should be
interpreted as meaning that the State granting asylum may only

request the necessary guarantees to enable the refugee to leave
the country, after the territorial State has requested the refugee
to leave the national territor-.
1 cannot accept this interpretation for several reasons, but
chiefly because 1 believe that the Havana Convention recognizes
two separate rights :

(a) firstlv, the right of the territorial State to require the removal
of the refugee from the territory as rapidly as possible, that is to
Say that, as asylum is a transitory situation which cannot be
prolonged indefinitely, the State granting asylunl should respect
this request. This is an obligation on the State granting asylum.
The sojourn of the refugee on national territory cannot be prolonged
against the will of the territorial State ;
(b) the second right is that, which is conferred by the above-
mentioned text upon the State granting asylum, to require that

the refugee should leave the country with the necessary guarantees.
This right is a necessary consequence of asylum.
The unanimous practice of American States is in accordance
with this interpretation. In al1 cases of asylum, the diplomatic
agent has requested and obtained the departure of the refugee

1 Sraiisiatb ionthe Registry.
II037.3 OPIXION DISÇIDEKTE DE 11. CAICEDO CASTILL.1
que le gouvernement territorial en prenne l'initiative. Dans les

annexes de ce procès, cette pratique est pleinement prouvée. Là
apparaissent une note, en date du 20 octobre 1944, du ministre
du Pérou au Guatemala aux honorables membres de la Junte
révolutionnaire du Guatemala ; une autre, du 28 octobre 1948,
de la légation du Pérou à Panama au ministre des Affaires étran-
gères de Panama ; et deux autres communications, datées des
2 et 5 novembre 1948 respectivement, de l'ambassade de l'Uruguay
à Lima au ministre des Affaires étrangères du Pérou. Dans toutes

ces notes, en mêmetemps, on annonce l'asile et O? demande les
sauf-conduits ; on n'attend, en aucun cas, que 1'Etat territorial
manifeste une volonté quelconque à ce propos.

Il serait impossible de citer une seule communication diploma-
tique contraire à cette pratique. Et, en ce qui concerne le Pérou,
outre les documents cités, des légationsau Guatemala et à Panama,
il existe un communiqué officiel du Gouvernement, en date du

12 octobre 1948,qui dit :(Le Gouvernement, respectant ses accords
internationaux et les pratiques établies, a accordéles sauf-conduits
respectifs. ))C'est-à-dire que le Gouvernement péruvien admet
que, d'accord aussi bien avec les traités en vigueur qu'avec les
pratiques américaines, il est obligé d'octroyer le sauf-conduit.

O11a affirméque la pratique américaine est contraire au texte

(le la convention et que, par conséquent, elle ne peut prévaloir.
A cela, il convient d'objecter :
IO que des auteurs comme Accioly pensent que la convention
et la pratique sont, en ce point, conformes ;

2' que la pratique indique quelle est l'interprétation que les
pays qui l'ont signée et ratifiée attribuent à la convention.
S'il n'y a pas eu d'autre interprétation, pourquoi chercher en

(-lehorsde cette coutume américaine l'interprétation de la dispo-
sition de La Havane ?
D'autre part, pourquoi faire abstraction de l'interprétation
acceptéepar le Pérou ?Parce que - dira-t-on - les Etats peuvent
changer de point de vue. Je reconnais ce droit en ce qui concerne
les questions purement politiques, mais en ce qui concerne des
(luestions juridiques, telles que l'interprétation ou l'application des
traités, un changement d'opinion n'est guère admissible que pour

l'avenir. Sans cela ce serait établir un réginle d'incertitude dans
les relations internationales. Il est difficilement admissible en droit
qu'un pays, après avoir soutenu une interprétation d'un traité et
avoir fait connaître celle-ci aux autres contractants, en déclarant
qu'il va l'appliquer dans des cas se présentant dans une situation
déterminée,puisse méconnaître sa propre interprétation pour des
cas et des situations survenus pendant que cette règle était consi-

dérée envigueur.
III DISSENTING OPINIOX BY M. CAICEDO CASTILL.4 373

without waiting for the territorial government to takethe initiative.
This practice has been amply proved in the documents annexed to
the Pleadings of this case. They include a note dated October zoth,
1944, from the Minister of Peru in Guatemala to the Honour-
able Members of the Revolutionary Junta of Guatemala ;another,
dated October Ath, 1948, from the Peruvian Legation in Panama
to the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Panama, and two other
communications, dated Xovember 2nd and 5th, 1948,respectively,
from the Uruguayan Embassy in Lima to the Minister for Foreign
-4ffairs of Peru. Al1these notes announce the grant of asylum and
simultaneously request the delivery of safe-conducts ; in none of
these cases has the State of refuge waited for the territorial State
to express any wishes on the subject.

It would be impossible to quote a single diplomat'ic communi-
cation contrary to this practice. And as far as Peru is concerned.
apart from the above-cited documents of the Peruvian Legations in
Guatemala and Panama, there is an officia1 Government com-
muniqué of October ~zth, 1948, which states :"The Government,
respectful of its international agreements and of the established
practice, has granted the respective safe-conducts." In other
words, the Peruvian Government admits that, in accordance both
with the treaties in force and with American practice, it is compelled
to deliver safe-conducts.
It has also been maintained that American practice is contrary
to the text of the Convention and that, consequently, it cannot
prevail. It should be argued in reply :

(1)that authors such as Accioly consider that the Convention
conforms with practice on this point ;
(2)that practice shows what interpretation has been put upon
the Convention by the countries which signed and ratified it.

If there has been no other interpretation, why search for an
interpretation of the Havana provision outside American custom ?

On the other hand, why disregard the interpretation which
had been accepted by Peru ? It may be said, to meet this argument,
that States are entitled to change their minds. 1 recognize that
right as far as purely political questions are concerned, but as
regards legal questions, such as the interpretation or application

of treaties, a change of opinion is scarcely admissible except
for the future. Othernisc an element of uncertainty would be
introduced into international relations. It is hardly admissible
in law that a country, after maintaining a given interpretation
of a treaty and making it known to other contracting parties
by declaring its intention to apply that interpretation to cases
involving given circumstances, should be able to disregard its
own interpretation in cases and circumstanccs arising nrhilst
that riile was still considered to bv in forcc.374 OPINIOK DISSI1)ESTE DE 31. CAICEDO CASTILL.4
Toute autre pratique créerait un nouveau facteur d'insécurité
dans les relations internationales.

