Dissenting Opinion by Judge Alvarez (translation)

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007-19501120-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
007-19501120-JUD-01-00-EN
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DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ
[Translation]

1

Importance of.the Colombian-Peruvian Asylum case. Questions which
should be considered.

The dispute between Colombia and Peru concerning asylum is
of great importance for the countries of the New World who await
the Court's answer with lively interest. This dispute also presents
considerable importance for al1 the other countries, since asylum
has been written into the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
which was adopted at the Third Assembly of the United Nations.
To have an exact idea of the case now before this Court, it is
necessary to consider, in addition to the facts, the following ques-

tions in their broad outlines :
IO Unilateral acts in international law. Their nature.
2" Asylum in Europe. Asylum in Latin America. The social and
political environment in which asylurn is practised in these coun-
tries.
3' Does there exist an American international law ? Charac-
teristics of this law, especially at the present time.
4" Does there exist a customary American international law on
asylurn ? Conventional American international law on the subject.
5" The Convention on Asylum which was adopted at the Sixth
Pan-American Conference of Havana in 1928 and was ratified

by Peru and Colombia. Scope of the provisions of this Convention.

Unilateral acts in international law. Their nature.

A distinction must be made in international law between uni-
lateral acts, or acts which are the result of the will of one State
alone, and multilateral acts in which the will of two or more States
participate.
Unilateral acts occupy an important place and play an important
rôle in international law. 1 shall not expatiate upon this point but

shall confine myself to giving three examples of this kind of act :
IO those which concern the freedom of the individual and the
sovereignty of States, on the one hand, and the sovereignty of one
or more States, on the other ; 2"some acts relating to conventional
international law ; 3" certain acts which relate to politics.
28 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 291

Acts under the first head refer particularly to the admission of
aliens to a State, immigration, refuge, asylum, extradition, intern-
ment and ex~ulsion. etc.
The acts of the second category arise in connexion with certain
conventions : the latter rnay be adhered to, denounced, etc. ;
moreover, some conventions rnay contain certain special provisions
as, for instance, those excluding from arbitration those questions
which related to the vital interests of the parties.
Finally, in the third category are included unilateral acts quali-
fying certain individuals as persona grata or persona non grata,
desirable or undesirable, etc.
In al1 the cases mentioned above, the appreciation of the facts
or circumstances depends on the will of one of the parties.

In certain cases, this unilateral appreciation rnaynot be disputed ;
it rnay at most be criticized. For example, in matters of immigra-
tion-an important economic and social phenomenon in the lives of
American countries-it is the State in which the immigrants wish
to settle which appreciates unilaterally whether they should be
admitted and. if so. under what conditions. The result of such
an appreciation rnay be prejudicial to the interests of thousands of
persons who wish to emigrate to these countries, as well as to
the interests of their national State; but nobody disputes the fact
that the government of the receiving countryhas the right to act
unilaterally and that its decisions cannot be disputed.
In other cases, the unilateral appreciation rnay be challenged by
the party concerned ; this is precisely what happens in the case of

asylum.
Al1 these unilateral acts in their above-mentioned form are the
consequence of the individualistic régimeand the absolute sover-
eignty of States. To-day, under the new régimeof interdependence,
which is now emerging, this matter must undergo important changes
which need not be considered here.

III

Asylum in Europe. Asylum in the countries of Latin America.
Social and political environment in which asylum is practised in
these countries.
Until the present day, asylum has been considered as a humanit-

arianandtransitory measure intended to protect individuals against
angry mobs or even against the abusive actions of the authorities of
theState on the territory of which they reside. Asylum has therefore
a juridical, political and psychological aspect, and this distinction
has not always been properly made.
No precise rules have been laid down in international law in
respect of asylurn. There has been'general agreement, however, on
two points :asylum shall be granted only to political offenders and
not to perçons guilty or accused of having committed a common

29 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 292

crime, and that theState of refuge is competent to appreciate provi-
sionally the nature of the offence committed by the refugee.
Asylum has been practised in Europe ;but since the middle of
the x~xth century it is especially the countries of Latin America
which have resorted to asylum because of the frequent revolutions
and civil wars in certain of those countries.
In this connexion, it isessential to makeapreliminary observation.
In order to understand an institution and to give an adequate
solution to the questions which it raises. it is necessary to know
the political.and social environment which gave it birth, and to
consider how the institution has been applied.
The Latin-American environment is very different, in matters
of asylum, from the European environment.

The aim of the revolutionary movements which occur in certain
Latin-American countries is either to change the existing political
order, or to enable a "caudillo" to assume power. The leaders
of such movements consider that they will be able, in the event
of failure, to seek refuge in foreign embassies or legations and
asylum is readily granted to them ; it has sometimes even been
granted to leaders of barrack mutinies which had been quickly
suppressed.
Asylum, in these countries, is regarded as a conçequence of
the ex-territoriality of the premises on which it is granted and
not as a diplomatic protection ; it is consequently considered
that such asylum in no way constitutes an intervention or a
limitation of the sovereignty of the territorial State, but rather

that it is the legitimate exercise of a prerogative.
Sometimes the government of the territorial State places a
police guard over the approaches of premises sheltering the refugee
in order to prevent the latter from escaping from the local
authorities, should he leave his place of asylum.
Sometimes, also, the diplomatic agent who has granted asylum
requests the local authorities to grant a safe-conduct enabling
the refugee to leave the country in safety.
In leaving his place of asylum, with or without a safe-conduct,
the refugee frequently intends to continue his activities from
the country to which he is proceeding ;and it has happened that
certain politicians, after returning to the country which they
had been forced to leave, have subsequently held very important

office there, including even that of head of the State.
During revolutionary disturbances, common crimes or offences
are frequently committed, silch as murder, looting, arson, etc.

In view of the importance of asylum in Latin-American countries,
these countries have followed certain practices and have regulated
the matter by conventions. By virtue of this fact, the institution
of asylum is part of what is termed American intevnational law or
rather Latin-American international law.

30 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 293

Thus, asylum in Latin America should be considered in the light
of the environment to which 1 have just referred ;it is with this
environment in mind that we should interpret the provisions of
conventions on asylum, fil1any gaps they may contain and examine
the tendency which asylum ought to assume in the future

Is there an American international law ? Characteristics of that
law, especially at the present time.

In the written Pleadings and in the oral statements, reference
has been made to American international law and its existence
has been recognized ; but opinions have been expressed concerning
its nature, content and future, which make a clarification neces-
sary. This clarification is of special importance for America.
In the present case, Colombia has asked that the principles of
American international law be applied to the solution of the present
case and that the international spirit of the continent be also taken
into consideration.
As far as international law is concerned, the States of America

have, since their independence, wished to modify that law so as
to bring it into harmony with the interests and aspirations of
their continent. Pan-American conferences, particularly that of
Buenos Aires in 1936and that of Lima in 1948, proclaimed certain
principles as belonging to Americaz international law.

This expression "American international law" has been accepted
in various ways which need not be mentioned here. This expression
does not mean, as may appear at first sight and as many would
have us believe, an international law which is peculiar to the New
World and entirely distinct from universal international law, but
rather the complex of principles, conventions, customs, practices,
institutions and doctrines which are peculiar to the Republics of

the New World. Certain jurists have sought to cal1 this complex
the "peculiarities of international law in America". This is merely
a question of terminology. The designation "American international
law" has triumphed.
1 have referred to the "Republics" of the New World because
Canada, which is a British Dominion, and the European colonies
in America, did not participate in Pan-Americanism or in the
establishment of American international law.
If certain precepts, which are held to be universal, are not
accepted by the countries of the American continent, it is obvious
that they no longer have that character ;and if American precepts
are not recognized by the countries of other continents, they must
be applied only in the New World. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 294
A principle, custom, doctrine, etc., need not be accepted by al1
of the States of the New World in order to be considered as a

part of American international law. The same situation obtains
in this case as in the case of universal international law.

American international law is binding upon al1 the States of
the New World; it is also binding upon the States of other
continents in matters affecting America, such as immigration,
the security zone of the continent in time of war, etc.
American international law has its sub-divisions, such as, for
instance, Latin-American international law or the law of the
Latin Republics of the New World, which is not binding upon
the United States.
American international law has exercised a considerable influence
over universal international law and has given it its peculiar
character ; many concepts or doctrines of American origin have
achieved or tend to achieve universal acceptance and many
concepts of a universal nature have, or tend to have, a special
application in the New World. The influence of that law has

increased since the last world war. The number and especially
the quality of the institutions and principles which have lately
appeared in America and which tend to be incorporated in new
international law is truly impressive.
Since the last social upheaval, there exist not only an American
international law, but also a European international law, and
an Asian international law is in the process of formation. And
apart from these three international continental systems of law,
another important international system of law is emerging-
Soviet law.
It has been maintained during the hearing that American inter-
national law-and consequently other international continental
systems of law-must be subordinated to universal international
law, and Article 52of the United Nations Charter has been invoked
in support of this view. Such a statement is not accurate. Articl52
in question refers only to regional agreements relating to the

maintenance of peace and not to continental systems of law.
Such systems of law are not suboydinate to universal international
law, but correlated to it.
Universal international law thus finds itself to-day within the
framework of continental and regional law ; and al1 such legal
systems adopt new trends in accordance with those indicated in
the preamble and Chapter 1 of the United Nations Charter;
such trends reflect entirely American, international spirit. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 295

Doesthereexist a customary American international law on asylum ?
American international conventionalLawon the szbbject.

The institution of asylum is a part of Latin-American inter-
national law because that institution is applied in the Latin coun-
tries of the New World in a special manner ; it is not part of the
continental American international law, since the United States
have never admitted asylum.
In view of the fact that asylum is utilized when the political

order within a country is disturbed, and inasmuch as the situation
resulting from this disorder may vary considerably, there is no
customary American international law of asylum properly speak-
ing ; the existence of such a law would suppose that the action
taken by the Latin States of the New World was uniform, which is
not at al1 the case : governments change their attitude according
to circumstances and political convenience.
But if there is no customarv Latin-American international law
on asylum, there are certain practices or methods in applying
asylum bvhich are followed by the States of Latin America. These

rnay be summarized as follows :
IO Asylum is granted only in cases of $olitical offence and not
to cornmoncriminals.
2' Asylum is granted in accordance with the laws and usages

of the State of refuge, and it is for the latter to appreciate whether
the offence committed by the refugee is a political offence or a
common crime.
3' The territorial State may request the departure of the refugee
from its territory and the State of refuge may then require the
former State to deliver a safe-conduct enabling the refugee to leave
the country safely.
3' The State which granted asylum sometimes, with the same
end in view, requests that a safe-conduct be issued to the refugee.

