Dissenting Opinion by Judge Azevedo (translation)

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007-19501120-JUD-01-04-EN
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007-19501120-JUD-01-00-EN
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DISSEXTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO

[T~aflslation]
Much to my regret, I am obliged to dissent from the reasons and
the conclusions adopted by the Court in its Judgment and to state
my persona1 views on those various points.

I. Care must be taken that an exaggerated application of the
grammatical method, excessive concern for the intention of the
authors of a text and strict adherence to forma1 logic should not
lead to disregard of the manner in which a legal institution has
become adapted to the social conditions existing in a certain part
of the world.
It should be remembered, on the other hand, that the decision
in a particular case has deep repercussions, particularly in inter-
national law, because views which have been confirmed by that
decision acquire quasi-legislative value, in spite of the legal prin-
ciple to the effect that the decision has no binding force except
between the parties and in respect of that particular case (Statute,
Art. jg):
Technical procedures may be applied in such a strict manner
that a chivalrous and traditional institution,the utility of which is
universally acknowledged, may be weakened and transformed to

such an extent that it becomes something akin to a police measure.
Thus, in the field of asylum, the distinction on which the institution
is based, i.e. between political offences and common crimes, is
disregarded :the difference between respect in the first case and
Prohibition in the second disappears.

If indeed the main concern is the material protection of the
individual against the excesses of an unruly mob during the time
strictly indispensable to surrender the refugee to the local author-
ities, and if, on the other hand, it is inconceivable that temporary
protection against lynching should be refused even to the most
infamous common criminal during the time indispensable for
their surrender to the custody of the territorial State, then al1
distinction disappears.
It would be equally possible to consider that a refugee is in
safety by virtue of his surrender to the local authorities, even after

it has been agreed that he is merely a political offender, without
even a reservation concerning punishment for common crimes of
~vhich he may be subsequently accused, as is the rule in the case
of extradition.
2. Reality, as 1 sce it, is quite different, and the most firmly-
established traditions ofLatin -4merica which ensure the advantages

70 DISSENTING OPINTON BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 333
of asylum to al1perçons accused of political crimes or offences, either
during revolutions or in the more or less disturbed periods that
follow, do not appear to me in the same light. This result goes

beyond the intentions of the draftsmen of the Treaty of 1928 and
rests, not on the sole grounds that the administration of justice
should be presurned to be defective, but on the fact that such an
adulteration is always possible in troubled times and that it is
better in each case to avoid an inquiry which would be more
offensive to the country concerned than a general provision which
is always applicable on the basis of strict reciprocity.
No one disputes the fact that international law may be influenced
by special factors which are perfectly compatible with it. This
secondary formation may result from various factors such as those
of race, religion or geographical proximity.

Diplomatic asylum is a striking example of the necessity of
taking into account, in the creation or adaptation of rules of
restricted territorial scope, of geographical, historical and political
circumstances which are peculiar to the region concerned--in this
case the twentv nations of Latin America.
In Europe, where social changes are rare but serious, the
institution of asylum tends to disappear ; in Latin America,
however, where revolutions are less serious but much more frequent,
the adaptation and development of this ancient practice has
progressed, gaining force with each convention signed, and it is
still not yet possible to foresee the high point, much less the low
point, of the curve.

3. In that region, asylum has practically dated from the auto-

riomy of the States concerned, which have been independent for less
than a century and a half. The extent of the application of this
institution is confined to the territories of Central and South
America, and 1 cannot recall a single State that has remained
aloof from the action of asylum in its two aspects. Hundreds of
perçons have benefited from asylum, and the protection of those
precious lives weighs more with me than the punishment of a
few political offences.
Apart from humanitarian considerations, however, which are
clearly individualistic in character, asylum has another even
more important aspect. It is also a highly social institution and
has a deep educational action towards the control of passions,
the exercise of self-control, and the respect for a rule which is

so deep-rooted that it has become almost sacramental. This
practice has asserted itself even on the most powerful de facto
governments which have assumed power in the course of civil
wars. At the most critical times of political strife, this fraternal
voice is heard calling upon the combatants to separate and urging
men to clemency.
71 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 334

That deep-rooted intuiton is more powerful than any technical
subtleties, and it is the first time that a dispute of this kind has
been submitted to international jurisdiction, the few difficulties
having been, so far, easily overcome.

If environment and other relevant factors are disregarded in
favour of the literal interpretation of one single condition, the
result would not then be a case of surnntufn jus, but of an element
of disturbance, which, far from contributing to peace, would be
responsible for increasing the number of disputes and perhaps even
of civil wars in America.

4. In my opinion, the institution of asylum in Latin America
may be summarized as follows :

(1) It applies not only to political offenders, properly speakii-ig,
but also to perçons who are persecuted for political reasons, as
explained in a purely declaratory manner in Article 2 of the
Montevideo Convention of 1939 : al1 political opponents are
protected, whether they be statesmen in disgrace or politicians
who have failed in their attempt to overthrow the government.
(2) Its exclusive, if not its principal, purpose is not to protect
the refugee from the excesses of a mob. Such excesses as may

have sometimes occurred in the overthrow of corrupt dictators,
remain rare because of the natural sympathy of the people for
those in trouble. The purpose of asylum is not only to protect
life, but especially to safeguard liberty against every kind of
persecution.
(3) Its purpose is not only to prevent the application of ad lzoc
legislation by exceptional courts, but also to protect the refugee
against ordinary justice, in cases of political offences which, by
their very nature, do not lend themselves to judicial appreciation,
and are sometimes deferred to political organs frillowing a procedure
of impeaclzment. Extradition of political offenders is refused the
world over, even when requested by countries living under a

normal constitutional régime. This fact is esyecially noteworthy,
since the country of refuge does not itself take measures to punish
the refugee, at least not to the extent it would punish an idenéical
offence committed on its own territory. This attitude, hon-ever,
would deprive a refusa1 of al1moral justification and nrould reveal
the doubts entertained concernir-ig the proper administration of
justice in the other State.
(4) Urgency, which may be interpreted in a number of wag-s,
cannot be determined in relation to a unit of tin-ie,but in relation
to various factors, including even the geographical difhcultics of
external refuge, which can be reached much more easilj- in densely-

populated areas where rapid means of transportatior-i are al-ailable
to nearby frontiers. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 335

(5) Periods of constitutional abnormality are among the first
factors to be considered in assessing the danger threatening the
refugee when the rule of law is suspended or practically ceases to
exist. Serious concern for the safeguard of justice is then justified
because of the direct or indirect pressure which unlimited power
may exercise on ordinary or extraordinary courts.

(6) The restrictive clause on the duration of asylum, apart from

being obviously illogical if the departure of the refugee depends
on the goodwill of the other State, cannot be interpreted in the
sense that the surrefider of the refugee to the local authorities is an
equivalent form of guarantee. On the contrary, because of the irre-
parable character of its consequences, asylum, if regularly granted,
cannot in any way terminate without the consent of the refugee.
(7) Like extradition, asylum is instantaneous in its character
and should be judged in relation to a very definite moment.
Subsequent events, and their unpredictable developments, may
sometimes assume an unexpected direction, but they merely
represent the consequences and the conclusion of a previously
existing legal situation.

5. To state these fundainental points does Bot imply that asylum
may be granted without careful consideration. Indeed, this would
increase the frequency of social disturbances and encourage the
initiative of adventurers specializing in asylum. That is why a
diplomat should not be approached concerning the attitude he
nlay adopt in the future, should such a case arise. The regulations
issued to the Brazilian diplomatic service expressly provide that
diplomatic officiais shall not offer asylum to anyone seeking it or
lead such a person to the seat of the mission (H. Accioly, Traité

de droit i.rl.ter~zatioplztblic, Paris, 1940-1942, tomeII, paragraph
117olA). Moreover, asylum would not thereby be made easier,
for it is inconceivable that a diplomat would welcome these alien
guests, n7ho are the cause of serious inconvenience and consider-
able trouble.
To prevent abuse, American writers on international lan~ (see
H. Accioly, op. cit., paragraphs 1170/A and 1173 ; Heitor Lira,
Revisto de Direito, Rio de Janeiro, v. 126) warn against any exten-
sive interpretation of this institution and restrict the grant of
asylum to grave circumstances. Governments, as we have just seen,
often send instructions to this effect to their diplomatic agents.

On the other hand, a strict interpretation should not lead to the
distortion of the purposes of asylum, or, in practice, bring about

its abolition by excessive respect for the letter of the texts or even
of mere preambles.
6. \Ve have already mentioned the antiquity, extent and, par-
ticularly, the continuity of this practice. 1t is indisputable that DISSENTING OPIXION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 336

Latin-American countries practise asylum extensively , whether
actively or passively ;they sign conventions, even if they sometimes
fail to ratify them ; they ~nake solemn declarations, they issue
press communiqués, they praise the services rendered by asylum.
In a word, they appear generally proud of the extensive and
continued application of this ancient institution.
But it will be argued that such a practice, if it is interrupted,
cannot be regarded as a custom and that the Parties have dwelt
particularly on the contradictions in their respective practices.

The difficulties involved in referring "to custom as a source of

internationci.1law are well known ;custom plays a most important
part (the principal part, according to certain writers) in the develop-
ment of international law.
It is therefore necessary to consider the examples of interruption
in the practice in order to determine their true nature and decide
whether they suffice to destroy the value of other concordant cases
which, by their number, would clearly reveal an opiniio ztris. In the-
present case, it will be necessary, forexample, to consider whether
the nature and the purpose of the institution, as they may be
deduced from the form it has assumed in that part of the world,
have been affected by the exceptions or whether, on the contrary,
the lattermerely prove the rule. But these exceptions are only the
result ofpersona1 attitudes and rather reflect the conduct of govern-
ments in defiance of the juridical conscience of States which had

previously been firmly established. Such transitory or episodic
reactions are always the counterpart of political situations in the
process of consolidation and rarely arise from the normal func-
tioning of constitutional organs. Viewed from another angle, these
sporadic reactions have an abnormal character when they are
confined to one aspect of asylum-the reluctance to recognize the
measures taken by a foreign .diplomat, whereas the recalcitrant
State continues to .grant asylum in other countries. It is unneces-
sary to qualify such conduct.
No value can attach to such weak elements, even if they assume,
as has already occurred, the strange form of the abolition of asylum
by unilateral declaration, for such an abolition is alwaysimmediat-
ely followed by a return to the previous practice, whicl-i is thus
strengthened by facts and not merely by presumptions, although

doctrine may consider the latter sufficient. The opponents of the
voluntary theory even go so far as to Say that it is impossible to
seek a psychological element which remains necessarily intangible
(Paul Guggenheim, Les deux éIé,kîze~rzitslnCOLL~LLIJi~iev~~nfioirrrle,
in "La technique et les principes du droit public, Etudes en l'hon-
neur de Georges Scelle", Paris, 1950, \.ol. 1, pp.2.7 et sqq.).

On the contrary, those occasional denials constitute violations
of an already established rule, for a State cannot oppose a custom
previously accepted. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 337

To destroy such a custom, a clear, coherent, unilinear attitude
would be required, such as that of the United States for instance,
which, while refusing to become in any way involved in the institu-
tion of asylum adopted by their sister-republics, have in practice
shown toleration in some extreme cases, although with restricted
effects.

7. What is the value, however, of such a custom as against
conventions, and even a complex of conventions, the signature
and ratification of which sometimes reveal a certain lack of con-
sisteccy in the principles of the States belonging to the group
which establishes them ?
There is no need to go into the matter of the derogative action of
treaties upon custom, nor into the question of the compatibility
of the two sources of law. It will be sufficient to emphasize that

treaties often embody principles already established by custom,
and thus have a declaratory effect with regard to customary rules.
This role is greater in a system where the field of written law is
progressively extended by the reception of new practices which
have manifested themselves in the interval.
It isthen very dangerous for a State to proclaim that it is bound
only by the treaties which it has signed and ratified. This purely
gratuitous declaration is rather daring, particularly at a time when
the contractual element is undergoing an obvious and deep change
by virtue of the para-legislative action of an international character
which is being developed even at the cost of substituting the
majority principle for the principle of unanimity.
Thus, in a course at the Academy of International Law, Pro-

fessor Balladore Pallieri referred to the current observation to the
effect that "a large number of Pan-American conventions are
observed, even by States which did not ratify them, and that they
often become common and general law for America" (Recueil des
Cours, 1949, Vol. 74, p. 540).
This practice is so deep-rooted that it may be observed that on
several occasions in respect of the Treaty of mutual assistance
signed at Rio de Janeiro on September and, 1947, the signatories
could not participate in the voting provided for in that Treaty
unless they had ratified it.

8. To show the force of custom in the field of asylum in Latin
America, it is sufficient to recall the significant fact that Spain
was almost compelled to accept not only the institution of asylum,
but also to comply with regional agreements, even though these
had not been ratified by several American States, on the grounds
that the mother-country was bound to accept from her numerous
offspring a sort ofestate in reversion.
Another decisive test may be mentioned. Very few of the twenty
States of the group ever ratified or even signed a treaty on
asylum. The names of Bolivia and Venezuela come to mind. In DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 338

so doing, did they avoid the general practice, or did they at least
adopt other principles ? On the contrary, they practise asylum
naturally, like the other States, invoking and accepting indis-
criminately the application of principles contained in regional
treaties.
There is a third, though minor, factor, and that is the practice
of immediately requesting a safe-conduct without awaiting the
initiative of the territorial State. It is therefore not proper to
deduce from the failure to ratify a new convention the conclusion
that the State concerned rernains outside the group in which the
custom is respected.

9. In order to refute the claim that we should return to a literal
interpretation of the texts, it will be necessary to add to these
general data concerning the environment and the spirit of the
continent two further considerations which apply particularly to
the Respondent, although doctrine and jurisprudence. are not
concerned with seeking the recognition of custom in the practice
of the contesting States (A. Verdross, Recueil des Coars, Vol. 30,
P. 295).
On the one hand. on October 12th. 1~48, the remondent Gov-
ernment recopized. in an officia1 note ihe' respec< of interna-
tional obligations concerning established practices (Memorial). On
October 26th, 1948, while already confining itself to conventions
which it had ratified, the Respondent acknowledged the right of
diplomatic agents to require the necessary guarantees for the

departure of the refugee. This right cannot be disregarded, any more
than the right to qualify the offence. In those conditions, the Court
cannot readily suppose that an error has been committed, as was
subsequently contended.
This was no extraordinary and isolated declaration of the Execu-
tive-of lesser importance than that accepted by the Permanent
Court in the famous Eastern Greenland case, and 1 believe that in
so doing that Court was applyinginternational law-but a declara-
tion merely interpretative of treaties, and in harmony with the
normal attitude of the State (J. L. Brierly, Recueil des Cozws,
Vol. 58, p. 71), and which moreover is in accordance with views
accepted and recognized by al1 American countries (Memorial).

On the other hand, on October 20th and 28th, 1948, it seemed

natural to the diplomatic representatives of the Respondent in
Guatemala and Panama to ask territorial States to recognize the
protection granted by the Havana and Montevideo Conventions on
Asylum (Memorial),whereas it was necessary to establish that the
State of refuge would in any case not practise asylum to a greater
extent than was warranted by its own usages, conventions or laws DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 339
These two considerations may lead to the belief that application
more geometricoof treaty clauses-even by a court deciding strictly

in law-would be difficult to justify.

But let us.admit, for the sake of argument, that it is necessary to
return to the pure theory of the autonomy of the will, irrespective
of the direct action of custom exerting itself alongside that of
treaties in functions which are normally exercised præterlegem.Even
then, it would not be possible to disregard the profound action of
custom as a preponderant factor in the interpretation of any text
adopted on the same subject, especially if such action assumes
a character of reciprocity (H. Lauterpacht, Recueil des Cours,
Vol. 62, pp. 157-161).

IO. It has already been pointed out that the purpose of asylum,

as traditionally practised in Latin America, is not only to protect
the person of the refugee, but also to remove him from the juris-
diction of territorial courts for political offences, just as in the
case of refusa1 of extradition.
Concern for a good administration of justice is thus shown in
the same way in both institutions as regards political offences
which are purely of an artificial or conventional nature (G. Sotgia,
Il delitto politico, Rome, 1950, pp. 20 and 98).

The question migLt arise, however, whether this protection
against a mere legal danger, the danger of unfair trial and con-
demnation, should not be set aside in the case of asylum, which
differs from that of extradition in the sense that the offender

continues to remain on the territory of the State of which he is
a national, while protected not by the obsolete fiction of exter-
ritoriality, but simply by immunities granted to a foreign
diplomat .
To dispel this doubt, it is enough to recall other examples in
which international law, without any persona1 reflection on
municipal judges, does not comply with their final decisions and
recognizes compensation based on a denial of justice. This amounts
to reci~rocal control. whic:i must be tolerated in the absence
of a kper-state ordér. The situation is the same in the case of
recognition of individual rights below a certain standard type,
even if this inadequate régime applies to nationals.
Continual efforts are being made at the present time to establish
on an international plane a judicial organ to correct the inadequacy

of municipal courts, so that the new neclaration of Human Rights
may not remain a dead letter.
In this way the French law of March ~oth, 1924, provides that
extradition shall not be granted even in cases of common crimes
if the request has been made with a political end in view (Art. 5,
para. z),and the grounds for such a provision have been very DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 34O
aptly explained by Professor Donnedieu de Vabres (Traitéde droit

pénal et de législation fiénalecomparée,3rd ed., 1947, para. 1791).
Already in the municipal lawç of some countries a prejudiced
local attitude constitutes a legal reason for transferring the trial
of a criminal to the assizes of another district, sufficiently remote
not to be disturbed by the repercussions of the crime.
Finally, it would be difficult to understand why, in America, if
the purpose of asyliim was not to protect a political offender from
ordinary courts, the territorial State should resign itself, in every
case, to accept this serious consequence simply by courtesy or
goodwill, evenif at the outset that State sometimesmakes a certain
attempt to oppose it.
This fact is evident and irrefutable :it has just been naturally
admitted, before or after a categorical denial.

Reference has been made to a certain lack of clarity in the
circumstances of the numerous cases of asylum described before
the Court by the Parties, but there is one point which in any case
is beyond dispute-and that is, that among the means by which
asylum was terminated does not appear the surrender of the refugee
to the local authorities without his consent, even if the prevailing
conditions had changed. .
There is no known case to the contrary, and, as an indication
of the extent to which the diplomatic code of honour is respected,
the famous case may be cited in which a refugee wished to renounce
the protection and surrender himself to the local authorities ; on
that occasion the Ambassador who, incidentally, was accredited
in Latin America by a European country, demanded an explan-

atory letter, signed not only by the refugee, but countersigned by
perçons who were removed from constraint of any kind, and in that
instance the letter was widely publicized by the Ambassador.
This fact is to be explained by the decisive consideration that
the withdrawal of the favour which had been granted to the refugee
would greatly aggravate his position. He could not be sent away
with impunity ; having lost his hiding-place and by appearing in
the full light of day, he would become the object of special vigilance
and would be deprived of the means of seeking another form of
refuge, which would have been easier for him to do before leaving
the Embassy.

II. Would not this evident restriction to sovereignty offend
national feelings, particularly in America, where countries are most
jealous of their independence, and have initiated well-known
continental doctrines like those of Monroe, Drago, Porter, etc. ?
A mere reference to widespread historical factors shows that
preoccupations of sovereign equality among American States are
not based on inter-continental reasons, except in some exceptional DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 341
cases in the past, which showed apprehension of the extremes of

a political hegemony without counterpart on the continent itself.
The Charter of the Organization of American States, signed in
Bogota on May end, 1948, provides that an act of aggression
against one American State is an act of aggression against al1
the other American States (Art. 5 f).

Particularljr in the Latin-American group, there are no suscept-
ibilities to trouble the fraternal atmosphere and the smallest
country will, as amatter of course, grant asylum and ask the most
powerful State for a safe-conduct without the slightest hesitation
and with the clear conscience of exercising a right. Considerations
of sovereignty easily give way to a superior spirit of justice in
matters concerning the protection of the inalienable rights of man,
even before the spectacular reception of the individual into the
international field, as a result of the decision of the United Nations
ilssembly in Paris in 1948.

It must also be observed that in the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro of
September znd, 1947, for the common defence of the continent,
two procedures and two solutions were adopted depending upon
whether the aggression was external or by an American State.
M. Levi Carneiro, Brazilian jurist nom7Counsellor to the Ministry
forForeignAffairs, referring to the best-known authors of the North-
ern and Southern American continents, says that asylum is not to
be considered merely as the result of humanitarian concern, but as
a preoccupation of justice-even of individual justice-based on a
certain reserve, a certain distrust of executive organs of the govern-
ment and the courts of the country of the accused or of the individ-
ual persecuted. The first grants of asylum were not motivated by
humanitarian reasons alone. They therefore imply certain mani-
festations of opinion regarding the domestic affairs of the country
(O direito internacional e a democracia, Rio de Janeiro, 1945,

P. 140).

Besides, Article 3 of the Havana Convention has turned the old
discussion on the nature of asylum-whether a right or a mere
humanitarian practice-into an academic question. It was illogical
in itself, as it opposed two heterogeneous factors, namely, cause and
effect. A right may be based on ethical considerations or take its
source from economic, political or other factors. In any event, the
Convention has decided that the effects of asylum are the same,
whatever the reasons for which it was granted.

If the relation between the individual and the State granting
asylum alone is considered, any restriction may become an anachron-
ism when asylum begins to be treated not as a mere option but as DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 342

a right. recognized in its external aspect by the Declaration of
Human Rights.
The time is happily past when the preparatory work of the 1930
Rocco Code in Italy referred to the fact that "the right of political
asylum is an anachronism incompatible with the situation of a
strong State".
As early as 1939, Uruguay proposed the insertion in the Con-
vention of a rule to replace the faculty for the diplomat to grant

asylum by an obligation which he assumed vis-à-vis any individual
who might need such protection (Franchini Netto, O asilo diplo-
matico e O costume internacional, Sao Paulo, 1939, p. 100). Con-
sequently, it is not a mere toleration, which would moreover be
incompatible with any codification if asylum were to depend
upon the goodwill of each government. On the contrary, a European
writer, Cabral de Moncada, has empharized the future of this
institution in international law in respect of the determination
of the minor rights of the human person (O asilo interno em
Direito internacional publico, Coimbra, 1946, p. 158).

12. To understand the true American s~irit.it is necessarv to
take into account other elements which might easily pass uhob-
served outside the continent.
For example, the Convention of 1928 on the effects of treaties
contains a clause which says that treaties will continue to have
effect even if the Constitution of a signatory State is modified

(Article II).
Finally, it was the. American nations which, for the first time
in the world, directly and explicitly agreed that a majority of
them be empowered to take decisions binding upon all. This
majority was two-thirds, and applied in matters of great importance
such as mutual assistance in case of aggression, but did not apply
to armed collaboration which continued to depend upon the
consent of each State (the above-quoted Treaty of 1947, Articles 8,
17 and 20).

