Judgment of 5 October 2016

Document Number
159-20161005-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

5 OCTOBER 2016

JUDGMENT

OBLIGATIONS CONCERNING NEGOTIATIONS RELATING TO CESSATION
OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE AND TO NUCLEAR DISARMAMANT

(MARSHALL ISLANDS v. PAKISTAN)

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT AND ADMISSIBILITY OF THE APPLICATION

___________

OBLIGATIONS RELATIVES À DES NÉGOCIATIONS CONCERNANT LA CESSATION
DE LA COURSE AUX ARMES NUCLÉAIRES ET LE DÉSARMEMENT NUCLÉAIRE

(ÎLES MARSHALL c. PAKISTAN)

COMPÉTENCE DE LA COUR ET RECEVABILITÉ DE LA REQUÊTE

5 OCTOBRE 2016

ARRÊT T ABLE OFCONTENTS

Paragraphs

C HRONOLOGY OF THE PROCEDURE 1-13

I. NTRODUCTION 14-24

A. Historical background 14-20
B. Proceedings brought before the Court 21-24

II. THE OBJECTION BASED ON THE ABSENCE OF A DISPUTE 25-55

O PERATIVE CLAUSE 56

___________ INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 2016
2016
5 October
General List
No. 159
5 October 2016

OBLIGATIONS CONCERNING NEGOTIATIONS RELATING TO CESSATION OF THE
NUCLEAR ARMS RACE AND TO NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT

(MARSHALL ISLANDS v. PAKISTAN)

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT
AND ADMISSIBILITY OF THE APPLICATION

Historical background — Disarmament activities of the United Nations — Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1 July 1968 — Court’s 8 July 1996 Advisory Opinion on

nuclear weapons.

Proceedings brought before the Court.

*

Objection based on absence of a dispute.

Meaning of “dispute” in case law of the Court — Parties must “hold clearly opposite
views” — Existence of a dispute is a matter of substance, not form or procedure — Prior
negotiations not required where Court seised on basis of declarations under Article 36 (2) of
Statute unless one of these declarations so provides — Formal diplomatic protest not required —
Notice of intention to file claim not required — Existence of dispute is matter for objective
determination by the Court — Court may take into account statements or documents exchanged in - 2 -

bilateral or multilateral settings — Conduct of parties may also be relevant — Evidence must
demonstrate that respondent was aware, or could not have been unaware, that its views were
“positively opposed” by applicant — Existence of dispute to be determined in principle as of date
application is submitted — Limited relevance of subsequent conduct.

Contention that dispute exists based on two statements made in multilateral fora —
Statement made at United Nations High-level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament on
26 September 2013 — Statement made at conference in Nayarit, Mexico, on 13 February 2014 —
Neither statement sufficient to establish existence of dispute.

Contention that the very filing of Application and position of Parties in proceedings show
existence of dispute — Case law relied on by Marshall Islands does not support this contention —
Application and statements made during judicial proceedings cannot create dispute that does not
already exist.

Contention that dispute exists based on Pakistan’s conduct — Applicant’s statements did not
offer any particulars regarding Pakistan’s conduct — Cannot be said that Pakistan was aware, or
could not have been unaware, that the Marshall Islands was making an allegation that Pakistan
was in breach of its obligations — Conduct of Pakistan cannot show opposition of views.

Objection of Pakistan upheld — Not necessary for the Court to deal with other objections —

Case cannot proceed to the merits phase.

JUDGMENT

Present: President ABRAHAM ; Vice-President YUSUF ; Judges O WADA , OMKA , BENNOUNA ,
C ANÇADO TRINDADE , REENWOOD , XUE, DONOGHUE , GAJA, EBUTINDE , HANDARI ,

R OBINSON , RAWFORD , GEVORGIAN ; Judge ad hocBEDJAOUI ; Registrar OUVREUR .

In the case regarding obligations concerning negotiations relating to cessation of the nuclear
arms race and to nuclear disarmament,

between

the Republic of the Marshall Islands, - 3 -

represented by

H.E. Mr. Tony A. deBrum, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the
Marshall Islands,

Mr. Phon van den Biesen, Attorney at Law, van den Biesen Kloostra Advocaten,
Amsterdam,

as Co-Agents;

Ms Deborah Barker-Manase, Chargé d’affaires a.i. and Deputy Permanent Representative of

the Republic of the Marshall Islands to the United Nations, New York,

as Member of the Delegation;

Ms Laurie B. Ashton, Attorney, Seattle,

Mr. Nicholas Grief, Professor of Law, University of Kent, member of the English Bar,

Mr. Luigi Condorelli, Professor of International Law, University of Florence, Honorary
Professor of International Law, University of Geneva,

Mr. Paolo Palchetti, Professor of International Law, University of Macerata,

Mr. John Burroughs, New York,

Ms Christine Chinkin, Emerita Professor of International Law, London School of
Economics, member of the English Bar,

Mr. Roger S. Clark, Board of Governors Professor, Rutgers Law School, New Jersey,

as Counsel and Advocates;

Mr. David Krieger, Santa Barbara,

Mr. Peter Weiss, New York,

Mr. Lynn Sarko, Attorney, Seattle,

as Counsel;

Ms Amanda Richter, member of the English Bar,

Ms Sophie Elizabeth Bones, LL.B., LL.M.,

Mr. J. Dylan van Houcke, LL.B., LL.M., Ph.D. Candidate, Birkbeck, University of London,

Mr. Loris Marotti, Ph.D. Candidate, University of Macerata, - 4 -

Mr. Lucas Lima, Ph.D. Candidate, University of Macerata,

Mr. Rob van Riet, London,

Ms Alison E. Chase, Attorney, Santa Barbara,

as Assistants;

Mr. Nick Ritchie, Lecturer in International Security, University of York,

as Technical Adviser,

and

the Islamic Republic of Pakistan,

represented by

H.E. Mr. Moazzam Ahmad Khan, Ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan to the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,

as Co-Agent (until 27 September 2016);

H.E. Ms. Iffat Imran Gardezi, Ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan to the

Kingdom of the Netherlands,

as Co-Agent (from 27 September 2016);

Mr. Ahmer Bilal Soofi, Advocate, Supreme Court of Pakistan,

as Co-Agent,

T HE C OURT ,

composed as above,

after deliberation,

delivers the following Judgment:

1. On 24 April 2014, the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (hereinafter the
“Marshall Islands” or the “Applicant”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting
proceedings against the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (hereinafter “Pakistan” or the “Respondent”),
in which it claimed that:

“13. Pakistan has not fulfilled its obligation under customary international law

to pursue in good faith negotiations to cease the nuclear arms race at an early date, and
instead is taking actions to improve and expand its nuclear forces and to maintain
them for the indefinite future. - 5 -

14. Similarly, Pakistan has not fulfilled its obligation under customary
international law to pursue in good faith negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament

in all its aspects under strict and effective international control, in particular by
engaging a course of conduct, the quantitative build-up and qualitative improvement
of its nuclear forces, contrary to the objective of nuclear disarmament.”

In its Application, the Marshall Islands seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on the
declarations made, pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, by Pakistan on
12 September 1960 (deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations on

13 September 1960), and by the Marshall Islands on 15 March 2013 (deposited with the
Secretary-General on 24 April 2013).

2. In accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Registrar immediately
communicated the Application to the Government of Pakistan; and, under paragraph 3 of that
Article, he notified all other States entitled to appear before the Court of the Application.

3. In accordance with Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute, the Marshall Islands chose
Mr. Mohammed Bedjaoui to sit as judge ad hoc in the case. The Government of Pakistan did not
exercise its right under the same article to choose a judge ad hoc.

4. By a Note Verbale dated 9 July 2014, received in the Registry the same day, the Pakistani
Government indicated, inter alia, that “Pakistan is of the considered opinion that the ICJ lacks
jurisdiction . . . and considers the . . . Application inadmissible”, and requested the Court “to

dismiss this Application in limine”. At the meeting held by the President of the Court later the
same day with the representatives of the Parties, pursuant to Article 31 of the Rules of Court, those
representatives made known the views of their respective governments with regard to questions of
procedure in the case, in particular in the light of the above-mentioned Note Verbale.

5. By an Order of 10 July 2014, the President of the Court held, pursuant to Article 79,
paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, that, in the circumstances of the case, it was necessary first of

all to resolve the questions of the Court’s jurisdiction and the admissibility of the Application, and
that these questions should accordingly be separately determined before any proceedings on the
merits; to that end, the President decided that the written pleadings should first be addressed to the
said questions, and fixed 12 January 2015 and 17 July 2015 as the respective time-limits for the
filing of a Memorial by the Marshall Islands and a Counter-Memorial by Pakistan. The Memorial
of the Marshall Islands was filed within the time-limit thus prescribed.

6. By a letter dated 1 April 2015, the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland, referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, asked to be
furnished with copies of the pleadings and documents annexed in the case. Having ascertained the
views of the Parties pursuant to that same provision, the Court decided not to grant this request. By
letters dated 13 July 2015, the Registrar duly informed the Government of the United Kingdom and
the Parties of that decision. - 6 -

By a letter dated 26 November 2015, the Government of the Republic of India, referring to
Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, asked to be furnished with copies of the pleadings

and documents annexed in the case. Having ascertained the views of the Parties pursuant to that
same provision, the Court decided not to grant this request. By letters dated 26 February 2016, the
Registrar duly informed the Government of India and the Parties of that decision.

7. By a Note Verbale dated 2 July 2015, Pakistan requested a six-month extension of the
time-limit for the filing of its Counter-Memorial. By a letter dated 8 July 2015, the
Marshall Islands stated that it could agree to a three-month extension of the time-limit. By an

Order of 9 July 2015, the President of the Court extended to 1 December 2015 the time-limit for
the filing of Pakistan’s Counter-Memorial. That pleading was duly filed within the time-limit thus
extended.

8. By a letter dated 2 March 2016, Pakistan informed the Court that it would not be
participating in the oral proceedings on jurisdiction and admissibility, stating in particular that it
“does not feel that its participation in the oral proceedings will add anything to what has already

been submitted through its Counter-Memorial”.

9. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court, after ascertaining the
views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings and documents annexed would be made
accessible to the public on the opening of the oral proceedings.

10. A public hearing on the questions of the jurisdiction of the Court and the admissibility of
the Application was held on Tuesday 8 March 2016, at which the Court heard the oral arguments
of:

For the Marshall Islands: H.E. Mr. Tony deBrum,
Mr. Phon van den Biesen,
Mr. Nicholas Grief,
Mr. Luigi Condorelli,

Ms Laurie B. Ashton,
Mr. Roger S. Clark,
Mr. Paolo Palchetti,
Mr. John Burroughs.

*

11. In the Application, the following claims were made by the Marshall Islands:

“On the basis of the foregoing statement of facts and law, the Republic of the
Marshall Islands requests the Court - 7 -

to adjudge and declare

(a) that Pakistan has violated and continues to violate its international obligations
under customary international law, by failing to pursue in good faith and bring to a
conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under
strict and effective international control, in particular by engaging a course of
conduct, the quantitative buildup and qualitative improvement of its nuclear
forces, contrary to the objective of nuclear disarmament;

(b) that Pakistan has violated and continues to violate its international obligations

under customary international law with respect to cessation of the nuclear arms
race at an early date, by taking actions to quantitatively build up its nuclear forces,
to qualitatively improve them, and to maintain them for the indefinite future, and
by blocking negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty;

(c) that Pakistan has failed and continues to fail to perform in good faith its
obligations under customary international law by taking actions to quantitatively

build up its nuclear forces, to qualitatively improve them, and to maintain them for
the indefinite future, and by blocking negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut-off
Treaty; and

(d) that Pakistan has failed and continues to fail to perform in good faith its
obligations under customary international law by effectively preventing the great
majority of non-nuclear-weapon States from fulfilling their part of the obligations
under customary international law and Article VI of the NPT with respect to

nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date.

In addition, the Republic of the Marshall Islands requests the Court

to order

Pakistan to take all steps necessary to comply with its obligations under customary
international law with respect to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and

nuclear disarmament within one year of the Judgment, including the pursuit, by
initiation if necessary, of negotiations in good faith aimed at the conclusion of a
convention on nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective
international control.”

12. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the Parties:

On behalf of the Government of the Marshall Islands,

in the Memorial on the questions of the jurisdiction of the Court and the admissibility of the
Application: - 8 -

“In accordance with the Order of the Court of 10 July 2014, this Memorial is
restricted to questions of jurisdiction and admissibility raised by Pakistan. As for the

merits of the case, the Applicant maintains its Submissions, including the Remedies
requested, as set out in the Application of 24 April 2014. For further stages of the
procedure the Applicant reserves its right to clarify, modify and/or amend these
Submissions.

On the basis of the foregoing statements of facts and law, the Republic of the
Marshall Islands requests the Court to adjudge and declare that it has jurisdiction with

respect to the present case and that the Application is admissible.”

On behalf of the Government of Pakistan,

in the Counter-Memorial on the questions of the jurisdiction of the Court and the admissibility of
the Application:

“The Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan respectfully submits that
the Court should adjudge and declare, for each and all of the foregoing reasons, that

the claims set forth in the [Marshall Islands’] Application of 24 April 2014 (1) are not
within the jurisdiction of the Court and (2) are inadmissible.”

13. In the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the Government of
the Marshall Islands at the hearing of 8 March 2016:

“The Marshall Islands respectfully requests the Court:

(a) to reject the objections to its jurisdiction and to the admissibility of the
Marshall Islands’ claims, as submitted by Pakistan in its Counter-Memorial of
1 December 2015;

(b) to adjudge and declare that the Court has jurisdiction over the claims of the
Marshall Islands submitted in its Application of 24 April 2014; and

(c) to adjudge and declare that the Marshall Islands’ claims are admissible.”

*

* * - 9 -

I. NTRODUCTION

A. Historical background

14. Since the creation of the United Nations, and in line with its Purposes under Article 1 of
the Charter, the issue of disarmament has been central to the Organization’s concerns. In this
regard, the Charter gives three separate bodies a role in international disarmament efforts: the
General Assembly (Article 11, paragraph 1), the Security Council (Article 26) and the Military
Staff Committee (Article 47, paragraph 1). The General Assembly has been active in the field of
international disarmament generally and nuclear disarmament in particular. With respect to

international disarmament generally, the General Assembly created the first United Nations
Disarmament Commission under the Security Council in 1952 (resolution 502 (VI) of
11 January 1952). In 1978, it held a Special Session on disarmament, at which it established the
current United Nations disarmament mechanisms consisting of: the First Committee of the General
Assembly, the mandate of which was redefined to deal exclusively with questions of disarmament
and related international security questions; a new Disarmament Commission as a subsidiary organ
of the General Assembly, composed of all Member States of the United Nations (replacing the

United Nations Disarmament Commission created in 1952); and a Committee on Disarmament
devoted to negotiations (resolution S-10/2 of 30 June 1978, paras. 117, 118 and 120). The latter
was redesignated the Conference on Disarmament with effect from 1984 (General Assembly
resolution 37/99 K, Part II, of 13 December 1982; Report of the Committee on Disarmament to the
United Nations General Assembly, 1 September 1983, doc. CD/421, para. 21) and now consists of
65 members.

With respect to nuclear disarmament efforts in particular, it may be recalled that, in its very
first resolution, unanimously adopted on 24 January 1946, the General Assembly established a
Commission to deal with “the problems raised by the discovery of atomic energy” (resolution 1 (I)
of 24 January 1946; this Commission was dissolved in 1952 when the first United Nations
Disarmament Commission, mentioned above, was established). As early as 1954, the General
Assembly also called for a convention on nuclear disarmament (resolution 808 (IX) A of
4 November 1954) and has repeated this call in many subsequent resolutions. In addition, the

mechanisms set out above, created by the General Assembly in view of general international
disarmament efforts, have also dealt specifically with questions of nuclear disarmament.

15. By resolution 21 of 2 April 1947, the United Nations Security Council placed a group of
Pacific Islands, including those making up the present-day Marshall Islands, under the trusteeship
system established by the United Nations Charter, and designated the United States of America as
the Administering Authority. From 1946 to 1958, while under this trusteeship, the Marshall

Islands was the location of repeated nuclear weapons testing. By resolution 683 of
22 December 1990, the Security Council terminated the Trusteeship Agreement concerning the
Marshall Islands. By General Assembly resolution 46/3 of 17 September 1991, the
Marshall Islands was admitted to membership in the United Nations. - 10 -

16. The Respondent gained independence on 14 August 1947. By General Assembly
resolution 108 (II) of 30 September 1947, Pakistan was admitted to membership in the

United Nations. Pakistan conducted at least two nuclear tests on 28 and 30 May 1998, and is
known to possess nuclear weapons.

17. Following extensive negotiations in the 1960s, in which both nuclear-weapon States and
non-nuclear-weapon States participated, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
(hereinafter “NPT”) was opened for signature on 1 July 1968. It entered into force on
5 March 1970 and was extended indefinitely in 1995. Review conferences have been held every

five years since its entry into force, pursuant to Article VIII, paragraph 3, of the NPT. One hundred
and ninety-one States have become parties to the NPT; on 10 January 2003, the Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea announced its withdrawal. The Marshall Islands acceded to the NPT
on 30 January 1995; Pakistan has not become a party to it.

18. The NPT seeks to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons and provides certain rights
and obligations for parties designated as “nuclear-weapon State Part[ies]” and

“non-nuclear-weapon State Part[ies]” (including, inter alia, the right of all States to develop and
use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, the obligation of nuclear-weapon States parties not to
transfer nuclear weapons to any recipient, and the obligation of non-nuclear-weapon States parties
not to receive such a transfer). The Preamble to the NPT also declares the intention of the parties
“to achieve at the earliest possible date the cessation of the nuclear arms race and to undertake
effective measures in the direction of nuclear disarmament”. In this connection, Article VI of the
NPT provides:

“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good
faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early
date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete
disarmament under strict and effective international control.”