In view of the importance of asylum in Latin-American countries,
the matter has been regulated in a number of bilateral or multi-
lateral conventions.
The Latin-American States have signed in particular : the Boli-

varian Agreement on Extradition of July 18th, 1911 ;the Conven-
tion on Asylum adopted at the Sixth Pan-American Conference
of Havana, 192s ;the Convention on Political Asylum adopted at
the Seventh Pan-American Conference of Montevideo of 1933 ;
the Treaty on Political Asylum and Refuge adopted at the Second
South-Americari Congress of International Law at 3lontevideo
in 1939.

33 DISSENTINGOPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ
296
As regards the first of these conventions which refers solely to
extradition, Colombia argues that it is also applicable to asylum
in view of Article 18,which lays down that "aside from the stipul-

ations of the present agreement, the signatory States recognize
the institution of asylum in conformity with the principles of
international law". 1 agree with the Court that this claim is
unfounded.

The Convention on Asylum which was adopted at the Sixth Pan-
American Conferenceof Havana in 1928 and ratified by Colombia
and Peru. Scope of its provisions.

It has been rightly argued that the solution to the present case
must be sought especially in the provisions of the Havana Conven-

tion of 1928 on Asylum, on the grounds that this Convention was
ratified by Colombia and Peru.
Article I of this Convention enacts :

"It is not permissible for States to grant asylum in legations,
warships, military camps or military aircraft, to persons accused
or condemned for cornrnon crimes, or to deserters from the army
or navy.
Persons accused of or condemned for common crimes taking
refuge in any of the places mentioned in the preceding paragraph,
shall be surrendered upon request of the local government ...."

Article 2 provides :

"Asylum granted to political offenders in legations, warships,
military camps or military aircraft, shall be respected to the
extent in which allowed, as a right or through humanitarian
toleration, by the usages, the conventions or the laws of the
country in which granted and in accordance with the following
provisions :
First : asylum may not be granted except in urgent cases and
for the period of time strictly indispensable for the person, who
has sought asylum to ensure in some other way his safety.
Second : immediately upon granting asylum, the diplornatic
agent, commander of a warship or military camp or aircraft, sliall
report the fact to the Minister of Foreign Relations of the State
of the person who has secured asylum, or to the local administrative
authority, if the act occurred outside tlie capital.
Third : the government of tlie State may require that the
refugee be sent out of the national territory \vithii-i the sliortest
time possible ; and the cliploinatic ngciit of tlic country wlio lins
granted asylum may in turn require tlie guarnntecs iieccssnry for
the departure of the refugee, with due regasd to tlie inviolability
of his person, from the country ...."

34 DISSENTING OPINION BT JUDGE ALVAREZ 297

The provisions of this Convention should be considered in the
light of the Latin-American spirit as well as of the social and
pcliticalenvironment in which asylum is practised in Latin America.
In respect of Article 1,it must be pointed out that it is the State
from which the asylum is requested that must decide whether it
wishes to grant it or not. There are certain countries, such as the
United States, which never grant asylum.
There was considerable discussion as to the meaning of the word
accusation referred to in this same article. It was correctlj-argued

that this term must be construed in its ordinary juridical meaning :
proceedings instituted before a judicial authority of the country
at the request of a third party, or automatically by that authority.
But a second condition must be added :the accusation must refer
to acts directlycommitted by the accused, and not to acts committed
by others in connexion with an insurrection or a revolutionarg-
movement for which the refugee is sought to be held responsible
as a leader of that movement.
There was also long debate as to who is competent to appreciate
the nature of the offence committed by the refugee. This apprecia-
tion must naturally appertain to the State granting asylum ;if it
appertained to the territorial State,the institution of asylum would
be rendered nugatory, for it would be sufficient for that State to
affirm that the refugee was guilty of a common crime and he would

then have to be handed over.
There must, however, be no misunderstanding as to the scope
of the qualification of the offence made by the State of refuge ;
it should not be assumed that theState which makes that qualifica-
tion has the last word in this respect, and that its appreciation is
definitive and irrevocable. This qualification may be questioned by
the territorial State, and if agreement cannot be reached in this
respect, the case must be submitted to arbitration or to another
means of peaceful settlement. Thus, in the last resort, it is a third
party, or international justice, which decides on the nature of the
offence.
It has been claimed that if Peru had ratified the Montevideo
Convention of 1933 ,rticle2 of which provides that "the judgrnent
of political delinquency concerns the State which offers asylum",

that country would be bound by this provision and consequently
would be unable to raise an objection to the qualification made bjr
Colombia. That is not so ; even in such a case Peru would be
entitled to question the qualification since such a prerogative is
not excluded by Article 2 above.
There has also been much debate on the meaning of polifical
oflence. It has been contended that we should confine ourselves in
this connexion to the legislation of the country where the oflence
uTascommitted. This is inadmissible, for in their legislatiori, States
ordinarily qualify as a common crime certain acts, siich as insurrec-
tion, rvhich are rnanifestlq- political offences. The qualificatioil of

35 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 29s
the offence should be made by the international legal authority
whose task it is to decide in the matter.

International law contains no precise rules on the subject, but
the numerous precedents in existence rnay serve to provide general
directives. It rnay be said that any act which purports to overthrow
the domestic political order of a country must be regarded as a
political offence ; in that sense even murder rnay sometimes be
termed a political offence. This consequently also applies to mili-
tary rebellion.
Since the two last world wars, two new categories of offences
have been esfablished :internationaL offences such as violation of
the rights of the individual, genocide, etc., and crimes against
huunnnity, the chief one being responsibility for instigating a war.

These two categories of offences cannot be qualified as pol-

itical.
It is therefore the international judicial authority, as already
stated, which decides in the last resort, whether or not the offence
is political;and in order to do so, it must be guided not by national
legislations, but by the considerations of international justice
referred to above. This predominance of international law over
national legislations is one .of the foundations of the new inter-
national law.
In normal times, a State rnay not grant asylum to an individual
for the purpose of removing him from the authorities of his
country ; but a State is entitled to grant such asylum in abnormal
times in the case of a political offence; in such a case protection
of the individual and humanitarian considerations come into play.

Article z of the Havana Convention has given rise to important
discussions on the question of urgency.
If an international tribunal rnay easily give a decision on the
qualification of an offence because this matter is a question of
law, that is not the case with regard to urgency which is a matter
of fact, and which rnay change according to the circumstances of
each case; what is considered urgent by one State need not be
considered urgent by another, and what is urgent in some circum-
stances is no longer urgent in others. Moreover, urgency should not
be appreciated retrospectively, long after the events in question ;
it should be considered from the standpoint of the time at which
the events occurred.
The meaning of the term "urgency" should be interpreted in

accordance with the nature of asylum in Latin America, i.e., the
need to act with utmost speed in a given situation. There is no
urgency in a case which involves only the possibility of an individual
being persecuted, but there is urgency if he is already being perse-
cuted and consequently faces an immediate danger.
It is for the State of refuge to appreciate whether or not there
is urgency to grant asylum at the time it is requested. If the terri-
torial State considers that there \vas no urgency at the time, it

36 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 299

must immediately present a claim : any delay in the presentation
of such a claim is a ground for its rejection, for in such a case
the territorial State may be presumed to have admitted that
urgency existed.
The same Article 2, "First", provides that asylum must be
granted "for the period of time strictly indispensable for the person
who has sought asylum to ensure in some other way his safety".
This provision does not apply if a dispute has already arisen
between the State of refuge and the territorial State concerning
the regularity of the asylum ; such a dispute suspends the effect

of the provision in question and asylum may then continue until
the dispute is settled.
Another very important point referred to in -4rticle 2 is that
of a safe-conduct.
It has been claimed that it is only when the territorial State
has demanded the departure of the refugee from its territory that
the State of refuge may, in turn, require the delivery of a safe-
conduct to enable the refugee to leave in safety.
A strict compliance with the terms of Article 2 would be tant-
amount to a disregard of the nature of asylum, for if the territorial
State failed to demand the departure of the refugee, the latter

would be compelled to remain indefinitely on the premises where
he uTasgranted asylum. Besides, the provision coiltained in "Third"
of Article 2 above, is not exclusive in character ;it does not ineail
that only the territorial State is entitled to demand the departure
of the refugee. If such had been the intention of the authors of
that provision, they m-ould have stated so expressly, especially
since, in practice, it is frequently the State of refuge that has
requested a safe-conduct to enable the refugee to leave the country.
It should be pointed out that the Government of Peru, which
puts a restrictive iilterpretation on "Third" of Article 2, has on
several occasions granted safe-conducts at the request of the

diplomatic agent to perçons who had been granted asylum in
foreign embassies or legations. (See Memorial of the Government
of the Republic of Colombia.)
There is therefore a gap in Article 2.
The Havana Convention of 1928 has other importailt gaps.
First of all, itoes not provide for the case of a refugee who is not
a politicaloffender but the head of a State, overthrown by a revolu-
tion and seeking protection from persecution at the hands of the
victors ; in such a case delivery of a safe-conduct is a necessity.

Nor has the case been provided for in whicl-i the diplomatic
agent who granted asylum no longer wishes to maintain the asylum,
and chooses to provide for the departure of the refugee whilst
the territorial State objects to that departure.
Anolher gap in the article concerns the safe-conduct : no allow-
ance is made for the territorial State to deliver a restricted safe-

37 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 30°

conduct, so as to ensure that the refugee would not escape the
action of justice in the event of his being subsequently sentenced
in thesaid State for a common crime, or so as to prevent the refugee
from seeking refuge in a country whence he might continue his
conspiracy.
We shall see how the Court could, in the present case, inter-
pret certain provisions of the Convention of 1928 and fil1 the
above-mentioned gaps, especially with respect to the request for
a safe-conduct.

A. First submission of theApplication of the Governmentof Colombia.
The Government of Colombia, in its Memorial and in its
Reply, asks the Court, as a first submission, to adjudge and
declare: "that the Republic of Colombia, as the country grant-

ing asylum, is competent to qualify the offence for the purpose
of said asylum.. .".
In its judgment, and basing itself on the written and oral argu-
ments furnished by the Government of Colombia, the Court
declares that this submission should be interpreted in the sense
that Colombia, as the State granting asylum, is competent to
qualify the nature of the offence by a unilateral and definitive
decision binding upon Peru. This submission is rejected by the
Court.
1 have previously pointed out that, according to the principles
of international law, the qualification of the offence appertains to
the country granting asylum, but that such qualification is not
definitive ;the territorial State may contest it, precisely as Peru
has done, and it is then for the Court to resolve the dispute arising
from that contestation.
1therefore consider that the Court could have expressly declared
that, according to the documents submitted, Haya de la Torre is

accused of military rebellion, which is not a common crime but
a political offence. The judgment of the Court only contains an
implicit declaration to that effect, by rejecting the first submission
of the counter-claim of Peru.