13. It matters little that, in the question of recognition of
new de facto governments, the collective action of American
countries has not yet made it possible to arrive at a defi'nite
solution by means of preliminary consultations. In accordance
with new trends and doctrines such as those of Estrada, Tobar,
Larreta, etc., there is an attempt to demand a perfect and immed-
iate application of democratic principles after any political

change (Charles Fenwick, The problem of the recognition of de
facto governnzents, "Inter-American Juridical Yearbook, 1948,
i5Tashington, 1949, p. 18).
At any rate, there can be no comparison between the two cases,
for the need to establish and maintain good-neighbourly relations
explains why certain forma1 conditions have to be accepted for the
recognition of a government as, for instance, apparent stability,
80 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 343

the maintenance of public order, or respect for international under-
takings.
But these conditions do not justify the sacrifice of al1 concern
for justice and the safeguard of the dignity of the human person.
Restrictions on the administration of justice in the political domain
do not offend governments to the same extent as a refusa1of recog-
nition, even if the new government owes its existence to force.
That is why the Latin-American countries have so willingly
accepted the consequences of asylum which, at first sight, might
gravely encroach upon their sovereignty ;moreover, the reciprocity
which is the basis of this institution deprives this measure, adopted
by a restricted group of States, of any aspect of intervention. It

was therefore considered preferable to accept, even at the price
of impunity, a privilege which was tantamount to a sort of amnesty
having a general application in which any persona1 suspicion of the
members of the judicial system of such a country was removed.
Even admitting that the intention at Havana in 1928 was to put
an end to abuses, there is no evidence to prove that this purpose
was achieved, in view of the imperfect character of the texts which
were adopted at that time. Moreover, little value can be attributed
to preparatory work, especially to such complicated work as that
accomplished by a very large assembly (Max Sorensen, Les sources
du droit international, Copenhagen, 1946, p.215). On the contrary,
it must be admitted that precisely after that date the institution
of asylum assumed great importance, a phenomenon which has
been often observed in connexion with articles of codes which, in
response to the pressure of urgent social needs, frequently have

effects which their authors had not foreseen.

Al1 the foregoing considerations have clearly characterized the
attitude adopted by the Respondent, as we shall see later on. In
this connexion, we must examine frankly the clause which was
clumsily introduced into the Havana Convention and which has
given rise to so much misunderstanding. It is evidently that clause
which refers to the "time strictly indispensable for the refugee to
ensure in some other way his safety". Does this clause concern
the State granting asylum ? But if it be concluded that the terri-
torial State may reject the qualification and especially refuse to
grant the safe-conduct, then the rule would have no meaning.
Indeed, who would be responsible for the delay ?An enquiry would
have to be opened in order to appraise the conduct of each State,

and the conclusion might be that the clause had been violated but
that no one was to blame for this violation.
In the circumstances it is not apparent how this text is con-
clusive, especially in the present case, where the reply to the three
notes from the Applicant was despatched 48 days after the first
note was sent. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 344
But it would be an exaggeration to consider that, by virtue of
that clause, the refugee must be surrendered to the local authorities
at the first opportunity as if this represented a guarantee for
his security comparable to that constituted by the diplomatic

premises.
14. In support of almost al1 of what 1 have just stated, 1 could
rely on a series of articles which are dated 1945 but which were
published between January 1947 and August 1948 in the Revista
peruana deDerechointernacional,the organ of the "Sociedad peruana
de Derecho internacional" (Vols. 7 and 8, Nos. 23 to 28), by one of
the directors of this review, M. Alejandro Deustua A., a summary
of which may be foiind in the Yearbook of the Pan-American

Union for 1948 (Washington, 1949, p. 219).
Let us briefly recapitulate the principal points :relying upon the
definition of asylum of the outstanding international jurist Alberto
Ulloa, the author proves the weakness of the arguments invoked by
European authors, particularly those which refer to the reservation
of sovereignty and the authority of local courts. In considering the
prevailing opinion in his country, the author mentions as the sole
exception one writer, M. Wiesse, al1 other writers having adopted
American continental practice ; he then examines the institution
in the light ofal1the American conventions without exception, and
points out that the life of the refugee is not the only human value
that is protected by asylum, the purpose of the latter being also to
preclude the possibility of unjust punishment ;the notion of danger
is then carefully examined with a view to ensuring that the refugee
will be free to choose the precise moment when he needs security,
it being also left to the discretion of the diplomat to appreciate this
necessity ; then the author points out that in principle the local

government does not oppose this choice and, without disputing the
urgency of the protection, rather seeks to deny the political charac-
ter of theoffence attributed to the refugee. Continuing what becomes
almost a prophecy of future events, the author seeks to dispel the
confusion between asylum and mere refuge, showing that such an
institution cannot subsist without the recognition of political
offences. And finally, after having emphasized that the qualification
must not appertain to an interested party but rather to a neutral
authority, such as a foreign agent, the author goes on to examine
certain other interesting considerations relating to the institution
which he has examined from its historical origins ; he reaches
sixteen conclusions of which the fourth leaves the character of
urgency on one side andtheninth recognizes that theState granting
asylum has the faculty to qualify the offence.

15. Two particular aspects of asylum must be emphasized :the
immutability of the conditions as viewed at the time asylum was
granted and t'he irreparable character of the consequences which
the withdrawal of asylum would imply for the refugee. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 345

Whether asylum is considered as a simple option, as a human-
itarian act, or as a veritable right, once it has been granted, it lays
an obligation upon the State which granted it. It is true that the
refugee runs a grave risk if the doors of the legation remain closed
to him, but if he succeeds in being admitted he acquires the assur-
ance that he will not be surrendered to the territorial State, except
on serious grounds.
The two foregoing observations make it possible to eliminate al1
confusion between the grant of asylum, which produces instan-
taneous and final results, and the vicissitudes which may sub-
sequently arise before the situation is resolved.
A radical change in the situation makes it indeed possible to
conceive of the departure of the refugee, not in order to surrender
to the police, but in order to return to his domicile with al1 due

peace of mind ; for the intervention of new factors, without in any
way affecting the regularity or irregularity of the asylum granted-
which remains unchanged- might result in the elimination of the
two reasons which gave rise to asylum, namely danger to life and
liberty, on account of previous political activity. In such cases,
which are not very rare, the objection of the refugee would be proof
of a mere abuse which is never supported by law, and the rule rebus
sic stantibuscould then apply.Apart from this exceptional situation,
the refugee cannot be surrendered to the local authorities without
his free consent.
The grant of asyliim gives rise to effects ex tzbncand not ex nunc ;
in fact, in this latter case the territorial State could always defer
the issue of the safe-conduct or any other solution by agreement

in the hope of laying hands on the refugee following a change in
the statas quo ante, for political events frequently take quite
unexpected directions and there has even arisen a case of exchange
of residcnce between the government and a diplomatic mission.
In the present case, it has been seen, for instance, that the
llinister who hadbrought the charges against the refugee approached
that same Ambassador three weeks later, and thelatter, being above
party considerations, granted him his protection.
The gïailt of asylum thus constitutes an admitted fact the
circumstances of which must oe fised, once and for all, ad perpetuam
rei memoriam, in view of any appreciation which may have to be
made in the future. It is entirely independent of its maintenance
for a necessarily indefinite period once it is recognized that the
determination of its duration does not depend esclusively on the

person granting it. Just as iinal1obligations, whatever their nature,
the formation and effects of a coiltractual obligation cannot be
confused with the rnanner in nhich it is tcrmiiiated. As for estra-
dition itself, it is necessary to consider a definite moment in order
to appreciatc whether the accused should be surrendered, and
subsequent modifications cannot influence this appreciation ; on
the contrary, efforts are made to ensure that the situation of the
extradited person is not aggra~~atc(1by other charges.

83 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
346
16. The Respondent has understood this problem perfectly. This
is apparent from the clarity with which he has formulated the
counter-claim i?zverbis: "the grant of asylum by the Colombian
Ambassador ...was made in violation ....".
But later on, the theory of the separate stages, which was still

accepted at the time of the oral statements in order to explain an
objection to a certain mode of terminating the asylum, was replaced
b!~the theory of the continuity of asylum as a mhole.
This change, however, has required a forma1 modification of the
original claim ; this modification, which was submitted with the
consent of the agent of the Respondent, consisted of adding to the
idea of grant that of maintenance.
Such a claim has been considered to be superfluous, but it was
necessary to accept a prolongation until August 31st, 1949, of
the circumstances constituting urgency, a concept which by its
very nature is transitory, and this observation is also superfluous
in view of the conclusion that asylum was irregularly granted on
January 3rd.
In my opinion, this application of the theory of "continuous"
asylum is even less defensible in that it even contradicts the
ordinary meaning of the verbs used in this connexion ("octroyer",
"accorder" and "concéder").

As has already been pointed out,it is difficult to draw conclusions
from a delay which results from the very nature of a divergence
of view, especially if the parties have reached an agreement on
the means of solving the dispute, in a regular manner, thus
rejecting on both sides the effects of a delay which had already
occurred at the time the agreement was concluded, as well as
the effects of any delay which might result from the subsequent
procedure. The truth is that the parties have in this way mutually
decided to remove any consequences which might arise from
such a delay.
It is worthy of note, finally, that the draft approved at Bath
used the conjunction or to separate the phrase referring to the
grant of asylum from that which referred to the maintenance
of asylum, instead of linking them by the conjunction and.

17. 1 shall not dwell on points which have become of minor
importance after the modification of the case.

Thus, as regards qualification of offences, it was seen that the
respondent State itself, invoking a precedent proper to its own
practice, considered that it was for the State granting asylum to
qualify the act which led to the asylum. That declaratlon would be
sufficient to set aside the statement made incidentally during the
proceedings that the Respondent had not ratified the Conventions
of 1933 and 1939, because of an aversion from the right of qualifica-
tion. But a host of other reasons would explain the omission-very DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
347
frequent in Latin America-to ratify a convention which also con-
tained other provisions. It would be necessary to put forward some
material evidence to establish this aversion. Moreover, in 1939 it
did not then exist, since the delegates of the Respondent had
renewed the signaturealready given to the same effect in 1933.

It is unnecessary to argue ad hominem because, in my opinion,
the clause of unilateral qualification is self-evident and evenconsti-
tutes the only means of settling such a difficult problem. It thus
happened twice at Montevideo that previous practice was restated
and that the texts merely proclaimed anew what was already
accepted practice at the time (H. Accioly, op. cit.pa,ra. 1171lA) ;
a simple expression in the preamble recording the undisputed fact
of a material modification could not act as an obstacle in the path
of a reality recognized without exception up to 1949. This is a
much more natural explanation of why four of the States which
were signatories in 192s considered it unnecessary to join by a
mere declaration in the restatement of the existing law.
The decision of the territorial State svould bring into play
a practically arbitrary factor and the conditions of a prior
agreement would be incompatible with the prompt actionrequired.
On the contrary, the conflicting solutions regarding the two kinds

of offences-respect of asylum and surrender of the refugee-and
the very general reference to the domestic law of the country
granting asylum would amply justify the view that the Treaty of
192s assumed the same preference for exclusive qualification which
fourteen States later expressly accepted (elevenin 1933, plus Nica-
ragua, which had not then deposited the ratification which had
been given, and two in 1939) and which six others accepted in
practice.
It is thus seen that the fact in no way offends against national
sovereignty, by virtue of the reciprocity and of the purposes in view,
namely, the protection of human rights against the contingencies
of politicallife.

18. The qualification of asylum must not only be unilateral but
also stable, as has already been seen above.

What is involved here is not a provisional qualification or a
mere question of effectiveness, but rather a necessary consequence
of the normal functioning of asylum as understood in Latin-
American practice.
The conclusion reached on the nature of qualification cannot,
however, attribute the value of res jzldicnta to a unilateral decision
of the country of asylum, evcn if this clualihcation should assiin~e
a definitive character. This qualification is not unattackable and
is subject not to the ordinary revision of facts in each case, but,

85 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 34s

in exceptional cases, to a sort of appeal such as the recours en
êassation,in the event of manifest violation of international law.
Obvious abuse and misuse of powers rnay occur in the grant of
asylum, in which case international law will intervene-as would
municipal law-to suppress any arbitrary action by specificmeans
for the peaceful settlement of disputes. In fact, reference to such
means rnay be found in certain treaties (Treaty ofMontevideo, 1939,
Art. 16).

19. As regards the obligation to grant a safe-conduct without
reservations, I agree in principle with the opinion of the majority
of the Court, although this solution is entirely independent of the
problem of qualification. It suffices, in this connexion, to recall that
asylum may have been regularly granted and yet the territorial
State rnay refuse to issue a safe-conduct for political reasons.

It is true that current practice has developed in the direction
of the initiative being taken by the State of refuge, but a fund-
amental psychological element should here be taken into con-
sideration. In order to respect asylum a state will yield, thus
curbing its wishes and waiving its interests, thereby showing
its obedience to a compulsory rule. But it is impossible to find
here evidence of the recognition of any obligation, even reluctantly
fulfilled.
Indeed, the easy grant of a safe-conduct coincides with the
interest of the State. It consents to the departure of a dangerous
individual, capable of creating difficulties, even though isolated

in a diplomatic residence and subject to severe restrictions, for
the material obstacle would be auite insufficient to control the
excesses of an unruly mob, should such a case arise.
This attitude also shows the conviction on the part of the
territorial State that it will not be able to punish the refugee,
except after his departure and by means of a request for extra-
dition.
But in some cases, on the contrary, the territorial State rnay
have a reasonable interest in preventing the departure of the
refugee, because of the greater danger he might cause to public
order, as for instance by joining insurgent groups inside or outside
its boundaries.
By virtue of direct negotiations or the mediation of a third
State, it rnay be possible to arrive at a conciliation safeguarding
the interests of the country, by means of restrictions tvhich in
fact have already been adopted in several conventions or drafts
(Pessôa, 1912, Draft of the conference of jurists in Rio de Janeiro,
1927), and which recall, moreover, that asylum should not bestow
unfair advantage on one of the opposing factions. It is quite

natural, therefore, that with or without the guarantee of the
State of refuge the refugee should undertake not to take up arms,
or establish his residence near the frontier, as otherwise hisncon-
ditional departure might be most detrimental to the State.
86 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 349
20. In cases of asyliim and non-extradition of political offenders,

there is a degree of constraint upon the State nrhich is thus imable
to apply jts criminal law-the obstacle being either the flight of the
criminal or his entrance into a diplomatic residence.

This negative aspect should be emphasized, because it is a serious
thing to put a State under an obligation to perform a positive act,
such as the issue of an exit permit, the psychological repercussions
of which are most serious.
In this connexion it is also necessary to admit that the State is
free to discriminate and to decide on the danger which would result
from the departure of eacli refugee individually, without such
decision being subject to criticism.
Reservations made by the territorial State are even more under-

standable when that State considers that asylum resillted from an
"abuse of right". Thisconstitutes a kind of reservation, comparable
to the exceptio non adimpleti co~ztractus,which consists in the post-
ponement of the delivery of a safe-condiict until the dispute bas
been settled, instead of permitting immediate departure, even with
the reservation of an ultimate requect for extradition, especially
when, in the country of refuge, the latter measure is left exclusively
to the decision of the judicial authorities, thus depriving the obliga-
tion which the government might assume in this connexion of al1
its effectiveness.

21. Let us nom examine the present case.
Following the grarit of asylum to M. Haya de la Torre, the
countries concerned embarked upon a diplomatic correspondence

which finally resulted in a very clear legal dispute, in which the
Respondent, while referring exclusively to the Con~rentions of 1911
and 1928, disputed the legitimacy of asylum on the sole grounds
that the refugee was not a politicaloffender but a common criminal
previously accused of acts of terrorism. NO one has claimed that
the element of urgency required by the Convention of Havana was
absent, and yet three months had already elapsed since the main
fact with which the leaders of the party in question were charged,
namely the military rebellion in the port of Callao on October 3rd,
194%
Was this due to error or oversight ? No, for in reply to the
communication of January 4th, 1949, the first letter of the Respon-
dent began with a reference to the rules of Havana, including the

circumstance of urgency, without raising any objection in this
connexion.
This was tantamount to a full recognition of the fact that asylum
had been properly granted, for it was unnecessary to begin a
painful discussion on any other point. Such an attitude further
stresses the manner in which the institution of asylum is viewed in DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 350
its natural surroundings. The arithmetical aspect of the duration

of this asylum did not attract the attention of any local jurist.
It is in this spirit thathere arose a single dispute or controversy
of crystal clarity,the main points of which have been indicated
several times already. It is true that the two Parties did not agree
on the terms in which the dispute should be submitted to the
Court, but there is nothing to show that the lack of such agreement
was due to a question which did not arise at the time ;on the
contrary, the divergence noted referred to the question of criminal-
ity, the Applicant preferring to confine himself to the two abstract
problems-namely, the right of qualification and the obligation to
deliver a safe-conduct-and the Respondent hoping to invoke the
existence of a prior accusation of common crimes.
In any case, the Act of Lima was concluded in order to submit

to the Court the dispute "which arose jollowing a request ...for
the delivery of a safe-conduct ...."etc. Thus, on these two occasions,
namely January 3rd and August 3oth, 1949, the dispute was
confined to definite points, in accordance with consent of the
Parties repeatedly expressed.
Biit, removed from the environment in which it arose, was
understood and defined, the case began to undergo the effects of a
process of change, at first discreet, but which finally resulted in
completely transforming the dispute.

22. Thus the counter-claim has added to the complaint of
violation of Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Havana Convention,
that of violation of Article 2, paragraph 2 ("First"), of the same

instrument.
From the antecedents of the case and in the absence of a precise
explanation on the developments which that paragraph may
permit, it could readily be imagined that, far from laying down
a new ground, it referred rather to an alternative arising out
of the previous discussion which has retained the same tenor
in the subsequent development of the legal proceedings until
the last oral statement, constantly recurring as a leitînotiu in
the case :the charge of common crime made in respect of acts
of terrorism to a certain extent tends to deprive such acts of
their political character.
It could therefore be admitted that after such express declara-
tions (see Memorial, Counter-Memorial, Rejoinder and oral state-
ments) it would automatically follow that, once the existence of

prior charges of common crimes has been disposed of, the grant
of asylum to a mere politician in distress or to a political criminal
whose right of asylum the Respondent has in principle always
acknowledged, would appear to be perfectly regular.
In other words, if th? Court finds that the refugee was not
accused of a common crime prior to the grant of asylum, the
asylum ~nust be upheld. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 35I

A very careful scrutiny of the Pleadings was necessary in order
to discover in two or three hidden references to urgency (Counter-
Memorial, Rejoinder) a new and even subsidiary requirement for
the acceptance of the asylum. 1 might even go so far as to Say that
the clarity of the reference which precedes the submission of the
counter-claim is far from satisfactory (see Counter-Memorial).

But the question was presented in an entirely different form
in the oral rejoinder, in order to make it possible to state to the
Court that it was free to consider or not the question of the quali-

fication of the offence, which question the Respondent at that time
considered to be outside the debate and the "trend which it had
assumed", for the Respondent was mainly concerned with the
circumstance of urgency connected with a material and transitory
danger.
The centre of the case was thus displaced ; al1 concern with
common crimes, which had hitherto been the only grounds for not
recognizing the asylum, disappeared ;and the question was then
raised of the competence of the Court to decide on problems which
had been raised only in the counter-claim.
1 cannot, for my part, remain indifferent to such a practice, which
is reminiscent of the Anglo-saxon concept of estoppel, nor could 1
accept that the onus of proving urgency should, at theeleventh
hour, be placed upon the Applicant who, in respect of the counter-

claim, became the Respondent, when, in the absence of any objec-
tion regularlypresented on the point of urgency, the procedural rule
should be applied according to which facts not disputed by the
other party should be assumed to be true.
In any case the question of proof has no importance whatever in
the present case, for the documents submittedby both Parties, with
different ends in view, are more than sufficient to prove the facts
which are necessary for the Court's decision in this case.

23. In my opinion the Court was not even competent to decide
upon a dispute which did not exist at the tiine of the conclusion of
the Act of Lima, whereas that Act described a dispute which had
already arisen and had been clearly defined. Under the terms of the
Protocol signed in Rio de Janeiro by the Parties on May zqth,

1934, a direct preliminary diplornatic cliscussion would also have
been necessary before a question could be brought before the Court.
Itu7as considered preferable to confine the discussion to a tacit
agreement of the Parties since, in the oral submissions, the Applic-
ant did not again refer to the cornpetence of the Court to consider
what he called the first claim, whereas he referred to its lack of
jurisdiction with respect to the second counter-claim (see Reply
and Oral Statements).
This reason, although supported by the jurisprudence of the
Permanent Court, is very weak. First of all, 1 would prefer to this DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 352

jurisprudence the dissenting opinion submitted among others by
Judge Max Huber (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 :Judgment No. 12,
p.53). Furthermore, this was a case of a lack of jurisdiction ratione
materia which the Applicant has in fact recalled in connexion
with the duty of the Court to examine ex oficio the two require-
ments laid down in Article 63 (jurisdiction and connexion).
But there is yet a more important circumstance ;it is that the
modification to the essential basis of the claim was pleaded at a
time when the other Party was no longer able to reply, and that

condition was in any case required by the Permanent Court in
connexion with a simple modification of submissions (M. O. Hud-
son, The Permanent Court of International Justice, New York,
1943, page 576, and note 25).
In any case, instead of seeking the consent of the Parties in the
weak measure of a tacit or a contrariorenunciation, 1 would prefer
to seek it in a solemn document such as the Act of Lima, which is
at the basis of the whole case, and limits the jurisdiction which
was conferred upon the Court only by the wiU of the Parties and
which the Court must observe ex oficio. (Viktor Bruns, in Recueil
des Cours, Vol. 62, p. 603.)

24. The counter-claim, and especially the importance so unex-
pectedly assumed by the circumstance of urgency, has brought
about a considerable modification in the case, removing it from the
field of simple juridical discussion to a plane where the political
aspect is of paramount importance. The intention has clearly been
to "burst an abscess".
The Applicant, who had displayed extreme reserve throughout
the diplomatic discussions, refraining from appraising the facts
(see Rejoinder) and relying on the general aspects of the law,
was forced to set forth the existing political motives on the first
occasion which presented itself after the Counter-Memorial,

namely in the Reply.
The Court has rejected almost unanimously the contention
concerning the existence of a common crime at the time at which
asylum was granted. This is the complete rejection of the view
maintained by the Respondent up to the date of his Counter-
Memorial, a view which was relegated to a subsidiary position only
on October gth, 1950.
But is has been argued that another provision of the Havana
Convention was violated because, within three months after the
principal event, there was no urgency and because on January 3rd.
1949, there was not sufficient real danger to justify the grant of
asylum.

25. But even up to that time, several diplomats continued to
grant asylum, without opposition, to a great number of persoils,
and this circumstance further leads to the rejection of a strict
interpretation of the word "urgency" in relation to time, according

90 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 353

to which the period should only consist of an unspecified number
of days.
It is very difficult to adopt an interpretation of a text without
regard to the special circumstances in which it was drafted ;these
circumstances are both numerous and varied.
Sometimes even the dates are lacking which would permit the
time to be calculated. It is also necessary to take into account the
difficulties of reaching a legation, for the first concern of the police
in such cases is to watch the premises of diplomatic missions in
order to prevent suspects from reaching them. In such instances

a refugee is forced to wait a long time for a favourable opportunity
of passing through unnoticed, generally at night.
It will be noted in the present case that the first definite indica-
tion of an accusation of political offence was the summons which
appeared in the officia1 gazette of November 16th, 1948 ; the
Ministerial letter to which we shall refer later had remained secret.
But could an anticipated request be willingly agreed to by a
diplomatic agent or, on the contrary, would he reject it on the
ground that it was premature ? It would be very difficult to
appraise such a situation in such different conditions of time and
place with a view to understanding the hesitation which might
arise in the mind of the fugitive.
It will be argued that there had existed since October 4th, 1948,
a decree outlawing the Aprist Party, the recitals of which contained

clear references to the intention to punish the moral authors of
acts contrary to the public order of the nation, in spite of the fact
that the programme of that party had been known for a long time
and that many of its members had belonged to the Congress or the
Government. But the constitutional validity of this act was none
the less open to judicial appreciation, since the Peruvian Constitu-
tion remained in force before October 27th with only the restric-
tions pertaining to a state of siege. It will be sufficient to note that
the said decree was based on Article 154, NO. 2, of the Constitution,
which attributes the maintenance of public order to the executive
power, without however authorizing that power to violate the
Constitution or the laws.
Other circumstances coula also be considered in appreciating the

conduct of the Ambassador, as well as that of his Government,
which subsequently had to support him. First of al1the letter of the
Minister of the Interior of October jth, 1948, denouncing crimes ;
this letter was of a clearly political nature, and although it remained
secret, produced visible results such as the sequestration of his
assets and newspapers ; then the successive renewals of a state of
siege, the last of which occurred the day before the asylum was
granted, showing that the fear of social disturbances had in no way
disappeared ; and, finally, the decree-law of November 4th, to
which we shall refer later. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 354

On the other hand, there could remain the danger of private
attacks, for instance from persona1 enemies, who might evade al1
precautions taken by the police guard.