For the purposes of the NPT, a “nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded
a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967” (Article IX.3). There

are five nuclear-weapon States under the NPT: China, France, the Russian Federation, the United
Kingdom and the United States of America. In addition to Pakistan — which, as noted above (see
paragraph 17), is not party to the NPT — certain other States possess, or are believed to possess,
nuclear weapons.

19. By resolution 49/75 K of 15 December 1994, the General Assembly requested the

International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on whether the threat or use of nuclear
weapons is permitted in any circumstance under international law. In the reasoning of its Advisory
Opinion of 8 July 1996, the Court appreciated “the full importance of the recognition by Article VI
of the [NPT] of an obligation to negotiate in good faith a nuclear disarmament” (Legality of the
Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 263, para. 99). It - 11 -

added that this obligation went “beyond . . . a mere obligation of conduct” and was an “obligation

to achieve a precise result  nuclear disarmament in all its aspects  by adopting a particular
course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good faith” (Legality of the
Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 264, para. 99).
The Court stated that “[t]his twofold obligation to pursue and to conclude negotiations formally
concerns [all] States parties to the [NPT], or, in other words, the vast majority of the international
community”, adding that “any realistic search for general and complete disarmament, especially
nuclear disarmament, necessitates the co-operation of all States” (ibid., para. 100). In the

conclusions of the Advisory Opinion, the Court unanimously declared that “[t]here exists an
obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear
disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control” (ibid., p. 267,
para. 105 (2) F).

20. In its resolution 51/45 M of 10 December 1996, the General Assembly “[u]nderline[d]
the unanimous conclusion of the Court that there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and

bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and
effective international control” and

“[c]all[ed] upon all States to fulfil that obligation immediately by commencing
multilateral negotiations in 1997 leading to an early conclusion of a nuclear-weapons
convention prohibiting the development, production, testing, deployment, stockpiling,
transfer, threat or use of nuclear weapons and providing for their elimination”.

The General Assembly has passed a similar resolution on the follow-up to the Court’s Advisory
Opinion every year since then. It has also passed numerous other resolutions encouraging nuclear
disarmament.

B. Proceedings brought before the Court

21. On 24 April 2014, the Marshall Islands filed, in addition to the present Application (see

paragraph 1 above), separate applications against the eight other States which, according to the
Marshall Islands, possess nuclear weapons (China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,
France, India, Israel, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland and the United States of America), also alleging a failure to fulfil obligations concerning
negotiations relating to the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear
disarmament. The cases against India, Pakistan and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland were entered in the Court’s General List, as the Applicant had invoked these
States’ declarations recognizing the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court (pursuant to Article 36,

paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court) as a basis for jurisdiction. In the applications against
China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, France, Israel, the Russian Federation and the
United States of America, the Marshall Islands invited these States to accept the jurisdiction of the
Court, as contemplated in Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court, for the purposes of the
case. None of these States has done so. Accordingly, these applications were not entered in the
Court’s General List. - 12 -

22. In its Note Verbale dated 9 July 2014 (see paragraph 4 above) and in its

Counter-Memorial, Pakistan raised several objections to the Court’s jurisdiction or the
admissibility of the Application. In particular, it argues that:

 the Marshall Islands has failed to show that there was, at the time of the filing of the
Application, a legal dispute between the Parties with respect to an alleged failure to pursue
negotiations in good faith towards the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and

nuclear disarmament;

 the Court’s jurisdiction is precluded by a number of reservations in the Parties’ declarations
under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute;

 the Court is prevented from exercising its jurisdiction in this case, on account of the absence
from the proceedings of “indispensable parties”, in particular the other States possessing

nuclear weapons;

 the Marshall Islands does not have standing to bring the claims formulated in the Application;
and

 the Application is inadmissible for other reasons, for instance because a judgment on the merits

in the present case would be devoid of any practical legal effect.

23. In its Memorial and its final submissions presented during the oral proceedings, the
Marshall Islands requested the Court to reject the objections of Pakistan in their entirety and to find
that it has jurisdiction and that the Application is admissible (see paragraphs 12 and 13 above).

24. The Court will first consider the objection based on the absence of a dispute.

*

* *

II. THE OBJECTION BASED ON THE ABSENCE OF A DISPUTE

25. The Marshall Islands claims there exists a legal dispute between itself and Pakistan
concerning the latter’s failure to comply with what the Applicant maintains is a customary law
obligation to pursue in good faith, and to bring to a conclusion, negotiations leading to nuclear

disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control, as well as a customary
law obligation concerning the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date. - 13 -

26. The Marshall Islands contends that the Parties’ statements and conduct before and after
the filing of the Application demonstrate the existence of such a dispute. It recalls that, prior to

seising the Court on 24 April 2014, it had called on nuclear-weapon States to abide by their
obligation to negotiate towards nuclear disarmament. The Marshall Islands refers in particular to
two statements. The first one was made on 26 September 2013 at the High-level Meeting of the
General Assembly on Nuclear Disarmament, when its Minister for Foreign Affairs “urge[d] all
nuclear weapons states to intensify efforts to address their responsibilities in moving towards an
effective and secure disarmament”. The second one was made by its representative at Nayarit,
Mexico, on 13 February 2014, in the context of the Second Conference on the Humanitarian

Impact of Nuclear Weapons. This second statement, which the Marshall Islands regards as clearly
demonstrating the content of its claim against all States possessing nuclear arsenals, reads as
follows:

“[T]he Marshall Islands is convinced that multilateral negotiations on achieving
and sustaining a world free of nuclear weapons are long overdue. Indeed we believe
that States possessing nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfil their legal obligations in this

regard. Immediate commencement and conclusion of such negotiations is required by
legal obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each and every State under
Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty and customary international law.”

The Marshall Islands maintains that, by this public statement, made in the context of an
international conference in the presence of Pakistan, the latter “was made aware that the [Marshall
Islands] believed that its failure to seriously engage in multilateral negotiations amounted to a
breach of its international obligations under customary international law”. In its view, this

statement, as well as the overall position it has taken on the issue of nuclear disarmament in recent
years, is clear evidence that the Marshall Islands had raised a dispute “with each and every one of
the States possessing nuclear weapons, including with Pakistan”.

27. The Marshall Islands adds that Pakistan has explicitly disputed the claim that it was
under any international obligation regarding nuclear disarmament in the current proceedings. It
argues that, by expressing its opposition to the Marshall Islands before the Court, Pakistan has

confirmed the existence of a legal dispute between the Parties. In this connection, the Marshall
Islands avers that, according to the Court’s established case law, while the “dispute must in
principle exist at the time the Application is submitted”, it may also be evidenced by the positions
of the parties before the Court (e.g., Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25; Land and Maritime Boundary between
Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 317, para. 93; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment

of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 614-615, para. 29). It also suggests that the Court’s use of
the phrase “in principle” leaves open the possibility that a legal dispute could even come into being
after a party seises the Court. Nevertheless, the Marshall Islands considers that, at the moment of
the filing of the Application in the present case, a legal dispute already existed. - 14 -

28. The Marshall Islands further contends that Pakistan has opposed the claims made against
it by its conduct. In particular, the Applicant maintains that, while the Respondent has “frequently”

reaffirmed in public statements its commitment to nuclear disarmament, it has in fact engaged in a
course of conduct consisting of the “quantitative build-up” and the “qualitative improvement” of its
nuclear arsenal. In its Application, the Marshall Islands also refers to Pakistan’s alleged blockage
of negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty.

29. The Marshall Islands rejects the existence of any rule or principle of international law
that requires the exhaustion of negotiations or any other forms of communication before seising the

Court. It adds that Pakistan was informed of the claim prior to the filing of the Application through
the public statements of the Marshall Islands’ representatives (in particular those made at Nayarit in
February 2014), as explained above.

*

30. Pakistan, for its part, considers that there was no legal dispute with the Marshall Islands
at the time the Application was filed. In Pakistan’s view, the Marshall Islands has failed to set out
any claims with sufficient clarity for Pakistan to have been aware of the existence of a dispute with
the Applicant.

31. In particular, Pakistan contends that the “brief” statements made by the Marshall Islands

on 26 September 2013 and on 13 February 2014 (see paragraph 26 above) were not directed
specifically at Pakistan and did not identify the subject-matter of any dispute between them. In
addition, Pakistan notes the inconsistency in the positions taken by the Marshall Islands at the
General Assembly in respect of nuclear disarmament: while Pakistan voted in favour of the
resolutions entitled “Follow-up to the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice in the
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons”, the Marshall Islands abstained from voting on
several occasions before 2013.

32. Pakistan also notes the absence of any relevant diplomatic exchanges between the Parties
prior to the seisin of the Court. In its view, this demonstrates that no positively opposed claims
exist in the present case. Recognizing that the determination of whether a dispute exists is a matter
of substance and not of form, the Respondent nonetheless contends that in every case in which the
Court has found a dispute to exist, it has been possible for it to point to some prior correspondence,
communication or negotiation between the parties on the issues in dispute. Moreover, recalling the

Court’s decision in the Georgia v. Russia case (Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30), Pakistan claims that the exchanges
between the Parties must be sufficiently clear in order for the Respondent to identify the existence
of a dispute. Since no such exchange took place in the present case, a dispute between the Marshall - 15 -

Islands and Pakistan could not have arisen or “crystallized” as a consequence of, or after, the
Application. Pakistan further criticizes the Marshall Islands’ reliance on the Court’s Judgment in

Cameroon v. Nigeria, in which the Court affirmed that the existence of a dispute could be inferred
from the conduct of the parties regardless of their professed views (Land and Maritime Boundary
between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 315, para. 89). According to Pakistan, that Judgment was rendered in a different
context and is not relevant in the present case.

* *

33. Under Article 38 of the Statute, the function of the Court is to decide in accordance with
international law disputes that States submit to it. Under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the
Court has jurisdiction in all “legal disputes” that may arise between States parties to the Statute
having made a declaration in accordance with that provision. The existence of a dispute between

the Parties is thus a condition of the Court’s jurisdiction.

34. According to the established case law of the Court, a dispute is “a disagreement on a
point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests” between parties (Mavrommatis
Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11). In order for a
dispute to exist, “[i]t must be shown that the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other”
(South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328). The two sides must “‘hold clearly opposite views
concerning the question of the performance or non-performance of certain’ international
obligations” (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 50, citing
Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 74).

35. The Court’s determination of the existence of a dispute is a matter of substance, and not a
question of form or procedure (cf. Application of the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30; Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8
(Factory at Chorzów) (Germany v. Poland), Judgment No. 11, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 13,
pp. 10-11). Prior negotiations are not required where the Court has been seised on the basis of
declarations made pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of its Statute, unless one of the relevant

declarations so provides (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria
(Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 322, para. 109).
Moreover, “although a formal diplomatic protest may be an important step to bring a claim of one
party to the attention of the other, such a formal protest is not a necessary condition” for the - 16 -

existence of a dispute (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the
Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016,

para. 72). Similarly, notice of an intention to file a case is not required as a condition for the seisin
of the Court (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v.
Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 297, para. 39).

36. Whether a dispute exists is a matter for objective determination by the Court which must
turn on an examination of the facts (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime
Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of

17 March 2016, para. 50). For that purpose, the Court takes into account in particular any
statements or documents exchanged between the parties (Questions relating to the Obligation to
Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 443-445,
paras. 50-55), as well as any exchanges made in multilateral settings (Application of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v.
Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 94, para. 51,
p. 95, para. 53). In so doing, it pays special attention to “the author of the statement or document,

their intended or actual addressee, and their content” (ibid., p. 100, para. 63).

37. The conduct of the parties may also be relevant, especially when there have been no
diplomatic exchanges (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the
Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016,
paras. 71 and 73). As the Court has affirmed,

“a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or interests, or the
positive opposition of the claim of one party by the other need not necessarily be
stated expressis verbis . . . [T]he position or the attitude of a party can be established
by inference, whatever the professed view of that party.” (Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315, para. 89.)

In particular, the Court has previously held that “the existence of a dispute may be inferred from

the failure of a State to respond to a claim in circumstances where a response is called for”
(Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30, citing Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and
Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315,
para. 89).

38. The evidence must show that the parties “hold clearly opposite views” with respect to the
issue brought before the Court (see paragraph 34 above). As reflected in previous decisions of the
Court in which the existence of a dispute was under consideration, a dispute exists when it is
demonstrated, on the basis of the evidence, that the respondent was aware, or could not have been - 17 -

unaware, that its views were “positively opposed” by the applicant (Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary

Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 73; Application of the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 99, para. 61, pp. 109-110, para. 87,
p. 117, para. 104).

39. In principle, the date for determining the existence of a dispute is the date on which the
application is submitted to the Court (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces

in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of
17 March 2016, para. 52; Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 85, para. 30). Indeed, when it is stated in Article 38,
paragraph 1, of the Court’s Statute that the Court’s function is “to decide in accordance with
international law such disputes as are submitted to it”, this relates to disputes existing at the time of
their submission.

40. Conduct subsequent to the application (or the application itself) may be relevant for
various purposes, in particular to confirm the existence of a dispute (East Timor (Portugal v.
Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 100, para. 22 and p. 104, para. 32), to clarify its
subject-matter (Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Preliminary
Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (II), p. 602, para. 26) or to determine whether the dispute
has disappeared as of the time when the Court makes its decision (Nuclear Tests (Australia v.

France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270-271, para. 55; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 476, para. 58).

However, neither the application nor the parties’ subsequent conduct and statements made
during the judicial proceedings can enable the Court to find that the condition of the existence of a
dispute has been fulfilled in the same proceedings (Questions relating to the Obligation to
Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 444-445,

paras. 53-55). If the Court had jurisdiction with regard to disputes resulting from exchanges in the
proceedings before it, a respondent would be deprived of the opportunity to react before the
institution of proceedings to the claim made against its own conduct. Furthermore, the rule that the
dispute must in principle exist prior to the filing of the application would be subverted.

* *

41. The Court notes that the Marshall Islands, by virtue of the suffering which its people
endured as a result of it being used as a site for extensive nuclear testing programs, has special
reasons for concern about nuclear disarmament (see paragraph 15 above). But that fact does not
remove the need to establish that the conditions for the Court’s jurisdiction are met. While it is a
legal matter for the Court to determine whether it has jurisdiction, it remains for the Applicant to
demonstrate the facts underlying its case that a dispute exists (Border and Transborder Armed

Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988,
p. 75, para. 16). - 18 -

42. As noted above at paragraph 32, Pakistan relies on the fact that the Marshall Islands did
not commence negotiations or give notice to it of the claim that is the subject of the Application to

support its contention that there is no dispute between the Parties. However, the Court has rejected
the view that notice or prior negotiations are required where it has been seised on the basis of
declarations made pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute, unless one of those
declarations so provides. The Court’s jurisprudence treats the question of the existence of a dispute
as a jurisdictional one that turns on whether there is, in substance, a dispute, not on what form that
dispute takes or whether the respondent has been notified (see paragraph 35 above).

43. The Marshall Islands seeks to demonstrate that it had a dispute with Pakistan in
essentially three ways. First, it refers to its own statements, as formulated in multilateral fora.
Secondly, it argues that the very filing of the Application, as well as the positions expressed by the
Parties in the current proceedings, show the existence of a dispute between the Parties. Thirdly, it
relies on Pakistan’s conduct both before and after the filing of the Application.

44. The Marshall Islands does not refer to any bilateral diplomatic exchanges or official

communications between it and Pakistan, or to any bilateral consultations or negotiations that have
taken place, concerning the alleged breach of Pakistan’s obligations.

45. The Marshall Islands refers to two statements made in multilateral fora before the date of
the filing of its Application which, in its view, suffice to establish the existence of a dispute. As the
Court has already explained, the opposition of the Parties’ views could also be demonstrated by
exchanges made in multilateral settings (see paragraph 36 above). In such a setting, however, the

Court must give particular attention, inter alia, to the content of a party’s statement and to the
identity of the intended addressees, in order to determine whether that statement, together with any
reaction thereto, show that the parties before it held “clearly opposite views” (see paragraphs 34
and 36 above). The question in this case is therefore whether the statements invoked by the
Marshall Islands are sufficient to demonstrate the existence of such opposition.

46. The Marshall Islands relies on the statement made at the High-level Meeting of the

General Assembly on Nuclear Disarmament, on 26 September 2013 by its Minister for Foreign
Affairs, “urg[ing] all nuclear weapons states to intensify efforts to address their responsibilities in
moving towards an effective and secure disarmament”. However, this statement is formulated in
hortatory terms and cannot be understood as an allegation that Pakistan (or any other nuclear
power) was in breach of any of its legal obligations. It does not mention the obligation to
negotiate, nor does it say that the nuclear-weapon States are failing to meet their obligations in this
regard. It suggests that they are making “efforts” to address their responsibilities, and calls for an

intensification of those efforts, rather than deploring a failure to act. Moreover, a statement can - 19 -

give rise to a dispute only if it refers to the subject-matter of a claim “with sufficient clarity to
enable the State against which [that] claim is made to identify that there is, or may be, a dispute

with regard to that subject-matter” (Application of the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 85, para. 30). While the Court reached that conclusion in the
context of a compromissory clause, the same reasoning applies to a dispute over a customary
international law obligation regardless of the underlying jurisdictional basis alleged, since the
Court made clear that it was dealing with the requirements of a dispute in general (ibid., p. 84,
para. 29). The 2013 statement relied upon by the Marshall Islands does not meet these

requirements.