Mieux encore, il y a eu des cas où le point de vue de l'État qui
accorde l'asile a prévalu. Ce fut le cas du députéRodriguez Araya,
réfugiéà l'ambassade uruguayenne à Buenos-Ayres en 1949. Le
Gouvernement argentin déclarait en cette circonstance qu'il n'y
avait aucune poursuite des autorités locales contre ledit député,
qui jouissait de toutes les garanties pour résider librement dans le
territoire national.Malgrécette manifestation de lJEtat territorial,
l'rjruguay insista sur sa demande pour la sortie du réfugiédu
territoire de la République argentine. Devant cette insistance, la
République argentine, qui possède tant d'heureuses traditions juri-
diques en matière d'asile, accorda immédiatement le sauf-conduit

demandé.
Par conséquent, on doit admettre que l'interprétation donnéepar
la Colombie à l'articl2 de la Convention de La Havane est entière-
ment conforme avec les principes généraux du droit ainsi qu'avec
l'esprit de ce texte et l'ensemble des dispositions de la convention.
La Colombie a respecté de la sorte la pratique uniforme et continue
des nations américaines, y compris le Pérou.

20. A mon avis, la deuxième pétition de la demande reconven-
tionnelle (cas d'urgence) du Gouvernement du Pérou présentéele
21 mars 1950 n'entre pas dans la compétence de la Cour et n'a pas
non plus de connexité directe avec la requête. Ceci, parce que le
Pérou, pendant la controverse qui précédala signature de l'Acte
de Lima, ne formula aucune allégation relative à l'existence de la
condition d'urgence ; par conséquent, celle-ci ne fait pas partie du
différend existant. Elle n'a pas étéviséepar la Colombie dans la
question relative àl'octroi du sauf-conduit, cette deuxième question
étant basée sur la considération de la nature essentiellement
politique du délit imputé au réfugié, l'octroi du sauf-conduit

constituant une obligation pour 1'Etat territorial. Il n'y a pas eu
d'autre sujet de discussion entre les Parties.

21. Sur la condition d'urgence, il suffirait de rappeler que
M. Haya de la Torre se trouvait menacé dans sa vie ou sa liberté
du fait qu'il était poursuivi pour des raisons politiques, pour
conclure qu'il avait droit d'invoquer en sa faveur l'institution de
l'asile diplomatique en Amérique latine.

De plus, il existe de multiples preuves du fait que le Pérou traver-
sait à ce moment-là une situation anormale. Un des premiers décrets
de la Junte militaire fut celui du 2 novembre 1948, selon lequel
(la Junte militaire de gouvernement assume toutes les attributions
què la Constitution de 1'Etat confère aux pouvoirs exécutif et
législati». C'est-à-dire que le gouvernement militaire defacto s'attri- DISSENTING OPINIOX BY 11. CAICEDO CASTILLA 374

Any other practice would create a new element of insecurity
in international relations.
Furthermore, there have been cases in wl-iich the opinion of
the State granting asylum prevailed. We may, for example, quote
the case of the parliamentarian Rodriguez Araya, who took refuge
in the Uruguayan Embassy in Buenos Aires in 1949. The Argentine
Government declared that the local authorities were not prosec-
uting him and that the latter enjoyed al1 necessary guarantees
to reside freely on the national territory.In spite of this declaration
by the territorial State, Uruguay insisted that the refugee should

be allowed to leave the territory of the Argentine Republic. In
face of this insistence, the Argentine Republic, which has so
many noble juridical traditions in matters of asylum, immediately
granted the necessary safe-conduct.
Consequently, it must be admitted that the interpretation put
by Colombia upon Article 2 of the Havana Convention is entirely
in accordance with the general principles of laur, as well as with
the spirit of the text and the provisions of the Convention taken
as a whole. Colombia has thus respected the uniform and con-
tinuous practice of the American nations, including Peru.

20. In my opinion the second basis of the counter-claim (case of
urgency) of the Government of Peru presented on March z~st, 1950,
does not come within the jurisdiction of the Court and is not
directly connected with the subject-matter of the Application. My
grounds for this opinion are that Peru, during the controversy
which preceded the signature of the Act of Lima, made no claim
whatsoever concerning the existence of urgency ; and consequently,
this consideration was not a part of the existing dispute ;it was not

referred to by Colombia in connexion with the question of the grant
of a safe-conduct, the latter question being based upon the essen-
tially political nature of the offence attributed to the refugee, the
grant of the safe-conduct constituting an obligation for the terri-
torial State. There was no other subject of dispute between the
Parties.
21. As regards the condition of urgency, it is sufficient to recall

that M. Haya de la Torre was threatened in his life or liberty due
to the fact that he was being prosecuted for political reasons,
and this consideration justifies the conclusion that he was entitled
to invoke in his favour the institution of diplomatic asylum in
Latin America.
Furthermore, there is abundant evidence to show that at that
time Peru was passing through an abnormal situation. One of the
first decrees promulgated by the Military Junta u7asthat of Y ovem-
ber znd, 1948, under which "the Jlilitary Junta of the Government
assumes al1the powers which the Constitution of the State confers

upon the executive and legislative branches of the Government" l.
' Translationby the Registry.
TI2375 OI'INION DISSIDENTE DE 31. CAICEDO C.4çTILL.4
bua la faculté de faire les lois et de modifier ou abroger les lois

existantes,sanstenir compte des règles de la Constitution. Exerçant
les attributions qu'elle s'est arrogées à elle-même,la Junte a rendu
des décrets aussi graves que celui du 4 novembre, qui organise les
Conseils de guerre oraux et autorisel'application de la peine de mort,
en supprimant en outre le recours contre l'arrêt, devant la Cour
suprême. Le décret-loi enferme dans un cercle de fer les accusés du
délit de rébellion militaire, comme M. Haya de la Torre : les mem-
bres du Conseil de guerre sont des militaires qui dépendent du
gouvernement, le défenseur de l'accusé sera nommé par le gouver-

nement, la peine imposée peut être la mort, que le Code de justice
militaire n'admettait pas, et il n'y aura pas recours contre l'arrêt,
ce qui réforme le Code péruvien de justice militaire, qui établissait
devant la Cour suprêmeun recours en nullité, naturellement limité
au vice de forme.