26. But indisputable proof that the decision of the ,4mbassador
was not abnormal, unlawful orhasty, is to be found in the profound
change in the circumstances during the three months' period which
elapsed between the two facts of rebellion and asylum.

It is most regrettable to be obliged to examine the merits of
political facts,. but thereis no other means of considering the

problems raised by the counter-claim, and even tlien we are bound
to argue in a liypothetical and retrospective manner, since we are
dealing with a situation alreadv past.
The success on October 27th, 1948, of another revolutionary
movement aggravated the situation of the refugee, especially if
he is held responsible for the distribution of the pamphlets that
have been submitted to this Court.
It may perhaps have been considered that the punitive action
instituted by the constitutional President against the Aprist
Party was insufficient, and it has been stated, on the other band,
that the new Government did not consider itself bound by the
policy of the preceding Government in a question such as the
qualification of asylum.
It is important to recall that a Military Junta of the Govern-

ment was set up or, as is stated in the Judgment, "seized the
supreme power". Such a situation was incompatible with a real
constitution, and in the first place with that particular Con-
stitution which had been violated by the installation of this new
organ. The limitations of power which those who govern by virtue
of an act of force impose upon themselves are always deceptive,
since they proceed from a will that can be changed at any
moment. The decree of November 4th, for instance, is founded
on the powers which have been conferred upon the Junta without
its having been thought necessary to give the least explanation
concerning the source of such powers.
Thus, the monthly renewal of a state of siege, which normally
is confined to the suspension of certain constitutional guarantees,
has but little significance in the light of the unlimited scope of
the powers which the de facto government could assume in any

case ; the said decree of November 4th, providing the death
penalty and simplifying the legal procedure in cases of political
crimes, is clear proof of the force of a practically unlimited power.

It is therefore possible to admit in principle that a foreign
diplomat could have serious doubts concerning the functioning
of ordinary justice. For the dismissal, under various pretexts,
not only of military judges, but also of permanent judges even

92 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE -4ZEVEDO 355

belonging to a Supreme Court, is not an unusual possibility in
a country which might find itself for any length of time deprived
of its normal constitutional régime. Such a possibility need not
seem surprising in the light of a famous attempt which was
made to change the majority of a court in one of the greatest
democracies of the world, although the object in that instance
concerned only the fundamental interests of the country and
consisted in transforming the economic system of the State.
It matters little whether the decree-law of November 4th was not

actually applied in the proceedings against the subordinate accused,
for, at any time, another act based upon the same unlim ted powers
could have, by a mere stroke of the pen, given an entirely different
course to these proceedings in a manner which could not have been
foreseen in so unstable a situation.
Thus, a diplomat placed in similar circumstances could not be
certain that the old and deep-rooted cultural tradition of the
country to which he was accredited could be a sufficient obstacle
to a possible retroactive application of a new law, the intimidating
effect of which was undeniable.
It is true that a declaration made before the Court on June 15th
and October znd, 1950, by a constitutional government deserves

absolute respect and constitutes a guarantee against the future
application of the exceptional law in case the refugee were to
stand trial, although the task of applying a law appertains to the
judicial and not to the executive authority. But, in any case, such
a declaration is irrelevant to the situation, as it existed at a time
when it was considered easy to abandon the policy of the preceding
constitutional government (see Memorial).
The observation made by the Respondent that the Applicant
had adopted similar laws relating to the aggravation of penalties
and the simplification of procedure in cases of political offences is
not an argument in support of his case. On the contrary, if a con-

stitutional government can, in a simple state of siege, exercise
such essentially legislative functions by virtue of particular pro-
visions in its constitution,it can readily be imagined what might
happen in a case where such provisions did not exist or were only
partially applied at the discretion of the de facto authorities.
The Ambassador was able to note that proceedings were to
continue in the absence of the accused pursuant to a summons
published officially by order of the military Examining hlagistrate
(see Counter-Memorial). Could he foresee that this penalty would
not be imposed by virtue of a legal provision prohibiting pro-
ceedings in absentia? The exact terms of this provision are not

yet known to the Court and would need explanation especially
as regards the significance of the rcfcrcnces in the last part of the
decision reproduced in the Kejoinder. It matters little that a
moderate judgment \vas delivered without haste on JIarch zznd,
1950, against those of the accused xvho put in an appearance ;
93 DISSESTISG OPIXIOK BY JUDGE -4ZEVEDO 3 j6

for it also proclaims in an unduly anticipatory manner the main
res110nsibility of the leaders of Apra for events from which the??
were to derive persona1 advantage (see Rejoinder).

27. In fact, there is only one w7ayof appraising any question
of responsibility nrhatsoever, and that is to return to the condi-
tions of place, time and environment in which the events took
place, although it is possible to hesitate between a subjective and

an objective appreciation by adopting, in the first case, the point
of vie\, of tlie accused and, in the second, an abstract attitude
comparing the criticized conduct to an ideal conduct which is the
well-known criterion ol honzts pnterfnllzilias.
The approval given by the Goverilment to the action of its
representative has not changed the aspect of the situation nor
displaced the facts a single day after January 3rd, 1949. It would
therefore not be reasonable to set against the facts, which .occurred
at that time, a subsequent version which has been constructed
two vears after the events and at a place far removed from the
scenë of those events.

The sole purpose of the diplornatic discussion was to achieve a
re-consideration of attitude in the light of reasons going as far hack
as the grant of asylum. These negotiations did not succeed, and the
problem has remained in tlie state in which it was referred to the
Court hy the text of the counter-claim.
The dispute remained the same, and it was impossible to escape
from the following dilemma : either the violation is admitted, in
wfiich case the Ambassador was nrrong in the light of the only
circumstances that inay be taken into consideration, or else he \vas
right, in which case there can be no question of violation or cvcn,
in an attenuated form. of lack of conformitv.
Ifthis harsh alternative is abandoned, the; the onlÿ course is to

enter the field of arbitrary action, for there can be no clucstion of
passing judginent on the pcrsonal conduct of the Ambassador, or
wliether he committed an error or not, nhether such an error was
excusable, or n-hcther he should he acquitted.

28. Thcre are othcr elements in the case n-hich the Court cannot
fail to consider, especially as regards the change11hich ha5 allegedly
occurred in the situation silice Januarg- 3rd, with a view to deciding
whcthcr the surrender of the refugee would make it possible to
ensurc his safety.
Thus it \vil1bc seen, apart from the letter of the Jlinister of th(.

Interior of October jth, 1948, that :
(1)on hlay 2jtl1, 1919, the prosecutor denounced the refugee for
participation 111the crime of homicide on the count of second-
degree instigation and on the basis of mcrc 1)rcsurnl~tions (see
Countcr-Mcmorial) ;

04 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 357

(2) on September 7th, 1949, another enquiry was opened into
the forgery of a document which was to benefit the party and the
refugee (Counter-Memorial) ;

(3) on September 13th, 1949, the prosecutor brings a charge
against the refugee for the crime of usurpation of authority
(see Counter-Memorial) ;
(4) on September a~st, 1949, an enquiry was opened on the
count given above under No. 3 (see Counter-Memorial) ;

(5) on December 5th, 1949, the judgment accepts in a prelim-
inary manner the accusations of homicide and offences against
the administration of justice and against the good name of the
State (see Counter-Memorial) ;

(6) on December pst, 1949, an Examining Magistrate was
appointed who on that same day ordered the opening of two
enquiries on counts given above in No. 5 (seeCounter-Memorial);

(7) on April zand, 1950, the enquiry into offences against the
good name of the State and the administration of justice was
completed and an order issued for the application of the provisions
of the law against the defaulting defendants without the scope
of such penalties being known (see Rejoinder).

Al1 these facts have made it possible to argue during the oral
proceedings that "the municipal courts [of the country of which
the refugee is a national] consider him responsible for the assas-

sination of Graiïa and for crimes against the administration of
justice and against the good name of the State, and it is on these
counts that the proceedings were instituted" (see Rejoinder).

29. My conclusion that both the main claim and the counter-
claim should be dismissed could obviously give rise to the criticism
that the deadlock would continue after the twenty-two months
which have already elapsed ; but the two Parties, whilst having
urgently appealed to the Court to resolve the dispute, have not
furnished it with the means to arrive at an independent solution
as would have been possible under Article 38, paragraph 2, of
the Statute of the Court (judgment ex @quo et bono). On the

contrary, the Parties have limited the action of the Court by
indicating only the legal data applicable to the case.

But, if the fundamental points were finally settled as suggested
in my opinion, i.e. if the Respondent were not obliged to deliver
a safe-conduct and yet were not authorized to require the surrender
of the refugee, this situation would be conducive to an agreement
compatible with the requirements of security of the territorial
State and the individual rights of man, by virtue of conditions DISSENTIXG OPINIO?! BY JUDGE ,4ZETTED0 39

relating to the protection of the fundamental interests of the
coiintrx- and tlic dignitv of its citizens.
It would therefore not be possible to speak of life imprisonmcilt or
even indeiinite imprisonment, for the question of the asylum n-ould
be easily solx~edas it \vas in al1 other cases where a dispute arose.

30. ln the circuinstanccs, if the principal Applicant is disinissed
by an admiss on of the counter-claiin, 1 wonder nhether the
Respondent, ~vho up to now ha5 not demanded the surrencler
of the refugee, mil1 not be nduced to do so in accordance n-ith
the reservation made in that connexion (see Counter-1Ieinorial).
1 wonder what the attitude of the principal Applicant map be
if such a claim were made, or even whether, in the absence of
any request, the Respondent xvould not compel the refugee to
leave the Embassy. 1 wonder whether both sides will not be led
to admit that the surrender of the refugee to territorial justice
is the only solution. If that n7ere so, then it 11-ouldhappen that
after hundreds of cases of asylum, xve might wiiness, and for
the first time-at any rate as regards Latin -4merica-the
surrender of a political offender to territorial justice, n-hether

civil or military. 1 wonder if, in that event, that justice n-ould
try him not only for the political offence nith n-hich he is charged,
but even for common crimes, applying to him that curious
Article 24s of the IIilitary Code of Justice \\-hich provides that,
when the real authors of related crimes arc not knon-n, it is per-
missible to punish the principal leaders of the rebellion Such
results appear to me to be contrary to the idca of as~,lum to
political offenders, ~vhicli l,r~~\~nilsin 1atin Al~ncricn.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

A mon grand regret, je me vois obligé de m'écarter des motifs et
des conclusions adoptés par la Cour dans son arrêt et d'exposer moi1
point de vue personnel sur ces divers points.

I. Il faut prendre garde qu'une application excessive de la
méthode grammaticale, le souci de rechercher l'intention des
auteurs d'un texte et l'attachement excessif à la logique formelle
risquent de conduire à méconnaître la manière dont une insti-
tution juridique s'est adaptée aux conditions sociales qui règnent
dans une certaine partie du monde.
N'oublions pas d'autre part que la solution d'un cas d'espèce, en
droitinternational surtout, a de profondes répercussions;lesconcepts
retenus vont prendre une valeur presque législative en dépit de
toutes les explications juridiques qui veulent que la sentence ne

fasse loi qu'entre les parties (Statut, art..

Les procédés techniques peuvent être appliqués de façon si
stricte qu'une institution chevaleresque, lourde de traditions et à
laquelle personne ne conteste les services qu'elle a rendus, s'anémie
et se transforme au point de n'êtreplus qu'une mesure de caractère
presque policier. C'est ainsi qu'en matière d'asile on en arrive à
effacer la distinction qui esà la base de l'institution, la distinction
entre délitspolitiques et délitsde droit commun :la différenceentre
respect dans le premier cas et interdiction dans le second vient alors
à disparaître.
En effet, si on a principalement en vue la protection matérielle de
la personne contre les excès d'une foule déchaînéeet pendant le
temps strictement nécessaire pour rendre le persécutéaux autorités
du pays, et si d'autre part on ne peut même imaginer le refus de

protéger momentanément contre un lynchage les plus infâmes
criminels de droit commun, pendant le temps indispensable pour
les remettre à la garde de 1'Etat territorial, toute distinction est
alors abolie.
On en arrivera tout aussi bien à considérer un asilé comme en
sûreté du fait qu'il aura étéremis aux autorités locales, même
lorsqu'on aura constaté qu'il s'agit d'un simple délinquant politique
et sans même réserverla punition pour les délits communs dont il
est postérieurement inculpé, comme c'est la règle en cas d'extradi-
tion.

z. La réalitém'apparaît bien différente, et les traditions les mieux
assises de l'Amérique latine qui assurent le bénéficede l'asile à
70 DISSEXTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO

[T~aflslation]
Much to my regret, I am obliged to dissent from the reasons and
the conclusions adopted by the Court in its Judgment and to state
my persona1 views on those various points.

I. Care must be taken that an exaggerated application of the
grammatical method, excessive concern for the intention of the
authors of a text and strict adherence to forma1 logic should not
lead to disregard of the manner in which a legal institution has
become adapted to the social conditions existing in a certain part
of the world.
It should be remembered, on the other hand, that the decision
in a particular case has deep repercussions, particularly in inter-
national law, because views which have been confirmed by that
decision acquire quasi-legislative value, in spite of the legal prin-
ciple to the effect that the decision has no binding force except
between the parties and in respect of that particular case (Statute,
Art. jg):
Technical procedures may be applied in such a strict manner
that a chivalrous and traditional institution,the utility of which is
universally acknowledged, may be weakened and transformed to

such an extent that it becomes something akin to a police measure.
Thus, in the field of asylum, the distinction on which the institution
is based, i.e. between political offences and common crimes, is
disregarded :the difference between respect in the first case and
Prohibition in the second disappears.

If indeed the main concern is the material protection of the
individual against the excesses of an unruly mob during the time
strictly indispensable to surrender the refugee to the local author-
ities, and if, on the other hand, it is inconceivable that temporary
protection against lynching should be refused even to the most
infamous common criminal during the time indispensable for
their surrender to the custody of the territorial State, then al1
distinction disappears.
It would be equally possible to consider that a refugee is in
safety by virtue of his surrender to the local authorities, even after

it has been agreed that he is merely a political offender, without
even a reservation concerning punishment for common crimes of
~vhich he may be subsequently accused, as is the rule in the case
of extradition.
2. Reality, as 1 sce it, is quite different, and the most firmly-
established traditions ofLatin -4merica which ensure the advantages

70333 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
toute personne poursuivie pour crimes ou délits politiques, soit au
cours d'événementsrévolutionnaires, soit pendant les périodes plus
ou moins troublées qui les suivent, ne m'apparaissent pas sous ce

jour. Ce résultat dépasse ce qu'ont pu vouloir les auteurs du Traité
de 1928et il s'appuie non sur la seule raison qu'il faut présumer une
altération de l'administration de la justice, mais sur le fait que
cette altération est toujours possibleà ces époques troublées et qu'il
vaut mieux éviter en chaque cas une enquête qui serait plus bles-
sante pour le pays qu'une disposition générale toujours appliquée
sur la base d'une réciprocité rigoureuse.
Personne ne conteste l'influence au sein du droit international de
facteurs particuliers parfaitement compatibles avec celui-ci. Cette
formation secondaire peut résulter de rapprochements à plusieurs
titres, du point de vue de la race, de la religion ou de la contiguïté

géographique.
L'asile diplomatique fournit un exemple éclatant de la nécessité
de tenir compte, dans la création ou l'adaptation des règles de
ressort territorial limité, des circonstances géographiques, histori-
ques et politiques particulièresà la région dont il s'agit, en l'occur-
rence, les vingt nations de l'Amérique latine.
Tandis qu'en Europe, en dehors de mouvements sociaux rares
mais profonds, l'institution de l'asile tendà s'étioler, en Amérique
latine les troubles qui, pour être moins graves, sont beaucoup
plus fréquents, ont contribué à adapter et développer la vieille
institution qui gagne en force à chaque convention signée sans

qu'on puisse encore entrevoir le sommet de la courbe, à pliis forte
raison son déclin.

3. L'asile, dans cette région est presque contemporain de l'auto-
nomie des Etats qui la composent, et qui ne comptent pas encore
un siècle et demi d'indépendance ; l'étendue de son application
coïncide avec les territo?res du centre et du sud de l'Amérique,
et je n'aperçois aucun Etat qui soit resté étranger à cette action
sous les deux faces que l'institution présente. Les personnes qui
ont bénéficié de cette mesure se comptent par centaines, et la pro-
tection de ces vies précieuses me parait peser plus lourd dans la

balance que la punition de quelques délits politiques.
Toutefois,à côtéde l'aspect humanitaire, de caractère nettement
individualiste, l'asile se présente sous un aspect encore plus impor-
tant. C'est aussi une institution hautement sociale dont l'action
éducatrice profonde s'exerce dans le sens de la domination des
passions, de l'exercice du contrôle sur soi-mêmeet du respect dû
à une norme si profondément enracinée qu'elle revêt un aspect
presque sacramentel. Cette pratique a su s'imposer aux plus puis-
sants gouvernements de fait installés au cours des guerres civiles.
Aux moments les plus critiques de la lutte politique résonne cette
voix fraternelle qui vient séparer les rivaux et inciter les hommes

à la clémence.
71 DISSENTING OPINTON BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 333
of asylum to al1perçons accused of political crimes or offences, either
during revolutions or in the more or less disturbed periods that
follow, do not appear to me in the same light. This result goes

beyond the intentions of the draftsmen of the Treaty of 1928 and
rests, not on the sole grounds that the administration of justice
should be presurned to be defective, but on the fact that such an
adulteration is always possible in troubled times and that it is
better in each case to avoid an inquiry which would be more
offensive to the country concerned than a general provision which
is always applicable on the basis of strict reciprocity.
No one disputes the fact that international law may be influenced
by special factors which are perfectly compatible with it. This
secondary formation may result from various factors such as those
of race, religion or geographical proximity.

Diplomatic asylum is a striking example of the necessity of
taking into account, in the creation or adaptation of rules of
restricted territorial scope, of geographical, historical and political
circumstances which are peculiar to the region concerned--in this
case the twentv nations of Latin America.
In Europe, where social changes are rare but serious, the
institution of asylum tends to disappear ; in Latin America,
however, where revolutions are less serious but much more frequent,
the adaptation and development of this ancient practice has
progressed, gaining force with each convention signed, and it is
still not yet possible to foresee the high point, much less the low
point, of the curve.

3. In that region, asylum has practically dated from the auto-

riomy of the States concerned, which have been independent for less
than a century and a half. The extent of the application of this
institution is confined to the territories of Central and South
America, and 1 cannot recall a single State that has remained
aloof from the action of asylum in its two aspects. Hundreds of
perçons have benefited from asylum, and the protection of those
precious lives weighs more with me than the punishment of a
few political offences.
Apart from humanitarian considerations, however, which are
clearly individualistic in character, asylum has another even
more important aspect. It is also a highly social institution and
has a deep educational action towards the control of passions,
the exercise of self-control, and the respect for a rule which is

so deep-rooted that it has become almost sacramental. This
practice has asserted itself even on the most powerful de facto
governments which have assumed power in the course of civil
wars. At the most critical times of political strife, this fraternal
voice is heard calling upon the combatants to separate and urging
men to clemency.
71334 OPINIOX DISSIDESTE DE M. AZEVEDO
La force de cette profonde intuition est supérieure aux subtilités
techniques, et c'est bien la première fois qu'une querelle de ce genre
est parvenue devant une juridiction internationale, car toutes les
difficultés, rarement constatées, ont été, jusqu'à présent, très
facilement résolues.
Xais si l'on se tientà la rigueur d'une condition unique, en négli-

geant l'examen du milieu et des données de toute espèce qu'il con-
vient de considérer, on ne sera pas alors en présence d'un cas de
szlmnzzcm jzw,mais d'un élémentperturbateur qui, loin de concourir
à la paix, sera responsable de la multiplication des différends et,
peut-être, des luttes fratricides en Amérique.

4. A mon avis, l'institution de l'asile en Amérique latine pré-
sente en résuméles caractères suivants :
1) Elle s'étend non seulement aux criminels politiques propre-
ment dits, mais aussi aux persécùtés politiques, selon l'explication,
d'ailleurs manifestement déclaratoire, contenue dans l'article 2 de

la Convention de hlontevideo de 1939 : tous les -versaires poli-
tiques sont protégés, qu'il s'agisse d'hommes d'Etat déchus du
pouvoir ou de politiciens qui ont échouédans un coup d'Etat.
2) Son but exclusif, ou mêmeprincipal, n'est pas de protéger
l'asilé contre les excès de la foule. En effet, de tels excès, qui se
sont parfois produits lors de la chute d'un dictateur corrompu,
restent rares, étant donné la sympathie naturelle du peuple pour
ceux que la fortune frappe. L'institution de l'asile ne vise pas seule-
ment à protéger la vie, mais surtout la libertéà l'encontre des pour-
suites de toutes sortes.
3) Elle n'a pas seulement pour objet d'empêcher l'application

d'une législation ad hoc par des juridictions d'exception, mais aussi
de soustraire l'asilé à la justice ordinaire, du fait qu'il s'agit de
délits politiques qui, par leur propre nature, se prêtent mal à une
appréciation judiciaire et sont parfois déférésaux organes poli-
tiques, après une procédure d' « impeachment ».Partout dans le
monde, on refuse d'extrader des criminels politiques, même à la
demande de pays vivant sous un régime constitutionnel normal,
fait d'autant plus remarquable que le pays asilant ne se décidepas
lui-même à punir l'asilé,du moins dans la mesure où il punirait un
délit identique commis sur son territoire. Cette attitude retirerait
pourtant au refus tout fondement moral, et montrerait les doutes

que l'on nourrit au fond sur la bonne administration de la justice
dans l'autre Etat.
4) L'urgence, terme qui comporte plusieurs acceptions, ne peut
se mesurer par une unité de temps, mais en fonction de nombreuses
circonstances, parmi lesquelles il faut faire rentrer jusqu'aux diffi-
cultés géographiques de l'asile externe, bien plus facile dans les
régions très peuplées et servies par des communications rapides
entre des frontières proches. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 334

That deep-rooted intuiton is more powerful than any technical
subtleties, and it is the first time that a dispute of this kind has
been submitted to international jurisdiction, the few difficulties
having been, so far, easily overcome.

If environment and other relevant factors are disregarded in
favour of the literal interpretation of one single condition, the
result would not then be a case of surnntufn jus, but of an element
of disturbance, which, far from contributing to peace, would be
responsible for increasing the number of disputes and perhaps even
of civil wars in America.