47. The statement made by the Marshall Islands at the Nayarit conference on
13 February 2014 (see paragraph 26 above) goes further than the 2013 statement, in that it contains
a sentence asserting that “States possessing nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfil their legal
obligations” under Article VI of the NPT and customary international law. Pakistan was present at
the Nayarit conference. However, the subject of the conference was not specifically the question of

negotiations with a view to nuclear disarmament, but the broader question of the humanitarian
impact of nuclear weapons, and while this statement contains a general criticism of the conduct of
all nuclear-weapon States, it does not specify the conduct of Pakistan that gave rise to the alleged
breach. Such a specification would have been particularly necessary if, as the Marshall Islands
contends, the Nayarit statement was aimed at invoking the international responsibility of the
Respondent on the grounds of a course of conduct which had remained unchanged for many years.
Given its very general content and the context in which it was made, that statement did not call for

a specific reaction by Pakistan. Accordingly, no opposition of views can be inferred from the
absence of any such reaction. The Nayarit statement is insufficient to bring into existence, between
the Marshall Islands and Pakistan, a specific dispute as to the existence or scope of the asserted
customary international law obligations to pursue in good faith, and to bring to a conclusion,
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international
control, as well as to cease the nuclear arms race at an early date, or as to Pakistan’s compliance
with any such obligations.

48. In all the circumstances, on the basis of those statements — whether taken individually
or together — it cannot be said that Pakistan was aware, or could not have been unaware, that the
Marshall Islands was making an allegation that Pakistan was in breach of its obligations.

49. Secondly, the Marshall Islands argues that the very filing of the Application could suffice
to establish the existence of a dispute. It also points to other statements made in the course of the

proceedings by both Parties as evidence of their opposition of views.

50. The Marshall Islands relies on three cases in support of its contention that the statements
made by the Parties during the proceedings may serve to evidence the existence of a dispute (see
paragraph 27 above). However, these cases do not support this contention. In the case concerning
Certain Property, the existence of a dispute was clearly referenced by bilateral exchanges between - 20 -

the parties prior to the date of the application (Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25). The reference to

subsequent materials in the Cameroon v. Nigeria case related to the scope of the dispute, not to its
existence (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 317, para. 93). Moreover, while it is
true that the Court did not explicitly reference any evidence before the filing of the application
demonstrating the existence of a dispute in its Judgment in the case concerning the Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), in the particular context of that case, which involved an ongoing

armed conflict, the prior conduct of the parties was sufficient to establish the existence of a dispute
(Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, paras. 27-29). Instead, the
issues the Court focused on were not the date when the dispute arose but the proper subject-matter
of that dispute, whether it fell within the scope of the relevant compromissory clause, and whether
it “persist[ed]” at the date of the Court’s decision. As stated above, although statements made or
claims advanced in or even subsequently to the Application may be relevant for various
purposes  notably in clarifying the scope of the dispute submitted  they cannot create a dispute

de novo, one that does not already exist (see paragraph 40 above).

51. Thirdly, the Marshall Islands argues that, irrespective of verbal support for negotiations
on nuclear disarmament on the part of Pakistan, its actual conduct in maintaining and upgrading its
nuclear arsenal, and in failing to co-operate with certain diplomatic initiatives, allows the Court to
infer the existence of a dispute as to the scope of and compliance with its obligations, even if such a

dispute had not, prior to the Application, been articulated in legal terms by the Marshall Islands.

52. The Court recalls that the question whether there is a dispute in a particular contentious
case turns on the evidence of opposition of views (see paragraphs 34, 36 and 37 above). In this
regard, the conduct of a respondent can contribute to a finding by the Court that the views of the
parties are in opposition (see paragraph 37 above). However, as the Court has previously
concluded (see paragraphs 46-48 above), in the present case neither of the statements that were

made in a multilateral context by the Marshall Islands offered any particulars regarding Pakistan’s
conduct. On the basis of such statements, it cannot be said that Pakistan was aware, or could not
have been unaware, that the Marshall Islands was making an allegation that Pakistan was in breach
of its obligations. In this context, the conduct of Pakistan does not provide a basis for finding a
dispute between the two States before the Court.

53. Finally, regarding Pakistan’s argument based on the Parties’ voting records on General

Assembly resolutions on nuclear disarmament (see paragraph 31 above), the Court notes that
considerable care is required before inferring from votes cast on resolutions before political organs
such as the General Assembly conclusions as to the existence or not of a legal dispute on some
issue covered by a resolution. The wording of a resolution, and votes or patterns of voting on
resolutions of the same subject-matter, may constitute relevant evidence of the existence of a
dispute in some circumstances, particularly where statements were made by way of explanation of - 21 -

vote. However, some resolutions contain a large number of different propositions; a State’s vote

on such resolutions cannot by itself be taken as indicative of the position of that State on each and
every proposition within that resolution, let alone of the existence of a legal dispute between that
State and another State regarding one of those propositions.

* *

54. The Court therefore concludes that the first objection made by Pakistan must be upheld.
It follows that the Court does not have jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 2, of its Statute.

55. Consequently, it is not necessary for the Court to deal with the other objections raised by

Pakistan. The questions of the existence of and extent of customary international law obligations in
the field of nuclear disarmament, and Pakistan’s compliance with such obligations, pertain to the
merits. But the Court has found that no dispute existed between the Parties prior to the filing of the
Application, and consequently it lacks jurisdiction to consider these questions.

*

* *

56. For these reasons,

THE COURT ,

(1) By nine votes to seven,

Upholds the objection to jurisdiction raised by Pakistan, based on the absence of a dispute
between the Parties;

IN FAVOUR : President Abraham; Vice-President Yusuf; Judges Owada, Greenwood, Xue,
Donoghue, Gaja, Bhandari, Gevorgian;

AGAINST : Judges Tomka, Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Sebutinde, Robinson, Crawford;

Judge ad hoc Bedjaoui; - 22 -

(2) By ten votes to six,

Finds that it cannot proceed to the merits of the case.

IN FAVOUR : President Abraham; Vice-President Yusuf; Judges Owada, Tomka,

Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue, Gaja, Bhandari, Gevorgian;

AGAINST : Judges Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Sebutinde, Robinson, Crawford;
Judge ad hoc Bedjaoui.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at the Peace Palace,
The Hague, this fifth day of October, two thousand and sixteen, in three copies, one of which will
be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Republic

of the Marshall Islands and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, respectively.

(Signed) RonnyA BRAHAM ,
President.

(Signed) Philippe COUVREUR ,
Registrar.

President ABRAHAM and Vice-President YUSUF append declarations to the Judgment of
the Court; Judges OWADA and TOMKA append separate opinions to the Judgment of the Court;

Judges BENNOUNA and C ANÇADO T RINDADE append dissenting opinions to the Judgment of the
Court; Judges X UE , DONOGHUE and G AJA append declarations to the Judgment of the Court;
Judges SEBUTINDE and B HANDARI append separate opinions to the Judgment of the Court;
Judges ROBINSON and C RAWFORD append dissenting opinions to the Judgment of the Court;
Judge ad hoc BEDJAOUI appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court.

(Initialled) R. A.

(Initialled) Ph. C.