B. Second submission of the Application of the Government of
Colombia.
1 stated previously that there was a gap in the Havana Con-
vention of 1928 with respect to the request by the state of refuge
for the delivery of a safe-conduct to the refugee.
To bridge this gap, the Court would actually have had to create
the law as it did in its Advisory Opinion of April t th, 1949,
which, indeed, concerned a much more important matter than the

present case, since it referred to the recognition of the right of the
38 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 301

United Nations to submit international claims in certain cases-a
right which had not been bestowed upon it by the Charter which
brought the Organization into existence.
Among the factors which could have guided the Court are
especially the ideas prevailing in the New World on the subject
of asylum, the fact that. according to Article 2 of the Havana
Convention, asylum should be of short duration and that the refugee
should be able rapidly to find safety by some other means. But
the delivery of a safe-conduct by the territorial State is precisely
the means hvhich makes this double purpose possible. An unjustifi-

able refusal to grant a safe-conduct would force the State of
refuge to keep the refugee indefinitely, which would be contrary
to the nature of asylum.
But before the delivery of such safe-conduct may be requested,
there must be no contestation of the legality of the asylum, or if
such a point arose, it should have been previously settled ;other-
wise the State of refuge would elude the objections raised by the
territorial State. In the present case, this legality has been con-
tested by Peru which maintained that the offence committed by
Haya de la Torre was not a political offence and especially that
no case of urgency existed at the time at which asylum was granted.
The Court on that last point found for Peru ;in the circumstances
Colombia has no reason to request a safe-conduct for Haya de
la Torre.

One of the grounds for sometimes refusing to deliver a safe-
conduct is the fear that the refugees may continue their political
activities abroad. That fear is to-day greatly diminished because
the uiew is emerging according to which one of the obligations of
States is to prevent conspiracies being directed from their terri-
tories against another State. The "Declaration of the great princi-
ples of modern international law", which has been adopted by
several important learned societies, provides this obligation in its
Article 25 (C). A similar provision is embodied in the Declaration
of the rights and duties of States which was drafted by the Codifi-
cation Commission of the United Nations.
Shoulcl the former refugee participate in such conspiracies while
in a foreign country, the State against which they are directed
may require the government of the foreign State to takethe neces-
sary measures in this connexion.

In any case, if Peru wishes spontaneously to deliver the safe-
conduct which has been requested, it may do so in such a manner
that Haya de la Torre is unable to escape the sentence that may
be pronounced against him by the Peruvian authorities, and that he
may he estradited from the country in which he then finds hiinself. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ

The counter-claim of Perz~.

The counter-claim of Peru is based on two grounds.

The first is the violation by Colombia of Article 1, paragraph 1,
of the Havana Convention. The Court has rejected that claim,
probably because it considers that the offence of which Haya de
la Torre is accused is not a common crime.
The second reason invoked by Peru is that Colombia granted
asylum to Haya de la Torre in violation of Article 2, paragraph 2,
of the Havana Convention, according to which "asylum may not
be granted except in urgent cases and for the period of time strictly

indispensable for the person who has sought asylum to ensure in
some other way his safety".
1 have previously pointed out the scope of this provision in so
far as urgency is concerned.
At the time at which Haya de la Torre requested asylum, he was
in a most critical situation, and he was by no means in safety.
In the written Reply, the Government of Colombia has explained
the nature and magnitude of the danger which threatened Haya
de la Torre.

It is in the light of that situation that the diplomatic agent of
Colombia decided to grant asylum. 1 consider that he was able to
appreciate exactly, and better than anyone else, the urgency for
such action.
The fact that several foreign embassies and legations had granted
asylum in Peru to various persons who had participated in the
same revolutionary movement as Haya de la Torre, further con-
firms this urgency. Moreover, Peru has only recently invoked the
absence of urgency.
As regards the last part of the counter-claim of Peru, submitted

on October 3rd, 1950, and relating to the unlawfulness of the
maintenance of ayilum, 1 cannot consider it well founded, since
there existed a dispute concerning the lawfulness of asylum, and
that such a dispute warranted the maintenance of the asylum.

(Signed) A. ALVAREZ.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

Importance du litige colombo-PéruvienM . atières qzc'ilfaut examiner.

Le litige colombo-péruvien relatif à l'asile est de grande impor-
tance pour les pays du Nouveau Monde ; ils attendent avec un vif
intérêtla sentence de la Cour. Ce différend présente, aussi, une
importance considérable pour tous les autres pays, puisque l'asile a
été inscrit dans la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme
votéeà la Troisième Assembléegénéraledes Nations Unies.
Afin de se rendre un compte exact de l'affaire soumise à la Cour,

il est nécessaire d'examiner, outre les faits, dans leurs grandes
lignes, les matières suivantes :
IO Les actesunilatéraux dans le droit international. Leur nature.
2" L'asile en Europe. L'asile dans les pays de l'Amérique latine.
Le milieu social et politique dans lequel l'asile est pratiqué dans
ces pays.
3' S'il existe un droit international américain. Caractéristiques
de ce droit,surtout à l'heure actuelle.
4' S'il y a un droit international américain coutumier sur l'asile.
Le droit international américain conventionnel sur cette matière.
5" La Convention sur l'asile votée à la Sixième Conférencepan-
américaine de La Havane de 1928, ratifiéepar la Colombie et par le
Pérou. Portée de ses dispositions.

Les actes unilatéra~~xdans le droit international. Leur nature.

Dans le droit international, il faut distinguer les actesunilatéraux,
ou actes résultant de la seule volonté d'un Etat, et les actes pluri-
latéraux au,xquels concourt la volonté de deux ou d'un plus grand
nombre dlEtats.
Les actes unilatéraux occupent une grande place et jouent un
rôle important dans le droit des gens. Sans m'attarder sur ce sujet,
je me bornerai à indiquer trois catégories d'actes de cette nature :
ceux concernant, d'une part, la liberté des individus et la souve-

raineté d'un Etat et, d'autre part, la souveraineté d'un ou de
plusieurs Etats tiers ;2" quelques actes relatifs au droit internatio-
nal conventionnel ; 3" certains actes se rapportant à la politique.
28 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ
[Translation]

1

Importance of.the Colombian-Peruvian Asylum case. Questions which
should be considered.

The dispute between Colombia and Peru concerning asylum is
of great importance for the countries of the New World who await
the Court's answer with lively interest. This dispute also presents
considerable importance for al1 the other countries, since asylum
has been written into the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
which was adopted at the Third Assembly of the United Nations.
To have an exact idea of the case now before this Court, it is
necessary to consider, in addition to the facts, the following ques-

tions in their broad outlines :
IO Unilateral acts in international law. Their nature.
2" Asylum in Europe. Asylum in Latin America. The social and
political environment in which asylurn is practised in these coun-
tries.
3' Does there exist an American international law ? Charac-
teristics of this law, especially at the present time.
4" Does there exist a customary American international law on
asylurn ? Conventional American international law on the subject.
5" The Convention on Asylum which was adopted at the Sixth
Pan-American Conference of Havana in 1928 and was ratified

by Peru and Colombia. Scope of the provisions of this Convention.

Unilateral acts in international law. Their nature.

A distinction must be made in international law between uni-
lateral acts, or acts which are the result of the will of one State
alone, and multilateral acts in which the will of two or more States
participate.
Unilateral acts occupy an important place and play an important
rôle in international law. 1 shall not expatiate upon this point but

shall confine myself to giving three examples of this kind of act :
IO those which concern the freedom of the individual and the
sovereignty of States, on the one hand, and the sovereignty of one
or more States, on the other ; 2"some acts relating to conventional
international law ; 3" certain acts which relate to politics.
28291 OPINIOK DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
Les actes de la première catégorie se réfèrent, notamment, à
l'admission d'étrangers dans un Etat, à l'immigration, au refuge, à

l'asile,à l'extradition, à l'internement, à l'expulsion, etc.
Les actes de la seconde catégorie ont lieu à l'occasion de certaines
conventions :celles-ci sont parfois l'objet d'adhésion, de dénoncia-
tion, etc. ; en outre, quelques-unes peuvent contenir certaines
stipulations spéciales,par exemple celles qui excluent del'arbitrage
les matières touchant les intérêtsvitaux des parties.
Enfin, dans la troisième catégorie entrent des actes de qualifica-
tion de certains individus : persona grata ou persona non grata,
désirables ou indésirables, etc.
Dans tous les cas ci-dessus indiqués, l'appréciation des faits ou
circonstances relève de la volonté d'une seule des parties.

Dans certains de ces cas, cette appréciation unilatérale ne peut
êtrecontestée ; elle peut, tout au plus, êtrecritiquée. En ce qui
concerne l'immigration, par exemple, qui est un grand phénomène
économiqueet social pour les pays de l'Amérique, c'est 1'Etat dans
lequel les immigrants désirent s'établirqui apprécieunilatéralement
s'ils doivent êtreadmis, et sous quelles conditions. Cette apprécia-
tion peut causer de graves préjudices aux milliers d'individus qui
veulent émigrer dans ce pays, ainsi qu'à 1'Etat dont ils sont les
ressortissants, mais personne ne conteste que le gouvernement dudit
pays a le droit d'agir unilatéralement et sans que ses décisions
puissent êtrecontestées.

Dans d'autres cas, l'appréciation unilatérale peut être contestée
par la partie intéressée ; il en est ainsi précisément en matière
d'asile.
Tous ces actes unilatéraux sous la forme ci-dessus indiquée
sont la consé,quencedu régimeindividztaliste et de la souveraineté
absolue des Etats. Aujourd'hui, avec le nouveau régime d'interdé-
pendance qui se fait jour, cette matière doit subir des modifications
importantes qu'il n'y a pas lieu d'indiquer ici.

III

L'asile en Europe. L'asile dans les pays de l'Amérique latirte.
Milieu social et politique dans lequel l'asile est pratiquédans ces

Pays.
L'asile a étéconsidéréjusqu'à aujourd'hui comme une mesure
humanitaire et transitoire destinée à protéger les individus contre
les excès d'une foule déchaînéeou mêmecontre des actes abusifs
des autorités du pays où ils résident. De ce fait, l'asile a un aspect
juridique, un aspect politique et un aspect psychologique qu'on ne
distingue pas touj ours.
L'asile ne comporte pas de règles précisesen droit international.