4. In my opinion, the institution of asylum in Latin America
may be summarized as follows :

(1) It applies not only to political offenders, properly speakii-ig,
but also to perçons who are persecuted for political reasons, as
explained in a purely declaratory manner in Article 2 of the
Montevideo Convention of 1939 : al1 political opponents are
protected, whether they be statesmen in disgrace or politicians
who have failed in their attempt to overthrow the government.
(2) Its exclusive, if not its principal, purpose is not to protect
the refugee from the excesses of a mob. Such excesses as may

have sometimes occurred in the overthrow of corrupt dictators,
remain rare because of the natural sympathy of the people for
those in trouble. The purpose of asylum is not only to protect
life, but especially to safeguard liberty against every kind of
persecution.
(3) Its purpose is not only to prevent the application of ad lzoc
legislation by exceptional courts, but also to protect the refugee
against ordinary justice, in cases of political offences which, by
their very nature, do not lend themselves to judicial appreciation,
and are sometimes deferred to political organs frillowing a procedure
of impeaclzment. Extradition of political offenders is refused the
world over, even when requested by countries living under a

normal constitutional régime. This fact is esyecially noteworthy,
since the country of refuge does not itself take measures to punish
the refugee, at least not to the extent it would punish an idenéical
offence committed on its own territory. This attitude, hon-ever,
would deprive a refusa1 of al1moral justification and nrould reveal
the doubts entertained concernir-ig the proper administration of
justice in the other State.
(4) Urgency, which may be interpreted in a number of wag-s,
cannot be determined in relation to a unit of tin-ie,but in relation
to various factors, including even the geographical difhcultics of
external refuge, which can be reached much more easilj- in densely-

populated areas where rapid means of transportatior-i are al-ailable
to nearby frontiers.335 OPINION DISSIDEi\iTE DE M. AZEVEDO
5) Les périodes d'anormalité constitutionnelle sont un des
éléments premiers de l'appréciation du danger qui menace le

persécuté, lorsque lesrèglesjuridiques sont suspenduesou n'existent
pratiquement plus, les préoccupations que cause la sauvegarde
de la justice sont nécessairement très graves, du fait de l'action
directe et indirecte qu'un pouvoir illimité peut exercer sur les
tribunaux ordinaires ou d'exception.
6) La clause de temps limitative de la durée de l'asile, à part
mêmeson évident illogisme si le départ de l'asilé dépend de la
bonne volonté de l'autre Etat, ne peut être interprétée de telle
sorte que la remise du fugitif aux autorités représenterait une
garantie équivalente de sécurité. Au contraire, de par la nature
irréparable de ses conséquences, l'asile octroyéà bon droit ne peut
sous aucun prétexte prendre fin sans le consentement de l'asilé.
7) La notion de l'asile, comme celle de l'extradition, présente un
caractèreinstantané et doit êtreappréciéepar rapport à un moment

très précis ; les faits postérieurs, dont la suite changeante est
impossible à prévoir, prennent quelquefois un aspect inattendu,
mais ils n'affectent que les conséquences et le dénouement d'une
situation juridique déjàréalisée.
5. Constater ces points fondamentaux n'équivaut pas à dire que
l'asile doit êtreaccordéà la légère.En effet, cela aurait pour résul-

tat de multiplier les troubles sociaux et d'inciter à l'action les
aventuriers spécialistes de l'asile. C'est pour cette raison qu'un
diplomate ne doit pas êtrepressenti quant à l'attitude qu'il pourra
prendre à l'avenir, le cas échéant. Le règlement à l'intention du
service diplomatique brésilien disposeexpressémentqu'il est défendu
3ux fonctionnaires d'offrir asile ainsi que de conduire au siège de
la mission celui qui prétend y chercher asile (H. Accioly, Traité
de droit international public, Paris, 1g40/2, tome II, paragraphe
11701A).L)'ailleurs,l'asile n'en serait pas facil:en effet, comment
penser qu'un diplomate considère comme bienvenus ces hôtes
étrangers qui sont la cause degraves ennuis et de gêne considérable?

Pour éviter les abus, les auteurs américains de droit international

(v. g. H. Accioly, op. cit., paragraphes II~O/A et 1173;Heitor Lira,
dans Revisto de Direito, Rio-de-Janeiro, v. 126) s'élèventcontre
toute interprétation extensive de l'institution et limitent l'octroi
de l'asile à des circonstances graves. Les gouvernements, on vient
de le voir, donnent souvent des instructions dans ce sens à leurs
agents diplomatiques.
Pas contre, une interprétation restreinte ne doit pas aller jusqu'à
déformer lesbuts visés parl'asile et aboutir pratiquement à annuler
celui-ci Dar un attachement excessif à la lettre des textesou même
de simdes préambules.

6. Nous avons déjà rappelé l'ancienneté, l'étendue et surtout la
constance de cette pratique: il est indéniable que les pays de
73 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 335

(5) Periods of constitutional abnormality are among the first
factors to be considered in assessing the danger threatening the
refugee when the rule of law is suspended or practically ceases to
exist. Serious concern for the safeguard of justice is then justified
because of the direct or indirect pressure which unlimited power
may exercise on ordinary or extraordinary courts.

(6) The restrictive clause on the duration of asylum, apart from

being obviously illogical if the departure of the refugee depends
on the goodwill of the other State, cannot be interpreted in the
sense that the surrefider of the refugee to the local authorities is an
equivalent form of guarantee. On the contrary, because of the irre-
parable character of its consequences, asylum, if regularly granted,
cannot in any way terminate without the consent of the refugee.
(7) Like extradition, asylum is instantaneous in its character
and should be judged in relation to a very definite moment.
Subsequent events, and their unpredictable developments, may
sometimes assume an unexpected direction, but they merely
represent the consequences and the conclusion of a previously
existing legal situation.

5. To state these fundainental points does Bot imply that asylum
may be granted without careful consideration. Indeed, this would
increase the frequency of social disturbances and encourage the
initiative of adventurers specializing in asylum. That is why a
diplomat should not be approached concerning the attitude he
nlay adopt in the future, should such a case arise. The regulations
issued to the Brazilian diplomatic service expressly provide that
diplomatic officiais shall not offer asylum to anyone seeking it or
lead such a person to the seat of the mission (H. Accioly, Traité

de droit i.rl.ter~zatioplztblic, Paris, 1940-1942, tomeII, paragraph
117olA). Moreover, asylum would not thereby be made easier,
for it is inconceivable that a diplomat would welcome these alien
guests, n7ho are the cause of serious inconvenience and consider-
able trouble.
To prevent abuse, American writers on international lan~ (see
H. Accioly, op. cit., paragraphs 1170/A and 1173 ; Heitor Lira,
Revisto de Direito, Rio de Janeiro, v. 126) warn against any exten-
sive interpretation of this institution and restrict the grant of
asylum to grave circumstances. Governments, as we have just seen,
often send instructions to this effect to their diplomatic agents.

On the other hand, a strict interpretation should not lead to the
distortion of the purposes of asylum, or, in practice, bring about

its abolition by excessive respect for the letter of the texts or even
of mere preambles.
6. \Ve have already mentioned the antiquity, extent and, par-
ticularly, the continuity of this practice. 1t is indisputable that336 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

l'Amérique latine pratiquent largement l'asile, de manière active
ou passive ;ils signent des conventions, même si parfois ils ne les
ratifient pas ;ils font des déclarations solennelles, ils émettent des
communiqués de presse, ils louent les services rendus par l'asile,
enfin ils se montrent en généralfiers de cette application large et
renouvelée de la vieille institution.
Mais, dira-t-on, cette pratique ne peut malgré tout se présenter
comme une coutume, si elle offre des solutions de continuité ;et les

parties à cette affaire ont mis tout particulièrement en lumière
leurs contradictions réciproques.
On connaît bien les difficultésque le recours à la source coutu-
mière entraîne dans le droit international où la coutume joue
d'ailleurs un rôle important, et même principal d'après certains
auteurs.
Il convient donc d'examiner les exemples contraires à la conti-
nuité pour en déterminer la véritable nature et apprécier s'ils ont
force suffisante pour détruire la valeur des autres cas concordants
dont la multitude révèlenettement une opinio juris. En l'espèce,

il faudra, par exemple, rechercher si la nature et les fins de l'insti-
tution, telles qu'elles se dégagent de la forme qu'elle a prise dans
cette partie du monde, ont étéaffectéespar les exceptions relevées
ou si au contraire ces dernières ne font que confirmer la règle. Or,
elles ne répondent qu'à des attitudes personnelles et révèlent
plutôt la conduite de certains gouvernements, faisant violence à
la conscience juridique des Etats, auparavant solidement acquise.
Ces réactions transitoires ou épisodiques constituent toujours le
contre-coup de situations politiques en cours de consolidation et

ne proviennent presque jamais des organes constitutionnels dans
leur état normal. Vues sous un autre angle, ces réactions spora-
diques conservent un caractère anormal lorsqu'elles se limitent
à une seule face de l'asil- une répugnance à admettre les mesures
accordées par un diplomate étranger, tandis que 1'Etat récalcitrant
continue à donner l'asile dans les autres pays. Il est inutile de
qualifier une telle conduite.
On ne peut attribuer aucune valeur à de si faibles éléments,
même s'ilsprennent, comme il est déjà arrivé, la forme bizarre
de l'abolition de l'asile par voie de déclaration unilatérale, car

cette abolition est toujours immédiatement suivie d'un retour à
la pratique ancienne, qui se trouve ainsi renforcée par les faits et
non simplement par des présomptions dont, d'ailleurs, la doctrine
peut se contenter. Les adversaires du volontarisme prétendent
même à l'impossibilité de chercher un élément psychologique
toujours insaisissable (Paul Guggenheim, Les deux élémentsde la
coutume internationale, dans ((La technique et les principes du droit
public, Etudes en l'honneur de Georges Scelle », Paris, 1950,
tome 1, pp. 276 et sqq.).

Au contraire, ces négations fortuites constituent des violations
de la règle déjà formée, car un État ne saurait s'insurger contre
une coutume déjà acceptée.
74 DISSENTING OPIXION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 336

Latin-American countries practise asylum extensively , whether
actively or passively ;they sign conventions, even if they sometimes
fail to ratify them ; they ~nake solemn declarations, they issue
press communiqués, they praise the services rendered by asylum.
In a word, they appear generally proud of the extensive and
continued application of this ancient institution.
But it will be argued that such a practice, if it is interrupted,
cannot be regarded as a custom and that the Parties have dwelt
particularly on the contradictions in their respective practices.

The difficulties involved in referring "to custom as a source of

internationci.1law are well known ;custom plays a most important
part (the principal part, according to certain writers) in the develop-
ment of international law.
It is therefore necessary to consider the examples of interruption
in the practice in order to determine their true nature and decide
whether they suffice to destroy the value of other concordant cases
which, by their number, would clearly reveal an opiniio ztris. In the-
present case, it will be necessary, forexample, to consider whether
the nature and the purpose of the institution, as they may be
deduced from the form it has assumed in that part of the world,
have been affected by the exceptions or whether, on the contrary,
the lattermerely prove the rule. But these exceptions are only the
result ofpersona1 attitudes and rather reflect the conduct of govern-
ments in defiance of the juridical conscience of States which had

previously been firmly established. Such transitory or episodic
reactions are always the counterpart of political situations in the
process of consolidation and rarely arise from the normal func-
tioning of constitutional organs. Viewed from another angle, these
sporadic reactions have an abnormal character when they are
confined to one aspect of asylum-the reluctance to recognize the
measures taken by a foreign .diplomat, whereas the recalcitrant
State continues to .grant asylum in other countries. It is unneces-
sary to qualify such conduct.
No value can attach to such weak elements, even if they assume,
as has already occurred, the strange form of the abolition of asylum
by unilateral declaration, for such an abolition is alwaysimmediat-
ely followed by a return to the previous practice, whicl-i is thus
strengthened by facts and not merely by presumptions, although

doctrine may consider the latter sufficient. The opponents of the
voluntary theory even go so far as to Say that it is impossible to
seek a psychological element which remains necessarily intangible
(Paul Guggenheim, Les deux éIé,kîze~rzitslnCOLL~LLIJi~iev~~nfioirrrle,
in "La technique et les principes du droit public, Etudes en l'hon-
neur de Georges Scelle", Paris, 1950, \.ol. 1, pp.2.7 et sqq.).

On the contrary, those occasional denials constitute violations
of an already established rule, for a State cannot oppose a custom
previously accepted.337 OPIKION DISSIDEKTE DE hI.AZEVEDO

Pour détruire une telle coutume, il faudrait une attitude nette,
ohérente, unilinéaire, comme celle suivie, par exemple, par les
Etats-Vnis, qui, tout en refusant de se compromettre en aucune
façon dans l'institution de l'asile adoptée par leurs sceurs latines,
ont accordé dans la pratique des tolérances dans quelques cas
extrêmes en en limitant soigneusement les effets.

7. Mais que peut valoir cette coutume en face des conventions,
et mêmed'un enchevêtrement de conventions dont les signatures
et les ratifications montrent quelquefois un certain manque de
cohérence dans les principes de la part des Etats appartenant aux
groupes qui les établissent ?

Il n'est pas nécessaire d'examiner à fond l'action dérogatoire
des traités à l'égard de la coutume, ni la compatibilité des deux
sources. Qu'il suffise de souligner que les traités recueillent souvent
des principes déjà établis par la coutume et ont ainsi un effet
déclaratoire par rapport à la règle coutumière. Ce rôle s'accroît
dans le système où le champ de la loi écrite s'étend à chaque
période par la réception des nouvelles pratiques qui se sont affirmées
dans l'intervalle.
11est alors tout à fait hasardeux pour un État de déclarer qu'il
n'est liéque par les traités qu'il a signés et ratifiés;il y a un peu

de témérité dans cette affirmation purement gratuite, surtout à
un moment où l'élément contractuel subit une transformation
évidente et profonde du fait de l'action para-législative d'ordre
international qui se développe au prix même de la substitution
du principe de la majorité au principe de l'unanimité.
C'est ainsi que le professeur Balladore Pallieri a pu rappeler
récemment, dans un cours à l'Académie de droit international, (la
remarque courante qu'un grand nombre de conventions pan-
américaines sont observées mêmepar les Etats qui ne les ont pas

ratifiées et qu'elles deviennent souvent un droit commun et général
pour l'Amérique ))(Recueil des Cours, 1949, v. 74, p. 540).
Cette pratique est tellement enracinée qu'on a pu remarquer à
plusieurs reprises dans le Traité d'assistance mutuelle signé à Rio-
de-Janeiro le 2 septembre 1947 que les signataires ne pourraient pas
participer aux votes prévus dans le traité avant d'avoir ratifié
celui-ci.

8. Pour démontrer la force de l'action coutumière en matière
d'asile en Amérique latine, il suffit de rappeler ce fait significatif que
l'on a presque forcél'Espagne à accepter non seulement l'institu-
tion de l'asile mais aussi l'obéissance à des conventions régionales,
même non ratifiéespar plusieurs des pays américains, et cela pour
le motif que la nation mère devait recueillir de ses nombreuses
filles une sorte de successionà rebours.

Lne autre contre-épreuve décisive peut être invoquée : des
vingt pays du groupe, il n'y en a que très peu qui aient jamais
ratifié ou mêmesigné un traité sur l'asile. Et on pense alors à la
75 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 337

To destroy such a custom, a clear, coherent, unilinear attitude
would be required, such as that of the United States for instance,
which, while refusing to become in any way involved in the institu-
tion of asylum adopted by their sister-republics, have in practice
shown toleration in some extreme cases, although with restricted
effects.

7. What is the value, however, of such a custom as against
conventions, and even a complex of conventions, the signature
and ratification of which sometimes reveal a certain lack of con-
sisteccy in the principles of the States belonging to the group
which establishes them ?
There is no need to go into the matter of the derogative action of
treaties upon custom, nor into the question of the compatibility
of the two sources of law. It will be sufficient to emphasize that

treaties often embody principles already established by custom,
and thus have a declaratory effect with regard to customary rules.
This role is greater in a system where the field of written law is
progressively extended by the reception of new practices which
have manifested themselves in the interval.
It isthen very dangerous for a State to proclaim that it is bound
only by the treaties which it has signed and ratified. This purely
gratuitous declaration is rather daring, particularly at a time when
the contractual element is undergoing an obvious and deep change
by virtue of the para-legislative action of an international character
which is being developed even at the cost of substituting the
majority principle for the principle of unanimity.
Thus, in a course at the Academy of International Law, Pro-

fessor Balladore Pallieri referred to the current observation to the
effect that "a large number of Pan-American conventions are
observed, even by States which did not ratify them, and that they
often become common and general law for America" (Recueil des
Cours, 1949, Vol. 74, p. 540).
This practice is so deep-rooted that it may be observed that on
several occasions in respect of the Treaty of mutual assistance
signed at Rio de Janeiro on September and, 1947, the signatories
could not participate in the voting provided for in that Treaty
unless they had ratified it.

8. To show the force of custom in the field of asylum in Latin
America, it is sufficient to recall the significant fact that Spain
was almost compelled to accept not only the institution of asylum,
but also to comply with regional agreements, even though these
had not been ratified by several American States, on the grounds
that the mother-country was bound to accept from her numerous
offspring a sort ofestate in reversion.
Another decisive test may be mentioned. Very few of the twenty
States of the group ever ratified or even signed a treaty on
asylum. The names of Bolivia and Venezuela come to mind. In338 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

Bolivie et au Venezuela. Se sont-ils soustraits de la sorte à la
pratique généraleou ont-ils au moins adopté d'autres principes ?
Nullement. Ils pratiquent naturellement l'asile comme les autres,
en invoquant et en acceptant indifféremment l'application des
principes contenus dans les traités régionaux.
Une troisième circonstance, quoique de moindre valeur, peut être
rappelée, celle de la pratique de la demande immédiate du sauf-
conduit, sans attendre l'initiative du pays territorial. Il est donc
inexact de tirer de l'absence de ratification d'une nouvelle conven-
tion la conclusion que 1'Etat intéresséreste en dehors du groupe

où la coutume est respectée.

9. Pour ébranler la prétention d'en revenir à la rigueur des
textes, il faut encore ajouter à ces données généralessur le climat
et l'esprit du continent deux autres considérations particulières
au défendeur, quoique la doctrine et la jurisprudence ne se préoc-
cupent pas de chercher la reconnaissance d'une coutume dans la
pratique des pays en conflit (A.Verdross, Recueil des Cours,vol. 30,
P 295).

D'une part, le 12 octobre 1948, le Gouvernement du défendeur a

reconnu dans une note officielle le respect des engagements inter-
nationaux et des pratiques établies (mémoire) ; le 26 octobre 1948,
tout en se limitant déjà aux conventions ratifiées par le pays, le
défendeur reconnaissait le droit de l'agent diplomatique d'exiger
les garanties nécessairespour que le réfugiésorte du pays. Ce droit
ne pourrait êtreméconnu,pas plus que le droit de qualifier le délit,
disait-on. Dans ces conditions, il est difficileà la Cour d'accepter
l'hypothèse d'une erreur, comme on l'a soutenu plus tard.

11ne s'agissait pas d'une déclaration exorbitante et isolée du

pouvoir exécutif - d'ailleurs de moindre importance que celle que
la Cour permanente a retenue dans le fameux cas du Groënland
oriental, et je pense que, ce faisant, elle appliquait le droit inter-
national -, mais d'une déclaration simplement interprétati~e~des
traités et conforme à l'attitude prise normalement par 1'Etat
(J. L. Brierly, Recueil des Cours, v.58, p. 71) et qui au surplus
correspondait aux thèses acceptées et reconnues par tous les pays
d'Amérique (mémoire).
D'autre part, le 20 et le 28 octobre 1948, les représentants diplo-
matiques du défendeur au Guatemala et au Panama demandaient
comme allant de soi aux gouvernements territoriaux la reconnais-

sance de la protection accordéedans les Conventions de La Havane
et de Montevideo sur l'asile (mémoire), alors qu'on a dû établir
que 1'Etat de refuge ne pratiquera pas en tout cas l'asile dans une
mesure plus large que ne le lui permettent ses propres coutumes,
conventions ou lois. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 338

so doing, did they avoid the general practice, or did they at least
adopt other principles ? On the contrary, they practise asylum
naturally, like the other States, invoking and accepting indis-
criminately the application of principles contained in regional
treaties.
There is a third, though minor, factor, and that is the practice
of immediately requesting a safe-conduct without awaiting the
initiative of the territorial State. It is therefore not proper to
deduce from the failure to ratify a new convention the conclusion
that the State concerned rernains outside the group in which the
custom is respected.

9. In order to refute the claim that we should return to a literal
interpretation of the texts, it will be necessary to add to these
general data concerning the environment and the spirit of the
continent two further considerations which apply particularly to
the Respondent, although doctrine and jurisprudence. are not
concerned with seeking the recognition of custom in the practice
of the contesting States (A. Verdross, Recueil des Coars, Vol. 30,
P. 295).
On the one hand. on October 12th. 1~48, the remondent Gov-
ernment recopized. in an officia1 note ihe' respec< of interna-
tional obligations concerning established practices (Memorial). On
October 26th, 1948, while already confining itself to conventions
which it had ratified, the Respondent acknowledged the right of
diplomatic agents to require the necessary guarantees for the

departure of the refugee. This right cannot be disregarded, any more
than the right to qualify the offence. In those conditions, the Court
cannot readily suppose that an error has been committed, as was
subsequently contended.
This was no extraordinary and isolated declaration of the Execu-
tive-of lesser importance than that accepted by the Permanent
Court in the famous Eastern Greenland case, and 1 believe that in
so doing that Court was applyinginternational law-but a declara-
tion merely interpretative of treaties, and in harmony with the
normal attitude of the State (J. L. Brierly, Recueil des Cozws,
Vol. 58, p. 71), and which moreover is in accordance with views
accepted and recognized by al1 American countries (Memorial).

On the other hand, on October 20th and 28th, 1948, it seemed

natural to the diplomatic representatives of the Respondent in
Guatemala and Panama to ask territorial States to recognize the
protection granted by the Havana and Montevideo Conventions on
Asylum (Memorial),whereas it was necessary to establish that the
State of refuge would in any case not practise asylum to a greater
extent than was warranted by its own usages, conventions or laws339 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
Ces deux considérationspeuvent amener à penser qu'une applica-

tion more geometricodes clauses des traités, mêmesi une telle appli-
cation est le fait d'une juridiction de droit pur, serait difficilement
justifiable.
Mais admettons qu'il faille revenir à la théorie pure de l'auto-
nomie de la volonté et rester ainsi en dehors de toute action directe
de la coutume parallèlement à celle des traités dans une fonction
qui normalement s'exerce præter legem. On ne pourrait quand
même écarter une si profonde action coutumière en tant que
facteur prépondérant, pour l'interprétation de tout texte adopté
sur le mêmesujet, surtout si cette action présente un caractère

de réciprocité (H. Lauterpacht, Recueil des Cours, v. 62, pp. 157-
161).

IO. On a déjà signaléque l'asile traditionnellement pratiqué en
Amérique latine a pour but non seulement de protéger la personne
mêmede l'asilé,mais encore de le soustraire à la juridiction terri-
toriale des délits politiques, exactement comme dans le cas d'un
refus d'extradition.
Ainsi, le souci d'une bonne administration de la justice se mani-
feste de la mêmemanière dans les deux institutions, en ce qui
concerne les crimes politiques d'une nature purement artificielle
ou conventionnelle (G. Sotgia, Il delitto politico, Rome, 1950,

pp. 20 et 98).
On pourrait se demander, pourtant, si cette protection contre un
simple péril juridique, celui d'être maljugéet condamné, ne devrait
pas êtreécartéedans le cas de l'asile, qui diffèrede celui de l'extra-
difion en ce sens que le criminel continue à rester sur le territoire de
l'Etat dont il est ressortissant, tout en étant protégé nonpar une
conception désuète de l'exterritorialité, mais simplement par les
immunités accordées au diplomate étranger.

Pour écarter ce doute, il suffirait de faire appel à d'autres exem-
ples dans lesquels le droit international, sans viser personnellement

les juges internes, ne se conforme pas à des jugements définitifs et
admet une réparation fondéesur un dénide justice. Ceci revient à
l'exercice d'un contrôle réciproque qu'on est tenu de tolérer en
l'absence d'un ordre super-étatique. Il en est de mêmedu cas de
reconnaissance des droits individuels, au-dessous d'un niveau type,
mêmesi on applique aux nationaux ce régime insuffisant.
Aujourd'hui, on cherche instamment 2 établir sur le plan interna-
tional un organe juridictionnel chargé de pallier les insuffisances
des justices locales pour que la nouvelle déclaration des droits de
l'homme ne risque pas de rester trop souvent illusoire.
C'est ainsi que la loi française du IO mars 1924 dispose que

l'extradition n'est pas accordée même en casde délits de droit
commun si la demande est faite dans un but politique (art. 5, § z),
disposition dont le motif est très bien expliqué par le professeur DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 339
These two considerations may lead to the belief that application
more geometricoof treaty clauses-even by a court deciding strictly

in law-would be difficult to justify.