Plus tard, un nouveau décret-loi, du 17 novembre, intervient
clans la composition de la Cour suprême de justice, et déclare :

((IOLa loi 9654, du 13novembre 1942, est abrogée :demeurent
vacantes à partir de la date du présent décretles charges actuelle-
ment pourvues à laCour suprême dejustice de la République, par
application de ladite loi 9654.

2" Les vacances produites par l'application du présent décret
et celles de magistrats et d'avocats générauxde la Cour suprême
de justice, seront pourvues par désignation directe de la Junte
militaire de gouvernement. »
Il est vrai que l'agent du Gouvernement du Pérou a déclaréque
le décret du 4 novembre n'a pas d'effets rétroactifs. Mais cette décla-

ration ne modifie en rien le problème relatif à M. Haya de la Torre.
Car ce prgblème, il faut le situer le 3 janvier 1949, date de l'octroi
de l'asile:le décret était alors en vigueur, il n'y avait pas de raisons
pour penser qu'il n'aurait pas d'effets rétroactifs, car,IO il n'y avait
aucune déclaration du gouvernement à ce sujet, 2" il existait à ce
moment-là un gouvernement de facto, dont les pouvoirs étaient
fondés, non sur les préceptes constitutionnels, mais sur le succès
résultant d'un coup d'Etat : et ce gouvernement s'était attribué
le droit de promulguer des lois sans tenir compte de la Constitution,

et 3" on ne connaissait pas l'interprétation de ce décret que pour-
raient faire les Conseils de guerre oraux.

D'autre part, le Gouvernement péruvien, dans ces mêmes jour-
nées d'octobre et de novembre 1948, avait édicté des décrets à
caractère rétroactif, comme celui du 4 octobre sur la mise hors la DISSESTISG OPISIOS Bi' hl. C.AICED0 CASTILLA 375

In other mords, the de jacto military government conferred upon
itself the right to make new laws and modify or abrogate existing
lams, without regard to the rules of the Constitution. In the exercise
of the rights which it had conferred upon itself, the Junta enacted

decrees as grave as that of Kovember 4th, ~vhich providecl for
Oral Courts-Ilartial and authorized the application of the death
sentence, whilst suspending appeal to the Supreme Court against
the judgment. The decree-law fastened those accused of inilitary
rebellion, siich as M.Haya de la Torre, in a grip of iron : the members
of the Courts-Martial urere soldiers 11-hodepeilded upon the pn7ein-
ment, the defence for the accused mas to be appointed by the
government, the penalty imposed might be death, hi ch na5 not
accepted under the Code of Military Justice, and there nas to be no
appeal against the judgment ;al1the foregoing measures supersedecl

the Peruvian Code of Jlilitary Justice which had provided for a11
appcal to the Supreme Court on the gi-ounds of nullitj., naturally
restricted to alleged irregularities of form.
Subsequently, on Yovembcr 17th, a new decree-la~v n as enacted
concerning the composition of the Supreme Court of Justice, n-hich
stated as follows :

"1. Law No. 9654 of Kovember qth, 1942, is abrogated: the
positions whicli are at present provided on the Supreme Court of
Justice of the Republic under law No. 9654 are vricailt as from the
date of the present decree.
2. The x-acanciesresulting froni the application of the preseilt
decree as well as tlie positions of Judges and General ddvocates
of the Supreme Court of Justice shall be filledby direct appointment
of the llilitary Junta of the Government z."

It is true that the Agent of the Government of Peru dcclarcd
that the decree of November 4th does no1 have rctroactix-î cfîcct.
But this declaration in no way modifies the problem in so iar as
M. Haya de la Torre is concerned. For this problem müst be
envisaged as it existed on January ;rd, 1949, the date of the grai::

of asylum :at that time the decree \vas in force and there was no
reason to believe that it would 11othave retroactive effects for :
1) no declaration had been made by the Go\-ernment in this
connexion, 2) thcre esiçted at that tii-ne a de jncto Go~.erninent
whose powers were founded, not on constifutional provisions but
on the success of a cozlpd'étai :andthat Govcrnment Iiad conferrecl
upon itself the right to promulgate lan-s reçardless of the îonstitu-
tion, and 3) it was not ltnown ho~vthis decree u-ould De interpreteci
by the Oral Courts-Martial.
On the other hand, the Peruvian Government duriiig those

same days of October and Kovember 1948 had prnmulgated
decrees of a retroactive character, such as that of October 4th

l Translationby the Registry.

113376 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE 11. CBICEDO CASTILLA
loi du Parti apriste et déterminant la responsabilité criminelle

collective des chefs apristes pour les faits survenus le 3 octobre.
Soit ex post facto, il fut établi une imputabilité pénale à l'égardde
toute une catégorie de personnes. Un autre décret rétroactif fut
celui de la Junte militaire en vue de la suspension des procès pour
rébellion militaire, instruits contre le colonel Llosa et d'autres
pour la révolution manquée de juillet 1948. Ce décret intervenait
dans la justice militaire et suspendait l'action de celle-ci.