___________

Bilingual Content

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
OBLIGATIONS CONCERNING NEGOTIATIONS
RELATING TO CESSATION
OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE
AND TO NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT
(MARSHALL ISLANDS v. PAKISTAN)
JURISDICTION AND ADMISSIBILITY
JUDGMENT OF 5 OCTOBER 2016
2016
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
OBLIGATIONS RELATIVES À DES NÉGOCIATIONS
CONCERNANT LA CESSATION
DE LA COURSE AUX ARMES NUCLÉAIRES
ET LE DÉSARMEMENT NUCLÉAIRE
(ÎLES MARSHALL c. PAKISTAN)
COMPÉTENCE ET RECEVABILITÉ
ARRÊT DU 5 OCTOBRE 2016
Official citation :
Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation
of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament
(Marshall Islands v. Pakistan), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2016, p. 552
Mode officiel de citation :
Obligations relatives à des négociations concernant la cessation
de la course aux armes nucléaires et le désarmement nucléaire
(Iles Marshall c. Pakistan), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2016, p. 552
ISSN 0074-4441
ISBN 978-92-1-157301-5
Sales number
No de vente: 1106
OBLIGATIONS CONCERNING NEGOTIATIONS
RELATING TO CESSATION
OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE
AND TO NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT
(MARSHALL ISLANDS v. PAKISTAN)
JURISDICTION AND ADMISSIBILITY
OBLIGATIONS RELATIVES À DES NÉGOCIATIONS
CONCERNANT LA CESSATION
DE LA COURSE AUX ARMES NUCLÉAIRES
ET LE DÉSARMEMENT NUCLÉAIRE
(ÎLES MARSHALL c. PAKISTAN)
COMPÉTENCE ET RECEVABILITÉ
5 OCTOBER 2016
JUDGMENT
5 OCTOBRE 2016
ARRÊT
552
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs
Chronology of the Procedure 1-13
I. Introduction 14-24
A. Historical background 14-20
B. Proceedings brought before the Court 21-24
II. The Objection Based on the Absence of a Dispute 25-55
Operative Clause 56
552
4
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Paragraphes
Qualité 1-13
I. Introduction 14-24
A. Contexte historique 14-20
B. Instances introduites devant la Cour 21-24
II. L’exception fondée sur l’absence de différend 25-55
Dispositif 56
553
5
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
YEAR 2016
5 October 2016
OBLIGATIONS CONCERNING NEGOTIATIONS
RELATING TO CESSATION
OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE
AND TO NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT
(MARSHALL ISLANDS v. PAKISTAN)
JURISDICTION AND ADMISSIBILITY
Historical background — Disarmament activities of the United Nations —
Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1 July 1968 — Court’s
8 July 1996 Advisory Opinion on nuclear weapons.
Proceedings brought before the Court.
*
Objection based on absence of a dispute.
Meaning of “dispute” in case law of the Court — Parties must “hold clearly
opposite views” — Existence of a dispute is a matter of substance, not form or
procedure — Prior negotiations not required where Court seised on basis of declarations
under Article 36 (2) of Statute unless one of these declarations so provides
— Formal diplomatic protest not required — Notice of intention to file claim
not required — Existence of dispute is matter for objective determination by the
Court — Court may take into account statements or documents exchanged in
bilateral or multilateral settings — Conduct of parties may also be relevant — Evidence
must demonstrate that Respondent was aware, or could not have been
unaware, that its views were “positively opposed” by Applicant — Existence of
dispute to be determined in principle as of date application is submitted — Limited
relevance of subsequent conduct.
2016
5 October
General List
No. 159
553
5
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
ANNÉE 2016
5 octobre 2016
OBLIGATIONS RELATIVES À DES NÉGOCIATIONS
CONCERNANT LA CESSATION
DE LA COURSE AUX ARMES NUCLÉAIRES
ET LE DÉSARMEMENT NUCLÉAIRE
(ÎLES MARSHALL c. PAKISTAN)
COMPÉTENCE ET RECEVABILITÉ
Contexte historique — Activités de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en matière
de désarmement — Traité sur la non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires du 1er juillet
1968 — Avis consultatif rendu par la Cour le 8 juillet 1996 sur la question des
armes nucléaires.
Instances introduites devant la Cour.
*
Exception fondée sur l’absence de différend.
Sens du terme « différend » dans la jurisprudence de la Cour — « [P]oints de
vue des deux parties » devant être « nettement opposés » — Existence d’un différend
étant une question de fond, et non de forme ou de procédure — Négociations
préalables n’étant pas requises lorsque la Cour est saisie sur la base de déclarations
faites en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 de son Statut, à moins que
l’une de ces déclarations n’en dispose autrement — Protestation diplomatique officielle
n’étant pas requise — Notification de l’intention d’introduire une instance
n’étant pas requise — Existence d’un différend devant être établie objectivement
par la Cour — Cour pouvant tenir compte de déclarations ou de documents échangés
dans un cadre bilatéral ou multilatéral — Comportement des parties pouvant
également entrer en ligne de compte — Eléments de preuve devant démontrer que
le défendeur avait connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce
que ses vues se heurtaient à l’« opposition manifeste » du demandeur — Existence
d’un différend devant en principe être appréciée à la date du dépôt de la requête —
Pertinence limitée du comportement ultérieur des parties.
2016
5 octobre
Rôle général
no 159
554 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
6
Contention that dispute exists based on two statements made in multilateral
fora — Statement made at United Nations High‑Level Meeting on Nuclear
Disarmament
on 26 September 2013 — Statement made at conference in Nayarit,
Mexico, on 13 February 2014 — Neither statement sufficient to establish existence
of dispute.
Contention that the very filing of Application and position of Parties in proceedings
show existence of dispute — Case law relied on by Marshall Islands does not
support this contention — Application and statements made during judicial proceedings
cannot create dispute that does not already exist.
Contention that dispute exists based on Pakistan’s conduct — Applicant’s statements
did not offer any particulars regarding Pakistan’s conduct — Cannot be
said that Pakistan was aware, or could not have been unaware, that the Marshall
Islands was making an allegation that Pakistan was in breach of its obligations —
Conduct of Pakistan cannot show opposition of views.
Objection of Pakistan upheld — Not necessary for the Court to deal with other
objections — Case cannot proceed to the merits phase.
JUDGMENT
Present: President Abraham; Vice‑President Yusuf; Judges Owada, Tomka,
Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue,
Gaja, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Crawford, Gevorgian;
Judge ad hoc Bedjaoui; Registrar Couvreur.
In the case regarding obligations concerning negotiations relating to cessation
of the nuclear arms race and to nuclear disarmament,
between
the Republic of the Marshall Islands,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Tony A. deBrum, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of
the Marshall Islands,
Mr. Phon van den Biesen, Attorney at Law, van den Biesen Kloostra Advocaten,
Amsterdam,
as Co‑Agents;
Ms Deborah Barker‑Manase, Chargé d’affaires a.i. and Deputy Permanent
Representative of the Republic of the Marshall Islands to the United
Nations, New York,
as Member of the delegation;
Ms Laurie B. Ashton, Attorney, Seattle,
Mr. Nicholas Grief, Professor of Law, University of Kent, member of the
English Bar,
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 554
6
Argument selon lequel l’existence d’un différend est établie par deux déclarations
faites dans des enceintes multilatérales — Déclaration faite le 26 septembre
2013, lors d’une réunion de haut niveau des Nations Unies sur le désarmement
nucléaire — Déclaration faite le 13 février 2014, lors de la conférence de
Nayarit, au Mexique — Aucune des deux déclarations ne suffisant à établir l’existence
d’un différend.
Argument selon lequel le dépôt même de la requête et les positions exposées par
les Parties en cours d’instance permettent d’établir l’existence d’un différend —
Jurisprudence invoquée par les Iles Marshall n’étayant pas cette thèse — Requête
et déclarations faites en cours d’instance ne pouvant créer un différend qui n’existe
pas déjà.
Argument selon lequel l’existence d’un différend est établie par le comportement
du Pakistan — Déclarations du demandeur ne concernant pas spécifiquement le
comportement du Pakistan — Impossibilité de conclure que le Pakistan avait
connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce que les
Iles Marshall soutenaient qu’il manquait à ses obligations — Comportement du
Pakistan ne permettant pas d’établir l’existence d’une divergence de vues.
Exception du Pakistan retenue — Nul besoin pour la Cour de se pencher sur les
autres exceptions — Cour ne pouvant procéder à l’examen de l’affaire au fond.
ARRÊT
Présents : M. Abraham, président ; M. Yusuf, vice‑président ; MM. Owada,
Tomka, Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Greenwood, Mmes Xue,
Donoghue, M. Gaja, Mme Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson,
Crawford, Gevorgian, juges ; M. Bedjaoui, juge ad hoc ;
M. Couvreur, greffier.
En l’affaire des obligations relatives à des négociations concernant la cessation
de la course aux armes nucléaires et le désarmement nucléaire,
entre
la République des Iles Marshall,
représentée par
S. Exc. M. Tony A. deBrum, ministre des affaires étrangères de la République
des Iles Marshall,
M. Phon van den Biesen, avocat, van den Biesen Kloostra Advocaten, Amsterdam,
comme coagents ;
Mme Deborah Barker‑Manase, chargé d’affaires a.i. et représentant permanent
adjoint de la République des Iles Marshall auprès de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies à New York,
comme membre de la délégation ;
Mme Laurie B. Ashton, avocat, Seattle,
M. Nicholas Grief, professeur de droit à l’Université du Kent, membre du
barreau d’Angleterre,
555 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
7
Mr. Luigi Condorelli, Professor of International Law, University of Florence,
Honorary Professor of International Law, University of Geneva,
Mr. Paolo Palchetti, Professor of International Law, University of Macerata,
Mr. John Burroughs, New York,
Ms Christine Chinkin, Emerita Professor of International Law, London
School of Economics, member of the English Bar,
Mr. Roger S. Clark, Board of Governors Professor, Rutgers Law School,
New Jersey,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Mr. David Krieger, Santa Barbara,
Mr. Peter Weiss, New York,
Mr. Lynn Sarko, Attorney, Seattle,
as Counsel;
Ms Amanda Richter, member of the English Bar,
Ms Sophie Elizabeth Bones, LL.B., LL.M.,
Mr. J. Dylan van Houcke, LL.B., LL.M., Ph.D. Candidate, Birkbeck, University
of London,
Mr. Loris Marotti, Ph.D. Candidate, University of Macerata,
Mr. Lucas Lima, Ph.D. Candidate, University of Macerata,
Mr. Rob van Riet, London,
Ms Alison E. Chase, Attorney, Santa Barbara,
as Assistants;
Mr. Nick Ritchie, Lecturer in International Security, University of York,
as Technical Adviser,
and
the Islamic Republic of Pakistan,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Moazzam Ahmad Khan, Ambassador of the Islamic Republic of
Pakistan to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Co-Agent (until 27 September 2016);
H.E. Ms Iffat Imran Gardezi, Ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Co-Agent (from 27 September 2016);
Mr. Ahmer Bilal Soofi, Advocate, Supreme Court of Pakistan,
as Co‑Agent,
The Court,
composed as above,
after deliberation,
delivers the following Judgment:
1. On 24 April 2014, the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands
(hereinafter the “Marshall Islands” or the “Applicant”) filed in the Registry
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 555
7
M. Luigi Condorelli, professeur de droit international à l’Université de Florence,
professeur honoraire de droit international à l’Université de Genève,
M. Paolo Palchetti, professeur de droit international à l’Université de Macerata,
M. John Burroughs, New York,
Mme Christine Chinkin, professeur émérite de droit international à la London
School of Economics, membre du barreau d’Angleterre,
M. Roger S. Clark, Board of Governors Professor à la faculté de droit de
l’Université Rutgers, New Jersey,
comme conseils et avocats ;
M. David Krieger, Santa Barbara,
M. Peter Weiss, New York,
M. Lynn Sarko, avocat, Seattle,
comme conseils ;
Mme Amanda Richter, membre du barreau d’Angleterre,
Mme Sophie Elizabeth Bones, LL.B., LL.M.,
M. J. Dylan van Houcke, LL.B., LL.M., doctorant au Birkbeck College, Université
de Londres,
M. Loris Marotti, doctorant à l’Université de Macerata,
M. Lucas Lima, doctorant à l’Université de Macerata,
M. Rob van Riet, Londres,
Mme Alison E. Chase, avocat, Santa Barbara,
comme assistants ;
M. Nick Ritchie, chargé de cours en sécurité internationale à l’Université
d’York,
comme conseiller technique,
et
la République islamique du Pakistan,
représentée par
S. Exc. M. Moazzam Ahmad Khan, ambassadeur de la République islamique
du Pakistan auprès du Royaume des Pays‑Bas,
comme coagent (jusqu’au 27 septembre 2016) ;
S. Exc. Mme Iffat Imran Gardezi, ambassadeur de la République islamique du
Pakistan auprès du Royaume des Pays‑Bas,
comme coagent (à partir du 27 septembre 2016) ;
M. Ahmer Bilal Soofi, avocat à la Cour suprême du Pakistan,
comme coagent,
La Cour,
ainsi composée,
après délibéré en chambre du conseil,
rend l’arrêt suivant :
1. Le 24 avril 2014, le Gouvernement de la République des Iles Marshall
(ci‑après dénommée les « Iles Marshall » ou le « demandeur ») a déposé au Greffe
556 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
8
of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against the Islamic Republic
of Pakistan (hereinafter “Pakistan” or the “Respondent”), in which it claimed
that:
“13. Pakistan has not fulfilled its obligation under customary international
law to pursue in good faith negotiations to cease the nuclear arms
race at an early date, and instead is taking actions to improve and expand
its nuclear forces and to maintain them for the indefinite future.
14. Similarly, Pakistan has not fulfilled its obligation under customary
international law to pursue in good faith negotiations leading to nuclear
disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control,
in particular by engaging a course of conduct, the quantitative build‑up
and qualitative improvement of its nuclear forces, contrary to the objective
of nuclear disarmament.”
In its Application, the Marshall Islands seeks to found the jurisdiction of the
Court on the declarations made, pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute of the Court, by Pakistan on 12 September 1960 (deposited with
the Secretary‑General
of the United Nations on 13 September 1960), and by
the Marshall Islands on 15 March 2013 (deposited with the Secretary‑General
on 24 April 2013).
2. In accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Registrar
immediately communicated the Application to the Government of Pakistan;
and, under paragraph 3 of that Article, he notified all other States entitled to
appear before the Court of the Application.
3. In accordance with Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute, the Marshall
Islands chose Mr. Mohammed Bedjaoui to sit as judge ad hoc in the case.
The Government of Pakistan did not exercise its right under the same Article to
choose a judge ad hoc.
4. By a Note Verbale dated 9 July 2014, received in the Registry the same
day, the Pakistani Government indicated, inter alia, that “Pakistan is of the
considered opinion that the ICJ lacks jurisdiction . . . and considers the . . .
Application inadmissible”, and requested the Court “to dismiss this Application
in limine”. At the meeting held by the President of the Court later the same day
with the representatives of the Parties, pursuant to Article 31 of the Rules of
Court, those representatives made known the views of their respective Governments
with regard to questions of procedure in the case, in particular in the light
of the above‑mentioned Note Verbale.
5. By an Order of 10 July 2014, the President of the Court held, pursuant to
Article 79, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, that, in the circumstances of the
case, it was necessary first of all to resolve the questions of the Court’s jurisdiction
and the admissibility of the Application, and that these questions should
accordingly be separately determined before any proceedings on the merits; to
that end, the President decided that the written pleadings should first be
addressed to the said questions, and fixed 12 January 2015 and 17 July 2015 as
the respective time‑limits for the filing of a Memorial by the Marshall Islands
and a Counter‑Memorial by Pakistan. The Memorial of the Marshall Islands
was filed within the time‑limit thus prescribed.
6. By a letter dated 1 April 2015, the Government of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the
Rules of Court, asked to be furnished with copies of the pleadings and documents
annexed in the case. Having ascertained the views of the Parties pursuant
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 556
8
de la Cour une requête introductive d’instance contre la République islamique
du Pakistan (ci‑après dénommée le « Pakistan » ou le « défendeur »), dans
laquelle il soutient ce qui suit :
« 13. Le Pakistan ne s’est pas acquitté de l’obligation que lui impose le
droit international coutumier de poursuivre de bonne foi des négociations
pour mettre fin à la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée
et, au lieu de cela, cherche à améliorer et à accroître ses forces
nucléaires et à les conserver pour une durée illimitée.
14. De même, le Pakistan a manqué de s’acquitter de l’obligation que lui
impose le droit international coutumier de poursuivre de bonne foi des
négociations conduisant à un désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects
effectué sous un contrôle international strict et efficace, et ce, en particulier,
en adoptant une ligne de conduite qui, en visant à accroître et à améliorer
ses forces nucléaires, est contraire à l’objectif du désarmement nucléaire. »
Dans leur requête, les Iles Marshall entendent fonder la compétence de la
Cour sur les déclarations faites, en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut
de la Cour, par le Pakistan le 12 septembre 1960 (déclaration déposée auprès
du Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies le 13 septembre 1960)
et par elles‑mêmes le 15 mars 2013 (déclaration déposée auprès du Secrétaire
général le 24 avril 2013).
2. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 40 du Statut, le greffier a
immédiatement communiqué la requête au Gouvernement du Pakistan ; conformément
au paragraphe 3 du même article, il en a également informé tous les
autres Etats admis à ester devant la Cour.
3. En application du paragraphe 3 de l’article 31 du Statut, les Iles Marshall
ont désigné M. Mohammed Bedjaoui pour siéger comme juge ad hoc en l’affaire.
Le Gouvernement du Pakistan ne s’est pas prévalu du droit de désigner un
juge ad hoc que lui confère le même article.
4. Par une note verbale en date du 9 juillet 2014, reçue au Greffe le même
jour, le Gouvernement pakistanais a notamment indiqué que « le Pakistan [était]
d’avis que la CIJ n’[avait] pas compétence … et consid[érait] la requête …
comme irrecevable », et a prié la Cour de « rejeter in limine ladite requête ». Au
cours de la réunion que le président de la Cour a tenue plus tard le même jour,
au titre de l’article 31 du Règlement, avec les représentants des Parties, ceux‑ci
ont exposé les vues de leurs gouvernements respectifs quant aux questions
de procédure en l’espèce, à la lumière, en particulier, de la note verbale susmentionnée.
5. Par ordonnance du 10 juillet 2014, le président de la Cour a estimé, se
référant au paragraphe 2 de l’article 79 du Règlement, que, dans les circonstances
de l’espèce, il était en premier lieu nécessaire de régler les questions de la
compétence de la Cour et de la recevabilité de la requête, et que, en conséquence,
la Cour devrait statuer séparément, avant toute procédure sur le fond, sur ces
questions ; à cette fin, le président a décidé que les pièces de la procédure écrite
porteraient d’abord sur lesdites questions et a fixé au 12 janvier 2015 et au
17 juillet 2015, respectivement, les dates d’expiration des délais pour le dépôt du
mémoire des Iles Marshall et du contre‑mémoire du Pakistan. Le mémoire des
Iles Marshall a été déposé dans le délai ainsi prescrit.
6. Par lettre en date du 1er avril 2015, le Gouvernement du Royaume‑Uni de
Grande‑Bretagne et d’Irlande du Nord, invoquant le paragraphe 1 de l’article 53
du Règlement, a demandé à recevoir copie des pièces de procédure et documents
annexés produits en l’espèce. La Cour, après avoir consulté les Parties confor-
557 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
9
to that same provision, the Court decided not to grant this request. By letters
dated 13 July 2015, the Registrar duly informed the Government of the
United Kingdom and the Parties of that decision.
By a letter dated 26 November 2015, the Government of the Republic of
India, referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, asked to be
furnished with copies of the pleadings and documents annexed in the case. Having
ascertained the views of the Parties pursuant to that same provision, the
Court decided not to grant this request. By letters dated 26 February 2016, the
Registrar duly informed the Government of India and the Parties of that decision.
7. By a Note Verbale dated 2 July 2015, Pakistan requested a six‑month
extension of the time‑limit for the filing of its Counter‑Memorial. By a letter
dated 8 July 2015, the Marshall Islands stated that it could agree to a three‑month
extension of the time‑limit. By an Order of 9 July 2015, the President of the
Court extended to 1 December 2015 the time‑limit for the filing of Pakistan’s
Counter‑Memorial. That pleading was duly filed within the time‑limit thus
extended.
8. By a letter dated 2 March 2016, Pakistan informed the Court that it would
not be participating in the oral proceedings on jurisdiction and admissibility,
stating in particular that it “does not feel that its participation in the oral proceedings
will add anything to what has already been submitted through its
Counter‑Memorial”.
9. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,
after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings
and documents annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening
of the oral proceedings.
10. A public hearing on the questions of the jurisdiction of the Court and the
admissibility of the Application was held on Tuesday 8 March 2016, at which
the Court heard the oral arguments of:
For the Marshall Islands: H.E. Mr. Tony deBrum,
Mr. Phon van den Biesen,
Mr. Nicholas Grief,
Mr. Luigi Condorelli,
Ms Laurie B. Ashton,
Mr. Roger S. Clark,
Mr. Paolo Palchetti,
Mr. John Burroughs.
*
11. In the Application, the following claims were made by the Marshall
Islands:
“On the basis of the foregoing statement of facts and law, the Republic
of the Marshall Islands requests the Court
to adjudge and declare
(a) that Pakistan has violated and continues to violate its international
obligations under customary international law, by failing to pursue in
good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear
disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 557
9
mément à cette même disposition, a décidé de ne pas faire droit à cette demande.
Par lettres en date du 13 juillet 2015, le greffier a dûment informé le Gouvernement
du Royaume‑Uni et les Parties de cette décision.