But let us.admit, for the sake of argument, that it is necessary to
return to the pure theory of the autonomy of the will, irrespective
of the direct action of custom exerting itself alongside that of
treaties in functions which are normally exercised præterlegem.Even
then, it would not be possible to disregard the profound action of
custom as a preponderant factor in the interpretation of any text
adopted on the same subject, especially if such action assumes
a character of reciprocity (H. Lauterpacht, Recueil des Cours,
Vol. 62, pp. 157-161).

IO. It has already been pointed out that the purpose of asylum,

as traditionally practised in Latin America, is not only to protect
the person of the refugee, but also to remove him from the juris-
diction of territorial courts for political offences, just as in the
case of refusa1 of extradition.
Concern for a good administration of justice is thus shown in
the same way in both institutions as regards political offences
which are purely of an artificial or conventional nature (G. Sotgia,
Il delitto politico, Rome, 1950, pp. 20 and 98).

The question migLt arise, however, whether this protection
against a mere legal danger, the danger of unfair trial and con-
demnation, should not be set aside in the case of asylum, which
differs from that of extradition in the sense that the offender

continues to remain on the territory of the State of which he is
a national, while protected not by the obsolete fiction of exter-
ritoriality, but simply by immunities granted to a foreign
diplomat .
To dispel this doubt, it is enough to recall other examples in
which international law, without any persona1 reflection on
municipal judges, does not comply with their final decisions and
recognizes compensation based on a denial of justice. This amounts
to reci~rocal control. whic:i must be tolerated in the absence
of a kper-state ordér. The situation is the same in the case of
recognition of individual rights below a certain standard type,
even if this inadequate régime applies to nationals.
Continual efforts are being made at the present time to establish
on an international plane a judicial organ to correct the inadequacy

of municipal courts, so that the new neclaration of Human Rights
may not remain a dead letter.
In this way the French law of March ~oth, 1924, provides that
extradition shall not be granted even in cases of common crimes
if the request has been made with a political end in view (Art. 5,
para. z),and the grounds for such a provision have been very34O OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
Donnedieu de Vabres (Traité de droit pénalet de législationpénale
comparée,3rneéd.,1947, 51791).
Déjà dans le droit interne de quelques pays, l'hostilité du milieu

local constitue une raison légale pour transférer le procès d'un
criminel aux assises d'un autre arrondissement suffisamment
éloignépour que les échos du crime n'y retentissent pas.
Enfin, il serait difficile de comprendre que si, en Amérique,
l'asile n'avait pas pou; objet de soustraire un criminel politique à
la justice ordinaire, 1'Etat territorial se fût alors résigné,dans cent
pour cent des cas, à accepter ce grave résultat par simple courtoisie
ou complaisance, même si au premier moment il essaie quelquefois
une certaine opposition.
Cette constatation est évidente et irréfutable : elle vient d'être
tout naturellement admise, avant ou après une négation caté-

gorique.
On a remarqué un certain manque de netteté dans les circons-
tances des nombreux cas d'asile rappelés à la Cour par les Parties,
mais de toute manière il y a un point qui reste au-dessus de toute
contestation - c'est que parmi les modes d'extinction de l'asile
on ne trouve pas la remise de l'asiléaux autorités locales, même si
les conditions du milieu ont changé sans le consentement de
celui-ci.
On ne connaît pas de cas en sens contraire, et, pour montrer
comment on respecte ce point du code d'honneur diplomatique,

on peut citer l'épisodenotoire où, un asilé voulant renoncer à la
protection et se livrer aux autorités locales, l'ambassadeur, d'ail-
leurs accrédité en Amérique latine par un pays européen, a exigé
une lettre explicative, non seulement signée par l'asilémais encore
contresignée par des personnes qui étaient à l'abri de toute con-
trainte et à laquelle il a donné une grande publicité.

Le fait s'explique par la considération décisive que le retrait
de la faveur octroyée empirerait beaucoup la situation de l'asilé.
On ne peut pas le renvoyer impunément; il a perdu sa cachette et
se montre en pleine lumière, il se voit l'objet d'une vigilance spé-

ciale et demeure impuissant à chercher une autre voie de refuge,
ce qui auparavant aurait étéplus aisé.

II. Mais cette évidente restriction de la souveraineté ne bles-
serait-elle pas les sentiments nationaux, surtout en Amérique où
les pays sont extrêmement soucieux de leur indépendance, au point
d'avoir créé lesdoctrines continentales bien connues, celles de
Monroe, Drago, Porter, etc. ? Un simple rappel à des éléments

historiques trèç répandus montre que les soucis de l'égalité souve-
raine pour les Etats américains ne sont pas dus à des raisons inter- DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 34O
aptly explained by Professor Donnedieu de Vabres (Traitéde droit

pénal et de législation fiénalecomparée,3rd ed., 1947, para. 1791).
Already in the municipal lawç of some countries a prejudiced
local attitude constitutes a legal reason for transferring the trial
of a criminal to the assizes of another district, sufficiently remote
not to be disturbed by the repercussions of the crime.
Finally, it would be difficult to understand why, in America, if
the purpose of asyliim was not to protect a political offender from
ordinary courts, the territorial State should resign itself, in every
case, to accept this serious consequence simply by courtesy or
goodwill, evenif at the outset that State sometimesmakes a certain
attempt to oppose it.
This fact is evident and irrefutable :it has just been naturally
admitted, before or after a categorical denial.

Reference has been made to a certain lack of clarity in the
circumstances of the numerous cases of asylum described before
the Court by the Parties, but there is one point which in any case
is beyond dispute-and that is, that among the means by which
asylum was terminated does not appear the surrender of the refugee
to the local authorities without his consent, even if the prevailing
conditions had changed. .
There is no known case to the contrary, and, as an indication
of the extent to which the diplomatic code of honour is respected,
the famous case may be cited in which a refugee wished to renounce
the protection and surrender himself to the local authorities ; on
that occasion the Ambassador who, incidentally, was accredited
in Latin America by a European country, demanded an explan-

atory letter, signed not only by the refugee, but countersigned by
perçons who were removed from constraint of any kind, and in that
instance the letter was widely publicized by the Ambassador.
This fact is to be explained by the decisive consideration that
the withdrawal of the favour which had been granted to the refugee
would greatly aggravate his position. He could not be sent away
with impunity ; having lost his hiding-place and by appearing in
the full light of day, he would become the object of special vigilance
and would be deprived of the means of seeking another form of
refuge, which would have been easier for him to do before leaving
the Embassy.

II. Would not this evident restriction to sovereignty offend
national feelings, particularly in America, where countries are most
jealous of their independence, and have initiated well-known
continental doctrines like those of Monroe, Drago, Porter, etc. ?
A mere reference to widespread historical factors shows that
preoccupations of sovereign equality among American States are
not based on inter-continental reasons, except in some exceptional34I OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
continentales, sauf quelques cas exceptionnels, appartenant déjà
au passé,où on aurait pu discerner la crainte des excès d'une hégé-
monie politique sans contre-partie dans le continent même. La
Charte de l'Organisation des Etats américains, signée à Bogota,
le 2 mai 1948, énonce que l'agression contre un,Etat américain
constitue une agression contre tous les autres Etats américains

(art. 5 f).
Particulièrement dans le groupe latino-américain, il n'y a pas
de susceptibilités qui puissent empoisonner l'atmosphère frater-
nelle qui y règne, et le plus petit pays tout naturellement accorde
l'asile et demande un sauf-conduit aux Etats les plus puissants,
sans la moindre hésitation et avec la bonne conscience que
donne l'exercice d'un droit. Les préoccupations de souveraineté
cèdent facilement devant un esprit supérieur de justice, quand il
s'agit de la défense des droits inaliénables de l'homme - et cela
bien avant l'admission à grand fracas de l'individu dans le domaine
international à la suite de la décision de l'Assemblée des Nations
Unies à Paris, en 1948.
Il convient aussi de remarquer que, dans le Traité de Rio-de-

Janeiro du 2 septembre 1947 pour la défensecommune du continent,
on a adopté deux procédures et deux solutions, suivant que l'agres-
sion vient du dehors ou d'un pays américain.
M. Levi Carneiro, juriste brésilienqui est actuellement conseiller
au ministère des Affaires étrangères, s'appuyant sur la doctrine
des écrivains de la plus haute réputation du nord et du sud du
continent américain, soutient qu'on ne doit pas voir dans l'asile
un cas de simple souci humanitaire, mais une préoccupation de
justice - et mêmede justice individuelle - provoquée par une
certaine réserve, une certaine suspicion vis-à-vis des organes exé-
cutifs du gouvernement et des propres tribunaux du pays de
l'accusé oudu persécuté.Ce n'est pas seulement l'humanitarisme
qui a motivé au début les premières concessions d'asile. Celles-ci
impliquent donc une certaine appréciation des affaires internes du

pays (O direito internacional e a democracia, Rio-de-Janeiro, 1945,
P. 140).
D'ailleurs, l'article 3 de la Convention de La Havane a rendu
tout à fait académique la vieille querelle sur la nature de l'asile
(véritable droit ou simple pratique humanitaire), querelle qui
était d'ailleurs par elle-même illogique, puisqu'elle opposait deux
choses hétérogènes,savoir, la cause et l'effet. Un droit peut être
fondé sur des considérations éthiques, ou avoir une source écono-
mique, politique, etc., en tout cas, ladite convention a établi que
les résultats de l'asile sont équivalents, quel que soit le titre auquel
il a étéoctroyé.
Si on se tient au rapport forméentre l'individu et l'État asilant,

toute restriction risque de se montrer anachronique, alors que
l'asile commence à êtreconsidéré non comme une simple faculté DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 341
cases in the past, which showed apprehension of the extremes of

a political hegemony without counterpart on the continent itself.
The Charter of the Organization of American States, signed in
Bogota on May end, 1948, provides that an act of aggression
against one American State is an act of aggression against al1
the other American States (Art. 5 f).

Particularljr in the Latin-American group, there are no suscept-
ibilities to trouble the fraternal atmosphere and the smallest
country will, as amatter of course, grant asylum and ask the most
powerful State for a safe-conduct without the slightest hesitation
and with the clear conscience of exercising a right. Considerations
of sovereignty easily give way to a superior spirit of justice in
matters concerning the protection of the inalienable rights of man,
even before the spectacular reception of the individual into the
international field, as a result of the decision of the United Nations
ilssembly in Paris in 1948.

It must also be observed that in the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro of
September znd, 1947, for the common defence of the continent,
two procedures and two solutions were adopted depending upon
whether the aggression was external or by an American State.
M. Levi Carneiro, Brazilian jurist nom7Counsellor to the Ministry
forForeignAffairs, referring to the best-known authors of the North-
ern and Southern American continents, says that asylum is not to
be considered merely as the result of humanitarian concern, but as
a preoccupation of justice-even of individual justice-based on a
certain reserve, a certain distrust of executive organs of the govern-
ment and the courts of the country of the accused or of the individ-
ual persecuted. The first grants of asylum were not motivated by
humanitarian reasons alone. They therefore imply certain mani-
festations of opinion regarding the domestic affairs of the country
(O direito internacional e a democracia, Rio de Janeiro, 1945,

P. 140).

Besides, Article 3 of the Havana Convention has turned the old
discussion on the nature of asylum-whether a right or a mere
humanitarian practice-into an academic question. It was illogical
in itself, as it opposed two heterogeneous factors, namely, cause and
effect. A right may be based on ethical considerations or take its
source from economic, political or other factors. In any event, the
Convention has decided that the effects of asylum are the same,
whatever the reasons for which it was granted.

If the relation between the individual and the State granting
asylum alone is considered, any restriction may become an anachron-
ism when asylum begins to be treated not as a mere option but as 342 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

mais comme un droit déjà reconnu sous sa forme externe par la
Déclaration des droits de l'homme.
Le temps est heureusement passéoù l'on disait dans les travaux
préparatoires du Code Rocco, en Italie, 1930, que (le droit d'asile
politique est un anachronisme incompatible avec la situation d'un
Etat fort D.
Déjà en 1939' l'Uruguay proposait l'insertion dans la convention
d'une règle remplaçant la faculté pour le diplomate d'accorder

l'asile par une obligation qu'il assume vis-à-vis de tout individu qui
aurait besoin d'une telle protection (Franchini Netto, O asilo
diplomatico e O costume internacional, Sao-Paulo, 1939, p. 100).
Partant, il ne s'agit pas d'une simple tolérance, incompatible d'ail-
leurs avec toute codification, si l'asile doit rester dans le bon vouloir
de chaque gouvernement. Au contraire, un écrivain européen,Cabral
de Moncada, a souligné l'avenir de cette institution dans le droit
international dans ledomaine de la détermination des droits mineurs

de la personne humaine (O asilo interno em Direito internacional
publico, Coimbra, 1946, p. 158).
12. Pour connaître le véritable esprit américain, il faut encore

tenir compte d'autres élémentsqui pourraient difficilement être
remarqués en dehors du continent.
Ainsi, par exemple, on trouve dans la Convention de 1928relative
aux effets des traités, une clause qui est ainsi conçue :(Les traités
continueront à produire leurs effets lors mêmeque la constitution
des Etats contractants sera modifiée. ))(Article II.)
Enfin, ce sont des nations américaines qui, pour la première fois
dans le monde, ont accepté directement et explicitement que des

décisions obligatoires pour toutes puissent êtreprises à la majorité.
Cette majorité est des deux tiers et vaut pour les matières de grande
importance, notamment pour l'assistance mutuelle en cas d'agres-
sion, à l'exception toutefois de la collaboration armée qui dépend
encore du consentement de chacun (traité cité de 1947, art. 8,
17 et 20).

13. Peu importe que, sur la question de la reconnaissance de
nouveaux gouvernements defait, l'action collective des pays améri-
cains n'ait pas encore permis d'arriver à une solution nette, au
moyen de consultations préalables ; suivant de nouvelles tendances
et de nouvelles doctrines comme celles d'Estrada, de Tobar, de
Larreta, etc., on s'efforce d'exiger une application parfaite et

immédiate des principes démocratiques après chaque changement
politique (Charles Fenwick, The poblem of the recognition of de
facto governments, cInter-American Juridical Yearbook », 1948,
Washington, 1949, p. 18).
De toute façon, on ne saurait prétendre assimiler les deux cas,
car le besoin d'établir ou de continuer de bonnes relations entre
voisins explique qu'on se contente de certaines conditions formelles

pourla reconnaissance d'un gouvernement, par exemple, l'apparence
80 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 342

a right. recognized in its external aspect by the Declaration of
Human Rights.
The time is happily past when the preparatory work of the 1930
Rocco Code in Italy referred to the fact that "the right of political
asylum is an anachronism incompatible with the situation of a
strong State".
As early as 1939, Uruguay proposed the insertion in the Con-
vention of a rule to replace the faculty for the diplomat to grant

asylum by an obligation which he assumed vis-à-vis any individual
who might need such protection (Franchini Netto, O asilo diplo-
matico e O costume internacional, Sao Paulo, 1939, p. 100). Con-
sequently, it is not a mere toleration, which would moreover be
incompatible with any codification if asylum were to depend
upon the goodwill of each government. On the contrary, a European
writer, Cabral de Moncada, has empharized the future of this
institution in international law in respect of the determination
of the minor rights of the human person (O asilo interno em
Direito internacional publico, Coimbra, 1946, p. 158).

12. To understand the true American s~irit.it is necessarv to
take into account other elements which might easily pass uhob-
served outside the continent.
For example, the Convention of 1928 on the effects of treaties
contains a clause which says that treaties will continue to have
effect even if the Constitution of a signatory State is modified

(Article II).
Finally, it was the. American nations which, for the first time
in the world, directly and explicitly agreed that a majority of
them be empowered to take decisions binding upon all. This
majority was two-thirds, and applied in matters of great importance
such as mutual assistance in case of aggression, but did not apply
to armed collaboration which continued to depend upon the
consent of each State (the above-quoted Treaty of 1947, Articles 8,
17 and 20).

13. It matters little that, in the question of recognition of
new de facto governments, the collective action of American
countries has not yet made it possible to arrive at a defi'nite
solution by means of preliminary consultations. In accordance
with new trends and doctrines such as those of Estrada, Tobar,
Larreta, etc., there is an attempt to demand a perfect and immed-
iate application of democratic principles after any political

change (Charles Fenwick, The problem of the recognition of de
facto governnzents, "Inter-American Juridical Yearbook, 1948,
i5Tashington, 1949, p. 18).
At any rate, there can be no comparison between the two cases,
for the need to establish and maintain good-neighbourly relations
explains why certain forma1 conditions have to be accepted for the
recognition of a government as, for instance, apparent stability,
80343 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
de stabilité, le maintien del'ordre public, le respect des engagements
internationaux. Mais ces conditions n'autorisent pas à sacrifier les
préoccupations de justice et la sauvegarde de la dignitéde la person-
nalité humaine ;les restrictions à l'administration de la justice dans

le domaine politique ne froissent pas les gouvernements de la même
manière qu'un refus de reconnaissance, même si le nouveau gouver-
nement est issu de la force.
Voilà pourquoi les pays latino-américains ont si docilement
accepté les conséquences de l'asile qui, à première vue, pourraient
porter de graves atteintes à leur souveraineté; la réciprocitéqui en
est la base contribue d'aufre partà effacer de cette mesure adoptée
par un groupe fermé d'Etats tout aspect interventioniste. On a
donc jugépréférabled'admettre, mêmeau prix de l'impunité, u~i
privilège équivalant à une sorte d'amnistie d'application générale
écartant tout soupçon de caractère personnel envers les membres
du pouvoir judiciaire de tel pays.
Si l'on admet qu'à La Havane en 1928 l'intention était d'extirper
des abus, rien ne démontre que ce but ait étéatteint, vu l'imper-

fection des textes qui y furent adoptés. D'ailleurs, on ne saurait
attribuer aux travaux préparatoires une grande valeur, surtout
s'il s'agit de travaux complexes faits à l'occasion d'une assemblée
très nombreuse (Max Sorensen, Les sources du droit international,
Copenhague, 1946, p.215). Au contraire, on est forcéde reconnaître
que justement après cette date l'institution de l'asile a pris une
plus grande importance, phénomène analogue à celui souvent
constaté à propos des articles des codes qui, à la longue, déploient
des effets que leurs auteurs ne pouvaient même prévoir, pour
répondre à des exigences sociales pressantes.

Toutes ces considérations ont bien marqué l'attitude prise par
le défendeur, comme il apparaîtra par la suite. A ce propos, il nous

faut envisager directement la clause maladroitement introduite
à La Havane et qui a donné lieu à tant de malentendus. Il s'agit
évidemment de celle qui a trait au« temps strictement indispensable
pour que le réfugiése mette en sécuritéd'une autre manière ».
Concerne-t-elle I'asilant ? Mais si on conclut que le pays territorial
peut repousser la qualification et surtout l'octroi d'un sauf-conduit,
la règle n'a pas de sens. En effet, qui sera responsable du retard ?
1)faudrait ouvrir une enquêtepour apprécier la conduite de chaque
Etat, et on pourrait arriver à constater une violation de la clause
sans que la faute en incombe à personne.

Alors on ne comprend pas comment ce texte peut êtreconcluant,
surtout dans le cas présent, où la réponse aux trois lettres du

demandeur a étéexpédiée48 jours après l'envoi de la première. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 343

the maintenance of public order, or respect for international under-
takings.
But these conditions do not justify the sacrifice of al1 concern
for justice and the safeguard of the dignity of the human person.
Restrictions on the administration of justice in the political domain
do not offend governments to the same extent as a refusa1of recog-
nition, even if the new government owes its existence to force.
That is why the Latin-American countries have so willingly
accepted the consequences of asylum which, at first sight, might
gravely encroach upon their sovereignty ;moreover, the reciprocity
which is the basis of this institution deprives this measure, adopted
by a restricted group of States, of any aspect of intervention. It

was therefore considered preferable to accept, even at the price
of impunity, a privilege which was tantamount to a sort of amnesty
having a general application in which any persona1 suspicion of the
members of the judicial system of such a country was removed.
Even admitting that the intention at Havana in 1928 was to put
an end to abuses, there is no evidence to prove that this purpose
was achieved, in view of the imperfect character of the texts which
were adopted at that time. Moreover, little value can be attributed
to preparatory work, especially to such complicated work as that
accomplished by a very large assembly (Max Sorensen, Les sources
du droit international, Copenhagen, 1946, p.215). On the contrary,
it must be admitted that precisely after that date the institution
of asylum assumed great importance, a phenomenon which has
been often observed in connexion with articles of codes which, in
response to the pressure of urgent social needs, frequently have

effects which their authors had not foreseen.

Al1 the foregoing considerations have clearly characterized the
attitude adopted by the Respondent, as we shall see later on. In
this connexion, we must examine frankly the clause which was
clumsily introduced into the Havana Convention and which has
given rise to so much misunderstanding. It is evidently that clause
which refers to the "time strictly indispensable for the refugee to
ensure in some other way his safety". Does this clause concern
the State granting asylum ? But if it be concluded that the terri-
torial State may reject the qualification and especially refuse to
grant the safe-conduct, then the rule would have no meaning.
Indeed, who would be responsible for the delay ?An enquiry would
have to be opened in order to appraise the conduct of each State,

and the conclusion might be that the clause had been violated but
that no one was to blame for this violation.
In the circumstances it is not apparent how this text is con-
clusive, especially in the present case, where the reply to the three
notes from the Applicant was despatched 48 days after the first
note was sent.344 OPINION DlSSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
Mais ce qui touche aux limites de l'exagération, c'est de con-
sidérer qu'en vertu de ladite clause l'asilé doit êtreremis aux
autorités locales à la première occasion, comme s'il s'agissait là

d'une garantie de sécurité comparable à celle que constitue l'hôtel
diplomatique.
14. Pour appuyer presque tout ce que je viens d'affirmer, on
pourrait rappeler une séried'articles, datés de 1945, mais publiés
du mois de janvier 1947 au mois d'août 1948 dans la Revista peruana
de Derecho internacional, l'organe de la « Sociedad peruana de
Derecho internacional ))(tomes 7 et8, no-23 à 28), par un des direc-

teurs de cette revue, M. Alejandro Deustua A., et dont le sommaire
se trouve à l'Annuaire de l'union panaméricaine 1948 (Washington,
I949J P. 219).
Relevons-en très brièvement les points principaux : l'auteur, se
fondant sur la définition de l'asile donnée par l'éminent inter-
nationaliste Alberto Ulloa, démontre l'inefficacité des arguments
invoquéspar les auteurs européens,touchant notamment la réserve
de la souveraineté et l'autorité des juridictions locales. Passant à
l'exposé de l'opinion dominante dans son pays, il signale, comme
exception, un seul auteur, M. Wiesse, tous les autres se ralliant
à la pratique continentale américaine ; il examine l'institution
vis-à-vis de toutes les conventions américaines sans aucune restric-
tion et fait observer que la vie n'est pas la seule valeur humaine
que défend l'asile, mais que celui-ci a aussi pour but d'éviter tout
châtiment injuste ; la notion de danger est dégagéeavec un soin

spécial afin d'assurer au persécutéla liberté de choisir le moment
précis où il a le besoin de sécurité,en laissant aussi au diplomate
la faculté d'apprécier cette nécessité ; ensuite, il constate qu'en
principe le gouvernement local ne s!oppose pas à ce choix et, sans
contester l'urgence de la protection, s'efforce au contraire de nier
le caractère politique de la criminalité attribuée à l'asilé. Conti-
nuant une analyse presque divinatoire des faits qui allaient se
passer, l'auteur cherche à écarter la confusion entre l'asile et un
simple refuge, démontrant que, sans la reconnaissance des crimes
politiques, une telle institution ne saurait subsister. Enfin, après
avoir souligné que la qualification ne doit pas appartenir à un
intéressémais à une autorité neutre, telle qu'un agent étranger,
il passe à d'autres considérations, toujours intéressantes, sur
l'institution qu'il a étudiéedèsses origines historiques pour aboutir

à seize conclusions, dont la quatrième écarte le caractère d'urgence
et la neuvième reconnaît à 1'Etat asilant la faculté de qualification.