Je fais ces observations sans aucun esprit de critique à l'égarddu

Gouvernement péruvien, car il est clair que lui,mieux que personne,
pouvait juger les mesures nécessairespour le pays. Si je fais allusion
à toutes ces lois, je le fais uniquement parce qu'elles démontrent, à
mon avis, indubitablement, l'existence d'une situation intérieure
instable, de troubles politiques, précisément la situation où se
présente l'urgence de l'asile diplomatique.
Cette situation anormale est confirmée par l'existence de l'état
de siège. Par décret suprêmedu 2 janvier 1949, publié le3, soit le
jour mêmede l'asile de M. Haya de la Torre, cet état de siège fut
prorogé pour trente jours. Dans ses ((considérants »,le décretdéclare

que «les raisons qui ont motivé le décret disposant la suspension des
garanties individuelles subsistent.. .». Les raisons subsistent, c'est-
à-dire que la situation anormale subsiste. Le décret ajoute « qu'il
faut que les autorités aient des facultés extraordinaires pour main-
tenir l'ordre et la tranquillité public».

On a fait remarquer que M. Haya-de la Torre ne s'est réfugiéque
le 3 janvier, alors que la révolution avait eu lieu le 3 octobre. Pour
moi, le facteur temps n'a pas d'importance, car ce qu'il faut se

demander, c'est si, le 3 janvier, la situation anormale subsistait :
or, il y a de cela une preuve irréfutable, c'est le décret cité. D'un
autre côté, si c'est le3 octobre qu'eut lieu la révolution du Callao,
c'est seulement à la fin de ce mois qu'eut lieu le coup des militaires
qui aggrava la situation de M. Haya, puisque la seconde révolution,
qui provoqua la chute du Président Bustamante, se fit précisément
avec le programme de châtier 1'Aprisme. Par conséquent, la
politique du nouveau gouvernement était celle de l'exclusion et
de la répression de 1'Aprisme (note du 22 février du ministre des
Affaires étrangères du Pérou : cLes institutions de la défense

nationale de la République, par un geste unanime, se sont vues
obligées de mettre fin à tant de crimes et à tant de maux pour
sauver le Pérou. » P. 150 du Contre-Mémoire). De plus, M. Haya
de la Torre. ' Ioursuivi comme un criminel. ses biens ~ersonnels
mis sous séquestre, face à une déclaration d'état de siège qui
facilitait les perquisitions à domicile sans ordre préalable d'un DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 376

concerning the outlawing of the ,4prist Party which established
the collective criminal responsibility of the Aprist leaders for
the events of October 3rd. In other words, there was established
ex post facto a penal responsibility attributable to a whole category
of perçons. A further retroactive decree was that of the Military
Junta concerning the suspension of proceedings for military
rebellion which had been instituted against Colonel Llosa and
others for the abortive revolution of July 1948. This decree
intervened in the operation of military justice, and suspended
the action of the latter.

In making these remarks, 1 in no way intend to criticize the
Peruvian Government, for it is evident that it could judge, better
than anyone, what measures should be taken for the country.
My sole reason for referring to al1 these laws is because, in my
opinion, they prove clearly that there existed an unstable domestic
situation characterized by political disturbances, precisely the
kind of situation constituting the urgency of diplomatic asylum.
This abnormal situation is confirmed by the existence of a
state of siege. By a supreme decree of January znd, 1949, published
on January 3rd, i.e. the very day asylum was granted to M. Haya

de la Torre, the state of siege was extended for 30 days. In its
recitals, the decree states that "the reasons which have led to
the decree providing for the suspension of individual guarantees,
continue to exist ....".In other words, the 'abnormal situation
continues to exist. The decree adds "that it is necessary that
the authority should have extraordinary powers in order to
maintain public order and tranquillityl".
It has been pointed out that Haya de la Torre sought refuge
only on January 3rd, whereas the revolution had occurred on
October 3rd. For me, the time factor has no importance, for the
important question here is whether on January 3rd the abnormal
situation still existed:and irrefutable proof of this fact is furnished

by the above-quoted decree. pn the other hand, if the Callao
revolution occurred on October 3rd, it was only at the end of
that month that the military uprising occurred which aggravated
the situation of IYtH.aya de la Torre, since the second revolution
which led to the fa11 of President Bustamante took place m-ith
the avowed intention of punishing ilpra. Consequently, the policy
of the new government consisted of the exclusion and repression
of Aprism (note of February zznd, from the Peruvian Minister
for Foreign Affairs : "It was for that reason that the armed forces
of the Republic, by a unanimous impulse, took action to put
an end to al1 this crime and wickedness, and to Save Peru." P. Ijo

of the Counter-Rlemorial). Furthermore, 31. Haya de la Torre,
prosecuted as a criminal, his personal assets having been seques-
trated, and in the face of a declaratioil of a state of siege tvliich
-
l Translatioby the Registry.
114 377 OPISION DISSIDESTI< DE 31. C-IICEDO C.ISTILLA

juge compétent et, au moment où les légations et ambassades
étrangères 6taicii.t surveillées par la police, ne pouvait vraiment
pas choijir 13 date de l'asile. On pourrait dire qu'il s'est réfugié
cluand il l'a pu.

L'esistence de la condition d'urgence était si évidente qu'elle
fui admise, sans hésitations. par le corps diplomatique accrédité
à Lima. Car, à la suite de la révolution du 3 octobre, M. Haya
de la Torre ne fut pas le seul qui dût chercher asile. 11 y eut,
dans huit ambassades, beaiicoup de réfugiés,tous chefs apristes

cités dans le mêmeprocès que AI. Haya de la Torre. D'où il est
~>ossiblede déduire que les ambassadeurs pensèrent qu'il 37 avait
une situation de fait qui impliquait un danger sbrieus pour la
sécurité des chefs apristes réfugiés. Le cas de JI. Haya de 13
Torre est identique à celui des autres réfugiés.