Deux points sont, cependant, généralementadmis :l'asile doit être
accordé seulement aux délinquants politiques et non aux indeidus
coupables ou accusésd'un délit dedroit commun ;et c'est 1'Etat à
29 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 291

Acts under the first head refer particularly to the admission of
aliens to a State, immigration, refuge, asylum, extradition, intern-
ment and ex~ulsion. etc.
The acts of the second category arise in connexion with certain
conventions : the latter rnay be adhered to, denounced, etc. ;
moreover, some conventions rnay contain certain special provisions
as, for instance, those excluding from arbitration those questions
which related to the vital interests of the parties.
Finally, in the third category are included unilateral acts quali-
fying certain individuals as persona grata or persona non grata,
desirable or undesirable, etc.
In al1 the cases mentioned above, the appreciation of the facts
or circumstances depends on the will of one of the parties.

In certain cases, this unilateral appreciation rnaynot be disputed ;
it rnay at most be criticized. For example, in matters of immigra-
tion-an important economic and social phenomenon in the lives of
American countries-it is the State in which the immigrants wish
to settle which appreciates unilaterally whether they should be
admitted and. if so. under what conditions. The result of such
an appreciation rnay be prejudicial to the interests of thousands of
persons who wish to emigrate to these countries, as well as to
the interests of their national State; but nobody disputes the fact
that the government of the receiving countryhas the right to act
unilaterally and that its decisions cannot be disputed.
In other cases, the unilateral appreciation rnay be challenged by
the party concerned ; this is precisely what happens in the case of

asylum.
Al1 these unilateral acts in their above-mentioned form are the
consequence of the individualistic régimeand the absolute sover-
eignty of States. To-day, under the new régimeof interdependence,
which is now emerging, this matter must undergo important changes
which need not be considered here.

III

Asylum in Europe. Asylum in the countries of Latin America.
Social and political environment in which asylum is practised in
these countries.
Until the present day, asylum has been considered as a humanit-

arianandtransitory measure intended to protect individuals against
angry mobs or even against the abusive actions of the authorities of
theState on the territory of which they reside. Asylum has therefore
a juridical, political and psychological aspect, and this distinction
has not always been properly made.
No precise rules have been laid down in international law in
respect of asylurn. There has been'general agreement, however, on
two points :asylum shall be granted only to political offenders and
not to perçons guilty or accused of having committed a common

29292 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
qui est demandé l'asile qui a qualité pour apprécier provisoirement
la nature du délit commispar le réfugié.
L'asile a été pratiqué en Europe ; mais depuis le milieu du

xlxme siècle, c'est surtout dans les pays de l'Amérique latine
qu'on y a eu recours en raison des révolutions et guerres civiles qui
ont eu lieu dans certains d'entre eux.
A ce sujet, une observation préliminaire est indispensable.
Pour bien se rendre compte d'une institution et donner une
solution adéquate aux questions qu'elle présente, il est nécessaire
de connaître le milieu politique et social où elle est née et s'est
développéeet comment elle a été appliquée.
Le milieu latino-américain est bien différent du milieu européen
en matière d'asile.

Les mouvements révolutionnaires qui ont lieu dans certains pays
de l'Amériquelatine ont pour but soit de changer l'ordre politique
existant, soit depermettre àun (caudillo )de s'emparer du pouvoir.
Les chefs de ces mouvements comptent qu'ils pourront, en cas
d'échec,se réfugier dans les ambassades ou légations étrangères,et
l'asile leur y est facilement accordé ;il a étéoctroyé parfois même
aux chefs de mutineries de caserne qui ont étérapidement réprimées.

L'asile est considérédans ces pays comme une conséquence de
l'exterritorialité des locaux où il est donné et non pas comme une
protection diplomatique ;par suite, on considère qu'il ne constitue

nullement une intervention, ni une limitation à la souveraineté de
1'Etat territorial, mais l'exercice légitimed'un droit.

Parfois, le gouvernement de l'État territorial fait surveiller par
sa police les abords des locaux où se trouve l'asiléafin qu'il ne puisse
échapper à l'action des autorités locales s'il en sort.

Parfois aussi, l'agent diplomatique qui a octroyé l'asile demande
aux autorités locales un sauf-conduit permettant à l'asiléde quitter
le pays en sûreté.

En quittant, avec ou sans sauf-conduit, l'endroit où il s'est
réfugié, l'asilé se propose souvent de poursuivre ses agissements
du pays où il va ;et il est arrivé que certains hommes politiques,
après êtrerevenus dans le pays qu'ils avaient dû quitter, y, ont
occupé une situation importante, même celle de chef d'Etat.

Pendant les troubles révolutionnaires se produisent souvent des
crimes ou délits de droit commun tels qu'assassinats, pillages,
incendies, etc.
Etant donné l'importance de l'asile dans les pays de l'Amérique

latine, ceux-ci ont suivi certaines pratiques et ont réglementé
cette matière dans des conventions. De ce fait, l'institution de l'asile
fait partie de ce qu'on appelle le droit international américain ou
plutôt du droit international latino-américain.
30 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 292

crime, and that theState of refuge is competent to appreciate provi-
sionally the nature of the offence committed by the refugee.
Asylum has been practised in Europe ;but since the middle of
the x~xth century it is especially the countries of Latin America
which have resorted to asylum because of the frequent revolutions
and civil wars in certain of those countries.
In this connexion, it isessential to makeapreliminary observation.
In order to understand an institution and to give an adequate
solution to the questions which it raises. it is necessary to know
the political.and social environment which gave it birth, and to
consider how the institution has been applied.
The Latin-American environment is very different, in matters
of asylum, from the European environment.

The aim of the revolutionary movements which occur in certain
Latin-American countries is either to change the existing political
order, or to enable a "caudillo" to assume power. The leaders
of such movements consider that they will be able, in the event
of failure, to seek refuge in foreign embassies or legations and
asylum is readily granted to them ; it has sometimes even been
granted to leaders of barrack mutinies which had been quickly
suppressed.
Asylum, in these countries, is regarded as a conçequence of
the ex-territoriality of the premises on which it is granted and
not as a diplomatic protection ; it is consequently considered
that such asylum in no way constitutes an intervention or a
limitation of the sovereignty of the territorial State, but rather

that it is the legitimate exercise of a prerogative.
Sometimes the government of the territorial State places a
police guard over the approaches of premises sheltering the refugee
in order to prevent the latter from escaping from the local
authorities, should he leave his place of asylum.
Sometimes, also, the diplomatic agent who has granted asylum
requests the local authorities to grant a safe-conduct enabling
the refugee to leave the country in safety.
In leaving his place of asylum, with or without a safe-conduct,
the refugee frequently intends to continue his activities from
the country to which he is proceeding ;and it has happened that
certain politicians, after returning to the country which they
had been forced to leave, have subsequently held very important

office there, including even that of head of the State.
During revolutionary disturbances, common crimes or offences
are frequently committed, silch as murder, looting, arson, etc.

In view of the importance of asylum in Latin-American countries,
these countries have followed certain practices and have regulated
the matter by conventions. By virtue of this fact, the institution
of asylum is part of what is termed American intevnational law or
rather Latin-American international law.

30z93 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

L'asile en Amérique latine doit donc être considéré entenant
compte du milieu dont je viens de parler ;c'est d'après lui qu'il faut
interpréter les dispositions des conventions sur la matière, combler
les lacunes qu'elles présentent et voir les orientationsque l'asile doit
prendre à l'avenir.

S'il existe un droit international américain. Caractéristiqzres de ce
droit,szrrtout à l'heure actuelle.

Dans les écritures et au cours des débats oraux, on a parlé du
droit international américain et reconnu son existence ;mais on a
émis sur sa nature, son contenu et son avenir des opinions qui

rendent nécessaire une mise au point sur ce sujet. Cette mise au
point est de capitale importance pour l'Amérique.
Dans le présent litige, la Colombie, notamment, a demandé que,
pour résoudre les questions qu'il présente, soient appliqués les
principes du droit international américain et que soit pris aussi
en considération l'esprit international du continenf.
Pour ce qui concerne le droit international, les Etats de 1'Amé-

rique, dès leur indépendance, ont voulu lui apporter les modifica-
tions nécessaires pour qu'il soit en harmonie avec les intérêtset
les aspirations de leur continent. Des Conférencespanaméricaines,
notamment celle de Buenos-Ayres de 1936 et celle de Lima de
1948, ont proclamé certains principes comme étant du droit inter-
national américain.
Cette expression droit international américain )) a étéprise

dans diverses acceptions qu'il n'y a pas lieu d'indiquer ici. Par ces
termes, il faut entendre non pas, comme on pourrait le croire à
première vue et comme l'ont cru bien des personnes, un droit
international spécialau Nouveau Monde et entièrement distinct du
droit international universel, mais l'ensemble des principes, conven-
tions, coutumes, pratiques, institutions et doctrines qui sont propres
aux Républiques du Nouveau Monde. Certains juristes veulent

appeler cet ensemble particularités du droit international en
Amérique )): ce n'est qu'une question de terminologie. Ladénomi-
nation !(droit international américain ))a prévalu.
J'ai dit (Républiques )) du Nouveau Monde parce qu'au pan-
américanisme et à l'établissement du droit international américain
n'ont pris part ni le Canada, qui est un dominion britannique, ni
les colonies européennes situées en Amérique.

Si des préceptes tenus pour universels ne sont pas acceptés
par les pays du continent américain, il est évident qu'ils cessent
d'avoir ce caractère ; et si des préceptes américains ne sont pas
reconnus par les pays des autres continents, il doivent recevoir
application seulement dans le Nouveau Monde. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 293

Thus, asylum in Latin America should be considered in the light
of the environment to which 1 have just referred ;it is with this
environment in mind that we should interpret the provisions of
conventions on asylum, fil1any gaps they may contain and examine
the tendency which asylum ought to assume in the future

Is there an American international law ? Characteristics of that
law, especially at the present time.

In the written Pleadings and in the oral statements, reference
has been made to American international law and its existence
has been recognized ; but opinions have been expressed concerning
its nature, content and future, which make a clarification neces-
sary. This clarification is of special importance for America.
In the present case, Colombia has asked that the principles of
American international law be applied to the solution of the present
case and that the international spirit of the continent be also taken
into consideration.
As far as international law is concerned, the States of America

have, since their independence, wished to modify that law so as
to bring it into harmony with the interests and aspirations of
their continent. Pan-American conferences, particularly that of
Buenos Aires in 1936and that of Lima in 1948, proclaimed certain
principles as belonging to Americaz international law.