15. On doit insister sur deux caractères particuliers de l'asile-
l'inimutabilité des conditions, envisagées au moment de l'octroi,
et le caractère irréparable des conséquences qu'entraîne pour

l'asilé leretrait de l'asile.
82 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 344
But it would be an exaggeration to consider that, by virtue of
that clause, the refugee must be surrendered to the local authorities
at the first opportunity as if this represented a guarantee for
his security comparable to that constituted by the diplomatic

premises.
14. In support of almost al1 of what 1 have just stated, 1 could
rely on a series of articles which are dated 1945 but which were
published between January 1947 and August 1948 in the Revista
peruana deDerechointernacional,the organ of the "Sociedad peruana
de Derecho internacional" (Vols. 7 and 8, Nos. 23 to 28), by one of
the directors of this review, M. Alejandro Deustua A., a summary
of which may be foiind in the Yearbook of the Pan-American

Union for 1948 (Washington, 1949, p. 219).
Let us briefly recapitulate the principal points :relying upon the
definition of asylum of the outstanding international jurist Alberto
Ulloa, the author proves the weakness of the arguments invoked by
European authors, particularly those which refer to the reservation
of sovereignty and the authority of local courts. In considering the
prevailing opinion in his country, the author mentions as the sole
exception one writer, M. Wiesse, al1 other writers having adopted
American continental practice ; he then examines the institution
in the light ofal1the American conventions without exception, and
points out that the life of the refugee is not the only human value
that is protected by asylum, the purpose of the latter being also to
preclude the possibility of unjust punishment ;the notion of danger
is then carefully examined with a view to ensuring that the refugee
will be free to choose the precise moment when he needs security,
it being also left to the discretion of the diplomat to appreciate this
necessity ; then the author points out that in principle the local

government does not oppose this choice and, without disputing the
urgency of the protection, rather seeks to deny the political charac-
ter of theoffence attributed to the refugee. Continuing what becomes
almost a prophecy of future events, the author seeks to dispel the
confusion between asylum and mere refuge, showing that such an
institution cannot subsist without the recognition of political
offences. And finally, after having emphasized that the qualification
must not appertain to an interested party but rather to a neutral
authority, such as a foreign agent, the author goes on to examine
certain other interesting considerations relating to the institution
which he has examined from its historical origins ; he reaches
sixteen conclusions of which the fourth leaves the character of
urgency on one side andtheninth recognizes that theState granting
asylum has the faculty to qualify the offence.

15. Two particular aspects of asylum must be emphasized :the
immutability of the conditions as viewed at the time asylum was
granted and t'he irreparable character of the consequences which
the withdrawal of asylum would imply for the refugee.345 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE 11.AZEVEDO
Considéré commeune simple faculté, comme un acte d'humanité

ou comme un véritable drpit, l'asile une fois accordé crée une
obligation à la charge de 1'Etat qui l'accorde. Certes, le persécuté
court le grave risque de se voir fermer les portes de la légation, mais
s'il réussit êtreaccueilli, il acquiert l'assurance qu'il ne sera pas
mis à la rue sans motif grave.

Les deux observations que nous venons de rappeler permettent
d'écarter toute confusion entre l'octroi de l'asile, qui produit des
effets instantanés et définitifs, et les vicissitudes qui peuvent
intervenir par la suite jusqu'au dénouement dudit asile.
Assurément, un changement radical dans la situation peut

laisser envisager l'hypothèse du départ de l'asilé, nonpour se livrer
à la police, mais pour regagner son propre domicile en toute tran-
quillité, car l'intervention d'éléments nouveaux, sans affecter le
bien ou le mal fondé del'octroi, qui reste inchangé, peut entraîner
la disparition des deux raisons qui motivent l'asile, c'est-à-dire le
danger pour la vie et le danger pour la liberté qui proviennent de
l'activité politique antérieure. Dans ces cas, qui ne sont pas très
rares, l'opposition de l'asiléserait preuve d'un simple abus auquel
le droit ne donne jamais appui, et la règle rebus sic stantibus pour-
rait alors s'appliquer. En dehors de cette situation exceptionnelle,
l'asiléne peut êtrelivréaux autorités locales sans son libre consen-

tement.
L'octroi de l'asile produit des effets tunc et non pas ex nunc ;
sinon, dans ce dernier cas, 1'Etat territorial pourrait toujours
différer la délivrance d'un sauf-conduit ou toute autre solution
d'accord dans l'espoir de reprendre l'asilé à la suite d'un change-
ment du statu quo ante, car les événements politiques prennent
souvent des directions inattendues ; on a même assisté à un échange
de résidencesentre le gouvernement et une mission diplomatique.
Dans le cas présent, on a pu constater, par exemple, que le
ministre qui avait porté une dénonciation contre l'actuel asilés'est
adressétrois semaines plus tard au mêmeambassadeur, et celui-ci,

au-dessus des partis, a accordé sa protection au persécuté.
L'octroi de l'asile constitue donc un fait acquis dont les circons-
tances doivent êtrefixéesune fois pour toutes, ad perpetuam rei
memoriam, en vue de toute appréciation future. Il n'a rien à voir
avec son maintien pour une durée nécessairement indéfiniesi l'on
reconnaît qu'il ne dépend pas exclusivement de l'asilant d'en fixer
le terme. De mêmeque, dans les obligations de toute nature, la
formation et les effets du lien contractuel ne se confondent pas avec
ses modes d'extinction. A propos de l'extradition même, ondoit
prendre un moment précis pour apprécier la remise de l'accusé
sans que les modifications postérieures puissent avoir une influence

au contraire, on s'efforce d'éviter que la situation de l'extradé soit
empirée par d'autres chefs d'accusation. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 345

Whether asylum is considered as a simple option, as a human-
itarian act, or as a veritable right, once it has been granted, it lays
an obligation upon the State which granted it. It is true that the
refugee runs a grave risk if the doors of the legation remain closed
to him, but if he succeeds in being admitted he acquires the assur-
ance that he will not be surrendered to the territorial State, except
on serious grounds.
The two foregoing observations make it possible to eliminate al1
confusion between the grant of asylum, which produces instan-
taneous and final results, and the vicissitudes which may sub-
sequently arise before the situation is resolved.
A radical change in the situation makes it indeed possible to
conceive of the departure of the refugee, not in order to surrender
to the police, but in order to return to his domicile with al1 due

peace of mind ; for the intervention of new factors, without in any
way affecting the regularity or irregularity of the asylum granted-
which remains unchanged- might result in the elimination of the
two reasons which gave rise to asylum, namely danger to life and
liberty, on account of previous political activity. In such cases,
which are not very rare, the objection of the refugee would be proof
of a mere abuse which is never supported by law, and the rule rebus
sic stantibuscould then apply.Apart from this exceptional situation,
the refugee cannot be surrendered to the local authorities without
his free consent.
The grant of asyliim gives rise to effects ex tzbncand not ex nunc ;
in fact, in this latter case the territorial State could always defer
the issue of the safe-conduct or any other solution by agreement

in the hope of laying hands on the refugee following a change in
the statas quo ante, for political events frequently take quite
unexpected directions and there has even arisen a case of exchange
of residcnce between the government and a diplomatic mission.
In the present case, it has been seen, for instance, that the
llinister who hadbrought the charges against the refugee approached
that same Ambassador three weeks later, and thelatter, being above
party considerations, granted him his protection.
The gïailt of asylum thus constitutes an admitted fact the
circumstances of which must oe fised, once and for all, ad perpetuam
rei memoriam, in view of any appreciation which may have to be
made in the future. It is entirely independent of its maintenance
for a necessarily indefinite period once it is recognized that the
determination of its duration does not depend esclusively on the

person granting it. Just as iinal1obligations, whatever their nature,
the formation and effects of a coiltractual obligation cannot be
confused with the rnanner in nhich it is tcrmiiiated. As for estra-
dition itself, it is necessary to consider a definite moment in order
to appreciatc whether the accused should be surrendered, and
subsequent modifications cannot influence this appreciation ; on
the contrary, efforts are made to ensure that the situation of the
extradited person is not aggra~~atc(1by other charges.

83 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
346
16. Le défendeur a très bien compris le problème, cela ressort de
la netteté avec laquelle il a formulé la demande reconventionnelle
in verbis: « l'octroi de l'asile par l'ambassadeur ....à ....a été
fait en violation ...».

Or, plus tard,la reconnaissance de la séparation des étapes, encore
reconnue lors des plaidoiries pour expliquer l'opposition à une
certaine manière de mettre fin à l'asile, a cédéla placeà la théorie
de la continuité comme un tout.
Ce changement a exigépourtant une modification formelle de la
demande présentée avec l'assentiment de l'agent du défendeur
pour ajouter à la notion de l'octroi celle du maintien.

Une telle prétention a étéécartéecomme inutile, mais on a dû
admettre une prolongation jusqu'au 31 août 1949 des circonstances
constituant l'urgence, concept transitoire par sa propre nature, et

cette constatation est aussi inutile puisque l'on a considéré l'asile
comme mal accordédès le 3janvier.

A mon avis, cette application de la théorie de l'asile c(continu »
est encore moins défendable, heurtant même lesens courant des
verbes employés à ce propos ((octroyer »,ccaccorder M,((concéder »,
etc.).
Comme on l'a déjà remarqué, il est difficile de tirer des consé-
quences d'un retard découlant de la nature mêmed'un conflit de
points de vue, surtout si les parties sont arrivées à s'accorder sur
la manière de résoudre ce conflit, en toute régularité, écartant
ainsi réciproquement les effets du retard déjà survenu à l'époque

de l'accord ainsi que du retard exigépar la suite de la procédure.
En vérité,les parties ont de la sorte décidé d'effacermutuellement
les conséquences de la demeure qui peut s'êtreproduite.

Notons, finalement, que le projet approuvé par l'Institut de
Droit international à Bath a employé la conjonction ozt pour
séparer la phrase de l'octroi de celle du maintien de l'asile au lieu
de les lier par la conjonction et.

17. Je ne veux pas m'attarder sur des points qui sont devenus

secondaires après la transformation de l'affaire.
Ainsi, en ce qui concerne la qualification des délits, on vient de
voir que le défendeur même, invoquant un précédent qui lui
est propre, a considéréqu'il appartenait à l'asilant de qualifier
le fait qui a donné lieu à l'asile. Cette déclaration serait aussi
suffisante pour écarter l'affirmation incidemment faite dans la
procédure,selonlaquelle le défendeurn'aurait pas ratifiéles Conven-
tions de 1933 et1939 par suite d'une aversion à l'égarddu droit de
qualification ;or, une foule d'autres raisons pourraient expliquer DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
346
16. The Respondent has understood this problem perfectly. This
is apparent from the clarity with which he has formulated the
counter-claim i?zverbis: "the grant of asylum by the Colombian
Ambassador ...was made in violation ....".
But later on, the theory of the separate stages, which was still

accepted at the time of the oral statements in order to explain an
objection to a certain mode of terminating the asylum, was replaced
b!~the theory of the continuity of asylum as a mhole.
This change, however, has required a forma1 modification of the
original claim ; this modification, which was submitted with the
consent of the agent of the Respondent, consisted of adding to the
idea of grant that of maintenance.
Such a claim has been considered to be superfluous, but it was
necessary to accept a prolongation until August 31st, 1949, of
the circumstances constituting urgency, a concept which by its
very nature is transitory, and this observation is also superfluous
in view of the conclusion that asylum was irregularly granted on
January 3rd.
In my opinion, this application of the theory of "continuous"
asylum is even less defensible in that it even contradicts the
ordinary meaning of the verbs used in this connexion ("octroyer",
"accorder" and "concéder").

As has already been pointed out,it is difficult to draw conclusions
from a delay which results from the very nature of a divergence
of view, especially if the parties have reached an agreement on
the means of solving the dispute, in a regular manner, thus
rejecting on both sides the effects of a delay which had already
occurred at the time the agreement was concluded, as well as
the effects of any delay which might result from the subsequent
procedure. The truth is that the parties have in this way mutually
decided to remove any consequences which might arise from
such a delay.
It is worthy of note, finally, that the draft approved at Bath
used the conjunction or to separate the phrase referring to the
grant of asylum from that which referred to the maintenance
of asylum, instead of linking them by the conjunction and.

17. 1 shall not dwell on points which have become of minor
importance after the modification of the case.

Thus, as regards qualification of offences, it was seen that the
respondent State itself, invoking a precedent proper to its own
practice, considered that it was for the State granting asylum to
qualify the act which led to the asylum. That declaratlon would be
sufficient to set aside the statement made incidentally during the
proceedings that the Respondent had not ratified the Conventions
of 1933 and 1939, because of an aversion from the right of qualifica-
tion. But a host of other reasons would explain the omission-very347 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
cette omission, très courante en Amérique latine, de ratifier une
convention qui, d'ailleurs, contenait d'autres textes. Pour établir

cette aversion, il faudrait produire un élémentmatériel quelconque :
elle n'existait d'ailleurs pas encore en 1939, puisque les déléguésu
défendeur avaient renouvelé la signature apposée dans le même
sens en 1933.
Mais il est inutile d'argumenter ad hominem, car à mon avis la
clause de qualification unilatérale va de soi et constitue mêmela
seule façon de régler ce problème si délicat ;ainsi à Montevideo,
par deux fois, on a recueilli la pratique et l'on s'est boràédéclarer
ce qui était déjà observé à cette époque (H. Accioly, op. cd.,
§117rlA ;une simple expression employée dans le préambule et
constatant un fait incontestable de modification matérielle ne
pourrait s'opposer à une réalitéreconnue sans exception jusqu'à
1949.~Ceci explique beaucoup plus naturellement pourquoi quatre

des Etats signataires de 1928 pouvaient juger inutile d'abonder,
par une simple déclaration, dans le sens du droit existant.

La dkcision du pays territorial ferait intervenir un élément
pratiquement potestatif et l'accord préalable serait incompatible
avec la rapidité d'action nécessaire. Au contraire, l'opposition des
solutions en ce qui concerne les deux espèces de délit - respect de
l'asile et livraison de I'asiléet le renvoi au droit interne du pays
asilant, d'une façon très large, autorisentà considérerque le Traité
de 1928 a présupposé la même préférencepour la qualification
exclusive que quatorze pays ont plus tard acceptée expressément
(onze en 1933, plus le Nicaragua, qui n'avait pas encore déposéla
ratification donnée,et deux en 1939)et que six autres ont acceptée
dans la pratique. D'ailleurs, le Traité de 1939, comme celui de

1889, est hors de la série panaméricaine et restreint à six pays
d'origine purement espagnole situés dans une partie de l'Amérique
du Sud.
Il reste ainsi démontré que ce fait ne blesse aucunement la
souveraineté nationale, ceci à raison de la réciprocitéet à cause
des buts visés, à savoir, la protection des droits de l'homme contre
les contingences de la vie politique.

18. La qualification de l'asile doit êtrenon seulement unilatérale,
mais encore stable, comme nous l'avons déjà vu.
Il ne s'agit pas d'une qualification provisoire ni d'une simple
question d'efficacité, mais au contraire d'une conséquence néces-
saire au fonctionnement normal de l'asile tel que celui-ci est conçu
dans la pratique de l'Amérique latine.

La conclusion sur la nature de la qualification ne peut toutefois
amener à attribuer la valeur de chose jugéeà la décisionunilatérale
du pays de l'asile, mêmesi cette qualification revêt un caractère
définitif. Elle n'est pas irréfragable et doit comporter, non une
revision ordinaire des faits en chaque cas, mais à titre exceptionnel DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO
347
frequent in Latin America-to ratify a convention which also con-
tained other provisions. It would be necessary to put forward some
material evidence to establish this aversion. Moreover, in 1939 it
did not then exist, since the delegates of the Respondent had
renewed the signaturealready given to the same effect in 1933.

It is unnecessary to argue ad hominem because, in my opinion,
the clause of unilateral qualification is self-evident and evenconsti-
tutes the only means of settling such a difficult problem. It thus
happened twice at Montevideo that previous practice was restated
and that the texts merely proclaimed anew what was already
accepted practice at the time (H. Accioly, op. cit.pa,ra. 1171lA) ;
a simple expression in the preamble recording the undisputed fact
of a material modification could not act as an obstacle in the path
of a reality recognized without exception up to 1949. This is a
much more natural explanation of why four of the States which
were signatories in 192s considered it unnecessary to join by a
mere declaration in the restatement of the existing law.
The decision of the territorial State svould bring into play
a practically arbitrary factor and the conditions of a prior
agreement would be incompatible with the prompt actionrequired.
On the contrary, the conflicting solutions regarding the two kinds

of offences-respect of asylum and surrender of the refugee-and
the very general reference to the domestic law of the country
granting asylum would amply justify the view that the Treaty of
192s assumed the same preference for exclusive qualification which
fourteen States later expressly accepted (elevenin 1933, plus Nica-
ragua, which had not then deposited the ratification which had
been given, and two in 1939) and which six others accepted in
practice.
It is thus seen that the fact in no way offends against national
sovereignty, by virtue of the reciprocity and of the purposes in view,
namely, the protection of human rights against the contingencies
of politicallife.

18. The qualification of asylum must not only be unilateral but
also stable, as has already been seen above.

What is involved here is not a provisional qualification or a
mere question of effectiveness, but rather a necessary consequence
of the normal functioning of asylum as understood in Latin-
American practice.
The conclusion reached on the nature of qualification cannot,
however, attribute the value of res jzldicnta to a unilateral decision
of the country of asylum, evcn if this clualihcation should assiin~e
a definitive character. This qualification is not unattackable and
is subject not to the ordinary revision of facts in each case, but,

85 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
348
une sorte de recours en cassation dans les cas d'infraction manifeste
au droit international. Des abus évidents, des détournements de
pouvoir, peuvent apparaître dans la concession de l'asile ;le droit
international, comme le droit interne, interviendront alors pour
supprimer tout arbitraire, par l'emploi des méthodes spécifiques

de solution pacifique des différends, moyens d'ailleurs rappelés
dans certains traités (Traité de Montevideo, 1939, art. 16).

19. En ce qui concerne l'obligation d'accorder un sauf-conduit
sans réserves, je suis en principe d'accord avec la solution de la
majorité de la Cour, quoique cette solution soit tout à fait indépen-
dante du problème de la qualification. Il suffit,à ce propos, de
rappeler que l'asile peut avoir étéaccordé à juste titre et que

pourtant 1'Etat se refuseà délivrerun sauf-conduit pour des raisons
d'ordre politique.
Certes, !a pratique courante s'est forméedans le sens de l'initia-
tive de 1'Etat asilant, mais ici entre en ligne de compte un élément
fondamental d'ordre psychologique. Pour respecter l'asile, un Etat
cède, agit à l'encontre de ses désirs et de ses intérêtset démontre
ainsi qu'il obéità une norme coactive. Mais ici on ne peut dégager
le sentiment d'aucune obligation, mêmeen la supposant remplie
à contre-cŒur.

En effet, l'octroi facile d'un sauf-conduit coïncide alors avec

l'intérêtde l'État. Il consent à la sortie d'un élémentdangereux,
capable de causer des ennuis, encore qu'il soit isolédans un hôtel
diplomatique et sujet à de sévèresrestrictions :car la barrière
matérielle serait bien insuffisante pour contenir éventuellement
les excès d'une foule passionnée.
Cette attitude dénonce aussi la conviction de la part de l'État
territorialqu'il ne pourra pas punir l'asilé si ce n'est après son
départ et au moyen d'une demande d'extradition.

Mais il peut arriver au contraire que l'État territorial ait un

intérêtraisonnable à ce que l'asiléne sorte pas du territoireà cause
des dangers plus grands que celili-ci peut causerà l'ordre public,
notamment en se joignant à des groupes d'insurgés au delà ou même
en deçà des frontières.
Par des négociations directes ou par la médiation d'un État tiers,
on peut arriver à des formules conciliatoires préservant lesdits
intérêtspar voie de restrictions, que d'ailleurs certaines conven-
tions ou de simples projets (Pessôa, 1912, Projet des jurisconsultes
réunis à Rio-de-Janeiro, 1927) ont adoptées, rappelant par ailleurs
que l'asile ne doit pas apporter d'avantages à une des factions ep

lutte. Il est donc tout naturel que, avec ou sans la garantie de
1'Etat de refuge, l'asilé s'engage à ne pas reprendre les armes, ou
à ne pas se fixer près des frontières, sans quoi son départ pur et
simple pourrait êtreextrêmement nuisible à 1'Etat. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 34s

in exceptional cases, to a sort of appeal such as the recours en
êassation,in the event of manifest violation of international law.
Obvious abuse and misuse of powers rnay occur in the grant of
asylum, in which case international law will intervene-as would
municipal law-to suppress any arbitrary action by specificmeans
for the peaceful settlement of disputes. In fact, reference to such
means rnay be found in certain treaties (Treaty ofMontevideo, 1939,
Art. 16).

19. As regards the obligation to grant a safe-conduct without
reservations, I agree in principle with the opinion of the majority
of the Court, although this solution is entirely independent of the
problem of qualification. It suffices, in this connexion, to recall that
asylum may have been regularly granted and yet the territorial
State rnay refuse to issue a safe-conduct for political reasons.

It is true that current practice has developed in the direction
of the initiative being taken by the State of refuge, but a fund-
amental psychological element should here be taken into con-
sideration. In order to respect asylum a state will yield, thus
curbing its wishes and waiving its interests, thereby showing
its obedience to a compulsory rule. But it is impossible to find
here evidence of the recognition of any obligation, even reluctantly
fulfilled.
Indeed, the easy grant of a safe-conduct coincides with the
interest of the State. It consents to the departure of a dangerous
individual, capable of creating difficulties, even though isolated

in a diplomatic residence and subject to severe restrictions, for
the material obstacle would be auite insufficient to control the
excesses of an unruly mob, should such a case arise.
This attitude also shows the conviction on the part of the
territorial State that it will not be able to punish the refugee,
except after his departure and by means of a request for extra-
dition.
But in some cases, on the contrary, the territorial State rnay
have a reasonable interest in preventing the departure of the
refugee, because of the greater danger he might cause to public
order, as for instance by joining insurgent groups inside or outside
its boundaries.
By virtue of direct negotiations or the mediation of a third
State, it rnay be possible to arrive at a conciliation safeguarding
the interests of the country, by means of restrictions tvhich in
fact have already been adopted in several conventions or drafts
(Pessôa, 1912, Draft of the conference of jurists in Rio de Janeiro,
1927), and which recall, moreover, that asylum should not bestow
unfair advantage on one of the opposing factions. It is quite

natural, therefore, that with or without the guarantee of the
State of refuge the refugee should undertake not to take up arms,
or establish his residence near the frontier, as otherwise hisncon-
ditional departure might be most detrimental to the State.
86349 OPINION DISSIDEKTE DE M. AZEVEDO
20. Dans les cas d'asile et de non-ext~adition des criminels
politiques, une sorte de servitude pèse sur1'Etat qui se trouve ainsi
dans l'impossibilité de fait d'appliquer sa loi pénale - l'obstacle

étant constitué soit Dar la fuite du criminel. soit Dar son entrée
dans une résidence diplomatique.
Il faut mettre l'accent sur cet aspect négatif, parce que c'est
chose grave que d'obliger un Etat à un acte positif, comme la
délivrance d'un permis de sortie, acte dont la répercussion psycho-
logique est très sérieuse.
A ce propos, il faut aussi reconnaître à cet État la liberté de
faire des discriminations et d'apprécier le danger du départ de
chaque réfugiésans que cette appréciation puisse donner lieu à des

critiques.
Les réserves faites par l'État sont encore plus compréhensibles
lorsqu'il considère l'asilecomme résultant d'un abus de droit. Il
existe alors une espèce de rétention, comparable à l'exceptio non
adimfileti contractw, et qui consisàedifférerl'octroi du sauf-conduit
jusqu'à la solution de la querelle, au lieu d'autoriser le départ
immédiat même sous réserved'une demande postérieure d'extradi-
tion, surtout si dans le pays de refuge l'appréciation de cette
dernière mesure est du ressort exclusif du pouvoir judiciaire, ce qui
ôte toute efficacitéà l'obligation qu'assumerait le gouvernement

à cet égard.