D'autre part, il ne faut pas oublier clu'oil disait de 111.Haya
clela Torre qu'il avait donné des ordres pour l'exterminatio~l de scs
adversaires. Il n'y a aucune preuve de cet ordre, mais on faisait
courir cette rumeur (Contre-Mémoire, p. 7). Dans des moments
d'une telle confusion et d'unc telle passion, quand LUIchangement

complet dc la situation politique venait de se produire, oii pouvait
aussi craindre des représailles contre les Apristes, et, spécialement,
contre leur chef. Les chefs d'un mouvement révolutionnaire
vainqueur, même s'ils ont assumé la plénitude du pouvoir, ne
peuvent pas toujours contrôler les activités d'éléments extrémistes.
de subalteriles ou de partisans sectaires. Le fait mêmeque l'dm-
bassade de Colombie à Lima ait été continuellement gardée par
des forces de police montre la préoccupation des autorltbs locales
à l'idée que des éléineilts politiq~zes adversaires de 31. Haya de
la Torre puissent entreprendre une action quelconque pour s'em-
parer de II. Haya de la Torre et attenter à sa vie. Si cela se

prcduisait rllors qu'il était à l'ambassade, la posqibilité serait
plus grantle et plus grand le danger pour la sécuritéperso~nelle
de 31. I-iaya, s'il était dnix un autre lieu.
De plus, po:ir juger la conduite de l'ambassadeur, il faut consi-
clérer:
I. eue les deux communiqués officiels du Gouvernement péru-

vien - du 12 et du 26 octobre 1948 - acceptaient l'existence
d'unc situation pouvant justifier l'urgence de l'asile, ainsi que
ie principe de la qualification unilatérale et celui concernant
l'octroi du sauf-coilduit. Ces communiqués étaient en vigueur le
3 janvier 1949, car c'est seulement dans une note du 22 février
c11iele Gouvcrncrnent péruvien manifeste sa volonté de changer
d'attitudc.
2. L'ambassadeur avait accordé l'asile à 11. Pulgar Vidal,
député apriste, qui obtint un sauf-conduit le 29 novembre, donc
postérieurement à la sommation contre M. Haya de la Torre et DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 377

facilitated search without a warrant from a competent judge,
and at a time when foreign embassies and legations were under
the surveillance of the police, M. Haya de la Torre, we Say, was
not really in a position to choose the date of his asylum. Itmight
be said that he sought refuge when he could.
The existence of the condition of urgency was so evident that
it was accepted without hesitation bythe Diplomatic Corps accred-
ited in Lima. For, following the revolution of October 3rd,
M.Haya de la Torre was not the only person obliged to seek asylum.
There were many refugees who had sought and obtained asylum
in eight embassies ; al1 of them were -4prist leaders involved in
the same proceedings as M. Haya de la Torre. It is possible to

deduce from the foregoing that the Ambassadors considered that
there existed a situation implying serious danger for-the security
of the refugee Aprist leaders. The case of M. Haya de la Torre
is identical with that of the other refugees.
On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that M. Haya de
la Torre was reputed to have given orders for the extermination
of his adversaries. There is no proof of this order, but the rumour
uras spread (Counter-Memorial, p. 7). In moments of such con-
fusion and passion when a complete change in the political situation
had just taken place, it was quite conceivable that there should
be some danger of reprisais against the Aprists, and more especially
against their leader. The leaders of a victorious revolutionary
movement, even when they have assumed total power, are not
always able to control the activities of the extremist elements
among their siibordinates and supporters. The very fact that the

Colombian Embassy in Lima has been provided with a continuous
police guard, is evidence of the anxiety of the local authorities
lest the political opponents of Haya de la Torre might take action
to seize him and endanger his life. If that happened while he was
in the Embassy, how much greater would the possibilities have
been and how much greater the danger for his persona1 safety,
had he been in another place.

Furthermore, in judging the conduct of the Ambassador, Ive
must consider :

I.That the two officia1communiqués of the Peruvian Govern-
ment-one of the 12th andthe other of26th October 1948-accepted
the existence of a situation which might justify the urgency of
asylum, as well as the principle of unilateral qualification and that
of the grant of a safe-conduct. These communiqués were in force on
January 3rd, 1949, for it was only in a note of February zznd, that
the Peruvian Government showed any desire to change its attitude.

2. The Ambassador had granted asylum to M. Pulgar Vidal, an
Aprist deputy, who obtained a safe-conduct on November zgth,
in other words, after the summons had been issued regarding378 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA
ses camarades, et sans aucune observation du Gouvernement
péruvien sur l'aspect d'urgence. Ainsi, dans le cas de M. Pulgar
Vidal. les thèses des deux communiqués officiels reçurent une
application.
?.D'autres ambassadeurs avaient accordé l'asile sans aucune

ob<ervation de la part du Gouvernement péruvien.
4. Des déclarations officielles du chef de l'État publiées dans le
journal officiel El Peruano, le 3 janvier 1949, reconnaissant qu'à
ce moment la situation du pays était anormale.

5. La situation de fait déjà décrite existait réellement.
Tenant compte de ces éléments defait et de droit, je trouve que
l'ambassadeur de Colombie a agi correctement : il ne pouvait faire

autrement que d'accorder l'asile ; il s'est conforméau droit inter-
national et aux pratiques américaines ; il a accordé l'asile, se
conformant strictement aux stipulations de la Convention de
La Havane.
22. Il y a enfin, de la part du Pérou, une autre reconnaissance
du caractère anormal des conditions existantes en janvier 1949.
C'est la modification à la demande reconventionnelle. Car soutenir
que les conditions actuelles sont différentes de celles de 1949
revient à affirmer que les conditions de 1949 étaient anormales,

dès l'instant où l'on prétend que les conditions actuelles ne le
sont pas.
23. L'asile, tel qu'il est reconnu en Amérique, n'a jamais été
considéré commeune forme d'intervention. 11ne l'est pas dans le
sens qu'un gouvernement puisse $introduire dans la politique
intérieure d'un pays, en favorisant les personnalités d'un parti
déterminé : l'asile, en effet, a toujours été exercé généreusement,
noblement, aujourd'hui en faveur des uns, demain en faveur des

autres, sans faire de discrimination, entenant compte des opinions
politiques du réfugié.Ilfaut insister sur ce point pour le plus grand
honneur des pays latino-américains.
Dans le cas de la Colombie etdu Pérou,il suffit de faire remarquer
que le mêmeambassadeur a donné asile d'abord à M. Julio C.
Villegas, qui, en tant que ministre de l'Intérieur, adressa la lettre
demandant l'application de certaines mesures dans le procès contre
M. Haya de la Torre et, plus tard, à ce dernier.
24. L'asile diplomatique n'est pas non plus contraire au principe

de la non-intervention, fondamental dans le droit américain. Ce
principe a son origine historique dans les relations entre les Etats-
Unis d'Amérique et les nations latino-américaines, et il fut reven-
diqué par celles-ci comme une affirmation de leur indépendance
contre des interventions, même armées,qui eurent lieu et qu'il
n'y a pas de raisons de rappeler ici. Lors de la Conférence de
Montevideo de 1933, le principe fut accepté par les États-unis, DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 37%