This expression "American international law" has been accepted
in various ways which need not be mentioned here. This expression
does not mean, as may appear at first sight and as many would
have us believe, an international law which is peculiar to the New
World and entirely distinct from universal international law, but
rather the complex of principles, conventions, customs, practices,
institutions and doctrines which are peculiar to the Republics of

the New World. Certain jurists have sought to cal1 this complex
the "peculiarities of international law in America". This is merely
a question of terminology. The designation "American international
law" has triumphed.
1 have referred to the "Republics" of the New World because
Canada, which is a British Dominion, and the European colonies
in America, did not participate in Pan-Americanism or in the
establishment of American international law.
If certain precepts, which are held to be universal, are not
accepted by the countries of the American continent, it is obvious
that they no longer have that character ;and if American precepts
are not recognized by the countries of other continents, they must
be applied only in the New World. OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
294
Pour qu'un principe, une coutume, une doctrine, etc., soient
considérés commeétant du droit international américain: il n'est
pas nécessaire qu'ils aient été acceptés par tous les Etats du
Nouveau Monde : il se passe ici ce qui a lieu pour le droit inter-
national universel.

Le droit international américain oblige tous les États du Nouveau
Monde ; il oblige aussi les Etats des autres continents pour les
matières qui doivent recevoir application en Amérique, telles l'im-
migration, la zone de sécuritédu continent en cas de guerre, etc.
Le droit international américain admet des subdivisions, notam-
ment celle du droit international latino-américain ou droit des
Républiques latines du Nouveau Monde, lequel n'oblige pas les
États-unis.
Le droit international américain a exercé une influence consi-
dérable sur le droit international universel et lui a donné sa véri-
table physionomie :bien des préceptes ou doctrines d'origine améri-
caine sont devenus ou tendent à devenir mondiaux et bien des
préceptes de caractère mondial ont eu ou tendent à avoir une

application spéciale dans le Nouveau Monde. L'influence de ce
droit s'est accentuée depuis la dernière guerre. Il est impression-
nant de constater le nombre et surtout la qualité des institutions
et des principes qui ont fait dernièrement leur apparition en Amé-
rique et qui tendent à s'incorporer au droit international nouveau.
Depuis le dernier cataclysme social, il y a non seulement un
droit international américain, mais aussi un droit international
européen et un droit international asiatique en formation. Et en
dehors de ces trois droits internationaux continentaux, se développe
un droit international de grande imporrance, le droit soviétique.

On a soutenu au cours des débats que le droit international
américain - et, par suite, les autres droits internationaux conti-
nentaux - doit êtresubordonné au droit international universel,

en invoquant l'article 52 de la Charte des Nations Unies. Une telle
affirmation n'est pas exacte :ledit article52 se réfère seulement
aux accords régionaux relatifs au maintien de la paix et non aux
droits continentaux. Ces droits ne sont pas dans une situation
de subordinationpar rapport au droit international universel, mais
dans une situation de corrélation.
Le droit international universel est donc encadré aujourd'hui
par les droitscontinentaux et régionaux ;et tous ces droitsprennent
de nouvelles orientations conformes à celles indiquées dans le
préambule et le chapitre 1 de la Charte des Nations Unies ;ces
orientations d'ailleurs reflètent entièrement l'esprit international
américain. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 294
A principle, custom, doctrine, etc., need not be accepted by al1
of the States of the New World in order to be considered as a

part of American international law. The same situation obtains
in this case as in the case of universal international law.

American international law is binding upon al1 the States of
the New World; it is also binding upon the States of other
continents in matters affecting America, such as immigration,
the security zone of the continent in time of war, etc.
American international law has its sub-divisions, such as, for
instance, Latin-American international law or the law of the
Latin Republics of the New World, which is not binding upon
the United States.
American international law has exercised a considerable influence
over universal international law and has given it its peculiar
character ; many concepts or doctrines of American origin have
achieved or tend to achieve universal acceptance and many
concepts of a universal nature have, or tend to have, a special
application in the New World. The influence of that law has

increased since the last world war. The number and especially
the quality of the institutions and principles which have lately
appeared in America and which tend to be incorporated in new
international law is truly impressive.
Since the last social upheaval, there exist not only an American
international law, but also a European international law, and
an Asian international law is in the process of formation. And
apart from these three international continental systems of law,
another important international system of law is emerging-
Soviet law.
It has been maintained during the hearing that American inter-
national law-and consequently other international continental
systems of law-must be subordinated to universal international
law, and Article 52of the United Nations Charter has been invoked
in support of this view. Such a statement is not accurate. Articl52
in question refers only to regional agreements relating to the

maintenance of peace and not to continental systems of law.
Such systems of law are not suboydinate to universal international
law, but correlated to it.
Universal international law thus finds itself to-day within the
framework of continental and regional law ; and al1 such legal
systems adopt new trends in accordance with those indicated in
the preamble and Chapter 1 of the United Nations Charter;
such trends reflect entirely American, international spirit.295 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE R.1.ALVAREZ

S'il y a un droit international américaincoutumier sur l'asile. Le
droit international américain conventionnel sur cette matière.

L'institution de l'asile fait partie du droit international latino-
américain parce qu'elle reçoit des applications spéciales dans les
pays latins du Nouveau Monde ; elle ne fait pas partie du droit
international américain continental, car les Etats-Unis n'ont
iamais voulu admettre l'asile.
Etant donné que l'asile est utilisé lorsque l'ordre politique est
troublé à l'intérieur d'un pays et que les situations résultant de ces
troubles sont variables, il n'y a pas,à proprement parler, un droit
international latino-américain coutumier syr cette matière ;il suppo-
serait une uniformité de vues parmi les Etats latins du Nouveau
Monde,laquelle n'existe pas :lesgouvernements changent d'attitude
selon les circonstances et les convenances politiques.

Mais, s'il n'y a pas un droit international latino-américain
coutumier sur l'asile, il existe certaines pratiques ou modalités
d'application suivies ordinairement par les Etats de l'Amérique
latine. Elles peuvent se ramener aux suivantes :

I" L'asile est accordé seulement pour les délits politiques et
non pour ceux de droit commun.
2" L'asile est donné conformément aux lois et coutumes de
l'État de refuge. C'est cedernier qui appréciesi le délitcommis par
l'asiléest politique ou de droit commun.

3" état territorial peut demander que l'asiléquitte le terri-
toire, et lJEtat de refuge peut alors exiger de celui-ci un sauf-
conduit permettant à l'asiléde sortir en sûreté du pays.

4' é état qui a accordé l'asiledemande parfois, dans ce même
but. un sauf-conduit pour l'asilé.

En raison de l'importance de l'asile dans les pays de l'Amérique
latine, ceux-ci ont voulu régler cette matière dans des conventions
non seulement bilatérales, mais aussi plurilatérales.
Ils ont signé, notamment. 1'«Accord bolivarien » sur l'extradi-

tion du 18 juillet 1911; la Convention sur l'asile adoptée à la
Sixième Conférence panaméricaine de La Havane de 1928 ; la
Convention sur l'asile politique adoptée à la Septième Conférence
panaméricaine de Montevideo de 1933 ; le Traité sur l'asile et le
refuge politiques voté au Deuxième Congrèssud-américain de droit
international de Montevideo en 1939. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 295

Doesthereexist a customary American international law on asylum ?
American international conventionalLawon the szbbject.

The institution of asylum is a part of Latin-American inter-
national law because that institution is applied in the Latin coun-
tries of the New World in a special manner ; it is not part of the
continental American international law, since the United States
have never admitted asylum.
In view of the fact that asylum is utilized when the political

order within a country is disturbed, and inasmuch as the situation
resulting from this disorder may vary considerably, there is no
customary American international law of asylum properly speak-
ing ; the existence of such a law would suppose that the action
taken by the Latin States of the New World was uniform, which is
not at al1 the case : governments change their attitude according
to circumstances and political convenience.
But if there is no customarv Latin-American international law
on asylum, there are certain practices or methods in applying
asylum bvhich are followed by the States of Latin America. These

rnay be summarized as follows :
IO Asylum is granted only in cases of $olitical offence and not
to cornmoncriminals.
2' Asylum is granted in accordance with the laws and usages

of the State of refuge, and it is for the latter to appreciate whether
the offence committed by the refugee is a political offence or a
common crime.
3' The territorial State may request the departure of the refugee
from its territory and the State of refuge may then require the
former State to deliver a safe-conduct enabling the refugee to leave
the country safely.
3' The State which granted asylum sometimes, with the same
end in view, requests that a safe-conduct be issued to the refugee.

In view of the importance of asylum in Latin-American countries,
the matter has been regulated in a number of bilateral or multi-
lateral conventions.
The Latin-American States have signed in particular : the Boli-

varian Agreement on Extradition of July 18th, 1911 ;the Conven-
tion on Asylum adopted at the Sixth Pan-American Conference
of Havana, 192s ;the Convention on Political Asylum adopted at
the Seventh Pan-American Conference of Montevideo of 1933 ;
the Treaty on Political Asylum and Refuge adopted at the Second
South-Americari Congress of International Law at 3lontevideo
in 1939.

33296 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

En ce qui concerne la première de ces conventions qui se réfère
seulement à l'extradition, la Colombie soutient qu'elle s'applique
aussi à l'asile, étant donné que l'article 18 établit : ccen dehors
des stipulations du présent accord, les Etats signataires reconnais-
sent l'institution de l'asile conformément aux principes du droit
international 11.J'estime, avec la Cour, que cette prétention est
sans fondement.

La Conventionsur l'asile, votée à la Sixième Conférencepanaméri-
cainede La Havanede1928,ratifiéepar la Colombieetpar lePérou.
Portéede sesdispositions.

La Convention de La Havane de 1928 sur l'asile ayant étératifiée
par la Colombie et par le Pérou, on a estimé, avec raison, que c'est
dans ses dispositions surtout qu'il faut chercher la solution du
litige actuel.
L'article premier de cette convention dispose :

« Il n'est pas pemiis aux États de donner asile dans les léga-
tions, navires de gue:r,, campements ou aéronefs militaires, aux
personnes accusées ou condamnées pour délits communs ni aux
déserteurs de terre et de mer.
Les personnes accusées ou condamnées pour délits communs
qui se réfugient dans l'un des endroits signalésdans le paragraphe
précédentdevront êtreremises aussitôt que l'exigera le gouverne-
ment local. ..))