21. Passons au cas d'espèce.
A la suite de l'cjctroi de l'asiàeM. de la Torre, les deux pays
intéressés ont entamé une correspondance diplomatique qui a fini
par aboutir à une controverse juridique très précise- le défendeur,
tout en s'attachant exclusivement aux Conventions de 1911 et de
1928, ne contestait la légitimitéde l'asile que parce qu'il ne s'agis-
sait pas d'un délinquant politique, mais d'un criminel de droit

commun, préalablement accusé d'actes de terrorisme. Personne n'a
prétendu que l'élémentd'urgence exigé par la Convention de La
Havane fît défaut - et cependant trois mois s'étaient déjà écoulés
depuis le fait principal reproché aux chefs du parti en question,
c'est-à-dire depuis la rébellion militaire au port de Callao, le
3 octobre 1949.
S'agissait-il d'une erreur ou d'un oubli ? Kon, car, en réponse
à la communication du 4 janvier 1949, la première lettre du défen-
deur commençait par une allusion aux règles de La Havane, y

compris la circonstance d'urgence, sans élever d'objection à cet
égard.
C'était reconnaître pleinement que l'asile avait étéopportuné-
ment octroyé, car il était inutile d'entamer une pénible discussion
sur unautre point quel qu'il fût. Une telle attitude vient souligner
nouveau la manière dont l'institution de l'asile est envisagke dans DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 349
20. In cases of asyliim and non-extradition of political offenders,

there is a degree of constraint upon the State nrhich is thus imable
to apply jts criminal law-the obstacle being either the flight of the
criminal or his entrance into a diplomatic residence.

This negative aspect should be emphasized, because it is a serious
thing to put a State under an obligation to perform a positive act,
such as the issue of an exit permit, the psychological repercussions
of which are most serious.
In this connexion it is also necessary to admit that the State is
free to discriminate and to decide on the danger which would result
from the departure of eacli refugee individually, without such
decision being subject to criticism.
Reservations made by the territorial State are even more under-

standable when that State considers that asylum resillted from an
"abuse of right". Thisconstitutes a kind of reservation, comparable
to the exceptio non adimpleti co~ztractus,which consists in the post-
ponement of the delivery of a safe-condiict until the dispute bas
been settled, instead of permitting immediate departure, even with
the reservation of an ultimate requect for extradition, especially
when, in the country of refuge, the latter measure is left exclusively
to the decision of the judicial authorities, thus depriving the obliga-
tion which the government might assume in this connexion of al1
its effectiveness.

21. Let us nom examine the present case.
Following the grarit of asylum to M. Haya de la Torre, the
countries concerned embarked upon a diplomatic correspondence

which finally resulted in a very clear legal dispute, in which the
Respondent, while referring exclusively to the Con~rentions of 1911
and 1928, disputed the legitimacy of asylum on the sole grounds
that the refugee was not a politicaloffender but a common criminal
previously accused of acts of terrorism. NO one has claimed that
the element of urgency required by the Convention of Havana was
absent, and yet three months had already elapsed since the main
fact with which the leaders of the party in question were charged,
namely the military rebellion in the port of Callao on October 3rd,
194%
Was this due to error or oversight ? No, for in reply to the
communication of January 4th, 1949, the first letter of the Respon-
dent began with a reference to the rules of Havana, including the

circumstance of urgency, without raising any objection in this
connexion.
This was tantamount to a full recognition of the fact that asylum
had been properly granted, for it was unnecessary to begin a
painful discussion on any other point. Such an attitude further
stresses the manner in which the institution of asylum is viewed in3j0 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE hl. AZEVEDO
son milieu naturel :aucun juriste local n'a eu son attention attirée
par l'aspect arithmétique de la durée.

Dans cet état d'esprit, un seul différend ou controverse s'est
dégagé,d'une netteté cristalline, et les points principaux en ont été
plusieurs fois indiqués. Certes, les deux Parties ne se sont pas mises
d'accord sur la formule à soumettre à la Cour, mais rien n'indique
que ce défaut d'accord fût dû à une question qui ne se posait
pas à l'époque ; au contraire, la divergence constatée portait sur la
question de la criminalité, le demandeur préférant se borner aux
deux problèmes abstraits - savoir, le droit de qualification et

l'obligation de délivrerun sauf-conduit - et le défendeursouhaitant
mettre en question l'existence d'une accusation préalable pour des
délits de droit commun.
En tout cas, l'Acte de Lima a étéconclu pour soumettre à la
Cour la controverse ((qui a su@ à l'occasionde la demande ....
de sauf-conduit ...n, etc. Donc, en ces deux occasions, savoir,
le 3 janvier et le 30 août 1949 ,a controverse se limitait à des points
précis, conformémentau consentement mêmedes Parties manifesté

de façon réitérée.
Mais, sortie du milieu où elleavait étécréée,compriseet délimitée,
l'affaire commence à subir les effets d'un procédéde modification,
d'une manière d'abord discrète, qui finalement aboutit à trans-
former profondément le différend.

22. Ainsi, la demande reconventionnelle est venue ajouter au
grief de violation de l'article premier, paragraphe premier, du Pacte
de La Havane, celui de la violation de l'article 2, paragraphe 2,

« premièrement », du mêmeacte.
D'après les antécédentsde l'affaire, on pourrait bien s'imaginer,
en l'absence d'explication précise sur les développements que ce
paragraphe peut autoriser, que loin d'établir un motif nouveau, on
y faisait plutôt allusion à une alternative découlant de la discussion
antérieure et qui a conservé le mêmeton dans le développement
ultérieur de la procédure judiciaire jusqu'à la dernière plaidoirie,
surgissant toujours comme un leitmotiv de l'affaire : l'incrimination

de droit commun pour actes de terrorisme possèdeune certaine force
de (dépolitisation 1).

On pourrait donc admettre qu'après des déclarations aussi expres-
sives (cf. mémoire, contre-mémoire, duplique, plaidoiries), la
conclusion selon laquelle, une fois écartéel'existence d'accusations
préalables de délits communs, l'asile se révélerait irréprochablevis-
à-vis d'un simple politicien en détresse ou d'un criminel politique

auxquels le défendeur aurait toujours reconnu en principe le droit
d'asile, s'impose d'elle-même.
En d'autres termes, si la Cour rejette toute accusation antérieure
de délit commun, l'asile doit êtremaintenu. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 350
its natural surroundings. The arithmetical aspect of the duration

of this asylum did not attract the attention of any local jurist.
It is in this spirit thathere arose a single dispute or controversy
of crystal clarity,the main points of which have been indicated
several times already. It is true that the two Parties did not agree
on the terms in which the dispute should be submitted to the
Court, but there is nothing to show that the lack of such agreement
was due to a question which did not arise at the time ;on the
contrary, the divergence noted referred to the question of criminal-
ity, the Applicant preferring to confine himself to the two abstract
problems-namely, the right of qualification and the obligation to
deliver a safe-conduct-and the Respondent hoping to invoke the
existence of a prior accusation of common crimes.
In any case, the Act of Lima was concluded in order to submit

to the Court the dispute "which arose jollowing a request ...for
the delivery of a safe-conduct ...."etc. Thus, on these two occasions,
namely January 3rd and August 3oth, 1949, the dispute was
confined to definite points, in accordance with consent of the
Parties repeatedly expressed.
Biit, removed from the environment in which it arose, was
understood and defined, the case began to undergo the effects of a
process of change, at first discreet, but which finally resulted in
completely transforming the dispute.

22. Thus the counter-claim has added to the complaint of
violation of Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Havana Convention,
that of violation of Article 2, paragraph 2 ("First"), of the same

instrument.
From the antecedents of the case and in the absence of a precise
explanation on the developments which that paragraph may
permit, it could readily be imagined that, far from laying down
a new ground, it referred rather to an alternative arising out
of the previous discussion which has retained the same tenor
in the subsequent development of the legal proceedings until
the last oral statement, constantly recurring as a leitînotiu in
the case :the charge of common crime made in respect of acts
of terrorism to a certain extent tends to deprive such acts of
their political character.
It could therefore be admitted that after such express declara-
tions (see Memorial, Counter-Memorial, Rejoinder and oral state-
ments) it would automatically follow that, once the existence of

prior charges of common crimes has been disposed of, the grant
of asylum to a mere politician in distress or to a political criminal
whose right of asylum the Respondent has in principle always
acknowledged, would appear to be perfectly regular.
In other words, if th? Court finds that the refugee was not
accused of a common crime prior to the grant of asylum, the
asylum ~nust be upheld.3j1 OPINIOK DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
Il fallait beaucoup d'attention pour découvrir dans deux ou trois
référencesdes plus discrètes à l'urgence (contre-mémoire, duplique)

une condition nouvelle à l'acceptation de l'asile, mêmeexigée à
titre subsidiaire. J'irai mêmejusqu'à dire que la netteté de la
référence quiprécèdela conclusion de la reconvention est loin d'être
satisfaisante (contre-mémoire) .

Mais tout a étéchangédans la duplique orale pour permettre de
dire à la Cour qu'elle était libre de retenir ou non la question de la
qualification du délit, question que le défendeur estimait désormais
en dehors des débatset de ((l'orientation que ceux-ci avaient prise»,
car il se préoccupait à titre principal de la circonstance d'urgence,
liéeà un danger matériel et passager.

Le centre de l'affaire étant ainsi déplacé,tous les soucis sur la
criminalité de droit commun, qui avait constitué jusque-là le seul
motif de la méconnaissance de l'asile, disparaissaient ; on arrivait
alors à mettre en doute la compétence de la Cour pour décider de
problèmes que la reconvention seule avait créés.
Je ne saurais,pour mapart, rester indifférentàune telle pratique,
qui faisait même songer au concept anglo-saxon de l'estoppel.
Moins encore pourrais-je accepter que l'on déplace, à la onzième
heure, le fardeau de la preuve de l'urgence sur le demandeur, qui
dans la demande reconventionnelle était pourtant le défendeur,

alors même qu'à défaut de toute contestation opportune sur
l'urgence, la règle de procédure qui fait présumer exacts les faits
non contestés par l'adversaire devait aussi s'appliquer.
En tout cas, la question de la preuve n'a dans le cas présent
aucune importance, car les documents apportés au dossier par les
deux Parties dans différents desseins sont plus que suffisants pour
la preuve des faits nécessairesà la décisionde l'affaire.

23. A mon avis, la Cour était mêmeincompétente pour trancher
une controverse qui n'existait pas au moment de la conclusion de
l'ActedeLima, lorsque celui-cia fixéun différenddéjànéet nettement

délimité.Aux termes du Protocole signé à Rio-de-Janeiro, entre les
mêmesParties, le 24 mai 1934, il aurait fallu également une discus-
sion diplomatique directe et préalable pour qu'une question vînt
devant la Cour.
On a peut-être préféré s'entenir à un assentiment tacite des
Parties, du fait que, dans les conclusions orales, le demandeur n'a
pas parlé à nouveau de la compétence de la Cour pour connaître
de ce qu'il a appeléla première demande, tandis qu'il a fait allusion
à l'incompétence à propos de la seconde demande reconvention-
nelle (cf. réplique, plaidoiries).
Cette raison, encore qu'appuyée sur la jurisprudence de la Cour.

permanente reste bien faible. D'abord, je préférerais à cette juris-
89 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 35I

A very careful scrutiny of the Pleadings was necessary in order
to discover in two or three hidden references to urgency (Counter-
Memorial, Rejoinder) a new and even subsidiary requirement for
the acceptance of the asylum. 1 might even go so far as to Say that
the clarity of the reference which precedes the submission of the
counter-claim is far from satisfactory (see Counter-Memorial).

But the question was presented in an entirely different form
in the oral rejoinder, in order to make it possible to state to the
Court that it was free to consider or not the question of the quali-

fication of the offence, which question the Respondent at that time
considered to be outside the debate and the "trend which it had
assumed", for the Respondent was mainly concerned with the
circumstance of urgency connected with a material and transitory
danger.
The centre of the case was thus displaced ; al1 concern with
common crimes, which had hitherto been the only grounds for not
recognizing the asylum, disappeared ;and the question was then
raised of the competence of the Court to decide on problems which
had been raised only in the counter-claim.
1 cannot, for my part, remain indifferent to such a practice, which
is reminiscent of the Anglo-saxon concept of estoppel, nor could 1
accept that the onus of proving urgency should, at theeleventh
hour, be placed upon the Applicant who, in respect of the counter-

claim, became the Respondent, when, in the absence of any objec-
tion regularlypresented on the point of urgency, the procedural rule
should be applied according to which facts not disputed by the
other party should be assumed to be true.
In any case the question of proof has no importance whatever in
the present case, for the documents submittedby both Parties, with
different ends in view, are more than sufficient to prove the facts
which are necessary for the Court's decision in this case.

23. In my opinion the Court was not even competent to decide
upon a dispute which did not exist at the tiine of the conclusion of
the Act of Lima, whereas that Act described a dispute which had
already arisen and had been clearly defined. Under the terms of the
Protocol signed in Rio de Janeiro by the Parties on May zqth,

1934, a direct preliminary diplornatic cliscussion would also have
been necessary before a question could be brought before the Court.
Itu7as considered preferable to confine the discussion to a tacit
agreement of the Parties since, in the oral submissions, the Applic-
ant did not again refer to the cornpetence of the Court to consider
what he called the first claim, whereas he referred to its lack of
jurisdiction with respect to the second counter-claim (see Reply
and Oral Statements).
This reason, although supported by the jurisprudence of the
Permanent Court, is very weak. First of all, 1 would prefer to this 352 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
prudence l'opinion dissidente présentée, entre autres, par le juge
Max Huber (C. P. J. I., Série A, no 15, Arrêt no 12, p. 53).

Ensuite, il s'agissait d'une incompétence ratione matericz, que
le demandeur a d'ailleurs rappelée à propos du devoir pour la
Cour d'examiner ex ogicio les deux conditions poséespar l'article 63
(compétence et connexité).
Mais il y a encore une circonstance plus importante - c'est que
la modification du fondement essentiel de la demande a étéplaidée
à un moment où l'autre Partie ne pouvait plus répondre, condition
en tout cas exigéepar la Cour permanente en ce qui concerne une
simple modification des conclusions (M. O. Hudson, The Permanent
Court of International Justice, New-York, 1943, page 576, et
note 25).

En tout cas, au lieu de trouver le consentement des Parties dans
la faible mesure d'un abandon tacite ou a contrario,je préfèrele
rechercher dans un document solennel, comme l'Acte de Lima,
qui est à la base de toute l'affaire, comme limite d'une compétence
qui n'est accordée à la Cour que par la volonté des Parties et que
celle-ci doit observer ex ogicio (Viktor Bruns, Recueil des Cours,
vol. 62, p. 603).

24. La demande reconventionnelle et surtout l'importance qu'a
prise de façon inattendue la circonstance d'urgence ont entraîné
une profonde modification de l'affaire en la retirant du champ
d'une simple discussion juridique pour la ramener dansun domaine
où les aspects politiques occupent la place principale - on a claire-
ment voulu (crever un abcès ».
Le demandeur qui avait gardé une grande réserve dans la dis-
cussion diplomatique, évitant d'apprécier les faits (cf. duplique)
et se retranchant derrière les aspects généraux de droit, s'est vu
forcéd'étaler les motifs politiques existants, à la première occasion

qui s'est présentée après le contre-mémoire, c'est-à-dire dans la
réplique.
La Cour a écarté,à la quasi-unanimité des voix, la prétention
concernant l'existence d'un crime de droit commun lors de l'octroi
de l'asile: c'est le rejet complet du point de vue soutenu par le
défendeur jusqu'à la date du contre-mémoire et qui a passé à la
place subsidiaire seulement le g octobre 1950.

Mais on a considéré comme violéeune autre disposition de la
Convention de La Havane, parce que, à trois mois de distance du
fait principal, il n'y aurait pas eu urgence et parce que, le 3 janvier

1949, il n'y aurait pas eu un danger réel suffisant pour octroyer
l'asile.
25. Mais jusqu'à cette époque, plusieurs diplomates avaient
accordé asile à un grand nombre de personnes sans aucune oppo-
'sition, et cette circonstanceconduit encore àécarter l'interprétation

au sens étroit du mot ccurgence » par rapport au temps, inter-
90 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 352

jurisprudence the dissenting opinion submitted among others by
Judge Max Huber (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 :Judgment No. 12,
p.53). Furthermore, this was a case of a lack of jurisdiction ratione
materia which the Applicant has in fact recalled in connexion
with the duty of the Court to examine ex oficio the two require-
ments laid down in Article 63 (jurisdiction and connexion).
But there is yet a more important circumstance ;it is that the
modification to the essential basis of the claim was pleaded at a
time when the other Party was no longer able to reply, and that

condition was in any case required by the Permanent Court in
connexion with a simple modification of submissions (M. O. Hud-
son, The Permanent Court of International Justice, New York,
1943, page 576, and note 25).
In any case, instead of seeking the consent of the Parties in the
weak measure of a tacit or a contrariorenunciation, 1 would prefer
to seek it in a solemn document such as the Act of Lima, which is
at the basis of the whole case, and limits the jurisdiction which
was conferred upon the Court only by the wiU of the Parties and
which the Court must observe ex oficio. (Viktor Bruns, in Recueil
des Cours, Vol. 62, p. 603.)

24. The counter-claim, and especially the importance so unex-
pectedly assumed by the circumstance of urgency, has brought
about a considerable modification in the case, removing it from the
field of simple juridical discussion to a plane where the political
aspect is of paramount importance. The intention has clearly been
to "burst an abscess".
The Applicant, who had displayed extreme reserve throughout
the diplomatic discussions, refraining from appraising the facts
(see Rejoinder) and relying on the general aspects of the law,
was forced to set forth the existing political motives on the first
occasion which presented itself after the Counter-Memorial,

namely in the Reply.
The Court has rejected almost unanimously the contention
concerning the existence of a common crime at the time at which
asylum was granted. This is the complete rejection of the view
maintained by the Respondent up to the date of his Counter-
Memorial, a view which was relegated to a subsidiary position only
on October gth, 1950.
But is has been argued that another provision of the Havana
Convention was violated because, within three months after the
principal event, there was no urgency and because on January 3rd.
1949, there was not sufficient real danger to justify the grant of
asylum.

25. But even up to that time, several diplomats continued to
grant asylum, without opposition, to a great number of persoils,
and this circumstance further leads to the rejection of a strict
interpretation of the word "urgency" in relation to time, according

90 353 OPINIOPY DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
prétation selon laquelle il ne devrait s'agir que de compter un
nombre de jours d'ailleurs incertain.
Il est très difficile d'admettre une interprétation du texte qui
ne tienne pas compte des particularités du milieu qui lui a donné
naissance ; il comporte une gamme de faits très nuancée.
Parfois il n'existe mêmepas de date qui permette un calcul de

temps, et il faut également tenir compte des difficultés d'accès à
une légation, car le premier soin de la police en ces occasions est
de siirveiller les hôtels diplomatiques pour empêcher que les
suspects ne s'en approchent ; dans ces cas, le fugitif doit attendre
longtemps et guetter l'occasion favorable pour passer à la dérobée,
en généralpendant la nuit.
On constate dans le cas présent que le premier élément précis
d'une accusation de délit politique est la sommation parue au
Journal officiel du 16 novembre 1948 ; la lettre ministérielle à
laquelle il sera fait allusiun plus tard était restée secrète.
Une demande anticipée pourrait-elle cependant êtreaccueillie de
bonne grâce par un agent diplomatique ou, au contraire, celui-ci
la refuserait-ilà raison de son caractère prématuré ? Il est extrê-
mement difficile de juger une telle situation dans des conditions
très différentes de temps et de lieu pour comprendre les hésitations
qui peuvent assaillir l'esprit du fugitif.

Mais, dira-t-on, il y avait dès le 4 octobre 1948 un décret qui
mettait hors la loi le Parti Apra après des considérants où figurent
de claires allusions à la volonté de punir les auteurs moraux des
faits contrairesà l'ordre public de la nation, bien que le programme
de ce parti ait étéconnu depuis longtemps et que plusieurs de ses
membres eussent fait partie du Congrèset du Gouvernement. Mais
la constitutionnalité de cet acte était cependant susceptible d'une
appréciation judiciaire, puisque la Constitution péruvienne restait
en vigueur avant le 27 octobre avec les seules restrictions de l'état
de siège. Il suffit de constater que ledit décretse fondait surl'arti-
cle 154, no 2, de la Constitution, qui attribue au pouvoir exécutif le
maintien de l'ordre public, mais sans l'autoriser à violer ladite
Constitution ou les lois.

D'autres circonstances pourraient être encore relevées pour

apprécier la conduite de l'ambassadeur, et aussi de son Gouverne-
ment qui devait l'appuyer par la suite :tout d'abord, la lettre du
ministre de l'Intérieur du 5 octobre 1948 dénonçant des crimes ;
cette lettre, de nature nettement politique, produisit, bien qu'elle
eût étégardée secrète, des effets visibles, qui furent la mise sous
séquestre des biens et des journaux ; ensuite, les prorogations
successives de l'état de siège, dont la dernière à la veille de l'asile,
montrant que la crainte de troubles sociaux n'avait nullement
disparu ; enfin, le décret-loi du 4 novembre dont nous parlerons
plus tard. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 353

to which the period should only consist of an unspecified number
of days.
It is very difficult to adopt an interpretation of a text without
regard to the special circumstances in which it was drafted ;these
circumstances are both numerous and varied.
Sometimes even the dates are lacking which would permit the
time to be calculated. It is also necessary to take into account the
difficulties of reaching a legation, for the first concern of the police
in such cases is to watch the premises of diplomatic missions in
order to prevent suspects from reaching them. In such instances

a refugee is forced to wait a long time for a favourable opportunity
of passing through unnoticed, generally at night.
It will be noted in the present case that the first definite indica-
tion of an accusation of political offence was the summons which
appeared in the officia1 gazette of November 16th, 1948 ; the
Ministerial letter to which we shall refer later had remained secret.
But could an anticipated request be willingly agreed to by a
diplomatic agent or, on the contrary, would he reject it on the
ground that it was premature ? It would be very difficult to
appraise such a situation in such different conditions of time and
place with a view to understanding the hesitation which might
arise in the mind of the fugitive.
It will be argued that there had existed since October 4th, 1948,
a decree outlawing the Aprist Party, the recitals of which contained

clear references to the intention to punish the moral authors of
acts contrary to the public order of the nation, in spite of the fact
that the programme of that party had been known for a long time
and that many of its members had belonged to the Congress or the
Government. But the constitutional validity of this act was none
the less open to judicial appreciation, since the Peruvian Constitu-
tion remained in force before October 27th with only the restric-
tions pertaining to a state of siege. It will be sufficient to note that
the said decree was based on Article 154, NO. 2, of the Constitution,
which attributes the maintenance of public order to the executive
power, without however authorizing that power to violate the
Constitution or the laws.
Other circumstances coula also be considered in appreciating the

conduct of the Ambassador, as well as that of his Government,
which subsequently had to support him. First of al1the letter of the
Minister of the Interior of October jth, 1948, denouncing crimes ;
this letter was of a clearly political nature, and although it remained
secret, produced visible results such as the sequestration of his
assets and newspapers ; then the successive renewals of a state of
siege, the last of which occurred the day before the asylum was
granted, showing that the fear of social disturbances had in no way
disappeared ; and, finally, the decree-law of November 4th, to
which we shall refer later.354 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE 31. AZEVEDO

D'autre part, pouvait subsister le danger d'attentats d'origine
privée,par exemple d'ennemis personnels passant outre à toutes les
précautions que pouvait prendre une garde policière.