M. Haya de la Torre and his friends, and without any remarks being
made by the Peruvian Government on the matter of urgency. Thus,
in the case of M. Pulgar Vidal, the theories set forth in the two
officia1communiqués were put into application.
3. Other Ambassadors had granted asylum without any observa-
tions being made by the Peruvian Government.
4. Officia1declarations by the Head of a State, published in the
official gazette El Peruano on January 3rd, 1949, recognizing that
the situation of the country at the time was abnormal.
5. The de facto situation which has already been described
actually existed.

Having regard to the foregoing elements of fact and of law, 1
consider that the Colombian Ambassador acted correctly :he could
not do othenvise than grant asylum ;he conformed to international
law and American practice ;he granted the asylum in strict conform-
ity with the stipulations of the Havana Convention.

22. Finally, we have further recognition by Peru of the abnormal
nature of conditions existing in January 1949, namely, the modifica-
tion of her counter-claim. To maintain that present conditions are
different from those that obtained in 1949, amounts to an admission
that the conditions in 1949 were abnormal, that is, if it is claimed
that present conditions are not abnormal.

23. Asylum, such as is recognized in America, has never been
regarded as a form of intervention. It is not intervention in the
sense that a government may interfere in the domestic affairs of a
country by favouring the members of a certain party ; indeed,
asylum has always been exercised generously and nobly, in favour
of al1types of persons without discrimination and regardless of the
political views of the refugee. This point must be stressed because
it is to the crédit of the Latin-American countries.

In the case of Colombia and Peru, it is sufficient to point out
that the same Ambassador granted asylum, first to M. Julio
C. Villegas, who, as Minister of the Interior, wrote the letter provid-
ing for the application of certain measures in the proceedings
against M. Haya de la Torre, and later, to Haya de la Torre himself.
24. Nor is diplomatic asylurr~contrary to the principle of non-

intervention, which is fundamental in American law. The historical
origins of this principle are to be found in the relations between the
United States of America and the Latin-American nations, and
it was put forward by the latter as an affirmation of their independ-
ence against interventions, even armed interventions, which had
occurred but which need not be recalled here. At the hlontevideo
Conference of 1933, the principle was accepted by the Vnited
116379 OPINION DISSIDENTE 'DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA
par suite du développement de la politique du Président Franklin
Roosevelt, et, grâce à la consécration de l'égalitéjuridique des
Etats américains, les relations mutuelles entre ceux-ci se sont

développéespar la suite dans le domaine d'une totale solidarité,
car les diverses méfiancesqui pouvaient exister auparavant avaient
disparu
C'est pourquoi on n'a jamais pensé en Amérique que l'asile a
des liens avec l'intervention ou la non-intervention. Ce sont des
situations différentes qui n'ont jamais étéconfondues. C'est pour
cela que des pays comme la République argentine ou le Mexique,
qui ont toujours étéles partisans les plus enthousiastes de la non-
intervention, l'ont étéaussi de l'institution de l'asile. En agissant
ainsi, ils n'ont pas étéillogiques, mais au contraireont tenu compte
de la réalitéaméricaine.

25. La Conférencede La Havane a trouvé en 1928 l'institution
de l'asile destinéeà favoriser les persécutéspolitiques- dans des cas
de troubles intérieurs. Le conférence n'a jamais voulu modifier le
caractère essentiel de l'institution de l'asile, mais au contraire elle
a voulu la maintenir, l'affermir. Elle n'a pas, non plus, exprimé le

désirde mettre un terme à de prétendus abus de l'asile. Les précé-
dents de la convention sont très clairs à cet égard. Le principal fut
la réunion de jurisconsultes de Rio-de-Janeiro en 1927, dont le but
fut simplement d'essayer de réaliser la codification du droit inter-
national public et du droit international privé en suivant les systè-
mes adoptés par la Vme Conférencepanaméricaine de Santiago-du-
Chili en 1923, à savoir, l'élaboration d'un code pour le droit inter-
national privé et la préparation d'accords partiels pour le droit
international public. Le critère de sélection des questions de droit
international publicà Rio fut de préférer lesmatières où il n'y aurait
pas de grands désaccords, où il existerait un assentiment général.

Des matières en quelque sorte mûres pour l'insertion dans un traité,
par suite de l'existence à leur égard d'un assentiment général
favorable, d'une sorte de conscience juridique déjà formée à ce
sujet entre les pays américains. On peut donc croire que, si le sujet
de l'asile fut choisià Rio, c'est qu'il s'agissait indubitablement de
traiter une matière jouissant de l'appui et de la sympathie géné-
raux, où l'accord était possible, comme il l'était pour les autres
matières choisies (fonctionnaires diplomatiques, consuls, traités,
propriétélittéraire, etc.).

On trouve le mêmeesprit dans les actes et délibérations de La
Havane. Contre l'asile, il ?'y eut d'autre résistance que celle de

principe opposée par les Etats-Unis d'Amérique. En dehors de
cela, la matière ne présenta aucune .difficulté, aucune objection.