L'article 2 établit :

((L'asile des criminels politiques dans les légations, sur les
navires de guerre, dans les campements ou sur les aéronefs mili-
taires sera respecté dans la mesure dans laquelle, comme un droit
ou par tolérance humanitaire, l'admettraient la coutume, les
conventions ou les lois du pays de refuge et d'accord avec les
dispositions suivantes :
Premièrement : l'asile ne pourra être accordé sauf dans des
cas d'urgence et pour le temps strictement indispensable pour
que le réfugiése mette en sûreté d'une autre manière.
Deuxièmement : l'agent diplomatique, le chef de vaisseau de
guerre, du campement ou de l'aéronef militaire, immédiatement
après avoir accordé l'asile, le communiquera au ministre des
Relations extérieures de 1'Etat du réfugiéou à l'autorité adminis-
trative de l'endroit, si le fait étaitarrivéThors de la capitale.
Troisièmement : le gouvernement de l'Etat pourra exiger que
le réfugié soitmis hors du territoire national dans le plus bref
délai possible; et l'agent diplomatique du pays qui aurait accordé
l'asile pourra, à son tour, exiger les garanties nécessaires pour
que le rkfugiésorte du pays, l'inviolabilité de sa personne étant
respcct6e...11
34 DISSENTINGOPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ
296
As regards the first of these conventions which refers solely to
extradition, Colombia argues that it is also applicable to asylum
in view of Article 18,which lays down that "aside from the stipul-

ations of the present agreement, the signatory States recognize
the institution of asylum in conformity with the principles of
international law". 1 agree with the Court that this claim is
unfounded.

The Convention on Asylum which was adopted at the Sixth Pan-
American Conferenceof Havana in 1928 and ratified by Colombia
and Peru. Scope of its provisions.

It has been rightly argued that the solution to the present case
must be sought especially in the provisions of the Havana Conven-

tion of 1928 on Asylum, on the grounds that this Convention was
ratified by Colombia and Peru.
Article I of this Convention enacts :

"It is not permissible for States to grant asylum in legations,
warships, military camps or military aircraft, to persons accused
or condemned for cornrnon crimes, or to deserters from the army
or navy.
Persons accused of or condemned for common crimes taking
refuge in any of the places mentioned in the preceding paragraph,
shall be surrendered upon request of the local government ...."

Article 2 provides :

"Asylum granted to political offenders in legations, warships,
military camps or military aircraft, shall be respected to the
extent in which allowed, as a right or through humanitarian
toleration, by the usages, the conventions or the laws of the
country in which granted and in accordance with the following
provisions :
First : asylum may not be granted except in urgent cases and
for the period of time strictly indispensable for the person, who
has sought asylum to ensure in some other way his safety.
Second : immediately upon granting asylum, the diplornatic
agent, commander of a warship or military camp or aircraft, sliall
report the fact to the Minister of Foreign Relations of the State
of the person who has secured asylum, or to the local administrative
authority, if the act occurred outside tlie capital.
Third : the government of tlie State may require that the
refugee be sent out of the national territory \vithii-i the sliortest
time possible ; and the cliploinatic ngciit of tlic country wlio lins
granted asylum may in turn require tlie guarnntecs iieccssnry for
the departure of the refugee, with due regasd to tlie inviolability
of his person, from the country ...."

34297 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

II faut examiner les dispositions de cette convention en prenant
en considération l'esprit latin américain ainsi que le milieu social
et politique dans lequel l'asile est pratiqué en Amérique latine;
Au sujet de l'article premier, il faut remarquer que c'est 1'Etat
auquel l'asile est demandé qui dqit décider s'il veut l'accorder ou
non. Il y a certains pays, tels les Etats-Unis, qui n'octroient jamais
l'asile.
A propos de ce mêmearticle, on a longuement discuté ce qu'il

faut entendre par accusation. On a soutenu, avec raison, que ce
terme doit êtrepris dans son sens juridique courant : un procès
intenté devant une autorité judiciaire du pays sur la demande d'un
tiers ou d'office par cette autorité. Mais il faut ajouter une autre
condition :l'accusation doit porter sur des actes commis directement
par I'asiléet non sur ceux commis par d'autres personnes à l'occa-
sion d'une insurrection ou d'un mouvement révolutionnaire et dont
on veut rendre responsable I'asiléen tant que chef de ce mouvement.

On a discuté longuement, aussi, sur le point de savoir qui a
qualité pour apprécier la nature du délit commis par le réfugié.

Cette appréciation doit appartenir naturellement à 1'Etat qui
octroie l'asile; si elle revenait à 1'Etat territorial, l'institution de
l'asile serait réduite néant, car il suffirait à cet Etat d'affirmer que
I'asiléa commis un délit de droit commun pour qu'il lui soit remis.

Il ne faut cependant pas se méprendre sur la portée de la quali-
fication du délit faite par 1'Etat de refuge, en croyant que celui-ci
a le dernier mot à ce sujet et que son appréciation est définitive,
irrévocable. Cette qualification peut êtrecontestée par 1'Etat terri-
torial ;et si un accord ne peut s'établir à cet égard,le cas doit être
soumis à l'arbitrage ou à un autre mode de règlement pacifique.
C'est donc, en dernier ressort, un tiers ou la justice internationale
qui décidede la nature du clélit.

On a prétendu que si le Pérou avait ratifié la Convention de
Montevideo de 1933 dont l'article2 établit que ((la qualification du
délit politique appartient à 1'Etat qui prêtel'asile »,il aurait été
lié parcette disposition et,par suite, n'aurait pu faire aucune objec-
tion à l'appréciation de la Colombie. Il n'en est rien :mêmedans
ce cas, le Pérou aurait eu la faculté de contester la qualification, car
ledit article2 n'exclut pas cette faculté.

On a discuté aussi sur ce qu'il faut entendre par délit politique.
On a soutenu qu'on doit s'en tenir, à cet égard, à la législation du

pays où le délit a étécommis. Cela est inadmissible, car les Etats,
dans leurs législations, qualifient ordinairement de délit de droit
commun certains actes, telle une insurrection, qui sont manifeste-
ment des délitspolitiques. C'est l'autorité judiciaire internationale DISSENTING OPINION BT JUDGE ALVAREZ 297

The provisions of this Convention should be considered in the
light of the Latin-American spirit as well as of the social and
pcliticalenvironment in which asylum is practised in Latin America.
In respect of Article 1,it must be pointed out that it is the State
from which the asylum is requested that must decide whether it
wishes to grant it or not. There are certain countries, such as the
United States, which never grant asylum.
There was considerable discussion as to the meaning of the word
accusation referred to in this same article. It was correctlj-argued

that this term must be construed in its ordinary juridical meaning :
proceedings instituted before a judicial authority of the country
at the request of a third party, or automatically by that authority.
But a second condition must be added :the accusation must refer
to acts directlycommitted by the accused, and not to acts committed
by others in connexion with an insurrection or a revolutionarg-
movement for which the refugee is sought to be held responsible
as a leader of that movement.
There was also long debate as to who is competent to appreciate
the nature of the offence committed by the refugee. This apprecia-
tion must naturally appertain to the State granting asylum ;if it
appertained to the territorial State,the institution of asylum would
be rendered nugatory, for it would be sufficient for that State to
affirm that the refugee was guilty of a common crime and he would

then have to be handed over.
There must, however, be no misunderstanding as to the scope
of the qualification of the offence made by the State of refuge ;
it should not be assumed that theState which makes that qualifica-
tion has the last word in this respect, and that its appreciation is
definitive and irrevocable. This qualification may be questioned by
the territorial State, and if agreement cannot be reached in this
respect, the case must be submitted to arbitration or to another
means of peaceful settlement. Thus, in the last resort, it is a third
party, or international justice, which decides on the nature of the
offence.
It has been claimed that if Peru had ratified the Montevideo
Convention of 1933 ,rticle2 of which provides that "the judgrnent
of political delinquency concerns the State which offers asylum",

that country would be bound by this provision and consequently
would be unable to raise an objection to the qualification made bjr
Colombia. That is not so ; even in such a case Peru would be
entitled to question the qualification since such a prerogative is
not excluded by Article 2 above.
There has also been much debate on the meaning of polifical
oflence. It has been contended that we should confine ourselves in
this connexion to the legislation of the country where the oflence
uTascommitted. This is inadmissible, for in their legislatiori, States
ordinarily qualify as a common crime certain acts, siich as insurrec-
tion, rvhich are rnanifestlq- political offences. The qualificatioil of

35298 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

chargéede se prononcer sur ce sujet qui doit qualifier la nature du:
délit.
Le droit international ne contient pas de règles précises à cet
égard ; mais des nombreux précédents qui existent on peut tirer
des directives générales.On peut dire que tout acte qui a pour but
de renverser la situation intérieure d'un pays doit êtreconsidéré
comme un délit politique ; en ce sens, mêmeun assassinat peut
parfois êtrequalifié comme tel. Ildoit donc en êtrede même dela
rébellion militaire.
Depuis les deux dernières guerres mondiales, on a établi deux

nouvelles catégories de délits : les délits internationaux, tels la-
violation des droits de l'individu, le génocide, etc. ; et les crimes
contrel'humanité,dont le principal est d'êtrel'auteur du déclanche-
ment d'une guerre.
Ces deux catégories de délits ne peuvent, en aucun cas, être
qualifiés de politiques.
C'est donc, comme il a étédit précédemment,l'autorité judiciaire
internationale qui décide en dernier ressort si le délit est ou non
politique ; et pour cela elle doit s'inspirer non pas des législations

nationales, mais des considérations de justice internationale qui
viennent d'êtreindiquées. Cette prédominance du droit interna-
tional sur les législations nationales est une des bases du droit
international nouveau.
En période normale, un État ne peut pas donner asile à un:
individu pour le soustraire aux autorités du pays ; mais il peut le
faire en période anormale pour un délit politique : ici entrent en
jeu la protection de la personne et des considérations d'humanité.