Par lettre en date du 26 novembre 2015, le Gouvernement de la République
de l’Inde, invoquant le paragraphe 1 de l’article 53 du Règlement, a demandé
à recevoir copie des pièces de procédure et documents annexés produits en
l’espèce.
La Cour, après avoir consulté les Parties conformément à cette même
disposition, a décidé de ne pas faire droit à cette demande. Par lettres en date
du 26 février 2016, le greffier a dûment informé le Gouvernement de l’Inde et
les Parties de cette décision.
7. Par note verbale en date du 2 juillet 2015, le Pakistan a sollicité une prorogation
de six mois du délai fixé pour le dépôt de son contre‑mémoire. Par lettre
en date du 8 juillet 2015, les Iles Marshall ont indiqué qu’elles pouvaient consentir
à une extension du délai de trois mois. Par ordonnance en date du 9 juillet
2015, le président de la Cour a reporté au 1er décembre 2015 la date d’expiration
du délai pour le dépôt du contre‑mémoire du Pakistan. Cette pièce a été
dûment déposée dans le délai ainsi prorogé.
8. Par lettre en date du 2 mars 2016, le Pakistan a informé la Cour qu’il ne
prendrait pas part à la procédure orale sur la compétence et la recevabilité,
notamment parce qu’il « estim[ait] que sa participation à la procédure orale
n’apporterait aucun … élément » nouveau par rapport à son contre‑mémoire.
9. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 de son Règlement, la Cour
a décidé, après avoir consulté les Parties, que des exemplaires des pièces de procédure
et des documents annexés seraient rendus accessibles au public à l’ouverture
de la procédure orale.
10. Une audience publique sur les questions de la compétence de la Cour et
de la recevabilité de la requête s’est tenue le mardi 8 mars 2016, au cours de
laquelle ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries :
Pour les Iles Marshall : S. Exc. M. Tony deBrum,
M. Phon van den Biesen,
M. Nicholas Grief,
M. Luigi Condorelli,
Mme Laurie B. Ashton,
M. Roger S. Clark,
M. Paolo Palchetti,
M. John Burroughs.
*
11. Dans la requête, les demandes ci‑après ont été formulées par les
Iles Marshall :
« Sur la base de l’exposé des faits et des moyens juridiques qui précède,
la République des Iles Marshall prie la Cour
de dire et juger
a) que le Pakistan a manqué et continue de manquer aux obligations internationales
qui lui incombent au regard du droit international coutumier
en s’abstenant de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations
conduisant à un désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects
558 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
10
control, in particular by engaging a course of conduct, the quantitative
buildup and qualitative improvement of its nuclear forces, contrary to
the objective of nuclear disarmament;
(b) that Pakistan has violated and continues to violate its international
obligations under customary international law with respect to cessation
of the nuclear arms race at an early date, by taking actions to quantitatively
build up its nuclear forces, to qualitatively improve them, and
to maintain them for the indefinite future, and by blocking negotiations
on a Fissile Materials Cut‑off Treaty;
(c) that Pakistan has failed and continues to fail to perform in good faith
its obligations under customary international law by taking actions to
quantitatively build up its nuclear forces, to qualitatively improve them,
and to maintain them for the indefinite future, and by blocking negotiations
on a Fissile Materials Cut‑off Treaty; and
(d) that Pakistan has failed and continues to fail to perform in good faith
its obligations under customary international law by effectively preventing
the great majority of non‑nuclear‑weapon States from fulfilling
their part of the obligations under customary international law and
Article VI of the NPT with respect to nuclear disarmament and cessation
of the nuclear arms race at an early date.
In addition, the Republic of the Marshall Islands requests the Court
to order
Pakistan to take all steps necessary to comply with its obligations under
customary international law with respect to cessation of the nuclear arms
race at an early date and nuclear disarmament within one year of the Judgment,
including the pursuit, by initiation if necessary, of negotiations in
good faith aimed at the conclusion of a convention on nuclear disarmament
in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.”
12. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by
the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of the Marshall Islands,
in the Memorial on the questions of the jurisdiction of the Court and the admissibility
of the Application:
“In accordance with the Order of the Court of 10 July 2014, this Memorial
is restricted to questions of jurisdiction and admissibility raised by Pakistan.
As for the merits of the case, the Applicant maintains its Submissions,
including the Remedies requested, as set out in the Application of 24 April
2014. For further stages of the procedure the Applicant reserves its right to
clarify, modify and/or amend these Submissions.
On the basis of the foregoing statements of facts and law, the Republic
of the Marshall Islands requests the Court to adjudge and declare that it
has jurisdiction with respect to the present case and that the Application is
admissible.”
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 558
10
effectué sous un contrôle international strict et efficace, en particulier en
adoptant une ligne de conduite qui, en visant à accroître et à améliorer
ses forces nucléaires, est contraire à l’objectif du désarmement nucléaire ;
b) que le Pakistan a manqué et continue de manquer aux obligations internationales
relatives à la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires
à une date rapprochée qui lui incombent au regard du droit international
coutumier, et ce, en prenant des mesures visant à accroître, améliorer
et conserver pour une durée illimitée ses forces nucléaires, ainsi qu’en
bloquant les négociations relatives à un traité sur l’arrêt de la production
de matières fissiles ;
c) que le Pakistan a manqué de s’acquitter et continue de ne pas s’acquitter
de bonne foi des obligations qui lui incombent au regard du droit
international coutumier en prenant des mesures visant à accroître, améliorer
et conserver pour une durée illimitée ses forces nucléaires, ainsi
qu’en bloquant les négociations relatives à un traité sur l’arrêt de la
production de matières fissiles ;
d) que le Pakistan a manqué de s’acquitter et continue de ne pas s’acquitter
de bonne foi des obligations qui lui incombent au regard du droit
international coutumier en empêchant de fait la grande majorité des
Etats non dotés d’armes nucléaires de respecter leur part des obligations
qu’imposent le droit international coutumier et l’article VI du TNP en
ce qui concerne le désarmement nucléaire et la cessation de la course
aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée.
En outre, la République des Iles Marshall prie la Cour
d’ordonner
au Pakistan de prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires pour se conformer,
dans un délai d’un an à compter du prononcé de l’arrêt, aux obligations
que lui impose le droit international coutumier en ce qui concerne la cessation
de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et le
désarmement nucléaire, parmi lesquelles celle de mener des négociations de
bonne foi, si nécessaire en engageant celles‑ci, en vue de conclure une
convention relative à un désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects effectué
sous un contrôle international strict et efficace. »
12. Dans les pièces de procédure, les conclusions ci‑après ont été présentées
par les Parties :
Au nom du Gouvernement des Iles Marshall,
dans le mémoire portant sur les questions de la compétence de la Cour et de la
recevabilité de la requête :
« Conformément à l’ordonnance rendue par la Cour le 10 juillet 2014,
le présent mémoire est limité aux questions de compétence et de recevabilité
soulevées par le Pakistan. En ce qui concerne le fond de l’affaire,
le demandeur maintient ses conclusions, y compris la décision sollicitée,
telles qu’exposées dans la requête en date du 24 avril 2014. Il se réserve
le droit de préciser ou modifier ces conclusions à un stade ultérieur de la
procédure.
Sur la base de l’exposé des faits et des moyens juridiques qui précède,
la République des Iles Marshall prie la Cour de dire et juger qu’elle a
compétence
pour connaître de la présente affaire et que la requête est
recevable.
»
559 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
11
On behalf of the Government of Pakistan,
in the Counter‑Memorial on the questions of the jurisdiction of the Court and
the admissibility of the Application:
“The Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan respectfully submits
that the Court should adjudge and declare, for each and all of the
foregoing reasons, that the claims set forth in the [Marshall Islands’] Application
of 24 April 2014 (1) are not within the jurisdiction of the Court and
(2) are inadmissible.”
13. In the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the
Government of the Marshall Islands at the hearing of 8 March 2016:
“The Marshall Islands respectfully requests the Court:
(a) to reject the objections to its jurisdiction and to the admissibility of the
Marshall Islands’ claims, as submitted by Pakistan in its Counter‑Memorial
of 1 December 2015;
(b) to adjudge and declare that the Court has jurisdiction over the claims of
the Marshall Islands submitted in its Application of 24 April 2014; and
(c) to adjudge and declare that the Marshall Islands’ claims are admissible.”
* * *
I. Introduction
A. Historical Background
14. Since the creation of the United Nations, and in line with its Purposes
under Article 1 of the Charter, the issue of disarmament has been
central to the Organization’s concerns. In this regard, the Charter gives
three separate bodies a role in international disarmament efforts: the
General Assembly (Art. 11, para. 1), the Security Council (Art. 26) and
the Military Staff Committee (Art. 47, para. 1). The General Assembly
has been active in the field of international disarmament generally and
nuclear disarmament in particular. With respect to international disarmament
generally, the General Assembly created the first United Nations
Disarmament Commission under the Security Council in 1952 (resolution
502 (VI) of 11 January 1952). In 1978, it held a Special Session on
disarmament, at which it established the current United Nations disarmament
mechanisms consisting of: the First Committee of the General
Assembly, the mandate of which was redefined to deal exclusively with
questions of disarmament and related international security questions; a
new Disarmament Commission as a subsidiary organ of the General
Assembly, composed of all Member States of the United Nations (replacing
the United Nations Disarmament Commission created in 1952); and
a Committee on Disarmament devoted to negotiations (resolution S‑10/2
of 30 June 1978, paras. 117, 118 and 120). The latter was redesignated the
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 559
11
Au nom du Gouvernement du Pakistan,
dans le contre‑mémoire portant sur les questions de la compétence de la Cour et
de la recevabilité de la requête :
« Le Gouvernement de la République islamique du Pakistan prie la Cour
de dire et juger, par les motifs qui précèdent, tant séparés que conjoints,
que les demandes formulées dans la requête de la République des
Iles Marshall du 24 avril 2014 : 1) ne relèvent pas de la compétence de la
Cour ; 2) sont irrecevables. »
13. Dans la procédure orale, les conclusions ci‑après ont été présentées par le
Gouvernement des Iles Marshall à l’audience du 8 mars 2016 :
« Les Iles Marshall prient la Cour :
a) de rejeter les exceptions à sa compétence et à la recevabilité des demandes
des Iles Marshall, soulevées par le Pakistan dans son contre‑mémoire
du 1er décembre 2015 ;
b) de dire et juger que la Cour a compétence pour connaître des demandes
présentées par les Iles Marshall dans leur requête du 24 avril 2014 ; et
c) de dire et juger que les demandes des Iles Marshall sont recevables. »
* * *
I. Introduction
A. Contexte historique
14. Depuis sa création, et conformément à ses buts énoncés à l’article 1
de la Charte, l’Organisation des Nations Unies a toujours placé la question
du désarmement au coeur de ses préoccupations. A cet égard, la
Charte assigne à trois organes distincts un rôle en matière de désarmement
à l’échelle internationale : l’Assemblée générale (paragraphe 1 de
l’article 11), le Conseil de sécurité (art. 26) et le Comité d’état‑major
(paragraphe 1 de l’article 47). L’Assemblée générale a été active dans les
domaines du désarmement international en général et du désarmement
nucléaire en particulier. S’agissant du désarmement international en général,
elle a créé en 1952 la première commission du désarmement de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies, placée sous l’autorité du Conseil de sécurité
(résolution 502 VI) du 11 janvier 1952). En 1978, elle a tenu une session
extraordinaire consacrée au désarmement, au cours de laquelle elle a mis
en place les mécanismes de désarmement actuels de l’ONU, qui
regroupent : la Première Commission de l’Assemblée générale, dont le
mandat a été redéfini pour porter exclusivement sur les questions relatives
au désarmement et les questions de sécurité internationale y afférentes ;
une nouvelle commission du désarmement (remplaçant la commission du
désarmement de l’Organisation des Nations Unies créée en 1952), établie
en tant qu’organe subsidiaire de l’Assemblée générale et composée de
560 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
12
Conference on Disarmament with effect from 1984 (General Assembly
resolution 37/99 K, Part II, of 13 December 1982; Report of the Committee
on Disarmament to the United Nations General Assembly, 1 September
1983, doc. CD/421, para. 21) and now consists of 65 members.
With respect to nuclear disarmament efforts in particular, it may be
recalled that, in its very first resolution, unanimously adopted on 24 January
1946, the General Assembly established a Commission to deal with
“the problems raised by the discovery of atomic energy” (resolution 1 (I)
of 24 January 1946; this Commission was dissolved in 1952 when the first
United Nations Disarmament Commission, mentioned above, was established).
As early as 1954, the General Assembly also called for a convention
on nuclear disarmament (resolution 808 (IX) A of 4 November 1954)
and has repeated this call in many subsequent resolutions. In addition,
the mechanisms set out above, created by the General Assembly in view
of general international disarmament efforts, have also dealt specifically
with questions of nuclear disarmament.
15. By resolution 21 of 2 April 1947, the United Nations Security
Council placed a group of Pacific Islands, including those making up
the present‑day Marshall Islands, under the trusteeship system established
by the United Nations Charter, and designated the United States of
America as the Administering Authority. From 1946 to 1958, while
under this trusteeship, the Marshall Islands was the location of repeated
nuclear weapons testing. By resolution 683 of 22 December 1990, the
Security Council terminated the Trusteeship Agreement concerning the
Marshall Islands. By General Assembly resolution 46/3 of 17 September
1991, the Marshall Islands was admitted to membership in the
United Nations.
16. The Respondent gained independence on 14 August 1947. By General
Assembly resolution 108 (II) of 30 September 1947, Pakistan was
admitted to membership in the United Nations. Pakistan conducted at
least two nuclear tests on 28 and 30 May 1998, and is known to possess
nuclear weapons.
17. Following extensive negotiations in the 1960s, in which both
nuclear‑weapon States and non‑nuclear‑weapon States participated, the
Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (hereinafter “NPT”)
was opened for signature on 1 July 1968. It entered into force on 5 March
1970 and was extended indefinitely in 1995. Review conferences have been
held every five years since its entry into force, pursuant to Article VIII,
paragraph 3, of the NPT. One hundred and ninety‑one States have
become parties to the NPT; on 10 January 2003, the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea announced its withdrawal. The Marshall Islands
acceded to the NPT on 30 January 1995; Pakistan has not become a party
to it.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 560
12
l’ensemble des Etats Membres de l’Organisation ; et un comité du désarmement,
organe de négociation (résolution S‑10/2 du 30 juin 1978,
par. 117, 118 et 120) qui allait devenir, à partir de 1984 (résolution 37/99 K
de l’Assemblée générale du 13 décembre 1982, partie II ; rapport du
comité du désarmement à l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies,
1er septembre 1983, doc. CD/421, par. 21), la conférence sur le désarmement
et qui compte à présent soixante-cinq membres.
En ce qui concerne plus particulièrement le désarmement nucléaire, il y
a lieu de rappeler que, dans sa toute première résolution, adoptée à l’unanimité
le 24 janvier 1946, l’Assemblée générale a instauré une commission
chargée d’étudier « les problèmes soulevés par la découverte de l’énergie
atomique » (résolution 1 I) du 24 janvier 1946 ; cette commission a été dissoute
en 1952, lorsque la première commission du désarmement mentionnée
ci‑dessus a été établie). Dès 1954, l’Assemblée générale a par ailleurs
lancé un appel en faveur d’une convention sur le désarmement nucléaire
(résolution 808 IX) A du 4 novembre 1954), appel qu’elle a réitéré dans
nombre de résolutions ultérieures. En outre, les entités mentionnées
ci‑dessus, créées par l’Assemblée générale pour oeuvrer en faveur du
désarmement international en général, ont aussi traité plus spécifiquement
de la question du désarmement nucléaire.
15. Par sa résolution 21 du 2 avril 1947, le Conseil de sécurité de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies a placé un groupe d’îles de l’océan Pacifique,
dont celles qui constituent aujourd’hui les Iles Marshall, sous le
régime de tutelle instauré dans la Charte des Nations Unies, et désigné les
Etats‑Unis d’Amérique comme autorité chargée de l’administration.
Entre 1946 et 1958, alors qu’elles relevaient de ce régime, les Iles Marshall
ont été à maintes reprises le théâtre d’essais nucléaires. Par sa résolution
683 du 22 décembre 1990, le Conseil de sécurité a mis fin à l’accord
de tutelle sur les Iles Marshall. Par la résolution 46/3 de l’Assemblée générale
en date du 17 septembre 1991, celles‑ci ont été admises en tant que
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies.
16. Le défendeur a accédé à l’indépendance le 14 août 1947. Par la
résolution de l’Assemblée générale 108 (II) du 30 septembre 1947, il est
devenu Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. Le Pakistan a effectué
au moins deux essais nucléaires les 28 et 30 mai 1998, et il est notoire
qu’il détient des armes nucléaires.
17. A la suite de longues négociations menées dans les années 1960,
auxquelles ont participé aussi bien des puissances nucléaires que des Etats
non dotés d’armes nucléaires, le traité sur la non‑prolifération des armes
nucléaires (ci‑après le « TNP ») a été ouvert à la signature le 1er juillet
1968. Il est entré en vigueur le 5 mars 1970 et a été prorogé pour une
durée indéfinie en 1995. Depuis son entrée en vigueur, des conférences
d’examen se sont tenues tous les cinq ans, en application du paragraphe 3
de son article VIII. Cent quatre‑vingt‑onze Etats sont devenus parties au
TNP ; le 10 janvier 2003, la République populaire démocratique de Corée
a annoncé qu’elle s’en retirait. Les Iles Marshall ont adhéré au TNP le
30 janvier 1995 ; le Pakistan, quant à lui, n’y est pas devenu partie.
561 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
13
18. The NPT seeks to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons and
provides certain rights and obligations for parties designated as
“nuclear‑weapon State Part[ies]” and “non‑nuclear‑weapon State
Part[ies]” (including, inter alia, the right of all States to develop and use
nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, the obligation of nuclear‑weapon
States parties not to transfer nuclear weapons to any recipient, and the
obligation of non‑nuclear‑weapon States parties not to receive such a
transfer). The preamble to the NPT also declares the intention of the parties
“to achieve at the earliest possible date the cessation of the nuclear
arms race and to undertake effective measures in the direction of nuclear
disarmament”. In this connection, Article VI of the NPT provides:
“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations
in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the
nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and
on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and
effective international control.”
For the purposes of the NPT, a “nuclear‑weapon State is one which has
manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive
device prior to 1 January 1967” (Article IX.3). There are five
nuclear‑weapon States under the NPT: China, France, the Russian Federation,
the United Kingdom and the United States of America. In addition
to Pakistan — which, as noted above (see paragraph 17), is not party
to the NPT — certain other States possess, or are believed to possess,
nuclear weapons.
19. By resolution 49/75 K of 15 December 1994, the General Assembly
requested the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion
on whether the threat or use of nuclear weapons is permitted in any circumstance
under international law. In the reasoning of its Advisory
Opinion of 8 July 1996, the Court appreciated “the full importance of the
recognition by Article VI of the [NPT] of an obligation to negotiate in
good faith a nuclear disarmament” (Legality of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 263,
para. 99). It added that this obligation went “beyond . . . a mere obligation
of conduct” and was an “obligation to achieve a precise result —
nuclear disarmament in all its aspects — by adopting a particular course
of conduct, namely, the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good
faith” (ibid., p. 264, para. 99). The Court stated that “[t]his twofold obligation
to pursue and to conclude negotiations formally concerns [all]
States parties to the [NPT], or, in other words, the vast majority of the
international community”, adding that “any realistic search for general
and complete disarmament, especially nuclear disarmament, necessitates
the co‑operation of all States” (ibid., para. 100). In the conclusions of the
Advisory Opinion, the Court unanimously declared that “[t]here exists an
obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 561
13
18. Le TNP vise à limiter la prolifération des armes nucléaires et prévoit
certains droits et obligations pour les parties, qui y sont désignées
comme « Etat[s] doté[s] d’armes nucléaires qui [sont] Partie[s] au Traité »
ou « Etat[s] non doté[s] d’armes nucléaires qui [sont] Partie[s] au Traité »
(notamment le droit qu’ont tous les Etats de produire et d’utiliser de
l’énergie nucléaire à des fins pacifiques, l’obligation qui incombe aux
Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires qui sont parties au traité de s’abstenir de
transférer des armes nucléaires à qui que ce soit, et l’obligation imposée
aux Etats non dotés d’armes nucléaires qui sont parties au traité de ne pas
accepter pareil transfert). Son préambule fait en outre état de l’intention
des parties « de parvenir au plus tôt à la cessation de la course aux armements
nucléaires et de prendre des mesures efficaces dans la voie du désarmement
nucléaire ». A cet égard, l’article VI du TNP prévoit ce qui suit :
« Chacune des Parties au Traité s’engage à poursuivre de bonne foi
des négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de