26. L'octroi et le maintien de l'asile sont des phénomènes diffé-
rents: l'un est instantané,l'autre s'étenddans le temps. C'est ainsi
que l'a compris le Pérou en présentant sa demande reconvention- DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 379
States of America following the development of the policy of
President Franklin Roosevelt ;and pursuant to the confirmation of
the juridical equality of American States, their subsequent mutual

relations developed in an atmosphere of complete solidarity, for
the feelings of distrust which had existed theretofore now
disappeared.
That is why it has never been believed in America that asylum
is related to intervention or to non-intervention. These are entirely
different situations which have never been confused. That is why
countries like. the Argentine Republic and Mexico which have
always most enthusiastically supported non-intervention, have also
supported with the same enthusiasm the institution of asylum.
In so doing, they were not being inconsistent, but were rather
taking American reality into account.

25. The Havana Conference of 1928 had before it the institution
of asylum which was intended to assist political refugees' in the
event of domestic disturbance. The Conference never chose at any
moment to modify the essential character of the institution of
asylum, but sought rather to maintain and strengthen it. Nor did
it express a desire to put an end to alleged abuses in the matter
of asylum. The precedents of the Convention are very clear in this
connexion. The principal one was the meeting of jurists at Rio

de Janeiro in 1927, whose purpose was merely to attempt to
codify public international law and private international law in
accordance with the systems adopted by the Fifth Pan-American
Conference of Santiago (Chile) of 1923, namely, the elaboration
of a code of private international law and the preparation of
partial agreements for public international law. The criterion
applied in selecting the questions of public international law at
Rio was that preference should be given to questions in which
there were no wide divergencies of view, and upon which there
was general agreement. These were so to speak subjects which
were ripe for insertion in a treaty following a generally favourable
consensus, a kind of juridical conscience that had already been
formed in this respect among the American countries. We may

therefore assume that if the subject of asylum was chosen at Rio
it was because this was doubtless a question which enjoyed general
support and sympathy, a matter in which agreement was possible,
as was the case for the other topics adopted on that occasion
(diplomatic officiais, consuls, treaties, literary copyright, etc.).
The same spirit may be noted in the acts and deliberations at
Havana. There was no resistance to asylum except the opposition
in principle of the United States of America. With this exception,
the matter presented no difficulty and raised no objections.

26. The grant of asylum and the maintenance of asylum are
different phenomena. The former is instantaneous, the latter
extends in time. This was Peru's understanding in presenting its OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA
380
nelle au sujet de l'octroi et une addition, qui ne fut pas prise en
considération, au sujet du maintien. A cause de cela, je crois que ce
qui est en rapport avec l'octroi de l'asile ne peut êtreexaminé qu'en
considérant une date unique :le 3 janvier 1949.

Décider sur le maintien de l'asile, c'est aller au delà de la préten-
tion péruvienne, telle qu'elle a été exprimée: en ma qualité de
juge, j'estime devoir me limiter à résoudre les questions telles
qu'elles ont étéprésentéespar les Parties.

Néanmoins, le maintien de l'asile est pleinement justifié pour la
Colombie par diverses raisons :

I.Le Pérou n'a demandé à aucun moment la remise du réfugié.
2. Le Pérou s'opposait à l'asile en se fondant sur l'idée que
M. Haya de la Torre était un délinquant de droit commun, ce qu'il
n'a pas pu prouver.
3. La Colombie, dès le lendemain de l'octroi de l'asile, soit le
4 janvier 1949, demanda le sauf-conduit pour que M. Haya de la

Torre pût sortir du Pérou, avec les garanties nécessaires, ce qui
terminait l'étape de l'asile diplomatique.
4. Cette demande de la Colombie ne fut pas prise en considéra-
tion.
5. A partir de l'Acte de Lima, la question est sub judice, et les
deux pays ont été d'accord dans l'obligation de respecter la situa-
tion existante.

27. On a dit que la Colombie, àpartir du jour de la présentation
de la demande reconventionnelle et pendant les débats oraux, a
choisi de porter sa défense sur un terrain où la Convention de
La Havane ne lui a pas donné de fondement. Ceci se réfèreau fait

que les porte-parole de la Colombie ont examiné les circonstances
dans lesquelles le procès contre M. Haya de la Torre a été entamé.
Cet examen, à mon avis, n'a pas dépendu de la volonté de la
Colombie, mais plutôt de l'orientation adoptée par le Pérou lors-
qu'il a formulé une demande de reconvention qui, à l'encontre
de la requête colombienne, ne propose pas à la Cour des questions
nettement juridiques, mais des questions de fait et des accusations
contre la conduite de l'ambassadeur colombien à Lima. Au cours
de la correspondance diplomatique, la Colombie a toujours refusé
de discuter des questions concernant la politique ou la situation
interne du Pérou. Cette négative se trouve dans toutes les notes
colombiennes, et ceci nonobstant les invitations réitérées à le faire

de la part du ministre péruvien des Affaires étrangères. Mais en
présence de la demande reconventionnelle, la Colombie s'est vue
obligée de changer son attitude et d'examiner les documents et
les faits relatifs au recours proposé. DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 380

counter-claim concerning the grant of asylum as well as the addition,
which was not examined bythe Court, concerning the maintenance
of asylum. For this reason 1 believe that al1 that relates to the
grant of asylum can only be examined by considering one date
and one date alone, January 3rd, 1949.
To pass judgment on the maintenance of asylum is to go beyond
the limits of the Peruvian claim as it was expressed bythatGovern-
ment, and in my capacity as Judge, 1 consider that 1 must confine
myself to resolving the questions which have been put by the

Parties.
Nevertheless, the maintenance of asylum is fully justified in the
case of Colombia on the following grounds :
I. At no moment has Peru requested the surrender of.the refugee.

2. Peru opposed the asylum on the grounds that M. Haya de la
Torre was a common criminal, a fact which Peru has not been able
to establish.
3. On the very day after the grant of asylum, namely January
4th, 1949 ,olombia requested a safe-conduct to enable M. Haya de
la Torre to leave Peru with the necessary guarantees,thus bringing
the stage of diplomatic asylum to a close.

4. This request on the part of Colombia was not entertained.

5.Following the Act of Lima, the question is sub judice and the
two countries have agreed upon their obligations to respect the
existing situation.