L'article2 de la Convention de La Havane a donné lieu à d'im-

portantes discussions sur la question de l'urgence.
Si un tribunal international peut aisément se prononcer sur la
qualification d'un délit parce que c'est une question de droit, il.
n'en est pas de même ence qui concerne l'appréciation del'urgence,
qui est une question de fait ; elle peut changer selon les cas qui se
présentent : ce qui est considéré commeurgent par un Etat peut
ne pas l'êtrepar un autre ; et ce qui est urgent dans certaines
circonstances ne l'est pas dans d'autres. En outre, on ne doit pas
apprécier l'urgence de façon rétrospective, longtemps après que
les événementsse sont passés ; il faut se placer au moment où ils

ont eu lieu.
Le terme (urgence ))doit êtrepris dans un sens conforme à la
nature de l'asile en Amérique latine, c'est-à-dire la nécessitéd'agir
très rapidement dans une situation donnée. Il y a urgence non pas
si un individu peut seulement êtrepersécuté,mais s'il l'est déjà et
tourt, par suite, un danger immédiat.

C'est l'État de refuge qui doit apprécier s'il y a op non urgence
à octroyer l'asile au moment où il est demandé. Si I'Etat territorial
estime qu'il n'y avait pas urgence à ce moment, il doit présenter

36 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 29s
the offence should be made by the international legal authority
whose task it is to decide in the matter.

International law contains no precise rules on the subject, but
the numerous precedents in existence rnay serve to provide general
directives. It rnay be said that any act which purports to overthrow
the domestic political order of a country must be regarded as a
political offence ; in that sense even murder rnay sometimes be
termed a political offence. This consequently also applies to mili-
tary rebellion.
Since the two last world wars, two new categories of offences
have been esfablished :internationaL offences such as violation of
the rights of the individual, genocide, etc., and crimes against
huunnnity, the chief one being responsibility for instigating a war.

These two categories of offences cannot be qualified as pol-

itical.
It is therefore the international judicial authority, as already
stated, which decides in the last resort, whether or not the offence
is political;and in order to do so, it must be guided not by national
legislations, but by the considerations of international justice
referred to above. This predominance of international law over
national legislations is one .of the foundations of the new inter-
national law.
In normal times, a State rnay not grant asylum to an individual
for the purpose of removing him from the authorities of his
country ; but a State is entitled to grant such asylum in abnormal
times in the case of a political offence; in such a case protection
of the individual and humanitarian considerations come into play.

Article z of the Havana Convention has given rise to important
discussions on the question of urgency.
If an international tribunal rnay easily give a decision on the
qualification of an offence because this matter is a question of
law, that is not the case with regard to urgency which is a matter
of fact, and which rnay change according to the circumstances of
each case; what is considered urgent by one State need not be
considered urgent by another, and what is urgent in some circum-
stances is no longer urgent in others. Moreover, urgency should not
be appreciated retrospectively, long after the events in question ;
it should be considered from the standpoint of the time at which
the events occurred.
The meaning of the term "urgency" should be interpreted in

accordance with the nature of asylum in Latin America, i.e., the
need to act with utmost speed in a given situation. There is no
urgency in a case which involves only the possibility of an individual
being persecuted, but there is urgency if he is already being perse-
cuted and consequently faces an immediate danger.
It is for the State of refuge to appreciate whether or not there
is urgency to grant asylum at the time it is requested. If the terri-
torial State considers that there \vas no urgency at the time, it

36 OPINIOS DISSIDENTE DE 31. ALVAREZ
299
immédiatement une réclamation :tout retard de sa part le prive
de la voir aboutir, car il est présuméavoir admis l'urgence.

Ce mêmearticle 2, (Premièrement », établit que l'asile doit être
accordé (cpour le temps strictement indispensable pour que le
réfugiése mette en sûreté d'une autre manière ». Cette disppsition
ne joue pas-du moment qu'une controverse surgit entre 1'Etat de
refuge et 1'Etat territorial sur la légalitéde l'asile ;celle-cisuspend
les effets de ladite disposition et l'asile peut alors se prolonger

tant que le différend n'est pas tranché.

Un autre point très important visé dans cet article 2 est celui
relatif au sauf-conduit.
On a soutenu que c'est seulement dans le cas qù l'État territorial
exige que l'asilésoit mis hors du territoire que 1'Etat de refuge peut
exiger, de son côté, un sauf-conduit permettant à l'asiléde partir
en sûreté.

S'en tenir strictement aux termes de cet article 2 équivaudrait
à méconnaitre le caractère de l'asile, car si 1'Etat territorial ne
demandait jamais la sortie de l'asilé, celui-cidevrait rester indéfini-
ment dans le local où il se trouve. D'autre part,la disposition con-
tenue dans le (Troisièmement )dudit article 2 n'a pas un caractère
exclusif : elle ne signifie pas que seul 1'Etat territorial peut exiger la
sortie de l'asilé. Si telle avait été l'intention de ses rédacteurs, ils

l'auraient dit expressément, d'autant plus qu'en pratique, dans
bien des cas, c'est 1'Etat de refuge qui demande un sauf-conduit
pour l'asilé afinqu'il puisse quitter le pays.

Il convient d'observer que le Gouvernement du Pérou qui donne
une interprétation restrictive à ce (Troisièmement ))de l'article 2
a accordé, à diverses reprises, des sauf-conduits à des personnes
asiléesdans des ambassades ou légations étrangèressur la demande

de l'agent diplomatique. (Voir le Mémoiredu Gouvernement de la
République de Colombie.)
Il y a donc une lacune dans ledit article 2.
La Convention de La Havane de 1928 présente d'autres lacunes
importantes. D'abord, elle ne prévoit pas le, cas où l'asiléest non
pas un délinquant politique mais un chef d'Etat qui a étérenversé
par une révolution et qui voulait se mettre à l'abri des persécutions
de ses vainqueurs : la délivranced'un sauf-conduit s'impose dansun

tel cas.
On n'a pas envisagénon plus le cas où l'agent diplomatique qui
a accordé l'asile renonce à le prolonge; et veut faire quitter à l'asilé
le local où il se trouve, alors que 1'Etat territorial s'oppose à ce
renvoi.
Une autre lacune est relative au sauf-conduit : on ne prévoit pas
si 1'Etat territorial peut l'établiravec certaines restrictions afin que

37 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 299

must immediately present a claim : any delay in the presentation
of such a claim is a ground for its rejection, for in such a case
the territorial State may be presumed to have admitted that
urgency existed.
The same Article 2, "First", provides that asylum must be
granted "for the period of time strictly indispensable for the person
who has sought asylum to ensure in some other way his safety".
This provision does not apply if a dispute has already arisen
between the State of refuge and the territorial State concerning
the regularity of the asylum ; such a dispute suspends the effect

of the provision in question and asylum may then continue until
the dispute is settled.
Another very important point referred to in -4rticle 2 is that
of a safe-conduct.
It has been claimed that it is only when the territorial State
has demanded the departure of the refugee from its territory that
the State of refuge may, in turn, require the delivery of a safe-
conduct to enable the refugee to leave in safety.
A strict compliance with the terms of Article 2 would be tant-
amount to a disregard of the nature of asylum, for if the territorial
State failed to demand the departure of the refugee, the latter

would be compelled to remain indefinitely on the premises where
he uTasgranted asylum. Besides, the provision coiltained in "Third"
of Article 2 above, is not exclusive in character ;it does not ineail
that only the territorial State is entitled to demand the departure
of the refugee. If such had been the intention of the authors of
that provision, they m-ould have stated so expressly, especially
since, in practice, it is frequently the State of refuge that has
requested a safe-conduct to enable the refugee to leave the country.
It should be pointed out that the Government of Peru, which
puts a restrictive iilterpretation on "Third" of Article 2, has on
several occasions granted safe-conducts at the request of the

diplomatic agent to perçons who had been granted asylum in
foreign embassies or legations. (See Memorial of the Government
of the Republic of Colombia.)
There is therefore a gap in Article 2.
The Havana Convention of 1928 has other importailt gaps.
First of all, itoes not provide for the case of a refugee who is not
a politicaloffender but the head of a State, overthrown by a revolu-
tion and seeking protection from persecution at the hands of the
victors ; in such a case delivery of a safe-conduct is a necessity.

Nor has the case been provided for in whicl-i the diplomatic
agent who granted asylum no longer wishes to maintain the asylum,
and chooses to provide for the departure of the refugee whilst
the territorial State objects to that departure.
Anolher gap in the article concerns the safe-conduct : no allow-
ance is made for the territorial State to deliver a restricted safe-

37300 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
l'asilén'échappepas à l'action de la justice s'il est condamné par la
suite dans ledit État pour un délit de droit commun ou afin qu'il
ne puisse se réfugierdans un pays où il lui serait facile de continuer
ses conspirations.

Nous allons voir comment la Cour pouvait, dans le litige actuel,
interpréter certaines dispositions de la Convention de 1928 et
combler les lacunes ci-dessus indiquées, notamment celle relative
à la demande de sauf-conduit.

A. Premiéreco~clusionde la requête du Gouvernementde Colombie.
Le Gouvernement de la Colombie, dans son Mémoireet dans sa
Réplique, demande à la Cour, comme première conclusion, de
dire et juger : (que la République de Colombie a le droit, en tant
que pays accordant l'asile, de qualifier la nature du délit aux fins

du susdit asile ...».
La Cour, dans sa sentence, en se fondant sur les arguments écrits
et oraux fournis par le Gouvernement de la Colombie, déclarequ'il
convient d'interpréter cette conclusion dans le sens que la Colombie,
en tant qu'octroyant l'asile, a le droit de qualifier la nature du délit
par une décisionunilatérale et définitive obligatoire pour le Pérou ;
et elle rejette cette conclusion.

Précédemment, j'ai indiqué que, d'après les principes du droit
international, la qualification du délit appartient au pays qui
accorde l'asile, mais que cette qualification n'est pas définitive :
1'Etat territorial peut la contester, comme l'a fait précisément le

Pérou, et c'est alors à la Cour de trancher la controverse résultant
de cette contestation.
J'estime donc que la Cour aurait pu déclarer expressément que,
d'après les documents qui lui avaient étéprésentés,Haya de la
Torre est accuséde rébellionmilitaire, laquelle n'est pas un délit de
droit commun mais un délit politique. La sentence de la Cour ne
contient qu'une déclaration implicite à cet égard en rejetant la
première conclusion de la demande reconventionnelle du Pérou.

B. Deuxième conclusion de la requêtedu Gouvernement de la
Colombie.

J'ai dit précédemment que la Convention de La Havane de
1928 contient une lacune en ce qui concerne la demande de sauf-
conduit par 1'Etat de refuge, en faveur de l'asilé.
Pour combler cette lacune, la Cour aurait dû faire une véritable
création du droit, comme elle l'a déjà fait dans son Avis consul-
tatif du II avril 1949, où il s'agissait d'ailleurs d'une matière plus
importante que l'actuelle, puisqu'elle portait sur !a reconnaissance

38 DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 30°

conduct, so as to ensure that the refugee would not escape the
action of justice in the event of his being subsequently sentenced
in thesaid State for a common crime, or so as to prevent the refugee
from seeking refuge in a country whence he might continue his
conspiracy.
We shall see how the Court could, in the present case, inter-
pret certain provisions of the Convention of 1928 and fil1 the
above-mentioned gaps, especially with respect to the request for
a safe-conduct.