la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et au
désarmement nucléaire, et sur un traité de désarmement général et
complet sous un contrôle international strict et efficace. »
Aux fins du TNP, un « Etat doté d’armes nucléaires est un Etat qui a
fabriqué et a fait exploser une arme nucléaire ou un autre dispositif
nucléaire explosif avant le 1er janvier 1967 » (paragraphe 3 de l’article IX).
Les Etats ainsi visés sont au nombre de cinq : la Chine, les Etats‑Unis
d’Amérique, la Fédération de Russie, la France et le Royaume‑Uni. Outre
le Pakistan — qui, ainsi qu’indiqué plus haut (voir paragraphe 17), n’est
pas partie au TNP —, certains autres Etats détiennent ou détiendraient
des armes nucléaires.
19. Par sa résolution 49/75 K du 15 décembre 1994, l’Assemblée générale
a demandé à la Cour internationale de Justice de donner un avis
consultatif sur la question de savoir s’il est permis en droit international de
recourir à la menace ou à l’emploi d’armes nucléaires en toute circonstance.
Dans l’exposé des motifs de son avis en date du 8 juillet 1996, la
Cour a mesuré « toute l’importance de la consécration par l’article VI du
[TNP] d’une obligation de négocier de bonne foi un désarmement
nucléaire » (Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires,
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 263, par. 99). Elle a ajouté que
cette obligation « dépass[ait] … une simple obligation de comportement »
et consistait à « parvenir à un résultat précis — le désarmement nucléaire
dans tous ses aspects — par l’adoption d’un comportement déterminé, à
savoir la poursuite de bonne foi de négociations en la matière » (ibid.,
p. 264, par. 99). La Cour a par ailleurs précisé que « [c]ette double obligation
de négocier et de conclure concern[ait] formellement [tous] les … Etats
parties au [TNP], c’est‑à‑dire la très grande majorité de la communauté
internationale », et que « toute recherche réaliste d’un désarmement général
et complet, en particulier nucléaire, nécessit[ait] la coopération de tous
les Etats » (ibid., par. 100). Dans la partie finale de son avis consultatif, la
Cour a déclaré à l’unanimité qu’« [i]l exist[ait] une obligation de poursuivre
562 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
14
leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective
international control” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 267, para. 105 (2) F).
20. In its resolution 51/45 M of 10 December 1996, the General Assembly
“[u]nderline[d] the unanimous conclusion of the Court that there
exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict
and effective international control” and
“[c]all[ed] upon all States to fulfil that obligation immediately by commencing
multilateral negotiations in 1997 leading to an early conclusion
of a nuclear‑weapons convention prohibiting the development,
production, testing, deployment, stockpiling, transfer, threat or use
of nuclear weapons and providing for their elimination”.
The General Assembly has passed a similar resolution on the follow‑up to
the Court’s Advisory Opinion every year since then. It has also passed
numerous other resolutions encouraging nuclear disarmament.
B. Proceedings Brought before the Court
21. On 24 April 2014, the Marshall Islands filed, in addition to the present
Application (see paragraph 1 above), separate applications against the
eight other States which, according to the Marshall Islands, possess
nuclear weapons (China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,
France, India, Israel, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America),
also alleging a failure to fulfil obligations concerning negotiations relating
to the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear
disarmament. The cases against India, Pakistan and the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland were entered in the Court’s General
List, as the Applicant had invoked these States’ declarations recognizing
the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court (pursuant to Article 36, paragraph
2, of the Statute of the Court) as a basis for jurisdiction. In the
applications against China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,
France, Israel, the Russian Federation and the United States of America,
the Marshall Islands invited these States to accept the jurisdiction of the
Court, as contemplated in Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court,
for the purposes of the case. None of these States has done so. Accordingly,
these applications were not entered in the Court’s General List.
22. In its Note Verbale dated 9 July 2014 (see paragraph 4 above) and
in its Counter‑Memorial, Pakistan raised several objections to the Court’s
jurisdiction or the admissibility of the Application. In particular, it argues
that:
— the Marshall Islands has failed to show that there was, at the time of
the filing of the Application, a legal dispute between the Parties with
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 562
14
de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement
nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict
et efficace » (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 267, par. 105, point 2) F).
20. Dans sa résolution 51/45 M du 10 décembre 1996, l’Assemblée
générale a « [s]oulign[é] la conclusion unanime de la Cour, selon laquelle
il existe une obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des
négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects,
sous un contrôle international strict et efficace », et
« [d]emand[é] instamment à tous les Etats d’exécuter immédiatement
cette obligation en engageant des négociations multilatérales en 1997
en vue de parvenir à la conclusion rapide d’une convention sur les
armes nucléaires interdisant la mise au point, la fabrication, l’essai, le
déploiement, le stockage, le transfert, la menace ou l’emploi de ces
armes et prévoyant leur élimination ».
Depuis, l’Assemblée générale adopte chaque année une résolution analogue
sur la suite donnée à l’avis consultatif de la Cour. Elle a également adopté
nombre d’autres résolutions encourageant le désarmement nucléaire.
B. Instances introduites devant la Cour
21. Le 24 avril 2014, les Iles Marshall ont déposé, outre la requête introductive
de la présente instance (voir le paragraphe 1 ci‑dessus), des requêtes
distinctes contre les huit autres Etats qui, selon elles, possèdent des armes
nucléaires (la Chine, les Etats‑Unis d’Amérique, la Fédération de Russie, la
France, l’Inde, Israël, la République populaire démocratique de Corée et le
Royaume‑Uni de Grande‑Bretagne et d’Irlande du Nord), et auxquels elles
reprochent également d’avoir manqué à leurs obligations relatives aux négociations
concernant la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une
date rapprochée et le désarmement nucléaire. Les affaires contre l’Inde, le
Pakistan et le Royaume‑Uni de Grande‑Bretagne et d’Irlande du Nord ont
été inscrites au rôle général de la Cour, le demandeur ayant invoqué, comme
base de compétence, les déclarations par lesquelles ces Etats ont reconnu la
juridiction obligatoire de la Cour (en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36
du Statut). Dans les requêtes qu’elles ont présentées contre la Chine, les
Etats‑Unis d’Amérique, la Fédération de Russie, la France, Israël et la
République populaire démocratique de Corée, les Iles Marshall ont invité
ces Etats à accepter la compétence de la Cour aux fins de l’affaire, ainsi qu’il
est envisagé au paragraphe 5 de l’article 38 du Règlement. Aucun ne l’ayant
fait, lesdites requêtes n’ont pas été inscrites au rôle général de la Cour.
22. Dans sa note verbale en date du 9 juillet 2014 (voir le paragraphe 4
ci‑dessus) et dans son contre‑mémoire, le Pakistan a soulevé plusieurs
exceptions à la compétence de la Cour ou à la recevabilité de la requête.
Il soutient plus particulièrement que :
— les Iles Marshall n’ont pas établi qu’il existait, au moment du dépôt de
la requête, un différend d’ordre juridique entre les Parties concernant
563 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
15
respect to an alleged failure to pursue negotiations in good faith
towards the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and
nuclear disarmament;
— the Court’s jurisdiction is precluded by a number of reservations
in the Parties’ declarations under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute;
— the Court is prevented from exercising its jurisdiction in this case, on
account of the absence from the proceedings of “indispensable parties”,
in particular the other States possessing nuclear weapons;
— the Marshall Islands does not have standing to bring the claims formulated
in the Application; and
— the Application is inadmissible for other reasons, for instance because
a judgment on the merits in the present case would be devoid of any
practical legal effect.
23. In its Memorial and its final submissions presented during the oral
proceedings, the Marshall Islands requested the Court to reject the objections
of Pakistan in their entirety and to find that it has jurisdiction and
that the Application is admissible (see paragraphs 12 and 13 above).
24. The Court will first consider the objection based on the absence of
a dispute.
* * *
II. The Objection Based on the Absence of a Dispute
25. The Marshall Islands claims there exists a legal dispute between
itself and Pakistan concerning the latter’s failure to comply with what the
Applicant maintains is a customary law obligation to pursue in good
faith, and to bring to a conclusion, negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament
in all its aspects under strict and effective international control,
as well as a customary law obligation concerning the cessation of the
nuclear arms race at an early date.
26. The Marshall Islands contends that the Parties’ statements and
conduct before and after the filing of the Application demonstrate the
existence of such a dispute. It recalls that, prior to seising the Court on
24 April 2014, it had called on nuclear‑weapon States to abide by their
obligation to negotiate towards nuclear disarmament. The Marshall
Islands refers in particular to two statements. The first one was made
on 26 September 2013 at the High‑Level Meeting of the General Assembly
on Nuclear Disarmament, when its Minister for Foreign Affairs
“urge[d] all nuclear weapons states to intensify efforts to address their
responsibilities in moving towards an effective and secure disarmament”.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 563
15
le fait qu’il n’aurait pas poursuivi de bonne foi des négociations en
vue d’aboutir à la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à
une date rapprochée et au désarmement nucléaire ;
— un certain nombre de réserves dont les Parties ont assorti les déclarations
qu’elles ont faites en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du
Statut font obstacle à la compétence de la Cour ;
— l’absence à l’instance de « parties indispensables », en particulier les
autres Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires, empêche la Cour d’exercer sa
compétence en l’espèce ;
— les Iles Marshall n’ont pas qualité pour présenter les demandes énoncées
dans la requête ; et que
— la requête est irrecevable pour d’autres raisons, notamment parce
qu’un arrêt sur le fond en la présente affaire n’aurait aucun effet
juridique concret.
23. Dans leur mémoire et les conclusions finales qu’elles ont présentées
à l’audience, les Iles Marshall ont prié la Cour de rejeter l’ensemble des
exceptions soulevées par le Pakistan, de se déclarer compétente pour
connaître de la présente affaire et de conclure à la recevabilité de la
requête (voir paragraphes 12 et 13 ci‑dessus).
24. La Cour examinera tout d’abord l’exception fondée sur l’absence
de différend.
* * *
II. L’exception fondée sur l’absence de différend
25. Les Iles Marshall allèguent qu’il existe un différend d’ordre juridique
entre elles et le Pakistan quant au non-respect
par celui‑ci de ce
qu’elles affirment être une obligation de droit coutumier de poursuivre de
bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement
nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict
et efficace, ainsi que d’une obligation concernant la cessation de la course
aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée qui lui incomberait de
même en vertu du droit coutumier.
26. Les Iles Marshall font valoir que les déclarations et le comportement
des Parties avant et après le dépôt de la requête démontrent l’existence
de ce différend. Elles soulignent ainsi que, avant de saisir la Cour le
24 avril 2014, elles avaient exhorté les Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires à
respecter leur obligation de négocier en vue du désarmement nucléaire. A
cet égard, elles se réfèrent notamment à deux déclarations. La première a
été faite le 26 septembre 2013 lors de la réunion de haut niveau de
l’
Assemblée
générale sur le désarmement nucléaire par leur ministre
des affaires étrangères, qui a « appel[é] instamment tous les Etats
dotés d’armes nucléaires à intensifier leurs efforts pour assumer leurs res-
564 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
16
The second one was made by its representative at Nayarit, Mexico, on
13 February 2014, in the context of the Second Conference on the
Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons. This second statement, which
the Marshall Islands regards as clearly demonstrating the content of its
claim against all States possessing nuclear arsenals, reads as follows:
“[T]he Marshall Islands is convinced that multilateral negotiations
on achieving and sustaining a world free of nuclear weapons are long
overdue. Indeed we believe that States possessing nuclear arsenals are
failing to fulfil their legal obligations in this regard. Immediate commencement
and conclusion of such negotiations is required by legal
obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each and every State
under Article VI of the Non‑Proliferation Treaty and customary
international law.”
The Marshall Islands maintains that, by this public statement, made in
the context of an international conference in the presence of Pakistan, the
latter “was made aware that the [Marshall Islands] believed that its failure
to seriously engage in multilateral negotiations amounted to a breach of
its international obligations under customary international law”. In its
view, this statement, as well as the overall position it has taken on the
issue of nuclear disarmament in recent years, is clear evidence that
the Marshall Islands had raised a dispute “with each and every one of the
States possessing nuclear weapons, including with Pakistan”.
27. The Marshall Islands adds that Pakistan has explicitly disputed the
claim that it was under any international obligation regarding nuclear
disarmament in the current proceedings. It argues that, by expressing its
opposition to the Marshall Islands before the Court, Pakistan has confirmed
the existence of a legal dispute between the Parties. In this connection,
the Marshall Islands avers that, according to the Court’s established
case law, while the “dispute must in principle exist at the time the Application
is submitted”, it may also be evidenced by the positions of the
parties before the Court (e.g., Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19,
para. 25; Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria
(Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1998, p. 317, para. 93; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II),
pp. 614‑615, para. 29). It also suggests that the Court’s use of the phrase
“in principle” leaves open the possibility that a legal dispute could even
come into being after a party seises the Court. Nevertheless, the Marshall
Islands considers that, at the moment of the filing of the Application
in the present case, a legal dispute already existed.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 564
16
ponsabilités en vue d’un désarmement effectif réalisé en toute sécurité ».
La seconde a été faite par leur représentant, le 13 février 2014, dans
le cadre de la deuxième conférence sur l’impact humanitaire des
armes nucléaires, tenue à Nayarit, au Mexique. Cette dernière déclaration,
qui, selon le demandeur, indique clairement la teneur de sa réclamation
contre l’ensemble des Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires, se lit comme
suit :
« [L]es Iles Marshall sont convaincues que des négociations multilatérales
visant à créer et à maintenir un monde dépourvu d’armes
nucléaires auraient dû être engagées depuis longtemps. Nous estimons
en effet que les Etats possédant un arsenal nucléaire ne respectent
pas leurs obligations à cet égard. L’obligation d’oeuvrer au
désarmement nucléaire qui incombe à chaque Etat en vertu de l’article
VI du traité de non‑prolifération nucléaire et du droit international
coutumier impose l’ouverture immédiate de telles négociations
et leur aboutissement. »
Le demandeur affirme que, par cette déclaration publique, faite dans le
cadre d’une conférence internationale à laquelle le Pakistan participait, ce
dernier « a eu connaissance de ce que la République des Iles Marshall estimait
que, en ne s’engageant pas sérieusement dans des négociations
multilatérales,
il violait ses obligations internationales découlant du droit
international coutumier ». Selon les Iles Marshall, cette déclaration, ainsi
que la position générale qui a été la leur sur la question du désarmement
nucléaire au cours de ces dernières années, établit clairement qu’elles
avaient soulevé un différend avec « chacun des Etats possédant des armes
nucléaires, dont le Pakistan ».
27. Les Iles Marshall ajoutent que le Pakistan a, en la présente instance,
explicitement nié être lié par une quelconque obligation internationale
relative au désarmement nucléaire. Elles estiment que, en exposant ainsi
devant la Cour son désaccord avec le demandeur, le défendeur a confirmé
qu’il existait un différend d’ordre juridique entre les Parties. A cet égard,
elles font valoir que, d’après la jurisprudence bien établie de la Cour, si,
« [e]n principe, le différend doit exister au moment où la requête est
soumise
», son existence peut aussi être démontrée par les positions que
les parties ont exposées devant la Cour (par exemple, Certains biens
(Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2005, p. 19, par. 25 ; Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et
le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1998, p. 317, par. 93 ; Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614‑615,
par. 29). Le demandeur avance également que la Cour, en employant l’expression
« en principe », laisse subsister la possibilité qu’un différend
d’ordre juridique puisse même se faire jour après qu’une partie l’a saisie.
Il considère néanmoins que, à la date du dépôt de sa requête en l’espèce,
pareil différend existait déjà.
565 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
17
28. The Marshall Islands further contends that Pakistan has opposed
the claims made against it by its conduct. In particular, the Applicant
maintains that, while the Respondent has “frequently” reaffirmed in public
statements its commitment to nuclear disarmament, it has in fact
engaged in a course of conduct consisting of the “quantitative build‑up”
and the “qualitative improvement” of its nuclear arsenal. In its Application,
the Marshall Islands also refers to Pakistan’s alleged blockage of
negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut‑off Treaty.
29. The Marshall Islands rejects the existence of any rule or principle
of international law that requires the exhaustion of negotiations or any
other forms of communication before seising the Court. It adds that
Pakistan
was informed of the claim prior to the filing of the Application
through the public statements of the Marshall Islands’ representatives
(in particular those made at Nayarit in February 2014), as explained
above.
*
30. Pakistan, for its part, considers that there was no legal dispute with
the Marshall Islands at the time the Application was filed. In Pakistan’s
view, the Marshall Islands has failed to set out any claims with sufficient
clarity for Pakistan to have been aware of the existence of a dispute with
the Applicant.
31. In particular, Pakistan contends that the “brief” statements made
by the Marshall Islands on 26 September 2013 and on 13 February 2014
(see paragraph 26 above) were not directed specifically at Pakistan and
did not identify the subject‑matter of any dispute between them. In addition,
Pakistan notes the inconsistency in the positions taken by the Marshall
Islands at the General Assembly in respect of nuclear disarmament:
while Pakistan voted in favour of the resolutions entitled “Follow‑up to
the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice in the Legality
of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons”, the Marshall Islands abstained
from voting on several occasions before 2013.
32. Pakistan also notes the absence of any relevant diplomatic
exchanges between the Parties prior to the seisin of the Court. In its view,
this demonstrates that no positively opposed claims exist in the present
case. Recognizing that the determination of whether a dispute exists is a
matter of substance and not of form, the Respondent nonetheless contends
that in every case in which the Court has found a dispute to exist, it
has been possible for it to point to some prior correspondence, communication
or negotiation between the parties on the issues in dispute. Moreover,
recalling the Court’s decision in the Georgia v. Russia case
(Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30),
Pakistan
claims that the exchanges between the Parties must be sufficiently
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 565
17
28. Les Iles Marshall font valoir en outre que le Pakistan s’est opposé,
par son comportement, aux réclamations formulées à son encontre. Elles
affirment en particulier que, s’il a « fréquemment » renouvelé, dans des
déclarations publiques, son engagement en faveur du désarmement
nucléaire, le défendeur a de fait suivi une ligne de conduite consistant à
« accroître » et à « améliorer » son arsenal nucléaire. Dans sa requête, le
demandeur indique également que le Pakistan ferait obstacle aux négociations
relatives à un traité sur l’arrêt de la production de matières fissiles.
29. Les Iles Marshall contestent l’existence de tout principe ou règle de
droit international exigeant que la voie des négociations ait été épuisée ou
qu’il y ait eu quelque autre forme de communication entre les parties
avant la saisine de la Cour. Elles ajoutent que, quoi qu’il en soit, le Pakistan
avait connaissance de leur réclamation avant que la requête ne soit
déposée, compte tenu des déclarations publiques faites par leurs représentants
(notamment en février 2014 à Nayarit) qui ont été mentionnées
ci‑dessus.
*
30. Le Pakistan soutient pour sa part qu’aucun différend juridique ne
l’opposait aux Iles Marshall au moment du dépôt de la requête. Selon lui,
les Iles Marshall n’ont pas exposé leurs réclamations assez clairement
pour qu’il puisse avoir eu connaissance de l’existence d’un différend avec
le demandeur.
31. En particulier, il allègue que les « brèves » déclarations faites par les
Iles Marshall le 26 septembre 2013 et le 13 février 2014 (voir le paragraphe
26 ci-
dessus)
ne le visaient pas spécifiquement et ne précisaient pas
l’objet d’un différend qui aurait opposé les deux Etats. Le Pakistan relève
en outre une incohérence dans les positions adoptées par les Iles Marshall
à l’Assemblée générale en matière de désarmement nucléaire : alors que
lui‑même votait en faveur des résolutions intitulées « Suite donnée à l’avis
consultatif de la Cour internationale de Justice sur la Licéité de la menace
ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires », le demandeur, pour sa part, s’est abstenu
à plusieurs reprises sur ce texte avant 2013.
32. Le défendeur souligne par ailleurs l’absence d’échanges diplomatiques