27. It has been stated that Colombia, following the day on
which the counter-claim was presented and during the oral
proceedings, chose to transfer her defence to a plane on which
the Havana Convention could provide it with no foundation.
This refers to the fact that the spokesmen for Colombia have
exanlined the circumstances in which proceedings were instituted
against M. Haya de la Torre. In my opinion, this examination

did not depend upon the will of Colombia, but rather upon the
policy adopted by Peru in presenting a counter-claim which, in
contrast to the Colombian Application, does not submit purely
legal questions to the Court but rather questions of fact and
accusations against the conduct of the Colombian Ambassador
in Lima. Throughout thc diplomatic correspondence, Colombia
has consistently refused to enter into a discussion concerning
Peruvian politics or the domestic situation in Peru. This refusa1
is to be found in al1 the Colombian notes, in spite of the repeated
invitations of the Peruvian Minister for Foreign Affairs. But con-
fronted with the counter-claim, Colombia was obliged to change
her attitude and to examine the documents and facts which were
raised in that counter-claim.381 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. CAICEDO CASTILLA
Une preuve évidente du changement introduit par la demande
reconventionnelle, c'est que dans la dernière étape de ce procès

la partie la plus discutée a étéla condition d'urgence, qui n'avait
pas mêmeétémentionnée au cours de la discussion diplomatique.

Parmi les documents présentéspar le Pérou,la lettre du 5 octobre
1948 du ministre de l'Intérieur, M. Villegas, réfugiépar la suite
également à l'ambassade de Colombie, devait attirer particulière-
ment l'attention. Cette lettre a étéqualifiée comme constituant
une dénonciation, quoiqu'elle ne se conforme pas aux exigences
de la législation péruvienne pour une dénonciation. Cette lettre
est d'une gravité extrême, parce qu'elle ordonne au juge d'ins-

truction la procédure à suivre contre M.Haya dela Torre,procédure
que ledit iuge a effectivement adoptée. Ceci constitue une preuve
indiscutable de l'influence et de l'intervention du gouvernement
dans la justice militaire.
28. Étant donné les considérations ci-dessus, il est possible de

conclure que la conduite de la Colombie est d'une correction
absolue. Il faut souligner, en outre, la circonstance que de tout
le procès se dégagent avec une grande netteté non seulement
les motifs d'urgence qu'a eus l'ambassadeur de Colombie à Lima
pour accorder l'asile à M. Victor Raul Haya de la Torre, mais
également le fait que le réfugiéest un délinquant politique. Ceci
prouve que la Colombie a agi inspirée par des raisons profondé-
ment respectables.
Elle n'a pas cherchéla défensed'un intérêtparticulier, mais celle
des principes juridiques généralement acceptésen Amériquelatine.
La Colombie a considéré qu'entant que membre de la communauté

américaine elle est obligée de travailler pour l'intégrité de ces
principes qui, avec beaucoup d'autres, sont effectivement en
vigueur sur le continent américain et font que la politique inter-
nationale s'y déroule sur la base de nobles doctrines et non pas
sur des motifs simplement utilitaires ou matérialistes. Dans ce
cas, la Colombie a étéfidèle à ses traditions et a étéégalement
fidèle aux traditions juridiques du continent. En affirmant avec
décision et sans aucun intérêt égoïste des orientations communes
aux autres Républiques américaines, la Colombie se fait en réalité
le porte-parole des peuples libres de l'Amérique.
En défendant un réfugiépolitique, la Colombie défend un droit

fondamental de la personne humaine, et elle fait honneur non
seulement à des obligations contractuelles, maià des engagements
d'un autre ordre, dont la force ne saurait êtreméconnue.
Je me réfère aux principes essentiels inspirant aussi bien la
Charte des Nations Unies que les déclarations approuvées par
la IXmc Conférence panaméricaine et par l'Assemblée générale
des Nations Unies.

(Signé) JOSÉ JOAQU~K CAICEDOCASTILLA. DISSENTING OPINION BY M. CAICEDO CASTILLA 381

Evidence of the change which was introduced by the counter-
claim is found in the fact that the point which was most discussed
in the last stage of the proceedings was the condition of urgency,
a question which had not even been mentioned during the diplo-
matic discussions.
Among the documents presented by Peru, the letter of
October 5th, 1948, from the Minister of the Interior, M. Villegas,
who subsequently sought refuge in the Colombian Embassy, is
worthy of special attention. It has been contended that this
letter constitutes a denunciation, although it does not fuifil the
requirements of Peruvian legislation in this respect. This lettcr
is a very serious document because it orders the Examining
Magistrate to follow a certain procedure in respect of M. Haya
de la Torre, which procedure that judge actually adopted. This
constitutes irrefutable evidence of the influence and intervention
of the Government in military justice.

28. In view of the foregoing considerations, it is possible to
conclude that the conduct of Colombia was beyond reproach. It
must further be emphasized that it is abundantly clear from the
whole proceedings that the Colombian Ambassador at Lima had
urgent grounds to grant asylum to M. Victor Rahl Haya de la
Torre, and it is equally clear that the refugees a political offender.
This proves that Colombia's actions were inspired by the most
respectable considerations.

Colombia has not sought to defend a particular interest, but
rather the legal principles which are generally accepted in Latin
America. Colombia has considered that, as a member of the American
community, she is bound to work for the integrity of these principles
which, along with many others, are effectively in force on the
American continent, thus ensuring that international relations in
that part of the world develop pn the basis of noble doctrines and
not on grounds which are purely utilitarian or materialistic. In
this case Colombia has remained faithful to her own traditions as
well as to the juridical traditions of the continent. In stating
resolutely and unselfishly the tendencies which are common to the
other American Republics, Colombia actually becomes the spokes-
man of the free peoples of America.
In defending a political refugee, Colombiadefends a fundamental
human right, and in so doing not only honours her contractual
obligations, but also undertakings of another order, the force of
which cannot be disregarded.

1 am referring to the essential principles which have inspired
not only the Charter of the United Nations, but also the declara-
tions which have been adopted by the IXth Pan-American Confer-
ence, andby the General Assembly of the United Nations.

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Dissenting Opinion by M. Caicedo Castilla (translation)

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