A. First submission of theApplication of the Governmentof Colombia.
The Government of Colombia, in its Memorial and in its
Reply, asks the Court, as a first submission, to adjudge and
declare: "that the Republic of Colombia, as the country grant-

ing asylum, is competent to qualify the offence for the purpose
of said asylum.. .".
In its judgment, and basing itself on the written and oral argu-
ments furnished by the Government of Colombia, the Court
declares that this submission should be interpreted in the sense
that Colombia, as the State granting asylum, is competent to
qualify the nature of the offence by a unilateral and definitive
decision binding upon Peru. This submission is rejected by the
Court.
1 have previously pointed out that, according to the principles
of international law, the qualification of the offence appertains to
the country granting asylum, but that such qualification is not
definitive ;the territorial State may contest it, precisely as Peru
has done, and it is then for the Court to resolve the dispute arising
from that contestation.
1therefore consider that the Court could have expressly declared
that, according to the documents submitted, Haya de la Torre is

accused of military rebellion, which is not a common crime but
a political offence. The judgment of the Court only contains an
implicit declaration to that effect, by rejecting the first submission
of the counter-claim of Peru.

B. Second submission of the Application of the Government of
Colombia.
1 stated previously that there was a gap in the Havana Con-
vention of 1928 with respect to the request by the state of refuge
for the delivery of a safe-conduct to the refugee.
To bridge this gap, the Court would actually have had to create
the law as it did in its Advisory Opinion of April t th, 1949,
which, indeed, concerned a much more important matter than the

present case, since it referred to the recognition of the right of the
38301 OPINION DISSIDEXTE DE 31. ALVAREZ
du droit des Nations Vnies de présenter des réclamations inter-
nationales dans certains cas, droit qui ne lui avait pas étéattribué
par la Charte qui a créél'organisation.

Les élémentsdont la Cour pouvait s'inspirer sont notamment les
idéesqui dominent dans le Xouveau Monde en matière d'asile, le
fait que, d'après l'article 2 de la Convention de La Havane, l'asile
doit être de courte durée et que l'asilé doit pouvoir se mettre
rapidement en sûrefé d'une autre manière. Or, la délivrance d'un
sauf-conduit par 1'Etat territorial permet précisément d'atteindre
ce double objectif. Refuser ce sauf-conduit sans motifs justifiés
obligerait 1'Etat de refuge à garder indéfiniment l'asilé, ce qui est
contraire à la nature de l'asile.

Mais pour que ce sauf-conduit puisse êtreexigé, il est nécessaire
qu'il n'y ait pas de contestation sur la légalité del'asile ou, s:il y
en a une, qu'elle ait ététranchée préalablement : a-rement 1'Etat
de refuge éluderait les objections formulées par 1'Etat territorial.
Dans le cas actuel, cette légalité aétécontestée par le Pérou, qui a
soutenu que le délit commis par Haya de la Torre n'était pas.
politique, et surtout parce qu'il n'y avait pas urgence lorsque l'asile
lui a été octroyé.La Cour a donné raison au Pérou sur ce dernier
point ; dans ces conditions, il n'37a pas lieu pour la Colombie de
demander un sauf-conduit pour Haya de la Torre.

Vil des motifs pour lesquels les États se refusent parfois à délivrer
des sauf-conduits aux asilés est la crainte que ceux-ci ne pour-
suivent à l'étranger leurs agissements politiques. Cette crainte est
aujourd'hui bien atténuéeparce gue se fait jour la notion suivant
laquelle une des obligations des Etats est d'empêcher que-sur leur
territoire se trament des conspirations contre un autre Etat. La
t(Déclaration des grands principes du droit international moderne 1)
approuvée par plusieurs grandes associations scieiltifiques établit
cette obligation dans son article 25,C).Une disposition analogue se
trouve dans la Déclaration des droits et devoirs des Etats rédigée

par la Commission de codification des Nations Unies.
Si l'ancien asilé selivre en pays étranger à de telles conspirations,
l'État contre lequel elles sont dirigéespourrait exiger que le gouver-
nement du pays où il se trouve prenne les mesures nécessaires à cet
égard.
En tout cas, si le Pérou veut délivrer spontanément le sauf-
conduit qui lui est demandé, il peut le faire de façon que Haya de
la Torre ne puisse échapper à la condamnation dont il pourrait
êtrel'objet de la part des autorités péruviennes et qu'il puisse être
extradé di1 pays où il se trouverait alors. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ 301

United Nations to submit international claims in certain cases-a
right which had not been bestowed upon it by the Charter which
brought the Organization into existence.
Among the factors which could have guided the Court are
especially the ideas prevailing in the New World on the subject
of asylum, the fact that. according to Article 2 of the Havana
Convention, asylum should be of short duration and that the refugee
should be able rapidly to find safety by some other means. But
the delivery of a safe-conduct by the territorial State is precisely
the means hvhich makes this double purpose possible. An unjustifi-

able refusal to grant a safe-conduct would force the State of
refuge to keep the refugee indefinitely, which would be contrary
to the nature of asylum.
But before the delivery of such safe-conduct may be requested,
there must be no contestation of the legality of the asylum, or if
such a point arose, it should have been previously settled ;other-
wise the State of refuge would elude the objections raised by the
territorial State. In the present case, this legality has been con-
tested by Peru which maintained that the offence committed by
Haya de la Torre was not a political offence and especially that
no case of urgency existed at the time at which asylum was granted.
The Court on that last point found for Peru ;in the circumstances
Colombia has no reason to request a safe-conduct for Haya de
la Torre.

One of the grounds for sometimes refusing to deliver a safe-
conduct is the fear that the refugees may continue their political
activities abroad. That fear is to-day greatly diminished because
the uiew is emerging according to which one of the obligations of
States is to prevent conspiracies being directed from their terri-
tories against another State. The "Declaration of the great princi-
ples of modern international law", which has been adopted by
several important learned societies, provides this obligation in its
Article 25 (C). A similar provision is embodied in the Declaration
of the rights and duties of States which was drafted by the Codifi-
cation Commission of the United Nations.
Shoulcl the former refugee participate in such conspiracies while
in a foreign country, the State against which they are directed
may require the government of the foreign State to takethe neces-
sary measures in this connexion.

In any case, if Peru wishes spontaneously to deliver the safe-
conduct which has been requested, it may do so in such a manner
that Haya de la Torre is unable to escape the sentence that may
be pronounced against him by the Peruvian authorities, and that he
may he estradited from the country in which he then finds hiinself.3O2 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

La demande reconventionnelledu Pérou.

La demande reconventionnelle du Pérou est basée sur deux
motifs.
C'est d'abord la violation par la Colombie de l'article premier,
paragraphe 1, de la Convention de La Havane. La Cour a rejeté
ce grief sans doute parce qu'elle a estimé que le délit dont est

accusé Haya de la Torre n'est pas de droit commun.
Le Pérou invoque comme deuxième motif que la Colombie a
octroyé l'asileà Haya de la Torre en violation de l'article 2, para-
graphe 2, de la Convention de La Havane, d'après lequel ((l'asile
ne pourra êtreaccordésauf dans le cas d'urgence et pour le temps
strictement indispensable pour que l'asilése mette en sûreté d'une
autre manière 1).
J'ai indiqué précédemment quelle est la portée de cette dispo-
sition en ce qui concerne l'urgence.

Au moment où Haya de la Torre a demandé l'asile, ilse trouvait
dans une situation des plus critique et n'était nullement en sûreté.
Dans sa Réplique écrite, le Gouvernement de la Colombie a précisé
la nature et l'importance du danger qui menaçait Haya de la Torre.
C'est en considération de cettesituation que l'agent diplomatique
de la Colombie a décidé d'octroyer l'asile. J'estime qu'il pouvait
apprécier exactement et mieux que personne l'urgence qu'il y
avait à agir ainsi.

Le fait que plusieursambassades et légationsétrangèresont donné
l'asile au Pérou à diverses personnes ayant participé au même
mouvement insurrectionnel que Haya de la Torre prouve aussi
cette urgence. Au surplus, le Pérou n'a invoqué que dernière-
ment l'absence d'urgence.
Pour ce qui concerne la dernière partie de la-demande recon-
ventionnelle du Pérou, présentée le 3 octobre 1950 et relative à
l'illégalitédu maintien de l'asile, je ne peux la considérer fondée,
étant donné qu'il y avait une controverse au sujet de la légalité

de l'asile, controverse qui justifiait le maintien de celui-ci.

(Signé) A. ALVAREZ. DISSENTING OPINION BY JUDGE ALVAREZ

The counter-claim of Perz~.

The counter-claim of Peru is based on two grounds.

The first is the violation by Colombia of Article 1, paragraph 1,
of the Havana Convention. The Court has rejected that claim,
probably because it considers that the offence of which Haya de
la Torre is accused is not a common crime.
The second reason invoked by Peru is that Colombia granted
asylum to Haya de la Torre in violation of Article 2, paragraph 2,
of the Havana Convention, according to which "asylum may not
be granted except in urgent cases and for the period of time strictly

indispensable for the person who has sought asylum to ensure in
some other way his safety".
1 have previously pointed out the scope of this provision in so
far as urgency is concerned.
At the time at which Haya de la Torre requested asylum, he was
in a most critical situation, and he was by no means in safety.
In the written Reply, the Government of Colombia has explained
the nature and magnitude of the danger which threatened Haya
de la Torre.

It is in the light of that situation that the diplomatic agent of
Colombia decided to grant asylum. 1 consider that he was able to
appreciate exactly, and better than anyone else, the urgency for
such action.
The fact that several foreign embassies and legations had granted
asylum in Peru to various persons who had participated in the
same revolutionary movement as Haya de la Torre, further con-
firms this urgency. Moreover, Peru has only recently invoked the
absence of urgency.
As regards the last part of the counter-claim of Peru, submitted

on October 3rd, 1950, and relating to the unlawfulness of the
maintenance of ayilum, 1 cannot consider it well founded, since
there existed a dispute concerning the lawfulness of asylum, and
that such a dispute warranted the maintenance of the asylum.

(Signed) A. ALVAREZ.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion by Judge Alvarez (translation)

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