26. Mais ce qui démontre sans conteste que la décision de
l'ambassadeur n'était pas anormale, illicite ou précipitée,c'est le
changement profond des circonstances constaté pendant la période
de trois mois qui s'est écouléeentre les deux faits- la rébellionet
l'asile.
Il est très regrettable d'êtreobligéd'examiner des faits politiques,
mais il n'y a pas d'autre moyen d'apprécier les problèmes posés

par la demande reconventionnelle, encore qu'on doive toujours
argumenter d'une manière hypothétique et rétrospective, puisqu'il
s'agit d'une situation déjà passée.
Le triomphe, le 27 octobre 1948, d'un autre mouvement de
révolte a aggravéla situation de l'asilé,surtout si on lui attribue la
responsabilité de la distribution des tracts qui ont étéprésentés à
la Cour.
On a peut-être considéré comme insuffisante l'action punitive
entamée par le Président constitutionnel contre le Parti apriste,
et l'on a, d'autre part, affirméque le nouveau Gouvernement ne
se croyait pas engagé par les opinions exprimées par le Gouver-
nement précédentsur une question aussi importante que la qualifi-
cation de l'asile.
Il importe de rappeler qu'une Junte militaiie de gouvernement

a été installée, ou, comme dit l'arrêt, cs'empara du pouvoir
suprême ». Or, une telle situation était incompatible avec une
véritable Constitution, en premier lieu celle qui était violée par
l'installation mêmedu nouvel organe. Les limitations de pouvoir
que s'imposent ceux-là mêmesqui l'exercent en vertu d'un acte
de violence sont toujours illusoires, puisqu'elles résultent d'une
simple expression de volonté qui peut être changée à tout instant.
Le décret du 4 novembre se fonde, par exemple, sur les pouvoirs
qui ont étéconférésà la Junte, sans qu'on ait cru devoir donner la
moindre explication sur la source de ces pouvoirs.

Ainsi la reconduction mensuelle de l'état de siège, qui normale-
ment se borne à.suspendre certaines garanties constitutionnelles,

n'a donc qu'une très faible signification si l'on tient compte de
l'étendueillimitée despouvoirs que le gouvernement de fait pouvait
detoute manière s'attribuer ;ledit décret du4 novembre prévoyant
la peine de mort et simplifiant la procédure en matière de délits
politiques démontre à l'évidencela puissance d'un pouvoir prati-
quement illimité.
On peut donc en principe admettre qu'un diplomate étranger
puisse concevoir des doutes sérieuxquant au fonctionnement même
de la justice ordinaire. Car le renvoi sous divers prétextes non
seulement de juges militaires, mais de juges inamovibles, apparte-

92 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 354

On the other hand, there could remain the danger of private
attacks, for instance from persona1 enemies, who might evade al1
precautions taken by the police guard.

26. But indisputable proof that the decision of the ,4mbassador
was not abnormal, unlawful orhasty, is to be found in the profound
change in the circumstances during the three months' period which
elapsed between the two facts of rebellion and asylum.

It is most regrettable to be obliged to examine the merits of
political facts,. but thereis no other means of considering the

problems raised by the counter-claim, and even tlien we are bound
to argue in a liypothetical and retrospective manner, since we are
dealing with a situation alreadv past.
The success on October 27th, 1948, of another revolutionary
movement aggravated the situation of the refugee, especially if
he is held responsible for the distribution of the pamphlets that
have been submitted to this Court.
It may perhaps have been considered that the punitive action
instituted by the constitutional President against the Aprist
Party was insufficient, and it has been stated, on the other band,
that the new Government did not consider itself bound by the
policy of the preceding Government in a question such as the
qualification of asylum.
It is important to recall that a Military Junta of the Govern-

ment was set up or, as is stated in the Judgment, "seized the
supreme power". Such a situation was incompatible with a real
constitution, and in the first place with that particular Con-
stitution which had been violated by the installation of this new
organ. The limitations of power which those who govern by virtue
of an act of force impose upon themselves are always deceptive,
since they proceed from a will that can be changed at any
moment. The decree of November 4th, for instance, is founded
on the powers which have been conferred upon the Junta without
its having been thought necessary to give the least explanation
concerning the source of such powers.
Thus, the monthly renewal of a state of siege, which normally
is confined to the suspension of certain constitutional guarantees,
has but little significance in the light of the unlimited scope of
the powers which the de facto government could assume in any

case ; the said decree of November 4th, providing the death
penalty and simplifying the legal procedure in cases of political
crimes, is clear proof of the force of a practically unlimited power.

It is therefore possible to admit in principle that a foreign
diplomat could have serious doubts concerning the functioning
of ordinary justice. For the dismissal, under various pretexts,
not only of military judges, but also of permanent judges even

92355 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
nant mêmeà une Cour suprême, n'est pas une hypothèse insolite,

lorsqu'un pays se trouve pendant un temps hors d'un cadre consti-
tutionnel normal. Pour n'avoir pas à s'étonner d'une telle supposi-
tion, il suffit de se rappeler cette fameuse tentative de changer le
sens de la majorité d'une Cour qui s'est produite dans une des
plus grandes démocraties du monde, bien qu'alors il ne se fût agi
que de servir un intérêtfondamental du pays : transformer le
système économique de 1'Etat.
Peu importe que le décret-loidu 4novembre n'ait pas étéeffecti-
vement appliqué dans la procédure qui s'est poursuivie contre les
accusés secondaires,car, à tout moment, un autre acte basésur les
mêmespouvoirs illimités pourrait, d'un trait de plume, donner
une orientation toute différente, impossible à prévoir dans une
situation aussi instable.

Ainsi, un diplomate placédans de telles circonstances ne pouvait
pas êtresûr que l'ancienne et profonde tradition de culture du
pays où il était accréditéfût un barrage suffisant contre l'appli-
cation rétroactive d'une nouvelle loi dont l'effet d'intimidation
était d'ailleurs indéniable.
Certes, une déclaration faite devant la Cour, le 15 juin et le
2 octobre 1950, par un gouvernement constitutionnel exige un
respect absolu et constitue une garantie contre l'application future
de la loi d'exception au cas où l'asilépasserait en jugement. quoique
la tâche d'appliquer une loi appartienne au pouvoir judiciaire et
non à l'exécutif; mais, de toute manière, une telle déclaration
n'a rien à voir avec la situation de fait existant à l'époqueoù l'on
croyait d'ailleurs facile d'abandonner l'orientation du gouverne-

ment constitutionnel précédent (cf. mémoire).
L'observation faite par le défendeur que le demandeur a adopté
des lois semblables, relatives à l'aggravation des peines et à la
simplification de la procédure pour les crimes politiques, n'est pas
un argument à l'appui de sa thèse ; au contraire, si un gouverne-
ment constitutionnel peut, dans un simple état de siège, exercer de
telles fonctions essentiellement législatives, en vertu de dispositions
particulières de sa constitution, on peut facilement imaginer ce
qui pourrait arriver dans le cas où celle-ci n'existe pas ou n'est
appliquée qu'en partie, au grédes pouvoirs de fait.
L'ambassadeur a aussi pu constater qu'une procédure devait
continuer en l'absence des inculpés, après une sommation
officiellement publiée par l'ordre d'un juge d'instruction militaire
(cf. contre-mémoire). Est-ce qu'il pouvait prévoir que cette

sanction viendrait à êtreécartée, grâceà une disposition légale
excluant toute procédure par défaut, dont les termes exacts
ne sont d'ailleurs pas encore connus de la Cour et demandent
des explications, notamment sur la signification des allusions
contenues dans la partie finale de la décision transcrite à la
duplique ? Il importe peu que le jugement rendu le 22 mars
1950, sans aucune précipitation, contre les accusés à l'exclusion

93 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE -4ZEVEDO 355

belonging to a Supreme Court, is not an unusual possibility in
a country which might find itself for any length of time deprived
of its normal constitutional régime. Such a possibility need not
seem surprising in the light of a famous attempt which was
made to change the majority of a court in one of the greatest
democracies of the world, although the object in that instance
concerned only the fundamental interests of the country and
consisted in transforming the economic system of the State.
It matters little whether the decree-law of November 4th was not

actually applied in the proceedings against the subordinate accused,
for, at any time, another act based upon the same unlim ted powers
could have, by a mere stroke of the pen, given an entirely different
course to these proceedings in a manner which could not have been
foreseen in so unstable a situation.
Thus, a diplomat placed in similar circumstances could not be
certain that the old and deep-rooted cultural tradition of the
country to which he was accredited could be a sufficient obstacle
to a possible retroactive application of a new law, the intimidating
effect of which was undeniable.
It is true that a declaration made before the Court on June 15th
and October znd, 1950, by a constitutional government deserves

absolute respect and constitutes a guarantee against the future
application of the exceptional law in case the refugee were to
stand trial, although the task of applying a law appertains to the
judicial and not to the executive authority. But, in any case, such
a declaration is irrelevant to the situation, as it existed at a time
when it was considered easy to abandon the policy of the preceding
constitutional government (see Memorial).
The observation made by the Respondent that the Applicant
had adopted similar laws relating to the aggravation of penalties
and the simplification of procedure in cases of political offences is
not an argument in support of his case. On the contrary, if a con-

stitutional government can, in a simple state of siege, exercise
such essentially legislative functions by virtue of particular pro-
visions in its constitution,it can readily be imagined what might
happen in a case where such provisions did not exist or were only
partially applied at the discretion of the de facto authorities.
The Ambassador was able to note that proceedings were to
continue in the absence of the accused pursuant to a summons
published officially by order of the military Examining hlagistrate
(see Counter-Memorial). Could he foresee that this penalty would
not be imposed by virtue of a legal provision prohibiting pro-
ceedings in absentia? The exact terms of this provision are not

yet known to the Court and would need explanation especially
as regards the significance of the rcfcrcnces in the last part of the
decision reproduced in the Kejoinder. It matters little that a
moderate judgment \vas delivered without haste on JIarch zznd,
1950, against those of the accused xvho put in an appearance ;
93des absents, ait été modéré ; on y voit en revanche proclamer
avec une anticipation déplacée la responsabilité principale des
chefs de 1'Apra pour des faits dont ils devaient personnellement
tirer avantage (cf. duplique).

27. En vérité, il n'y a qu'une façon d'apprécier une question
de responsabilité quelle qu'elle soit :c'est de revenir aux conditions
de lieu, de temps et de milieu dans lesquelles les faits se sont pro-
duits, quoiqu'on puisse hésiter entre une appréciation subjective
ou objective, en se mettant, dans le premier cas, à la place de

l'accusé,et en adoptant, dans le second, une position abstraite pour
comparer l'attitude critiquée à une conduite idéale, le critère bien
connu du Oo?zztpsater-jnnzilias.
L'approbation donnée par le Gouvernement à l'action de son
représentant n'a pas changé l'aspect de la situation ni déplacéles
faitsun seul jour après le 3 janvier 1949. Il ne serait doncpas raison-
nable d'opposer aux faits vécusàce moment une version échafaudée
à grande distance et deus ans après les événements.

La discussion diplomatique a eu seulement pour but d'obtenir

une reconsidkration d'attitude à la lumière de raisons qui remon-
tent à l'époque de l'octroi de l'asile. Ces démarches n'ont pas
réussi, et la question est restée dans l'état reconnu devant la Cour
avec la rédaction de la demande reconventionnelle.
La querelle reçtait la mêmeet on ne pouvait échapper au dilemme
sui!-ant :ou bien la violation est constatée et alors l'ambassadeur
a ~rîal agi au vu des seules circonstances susceptibles de consi-
dbration, ou il a bien agi et alors on ne peut pas parler de violation,
ni même - forme adoucie - d'un manque de conformité.

Sortir de cette dure alternative, c'est pénétrer dans le champ

de l'arbitraire, car il ne s'agit pas de porter un jugement sur la
conduite personnelle de l'ambassadeur, sur le point de savoir s'il
a commis ou non une faute et si celle-ci est ou non excusable,
ou dc l'acquitter.

28. Le dossier fournit d'autres élémentsdont la Cour ne saurait
nbgliger l'examen, surtout en ce qui concerne la prétendue modi-
fication de la situation clu 3 janlricr au moment pre'sent, afin de
conclure si la remise de l'asilé permettrait d'assurer sa sécurité.

On peut airisi constater, cn dehors de la lettre du ministre de

l'Intérieur du 5 octobre 1948, que :
1) le 25 mai 1949, lc procureur a ~1':noncé l'asild comme parti-
ci~mntà lincriin(>tl'homicitlc, di1chcf tl'iinc.insti,yation dt deuxième
tltx,qr<: 1.sii11: sin:plcs prCzc:rnl)tioiii (cfcontre>-mCinoirc) ; DISSESTISG OPIXIOK BY JUDGE -4ZEVEDO 3 j6

for it also proclaims in an unduly anticipatory manner the main
res110nsibility of the leaders of Apra for events from which the??
were to derive persona1 advantage (see Rejoinder).

27. In fact, there is only one w7ayof appraising any question
of responsibility nrhatsoever, and that is to return to the condi-
tions of place, time and environment in which the events took
place, although it is possible to hesitate between a subjective and

an objective appreciation by adopting, in the first case, the point
of vie\, of tlie accused and, in the second, an abstract attitude
comparing the criticized conduct to an ideal conduct which is the
well-known criterion ol honzts pnterfnllzilias.
The approval given by the Goverilment to the action of its
representative has not changed the aspect of the situation nor
displaced the facts a single day after January 3rd, 1949. It would
therefore not be reasonable to set against the facts, which .occurred
at that time, a subsequent version which has been constructed
two vears after the events and at a place far removed from the
scenë of those events.

The sole purpose of the diplornatic discussion was to achieve a
re-consideration of attitude in the light of reasons going as far hack
as the grant of asylum. These negotiations did not succeed, and the
problem has remained in tlie state in which it was referred to the
Court hy the text of the counter-claim.
The dispute remained the same, and it was impossible to escape
from the following dilemma : either the violation is admitted, in
wfiich case the Ambassador was nrrong in the light of the only
circumstances that inay be taken into consideration, or else he \vas
right, in which case there can be no question of violation or cvcn,
in an attenuated form. of lack of conformitv.
Ifthis harsh alternative is abandoned, the; the onlÿ course is to

enter the field of arbitrary action, for there can be no clucstion of
passing judginent on the pcrsonal conduct of the Ambassador, or
wliether he committed an error or not, nhether such an error was
excusable, or n-hcther he should he acquitted.

28. Thcre are othcr elements in the case n-hich the Court cannot
fail to consider, especially as regards the change11hich ha5 allegedly
occurred in the situation silice Januarg- 3rd, with a view to deciding
whcthcr the surrender of the refugee would make it possible to
ensurc his safety.
Thus it \vil1bc seen, apart from the letter of the Jlinister of th(.

Interior of October jth, 1948, that :
(1)on hlay 2jtl1, 1919, the prosecutor denounced the refugee for
participation 111the crime of homicide on the count of second-
degree instigation and on the basis of mcrc 1)rcsurnl~tions (see
Countcr-Mcmorial) ;

04357 OPIKION DISSIDETYTE DE M. AZEVEDO
2) le 7 septembre 1949, une autre instruction est ouverte pour

faux d'un document qui devait profiter au parti et à I'asilé (cf.
contre-mémoire) ;
3) le 13 septembre 1949, le procureur porte accusation contre

I'asilépour délitd'usurpation d'autorité (cf. contre-mémoire) ;

4) le 21 septembre 1949, l'instruction est ouverte du chef indiqué

ci-dessus au no 3 (cf. contre-mémoire) ;
5) le 5 décembre1949, le jugement accueille, à titre préliminaire,

les accusations pour homicide et les délits contre l'administration
de la justice et contre la foi publique (cf. contre-mémoire) ;

6) le 31 décembre 1949, un juge d'instruction est désignéet le
même jour ce magistrat ordonne l'ouverture de deux instructions
sur les chefs indiqués suera no 5 (cf. contre-mémoire) ;

7) le 22 avril 1950 est terminée I'instruction pour les délits
contre la foi publique et contre l'administration de la justice, et
on ordonne l'application des dispositions de loi contre les inculpés
défaillants, sans que la portée de ces sanctions soit connue (cf. du-
plique).

Tous ces faits ont permis de dire, en plaidoirie, que ccla justice
interne [du pays dont l'asiléest ressortissant] le croit responsable
de l'assassinat de Grafia ainsi que des délits contre l'administration

de la justice et contre la foi publique, chefs pour lesquels les procès
furent ordonnés ))(cf. duplique).

29. La conclusion à laquelle j'arrive, rejetant la demande prin-
cipale et aussi la demande reconventionnelle, pourrait évidemment
soulever des critiques en ce que l'impasse continuerait après les

vingt-deux mois qui se sont déjà écoulés.Mais les deux Parties,
tout en ayant adressé des appels pressants à la Cour en vue de
résoudre le conflit, ne lui ont pas fourni les moyens d'arriver à
une solution indépendante, comme elle aurait pu le faire aux
termes de l'article 38, paragraphe 2, du Statut (jugement ex æqzto
et bono). Au contraire, les Parties ont limité l'action de la Cour
en indiquant seulement les données juridiques applicables à
l'espèce.

Mais si les points fondamentaux restaient définitivement acquis
dans le sens de mon opinion, c'est-à-dire si le défendeur n'était pas
contraint de délivrer un sauf-conduit tout en n'étant pas admis
à exiger la remise de I'asilé, onverrait alors se dessiner les grandes
lignes d'un accord compatible avec les exigences de sécuritéde
1'Etat territorial et les droits individuels de l'homme, moyennant DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE AZEVEDO 357

(2) on September 7th, 1949, another enquiry was opened into
the forgery of a document which was to benefit the party and the
refugee (Counter-Memorial) ;

(3) on September 13th, 1949, the prosecutor brings a charge
against the refugee for the crime of usurpation of authority
(see Counter-Memorial) ;
(4) on September a~st, 1949, an enquiry was opened on the
count given above under No. 3 (see Counter-Memorial) ;

(5) on December 5th, 1949, the judgment accepts in a prelim-
inary manner the accusations of homicide and offences against
the administration of justice and against the good name of the
State (see Counter-Memorial) ;

(6) on December pst, 1949, an Examining Magistrate was
appointed who on that same day ordered the opening of two
enquiries on counts given above in No. 5 (seeCounter-Memorial);

(7) on April zand, 1950, the enquiry into offences against the
good name of the State and the administration of justice was
completed and an order issued for the application of the provisions
of the law against the defaulting defendants without the scope
of such penalties being known (see Rejoinder).

Al1 these facts have made it possible to argue during the oral
proceedings that "the municipal courts [of the country of which
the refugee is a national] consider him responsible for the assas-

sination of Graiïa and for crimes against the administration of
justice and against the good name of the State, and it is on these
counts that the proceedings were instituted" (see Rejoinder).

29. My conclusion that both the main claim and the counter-
claim should be dismissed could obviously give rise to the criticism
that the deadlock would continue after the twenty-two months
which have already elapsed ; but the two Parties, whilst having
urgently appealed to the Court to resolve the dispute, have not
furnished it with the means to arrive at an independent solution
as would have been possible under Article 38, paragraph 2, of
the Statute of the Court (judgment ex @quo et bono). On the

contrary, the Parties have limited the action of the Court by
indicating only the legal data applicable to the case.

But, if the fundamental points were finally settled as suggested
in my opinion, i.e. if the Respondent were not obliged to deliver
a safe-conduct and yet were not authorized to require the surrender
of the refugee, this situation would be conducive to an agreement
compatible with the requirements of security of the territorial
State and the individual rights of man, by virtue of conditions35s OPISIOS DISSIDESTE DE 11. AZEVEDO
des conditions relatix-esà la protection des intérêtsfondamentaux

du pays ct dc la dignité des citoyens.
On nc pourrait donc pas parler d'une prison perpétuelle, ou même
indi.hnic, car Ic dénouement de l'asile arriverait facilement, comme
dans tousles autres cas où un différencla surgi.
;o. Ilans ces coilditions, si l'on déboute le demandeur principal

en admettant la demandc reconventionnelle, je me demande si le
défcncleur,qui n'a pas jusqu'ici demandé la remise de l'asilé,ne sera
pas porté à lc faire selon la réserve knoncéeà cet égard (cf. contre-
mi,moire). Temc demande ciuelle Dourra être l'attitude du deman-
deur l>ri;ic~l~alen face (1'ui;e tell: prétention, si elle vcnaàt se
nrocliiire ou mêmesi. en l'absence de toute demande. il n'oblir"cra
bas l'asiléà tluittcr'l'ambassadc. Je me demande 4, de part et
d'autre, on ne sera pas am& à admettre que la remise de I'asilé
à 1:ijustic? territoriale est la seule solution. S'il en était ainsi, il
se trou\.crait clu'aprks des centaines de cas d'asile, on assisterait
peut-être pour la première fois, du moins en Amérique latine, à

la livraison d'un crimincl politique à la justice territoriale, civile
ou militaire.Je me (lcmande si, dans cette hypothèse, cette justice
lejugerait non sculcment pour le délit politique, qui lui est imputé,
mais mêmepour des crimes de droit commun en lui appliquant
l'étrange article 24s du Code de Justice militaire qui prévoit que,
si l'on ignorc les ritabl ablesauteurs des délits de droit commun
connexes, on pcut punir les principaux chefs de la rébellion. De
telsrksultats nlc paraissent contraires à l'idéeque l'on se fait en
Amérique latine de l'asile accordé aux criminels politiques.

(Signé) PH. AZEVEDO. DISSENTIXG OPINIO?! BY JUDGE ,4ZETTED0 39

relating to the protection of the fundamental interests of the
coiintrx- and tlic dignitv of its citizens.
It would therefore not be possible to speak of life imprisonmcilt or
even indeiinite imprisonment, for the question of the asylum n-ould
be easily solx~edas it \vas in al1 other cases where a dispute arose.

30. ln the circuinstanccs, if the principal Applicant is disinissed
by an admiss on of the counter-claiin, 1 wonder nhether the
Respondent, ~vho up to now ha5 not demanded the surrencler
of the refugee, mil1 not be nduced to do so in accordance n-ith
the reservation made in that connexion (see Counter-1Ieinorial).
1 wonder what the attitude of the principal Applicant map be
if such a claim were made, or even whether, in the absence of
any request, the Respondent xvould not compel the refugee to
leave the Embassy. 1 wonder whether both sides will not be led
to admit that the surrender of the refugee to territorial justice
is the only solution. If that n7ere so, then it 11-ouldhappen that
after hundreds of cases of asylum, xve might wiiness, and for
the first time-at any rate as regards Latin -4merica-the
surrender of a political offender to territorial justice, n-hether

civil or military. 1 wonder if, in that event, that justice n-ould
try him not only for the political offence nith n-hich he is charged,
but even for common crimes, applying to him that curious
Article 24s of the IIilitary Code of Justice \\-hich provides that,
when the real authors of related crimes arc not knon-n, it is per-
missible to punish the principal leaders of the rebellion Such
results appear to me to be contrary to the idca of as~,lum to
political offenders, ~vhicli l,r~~\~nilsin 1atin Al~ncricn.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion by Judge Azevedo (translation)

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