pertinents entre les Parties préalablement à la saisine de la Cour ;
selon lui, cela démontre qu’il n’existe pas, en la présente espèce, d’opposition
manifeste entre les prétentions de celles‑ci. Tout en admettant que la
détermination de l’existence d’un différend est une question de fond et
non de forme, le Pakistan affirme que, chaque fois que la Cour a conclu à
l’existence d’un différend, elle a pu se référer à quelque correspondance,
communication ou négociation antérieure entre les parties sur les questions
en litige. De plus, rappelant la décision que la Cour a rendue en
l’affaire Géorgie c. Russie (Application de la convention internationale sur
l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération
de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I),
p. 84, par. 30), il soutient que les échanges entre les Parties doivent être
566 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
18
clear in order for the Respondent to identify the existence of a dispute.
Since no such exchange took place in the present case, a dispute between
the Marshall Islands and Pakistan could not have arisen or “crystallized”
as a consequence of, or after, the Application. Pakistan further criticizes
the Marshall Islands’ reliance on the Court’s Judgment in Cameroon v.
Nigeria, in which the Court affirmed that the existence of a dispute could
be inferred from the conduct of the parties regardless of their professed
views (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria
(Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1998, p. 315, para. 89). According to Pakistan, that Judgment was rendered
in a different context and is not relevant in the present case.
* *
33. Under Article 38 of the Statute, the function of the Court is to
decide in accordance with international law disputes that States submit to
it. Under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Court has jurisdiction
in all “legal disputes” that may arise between States parties to the
Statute having made a declaration in accordance with that provision. The
existence of a dispute between the Parties is thus a condition of the
Court’s jurisdiction.
34. According to the established case law of the Court, a dispute is “a
disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of
interests” between parties (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment
No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11). In order for a dispute to
exist, “[i]t must be shown that the claim of one party is positively opposed
by the other” (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v.
South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962,
p. 328). The two sides must “‘hold clearly opposite views concerning the
question of the performance or non‑performance of certain’ international
obligations” (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces
in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 26, para. 50, citing Interpretation of
Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 74).
35. The Court’s determination of the existence of a dispute is a matter
of substance, and not a question of form or procedure (cf. Application of
the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30; Interpretation of Judgments
Nos. 7 and 8 (Factory at Chorzów) (Germany v. Poland), Judgment
No. 11, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 13, pp. 10‑11). Prior negotiations are
not required where the Court has been seised on the basis of declarations
made pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of its Statute, unless one of the
relevant declarations so provides (Land and Maritime Boundary between
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 566
18
suffisamment clairs pour que le défendeur puisse constater l’existence
d’un différend. Aucun échange de ce type n’ayant eu lieu en l’espèce, un
différend entre les Iles Marshall et le Pakistan ne peut s’être fait jour ou
s’être « cristallisé » par l’effet de la requête, ou postérieurement à son
dépôt. Le défendeur conteste également l’invocation, par les Iles Marshall,
de l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire Cameroun c. Nigéria, dans lequel la Cour a dit
que l’existence d’un différend pouvait être déduite du comportement des
parties, et ce, quelle que soit la position affichée par ces dernières (Frontière
terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun
c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 315,
par. 89). Selon lui, cet arrêt s’inscrivait dans un contexte différent, et il
n’est pas pertinent aux fins de la présente instance.
* *
33. Selon l’article 38 du Statut, la mission de la Cour est de régler
conformément au droit international les différends qui lui sont soumis par
les Etats. Aux termes du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut, la Cour a
compétence à l’égard de tous les « différends d’ordre juridique » qui
peuvent se faire jour entre des Etats parties au Statut ayant fait une déclaration
en vertu de cette même disposition. L’existence d’un différend entre
les Parties est donc une condition à la compétence de la Cour.
34. Conformément à la jurisprudence bien établie de la Cour, un différend
est « un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, une contradiction,
une opposition de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts » entre des parties
(Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A
no 2, p. 11). Pour qu’un différend existe, « [i]l faut démontrer que la réclamation
de l’une des parties se heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre »
(Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du
Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 328). « « [L]es
points de vue des deux parties, quant à l’exécution ou à la non-exécution
»
de certaines obligations internationales, « [doivent être] nettement opposés
». » (Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes
dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 26, par. 50, citant Interprétation
des traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie,
première phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 74.)
35. La détermination par la Cour de l’existence d’un différend est une
question de fond, et non de forme ou de procédure (cf. Application de la
convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84, par. 30 ; Interprétation des arrêts nos 7
et 8 (usine de Chorzów) (Allemagne c. Pologne), arrêt no 11, 1927, C.P.J.I.
série A no 13, p. 10‑11). Lorsque la Cour est saisie sur la base de déclarations
faites en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 de son Statut, la tenue
de négociations préalables n’est pas requise, à moins que l’une des déclarations
pertinentes n’en dispose autrement (Frontière terrestre et maritime
567 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
19
Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 322, para. 109). Moreover, “although a
formal diplomatic protest may be an important step to bring a claim of
one party to the attention of the other, such a formal protest is not a
necessary condition” for the existence of a dispute (Alleged Violations of
Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v.
Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I),
p. 32, para. 72). Similarly, notice of an intention to file a case is not
required as a condition for the seisin of the Court (Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 297, para. 39).
36. Whether a dispute exists is a matter for objective determination by
the Court which must turn on an examination of the facts (Alleged Violations
of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua
v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2016 (I), p. 26, para. 50). For that purpose, the Court takes into account
in particular any statements or documents exchanged between the parties
(Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v.
Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 443‑445, paras. 50‑55),
as well as any exchanges made in multilateral settings (Application of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 94, para. 51; p. 95, para. 53). In so
doing, it pays special attention to “the author of the statement or document,
their intended or actual addressee, and their content” (ibid., p. 100,
para. 63).
37. The conduct of the parties may also be relevant, especially when
there have been no diplomatic exchanges (Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 32-33,
paras. 71 and 73). As the Court has affirmed,
“a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or
interests, or the positive opposition of the claim of one party by the
other need not necessarily be stated expressis verbis . . . [T]he position
or the attitude of a party can be established by inference, whatever
the professed view of that party.” (Land and Maritime Boundary
between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315, para. 89.)
In particular, the Court has previously held that “the existence of a dispute
may be inferred from the failure of a State to respond to a claim in
circumstances where a response is called for” (Application of the International
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30, citing Land and Maritime Bound‑
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 567
19
entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 322, par. 109). Par ailleurs, « si la protestation
diplomatique officielle peut constituer un moyen important pour
une partie de porter à l’attention de l’autre une prétention, pareille protestation
… n’est pas une condition nécessaire » à l’existence d’un différend
(Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans
la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 32, par. 72). De la même manière, la
notification de l’intention d’introduire une instance n’est pas requise aux
fins de pouvoir saisir la Cour (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le
Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 297, par. 39).
36. L’existence d’un différend doit être établie objectivement par la
Cour sur la base d’un examen des faits (Violations alléguées de droits souverains
et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 26,
par. 50). A cette fin, celle-
ci tient notamment compte de l’ensemble des
déclarations ou documents échangés entre les parties (Questions concernant
l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 443‑445, par. 50‑55), ainsi que des échanges qui
ont eu lieu dans des enceintes multilatérales (Application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 94, par. 51 ; p. 95, par. 53). Ce faisant, elle
accorde une attention particulière « aux auteurs des déclarations ou documents,
aux personnes auxquelles ils étaient destinés ou qui en ont effectivement
eu connaissance et à leur contenu » (ibid., p. 100, par. 63).
37. Le comportement des parties peut aussi entrer en ligne de compte,
notamment en l’absence d’échanges diplomatiques (Violations alléguées
de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 32‑33, par. 71 et 73). Ainsi que l’a écrit la Cour,
« un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, un conflit, une opposition
de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts ou le fait que la réclamation
de l’une des parties se heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre ne
doivent pas nécessairement être énoncés expressis verbis… [I]l est possible,
comme en d’autres domaines, d’établir par inférence quelle est
en réalité la position ou l’attitude d’une partie. » (Frontière terrestre et
maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 315, par. 89.)
En particulier, la Cour a jugé que « l’existence d’un différend p[ouvait]
être déduite de l’absence de réaction d’un Etat à une accusation dans des
circonstances où une telle réaction s’imposait » (Application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84, par. 30, citant Frontière terrestre et mari‑
568 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
20
ary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315, para. 89).
38. The evidence must show that the parties “hold clearly opposite
views” with respect to the issue brought before the Court (see paragraph
34 above). As reflected in previous decisions of the Court in which
the existence of a dispute was under consideration, a dispute exists when
it is demonstrated, on the basis of the evidence, that the respondent was
aware, or could not have been unaware, that its views were “positively
opposed” by the applicant (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and
Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 32, para. 73; Application
of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 99, para. 61, pp. 109‑110,
para. 87, p. 117, para. 104).
39. In principle, the date for determining the existence of a dispute is
the date on which the application is submitted to the Court (Alleged Violations
of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2016 (I), p. 27, para. 52; Application of the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian
Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I),
p. 85, para. 30). Indeed, when it is stated in Article 38, paragraph 1, of the
Court’s Statute that the Court’s function is “to decide in accordance with
international law such disputes as are submitted to it”, this relates to disputes
existing at the time of their submission.
40. Conduct subsequent to the application (or the application itself)
may be relevant for various purposes, in particular to confirm the existence
of a dispute (East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 100, para. 22 and p. 104, para. 32), to clarify its
subject‑matter (Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean
(Bolivia v. Chile), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2015 (II), p. 602, para. 26) or to determine whether the dispute has disappeared
as of the time when the Court makes its decision (Nuclear Tests
(Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270‑271,
para. 55; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1974, p. 476, para. 58).
However, neither the application nor the parties’ subsequent conduct
and statements made during the judicial proceedings can enable the Court
to find that the condition of the existence of a dispute has been fulfilled in
the same proceedings (Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or
Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II),
pp. 444‑445, paras. 53‑55). If the Court had jurisdiction with regard to
disputes resulting from exchanges in the proceedings before it, a respondent
would be deprived of the opportunity to react before the institution
of proceedings to the claim made against its own conduct. Furthermore,
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 568
20
time entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 315, par. 89).
38. Les éléments de preuve doivent montrer que les « points de vue
des … parties [sont] nettement opposés » en ce qui concerne la question
portée devant la Cour (voir le paragraphe 34 ci‑dessus). Ainsi que cela
ressort de décisions antérieures de la Cour dans lesquelles la question de
l’existence d’un différend était à l’examen, un différend existe lorsqu’il est
démontré, sur la base des éléments de preuve, que le défendeur avait
connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce que ses
vues se heurtaient à l’« opposition manifeste » du demandeur (Violations
alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2016 (I), p. 32, par. 73 ; Application de la convention internationale
sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie
c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2011 (I), p. 99, par. 61, p. 109‑110, par. 87, p. 117, par. 104).
39. En principe, la date à laquelle doit être appréciée l’existence d’un
différend est celle du dépôt de la requête (Violations alléguées de droits
souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 27, par. 52 ; Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination
de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de
Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 85,
par. 30). Lorsqu’il est dit, au paragraphe 1 de l’article 38 du Statut de la
Cour, que la mission de celle‑ci est de « régler conformément au droit
international les différends qui lui sont soumis », ce sont en effet bien des
différends existant à la date de leur soumission qui sont visés.
40. Le comportement des parties postérieur à la requête (ou la requête
proprement dite) peut être pertinent à divers égards et, en particulier, aux
fins de confirmer l’existence d’un différend (Timor oriental (Portugal
c. Australie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 100, par. 22, et p. 104, par. 32),
d’en clarifier l’objet (Obligation de négocier un accès à l’océan Pacifique
(Bolivie c. Chili), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (II),
p. 602, par. 26), ou de déterminer s’il a disparu au moment où la Cour
statue (Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974,
p. 270‑271, par. 55 ; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle‑Zélande c. France), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 476, par. 58).
Cependant, ni la requête ni le comportement ultérieur des parties ou
les déclarations faites par elles en cours d’instance ne sauraient permettre
à la Cour de conclure qu’il a été satisfait à la condition de l’existence
d’un différend dans cette même instance (Questions concernant
l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 444‑445, par. 53‑55). Si la Cour était compétente
à l’égard de différends résultant d’échanges qui ont eu lieu au cours
de la procédure devant elle, le défendeur se trouverait privé de la possibilité
de réagir, avant l’introduction de l’instance, à la réclamation visant
569 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
21
the rule that the dispute must in principle exist prior to the filing of the
application would be subverted.
* *
41. The Court notes that the Marshall Islands, by virtue of the suffering
which its people endured as a result of it being used as a site for extensive
nuclear testing programs, has special reasons for concern about
nuclear disarmament (see paragraph 15 above). But that fact does not
remove the need to establish that the conditions for the Court’s jurisdiction
are met. While it is a legal matter for the Court to determine whether
it has jurisdiction, it remains for the Applicant to demonstrate the facts
underlying its case that a dispute exists (Border and Transborder Armed
Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 75, para. 16).
42. As noted above at paragraph 32, Pakistan relies on the fact that
the Marshall Islands did not commence negotiations or give notice to it
of the claim that is the subject of the Application to support its contention
that there is no dispute between the Parties. However, the Court has
rejected the view that notice or prior negotiations are required where it
has been seised on the basis of declarations made pursuant to Article 36,
paragraph 2, of the Statute, unless one of those declarations so provides.
The Court’s jurisprudence treats the question of the existence of a dispute
as a jurisdictional one that turns on whether there is, in substance, a dispute,
not on what form that dispute takes or whether the respondent has
been notified (see paragraph 35 above).
43. The Marshall Islands seeks to demonstrate that it had a dispute
with Pakistan in essentially three ways. First, it refers to its own statements,
as formulated in multilateral fora. Secondly, it argues that the very
filing of the Application, as well as the positions expressed by the Parties
in the current proceedings, show the existence of a dispute between the
Parties. Thirdly, it relies on Pakistan’s conduct both before and after the
filing of the Application.
44. The Marshall Islands does not refer to any bilateral diplomatic
exchanges or official communications between it and Pakistan, or to any
bilateral consultations or negotiations that have taken place, concerning
the alleged breach of Pakistan’s obligations.
45. The Marshall Islands refers to two statements made in multilateral
fora before the date of the filing of its Application which, in its view, suffice
to establish the existence of a dispute. As the Court has already
explained, the opposition of the Parties’ views could also be demonstrated
by exchanges made in multilateral settings (see paragraph 36 above). In
such a setting, however, the Court must give particular attention, inter
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 569
21
son comportement. De surcroît, la règle selon laquelle le différend doit en
principe déjà exister à la date du dépôt de la requête serait vidée de sa
substance.
* *
41. La Cour note que les Iles Marshall, de par les souffrances qu’a
endurées leur population par suite des importants programmes d’essais
nucléaires dont elles ont été le théâtre, ont des raisons particulières de se
préoccuper du désarmement nucléaire (voir le paragraphe 15 ci‑dessus).
Toutefois, cet état de fait ne change rien à la nécessité d’établir que les
conditions régissant la compétence de la Cour sont remplies. Bien que la
question de savoir si celle-
ci a compétence soit une question juridique qui
demande à être tranchée par elle, il appartient au demandeur de démontrer
les faits étayant sa thèse relative à l’existence d’un différend (Actions
armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 75, par. 16).
42. Comme cela a été relevé au paragraphe 32 ci‑dessus, le Pakistan, à
l’appui de sa position selon laquelle il n’existe pas de différend entre les
Parties, invoque le fait que les Iles Marshall n’ont pas engagé de négociations
et ne lui ont pas notifié la réclamation formulée dans la requête. La
Cour a cependant rejeté l’idée selon laquelle une notification ou des négociations
préalables seraient requises lorsqu’elle a été saisie sur la base de
déclarations faites en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut, à
moins que cela ne soit prévu dans l’une de ces déclarations. La jurisprudence
de la Cour traite la question de l’existence d’un différend comme
une question afférente à la compétence qui impose de rechercher s’il existe
un différend au fond, et non quelle est la forme que prend ce différend ou
s’il a été notifié au défendeur (voir le paragraphe 35 ci‑dessus).
43. Pour l’essentiel, les Iles Marshall cherchent à démontrer de trois
manières qu’un différend les oppose au Pakistan. Premièrement, elles renvoient
à certaines déclarations qu’elles ont faites elles-mêmes dans des
enceintes multilatérales. Deuxièmement, elles avancent que le dépôt même
de la requête ainsi que les positions qu’ont exprimées les Parties au cours
de la présente instance attestent l’existence d’un différend entre ces dernières.
Troisièmement, elles se fondent sur le comportement qui a été
celui du défendeur tant avant qu’après le dépôt de la requête.
44. Le demandeur ne se réfère à aucun échange diplomatique bilatéral
ou communication officielle avec le Pakistan, ni à aucune consultation
bilatérale ou négociation entre les deux Etats au sujet du manquement
allégué du défendeur à ses obligations.
45. Le demandeur invoque deux déclarations faites dans des enceintes
multilatérales avant la date du dépôt de sa requête, qui, selon lui, suffisent
à établir l’existence d’un différend. Ainsi que la Cour l’a déjà précisé, la
divergence de vues entre les Parties pourrait aussi être attestée par des
échanges ayant eu lieu dans un tel cadre (voir le paragraphe 36 ci‑dessus).
Toutefois, lorsque la Cour se livre à l’examen d’échanges ayant eu lieu
570 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
22
alia, to the content of a party’s statement and to the identity of the
intended addressees, in order to determine whether that statement,
together with any reaction thereto, show that the parties before it held
“clearly opposite views” (see paragraphs 34 and 36 above). The question
in this case is therefore whether the statements invoked by the Marshall
Islands are sufficient to demonstrate the existence of such opposition.
46. The Marshall Islands relies on the statement made at the High‑Level
Meeting of the General Assembly on Nuclear Disarmament, on 26 September
2013 by its Minister for Foreign Affairs, “urg[ing] all nuclear
weapons states to intensify efforts to address their responsibilities in moving
towards an effective and secure disarmament”. However, this statement
is formulated in hortatory terms and cannot be understood as an
allegation that Pakistan (or any other nuclear power) was in breach of
any of its legal obligations. It does not mention the obligation to negotiate,
nor does it say that the nuclear‑weapon States are failing to meet
their obligations in this regard. It suggests that they are making “efforts”
to address their responsibilities, and calls for an intensification of those
efforts, rather than deploring a failure to act. Moreover, a statement can
give rise to a dispute only if it refers to the subject‑matter of a claim “with
sufficient clarity to enable the State against which [that] claim is made to
identify that there is, or may be, a dispute with regard to that subject‑matter”
(Application of the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 85,
para. 30). While the Court reached that conclusion in the context of a
compromissory clause, the same reasoning applies to a dispute over
a customary
international law obligation regardless of the underlying
jurisdictional basis alleged, since the Court made clear that it was
dealing
with the requirements of a dispute in general (ibid., p. 84,
para. 29). The 2013 statement relied upon by the Marshall Islands does
not meet these requirements.
47. The statement made by the Marshall Islands at the Nayarit conference
on 13 February 2014 (see paragraph 26 above) goes further than the
2013 statement, in that it contains a sentence asserting that “States possessing
nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfil their legal obligations” under
Article VI of the NPT and customary international law. Pakistan was
present at the Nayarit conference. However, the subject of the conference
was not specifically the question of negotiations with a view to nuclear
disarmament, but the broader question of the humanitarian impact of
nuclear weapons, and while this statement contains a general criticism of
the conduct of all nuclear‑weapon States, it does not specify the conduct
of Pakistan that gave rise to the alleged breach. Such a specification
would have been particularly necessary if, as the Marshall Islands con-
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 570
22
dans un contexte multilatéral, elle doit notamment accorder une attention
particulière au contenu de la déclaration d’une partie et à l’identité des
personnes auxquelles elle était destinée, afin de déterminer si cette déclaration
ainsi que toute réaction à celle-
ci montrent que les points de vue
des parties en cause étaient « nettement opposés » (voir les paragraphes 34
et 36 ci‑dessus). La question qui se pose en la présente espèce est donc de
savoir si les déclarations invoquées par les Iles Marshall suffisent à
démontrer l’existence d’une telle opposition.
46. Les Iles Marshall se fondent sur la déclaration faite le 26 septembre
2013 à la réunion de haut niveau de l’Assemblée générale sur le
désarmement nucléaire par leur ministre des affaires étrangères, qui a
« appel[é] instamment toutes les puissances nucléaires [à] intensifier leurs
efforts pour assumer leurs responsabilités en vue d’un désarmement effectif
réalisé en toute sécurité ». Cette déclaration, qui revêt un caractère
d’exhortation, ne saurait toutefois être considérée comme une allégation
selon laquelle le Pakistan (ou toute autre puissance nucléaire) manquait à
l’une quelconque de ses obligations juridiques. Il n’y est pas fait mention
de l’obligation de négocier, pas plus qu’il n’y est indiqué que les Etats
dotés d’armes nucléaires manquent aux obligations qui leur incombent à
cet égard. Cette déclaration donne à penser que ces derniers font des
« efforts » pour assumer leurs responsabilités et plaide en faveur d’une
intensification de ces efforts ; elle ne dénonce pas une inaction. En outre,
une déclaration ne peut donner naissance à un différend que s’il y est fait
référence « assez clairement à l’objet [d’une réclamation] pour que l’Etat
contre lequel [celle‑ci est] formul[ée] … puisse savoir qu’un différend
existe ou peut exister à cet égard » (Application de la convention internationale
sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2011 (I), p. 85, par. 30). Bien que cette conclusion ait été énoncée
dans le contexte d’une clause compromissoire, le même raisonnement
s’applique à un différend relatif à une obligation de droit international
coutumier indépendamment de la base de compétence invoquée, la Cour
ayant précisé qu’elle examinait les exigences relatives à l’existence d’un
différend au sens général (ibid., p. 84, par. 29). La déclaration de 2013 sur
laquelle se fondent les Iles Marshall ne satisfait pas à ces exigences.
47. La déclaration que les Iles Marshall ont faite lors de la conférence
de Nayarit le 13 février 2014 (voir le paragraphe 26 ci‑dessus) va plus loin
que celle de 2013, en ce qu’elle contient une phrase dans laquelle il est
affirmé que « les Etats possédant un arsenal nucléaire ne respectent pas
leurs obligations » au regard de l’article VI du TNP et du droit international
coutumier. Le Pakistan était présent à la conférence de Nayarit. Toutefois,
cette conférence ne portait pas spécifiquement sur la question de
négociations en vue du désarmement nucléaire, mais sur celle, plus large,
de l’impact humanitaire des armes nucléaires ; par ailleurs, si elle dénonce,
d’une manière générale, le comportement de l’ensemble des Etats possédant
un arsenal nucléaire, cette déclaration ne précise pas le comportement
du Pakistan qui serait à l’origine du manquement allégué. Une telle
571 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
23
tends, the Nayarit statement was aimed at invoking the international
responsibility of the Respondent on the grounds of a course of conduct
which had remained unchanged for many years. Given its very general
content and the context in which it was made, that statement did not call
for a specific reaction by Pakistan. Accordingly, no opposition of views
can be inferred from the absence of any such reaction. The Nayarit statement
is insufficient to bring into existence, between the Marshall Islands
and Pakistan, a specific dispute as to the existence or scope of the asserted
customary international law obligations to pursue in good faith, and to
bring to a conclusion, negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all
its aspects under strict and effective international control, as well as to
cease the nuclear arms race at an early date, or as to Pakistan’s compliance
with any such obligations.
48. In all the circumstances, on the basis of those statements — whether
taken individually or together — it cannot be said that Pakistan was
aware, or could not have been unaware, that the Marshall Islands was
making an allegation that Pakistan was in breach of its obligations.
49. Secondly, the Marshall Islands argues that the very filing of the
Application could suffice to establish the existence of a dispute. It also
points to other statements made in the course of the proceedings by both
Parties as evidence of their opposition of views.
50. The Marshall Islands relies on three cases in support of its contention
that the statements made by the Parties during the proceedings may
serve to evidence the existence of a dispute (see paragraph 27 above).
However, these cases do not support this contention. In the case concerning
Certain Property, the existence of a dispute was clearly referenced by
bilateral exchanges between the parties prior to the date of the Application
(Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25). The reference to
subsequent materials in the Cameroon v. Nigeria case related to the scope
of the dispute, not to its existence (Land and Maritime Boundary between
Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 317, para. 93). Moreover, while it is
true that the Court did not explicitly reference any evidence before the
filing of the application demonstrating the existence of a dispute in its
Judgment in the case concerning the Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina
v. Yugoslavia), in the particular context of that case, which
involved an ongoing armed conflict, the prior conduct of the parties was
sufficient to establish the existence of a dispute (Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, paras. 27‑29). Instead, the
issues the Court focused on were not the date when the dispute arose but
the proper subject‑matter of that dispute, whether it fell within the scope
of the relevant compromissory clause, and whether it “persist[ed]” at the
date of the Court’s decision. As stated above, although statements made
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 571
23
précision aurait été particulièrement nécessaire si, comme l’affirment les
Iles Marshall, la déclaration de Nayarit visait à mettre en cause la responsabilité
internationale du défendeur à raison d’une ligne de conduite qui
était restée constante depuis de nombreuses années. Ladite déclaration,
étant donné son contenu très général et le contexte dans lequel elle a été
faite, n’appelait pas de réaction particulière de la part du Pakistan.
Aucune divergence de vues ne peut donc être déduite de cette absence de
réaction. La déclaration de Nayarit ne suffit pas à faire naître, entre les
Iles Marshall et le Pakistan, un différend spécifique ayant trait à l’existence
ou à la portée des obligations alléguées de droit international coutumier
consistant à poursuivre de bonne foi et mener à terme des
négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects,
sous un contrôle international strict et efficace, et à mettre fin à une date
rapprochée à la course aux armements nucléaires, ou au respect par le
Pakistan de telles obligations.
48. Dans ces circonstances, l’on ne saurait affirmer, sur la base de ces
déclarations — prises individuellement ou ensemble —, que le Pakistan
avait connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce
que les Iles Marshall alléguaient qu’il manquait à ses obligations.
49. Deuxièmement, le demandeur soutient que le dépôt de la requête
pourrait, en tant que tel, suffire à établir l’existence d’un différend. Il
invoque également d’autres déclarations faites en cours d’instance par les
deux Parties pour démontrer la divergence de vues entre ces dernières.
50. Les Iles Marshall se réfèrent à trois affaires à l’appui de leur affirmation
selon laquelle les déclarations que les Parties ont faites en cours
d’instance peuvent permettre de démontrer l’existence d’un différend (voir
le paragraphe 27 ci-
dessus).
Ces affaires n’étayent cependant pas cette
assertion. Dans l’affaire relative à Certains biens, les échanges bilatéraux
qui avaient eu lieu entre les parties avant la date du dépôt de la requête
attestaient clairement l’existence d’un différend (Certains biens (Liechtenstein
c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005,
p. 19, par. 25). Dans l’affaire Cameroun c. Nigéria, la prise en compte
d’éléments postérieurs à cette date avait trait à la portée du différend, et
non à l’existence de celui‑ci (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun
et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 317, par. 93). En outre, s’il est vrai que, dans l’arrêt
qu’elle a rendu en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie), la Cour ne s’est pas expressément référée à quelque
élément
de preuve antérieur au dépôt de la requête pour démontrer l’existence
d’un différend, dans le contexte particulier de l’espèce — qui avait
trait à un conflit armé en cours —, le comportement des parties avant
cette date était suffisant à cet égard (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614, par. 27-29) ; la réflexion de la Cour était
centrée non pas sur la date à laquelle le différend s’était fait jour, mais
sur les points de savoir quel était le véritable objet du différend, si celui-
ci
relevait de la clause compromissoire pertinente et s’il « persist[ait] » à la
572 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
24
or claims advanced in or even subsequently to the application may be
relevant for various purposes — notably in clarifying the scope of the
dispute submitted — they cannot create a dispute de novo, one that does
not already exist (see paragraph 40 above).
51. Thirdly, the Marshall Islands argues that, irrespective of verbal
support for negotiations on nuclear disarmament on the part of Pakistan,
its actual conduct in maintaining and upgrading its nuclear arsenal, and
in failing to co‑operate with certain diplomatic initiatives, allows the
Court to infer the existence of a dispute as to the scope of and compliance
with its obligations, even if such a dispute had not, prior to the Application,
been articulated in legal terms by the Marshall Islands.
52. The Court recalls that the question whether there is a dispute in a
particular contentious case turns on the evidence of opposition of views
(see paragraphs 34, 36 and 37 above). In this regard, the conduct of a
respondent can contribute to a finding by the Court that the views of the
parties are in opposition (see paragraph 37 above). However, as the Court
has previously concluded (see paragraphs 46‑48 above), in the present
case neither of the statements that were made in a multilateral context by
the Marshall Islands offered any particulars regarding Pakistan’s conduct.
On the basis of such statements, it cannot be said that Pakistan was
aware, or could not have been unaware, that the Marshall Islands was
making an allegation that Pakistan was in breach of its obligations. In
this context, the conduct of Pakistan does not provide a basis for finding
a dispute between the two States before the Court.
53. Finally, regarding Pakistan’s argument based on the Parties’ voting
records on General Assembly resolutions on nuclear disarmament (see
paragraph 31 above), the Court notes that considerable care is required
before inferring from votes cast on resolutions before political organs
such as the General Assembly conclusions as to the existence or not of a
legal dispute on some issue covered by a resolution. The wording of a
resolution, and votes or patterns of voting on resolutions of the same
subject‑matter, may constitute relevant evidence of the existence of a dispute
in some circumstances, particularly where statements were made by
way of explanation of vote. However, some resolutions contain a large
number of different propositions; a State’s vote on such resolutions cannot
by itself be taken as indicative of the position of that State on each
and every proposition within that resolution, let alone of the existence of
a legal dispute between that State and another State regarding one of
those propositions.
* *
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 572
24
date de la décision de la Cour. Ainsi que cela a déjà été indiqué, si des
déclarations ou réclamations formulées dans la requête, voire après le
dépôt de celle‑ci, peuvent être pertinentes à diverses fins — et, en particulier,
pour préciser la portée du différend soumis à la Cour —, elles ne
sauraient créer un différend de novo, c’est‑à‑dire un différend qui n’existe
pas déjà (voir le paragraphe 40 ci‑dessus).
51. Troisièmement, les Iles Marshall affirment que, indépendamment
du soutien aux négociations sur le désarmement nucléaire affiché par le
Pakistan, le comportement réel de cet Etat, qui a conservé et modernisé
son arsenal nucléaire, et n’a pas participé à certaines initiatives diplomatiques,
permet à la Cour de déduire l’existence d’un différend relatif à la
portée et à l’exécution des obligations qui lui incombent, et ce, même si le
demandeur n’avait pas exprimé ce différend en termes juridiques avant le
dépôt de sa requête.
52. La Cour rappelle que la question de l’existence d’un différend dans
une affaire contentieuse dépend des éléments de preuve relatifs à une
divergence de vues (voir les paragraphes 34, 36 et 37 ci‑dessus). A cet
égard, le comportement d’un Etat défendeur peut aider la Cour à conclure
que les parties ont des points de vue opposés (voir le paragraphe 37
ci‑dessus). En la présente espèce, toutefois, ainsi que la Cour l’a conclu
précédemment (voir les paragraphes 46-48 ci‑dessus), aucune des deux
déclarations faites par les Iles Marshall dans un cadre multilatéral ne
concernait spécifiquement le comportement du Pakistan. Sur la base de
telles déclarations, l’on ne saurait affirmer que le Pakistan avait connaissance,
ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce que les
Iles Marshall alléguaient qu’il manquait à ses obligations. Dans ce
contexte, le comportement du Pakistan ne permet pas de conclure à l’existence
d’un différend entre les deux Etats devant la Cour.
53. Enfin, en ce qui concerne l’argument du Pakistan fondé sur les
votes des Parties sur les résolutions de l’Assemblée générale relatives au
désarmement nucléaire (voir le paragraphe 31 ci‑dessus), la Cour estime
qu’il faut faire preuve d’une grande prudence avant de conclure, au vu de
votes exprimés sur des résolutions d’organes politiques tels que l’Assemblée
générale, à l’existence ou à la non‑existence d’un différend juridique
portant sur une question visée par pareil texte. Le libellé d’une résolution
et les votes ou habitudes de vote sur des résolutions ayant le même objet
peuvent, dans certaines circonstances, constituer des éléments de preuve
pertinents concernant l’existence d’un différend, notamment en présence
de déclarations d’Etats visant à expliquer leur vote. Cependant, certaines
résolutions contiennent nombre de propositions différentes ; le vote d’un
Etat sur une résolution de ce type ne saurait en soi être considéré comme
indiquant la position de cet Etat sur chacune des propositions qui y
figurent, et moins encore l’existence, entre lui‑même et un autre Etat, d’un
différend d’ordre juridique relatif à l’une de ces propositions.
* *
573 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
25
54. The Court therefore concludes that the first objection made by
Pakistan must be upheld. It follows that the Court does not have jurisdiction
under Article 36, paragraph 2, of its Statute.
55. Consequently, it is not necessary for the Court to deal with the
other objections raised by Pakistan. The questions of the existence of and
extent of customary international law obligations in the field of nuclear
disarmament, and Pakistan’s compliance with such obligations, pertain to
the merits. But the Court has found that no dispute existed between the
Parties prior to the filing of the Application, and consequently it lacks
jurisdiction to consider these questions.
* * *
56. For these reasons,
The Court,
(1) By nine votes to seven,
Upholds the objection to jurisdiction raised by Pakistan, based on the
absence of a dispute between the Parties;
in favour: President Abraham; Vice‑President Yusuf; Judges Owada,
Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue, Gaja, Bhandari, Gevorgian;
against: Judges Tomka, Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Sebutinde, Robinson,
Crawford; Judge ad hoc Bedjaoui;
(2) By ten votes to six,
Finds that it cannot proceed to the merits of the case.
in favour: President Abraham; Vice‑President Yusuf; Judges Owada, Tomka,
Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue, Gaja, Bhandari, Gevorgian;
against: Judges Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Sebutinde, Robinson,
Crawford; Judge ad hoc Bedjaoui.
Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this fifth day of October, two thousand and
sixteen, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the
Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Republic of
the Marshall Islands and the Government of the Islamic Republic of
Pakistan,
respectively.
(Signed) Ronny Abraham,
President.
(Signed) Philippe Couvreur,
Registrar.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 573
25
54. Au vu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que la première exception
soulevée par le Pakistan doit être retenue. Il s’ensuit qu’elle n’a pas compétence
en la présente espèce au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 de
son Statut.
55. En conséquence, il n’est pas nécessaire pour la Cour de se pencher
sur les autres exceptions soulevées par le Pakistan. La question de l’existence
et de la portée des obligations de droit international coutumier dans
le domaine du désarmement nucléaire, ainsi que du respect par le Pakistan
de celles‑ci, relève du fond de l’affaire. Ayant conclu qu’il n’existait
pas de différend entre les Parties avant le dépôt de la requête, la Cour n’a
cependant pas compétence pour examiner ces questions.
* * *
56. Par ces motifs,
La Cour,
1) Par neuf voix contre sept,
Retient l’exception d’incompétence soulevée par le Pakistan et fondée
sur l’absence de différend entre les Parties ;
pour : M. Abraham, président ; M. Yusuf, vice‑président ; MM. Owada,
Greenwood, Mmes Xue, Donoghue, MM. Gaja, Bhandari, Gevorgian, juges ;
contre : MM. Tomka, Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Mme Sebutinde,
MM. Robinson, Crawford, juges ; M. Bedjaoui, juge ad hoc ;
2) Par dix voix contre six,
Dit qu’elle ne peut procéder à l’examen de l’affaire au fond.
pour : M. Abraham, président ; M. Yusuf, vice‑président ; MM. Owada,
Tomka, Greenwood, Mmes Xue, Donoghue, MM. Gaja, Bhandari, Gevorgian,
juges ;
contre : MM. Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Mme Sebutinde, MM. Robinson,
Crawford, juges ; M. Bedjaoui, juge ad hoc.
Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au Palais de la
Paix, à La Haye, le cinq octobre deux mille seize, en trois exemplaires,
dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et les autres seront transmis
respectivement au Gouvernement de la République des Iles Marshall
et au Gouvernement de la République islamique du Pakistan.
Le président,
(Signé) Ronny Abraham.
Le greffier,
(Signé) Philippe Couvreur.
574 nuclear arms and disarmament (judgment)
26
President Abraham and Vice-President
Yusuf append declarations to
the Judgment of the Court; Judges Owada and Tomka append separate
opinions to the Judgment of the Court; Judges Bennouna and Cançado
Trindade append dissenting opinions to the Judgment of the Court;
Judges Xue, Donoghue and Gaja append declarations to the Judgment
of the Court; Judges Sebutinde and Bhandari append separate opinions
to the Judgment of the Court; Judges Robinson and Crawford append
dissenting opinions to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc Bedjaoui
appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court.
(Initialled) R.A.
(Initialled) Ph.C.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (arrêt) 574
26
M. le juge Abraham, président, et M. le juge Yusuf, vice-président,
joignent des déclarations à l’arrêt ; MM. les juges Owada et Tomka
joignent à l’arrêt les exposés de leur opinion individuelle ; MM. les juges
Bennouna et Cançado Trindade joignent à l’arrêt les exposés de leur
opinion dissidente ; Mmes les juges Xue et Donoghue, ainsi que M. le juge
Gaja joignent des déclarations à l’arrêt ; Mme la juge Sebutinde et M. le
juge Bhandari joignent à l’arrêt les exposés de leur opinion individuelle ;
MM. les juges Robinson et Crawford joignent à l’arrêt les exposés de
leur opinion dissidente ; M. le juge ad hoc Bedjaoui joint à l’arrêt l’exposé
de son opinion dissidente.
(Paraphé) R.A.
(Paraphé) Ph.C.

ICJ document subtitle

Jurisdiction and Admissibility

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 5 October 2016

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